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[ [ "Jakarta" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jakarta''' (; , ), officially the '''Special Capital Region of Jakarta''' (, ) and formerly known as Batavia is the capital city and largest metropolis of Indonesia.", "Lying on the northwest coast of Java, the world's most populous island, Jakarta is the largest metropole in Southeast Asia, and serves as the diplomatic capital of ASEAN.", "Jakarta is bordered by two provinces: West Java to the south and east; and, since 2000, Banten to the west.", "Its coastline faces the Java Sea to the north, and it shares a maritime border with Lampung to the west.", "Jakarta's metropolitan area is ASEAN's second largest economy after Singapore.Jakarta is the economic, cultural, and political centre of Indonesia.", "It possesses a province-level status and has a population of 10,679,951 as of mid-2022.Although Jakarta extends over only and thus has the smallest area of any Indonesian province, its metropolitan area covers , which includes the satellite cities of Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, South Tangerang, and Bekasi, and has an estimated population of 35 million , making it the largest urban area in Indonesia and the second-largest in the world (after Tokyo).", "Jakarta ranks first among the Indonesian provinces in the human development index.", "Jakarta's business and employment opportunities, along with its ability to offer a potentially higher standard of living compared to other parts of the country, have attracted migrants from across the Indonesian archipelago, making it a melting pot of numerous cultures.Jakarta is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Southeast Asia.", "Established in the fourth century as Sunda Kelapa, the city became an important trading port for the Sunda Kingdom.", "At one time, it was the ''de facto'' capital of the Dutch East Indies, when it was known as Batavia.", "Jakarta was officially a city within West Java until 1960 when its official status was changed to a province with special capital region distinction.", "As a province, its government consists of five administrative cities and one administrative regency.", "Jakarta is an alpha world city and is the seat of the ASEAN secretariat.", "Financial institutions such as the Bank of Indonesia, Indonesia Stock Exchange, and corporate headquarters of numerous Indonesian companies and multinational corporations are located in the city.", "In 2021, the city's GRP PPP was estimated at US$602.946 billion.Jakarta's main challenges include rapid urban growth, ecological breakdown, gridlocked traffic, congestion, and flooding due to subsidence (sea level rise is relative, not absolute).", "Jakarta is sinking up to 17 cm (6.7 inches) annually, which has made the city more prone to flooding and one of the fastest-sinking capitals in the world.", "In response to these challenges, in August 2019, President Joko Widodo announced his agreement with an official study that the capital of Indonesia would be moved from Jakarta to the planned city of Nusantara, in the province of East Kalimantan on the island of Borneo.", "The MPR approved the move on 18 January 2022." ], [ "Name", "Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements.", "Below is the list of names used during its existence:The name 'Jakarta' is derived from the word ''Jayakarta'' (Devanagari: जयकर्त) which is ultimately derived from the Sanskrit जय ''jaya'' (victorious), and कृत ''krta'' (accomplished, acquired), thus ''Jayakarta'' translates as 'victorious deed', 'complete act' or 'complete victory'.", "It was named for the Muslim troops of Fatahillah which successfully defeated and drove the Portuguese away from the city in 1527.Before it was called Jayakarta, the city was known as 'Sunda Kelapa'.", "Tomé Pires, a Portuguese apothecary, wrote the name of the city in his magnum opus as ''Jacatra'' or ''Jacarta'' during his journey to the East Indies.In the 17th century, the city was known as (Queen of the Orient), a name that was given for the urban beauty of downtown Batavia's canals, mansions and ordered city layout.", "After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this nickname came to be more associated with the suburbs (e.g.", "Menteng and the area around Merdeka Square), with their wide lanes, green spaces and villas.", "During the Japanese occupation, the city was renamed as ." ], [ "History", "===Precolonial era===Luso-Sundanese ''padrão'', a monument with a cross of the Order of Christ, commemorating a treaty between Portugal and Hindu Sunda kingdoms.The north coast area of western Java including Jakarta was the location of prehistoric Buni culture that flourished from 400 BC to 100 AD.", "The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the 4th-century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, one of the oldest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia.", "The area of North Jakarta around Tugu became a populated settlement in the early 5th century.", "The Tugu inscription (probably written around 417 AD) discovered in Batutumbuh hamlet, Tugu village, Koja, North Jakarta, mentions that King Purnawarman of Tarumanagara undertook hydraulic projects; the irrigation and water drainage project of the Chandrabhaga river and the Gomati river near his capital.", "Following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda.", "From the 7th to the early 13th century, the port of Sunda was under the Srivijaya maritime empire.", "According to the Chinese source, ''Chu-fan-chi'', written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century that Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula and western Java (Sunda).", "The source says the port of Sunda is strategic and thriving, mentioning pepper from Sunda as among the best in quality.", "The people worked in agriculture, and their houses were built on wooden piles.", "The harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa, (Sundanese: ) and by the 14th century, it was an important trading port for the Sunda Kingdom.The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 while looking for a route to obtain spices.", "The Sunda Kingdom made an alliance treaty with the Portuguese by allowing them to build a port in 1522 to defend against the rising power of Demak Sultanate from central Java.", "In 1527, Fatahillah, a Pasai-born military commander of Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese.", "Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Banten Sultanate, which became a major Southeast Asian trading centre.Through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta of the Banten Sultanate, Dutch ships arrived in 1596.In 1602, the British East India Company's first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and sailed on to Banten where they were allowed to build a trading post.", "This site became the centre of British trade in the Indonesian archipelago until 1682.Jayawikarta is thought to have made trading connections with the British merchants, rivals of the Dutch, by allowing them to build houses directly across from the Dutch buildings in 1615.===Colonial era===Batavia circa 1780When relations between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch deteriorated, his soldiers attacked the Dutch fortress.", "His army and the British, however, were defeated by the Dutch, in part owing to the timely arrival of Jan Pieterszoon Coen.", "The Dutch burned the British fort and forced them to retreat on their ships.", "The victory consolidated Dutch power, and they renamed the city ''Batavia'' in 1619.VOC in the late 18th century by Johannes Rach c. 1770.The building now houses the Jakarta History Museum, Jakarta Old Town.Commercial opportunities in the city attracted native and especially Chinese and Arab immigrants.", "This sudden population increase created burdens on the city.", "Tensions grew as the colonial government tried to restrict Chinese migration through deportations.", "Following a revolt, 5,000 Chinese were massacred by the Dutch and natives on 9 October 1740, and the following year, Chinese inhabitants were moved to Glodok outside the city walls.", "At the beginning of the 19th century, around 400 Arabs and Moors lived in Batavia, a number that changed little during the following decades.", "Among the commodities traded were fabrics, mainly imported cotton, ''batik'' and clothing worn by Arab communities.Batavia during Dutch colonial era, granted in 1930.The city began to expand further south as epidemics in 1835 and 1870 forced residents to move away from the port.", "The ''Koningsplein'', now Merdeka Square was completed in 1818, the housing park of Menteng was started in 1913, and Kebayoran Baru was the last Dutch-built residential area.", "By 1930, Batavia had more than 500,000 inhabitants, including 37,067 Europeans.", "The city was expanded in 1935 through the annexation of the town of Meester Cornelis, modern Jatinegara.On 5 March 1942, the Japanese captured Batavia from Dutch control, and the city was named Jakarta (, under the special status that was assigned to the city).", "After the war, the Dutch name Batavia was internationally recognised until full Indonesian independence on 27 December 1949.The city, now renamed Jakarta, was officially proclaimed the national capital of Indonesia.===Independence era===Sukarno reading Proclamation of Indonesian Independence at Jalan Pegangsaan Timur Number 56.After World War II ended, Indonesian nationalists declared independence on 17 August 1945, and the government of Jakarta City was changed into the Jakarta National Administration in the following month.", "During the Indonesian National Revolution, Indonesian Republicans withdrew from Allied-occupied Jakarta and established their capital in Yogyakarta.After securing full independence, Jakarta again became the national capital in 1950.With Jakarta selected to host the 1962 Asian Games, Sukarno, envisaging Jakarta as a great international city, instigated large government-funded projects with openly nationalistic and modernist architecture.", "Projects included a cloverleaf interchange, a major boulevard (Jalan MH Thamrin-Sudirman), monuments such as The National Monument, Hotel Indonesia, a shopping centre, and a new building intended to be the headquarters of CONEFO.", "In October 1965, Jakarta was the site of an abortive coup attempt in which six top generals were killed, precipitating a violent anti-communist purge which killed at least 500,000 people, including some ethnic Chinese.", "The event marked the beginning of Suharto's New Order.", "The first government was led by a mayor until the end of 1960 when the office was changed to that of a governor.", "The last mayor of Jakarta was Soediro until he was replaced by Soemarno Sosroatmodjo as governor.In 1966, Jakarta was declared a 'special capital region' (), with a status equivalent to that of a province.", "Based on law No.", "5 of 1974 relating to regional governments, the Jakarta Special Capital Region was confirmed as the capital of Indonesia and one of the country's then 26 provinces.", "Lieutenant General Ali Sadikin served as governor from 1966 to 1977; he rehabilitated roads and bridges, encouraged the arts, built hospitals and a large number of schools.", "He cleared out slum dwellers for new development projects — some for the benefit of the Suharto family,— and attempted to eliminate rickshaws and ban street vendors.", "He began control of migration to the city to stem overcrowding and poverty.", "Foreign investment contributed to a real estate boom that transformed the face of Jakarta.", "The boom ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis, putting Jakarta at the centre of violence, protest, and political manoeuvring.1998 tragedy.After three decades in power, support for President Suharto began to wane.", "Tensions peaked when four students were shot dead at Trisakti University by security forces.", "Four days of riots and violence in 1998 ensued that killed an estimated 1,200, and destroyed or damaged 6,000 buildings, forcing Suharto to resign.", "Much of the rioting targeted Chinese Indonesians.", "In the post-Suharto era, Jakarta has remained the focal point of democratic change in Indonesia.", "Jemaah Islamiah-connected bombings occurred almost annually in the city between 2000 and 2005, with another in 2009.In August 2007, Jakarta held its first-ever election to choose a governor as part of a nationwide decentralisation program that allows direct local elections in several areas.", "Previously, governors were elected by the city's legislative body.During the Jokowi presidency, the Government adopted a plan to move Indonesia's capital to Nusantara after 17 August 2024.Between 2016 and 2017, a series of terrorist attacks rocked Jakarta with scenes of multiple suicide bombings and gunfire.", "In suspicion to its links, the Islamic State, the perpetrator led by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi claimed responsibility for the attacks." ], [ "Geography", "Jakarta covers , the smallest among any Indonesian provinces.", "However, its metropolitan area covers , which extends into the two bordering provinces of West Java and Banten.", "The Greater Jakarta area includes three bordering regencies (Bekasi Regency, Tangerang Regency and Bogor Regency) and five adjacent cities (Bogor, Depok, Bekasi, Tangerang and South Tangerang).Aerial view of North JakartaJakarta is situated on the northwest coast of Java, at the mouth of the Ciliwung River on Jakarta Bay, an inlet of the Java Sea.", "It is strategically located near the Sunda Strait.", "The northern part of Jakarta is plain land, some areas of which are below sea level, and subject to frequent flooding.", "The southern parts of the city are hilly.", "It is one of only two Asian capital cities located in the southern hemisphere (along with East Timor's Dili).", "Officially, the area of the Jakarta Special District is of land area and of sea area.", "The Thousand Islands, which are administratively a part of Jakarta, are located in Jakarta Bay, north of the city.The northern part of Jakarta is below sea level, having been built on tidal flats and reclaimed swamp land.Jakarta lies in a low and flat alluvial plain, ranging from with an average elevation of above sea level with historically extensive swampy areas.", "Some parts of the city have been constructed on reclaimed tidal flats that occur around the area.", "Thirteen rivers flow through Jakarta.", "They are Ciliwung River, Kalibaru, Pesanggrahan, Cipinang, Angke River, Maja, Mookervart, Krukut, Buaran, West Tarum, Cakung, Petukangan, Sunter River and Grogol River.", "They flow from the Puncak highlands to the south of the city, then across the city northwards towards the Java Sea.", "The Ciliwung River divides the city into the western and eastern districts.These rivers, combined with the wet season rains and insufficient drainage due to clogging, make Jakarta prone to flooding.Moreover, Jakarta is sinking about each year, and up to in the northern coastal areas.", "After a feasibility study, a ring dyke known as Giant Sea Wall Jakarta is under construction around Jakarta Bay to help cope with the threat from the sea.", "The dyke will be equipped with a pumping system and retention areas to defend against seawater and function as a toll road.", "The project is expected to be completed by 2025.In January 2014, the central government agreed to build two dams in Ciawi, Bogor and a tunnel from Ciliwung River to Cisadane River to ease flooding in the city.", "Nowadays, a , with capacity per second, underground water tunnel between Ciliwung River and the East Flood Canal is being worked on to ease the Ciliwung River overflows.", "In 2023, the New York Times reported that in some places Jakarta is sinking up to 12 inches (30 cm) annually.Environmental advocates point out that subsidence is driven by the extraction of groundwater, much of it illegal.", "Furthermore, the government's lack of strict regulation amplifies the issue as many recently built high-rise buildings, corporations, and factories around Jakarta opt for illegally extracting groundwater.", "In fact, in a recent inspection of 80 buildings in Jalan Thamrin, a busy road lined with skyscrapers and shopping malls, 56 buildings had a groundwater pump, and 33 were pumping groundwater illegally.", "This could be halted by stopping extraction (as the city of Tokyo has done), increasing efficiency, and finding other sources for water use.", "Moreover, increasing regulation through higher taxes or limiting groundwater pumping has proven to help cities like Shanghai, Tokyo, and San Jose relieve their subsidence issue.", "The rivers of Jakarta are highly polluted and currently unsuitable for drinking water.===Architecture===Betawi traditional house at Taman Mini Indonesia IndahJakarta has architecturally significant buildings spanning distinct historical and cultural periods.", "Architectural styles reflect Malay, Sundanese, Javanese, Arabic, Chinese and Dutch influences.", "External influences inform the architecture of the Betawi house.", "The houses were built of nangka wood (''Artocarpus integrifolia'') and comprised three rooms.", "The shape of the roof is reminiscent of the traditional Javanese joglo.", "Additionally, the number of registered cultural heritage buildings has increased.Facade of the Museum Bank Indonesia in Kota TuaColonial buildings and structures include those that were constructed during the colonial period.", "The dominant colonial styles can be divided into three periods: the Dutch Golden Age (17th to late 18th century), the transitional style period (late 18th century – 19th century), and Dutch modernism (20th century).", "Colonial architecture is apparent in houses and villas, churches, civic buildings and offices, mostly concentrated in the Jakarta Old Town and Central Jakarta.", "Architects such as J.C. Schultze and Eduard Cuypers designed some of the significant buildings.", "Schultze's works include Jakarta Art Building, the Indonesia Supreme Court Building and Ministry of Finance Building, while Cuypers designed Bank Indonesia Museum and Mandiri Museum.", "In the early 20th century, most buildings were built in Neo-Renaissance style.", "By the 1920s, the architectural taste had begun to shift in favour of rationalism and modernism, particularly art deco architecture.", "The elite suburb Menteng, developed during the 1910s, was the city's first attempt at creating an ideal and healthy housing for the middle class.", "The original houses had a longitudinal organisation, with overhanging eaves, large windows and open ventilation, all practical features for a tropical climate.", "These houses were developed by N.V. de Bouwploeg, and established by P.A.J.", "Moojen.leftAfter independence, the process of nation-building in Indonesia and demolishing the memory of colonialism was as important as the symbolic building of arterial roads, monuments, and government buildings.", "The National Monument in Jakarta, designed by Sukarno, is Indonesia's beacon of nationalism.", "In the early 1960s, Jakarta provided highways and super-scale cultural monuments as well as Senayan Sports Stadium.", "The parliament building features a hyperbolic roof reminiscent of German rationalist and Corbusian design concepts.", "Built-in 1996, Wisma 46 soars to a height of and its nib-shaped top celebrates technology and symbolises stereoscopy.The urban construction boom continued during the 21st century.", "The Golden Triangle of Jakarta is one of the fastest evolving CBD's in the Asia-Pacific region.", "According to CTBUH and Emporis, there are 88 skyscrapers that reach or exceed , which puts the city in the top 10 of world rankings.", "It has more buildings taller than 150 metres than any other Southeast Asian or Southern Hemisphere cities.===Landmarks===Bundaran HI, a 1960s landmark of Jakarta located at the west end of Menteng DistrictMost landmarks, monuments and statues in Jakarta were begun in the 1960s during the Sukarno era, then completed in the Suharto era, while some date from the colonial period.", "Although many of the projects were completed after his presidency, Sukarno, who was an architect, is credited for planning Jakarta's monuments and landmarks, as he desired the city to be the beacon of a powerful new nation.", "Among the monumental projects that were built, initiated, and planned during his administration are the National Monument, Istiqlal mosque, the Legislature Building, and the Gelora Bung Karno stadium.", "Sukarno also built many nationalistic monuments and statues in the capital city.Monas, Jakarta's symbolThe most famous landmark, which became the symbol of the city, is the obelisk of the National Monument (''Monumen Nasional'' or ''Monas'') in the centre of Merdeka Square.", "On its southwest corner stands a Mahabharata-themed Arjuna Wijaya chariot statue and fountain.", "Further south through Jalan M.H.", "Thamrin, one of the main avenues, the ''Selamat Datang'' monument stands on the fountain in the centre of the Hotel Indonesia roundabout.", "Other landmarks include the Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta Cathedral and the Immanuel Church.", "The former Batavia Stadhuis, Sunda Kelapa port in Jakarta Old Town is another landmark.", "The Autograph Tower in Central Jakarta, at 382.9 metres is the tallest building in Indonesia.", "The most recent landmark built is the Jakarta International Stadium.Some of the statues and monuments are nationalist, such as the West Irian Liberation Monument, the Tugu Tani, the Youth statue and the Dirgantara Monument.", "Some statues commemorate Indonesian national heroes, such as the Diponegoro and Kartini statues in Merdeka Square.", "The Sudirman and Thamrin statues are located on the streets bearing their names.", "There is also a statue of Sukarno and Hatta at the Proclamation Monument as well as at the entrance to Soekarno–Hatta International Airport.===Parks and lakes===Merdeka Square is a Garden in Centre of JakartaIn June 2011, Jakarta had only 10.5% green open spaces (), although this grew to 13.94%.", "Public parks are included in public green open spaces.", "There are about 300 integrated child-friendly public spaces (RPTRA) in the city in 2019.As of 2014, 183 water reservoirs and lakes supported the greater Jakarta area.", "Merdeka Square () is an almost 1 km2 field housing the symbol of Jakarta, Monas or (National Monument).", "Until 2000, it was the world's largest city square.", "The square was created by Dutch Governor-General Herman Willem Daendels (1810) and was originally named (King's Square).", "On 10 January 1993, President Soeharto started the beautification of the square.", "Features include a deer park and 33 trees that represent the 33 provinces of Indonesia.", "Lapangan Banteng (Buffalo Field) is located in Central Jakarta near Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta Cathedral, and Jakarta Central Post Office.", "It covers about 4.5 hectares.", "Initially, it was called and functioned as a ceremonial square during the colonial period.", "Colonial monuments and memorials erected on the square during the colonial period were demolished during the Sukarno era.", "The most notable monument in the square is the (Monument of the Liberation of West Irian).", "During the 1970s and 1980s, the park was used as a bus terminal.", "In 1993, the park was again turned into a public space.", "It became a recreation place for people and now serves as an exhibition place or for other events.", "'Jakarta Flona' (), a flower and decoration plants and pet exhibition, is held in this park around August annually.Ancol GondolaTaman Mini Indonesia Indah (Miniature Park of Indonesia), in East Jakarta, has ten mini-parks.", "Suropati Park is located in Menteng, Central Jakarta.", "The park is surrounded by Dutch colonial buildings.", "Taman Suropati was known as during colonial time.", "The park is circular-shaped with a surface area of .", "Several modern statues were made for the park by artists of ASEAN countries, which contributes to its nickname '' ('Park of the ASEAN artists friendship').", "Menteng Park was built on the site of the former Persija football stadium.", "Situ Lembang Park is also located nearby, which has a lake at the centre.", "Kalijodo Park is the newest park, in Penjaringan subdistrict, with beside the Krendang River.", "It formally opened on 22 February 2017.The park is open 24 hours as a green open space (''RTH'') and child-friendly integrated public space (''RPTRA'') and has international-standard skateboard facilities.", "Muara Angke Wildlife Sanctuary and Angke Kapuk Nature Tourism Park at Penjaringan in North Jakarta.Tebet Eco Park is the one of largest park in JakartaTebet Eco Park, Puring Park, Mataram Park, Langsat Park, Ayodya Park and Martha Christina Tiahahu Literacy Park in South Jakarta.", "Ragunan Zoo is located in Pasar Minggu, South Jakarta.", "It is the world's third-oldest zoo and the second-largest with the most diverse animal and plant populations.", "Setu Babakan is a 32-hectare lake surrounded by Betawi cultural village, located at Jagakarsa, South Jakarta.", "Dadap Merah Park is also found in this area.", "UI City forest is the largest Urban forest in Jakarta.", "It located at South Jakarta bordering with Depok, West Java.", "Ancol Dreamland is the largest integrated tourism area in Southeast Asia.", "It is located along the bay, at Ancol in North Jakarta.", "Taman Waduk Pluit/Pluit Lake park and Putra Putri Park at Pluit, North Jakarta.", "Hutan Kota by Plataran is the city park in Golden Triangle of Jakarta, it located within Gelora Bung Karno Sports Complex.===Climate===Jakarta has a tropical monsoon climate (''Am'') according to the Köppen climate classification system.", "The wet season in Jakarta covers eight months: October to May.", "The remaining four months (June to September) constitute the city's drier season, having an average monthly rainfall of less than .", "August qualifies as the genuine dry season month, as it has less than of rainfall.", "Across the western part of Java, the wet season peaks in January and February with an average monthly rainfall of , and its dry season's low point is in August with a monthly average of .Climate data for JakartaMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °C (°F)28.0(82.0)28.0(82.0)29.0(84.0)30.0(86.0)30.0(86.0)29.0(84.0)29.0(84.0)29.0(84.0)29.0(84.0)29.0(84.0)29.0(84.0)29.0(84.0)29.0(84.0)Mean daily daylight hours12.012.012.012.012.012.012.012.012.012.012.012.012.0Average Ultraviolet index13131313111010121313131312Source: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Demographics", "Jakarta population pyramid in 2021Jakarta attracts people from across Indonesia, often in search of employment.", "The 1961 census showed that 51% of the city's population was born in Jakarta.", "Inward immigration tended to negate the effect of family planning programs.", "Ministry of Home Affairs () tabulates its own data, which has improved since ID card requirements in last decade, lists Jakarta's population at 11,261,595 in yearend 2021.Between 1961 and 1980, the population of Jakarta doubled, and during the period 1980–1990, the city's population grew annually by 3.7%.", "The 2010 census counted some 9.58 million people, well above government estimates.", "The population rose from 4.5 million in 1970 to 9.5 million in 2010, counting only legal residents, while the population of Greater Jakarta rose from 8.2 million in 1970 to 28.5 million in 2010.As of 2014, the population of Jakarta stood at 10 million, with a population density of 15,174 people/km2.In 2014, the population of Greater Jakarta was 30 million, accounting for 11% of Indonesia's overall population.", "It is predicted to reach 35.6 million people by 2030 to become the world's biggest megacity.", "The gender ratio was 102.8 (males per 100 females) in 2010, and 101.3 in 2014.===Ethnicity===Jakarta is pluralistic and religiously diverse, without a majority ethnic group.", "As of 2010, 36.17% of the city's population were Javanese, 28.29% Betawi (locally established mixed race, cemented by diverse creole), 14.61% Sundanese, 6.62% Chinese, 3.42% Batak, 2.85% Minangkabau, 0.96% Malays, Indo and others 7.08%.Betawi people are the \"natives\" of Jakarta.The 'Betawi' (, or 'people of Batavia') are immigrant descendants of the old city who became widely recognised as an ethnic group by the mid-19th century.", "They mostly descend from an eclectic mix of Southeast Asians brought or attracted to meet labour needs.", "They are thus a creole ethnic group who came from much of Indonesia.", "Over generations, most have intermarried with one or more ethnicities, especially people of Chinese, Arab and European descent.", "Most Betawis lived in the fringe zones with few Betawi-majority zones of central Jakarta.", "It is thus a conundrum for some Javanese people, especially multi-generational Jakarta residents, to identify as either Javanese or Betawi since living in a Betawi-majority district and speaking more of that creole and adapting is a matter of preference for such families.A significant Chinese community has lived in Jakarta for many centuries.", "They traditionally reside around old urban areas, such as Pinangsia, PIK, Pluit and Glodok (Jakarta's Chinatown) areas.", "They also can be found in the old Chinatowns of Senen and Jatinegara.", "As of 2001 they self-identified as being 5.5%, which was thought of as under-reported; this explains the 6.6% figure ten years later.The Sumatran residents are diverse.", "According to the 2020 census, roughly 361,000 Batak; 300,960 Minangkabau and 101,370 Malays lived in the city.", "The number of Batak people has grown in ranking, from eighth in 1930 to fifth in 2000.Toba Batak is the largest subset in Jakarta.", "Working Minangkabau in the 1980s in high proportions were well-embedded merchants, artisans, doctors, teachers or journalists.", "Minang merchants are found in traditional markets, such as Tanah Abang and Senen.===Language===Indonesian is the official and dominant language of Jakarta, while many elderly people speak Dutch or Chinese, depending on their upbringing.", "English is used for communication, especially in Central and South Jakarta.", "Each of the ethnic groups uses their mother tongue at home, such as Betawi, Javanese, and Sundanese.", "The Betawi language is distinct from those of the Sundanese or Javanese, forming itself as a language island in the surrounding area.", "It is mostly based on the East Malay dialect and enriched by loan words from Dutch, Portuguese, Sundanese, Javanese, Chinese, and Arabic.", "Over time, many Betawi words and phrases became integrated into Indonesian as Jakartan slang, and is used by most people regardless of their ethnic background.The Chinese in Jakarta mainly speak Indonesian and English due to a strict language ban during Soeharto's New Order era; older people may be fluent in Hokkien dialect and Mandarin, meanwhile the youngsters are only fluent in Indonesian and English, some educated in Mandarin.", "With the recent urbanization of Chinese communities from several rural areas in Indonesia, other Chinese dialects have been brought into the Chinese community in Jakarta, such as Hakka, Teochew and Cantonese.", "Hokkien, which is mainly from Sumatra (Medan, Bagansiapiapi, Batam) is mostly spoken in Northern Jakarta, such as in Pantai Indah Kapuk, Pluit, and Kelapa Gading, meanwhile Hakka and Teochew, which are derived from the Chinese communities in Pontianak and Singkawang, are mainly spoken in West Jakarta, like in Tambora and Grogol Petamburan.The Batak in Jakarta mostly speak Indonesian, while the older generation tends to speak their native languages, such as Batak Toba, Mandailing, and Karo, depending on which ancestral towns and places in North Sumatra they come from.", "The Minangkabau mainly speak Minangkabau together with Indonesian.===Religion===In 2022, Jakarta's religious composition was distributed over Islam (83.87%), Protestantism (8.57%), Catholicism (3.89%), Buddhism (3.48%), Hinduism (0.18%), Confucianism (0.016%), and about 0.004% of population claimed to follow folk religions.Most (Islamic boarding schools) in Jakarta are affiliated with the traditionalist Nahdlatul Ulama, modernist organisations mostly catering to a socioeconomic class of educated urban elites and merchant traders.", "They give priority to education, social welfare programs and religious propagation.", "Many Islamic organisations have headquarters in Jakarta, including Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesian Ulema Council, Muhammadiyah, Indonesia Institute of Islamic Dawah, and Jaringan Islam Liberal.The Roman Catholic community has a Metropolis, the Archdiocese of Jakarta that includes West Java as part of the ecclesiastical province.", "Jakarta also hosts the largest Buddhist adherents in Java Island, where most of the followers are the Chinese.", "Schools of Buddhism practiced in Indonesia vary, including Theravāda, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana, and Tridharma.", "The city also has Hindu community, which mainly are from Balinese and Indian people.", "There is also a Sikh and Baháʼí Faith community presence in Jakarta.===Education===University of IndonesiaJakarta is home to numerous educational institutions.", "The University of Indonesia (UI) is the largest and oldest tertiary-level educational institution in Indonesia.", "It is a public institution with campuses in Salemba (Central Jakarta) and in Depok.", "The three other public universities in Jakarta are Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, the State University of Jakarta (UNJ), University of Pembangunan Nasional 'Veteran' Jakarta (UPN \"Veteran\" Jakarta), and Universitas Terbuka or Indonesia Open University.", "There is a vocational higher education, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta (PNJ).", "Some major private universities in Jakarta are Trisakti University, The Christian University of Indonesia, Mercu Buana University, Tarumanagara University, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Pelita Harapan University, Pertamina University, Bina Nusantara University, Jayabaya University, Persada Indonesia \"YAI\" University, and Pancasila University.School buses for Jakartan students, free to ride as long as one is wearing school uniform.STOVIA (''School tot Opleiding van Indische Artsen,'' now ''Universitas Indonesia'') was the first high school in Jakarta, established in 1851.Jakarta houses many students from around Indonesia, many of whom reside in dormitories or home-stay residences.", "For basic education, a variety of primary and secondary schools are available, tagged with the public (''national''), private (''national and bi-lingual national plus'') and ''international'' labels.", "Four of the major international schools are the Gandhi Memorial International School, IPEKA International Christian School, Jakarta Intercultural School and the British School Jakarta.", "Other international schools include the Jakarta International Korean School, Bina Bangsa School, Jakarta International Multicultural School, Australian International School, New Zealand International School, Singapore International School, Jakarta Japanese School, and Sekolah Pelita Harapan." ], [ "Economy", "Bank Indonesia HeadquartersIndonesia is the largest economy of ASEAN, and Jakarta is the economic nerve centre of the Indonesian archipelago.", "Jakarta's nominal GDP was US$203.702 billion and PPP GDP was US$602.946 billion in 2021, which is about 17% of Indonesia's.", "Jakarta ranked at 21 in the list of ''Cities Of Economic Influence Index'' in 2020 by CEOWORLD magazine.", "According to the ''Japan Center for Economic Research'', GRP per capita of Jakarta will rank 28th among the 77 cities in 2030 from 41st in 2015, the largest in Southeast Asia.", "Savills Resilient Cities Index has predicted Jakarta to be within the top 20 cities in the world by 2028.Jakarta's economy depends highly on manufacturing and service sectors such as banking, trading and financial.", "Industries include electronics, automotive, chemicals, mechanical engineering and biomedical sciences.", "The head office of Bank Indonesia and Indonesia Stock Exchange are located in the city.", "Most of the SOEs include Pertamina, PLN, Angkasa Pura, and Telkomsel operate head offices in the city, as do major Indonesian conglomerates, such as Salim Group, Sinar Mas Group, Astra International, Gudang Garam, Kompas-Gramedia, CT Corp, Emtek, and MNC Group.", "The headquarters of the Indonesian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Indonesian Employers Association are also located in the city.", "As of 2017, the city is home to six Forbes Global 2000, two Fortune 500 and seven Unicorn companies.SCBD in South JakartaGoogle and Alibaba have regional cloud centers in Jakarta.", "In 2017, the economic growth was 6.22%.", "Throughout the same year, the total value of the investment was Rp 108.6 trillion (US$8 billion), an increase of 84.7% from the previous year.", "In 2021, nominal GDP per capita was estimated at Rp 274.710 million (US$19,199).", "The most significant contributions to GRDP were by finance, ownership and business services (29%); trade, hotel and restaurant sector (20%), and manufacturing industry sector (16%).The Wealth Report 2015 by Knight Frank reported that 24 individuals in Indonesia in 2014 had wealth of at least US$1 billion and 18 live in Jakarta.", "The cost of living continues to rise.", "Both land prices and rents have become expensive.", "Mercer's ''2017 Cost of Living Survey'' ranked Jakarta as 88th costliest city in the world for expatriates.", "Industrial development and the construction of new housing thrive on the outskirts, while commerce and banking remain concentrated in the city centre.", "Jakarta has a bustling luxury property market.", "Knight Frank, a global real estate consultancy based in London, reported in 2014 that Jakarta offered the highest return on high-end property investment in the world in 2013, citing a supply shortage and a sharply depreciated currency as reasons.===Shopping===Grand Indonesia is one of the largest malls in Jakarta.As of 2015, with a total of 550 hectares, Jakarta had the largest shopping mall floor area within a single city.", "Malls include Plaza Indonesia, Grand Indonesia, Sarinah, Plaza Senayan, Senayan City, Pacific Place, Gandaria City, ÆON Mall Jakarta Garden City and Tanjung Barat, Mall Taman Anggrek, Central Park Mall, as well as Pondok Indah Mall.", "Fashion retail brands in Jakarta include Debenhams at Senayan City and Lippo Mall Kemang Village, Japanese Sogo, Seibu at Grand Indonesia Shopping Town, and French brand, Galeries Lafayette, at Pacific Place.", "The Satrio-Casablanca shopping belt includes Kuningan City, Mal Ambassador, Kota Kasablanka, and Lotte Shopping Avenue.", "Shopping malls are also located at Grogol and Puri Indah in West Jakarta.Traditional markets include Blok M, Mayestik, Tanah Abang, Senen, Pasar Baru, Glodok, Mangga Dua, Cempaka Mas, and Jatinegara.", "Special markets sell antique goods at Jalan Surabaya and gemstones in Rawabening Market.===Tourism===TMIIThough Jakarta has been named the most popular location as per tag stories, and ranked eighth most-posted among the cities in the world in 2017 on image-sharing site Instagram, it is not a top international tourist destination.", "The city, however, is ranked as the fifth fastest-growing tourist destination among 132 cities according to MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index.Chinese Pagoda at PIKThe World Travel and Tourism Council also listed Jakarta as among the top ten fastest-growing tourism cities in the world in 2017 and categorised it as an ''emerging performer'', which will see a significant increase in tourist arrivals in less than ten years.", "According to ''Euromonitor International's latest Top 100 City Destinations Ranking'' of 2019, Jakarta ranked at 57th among 100 most visited cities of the world.", "Most of the visitors attracted to Jakarta are domestic tourists.", "As the gateway of Indonesia, Jakarta often serves as a stop-over for foreign visitors on their way to other Indonesian tourist destinations such as Bali, Lombok, Komodo Island and Yogyakarta.", "Jakarta is trying to attract more international tourist by MICE tourism, by arranging increasing numbers of conventions.", "In 2012, the tourism sector contributed Rp.", "2.6 trillion (US$268.5 million) to the city's total direct income of Rp.", "17.83 trillion (US$1.45 billion), a 17.9% increase from the previous year 2011." ], [ "Culture", "''Ondel-ondel'' puppets are the mascot of the city and the symbol of Betawi culture.As the capital of Indonesia, Jakarta is a melting pot of cultures from all ethnic groups of the country.", "Though Betawi people are an indigenous community of Jakarta, the city's culture represents many languages and ethnic groups, supports differences regarding religion, traditions and linguistics, rather than any single and dominant culture.===Arts and festivals===Tanjidor music demonstrates European influenceThe Betawi culture is distinct from those of the Sundanese or Javanese, forming a language island in the surrounding area.", "Betawi arts have a \"low profile\" in Jakarta, and most Betawi people have moved to the suburbs.", "The cultures of the Javanese and other Indonesian ethnic groups have a \"higher profile\" than that of the Betawi.", "There is a significant Chinese influence in Betawi culture, reflected in the popularity of Chinese cakes and sweets, firecrackers and Betawi wedding attire that demonstrates Chinese and Arab influences.Some festivals such as the ''Jalan Jaksa Festival'', ''Kemang Festival'', ''Festival Condet'' and ''Lebaran Betawi'' include efforts to preserve Betawi arts by inviting artists to display performances.", "Jakarta has several performing art centres, such as the classical concert hall Aula Simfonia Jakarta in Kemayoran, Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM) art centre in Cikini, Gedung Kesenian Jakarta near Pasar Baru, Balai Sarbini in the Plaza Semanggi area, Bentara Budaya Jakarta in the Palmerah area, Pasar Seni (Art Market) in Ancol, and traditional Indonesian art performances at the pavilions of some provinces in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah.", "Traditional music is often found at high-class hotels, including Wayang and Gamelan performances.", "Javanese Wayang Orang performances can be found at Wayang Orang Bharata theatre.Arts and culture festivals and exhibitions include the annual ARKIPEL – Jakarta International Documentary and Experimental Film Festival, Jakarta International Film Festival (JiFFest), Djakarta Warehouse Project, Jakarta Fashion Week, Jakarta Muslim Fashion Week, Jakarta Fashion & Food Festival (JFFF), Jakarnaval, Jakarta Night Festival, Kota Tua Creative Festival, Indonesia International Book Fair (IIBF), Indonesia Comic Con, Indonesia Creative Products and Jakarta Arts and Crafts exhibition.", "Art Jakarta is a contemporary art fair, which is held annually.", "''Flona Jakarta'' is a flora-and-fauna exhibition, held annually in August at Lapangan Banteng Park, featuring flowers, plant nurseries, and pets.", "Jakarta Fair is held annually from mid-June to mid-July to celebrate the anniversary of the city and is mostly centred around a trade fair.", "However, this month-long fair also features entertainment, including arts and music performances by local musicians.", "Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival (JJF) is one of the largest jazz festivals in the world, the biggest in the Southern hemisphere, and is held annually in March.Several foreign art and culture centres in Jakarta promote culture and language through learning centres, libraries and art galleries.", "These include the Chinese Confucius Institute, the Dutch Erasmus Huis, the British Council, the French Alliance Française, the German Goethe-Institut, the Japan Foundation, and the Jawaharlal Nehru Indian Cultural Center.===Cuisine===''Soto Betawi'', mainly consisting of offal in creamy milk or coconut milk soupAll varieties of Indonesian cuisine have a presence in Jakarta.", "The local cuisine is Betawi cuisine, which reflects various foreign culinary traditions.", "Betawi cuisine is heavily influenced by Malay-Chinese Peranakan cuisine, Sundanese and Javanese cuisine, which is also influenced by Indian, Arabic and European cuisines.", "One of the most popular local dishes of Betawi cuisine is ''Soto Betawi'' which is prepared from chunks of beef and offal in rich and spicy cow's milk or coconut milk broth.", "Other popular Betawi dishes include ''soto kaki, nasi uduk (''mixed rice''), kerak telor'' (spicy omelette), ''nasi ulam, asinan, ketoprak, rujak'' and ''gado-gado'' Betawi (salad in peanut sauce).Jakarta cuisine can be found in modest street-side ''warung'' food stalls and Hawkers travelling vendors to high-end fine dining restaurants.", "Live music venues and exclusive restaurants are abundant.", "Many traditional foods from far-flung regions in Indonesia can be found in Jakarta.", "For example, traditional Padang restaurants and low-budget ''Warteg'' (''Warung Tegal'') food stalls are ubiquitous in the capital.", "Other popular street foods include ''nasi goreng'' (fried rice), ''sate'' (skewered meats), ''pecel lele'' (fried catfish), ''bakso'' (meatballs), ''bakpau'' (Chinese bun) and ''siomay'' (fish dumplings).", "''Roti buaya'', crocodile-shaped bread is often served in festive occasions.Jalan Sabang, Jalan Sidoarjo, Jalan Kendal at Menteng area, Kota Tua, Blok S, Blok M, Jalan Tebet, are all popular destinations for street-food lovers.", "Minangkabau street-food who sell ''Nasi Kapau'', ''Sate Padang'', and ''Soto Padang'' can be found at Jalan Kramat Raya and Jalan Bendungan Hilir in Central Jakarta.", "Chinese street-food is plentiful at Jalan Pangeran, Manga Besar and Petak Sembilan in the old Jakarta area, while the ''Little Tokyo'' area of Blok M has many Japanese style restaurants and bars.Trendy restaurants, cafe and bars can be found at Menteng, Kemang, Jalan Senopati, Kuningan, Senayan, Pantai Indah Kapuk, and Kelapa Gading.Lenggang Jakarta is a food court, accommodating small traders and street vendors, where Indonesian foods are available within a single compound.", "At present, there are two such food courts, located at Monas and Kemayoran.", "Thamrin 10 is a food and creative park located at Menteng, where varieties of food stall are available.Global fast-food chains are present, and usually found in Shopping malls, along with local brands like Sederhana, J'CO, Es Teler 77, Kebab Turki, CFC, and Japanese HokBen and Yoshinoya.", "Foreign cuisines such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Singaporean, Indian, American, Australian, Malaysian, French, Mediterranean cuisines like Maghrebi, Turkish, Italian, Middle Eastern cuisine, and modern fusion food restaurants can all be found in Jakarta.===Sports===Gelora Bung Karno StadiumJakarta hosted the 1962 Asian Games, and the 2018 Asian Games, co-hosted by Palembang.", "Jakarta also hosted the Southeast Asian Games in 1979, 1987, 1997 and 2011 (supporting Palembang).", "Gelora Bung Karno Stadium hosted the group stage, quarterfinal and final of the 2007 AFC Asian Cup along with Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam.", "The largest capacity retractable roof stadium in Asia, Jakarta International Stadium, is located at Tanjung Priok district, completed in 2022.The Senayan sports complex has several sports venues, including the Bung Karno football stadium, Madya Stadium, Istora Senayan, an aquatic arena, a baseball field, a basketball hall, a shooting range, several indoor and outdoor tennis courts.", "The Senayan complex was built in 1960 to accommodate the 1962 Asian Games.", "For basketball, the Kelapa Gading Sport Mall in Kelapa Gading, North Jakarta, with a capacity of 7,000 seats, is the home arena of the Indonesian national basketball team.", "The BritAma Arena serves as a playground for Satria Muda Pertamina Jakarta, the 2017 runner-up of the Indonesian Basketball League.", "Jakarta International Velodrome is a sporting facility located at Rawamangun, which was used as a venue for the 2018 Asian Games.", "It has a seating capacity of 3,500 for track cycling, and up to 8,500 for shows and concerts, which can also be used for various sports activities such as volleyball, badminton and futsal.", "Jakarta International Equestrian Park is an equestrian sports venue located at Pulomas, which was also used as a venue for 2018 Asian Games.Asian Para Games closing ceremony in Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, 2018The Jakarta Car-Free Days are held weekly on Sunday on the main avenues of the city, Jalan Sudirman, and Jalan Thamrin, from 6 am to 11 am.", "The briefer Car-Free Day, which lasts from 6 am to 9 am, is held on every other Sunday.", "The event invites local pedestrians to do sports and exercise and have their activities on the streets that are usually full of traffic.", "Along the road from the Senayan traffic circle on Jalan Sudirman, South Jakarta, to the \"Selamat Datang\" Monument at the Hotel Indonesia traffic circle on Jalan Thamrin, north to the National Monument in Central Jakarta, cars are blocked from entering.", "During the event, morning gymnastics, callisthenics and aerobic exercises, futsal games, jogging, bicycling, skateboarding, badminton, karate, on-street library and musical performances take over the roads and the main parks.Jakarta's most popular home football club is Persija, which plays in Liga 1.Another football team in Jakarta is Persitara which competes in Liga 3 and plays in Tugu Stadium.Jakarta Marathon each November is recognised by AIMS and IAAF.", "It was established in 2013.It brings sports tourism.", "In 2015, more than 15,000 runners from 53 countries participated.Jakarta successfully hosted the first Jakarta ePrix race of the Formula E championship in June 2022 at Ancol Circuit, North Jakarta.===Media and entertainment===TV tower of TVRI at its headquarters in JakartaJakarta is home to most of the Indonesian national newspapers, besides some local-based newspapers.", "Daily local newspapers in Jakarta are ''Pos Kota'' and ''Warta Kota'', as well as the now-defunct ''Indopos''.", "National newspapers based in Jakarta include ''Kompas'' and ''Media Indonesia'', most of them have a news segment covering the city.", "A number of business newspapers (''Bisnis Indonesia'', ''Investor Daily'' and ''Kontan'') and sports newspaper (''Super Ball'') are also published.Newspapers other than in Indonesian, mainly for a national and global audience, are also published daily.", "Examples are English-language newspapers ''The Jakarta Post'' and online-only ''The Jakarta Globe''.", "Chinese language newspapers also circulate, such as ''Indonesia Shang Bao'' (印尼商报), ''Harian Indonesia'' (印尼星洲日报), and ''Guo Ji Ri Bao'' (国际日报).", "The only Japanese language newspaper is ''The Daily Jakarta Shimbun'' (じゃかるた新聞).Around 75 radio stations broadcast in Jakarta, 52 on the FM band, and 23 on the AM band.", "Radio entities are based in Jakarta, for example, national radio networks MNC Trijaya FM, Prambors FM, Trax FM, I-Radio, Hard Rock FM, Delta FM, Global FM and the public radio RRI; as well as local stations Gen FM, Radio Elshinta and Z99,9.Jakarta is the headquarters for Indonesia's public television TVRI as well as private national television networks, such as Metro TV, tvOne, Kompas TV, RCTI and NET.", "Jakarta has local television channels such as TVRI Jakarta, JakTV, Elshinta TV and KTV.", "Many TV stations are analogue PAL, but some are now converting to digital signals using DVB-T2 following a government plan to digital television migration." ], [ "Government and politics", "The Jakarta governor's office at the Jakarta City HallJakarta is administratively equal to a province with special status.", "The executive branch is headed by an elected governor and a vice governor, while the Jakarta Regional People's Representative Council (, DPRD DKI Jakarta) is the legislative branch with 106 directly elected members.", "The Jakarta City Hall at the south of Merdeka Square houses the office of the governor and the vice governor, and serves as the main administrative office.Executive governance consists of five administrative cities (), each headed by a mayor (w''alikota)'' and one administrative regency () headed by a regent (''bupati'').", "Unlike other cities and regencies in Indonesia where the mayor or regent is directly elected, Jakarta's mayors and regents are chosen by the governor.", "Each city and regency is divided into administrative districts.Aside from representatives to the provincial parliament, Jakarta sends 21 delegates to the national lower house parliament.", "The representatives are elected from Jakarta's three national electoral districts, which also include overseas voters.", "It also sends 4 delegates, just like other provinces, to the national upper house parliament.The Jakarta Smart City (JSC) program was launched on 14 December 2014 with the goal for smart governance, smart people, smart mobility, smart economy, smart living and a smart environment in the city using the web and various smartphone-based apps.===Public safety===The Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Regional Police () is the police force that is responsible to maintain law, security, and order for the Jakarta metropolitan area.", "It is led by a two-star police general (Inspector General of Police) with the title of \"Greater Jakarta Regional Police Chief\" (, abbreviated ).", "Its office is located at Jl.", "Jenderal Sudirman Kav.", "55, Senayan, Kebayoran Baru, South Jakarta and their hotline emergency number is 110.The Jayakarta Military Regional Command (, abbreviated ) is the territorial army of the Indonesian Army, which serves as a defence component for Jakarta and its surrounding areas (Greater Jakarta).", "It is led by an army Major General with the title of \"Jakarta Military Regional Commander\" (, abbreviated ).", "The Jakarta Military Command is located at East Jakarta and oversees several military battalions ready for defending the capital city and its vital installations.", "It also assists the Jakarta Metropolitan Police during certain tasks, such as supporting security during state visits, VVIP security, and riot control.===Municipal finances===The Jakarta provincial government relies on transfers from the central government for the bulk of its income.", "Local (non-central government) sources of revenue are incomes from various taxes such as vehicle ownership and vehicle transfer fees, among others.", "The ability of the regional government to respond to Jakarta's many problems is constrained by limited finances.The provincial government consistently runs a surplus of between 15 and 20% of planned spending, primarily because of delays in procurement and other inefficiencies.", "Regular under-spending is a matter of public comment.", "In 2013, the budget was around Rp 50 trillion ($US5.2 billion), equivalent to around $US380 per citizen.", "Spending priorities were on education, transport, flood control, environment and social spending (such as health and housing).", "Jakarta's regional budget (APBD) was Rp 77.1 trillion ($US5.92 billion), Rp 83.2 trillion ($US6.2 billion), and Rp 89 trillion ($US6.35 billion) for the year of 2017, 2018 and 2019 respectively.===Administrative divisions===districts (''Kecamatan'').Jakarta consists of five ''Kota Administratif'' (Administrative cities/municipalities), each headed by a mayor, and one ''Kabupaten Administratif'' (Administrative regency).", "Each city and regency is divided into districts (''kecamatan'').", "The administrative cities/municipalities of Jakarta are:Central Jakarta () is Jakarta's smallest city and administrative and political centre.", "It is divided into eight districts.", "It is characterised by large parks and Dutch colonial buildings.", "Landmarks include the National Monument (Monas), Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta Cathedral and museums.", "West Jakarta () has the city's highest concentration of small-scale industries.", "It has eight districts.", "The area includes Jakarta's Chinatown and Dutch colonial landmarks such as the Chinese Langgam building and Toko Merah.", "It contains part of Jakarta Old Town.", "South Jakarta (), originally planned as a satellite city, is now the location of upscale shopping centres and affluent residential areas.", "It has ten districts and functions as Jakarta's groundwater buffer, but recently the green belt areas are threatened by new developments.", "Much of the central business district is concentrated in Kebayoran Baru, Setiabudi, a small part in Tebet, Pancoran, Mampang Prapatan, and bordering the Tanah Abang/Sudirman area of Central Jakarta.", "The area is known as the Jakarta Golden Triangle.", "East Jakarta () territory is characterised by several industrial sectors.", "Also located in East Jakarta are Taman Mini Indonesia Indah and Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport.", "This city has ten districts.", "North Jakarta () is bounded by the Java Sea.", "It is the location of Port of Tanjung Priok.", "Large- and medium-scale industries are concentrated there.", "It contains part of Jakarta Old Town, which was the centre of VOC trade activity during the colonial era.", "Also located in North Jakarta is Ancol Dreamland (), the largest integrated tourism area in Southeast Asia.", "North Jakarta is divided into six districts.The only administrative regency () of Jakarta is the Thousand Islands (), formerly a district within North Jakarta.", "It is a collection of 105 small islands located on the Java Sea.", "It is of high conservation value because of its unique ecosystems.", "Marine tourism, such as diving, water bicycling, and windsurfing, are the primary tourist activities in this territory.", "The main mode of transportation between the islands is speed boats or small ferries.+ Jakarta's cities/municipalities () KodeWilayah Name of City orRegencyArea inkm2Pop'n 2010 censusPop'n 2020 censusPop'n mid 2022estimatePop'n density(per km2)in mid 2021HDI 2021 estimates 31.74 South Jakarta144.942,062,2322,226,8122,244,62315,4870.849 () 31.75 East Jakarta185.542,693,8963,037,1393,083,88316,6210.829 () 31.71 Central Jakarta47.56902,9731,056,8961,079,99522,7080.815 () 31.73 West Jakarta124.972,281,9452,434,5112,448,97519,5970.817 () 31.72 North Jakarta147.461,645,6591,778,9811,793,55012,1620.805 () 31.01 Thousand Islands10.7321,08227,74928,9252,6960.721 ()" ], [ "Infrastructure", "To transform the city into a more livable one, a ten-year ''urban regeneration'' project was undertaken, for Rp 571 trillion ($40.5 billion).", "The project aimed to develop infrastructure, including the creation of a better integrated public transit system and the improvement of the city's clean water and wastewater systems, housing and flood control systems.===Transportation===TransJakarta is the longest BRT system in the world (251.2 km).Batavia map of Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara)Jakarta is part of the Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean and there to the Upper Adriatic region.===Healthcare===Jakarta has many of the country's best-equipped private and public healthcare facilities.", "In 2012, the Governor of Jakarta Joko Widodo introduced a universal health care program, the 'Healthy Jakarta Card' (''Kartu Jakarta Sehat'', KJS).", "In January 2014, the Indonesian government launched a universal health care system called the ''Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional'' (JKN), which is run by BPJS Kesehatan.", "KJS is being integrated into JKN, and KJS cards are still valid as of 2018.As of 2021, 85.55% of the people of Jakarta is covered by JKN.Government-run hospitals are of a good standard but are often overcrowded.", "Government-run specialised hospitals include Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital, Gatot Soebroto Army Hospital, as well as community hospitals and puskesmas.", "Other options for healthcare services include private hospitals and clinics.", "The private healthcare sector has seen significant changes, since the government began allowing foreign investment in the private sector in 2010.While some private facilities are run by nonprofit or religious organisations, most are for-profit.", "Hospital chains such as Siloam, Pondok Indah Hospital Group, Mayapada, Mitra Keluarga, Medika, Medistra, Ciputra, Radjak Hospital Group, RS Bunda Group, and Hermina operate in the city.===Water supply===Two private companies, PALYJA and Aetra, provide piped water in the western and eastern half of Jakarta respectively under 25-year concession contracts signed in 1998.A public asset holding company called PAM Jaya owns the infrastructure.", "Eighty per cent of the water distributed in Jakarta comes through the West Tarum Canal system from Jatiluhur reservoir on the Citarum River, southeast of the city.", "The water supply was privatised by President Suharto in 1998 to the French company Suez Environnement and the British company Thames Water International.", "Both companies subsequently sold their concessions to Indonesian companies.", "Customer growth in the first seven years of the concessions had been lower than before, possibly because of substantial inflation-adjusted tariff increases during this period.", "In 2005, tariffs were frozen, leading private water companies to cut down on investments.According to PALYJA, the service coverage ratio increased substantially from 34% (1998) to 65% (2010) in the western half of the concession.", "According to data by the Jakarta Water Supply Regulatory Body, access in the eastern half of the city served by PTJ increased from about 57% in 1998 to about 67% in 2004 but stagnated afterwards.", "However, other sources cite much lower access figures for piped water supply to houses, excluding access provided through public hydrants: one study estimated access as low as 25% in 2005, while another estimated it to be as low as 18.5% in 2011.Those without access to piped water get water mostly from wells that are often salty and unsanitary.", "As of 2017, according to the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Jakarta had a crisis over clean water." ], [ "International relations", "===International organisations===Jakarta hosts foreign embassies.", "Jakarta also serves as the seat of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Headquarters and is ASEAN's diplomatic capital.Jakarta is a member of the Asian Network of Major Cities 21, C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group and ASEAN Smart Cities Network.===Twin towns – sister cities===Jakarta signed sister city agreements with other cities, including Casablanca.", "To promote friendship between the two cities, the main avenue famous for its shopping and business centres was named after Jakarta's Moroccan sister city.", "No street in Casablanca is named after Jakarta.", "However, the Moroccan capital city of Rabat has an avenue named after Sukarno, Indonesia's first president, to commemorate his visit in 1960 and as a token of friendship.Jakarta's sister cities are: Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei* Bangkok, Thailand* Beijing, China* Berlin, Germany* Casablanca, Morocco* East Jerusalem, Palestine* Hanoi, Vietnam* Islamabad, Pakistan* Istanbul, Turkey* Jeddah, Saudi Arabia* Kyiv, Ukraine* Los Angeles, United States* Manila, Philippines* Maputo, Mozambique* Moscow, Russia* Mumbai, India* New York, United States* Pyongyang, North Korea* Seoul, South Korea* Shanghai, China* Tokyo, Japan===Cooperation and friendship===Jakarta has established a partnership with Rotterdam, especially on integrated urban water management, including capacity-building and knowledge exchange.", "This cooperation is mainly because both cities are dealing with similar problems; they lie in low-lying flat plains and are prone to flooding.", "Additionally, they have both implemented drainage systems involving canals, dams, and pumps vital for both cities for below-sea-level areas.In addition to its sister cities, Jakarta cooperates with:* Arkansas, United States* Budapest, Hungary* New South Wales, Australia* Paris, France* Rotterdam, Netherlands" ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "See also", "Greater JakartaBetawi peopleClimate change in IndonesiaGeology of IndonesiaJavaList of tallest buildings in JakartaOutline of JakartaTransport in Jakarta" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "********** *******************************" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "** Jakarta (official travel website)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jack Ruby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jack Leon Ruby''' (born '''Jacob Leon Rubenstein'''; March 25, 1911January 3, 1967) was an American nightclub owner who murdered Lee Harvey Oswald on November 24, 1963, two days after Oswald was accused of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.", "Ruby shot and mortally wounded Oswald on live television in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters and was immediately arrested.", "In a trial, Ruby was found guilty and sentenced to death.", "The conviction was appealed, and he was to be granted a new trial, but Ruby became ill, was diagnosed with cancer, and died of a pulmonary embolism on January 3, 1967.In 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald, that Ruby shot Oswald on impulse and in retaliation for the Kennedy assassination.", "The commission's findings are challenged by various critics who hypothesize that Ruby was part of a conspiracy surrounding the Kennedy assassination." ], [ "Early life and career", "Ruby was born Jacob Leon Rubenstein on or around March 25, 1911, in the Maxwell Street area of Chicago, the son of Joseph Rubenstein and Fannie Turek Rutkowski (or Rokowsky), both Polish-born Orthodox Jews.", "Ruby was the fifth of his parents' 10 surviving children.", "While he was growing up, his parents were often violent towards each other and frequently separated; Ruby's mother was eventually committed to a mental hospital.", "His troubled childhood and adolescence were marked by juvenile delinquency with time being spent in foster homes.", "At age 11 in 1922, he was arrested for truancy.", "Ruby eventually skipped school so often that he had to spend time at the Institute for Juvenile Research.", "Still a young man, he sold horse-racing tip sheets and various novelties, then acted as a business agent for a local refuse collectors union that later became part of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT).From his early childhood, Ruby was nicknamed \"Sparky\" by those who knew him.", "His sister, Eva Grant, said that he acquired the nickname because he resembled a slow-moving horse named \"Spark Plug\" or \"Sparky\" in the contemporary comic strip ''Barney Google''.", "(\"Spark Plug\" debuted as a character in the strip in 1922, when Ruby was 11.)", "Other accounts say that the name was given because of his quick temper.", "Grant stated that Ruby did not like the nickname, and was quick to fight anyone who called him that.In the 1940s, Ruby frequented race tracks in Illinois and California.", "He was drafted in 1943 and served in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II, working as an aircraft mechanic at U.S. bases until 1946.He had an honorable record and was promoted to Private First Class.", "Upon discharge, in 1946, Ruby returned to Chicago.In 1947, Ruby moved to Dallas, purportedly because of the failure of merchandise deals in Chicago and to help operate his sister's nightclub.", "Soon afterward he and his brothers shortened their surnames from Rubenstein to Ruby.", "The stated reason for this was that the name \"Rubenstein\" was too long and that he was \"well known\" as Jack Ruby.", "Ruby later went on to manage various nightclubs, strip clubs, and dance halls.", "He developed close ties to many Dallas Police officers who frequented his nightclubs, where he provided them with free liquor, prostitutes and other favors.Ruby never married and had no children.", "At the time of the assassination, Ruby was living with George Senator, who referred to Ruby as \"my boyfriend\" during the Warren Commission hearing, but denied the two being homosexual lovers.", "Warren Commission lawyer Burt Griffin later told author Gerald Posner: \"I'm not sure if Senator was honest with us about his relationship with Ruby.", "People did not advertise their homosexuality in 1963\"." ], [ "Illegal activities", "Some critics have said that Ruby was involved in illegal activity such as gambling, narcotics, and prostitution.A 1956 FBI report stated that informant Eileen Curry had moved to Dallas in January with her boyfriend James Breen after jumping bail on narcotics charges.", "Breen told her that he had made connections with a large narcotics setup operating between Texas, Mexico, and the East, and that \"James got the okay to operate through Ruby of Dallas.", "\"Dallas County Sheriff Steve Guthrie told the FBI that he believed that Ruby \"operated some prostitution activities and other vices in his club\" in Dallas.Dallas disc jockey Kenneth Dowe testified that Ruby was known around the station for \"procuring women for different people who came to town\"." ], [ "Character", "According to people interviewed by law enforcement and the Warren Commission, Ruby was desperate to attract attention to himself and to his club.", "He knew a great number of people in Dallas, but he had only a few friends.", "His business ventures remained unsuccessful and he was heavily in debt.The commission received reports of Ruby's penchant for violence.", "He had a volatile temper, and often resorted to violence with employees who had upset him.", "He acted as the bouncer of his own club and beat his customers on at least 25 occasions.", "The fights would often end with Ruby throwing his victims down the club's stairs.", "In one fight with a man, the man bit Ruby's left index finger so badly that the doctors had it amputated.Stories of Ruby's eccentric and unstable behavior describe him as sometimes taking his shirt or other clothes off in social gatherings, and either hitting his chest like a gorilla or rolling around on the floor.", "During conversations, he could change the topic suddenly in mid-sentence.", "He sometimes welcomed a guest to his club, but on other nights forbade the same guest from entering.", "He was described by those who knew him as \"a kook\", \"totally unpredictable\", \"a psycho\", and \"suffering from some form of disturbance\".During the 1970s, prominent psychiatrist Irene Jakab, who was known for her use of art therapy in diagnosing and treating patients with mental illness, analyzed artwork that had been created by Ruby while he was in jail.", "While assessing one of Ruby's drawings, which had been included as part of art exhibits at the World Congress of Psychiatry meeting in Waikiki and the University of Hawaii in late August and early September 1977, she claimed that his work conveyed \"repressed aggression and secretiveness,\" adding:Notice how he really constricts himself so as not to reveal himself.", "He hides behind all those geometrical lines and pointed edges.", "You can feel his controlled aggression." ], [ "John F. Kennedy assassination", "===November 21===The Warren Commission attempted to reconstruct Ruby's movements from November 21, 1963, through November 24.The Commission reported that he was attending to his duties as the proprietor of the Carousel Club located at 1312 1/2 Commerce St. in downtown Dallas and the Vegas Club in the city's Oak Lawn district from the afternoon of November 21 to the early hours of November 22.A number of Dallas police officers were meeting in the office of Assistant District Attorney Ben Ellis when Ruby entered and passed out business cards advertising a gig by Jada, a stripper at the Carousel.", "According to Lt. W. F. Dyson, Ruby introduced himself to Ellis and added: \"You probably don't know me now, but you will.", "\"===November 22: assassination of Kennedy===According to the Warren Commission, on November 22, Ruby was in the second-floor advertising offices of the ''Dallas Morning News'', five blocks away from the Texas School Book Depository, placing weekly advertisements for his nightclubs when he learned of the assassination around 12:45 p.m.", "According to witnesses, Ruby was visibly shaken.", "Ruby then made phone calls to his assistant at the Carousel Club and to his sister.", "The Commission stated that an employee of the ''Dallas Morning News'' estimated that Ruby left the newspaper's offices at 1:30 p.m., but indicated that other testimony suggested that he had left earlier.", "According to the Warren Commission, Ruby arrived back at the Carousel Club shortly before 1:45 p.m. to notify employees that the club would be closed that evening.John Newnam, an employee at the newspaper's advertisement department, testified that Ruby became upset over an anti-Kennedy ad published in the ''Morning News'' that was signed by \"The American Fact-Finding Committee, Bernard Weissman, Chairman.\"", "Ruby was sensitive to antisemitism and was distressed that an ad attacking the President was signed by a person with a \"Jewish name.\"", "Early the next morning, Ruby noticed a political billboard featuring the text \"IMPEACH EARL WARREN\" in block letters.", "Ruby's sister Eva testified that Ruby had told her that he believed that the anti-Kennedy ad and the anti-Warren sign were connected and were a plot by a \"gentile\" to blame the assassination on the Jews.Ruby was seen in the halls of the Dallas Police Headquarters on several occasions after Oswald's arrest for the murder of Dallas policeman J. D. Tippit.", "He was present at an arranged press meeting with Oswald.", "A reporter asked Oswald, \"Did you kill the President?\"", "and Oswald answered, \"No, I have not been charged with that.", "In fact, nobody has said that to me yet.", "The first thing I heard about it was when the newspaper reporters in the hall asked me that question.\"", "Another reporter told Oswald that he had been charged and Oswald reacted with a look of astonishment.", "Newsreel footage from WFAA-TV (Dallas) and NBC shows that Ruby impersonated a newspaper reporter during a press conference held by District Attorney Henry Wade at Dallas Police Headquarters that night.", "Wade briefed reporters that Oswald was a member of the anti-Castro Free Cuba Committee.", "Ruby was one of several people there who spoke up to correct Wade, saying, \"Henry, that's the Fair Play for Cuba Committee\", a pro-Castro organization.", "Ruby later told the FBI that he had his .38 Colt Cobra revolver in his right pocket during the press conference.===November 24: killing of Oswald===On November 24, Ruby drove into town with his pet dachshund Sheba to send an emergency money order at the Western Union on Main Street to one of his employees.", "The time stamp was 11:17 a.m. for the transaction.", "Ruby then walked half a block to the Dallas police headquarters, where he made his way into the basement.", "At 11:21 a.m. CST, Oswald was being escorted by Dallas police Detectives Jim Leavelle and L. C. Graves through the police basement to an armored car that was to take him to the nearby county jail, when Ruby emerged from a crowd of reporters with his revolver aimed at Oswald's abdomen and shot him at point blank range, mortally wounding him.", "Oswald screamed \"Oh!\"", "in pain and his hands clutched at his stomach as he slumped to the floor, moaning.", "Police detective Billy Combest, who knew Ruby, exclaimed, \"Jack, you son of a bitch!\"", "The armored car had rolled down the ramp at the moment Ruby emerged and slightly hit Ruby's leg almost immediately after he fired, causing him to almost lose balance as he was immediately subdued by police while Oswald was carried back into the basement level jail office.", "Combest asked Oswald, \"Do you have anything you want to tell us now?\"", "Oswald shook his head.", "Drifting in and out of consciousness, Oswald was placed onto an ambulance and was driven to Parkland Memorial Hospital, the same hospital where President Kennedy had died two days earlier.", "Leavelle and Graves along with Frederick Bieberdorf, a medical student on duty, rode in the ambulance.", "Bieberdorf said that several blocks before reaching the hospital, Oswald started thrashing about, resisting Beiberdorf's efforts of heart massage and attempting to free an oxygen mask over his mouth.", "At Parkland, Oswald was treated by the same surgeons who had tried to save Kennedy; they determined Ruby's bullet had entered Oswald's left side in the front part of the abdomen and caused extensive damage to his spleen, stomach, aorta, vena cava, kidney, liver, diaphragm, and eleventh rib before coming to rest on his right side.", "Oswald died at 1:07 p.m.====Reaction====A network television pool camera was broadcasting live to cover Oswald's transfer; millions of people watching on NBC saw the shooting as it happened and on other networks within minutes afterward.", "Several photographs were taken of the event, capturing the moments around when Ruby pulled the trigger.", "In 1964, Robert H. Jackson of the ''Dallas Times Herald'' was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Photography for his image, titled ''Jack Ruby Shoots Lee Harvey Oswald''.Great indignation was directed towards Ruby's murder of Oswald.", "Many felt that the killing had robbed the nation of essential information and had left questions unanswered.", "Former Vice President Richard Nixon said, \"(Oswald was) also entitled to a trial ... two wrongs don't make a right.\"", "Oswald's murder compounded initial suspicions that the Kennedy assassination was part of a larger plot.Not all were shocked.", "The crowd outside the headquarters burst into applause when they heard that Oswald had been shot.", "In Dallas and elsewhere in the nation, Oswald was hated in death, and Ruby was viewed as a hero by some citizens, and during his time in jail, he received many letters from the public, often praising him for his deed." ], [ "Prosecution", "Ruby after his arrestAfter his arrest, Ruby said that he had been distraught over President Kennedy's death and had helped the city of Dallas \"redeem\" itself in the eyes of the public, and that he was \"saving Mrs. Kennedy the discomfiture of coming back to trial.\"", "He also claimed that he shot Oswald on the spur of the moment when the opportunity presented itself, without considering any reason for doing so.", "Ruby said that he was an admirer of President Kennedy and the Kennedy family, that he cried when he heard that the President was shot, \"in mourning\" after, \"cried a great deal\" Saturday afternoon, and was depressed that night.", "The grief over the assassination, Ruby stated, finally \"reached the point of insanity,\" suddenly compelling him to shoot when Oswald walked in front of him in the basement that Sunday morning.", "At the time of the shooting, Ruby said that he was taking phenmetrazine (Preludin), a central nervous system stimulant.", "Ruby also said that he entered the police basement by coming down the Main Street ramp.", "Later, Ruby expressed remorse to his brother Earl saying he never wanted Oswald to die.", "Jack Ruby asked Dallas attorney Tom Howard to represent him.", "Howard accepted and asked Ruby if he could think of anything that might damage his defense.", "Ruby responded that there would be a problem if a man by the name of \"Davis\" should come up.", "Ruby told his attorney that he \"had been involved with Davis, who was a gunrunner entangled in anti-Castro efforts.", "\"Ruby's brother Earl replaced Howard with prominent San Francisco defense attorney Melvin Belli, who agreed to represent him ''pro bono''.", "Lawyer Joe H. Tonahill also signed on to assist with Ruby's defense.", "At his bond hearing in January 1964, while talking to reporters, Jack Ruby tearfully said regarding the assassination of Kennedy, in a high, choked voice, that he could not understand \"how a great man like that could be lost.\"", "Ruby testified that he thought he said, \"You killed my President, you rat!\"", "as he shot Oswald.", "Officer McMillon testified he heard Ruby say, \"You rat son of a bitch, you shot the president\".", "This was disputed by television footage showing McMillon looking in the opposite direction from the shooting.", "Dallas police sergeant Patrick Dean testified that when Ruby was arrested, Ruby said he thought about killing Oswald two nights earlier, to show the world that \"Jews have guts.\"", "Detective Don Archer said Ruby had told him he intended to shoot Oswald three times, and McMillon corroborated this.", "On March 14, 1964, Ruby was convicted of murder with malice and was sentenced to death.", "Ruby's conviction was overturned by the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals on the grounds that \"an oral confession of premeditation made while in police custody\" should have been ruled inadmissible, because it violated a Texas criminal statute.", "The court also ruled that the venue should have been changed to a Texas county other than the one in which the high-profile crime had been committed.During the six months following the Kennedy assassination, Ruby repeatedly asked to speak to the members of the Warren Commission.", "The commission initially showed no interest, but Ruby's sister Eileen wrote letters to the commission and her letters became public.", "The Commission then agreed to talk to Ruby.", "In June 1964, Chief Justice Earl Warren, Representative (and future President) Gerald R. Ford of Michigan, and other commission members went to Dallas to see Ruby.", "Ruby asked Warren several times to take him to Washington D.C., saying that \"my life is in danger here\" and that he wanted an opportunity to make additional statements.", "He added that the people from whom he felt himself to be in danger were the John Birch Society of Dallas, including Edwin Walker, who he claimed were trying to falsely implicate him as being involved in a conspiracy to assassinate the President.", "He added: \"I want to tell the truth, and I can't tell it here.\"", "Warren told Ruby that he would be unable to comply, because many legal barriers would need to be overcome, and public interest in the situation would be too heavy.", "Warren also told Ruby that the commission would have no way of protecting him, since it had no police powers.", "Ruby said that he wanted to convince President Lyndon Johnson that he was not part of any conspiracy to kill Kennedy.Eventually, the appellate court agreed with Ruby's lawyers that he should be granted a new trial.", "On October 5, 1966, the court ruled that his motion for a change of venue before the original trial court should have been granted.", "Ruby's conviction and death sentence were overturned.", "Arrangements were underway for a new trial to be held in February 1967 in Wichita Falls, Texas, but Ruby was admitted to Parkland Hospital on December 9, 1966, suffering from pneumonia, where he was diagnosed with cancer in his liver, lungs, and brain.", "His condition rapidly deteriorated.", "An armed guard was placed outside his room but family and friends were allowed to visit.", "On December 16, Earl Ruby, accompanied by one of his brother's lawyers, smuggled a tape recorder hidden in a briefcase into Jack's room to record an interview about his murder of Oswald.", "Ruby maintained that he entered the basement by coming down the ramp, had killed Oswald out of grief over the assassination, and denied knowing Oswald prior.", "According to an unnamed Associated Press source, Ruby made a final statement from his hospital bed on December 19, that he had acted alone.", "\"There is nothing to hide,\" Ruby said, \"there was no one else.\"" ], [ "Death", "Headstone at Ruby's grave in Westlawn Cemetery.", "The Hebrew text is an abbreviation of ''tehei nishmato tserurah bitsror hachaim'', \"may his soul be bound with the bond of life.", "\"Ruby died of a pulmonary embolism on January 3, 1967, at Parkland Hospital.", "He was buried beside his parents in the Westlawn Cemetery in Norridge, Illinois." ], [ "Official investigations", "===Warren Commission===The Warren Commission found no evidence linking Ruby's killing of Oswald with any broader conspiracy to assassinate Kennedy.", "The report provided a detailed biography of Ruby's life and activities to help ascertain whether he was involved in a conspiracy to assassinate Kennedy.", "The Commission also tackled widespread rumours that Ruby and Oswald knew each other and that Oswald was seen at the Carousel Club.", "Television footage that showed Oswald glance briefly in Ruby's direction as he emerged to shoot him, indicating to some observers a look of recognition, compounded such suspicion.", "Careful analysis of the footage indicate Oswald was looking at reporter Ike Pappas who had held his microphone out towards Oswald and asked, \"Do you have anything to say in your defense?\"", "They concluded that various witnesses lacked credibility and that there was no solid evidence linking the two men.", "The Commission indicated that there was not a \"significant link between Ruby and organized crime\" and said he acted independently in killing Oswald.Warren Commission investigator David Belin said that postal inspector Harry Holmes arrived unannounced at the Dallas police station on the morning that Ruby shot Oswald and, upon invitation by the investigators, had questioned Oswald, thus delaying his transfer by half an hour.", "Belin noted that, had Ruby been part of a conspiracy, he would have been downtown 30 minutes earlier, when Oswald had been scheduled to be transferred.", "The commission accepted Ruby's claim that he entered the police basement via the Main Street ramp.", "Author Norman Mailer and others have questioned why Ruby would have left his beloved dog in his car if his killing of Oswald had been planned.Some of Ruby's friends, relatives (notably his brother Earl and sister Eva) and associates, supported the official conclusion that Ruby acted alone, maintaining that he was upset over President Kennedy's death, even crying on occasions and closing his clubs for three days as a mark of respect.", "They also refuted conspiracy theorists' claims, saying that Ruby's connection with gangsters was minimal at most and that he was not the sort of person who would be entrusted to be part of a conspiracy.Dallas reporter Tony Zoppi, who knew Ruby well, claimed that one \"would have to be crazy\" to entrust Ruby with anything as important as a high-level plot to kill Kennedy since he \"couldn't keep a secret for five minutes ... Jack was one of the most talkative guys you would ever meet.", "He'd be the worst fellow in the world to be part of a conspiracy, because he just plain talked too much.\"", "He and others described Ruby as the sort who enjoyed being at \"the center of attention\", trying to make friends with people and being more of a nuisance.Some writers, including former Los Angeles District Attorney Vincent Bugliosi, dismiss Ruby's connections to organized crime as being highly minimal: \"It is very noteworthy that without exception, not one of these conspiracy theorists knew or had ever met Jack Ruby.", "Without our even resorting to his family and roommate, all of whom think the suggestion of Ruby being connected to the mob is ridiculous, those who knew him, unanimously and without exception, think the notion of his being connected to the Mafia, and then killing Oswald for them, is nothing short of laughable.", "\"Bill Alexander, who prosecuted Ruby for Oswald's murder, equally rejected any suggestions that Ruby was involved with organized crime, claiming that conspiracy theorists based it on the claim that \"A knew B, and Ruby knew B back in 1950, so he must have known A, and that must be the link to the conspiracy.", "\"Ruby's brother Earl denied allegations that Jack was involved in racketeering Chicago nightclubs, and author Gerald Posner suggested in his book ''Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK'', that witnesses may have confused Ruby with Harry Rubenstein, a convicted Chicago felon.", "Entertainment reporter Tony Zoppi was also dismissive of mob ties and described Ruby as a \"born loser\"." ], [ "Other investigations and dissenting theories", " Many critics have not accepted the conclusions of the Warren Commission and have proposed several other theories.===Ruby's motive===White House correspondent Seth Kantor was a passenger in Kennedy's motorcade.", "He testified that he had visited Parkland Hospital after Kennedy was shot, and that he felt a tug on his coat as he entered the hospital at about 1:30 p.m.", "He turned around to see Jack Ruby, who called him by his first name and shook his hand.", "He said that he had become acquainted with Ruby while he was a reporter for the ''Dallas Times Herald'' newspaper.", "According to Kantor, Ruby asked him if he thought that it would be a good idea for him to close his nightclubs for the next three nights because of the tragedy, and Kantor responded without thinking that doing so would be a good idea.Ruby denied that he had been at Parkland Hospital and the Warren Commission dismissed Kantor's testimony, saying that the encounter at Parkland Hospital would have to have taken place in a span of a few minutes before and after 1:30 pm, as evidenced by telephone company records of calls made by both people.", "The commission also pointed to contradictory witness testimony and to the lack of video confirmation of Ruby at the scene.", "The Commission concluded that \"Kantor probably did not see Ruby at Parkland Hospital\" and \"may have been mistaken about both the time and the place that he saw Ruby.", "\"In 1979, the House Select Committee on Assassinations re-examined Kantor's testimony and stated, \"the Warren Commission concluded that Kantor was mistaken\" about his Parkland encounter with Ruby, but \"the Committee determined he probably was not.", "\"Kantor also reported that Ruby might have tampered with evidence while at Parkland.", "Kantor researched the Ruby case for years.", "He wrote in ''Who Was Jack Ruby?", "'':The mob was Ruby's \"friend.\"", "And Ruby could well have been paying off an IOU the day he was used to kill Lee Harvey Oswald.", "Remember: \"I have been used for a purpose,\" the way Ruby expressed it to Chief Justice Warren in their June 7, 1964 session.", "It would not have been hard for the mob to maneuver Ruby through the ranks of a few negotiable police.The House Select Committee on Assassinations wrote in its 1979 Final Report:Ruby's shooting of Oswald was not a spontaneous act, in that it involved at least some premeditation.", "Similarly, the committee believed it was less likely that Ruby entered the police basement without assistance, even though the assistance may have been provided with no knowledge of Ruby's intentions....", "The committee was troubled by the apparently unlocked doors along the stairway route and the removal of security guards from the area of the garage nearest the stairway shortly before the shooting....", "There is also evidence that the Dallas Police Department withheld relevant information from the Warren Commission concerning Ruby's entry to the scene of the Oswald transfer.The HSCA suggested Ruby might have entered the basement via a stairway accessible from an alleyway next to the Dallas Municipal Building.Lieutenant Billy Grammer, a dispatcher for the Dallas Police Department, said that he received an anonymous phone call at 3 a.m. on November 24 from a man who told him that he knew of the plan to move Oswald from the basement and warned that, unless the plans were changed, \"we are going to kill him.\"", "After Oswald was shot, Grammer claimed to have recognized Ruby as the caller.", "Grammer believed that Ruby's shooting of Oswald was \"a planned event.", "\"In his Warren Commission testimony, Detective Don Archer claimed that, after his arrest, Ruby looked him straight in the eye and said, \"Well, I intended to shoot him three times.\"", "Kantor wrote that Ruby's response to Archer did not suggest a spontaneous reaction, and that he implied having prior intention.Ruby's explanation for killing Oswald would be exposed \"as a fabricated legal ploy\", according to the House Select Committee on Assassinations.", "Ruby wrote a note to attorney Joseph Tonahill: \"Joe, you should know this.", "My first lawyer Tom Howard told me to say that I shot Oswald so that Caroline and Mrs. Kennedy wouldn't have to come to Dallas to testify.", "OK?\"G.", "Robert Blakey, who was chief counsel for the House Select Committee on Assassinations from 1977 to 1979, said: \"The most plausible explanation for the murder of Oswald by Jack Ruby was that Ruby had stalked him on behalf of organized crime, trying to reach him on at least three occasions in the forty-eight hours before he silenced him forever.", "\"Russell Moore, an acquaintance of Ruby, testified to the Commission that Ruby expressed no bitterness towards Oswald and called him \"a good looking guy,\" comparing him to the actor Paul Newman.", "Announcer Glen Duncan also said Ruby described Oswald as a \"fairly nice looking kid\" comparing him to Newman.David Scheim noted in his book ''Contract on America'' that while some said that Ruby was upset over the weekend of the assassination, others said that he was not.", "TV newsman Vic Robertson Jr. saw Ruby at police headquarters on Friday night and said that he \"appeared to be anything but under stress or strain.", "He seemed happy, jovial, was joking and laughing.\"", "Duncan also said that Ruby \"was not grieving\" and seemed \"happy that evidence was piling up against Oswald.", "\"Scheim also suggests that Ruby made a \"candid confession\" when giving testimony to the Warren Commission.", "During his testimony, Ruby teared up when talking about a Saturday morning eulogy for Kennedy, but after composing himself, inexplicably said, \"I must be a great actor, I tell you that.\"", "Ruby also remarked that \"they didn't ask me another question: 'If I loved the President so much, why wasn't I at the parade?'\"", "(referring to the presidential motorcade) and \"it's strange that perhaps I didn't vote for President Kennedy, or didn't vote at all, that I should build up such a great affection for him.", "\"Ruby's club stripper Jada, during an interview with ABC's Paul Good, said that \"I believe Ruby disliked Bobby Kennedy\".Schiem also noted some who knew Ruby who stated that the patriotic statements which Ruby professed were quite out of character.", "Ruby's gambling business partner Harry Hall said \"Ruby was the type who was interested in any way to make money,\" and he also said that he \"could not conceive of Ruby doing anything out of patriotism.\"", "Jack Kelly had known Ruby since 1943, and he \"scoffed at the idea of a patriotic motive...\" and felt that Ruby would have killed Oswald \"for publicity or for money\".", "Ruby's friend Paul Jones also said that he doubted that Ruby \"would have become emotionally upset and killed Oswald on the spur of the moment.", "He felt Ruby would have done it for money.", "\"Ruby's lawyers, led by Sam Houston Clinton, appealed to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals after his 1964 conviction, the highest criminal court in Texas.", "Ruby's lawyers argued that he could not have received a fair trial in Dallas because of the excessive publicity surrounding the case.", "In an interview with reporters in March 1965, Ruby stated: \"Everything pertaining to what's happening has never come to the surface.", "The world will never know the true facts of what occurred, my motive.", "The people who had so much to gain, and had such an ulterior motive for putting me in the position I'm in, will never let the true facts come above board to the world.\"", "A reporter asked, \"Are these people in very high positions, Jack?", "\", and he responded, \"Yes.", "\"Kantor speculated in 1978 that the \"Davis\" that Ruby mentioned to Tom Howard may have been Thomas Eli Davis III, a CIA-connected mercenary.Dallas Deputy Sheriff Al Maddox claimed: \"Ruby told me, he said, 'Well, they injected me for a cold.'", "He said it was cancer cells.", "That's what he told me, Ruby did.", "I said you don't believe that bullshit.", "He said, 'I damn sure do!'", "One day when I started to leave, Ruby shook hands with me and I could feel a piece of paper in his palm.\"", "It was a note in which Ruby claimed that he was part of a conspiracy, and that his role was to silence Oswald.", "Not long before Ruby died, according to an article in the London ''Sunday Times'', he told psychiatrist Werner Teuter that the assassination was \"an act of overthrowing the government\" and that he knew \"who had President Kennedy killed\".", "He added: \"I am doomed.", "I do not want to die.", "But I am not insane.", "I was framed to kill Oswald.", "\"On March 11, 1959, according FBI agent Charles W. Flynn of the Dallas Office approached Ruby to become a federal informant due to his job as a night club operator, since he \"might have knowledge of the criminal element in Dallas\".", "Ruby was willing to become an informant and was contacted by the FBI eight times between March 11, 1959, and October 2, 1959, but he provided no information to the Bureau; he was not paid, and contact ceased.Scheim theorised that Mafia leaders Carlos Marcello and Santo Trafficante Jr. and organized labor leader Jimmy Hoffa ordered the assassination of Kennedy.", "Scheim cited in particular a 25-fold increase in the number of out-of-state telephone calls from Jack Ruby to associates of these crime bosses in the months before the assassination.", "According to author Vincent Bugliosi, both the Warren Commission and the House Select Committee on Assassinations determined that all of these calls were related to Ruby seeking help from the American Guild of Variety Artists in a matter concerning two of his competitors.", "The House Select Committee on Assassinations report stated that \"most of Ruby's phone calls during late 1963 were related to his labor troubles.", "In the light of the identity of some of the individuals with whom Ruby spoke, however, the possibility of other matters being discussed could not be dismissed.", "\"Bill Bonanno, son of New York Mafia boss Joseph Bonanno, stated in ''Bound By Honor'' that he realized that certain Mafia families were involved in the JFK assassination when Ruby killed Oswald, since Bonanno was aware that Ruby was an associate of Chicago mobster Sam Giancana.===Associations with organized crime and gunrunning allegations===Some conspiracy theorists have suggested Ruby had links to organized crime.", "The House Select Committee on Assassinations undertook a similar investigation of Ruby in 1979, 15 years after the written report, and said that he \"had a significant number of associations and direct and indirect contacts with underworld figures\" and \"the Dallas criminal element,\" but that he was not a member of organized crime.Ruby was said to have been acquainted with the Mafia.", "The HSCA said that Ruby had known Chicago mobster Sam Giancana and Joseph Campisi since 1947 and had been seen with them on many occasions.", "After an investigation of Joe Campisi, the HSCA found:While Campisi's technical characterization in federal law enforcement records as an organized crime member has ranged from definite to suspected to negative, it is clear that he was an associate or friend of many Dallas-based organized crime members, particularly Joseph Civello, during the time he was the head of the Dallas organization.", "There was no indication that Campisi had engaged in any specific organized crime-related activities.G.", "Robert Blakey, the chief counsel for the HSCA, called Campisi \"the No.", "2 man in the mob in Dallas.\"", "He wrote in a 1993 article for ''The Washington Post'': \"It is difficult to dispute the underworld pedigree of Jack Ruby, though the Warren Commission did it in 1964.Similarly, a PBS ''Frontline'' investigation into the connections between Ruby and Dallas organized crime figures reported the following:In 1963, Sam and Joe Campisi were leading figures in the Dallas underworld.", "Jack knew the Campisis and had been seen with them on many occasions.", "The Campisis were lieutenants of Carlos Marcello, the Mafia boss who had reportedly talked of killing the President.On the night before Kennedy was assassinated, Ruby and Ralph Paul had dinner together at the Egyptian Lounge run by Joe and Sam Campisi.", "After Ruby was jailed for killing Oswald, Joe Campisi \"regularly visited\" him.Howard P. Willens was the third-highest official in the Department of Justice and assistant counsel to J. Lee Rankin.", "He helped organize the Warren Commission.", "Willens also outlined the commission's investigative priorities and terminated an investigation of Ruby's Cuban related activities.", "An FBI report states that Willens' father had been Tony Accardo's next-door neighbor going back to 1958.In 1946, Tony Accardo allegedly asked Jack Ruby to go to Texas with Mafia associates Pat Manno and Romie Nappi to make sure that Dallas County Sheriff Steve Gutherie would acquiesce to the Mafia's expansion into Dallas.Ruby went to see a man named Lewis McWillie in Cuba four years before the assassination.", "McWillie had previously run illegal gambling establishments in Texas, and Ruby considered him one of his closest friends.", "McWillie was supervising gambling activities at Havana's Tropicana Club when Ruby visited him in August 1959.Ruby told the Warren Commission that his August trip to Cuba was merely a social visit at the invitation of McWillie.", "The HSCA later concluded that Ruby \"most likely was serving as a courier for gambling interests\".", "The committee also found circumstantial but not conclusive evidence that \"Ruby met with Santo Trafficante Jr. in Cuba sometime in 1959.", "\"James E. Beaird, who claimed to be a poker-playing friend of Ruby, told ''The Dallas Morning News'' and the FBI that Ruby smuggled guns and ammunition from Galveston Bay, Texas to Fidel Castro's guerrillas in Cuba in the late 1950s.", "Beaird said that Ruby \"was in it for the money.", "It wouldn't matter which side, just the one that would pay him the most.\"", "Beaird said that the guns were stored in a two-story house near the waterfront, and that he saw Ruby and his associates load \"many boxes of new guns, including automatic rifles and handguns\" on a 50-foot military-surplus boat.", "He claimed that \"each time that the boat left with guns and ammunition, Jack Ruby was on the boat.", "\"Conversely, some conspiracy theorists have focused on Ruby's connections to the police in regards to his murder of Oswald, and dismiss his mob connections as a misdirection." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * Almog, Oz, '' Kosher Nostra'' Jüdische Gangster in Amerika, 1890–1980 ; Jüdischen Museum der Stadt Wien ; 2003, Text Oz Almog, Erich Metz," ], [ "External links", "* The Warren Commission Report, Appendix XVI: A Biography of Jack Ruby* Jack Ruby --Mobster, Intelligence Agent, or Small-time Hustler?", "* An article on Ruby's family background and childhood* Testimony of Earl Ruby* In Defense of Jack Ruby * Jack Ruby: Dallas' Original J.R." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Randi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Randi''' (born '''Randall James Hamilton Zwinge'''; August 7, 1928 – October 20, 2020) was a Canadian-American stage magician, author and scientific skeptic who extensively challenged paranormal and pseudoscientific claims.", "He was the co-founder of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), and founder of the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF).", "Randi began his career as a magician under the stage name '''The Amazing Randi''' and later chose to devote most of his time to investigating paranormal, occult, and supernatural claims.", "Randi retired from practicing magic at age 60, and from his foundation at 87.Although often referred to as a \"debunker\", Randi said he disliked the term's connotations and preferred to describe himself as an \"investigator\".", "He wrote about paranormal phenomena, skepticism, and the history of magic.", "He was a frequent guest on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'', famously exposing fraudulent faith healer Peter Popoff, and was occasionally featured on the television program ''Penn & Teller: Bullshit!", "''Before Randi's retirement, JREF sponsored the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge, which offered a prize of one million US dollars to eligible applicants who could demonstrate evidence of any paranormal, supernatural, or occult power or event under test conditions agreed to by both parties." ], [ "Early life", "Randi was born on August 7, 1928, in Toronto, Canada.", "He was the son of Marie Alice (''née'' Paradis; 1906–1987) and George Randall Zwinge (1903–1967), an executive at Bell Telephone Company.", "He was of French, Danish and Austrian descent.", "He had a younger brother and sister.", "He took up magic after seeing Harry Blackstone Sr. and reading conjuring books while spending 13 months in a body cast following a bicycle accident.", "He confounded doctors, who expected he would never walk again.", "He often skipped classes, and at 17, dropped out of high school to perform as a conjurer in a carnival roadshow.", "He practiced as a mentalist in local nightclubs and at Toronto's Canadian National Exhibition and wrote for Montreal's tabloid press.", "As a teenager, he stumbled upon a church where the pastor claimed to read minds.", "When Randi interrupted the performance and showed the parishioners how the trick worked, the pastor's wife called the police and Randi spent four hours in a jail cell.", "This inspired his career as a scientific skeptic.In his 20s, Randi posed as an astrologer, and to establish that they merely were doing simple tricks, he briefly wrote an astrological column in the Canadian tabloid ''Midnight'' under the name \"Zo-ran\" by simply shuffling up items from newspaper astrology columns and pasting them randomly into a column.", "In his 30s, Randi worked in the UK, Europe, Philippine nightclubs, and Japan.", "He witnessed many tricks that were presented as being supernatural.", "One of his earliest reported experiences was that of seeing an evangelist using a version of the \"one-ahead\" technique to convince churchgoers of his divine powers." ], [ "Career", "===Magician===Randi being submerged, 1956A fork bent by RandiAlthough defining himself as a conjuror, Randi began a career as a professional stage magician and escapologist in 1946.He initially presented himself under his real name, Randall Zwinge, which he later dropped in favor of \"The Amazing Randi\".", "Early in his career, he performed numerous escape acts from jail cells and safes around the world.", "On February 7, 1956, he appeared live on NBC's ''Today'' show, where he remained for 104 minutes in a sealed metal coffin that had been submerged in a hotel swimming pool, breaking what was said to be Harry Houdini's record of 93 minutes, though Randi called attention to the fact that he was much younger than Houdini had been when he established the original record in 1926.Randi was a frequent guest on the Long John Nebel program on New York City radio station WOR, and did character voices for commercials.", "After Nebel moved to WNBC in 1964, Randi was given Nebel's time slot on WOR, where he hosted ''The Amazing Randi Show'' until January 1966, and often had guests who defended paranormal claims, among them Randi's then-friend James W. Moseley.", "Randi stated that he was fired from WOR over complaints from the archbishop of New York that Randi had said on-air that \"Jesus Christ was a religious nut,\" a claim that Randi disputed.Randi also hosted numerous television specials and went on several world tours.", "As \"The Amazing Randi\" he appeared regularly on the New York-based children's television series ''Wonderama'' from 1959 to 1967.In 1970, he auditioned for a revival of the 1950s children's show ''The Magic Clown'', which showed briefly in Detroit and in Kenya, but was never picked up.", "In the February 2, 1974, issue of the British conjuring magazine ''Abracadabra'', Randi, in defining the community of magicians, stated: \"I know of no calling which depends so much upon mutual trust and faith as does ours.\"", "In the December 2003 issue of ''The Linking Ring'', the monthly publication of the International Brotherhood of Magicians, it is stated: \"Perhaps Randi's ethics are what make him Amazing\" and \"The Amazing Randi not only talks the talk, he walks the walk.", "\"During Alice Cooper's 1973–1974 Billion Dollar Babies tour, Randi performed on stage both as a mad dentist and as Cooper's executioner.", "He also built several of the stage props, including the guillotine.", "In a 1976 performance for the Canadian TV special ''World of Wizards'', Randi escaped from a straitjacket while suspended upside-down over Niagara Falls.Randi has been accused of actually using \"psychic powers\" to perform acts such as spoon bending.", "According to James Alcock, at a meeting where Randi was duplicating the performances of Uri Geller, a professor from the University at Buffalo shouted out that Randi was a fraud.", "Randi said: \"Yes, indeed, I'm a trickster, I'm a cheat, I'm a charlatan, that's what I do for a living.", "Everything I've done here was by trickery.\"", "The professor shouted back: \"That's not what I mean.", "You're a fraud because you're pretending to do these things through trickery, but you're actually using psychic powers and misleading us by not admitting it.\"", "A similar event involved Senator Claiborne Pell, a confirmed believer in psychic phenomena.", "When Randi personally demonstrated to Pell that he could reveal—by simple trickery—a concealed drawing that had been secretly made by the senator, Pell refused to believe that it was a trick, saying: \"I think Randi may be a psychic and doesn't realize it.\"", "Randi consistently denied having any paranormal powers or abilities.Randi was a member of the Society of American Magicians (SAM), the International Brotherhood of Magicians (IBM), and The Magic Circle in the UK, holding the rank of \"Member of the Inner Magic Circle with Gold Star.", "\"===Author===Randi wrote ten books, among them ''Conjuring'' (1992), a biographical history of prominent magicians.", "The book is subtitled ''Being a Definitive History of the Venerable Arts of Sorcery, Prestidigitation, Wizardry, Deception, & Chicanery and of the Mountebanks & Scoundrels Who have Perpetrated these Subterfuges on a Bewildered Public, in short, MAGIC!''", "The book's cover indicates it is by \"James Randi, Esq., A Contrite Rascal Once Dedicated to these Wicked Practices but Now Almost Totally Reformed\".", "The book features the most influential magicians and tells some of their history, often in the context of strange deaths and careers on the road.", "This work expanded on Randi's second book, ''Houdini, His Life and Art''.", "This illustrated work was published in 1976 and was co-authored with Bert Sugar.", "It focuses on the professional and private life of Houdini.Randi's book, ''The Magic World of the Amazing Randi'' (1989), was intended as a children's introduction to magic tricks.", "In addition to his magic books, he wrote several educational works about paranormal and pseudoscientific claims.", "These include biographies of Uri Geller and Nostradamus, as well as reference material on other major paranormal figures.", "In 2011, he was working on ''A Magician in the Laboratory'', which recounted his application of skepticism to science.", "He was a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of his friend Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers.Other books by Randi include ''Flim-Flam!''", "(1982), ''The Faith Healers'' (1987), ''James Randi, Psychic Investigator'' (1991), ''Test Your ESP Potential'' (1982), and ''An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural'' (1995).Randi was a regular contributor to ''Skeptic'' magazine, penning the \"'Twas Brillig ...\" column, and also served on its editorial board.", "He was a frequent contributor to ''Skeptical Inquirer'' magazine, published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, of which he was also a fellow.===Skeptic===Randi using sleight of hand to duplicate \"psychic surgery\" on his Open Media series for ITV in 1991Randi gained the international spotlight in 1972 when he publicly challenged the claims of Uri Geller.", "He accused Geller of being nothing more than a charlatan and a fraud who used standard magic tricks to accomplish his allegedly paranormal feats, and he presented his claims in the book ''The Truth About Uri Geller'' (1982).Believing that it was important to get columnists and TV personalities to challenge Geller and others like him, Randi and CSICOP reached out in an attempt to educate them.", "Randi said that CSICOP had a \"very substantial influence on the printed media ... in those days.\"", "During this effort, Randi made contact with Johnny Carson and discovered that he was \"very much on our side.", "He wasn't only a comedian ... he was a great thinker.\"", "According to Randi, when he was on ''The Tonight Show'', Carson broke his usual protocol of not talking with guests before their entrance on stage, but instead would ask what Randi wanted to be emphasized in the interview.", "\"He wanted to be aware of how he could help me.", "\"In 1973, Geller appeared on ''The Tonight Show'', and this appearance is recounted in the ''Nova'' documentary \"Secrets of the Psychics\".In the documentary, Randi says that Carson \"had been a magician himself and was skeptical\" of Geller's claimed paranormal powers, so before the date of taping, Randi was asked \"to help prevent any trickery\".", "Per Randi's advice, the show prepared its own props without informing Geller, and did not let Geller or his staff \"anywhere near them\".", "When Geller joined Carson on stage, he appeared surprised that he was not going to be interviewed, but instead was expected to display his abilities using the provided articles.", "Geller said \"This scares me\" and \"I'm surprised because before this program your producer came and he read me at least 40 questions you were going to ask me.\"", "Geller was unable to display any paranormal abilities, saying \"I don't feel strong\" and expressing his displeasure at feeling like he was being \"pressed\" to perform by Carson.", "According to Adam Higginbotham's November 7, 2014, article in ''The New York Times'':However, this appearance on ''The Tonight Show'', which Carson and Randi had orchestrated to debunk Geller's claimed abilities, backfired.", "According to Higginbotham:According to Higginbotham, this result caused Randi to realize that much more must be done to stop Geller and those like him.", "So in 1976, Randi approached Ray Hyman, a psychologist who had observed the tests of Geller's ability at Stanford and thought them slipshod, and suggested they create an organization dedicated to combating pseudoscience.", "Later that same year, together with Martin Gardner, a ''Scientific American'' columnist whose writing had helped hone Hyman's and Randi's skepticism, they formed the Committee for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).Using donations and sales of their magazine, ''Skeptical Inquirer'', they and secular humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz took seats on the executive board, with Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan joining as founding members.", "Randi travelled the world on behalf of CSICOP, becoming its public face, and according to Hyman, the face of the skeptical movement.András G. Pintér, producer and co-host of the European Skeptics Podcast, called Randi the grandfather of European skepticism by virtue of Randi \"playing a role in kickstarting several European organizations.", "\"Geller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million in 1991 and lost.", "Geller's suit against CSICOP was thrown out in 1995, and he was ordered to pay $120,000 for filing a frivolous lawsuit.", "The legal costs Randi incurred used almost all of a $272,000 MacArthur Foundation grant awarded to Randi in 1986 for his work.", "Randi also dismissed Geller's claims that he was capable of the kind of psychic photography associated with the case of Ted Serios.", "It is a matter, Randi argued, of trick photography using a simple hand-held optical device.", "During the period of Geller's legal dispute, CSICOP's leadership, wanting to avoid becoming a target of Geller's litigation, demanded that Randi refrain from commenting on Geller.", "Randi refused and resigned, though he maintained a respectful relationship with the group, which in 2006 changed its name to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI).", "In 2010, Randi was one of 16 new CSI fellows elected by its board.Randi went on to write many articles criticizing beliefs and claims regarding the paranormal.", "He also demonstrated flaws in studies suggesting the existence of paranormal phenomena; in his Project Alpha hoax, Randi successfully planted two fake psychics in a privately funded psychic research experiment.Randi appeared on numerous TV shows, sometimes to directly debunk the claimed abilities of fellow guests.", "In a 1981 appearance on ''That's My Line'', Randi appeared opposite claimed psychic James Hydrick, who said that he could move objects with his mind and appeared to demonstrate this claim on live television by turning a page in a telephone book without touching it.", "Randi, having determined that Hydrick was surreptitiously blowing on the book, arranged foam packaging peanuts on the table in front of the telephone book for the demonstration.", "This prevented Hydrick from demonstrating his abilities, which would have been exposed when the blowing moved the packaging.", "Randi writes that, eventually, Hydrick \"confessed everything\".CSICOP Conference, in Buffalo, New York, 1983Randi was awarded a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1986.The fellowship's five-year $272,000 grant helped support Randi's investigations of faith healers, including W. V. Grant, Ernest Angley, and Peter Popoff, whom Randi first exposed on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' in February 1986.Hearing about his investigation of Popoff, Carson invited Randi onto his show without seeing the evidence he was going to reveal.", "Carson appeared stunned after Randi showed a brief video segment from one of Popoff's broadcasts showing him calling out a woman in the audience, revealed personal information about her that he claimed came from God, and then performed a laying-on-of-hands healing to drive the devil from her body.", "Randi then replayed the video, but with some of the sound dubbed in that he and his investigating team captured during the event using a radio scanner and recorder.", "Their scanner had detected the radio frequency Popoff's wife Elizabeth was using backstage to broadcast directions and information to a miniature radio receiver hidden in Popoff's left ear.", "That information had been gathered by Popoff's assistants, who had handed out \"prayer cards\" to the audience before the show, instructing them to write down all the information Popoff would need to pray for them.The news coverage generated by Randi's exposé on ''The Tonight Show'' led to many TV stations dropping Popoff's show, eventually forcing him into bankruptcy in September 1987.However, the televangelist returned soon after with faith-healing infomercials that reportedly attracted more than $23 million in 2005 from viewers sending in money for promised healing and prosperity.", "The Canadian Centre for Inquiry's ''Think Again!", "TV'' documented one of Popoff's more recent performances before a large audience who gathered in Toronto on May 26, 2011, hoping to be saved from illness and poverty.In February 1988, Randi tested the gullibility of the media by perpetrating a hoax of his own.", "By teaming up with Australia's ''60 Minutes'' program and by releasing a fake press package, he built up publicity for a \"spirit channeler\" named Carlos, who was actually artist José Alvarez, Randi's partner.", "While performing as Carlos, Alvarez was prompted by Randi using sophisticated radio equipment.", "According to the ''60 Minutes'' program on the Carlos hoax, \"it was claimed that Alvarez would not have had the audience he did at the Opera House (and the resulting potential sales therefrom) had the media coverage been more aggressive (and factual)\", though an analysis by ''The Skeptic''s Tim Mendham concluded that, while the media coverage of Alvarez's appearances was not credulous, the hoax \"at least showed that they could benefit by being a touch more sceptical\".", "The hoax was exposed on ''60 Minutes Australia''; \"Carlos\" and Randi explained how they had pulled it off.In his book ''The Faith Healers'', Randi wrote that his anger and relentlessness arose from compassion for the victims of fraud.", "Randi was also critical of João de Deus, a.k.a.", "\"John of God\", a self-proclaimed psychic surgeon who had received international attention.", "Randi observed, referring to psychic surgery, \"To any experienced conjurer, the methods by which these seeming miracles are produced are very obvious.", "\"Randi (far right) at 1983 CSICOP Conference in Buffalo, New York, with (from left) Pip Smith, Philip J. Klass (standing), Dick Smith, Robert Sheaffer, and John MerrellIn 1982, Randi verified the abilities of Arthur Lintgen, a Philadelphia doctor, who was able to identify the classical music recorded on a vinyl LP solely by examining the grooves on the record.", "However, Lintgen did not claim to have any paranormal ability, merely knowledge of the way that the groove forms patterns on particular recordings.In 1988, John Maddox, editor of the prominent science journal ''Nature'', asked Randi to join the supervision and observation of the homeopathy experiments conducted by Jacques Benveniste's team.", "Once Randi's stricter protocol for the experiment was in place, the positive results could not be reproduced.Amaz!ng Meeting 9 (\"TAM 9 From Outer Space\"), July 16, 2011Randi stated that Daniel Dunglas Home, who could allegedly play an accordion that was locked in a cage without touching it, was caught cheating on a few occasions, but the incidents were never made public.", "He also stated that the actual instrument in use was a one-octave mouth organ concealed under Home's large mustache and that other one-octave mouth organs were found in Home's belongings after his death.", "According to Randi, author William Lindsay Gresham told Randi \"around 1960\" that he had seen these mouth organs in the Home collection at the Society for Psychical Research (SPR).", "Eric J. Dingwall, who catalogued Home's collection on its arrival at the SPR does not record the presence of the mouth organs.", "According to Peter Lamont, the author of an extensive Home biography, \"It is unlikely Dingwall would have missed these or did not make them public.\"", "The fraudulent medium Henry Slade also played an accordion while held with one hand under a table.", "Slade and Home played the same pieces.", "They had at one time lived near each other in the U.S.", "The magician Chung Ling Soo exposed how Slade had performed the trick.Randi distinguished between pseudoscience and \"crackpot science\".", "He regarded most of parapsychology as pseudoscience because of the way in which it is approached and conducted, but nonetheless saw it as a legitimate subject that \"should be pursued\", and from which real scientific discoveries may develop.", "Randi regarded crackpot science as \"equally wrong\" as pseudoscience, but with no scientific pretensions.Despite multiple debunkings, Randi did not like to be called a \"debunker\", preferring to call himself a \"skeptic\" or an \"investigator\":Skeptics and magicians Penn & Teller credit Randi and his career as a skeptic for their own careers.", "During an interview at TAM!", "2012, Penn stated that ''Flim-Flam!''", "was an early influence on him, and said \"If not for Randi there would not be Penn & Teller as we are today.\"", "He went on to say \"Outside of my family ... no one is more important in my life.", "Randi is everything to me.", "\"At the NECSS skeptic conference in 2017, Randi was asked by George Hrab what a \"'skeptic coming of age ceremony' would look like\" and Randi talked about what it was like as a child to learn about the speed of light and how that felt like he was looking into the past.", "Randi stated \"More kids need to be stunned\".At The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2011 (TAM 9) the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) organized a tribute to Randi.", "The group gathered together with other attendees, put on fake white beards, and posed for a large group photo with Randi.", "At the CSICon in 2017, in absence of Randi, the IIG organized another group photo with leftover beards from the 2011 photo.", "After Randi was sent the photo, he replied, \"I'm always very touched by any such expression.", "This is certainly no exception.", "You have my sincere gratitude.", "I suspect, however that a couple of those beards were fake.", "But I'm in a forgiving mood at the moment.", "I'm frankly very touched.", "I'll see you at the next CSICon.", "Thank you all.", "\"In a 2019 ''Skeptical Inquirer'' magazine article, Harriet Hall, a friend of Randi, compares him to the fictional Albus Dumbledore.", "Hall describes their long white beards, flamboyant clothing, associated with a bird (Dumbledore with a phoenix and Randi with Pegasus).", "They both are caring and have \"immense brainpower\" and both \"can perform impressive feats of magic\".", "She states that Randi is one of \"major inspirations for the skeptical work I do ...", "He's way better than Dumbledore!", "\".===''Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live'' television show===''Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live'' was a two-hour television special aired live on June 7, 1989, wherein Randi examined several people claiming psychic powers.", "Hosted by actor Bill Bixby, the program offered $100,000 (Randi's $10,000 prize plus $90,000 put up by the show's syndicator, LBS Communications, Inc.) to anyone who could demonstrate genuine psychic powers.", "* An astrologer, Joseph Meriwether, claimed that he was able to ascertain a person's astrological sign after talking with them for a few minutes.", "He was presented with twelve people, one at a time, each with a different astrological sign.", "They could not tell Meriwether their astrological sign or birth date, nor could they wear anything that would indicate it.", "After Meriwether talked to them, he had them go and sit in front of the astrological sign that he thought was theirs.", "By agreement, Meriwether needed to get ten of the 12 correct, to win.", "He got none correct.", "* The next psychic, Barbara Martin, claimed to be able to read auras around people, claiming that auras were visible at least five inches above each person.", "She selected ten people from a group of volunteers who she said had clearly visible auras.", "On stage were erected ten screens, numbered ''1'' through ''10'', just tall enough to hide the volunteer while not hiding their aura.", "Unseen by Martin, some of the volunteers positioned themselves behind different screens, then she was invited to predict which screens hid volunteers by seeing their aura above.", "She stated that she saw an aura over all ten screens, but people were behind only four of the screens.", "* A dowser, Forrest Bayes, claimed that he could detect water in a bottle inside a sealed cardboard box.", "He was shown twenty boxes and asked to indicate which boxes contained a water bottle.", "He selected eight of the boxes, which he said contained water, but it turned out that only five of the twenty contained water.", "Of the eight selected boxes, only one was revealed to contain water and one contained sand.", "It was not revealed whether any of the remaining six boxes contained water.", "* A psychometric psychic, Sharon McLaren-Straz, claimed to be able to receive personal information about the owner of an object by handling the object itself.", "In order to avoid ambiguous statements, the psychic agreed to be presented with both a watch and a key from each of twelve different people.", "She was to match keys and watches to their owners.", "According to the prior agreement, she had to match at least nine out of the twelve sets, but she succeeded in only two.", "* Professional crystal healer Valerie Swan attempted to use ESP to identify 250 Zener cards, guessing which of the five symbols was on each one.", "Random guessing should have resulted in about fifty correct guesses, so it was agreed in advance that Swan had to be right on at least eighty-two cards in order to demonstrate an ability greater than chance.", "However, she was able to get only fifty predictions correct, which is no better than random guessing.===James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF)===In 1996, Randi established the James Randi Educational Foundation.", "Randi and his colleagues publish in JREF's blog, ''Swift''.", "Topics have included the interesting mathematics of the one-seventh area triangle, a classic geometric puzzle.", "In his weekly commentary, Randi often gave examples of what he considered the nonsense that he dealt with every day.Beginning in 2003, the JREF annually hosted The Amaz!ng Meeting, a gathering of scientists, skeptics, and atheists.", "The last meeting was in 2015, coinciding with Randi's retirement from the JREF.===2010s===Randi with skull cane, 2014Randi began a series of conferences known as \"The Amazing Meeting\" (TAM) which quickly became the largest gathering of skeptics in the world, drawing audiences from Asia, Europe, South America, and the UK.", "It also attracted a large percentage of younger attendees.", "Randi was regularly featured on many podcasts, including The Skeptics Society's official podcast ''Skepticality'' and the Center for Inquiry's official podcast ''Point of Inquiry''.", "From September 2006 onwards, he occasionally contributed to ''The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe'' podcast with a column called \"Randi Speaks\".", "In addition, ''The Amazing Show'' was a podcast in which Randi shared various anecdotes in an interview format.In 2014, Part2Filmworks released ''An Honest Liar'', a feature film documentary, written by Tyler Measom and Greg O'Toole, and directed and produced by Measom and Justin Weinstein.", "The film, which was funded through Kickstarter, focuses on Randi's life, his investigations, and his relationship with longtime partner José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga), to whom he was married in 2013.The film was screened at the Tribeca Film Festival, at Toronto's Hot Docs film festival, and at the June 2014 AFI Docs Festival in Silver Spring, Maryland, and Washington, D.C., where it won the Audience Award for Best Feature.", "It also received positive reviews from critics.", "The film was featured on the PBS ''Independent Lens'' series, shown in the U.S. and Canada, on March 28, 2016.In December 2014, Randi flew to Australia to take part in \"An Evening with James Randi\" tour, organized by Think Inc.", "This tour included a screening of ''An Honest Liar'' followed by a \"fireside chat\" with Randi on stage.", "Cities visited were Adelaide, Perth, Brisbane, Melbourne, and Sydney.", "MC in Adelaide was Dr. Paul Willis with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi.", "MC in Perth was Jake Farr-Wharton with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi.", "MC for Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney was Richard Saunders with Lawrence Leung interviewing Randi.In 2017, Randi appeared in animated form on the website Holy Koolaid, in which he discussed the challenge of finding the balance between connecting sincerely with his audience and at the same time tricking/fooling them with an artful ruse, and indicated that this is a balance with which many magicians struggle." ], [ "One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge", "The James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) offered a prize of US$1,000,000 to anyone able to demonstrate a supernatural ability under scientific testing criteria agreed to by both sides.", "Based on the paranormal challenges of John Nevil Maskelyne and Houdini, the foundation began in 1996, when Randi put up $1,000 of his own money payable to anyone who could provide objective proof of the paranormal.", "The prize money grew to $1,000,000, and had formal published rules.", "No one progressed past the preliminary test, which was set up with parameters agreed to by both Randi and the applicant.", "He refused to accept any challengers who might suffer serious injury or death as a result of the testing.On April 1, 2007, it was ruled that only persons with an established, nationally recognized media profile and the backing of a reputable academic were allowed to apply for the challenge, in order to avoid wasting JREF resources on frivolous claimants.On ''Larry King Live'', March 6, 2001, Larry King asked claimed medium Sylvia Browne if she would take the challenge and she agreed.", "Randi appeared with Browne on ''Larry King Live'' six months later, and she again appeared to accept his challenge.", "However, according to Randi, she ultimately refused to be tested, and the Randi Foundation kept a clock on its website recording the number of weeks since Browne allegedly accepted the challenge without following through, until Browne's death in November 2013.During a subsequent appearance on ''Larry King Live'' on June 5, 2001, Randi challenged Rosemary Altea, another claimed medium, to undergo testing for the million dollars, but Altea refused to address the question.", "Instead Altea replied only, \"I agree with what he says, that there are many, many people who claim to be spiritual mediums, they claim to talk to the dead.", "There are many people, we all know this.", "There are cheats and charlatans everywhere.\"", "On January 26, 2007, Altea and Randi again appeared on the show, and Altea again refused to answer whether or not she would take the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge.In October 2007, claimed psychic John Edward appeared on ''Headline Prime'', hosted by Glenn Beck.", "When asked if he would take \"the Amazing Randi's\" challenge, Edward responded, \"It's funny.", "I was on ''Larry King Live'' once, and they asked me the same question.", "And I made a joke then, and I'll say the same thing here: why would I allow myself to be tested by somebody who's got an adjective as a first name?\"", "Beck simply allowed Edward to continue, ignoring the challenge.Randi asked British businessman Jim McCormick, the inventor of the bogus ADE 651 bomb detector, to take the challenge in October 2008.Randi called the ADE 651 \"a useless quack device which cannot perform any other function than separating naive persons from their money.", "It's a fake, a scam, a swindle, and a blatant fraud.", "Prove me wrong and take the million dollars.\"", "There was no response from McCormick.", "According to Iraqi investigators, the ADE 651, which was corruptly sold to the Baghdad bomb squad, was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of civilians who died as a result of terrorist bombs which were not detected at checkpoints.", "On April 23, 2013, McCormick was convicted of three counts of fraud at the Old Bailey in London; he was subsequently sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for his part in the ADE 651 scandal, which Randi was the first to expose.A public log of past participants in the Million Dollar Challenge exists.", "In 2015, after Randi's retirement, his foundation said the Million Dollar Challenge would no longer consider applicants unless they meet a set of minimum protocols, to reduce the amount of frivolous claims." ], [ "Legal disputes", "Randi was involved in a variety of legal disputes, but said that he had \"never paid even one dollar or even one cent to anyone who ever sued me.\"", "However, he said, he had paid out large sums to defend himself in these suits.===Uri Geller===Randi met magician Uri Geller in the early 1970s, and found Geller to be \"Very charming.", "Likable, beautiful, affectionate, genuine, forward-going, handsome—everything!\"", "But Randi viewed Geller as a con-man, and began a long effort to expose him as a fraud.", "According to Randi, Geller tried to sue him several times, accusing him of libel.", "Geller never won, save for a ruling in a Japanese court that ordered Randi to pay Geller one-third of one per cent of what Geller had requested.", "This ruling was cancelled, and the matter dropped, when Geller decided to concentrate on another legal matter.In May 1991, Geller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million on a charge of slander, after Randi told the ''International Herald Tribune'' that Geller had \"tricked even reputable scientists\" with stunts that \"are the kind that used to be on the back of cereal boxes\", referring to the old spoon-bending trick.", "The court dismissed the case and Geller had to settle at a cost to him of $120,000, after Randi produced a cereal box which bore instructions on how to do the spoon-bending trick.", "Geller's lawyer Don Katz was disbarred mid-way into this action and Geller ended up suing him.", "After failing to pay by the deadline imposed by the court, Geller was sanctioned an additional $20,000.Geller sued both Randi and CSICOP in the 1980s.", "CSICOP argued that the organization was not responsible for Randi's statements.", "The court agreed that including CSICOP was frivolous and dropped them from the action, leaving Randi to face the action alone, along with the legal costs.", "Geller was ordered to pay substantial damages, but only to CSICOP.", "===Other cases===In 1993, a jury in the U.S. District Court in Baltimore found Randi liable for defaming Eldon Byrd for calling him a child molester in a magazine story and a \"shopping market molester\" in a 1988 speech.", "However, the jury found that Byrd was not entitled to any monetary damages after hearing testimony that he had sexually molested and later married his sister-in-law.", "The jury also cleared the other defendant in the case, CSICOP.Late in 1996, Randi launched a libel suit against a Toronto-area psychic named Earl Gordon Curley.", "Curley had made multiple objectionable comments about Randi on Usenet.", "Despite suggesting to Randi on Usenet that Randi should sue—Curley's comments implying that if Randi did not sue, then his allegations must be true—Curley seemed entirely surprised when Randi actually retained Toronto's largest law firm and initiated legal proceedings.", "The suit was eventually dropped in 1998 when Earl Curley died at the age of 51 of \"alcohol toxicity\".Allison DuBois, on whose life the television series ''Medium'' was based, threatened Randi with legal action for using a photo of her from her website in his December 17, 2004, commentary without her permission.", "Randi removed the photo and subsequently used a caricature of DuBois when mentioning her on his site, beginning with his December 23, 2005, commentary.Sniffex, producer of a dowsing bomb detection device, sued Randi and the JREF in 2007, and lost.", "Sniffex sued Randi for his comments regarding a government test in which the Sniffex device failed.", "The company was later investigated and charged with fraud." ], [ "Views", "=== Political views ===Randi was a registered Democrat.", "In April 2009, he released a statement endorsing the legalization of most illegal drugs.Randi had been reported as a believer in Social Darwinist theories, although he would denounce the ideologies and movements that formed around the theories in 2013.===Views on religion===Randi's parents were members of the Anglican Church but rarely attended services.", "He attended Sunday school at St. Cuthbert's Church in Toronto a few times as a child, but he independently decided to stop going after receiving no answer to his request for proof of the teachings of the Church.In his essay \"Why I Deny Religion, How Silly and Fantastic It Is, and Why I'm a Dedicated and Vociferous Bright\", Randi, who identified himself as an atheist, opined that many accounts in religious texts, including the virgin birth, the miracles of Jesus Christ, and the parting of the Red Sea by Moses, are not believable.", "Randi refers to the Virgin Mary as being \"impregnated by a ghost of some sort, and as a result produced a son who could walk on water, raise the dead, turn water into wine, and multiply loaves of bread and fishes\" and questions how Adam and Eve's family \"managed to populate the Earth without committing incest\".", "He wrote that, compared to the Bible, \"''The Wizard of Oz'' is more believable.", "And much more fun.", "\"Clarifying his view of atheism, Randi wrote \"I've said it before: there are two sorts of atheists.", "One sort claims that there is no deity, the other claims that there is no evidence that proves the existence of a deity; I belong to the latter group, because if I were to claim that no god exists, I would have to produce evidence to establish that claim, and I cannot.", "Religious persons have by far the easier position; they say they believe in a deity because that's their preference, and they've read it in a book.", "That's their right.", "\"In ''An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural'' (1995), he examines various spiritual practices skeptically.", "Of the meditation techniques of Guru Maharaj Ji, he writes \"Only the very naive were convinced that they had been let in on some sort of celestial secret.\"", "In 2003, he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.Regarding his 2006 coronary artery bypass surgery, Randi was asked if he was tempted by religious ideas about an afterlife or if he went through it any differently than if he had been religious.", "Randi replied \"I allowed Daniel Dennett to speak for me\" referring to Dennett's essay 'Thank Goodness', which Dennett wrote after a serious surgery.", "Summing up the essay, Randi continued:In a discussion with Kendrick Frazier at CSICon 2016, Randi stated \"I think that a belief in a deity is ... an unprovable claim ... and a rather ridiculous claim.", "It is an easy way out to explain things to which we have no answer.\"", "He then summarized his current concern with religious belief as follows: \"A belief in a god is one of the most damaging things that infests humanity at this particular moment in history.", "It may improve, and I see signs that it may be improving, and I'll leave it at that.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "When Randi hosted his own radio show in the 1960s, he lived in a small house in Rumson, New Jersey, that featured a sign on the premises that read: \"Randi—Charlatan\".In the 1970s and 80s, Randi supported seven foster children.In 1987, Randi became a naturalized citizen of the United States.", "Randi said that one reason he became an American citizen was an incident while he was on tour with Alice Cooper, during which the Royal Canadian Mounted Police searched the band's lockers during a performance, completely ransacking the room, but finding nothing illegal.In February 2006, Randi underwent coronary artery bypass surgery.", "The weekly commentary updates to his Web site were made by guests while he was hospitalized.", "Randi recovered after his surgery and was able to help organize and attend The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2007 in Las Vegas, Nevada, his annual convention of scientists, magicians, skeptics, atheists, and freethinkers.Randi was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in June 2009.He had a series of small tumors removed from his intestines during laparoscopic surgery.", "He announced the diagnosis a week later at The Amaz!ng Meeting 7, as well as the fact that he was scheduled to begin chemotherapy in the following weeks.", "He also said at the conference: \"One day, I'm gonna die.", "That's all there is to it.", "Hey, it's too bad, but I've got to make room.", "I'm using a lot of oxygen and such—I think it's good use of oxygen myself, but of course, I'm a little prejudiced on the matter.", "\"Randi underwent his final chemotherapy session in December 2009, later saying that his chemotherapy experience was not so unpleasant as he had imagined it might be.", "In a video posted in April 2010, Randi stated that he had been given a clean bill of health.In a 2010 blog entry, Randi came out as gay, a move he said was inspired by seeing the 2008 biographical drama film ''Milk''.Randi married Venezuelan artist José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga) on July 2, 2013, in Washington, D.C.", "In 1986, Randi met Alvarez in a Fort Lauderdale public library, having recently moved to Florida.", "Alvarez, who was then known as Peña, had left his native land in fear of his life after being threatened for being homosexual.", "The alias Peña used, Jose Alvarez, was already an actual person in the United States.", "The identity confusion caused the real Alvarez some legal and financial difficulties.", "Peña was arrested for identity theft and faced deportation.", "They resided in Plantation, Florida.In the 1993 documentary ''Secrets of the Psychics'', Randi stated, \"I've never involved myself in narcotics of any kind; I don't smoke; I don't drink, because that can easily just fuzz the edges of my rationality, fuzz the edges of my reasoning powers, and I want to be as aware as I possibly can.", "That means giving up a lot of fantasies that might be comforting in some ways, but I'm willing to give that up in order to live in an actually real world, as close as I can get to it\".In a video released in October 2017, Randi revealed that he had recently suffered a minor stroke, and that he was under medical advice not to travel during his recovery, so would be unable to attend CSICon 2017 in Las Vegas later that month.Randi died at his home on October 20, 2020, at the age of 92.The James Randi Educational Foundation attributed his death to \"age-related causes\".", "The Center for Inquiry said that Randi \"was the public face of skeptical inquiry, bringing a sense of fun and mischievousness to a serious mission.\"", "Kendrick Frazier said, as part of the statement, \"Despite his ferocity in challenging all forms of nonsense, in person he was a kind and gentle man.\"" ], [ "Awards and honors", " Award or honor 1977 Visiting Magician of the Year, Academy of Magical Arts & Sciences at the Magic Castle in Hollywood.", "1978 Garden State Magicians' award.", "1981 Asteroid 3163 Randi was named after James Randi, who had always been an active amateur observer.", "His friend Carl Sagan encouraged his interest.Certificate of appreciation at the MIT Club of Boston.Designated Grand Master of Magic by Hocus Pocus Magazine.", "1983 Blackstone Cup, International Platform Association as Outstanding Speaker (won again in 1987).", "1984 Honorary membership, Bay Surgical Society of Los Angeles.", "1986 A $273,000 MacArthur Foundation Fellowship was awarded to James Randi for his investigations of the claims of Uri Geller and TV \"faith healers\"Honorary membership, Israeli Society for Promoting the Art of Magic.", "1987 Special fellowship, Academy of Magical Arts & Sciences in Los Angeles.Certificate of Appreciation, Ring 254 of the International Brotherhood of Magicians.Award of Merit, Assembly 22 of the Society of American Magicians.", "1988 National Consumer Service Award, National Council Against Health Fraud.International Ambassador of Magic, Society of American Magicians.", "1989 Joseph A. Burton Forum Award, American Physical Society.Gold Medal, University of Ghent.", "1990 Humanist Distinguished Service Award, American Humanist Association.", "Thomas Paine Award, Baton Rouge Proponents of Rational Inquiry & Scientific Methods.", "1992 Commemorative Medal with Golden Wreath, Hungarian Society for the Dissemination of Scientific Knowledge.", "1996 Distinguished Skeptic Award, Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSICOP).", "1997 Lifetime Achievement Award, International Brotherhood of Magicians.", "\"One of the 100 Best People in the World, people who make our lives richer or larger or happier,\" Esquire magazine.Award, Science & Engineering Society of the National Security Agency.", "1999 \"In Defense of Reason\" Special Lifetime Achievement Award, Comitato Italiano per il Controllo dell Affermazioni sui Paranormale.", "2000 Distinguished Lecturer Award, Nova Southeastern University.", "2002 Presidential Citation, International Brotherhood of Magicians.", "2003 First Richard Dawkins Award.", "2007 Philip J. Klass Award.", "2008 Lifetime Achievement Award, Independent Investigations Group (IIG).", "Previous recipients Carl Sagan and Harry Houdini.", "2009 In Praise of Reason Award, Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.", "2010 Elected a Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Fellow.", "2012 Lifetime Achievement Fellowship, Academy of Magical Arts.Lifetime Achievement Award, American Humanist Association.Lifetime Achievement Award, Australian Skeptics Inc. 2016 Heinz Oberhummer Award for Science Communication, 2016Lifetime Achievement Award, Humanist Association of Canada.", "James Randi was one of very few members of the UK Magic Circle to be granted their highest order: Member of the Inner Magic Circle With Gold Star (MIMC)." ], [ "World records", "The following are Guinness World Records:* Randi was in a sealed casket underwater for one hour and 44 minutes, breaking the previous record of one hour and 33 minutes set by Harry Houdini on August 5, 1926.", "* Randi was encased in a block of ice for 55 minutes.Long version of Audio recorded at CSICon October 2016" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * Companion book to the Open Media/Granada Television series.", "* * ( Online version)" ], [ "Television and film appearances", "ITV series ''\"James Randi: Psychic Investigator\"'' produced by Open Media in 1991ITV series ''\"James Randi: Psychic Investigator\"'' produced by Open Media in 1991===As an actor===* ''Good to See You Again, Alice Cooper'' (1974) as the Dentist/Executioner* ''Ragtime'' (1981) (stunt coordinator: Houdini)* ''Penn & Teller's Invisible Thread'' (1987) (TV)* ''Penn & Teller Get Killed'' (1989) as the 3rd Rope Holder* ''Beyond Desire'' (1994) as the Coroner===Appearing as himself===* ''Wonderama'' (1959–1967) (TV) as The Amazing Randi* ''I've Got a Secret'' (1965) (TV) as The Amazing Randi* ''Sesame Street Test Show 1'' (1969) (TV) as The Amazing Randi* ''Happy Days'' – \"The Magic Show\" (1978) as the Amazing Randi* ''Zembla'', 'De trucs van Char' (''The tricks Char uses'').", "(March 2008)* ''ZDF German TV'' (2007)* ''Wild Wild Web'' (1999)* ''West 57th'' (1980s)* ''Welt der Wunder – Kraft der Gedanken'' (January 2008)* ''Today'' (many appearances)* ''The Don Lane Show'' (Australia)* ''That's My Line'' (1981) (Appeared with James Hydrick)* ''The View'' (ABC) multiple appearances 1997 onwards* ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' (32 appearances between 1973 and 1993 plus repeats)* ''The Secret Cabaret'' (produced by Open Media for Channel 4 in the UK)* ''The Power of Belief'' (October 6, 1998) (ABC News Special) (TV)* ''People are Talking'' (1980s)* ''The Patterson Show'' (1970s)* ''Superpowers?''", "(an Equinox documentary made by Open Media for Channel 4 in 1990)* ''After Dark'' (September 3, 1988, and September 9, 1989)* ''Weird Thoughts'', Open Media discussion hosted by Tony Wilson for BBC TV, with Mary Beard and others, 1994* ''The Art of Magic'' (1998) (TV)* ''The Ultimate Psychic Challenge'' (Discovery Channel/Channel 4) (2003)* ''Spotlight on James Randi'' (2002) (TV)* ''Secrets of the Super Psychics'' (Channel 4/The Learning Channel), produced by Open Media, 1997/8* ''Scams, Schemes, and Scoundrels'' (A&E Special) (March 30, 1997)* ''RAI TV'' Italy (1991)* ''Politically Incorrect'' with Bill Maher* ''Penn & Teller: Bullshit!''", "several appearances \"End of the World\" (2003) TV Episode \"ESP\" (2003) TV Episode** \"Signs from Heaven\" (2005) TV Episode* ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'' 2 episodes* ''Lawrence Leung's Unbelievable'' (Australia) TV Episode* ''Nova'': \"Secrets of the Psychics\" (1993)* ''Mitä ihmettä?''", "(Finland) (2003) TV Series* ''Midday'' (Australia) (1990s)* ''Magic or Miracle?''", "(1983) TV special* ''Magic'' (2004) (mini) TV Series* ''Larry King Live'' (CNN) (June 5, 2001, September 3, 2001, January 26, 2007, several more)* ''James Randi: Psychic Investigator'' (1991) (Open Media series for the ITV network)* ''James Randi Budapesten'' – Hungarian documentary* ''Inside Edition'' – (1991, 2006, and 2007) TV* ''Horizon'' – \"Homeopathy: The Test\" (2002) BBC/UK TV Episode* ''Dead Men Talking'' (The Biography Channel) (2007)* ''Fornemmelse for snyd'' (2003) TV Series (also archive footage) Denmark* ''Extraordinary People'' – \"The Million Dollar Mind Reader\" (September 2008).", "* ''Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live'' (June 7, 1989; hosted by Bill Bixby)* ''CBS This Morning'' (1990s)* ''Anderson Cooper 360°'', CNN (January 19, 2007, and January 30, 2007)* ''A Question of Miracles'' (HBO) (1999)* ''20/20'' (ABC) (May 11, 2007)* \"Captain Disillusion\" Randi + Pantry Ghost...debunk?", "(June 18, 2009)* ''An Honest Liar'' (2014, aired as ''Exposed: Magicians, Psychics and Frauds'' on BBC Storyville)" ], [ "Appearances in other media", "* ''Dynamite'' magazine: Randi was featured as the cover story for the November 1981 issue.", "* In 2007, Randi delivered a talk at TED in which he discussed psychic fraud, homeopathy, and his foundation's Million Dollar Challenge.", "* Randi is featured in Tommy Finke's song \"Poet der Affen/Poet of the Apes\" released on the album of the same name in 2010.", "* In 2022 Randi made a cameo appearance in the posthumously released online magic special Piff the Magic Dragon: Reptile Dysfunction." ], [ "See also", "* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* Pigasus Award" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Wakelet Randi collection===Listings===* James Randi in ''The Skeptic's Dictionary''* ===Media===* James Randi interview (May 2009) from the podcast of MagicNewswire.com in which Randi discusses his career in magic, his feud with Uri Geller and more.", "* James Randi interview (November 2007) from the BSAlert.com radio show where Randi discusses NBC's ''Phenomenon'' TV show, the current status of Uri Geller and his thoughts about whether society is becoming more or less superstitious.", "* * \"20 Major Aspects of Liars, Cheats, and Frauds\" by James Randi" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Lind" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Lind''' (4 October 1716 – 13 July 1794) was a Scottish physician.", "He was a pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy.", "By conducting one of the first ever clinical trials, he developed the theory that citrus fruits cured scurvy.Lind argued for the health benefits of better ventilation aboard naval ships, the improved cleanliness of sailors' bodies, clothing and bedding, and below-deck fumigation with sulphur and arsenic.", "He also proposed that fresh water could be obtained by distilling sea water.", "His work advanced the practice of preventive medicine and improved nutrition." ], [ "Early life", "Lind was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1716 into a family of merchants, then headed by his father, James Lind.", "He had an elder sister.", "He was educated at the High School in Edinburgh.In 1731 he began his medical studies as an apprentice of George Langlands, a fellow of the Incorporation of Surgeons which preceded the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh.", "In 1739, he entered the Navy as a surgeon's mate, serving in the Mediterranean, off the coast of West Africa and in the West Indies.", "By 1747 he had become surgeon of in the Channel Fleet, and conducted his experiment on scurvy while that ship was patrolling the Bay of Biscay.", "Just after that patrol he left the Navy, wrote his MD thesis on venereal diseases and earned his degree from the University of Edinburgh Medical School, and was granted a licence to practise in Edinburgh." ], [ "Legacy", "===Prevention and cure of scurvy===Scurvy is a disease caused by a vitamin C deficiency, but in Lind's day, the concept of vitamins was unknown.", "Vitamin C is necessary for healthy connective tissue.", "In 1740 the catastrophic result of then-Commodore George Anson's circumnavigation attracted much attention in Europe; out of 1900 men, 1400 died, most of them allegedly from scurvy.", "According to Lind, scurvy caused more deaths in the British fleets than French and Spanish arms.Since antiquity in some parts of the world, and since the 17th century in England, it had been known that citrus fruit had an antiscorbutic effect.", "John Woodall (1570–1643), an English military surgeon of the British East India Company recommended them but their use did not become widespread.", "John Fryer (1650–1733) too noted in 1698 the value of citrus fruits in curing sailors of scurvy.", "Although Lind was not the first to suggest citrus as a cure for scurvy, he was the first to study its effect by a systematic experiment in 1747.It was one of the first reported, controlled, clinical experiments in history, particularly because of its use of control groups.Lind thought that scurvy was due to putrefaction of the body that could be helped by acids, so he included an acidic dietary supplement in the experiment.", "This began after two months at sea when the ship was afflicted with scurvy.", "He divided twelve scorbutic sailors into six groups of two.", "They all received the same diet, but in addition group one was given a quart of cider daily, group two twenty-five drops of elixir of vitriol (sulfuric acid), group three six spoonfuls of vinegar, group four half a pint of seawater, group five two oranges and one lemon, and the last group a spicy paste plus a drink of barley water.", "The treatment of group five stopped after six days when they ran out of fruit, but by that time one sailor was fit for duty while the other had almost recovered.", "Apart from that, only group one showed any effect from its treatment.Shortly after this experiment, Lind retired from the Navy and practised privately as a physician.", "In 1753, he published ''A treatise of the scurvy'', that was mostly ignored.", "In 1758, he was appointed chief physician of the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar at Gosport.", "When James Cook went on his first voyage he carried wort (0.1 mg vitamin C per 100 g), sauerkraut (10–15 mg per 100 g) and a syrup, or \"rob\", of oranges and lemons (the juice contains 40–60 mg of vitamin C per 100 g) as antiscorbutics, but only the results of the trials on wort were published.", "In 1762 Lind's ''Essay on the most effectual means of preserving the health of seamen'' appeared.", "In it he recommended growing salad—i.e.", "watercress (43 mg vitamin C per 100 g)—on wet blankets.", "This was put into practice, and in the winter of 1775 the British Army in North America was supplied with mustard and cress seeds.", "However Lind, like most of the medical profession, believed that scurvy came from ill-digested and putrefying food within the body, bad water, excessive work, and living in a damp atmosphere that prevented healthful perspiration.", "Thus, while he recognised the benefits of citrus fruit (although he weakened the effect by switching to a boiled concentrated or \"rob\", the production of which destroys vitamin C), he never advocated citrus juice as a single solution.", "He believed that scurvy had multiple causes which therefore required multiple remedies.The medical establishment ashore continued to believe that scurvy was a disease of putrefaction, curable by the administration of elixir of vitriol, infusions of wort and other remedies designed to 'ginger up' the system.", "It could not account for the effect of citrus fruits and so dismissed the evidence of them as unproven and anecdotal.", "In the Navy however, experience had convinced many officers and surgeons that citrus juices provided the answer to scurvy, even if the reason was unknown.", "On the insistence of senior officers, led by Rear Admiral Alan Gardner in 1794, lemon juice was issued on board the ''Suffolk'' on a twenty-three-week, non-stop voyage to India.", "The daily ration of two-thirds of an ounce mixed in grog contained just about the minimum daily intake of 10 mg vitamin C. There was no serious outbreak of scurvy.", "This resulted in widespread demand for lemon juice, backed by the Sick and Hurt Board whose numbers had recently been augmented by two practical naval surgeons who knew of Lind's experiments with citrus.", "The following year, the Admiralty accepted the Board's recommendation that lemon juice be issued routinely to the whole fleet.", "Another Scot, Archibald Menzies, brought citrus plants to Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii on the Vancouver Expedition, to help the Navy re-supply in the Pacific.This was not the end of scurvy in the Navy, as lemon juice was at first in such short supply that it could only be used in home waters under the direction of surgeons, rather than as a preventative.", "Only after 1800 did the supply increase so that, at the insistence of Admiral Lord St Vincent, it began to be issued generally.===Prevention of typhus===Lind noticed that typhus disappeared from the top floor of his hospital, where patients were bathed and given clean clothes and bedding.", "However, incidence was very high on the lower floors where such measures were not in place.", "Lind recommended that sailors be stripped, shaved, scrubbed, and issued clean clothes and bedding regularly.", "Thereafter, British seamen did not suffer from typhus, giving the British navy a significant advantage over the French.===Fresh water from the sea===In the 18th century ships took along water, cordial and milk in casks.", "According to the ''Regulations and Instructions relating to His Majesty's Service at Sea'', which had been published in 1733 by the Admiralty, sailors were entitled to a gallon of weak beer daily (5/6 of a British gallon, equivalent to the modern American gallon or slightly more than three and a half litres).", "As the beer had been boiled in the brewing process, it was reasonably free from bacteria and lasted for months, unlike water.", "In the Mediterranean, wine was also issued, often fortified with brandy.A frigate with 240 men, with stores for four months, carried more than one hundred tons of drinkable liquid.", "Water quality depended on its source, the condition of casks and for how long it had been kept.", "In normal times, sailors were not allowed to take any water away.", "When water was scarce, it was rationed and rain collected with spread sails.", "Fresh water was also obtained when possible ''en voyage'', but watering places were often marshy, and in the tropics infested with malaria.In 1759, Lind discovered that steam from heated salt water was fresh.", "He proposed to use solar energy for the distillation of water.", "But only when a new type of cooking stove was introduced in 1810 was production of fresh water by distillation possible on a useful scale.===Tropical disease===Lind's final work was published in 1768; the ''Essay on Diseases Incidental to Europeans in Hot Climates, with the Method of Preventing their fatal Consequences.''", "It was a work on the symptoms and treatments of tropical disease, but was not specific to naval medicine and served more as a general text for doctors and British emigrants.", "The ''Essay'' was used as a medical text in Britain for fifty years following publication.", "Seven editions were printed, including two after Lind's death." ], [ "Family", "Lind married Isabella Dickie and had two sons, John and James.", "In 1773 he was living on Princes Street in a brand-new house facing Edinburgh Castle.John (1751–1794), his elder son, studied medicine at St Andrews University and graduated in 1777, then succeeded his father as chief physician at Haslar Hospital in 1783.James (1765–1823), also embarked on a career with the British navy.", "His cousin was James Lind (1736–1812).James rose to the rank of post-captain, and was notable for his role in the Battle of Vizagapatam in the Bay of Bengal in 1804, for which he was knighted." ], [ "Death", "Lind died at Gosport in Hampshire in 1794.He was buried in St Mary's Parish Churchyard in Portchester." ], [ "Recognition", "LSHTMLind's is one of twenty-three names on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine building in Keppel Street, London.", "Names were selected by a committee of unknown constitution who deemed them to be pioneers in public health and tropical medicine.", "At University of Edinburgh Medical School there is the James Lind commemorative plaque unveiled in 1953, funded by citrus growers of California and Arizona.", "The James Lind Alliance is named after him." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* James Lind Library (including biography and extracts from Lind's most important works)* The Lind pages with reference to the Lind family in general including a family tree and other family documents* James Lind Institute creates future bellwethers of clinical research industry and carries forward the legacy of James Lind*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Clavell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Clavell''' (born '''Charles Edmund Dumaresq Clavell'''; 10 October 1921 – 7 September 1994) was an Australian-born British (later naturalised American) writer, screenwriter, director, and World War II veteran and prisoner of war.", "Clavell is best known as the author of his ''Asian Saga'' novels, a number of which have had television adaptations.", "Clavell also wrote such screenplays as those for ''The Fly'' (1958), based on the short story by George Langelaan, and ''The Great Escape'' (1963), based on the personal account of Paul Brickhill.", "He directed the popular 1967 film ''To Sir, with Love'', for which he also wrote the script." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Born in Sydney, Australia, Clavell was the son of Commander Richard Charles Clavell, a Royal Navy officer who was stationed in Australia with the Royal Australian Navy from 1920 to 1922.Richard Clavell was posted back to England when James was nine months old.", "Clavell was educated at The Portsmouth Grammar School.===World War II===In 1940, Clavell joined the Royal Artillery, and received an emergency Regular Army commission as a second lieutenant on 10 May 1941.Though trained for desert warfare, after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 he was sent to Singapore to fight the Japanese.", "The ship taking his unit was sunk en route to Singapore, and the survivors were picked up by a Dutch boat fleeing to India.", "The commander, described by Clavell years later as a \"total twit\", insisted that they be dropped off at the nearest port to fight the war despite having no weapons.==== Imprisoned in Changi ====Shot in the face, he was captured in Java in 1942 and sent to a Japanese prisoner of war camp on Java.", "Later, he was transferred to Changi Prison in Singapore.In 1981, Clavell recounted:Changi became my university instead of my prison.", "Among the inmates there were experts in all walks of life—the high and the low roads.", "I studied and absorbed everything I could from physics to counterfeiting, but most of all I learned the art of surviving, the most important course of all.Prisoners were fed a quarter of a pound () of rice per day, one egg per week and occasional vegetables.", "Clavell believed that if atomic bombs had not been dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki he would not have survived the war.Clavell did not talk about his wartime experiences with anyone, even his wife, for 15 years after the war.", "For a time he carried a can of sardines in his pocket at all times and fought an urge to forage for food in rubbish bins.", "He also experienced bad dreams and a nervous stomach kept him awake at night.===Post-war career===After the war, Clavell was promoted to war-substantive lieutenant, with effect from 1 August 1942, and to temporary captain on 10 June 1946, A motorcycle accident, however, ended his military career.", "On 20 July 1948, he was officially discharged from the army on account of disability, leaving with the honorary rank of captain.", "He enrolled with the University of Birmingham, where he met April Stride, an actress, whom he married in 1949 (date of marriage sometimes given as 1951).", "He would visit her on the film sets where she was working and began to be interested in becoming a film director.===Early work on films===Clavell entered the film industry via distribution and worked at that in England for a number of years.", "He tried to get into producing but had no luck so started writing screenplays.", "In 1954 he moved to New York, then to Hollywood.", "While trying to break into screenwriting he paid the bills working as a carpenter.In 1956, he sold a script about pilots to RKO, ''Far Alert''.", "The same year Michael Pate bought a story of his, ''Forbidden Territory'', for filming.Neither was filmed but ''Far Alert'' kept being sold and re-sold.", "\"In 18 months it brought in $87,000\", he later said.", "\"We kept getting paid for writing it and rewriting it as it went from one studio to another.", "It was wonderful.\"", "It was later sold to Fox where it attracted the attention of Robert L. Lippert who hired Clavell to write the science-fiction horror movie ''The Fly'' (1958).", "This became a hit and launched Clavell as a screenwriter.He wrote ''Watusi'' (1959) for director Kurt Neumann, who had also made ''The Fly''.Clavell wrote ''Five Gates to Hell'' (1959) for Lippert, and when they could not find a suitable director, Clavell was given the job.Paramount hired Clavell to write a film about the ''Bounty'' mutineers.", "It ended up not being made.", "Neither was a proposed movie about Francis Gary Powers made.", "Clavell did write, produce, and direct a Western at Paramount, ''Walk Like a Dragon'' (1960).In 1959, Clavell wrote \"Moon Landing\" and \"First Woman in the Moon\", two episodes of ''Men into Space'', a \"day after tomorrow\"-style science fiction drama, which depicted, in realistic terms, the (at the time) near future of space exploration.In 1960, he had written a Broadway show with John Sturges, ''White Alice'', a thriller set in the Arctic.", "It was never produced.===Early prose and screenplay work===In 1960, the Writers Guild went on strike, meaning Clavell was unable to work.", "He decided to write a novel, ''King Rat'', based on his time at Changi.", "It took him three months and several more months after that to rework it.", "The book was published in 1962 and sold well.", "It was turned into a film in 1965.In 1961, Clavell announced he had formed his own company, Cee Productions, who would make the films ''King Rat'', ''White Alice'' and ''No Hands on the Clock''.In 1962, he signed a multi picture contract with a Canadian company to produce and direct two films there, ''Circle of Greed'' and ''The Sweet and the Bitter''.", "Only the second was made and it was not released until 1967.He wrote scripts for the war films ''The Great Escape'' (1963) and ''633 Squadron'' (1964).He wrote a short story, \"The Children's Story\" (1964) and the script for ''The Satan Bug'' (1965), directed by John Sturges who had made ''The Great Escape''.", "He also wrote ''Richard Sahib'' for Sturges which was never made.Clavell wanted to write a second novel because \"that separates the men from the boys\".", "The money from ''King Rat'' enabled him to spend two years researching and then writing what became ''Tai-Pan'' (1966).", "It was a huge best-seller, and Clavell sold the film rights for a sizeable amount (although the film would not be made until 1986).===Leading film director===Clavell returned to filmmaking.", "He wrote, produced and directed ''To Sir, with Love'' (1967), featuring Sidney Poitier and based on E. R. Braithwaite's semiautobiographical 1959 book.", "It was a huge critical and commercial success.Clavell was now in much demand as a filmmaker.", "He produced and directed ''Where's Jack?''", "(1969), a highwayman film which was a commercial failure.", "So too was an epic film about the Thirty Years' War, ''The Last Valley'' (1971).===Career as novelist===Clavell returned to novel writing, which was the focus of the remainder of his career.", "He spent three years researching and writing ''Shōgun'' (1975), about an Englishman who becomes a samurai in feudal Japan.", "It was another massive best-seller.", "Clavell was heavily involved in the 1980 miniseries which starred Richard Chamberlain and achieved huge ratings.In the late 1970s he spent three years researching and writing his fourth novel, ''Noble House'' (1981), set in Hong Kong in 1963.It was another best-seller and was turned into a miniseries in 1986.Clavell briefly returned to filmmaking and directed a thirty-minute adaptation of his novelette ''The Children's Story''.", "He was meant to do a sequel to ''Shōgun'' but instead wrote a novel about the 1979 revolution in Iran, ''Whirlwind'' (1986).Clavell eventually returned to the ''Shōgun'' sequel, writing ''Gai-Jin'' (1993).", "This was his last completed novel.===Films===* ''The Fly'' (1958) (writer)* ''Watusi'' (1959) (writer)* ''Five Gates to Hell'' (1959) (writer, director and producer)* ''Walk Like a Dragon'' (1960) (writer, director and producer)* ''The Great Escape'' (1963) (co-writer)* ''633 Squadron'' (1964) (co-writer)* ''The Satan Bug'' (1965) (co-writer)* ''King Rat'' (1965) (based on his novel)* ''To Sir, with Love'' (1967) (writer, director and co-producer)* ''The Sweet and the Bitter'' (1967) (writer and director)* ''Where's Jack?''", "(1968) (director and co-producer)* ''The Last Valley'' (1970) (writer, director and producer)* ''Shōgun'' TV miniseries (1980) (executive producer, based on his novel)* ''Tai-Pan'' (1986) (based on his novel)* ''Noble House'' TV miniseries (1988) (executive producer, based on his novel)" ], [ "Novelist", "''The New York Times'' said that \"Clavell has a gift.", "It may be something that cannot be taught or earned.", "He breathes narrative ...", "He writes in the oldest and grandest tradition that fiction knows\".", "His first novel, ''King Rat'' (1962), was a semi-fictional account of his prison experiences at Changi.", "When the book was published it became an immediate best-seller, and three years later it was adapted as a movie.", "His next novel, ''Tai-Pan'' (1966), was a fictional account of Jardine Matheson's successful career in Hong Kong, as told via the character who was to become Clavell's heroic archetype, Dirk Struan.", "Struan's descendants were characters in almost all of his following books.", "''Tai-Pan'' was adapted as a movie in 1986.Clavell's third novel, ''Shōgun'' (1975), is set in 17th-century Japan, and it tells the story of a shipwrecked English navigator in Japan, based on that of William Adams.", "When the story was made into a TV miniseries in 1980, produced by Clavell, it became the second-highest-rated miniseries in history with an audience of more than 120 million, after ''Roots''.Clavell's fourth novel, ''Noble House'' (1981), became a best-seller that year and was adapted into a TV miniseries in 1988.Following the success of ''Noble House'', Clavell wrote ''Thrump-o-moto'' (1985), ''Whirlwind'' (1986) and ''Gai-Jin'' (1993).===Peter Marlowe===Peter Marlowe is Clavell's author surrogate and a character of the novels ''King Rat'' and ''Noble House'' (1981); he is also mentioned once (as a friend of Andrew Gavallan's) in ''Whirlwind'' (1986).", "Featured most prominently in ''King Rat'', Marlowe is an English prisoner of war in Changi Prison during World War II.", "In ''Noble House'', set two decades later, he is a novelist researching a book about Hong Kong.", "Marlowe's ancestors are also mentioned in other Clavell novels.In ''Noble House'' Marlowe is mentioned as having written a novel about Changi which, although fictionalised, is based on real events (like those in ''King Rat'').", "When asked which character was based on him, Marlowe answers, \"Perhaps I'm not there at all\", although in a later scene, he admits he was \"the hero, of course\".===Novels===The Asian Saga consists of six novels:# ''King Rat'' (1962), set in a Japanese POW camp in Singapore in 1945.# ''Tai-Pan'' (1966), set in Hong Kong in 1841# ''Shōgun'' (1975), set in Japan from 1600 onwards# ''Noble House'' (1981), set in Hong Kong in 1963# ''Whirlwind'' (1986), set in Iran in 1979.# ''Gai-Jin'' (1993), set in Japan in 1862===Children's stories===* \"The Children's Story\" (1964 ''Reader's Digest'' short story; adapted as a movie and reprinted as a standalone book in 1981)* ''Thrump-O-Moto'' (1986), illustrated by George Sharp===Nonfiction===* ''The Art of War'' (1983), a translation of Sun Tzu's book===Interactive fiction===* ''James Clavell's Shōgun'' (1986, Virgin Games) for Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and MS-DOS)''James Clavell's Shōgun'' (1988, Infocom) for Amiga, Apple II, MS-DOS and Mac" ], [ "Politics and later life", "In 1963 Clavell became a naturalised citizen of the United States.", "Politically, he was said to have been an ardent individualist and proponent of ''laissez-faire'' capitalism, as many of his books' heroes exemplify.", "Clavell admired Ayn Rand, founder of the Objectivist school of philosophy, and in 1981 he sent her a copy of ''Noble House'' inscribed: \"This is for Ayn Rand—one of the real, true talents on this earth for which many, many thanks.", "James C, New York, 2 September 81.\"", "Between 1970 and 1990, Clavell lived at Fredley Manor near Mickleham, located in Surrey in South East England." ], [ "Death and legacy", "In 1994, Clavell died in Switzerland from a stroke while suffering from cancer.", "He died one month before his 73rd birthday.", "After sponsorship by his widow, the library and archive of the Royal Artillery Museum at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, in southeast London, was renamed the James Clavell Library in his honour.", "The library was later closed pending the opening of a new facility in Salisbury, Wiltshire; however, James Clavell Square on the Royal Arsenal development on Woolwich riverside remains." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * Photos of the filming ''The Great Escape'' ** New publication with private photos of the shooting & documents of 2nd unit cameraman Walter Riml *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joliet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joliet''' or '''Jolliet''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Louis Jolliet (1645–1700), French-Canadian explorer of North America* Oscar Joliet (1878–1969), Belgian scholar-priest and Catholic Auxiliary bishop of Ghent" ], [ "Places in the United States", "* Joliet, Illinois, a city named after Louis Jolliet, seat of Will County** Joliet Correctional Center, a prison in the city* Joliet Township, Will County, Illinois* Joliet, Montana, a town* Joliet Township, Platte County, Nebraska* Joliet, Texas, an unincorporated community" ], [ "Schools", "* Joliet Junior College, Joliet, Illinois, a public community college* Joliet Central High School, Joliet, Illinois* Joliet Catholic Academy, a coed Catholic high school in Joliet, Illinois" ], [ "Other uses", "* Joliet Chargers, a former football franchise based in Joliet, Illinois* Joliet Slammers, a baseball team in based Joliet, Illinois* Joliet Army Ammunition Plant, Will County, Illinois, a former United States Army arsenal* Joliet Bridge, near Joliet, Montana, on the National Register of Historic Places* \"Joliet\", a song by Andy Prieboy from the album ''...Upon My Wicked Son''* \"Joliet\" Jake Blues (John Belushi), member of the Blues Brothers band* Joliet (file system), an extension to the ISO 9660 specification, written by Microsoft" ], [ "See also", "* Juliet (disambiguation)* Juliette (disambiguation)* Joliette (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Cade" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Frederick Joseph Cade''' AO (18 January 1912 – 16 November 1980) was an Australian psychiatrist who in 1948 discovered the effects of lithium carbonate as a mood stabilizer in the treatment of bipolar disorder, then known as manic depression.", "At a time when the standard treatments for psychosis were electroconvulsive therapy and lobotomy, lithium had the distinction of being the first effective medication available to treat a mental illness." ], [ "Early life", "John Cade was born in Murtoa, in the Wimmera region of Victoria, Australia.", "John's father David was Murtoa's general practitioner.", "Ellen, John's mother, and younger brothers David and Frank completed the family.", "When John was a small boy, his father left for World War I and served in Gallipoli and France.", "On return from the war, his father suffered from 'war-weariness' and had difficulty in continuing in general practice.", "Therefore, his father sold the practice and accepted a position with the Mental Hygiene Department.", "Over the next 25 years, Dr Cade Sr became medical superintendent at several Victorian mental hospitals, namely Sunbury, Beechworth and Mont Park.", "John and his brothers spent many of their younger years living within the grounds of these institutions, which had a great bearing on John's later deep understanding of the needs of the mentally ill. John was educated at Scotch College, Melbourne, matriculating in 1928.He then studied medicine at the University of Melbourne, graduating at the age of 21 years with honours in all subjects.", "He became a House Officer at St Vincent's Hospital and then Royal Children's Hospital before becoming severely ill with bilateral pneumococcal pneumonia.", "While he was convalescing, John fell in love with one of his nurses, Jean.", "They married in 1937.===World War II===Like his father before him, Cade left his young family to fight for Australia in the Armed Forces in World War II.", "Cade was appointed captain, Australian Army Medical Corps, A.I.F., on 1 July 1940 and posted to the 2nd/9th Field Ambulance.", "Although trained as a psychiatrist, Dr. Cade served as a surgeon and departed for Singapore in 1941 on .", "He was promoted to major in September 1941.After the Fall of Singapore to Japan, he became a prisoner of war at Changi Prison from February 1942 to September 1945.During his imprisonment, he reportedly would observe some fellow inmates having strange, vacillating behaviour.", "He thought perhaps a toxin was affecting their brains and when it was eliminated through their urine, they lost their symptoms." ], [ "Discovery of the effect of lithium on mania", "After the war, Cade recuperated very briefly in Heidelberg Hospital, then took up a position at Bundoora Repatriation Mental Hospital in Melbourne.", "It was at an unused pantry in Bundoora that he conducted crude experiments which led to the discovery of lithium as a treatment of bipolar disorder.", "Since he had no sophisticated analytical equipment these experiments mostly consisted of injecting urine from mentally ill patients into the abdomen of guinea pigs.", "His early experiments suggested to him that the urine from manic patients was more toxic.", "There are 2 toxic substances in urine: urea and uric acid.", "He found urea was the same in both ill and healthy people.", "He started to work on uric acid.", "In order to do that, he made artificial solutions of uric acid.", "To make up different strengths of uric acid he needed to convert it into a substance that he could more easily manipulate.", "On its own uric acid would not dissolve in water.", "Then, in an effort to increase the water solubility of uric acid, lithium was added to make a solution of lithium urate.", "Cade found that in the guinea pigs injected with lithium carbonate solution, as a control solution, the guinea pigs were more restful.", "His use of careful controls in his experiments revealed that the lithium-ion had a calming effect by itself, but even this finding may have been caused by the toxic effects of an excessive dose of lithium.", "After ingesting lithium himself to ensure its safety in humans, Cade began a small-scale trial of lithium citrate and/or lithium carbonate on some of his patients diagnosed with mania, dementia præcox or melancholia, with outstanding results.", "The calming effect was so robust that Cade speculated that mania was caused by a deficiency in lithium.", "He published these findings in the Medical Journal of Australia in a paper entitled 'Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement', published in 1949.While Cade's results appeared highly promising, side effects of lithium in some cases led to non-compliance.", "The toxicity of lithium led to several deaths of patients undergoing lithium treatment.", "The problem of toxicity was greatly reduced when suitable tests were developed to measure the lithium level in the blood.", "Moreover, as a naturally occurring chemical, lithium salt could not be patented, meaning that its manufacturing and sales were not considered commercially viable.", "These factors prevented its widespread adoption in psychiatry for some years, particularly in the United States, where its use was banned until 1970." ], [ "Royal Park and RANZCP", "John Cade acute unit at Royal Park Hospital circa 2003In 1952 Cade was appointed Superintendent and Dean of the clinical school at Royal Park Hospital.", "Two years later, at the request of the Mental Hygiene Authority which was planning to remodel Royal Park, he visited Britain for six months to inspect psychiatric institutions.", "On his return, he introduced modern facilities and replaced the rather authoritarian approach to patient care with a lot more personal and informal style that included group therapy.", "Concerned at the number of alcohol-related cases, he supported voluntary admission to aid early detection and later proposed the use of large doses of thiamine in the treatment of alcoholism.", "Cade served as the Superintendent at Royal Park until his retirement in 1977.He served as the federal president of the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists in 1969–70, and also as the president for its Victoria branch from 1963 until his death in 1980.In the end, Dr. Cade's discovery did receive widespread acknowledgements and praise.", "For his contribution to psychiatry, he was awarded a Kittay International Award in 1974 (with Mogens Schou from Denmark), and he was invited to be a Distinguished Fellow of the American College of Psychiatrists.", "In 1976, Cade was one of the first to be made an Officer of the Order of Australia.", "Dr. Cade remained humble about his chance discovery, describing himself as merely a gold prospector who happened to find a nugget.", "Finally, in July 2004, the Medical Journal of Australia reported that Cade's 1949 article, \"Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement\", was the number one most cited MJA article." ], [ "Legacy", "John Cade died of oesophageal cancer at Fitzroy on 16 November 1980, and is buried at Yan Yean Cemetery in Whittlesea.", "Recognition of Cade's pioneering work continued after his death.", "The Adult Acute unit at Royal Park Hospital was named the \"John Cade Unit\" in recognition of Cade's long service to the hospital.", "After Royal Park's closure, the newly opened Adult Acute Psychiatric Unit at Royal Melbourne Hospital was named \"John Cade Adult Acute Inpatient Unit\".", "In 1980 the first John Cade memorial lecture was delivered by Mogens Schou at the congress in Jerusalem of the Collegian International Psychopharmacologium.", "In 2013 the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) offered two $750 000 per annum fellowships for mental health research, entitled the \"NHMRC John Cade Fellowship in Mental Health Research\".", "The Fellowship recipients were Professor Helen Christensen of the University of New South Wales and Professor John McGrath of The University of Queensland.", "The RANZCP awards The John Cade Memorial Medal to a final year Victorian medical student following a special clinical examination at Monash University or the University of Melbourne each year.", "The Faculty of Medicine at University of Melbourne also awards the John Cade Memorial Prize." ], [ "Troubled Minds", "In 2004, Film Australia and SBS screened the documentary ''Troubled Minds – The Lithium Revolution'', a 60-minute documentary portraying John Cade's discovery of the use of Lithium in mental illness.", "The documentary received international recognition, winning the main prize at the International Vega Awards for Excellence in Scientific Broadcasting.", "''Troubled Minds'' was also recognised locally with writer/director Dennis K. Smith winning the AWGIE Award for Best Documentary." ], [ "See also", "Lithium pharmacology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " Mitchell PB, Hadzi-Pavlovic D. John Cade and the discovery of lithium treatment for manic depressive illness.", "Medical Journal of Australia, 1999, 171: 262–264.and Ref.", "No.", "00-0612 Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2000, 78 (4)* Mitchell PB.", "On the 50th anniversary" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann von Werth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann von Werth''' (1591 – 16 January 1652), also ''Jan von Werth'' or in French ''Jean de Werth'', was a German general of cavalry in the Thirty Years' War." ], [ "Biography", "Werth was born in 1591 most likely at Büttgen in the Duchy of Jülich as the eldest son of the farmer Johann von Wierdt († 1606) and Elisabeth Streithoven.", "He had seven brothers and sisters.", "His exact birthplace is not sure, other candidates are Puffendorf (today part of Baesweiler) and Linnich.", "In the past, historians also argued for Weert in Limburg because they confused him with Jan van der Croon, another imperial general with similar vita.", "Around 1610, he left home to become a soldier of fortune in the Walloon cavalry under Ambrogio Spinola in the Spanish Netherlands.", "Most likely, he fought in the War of the Jülich Succession and served afterwards in the garrison of Lingen.", "The outbreak of the Thirty Years' War saw him moving to Bohemia in support of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II.", "In the spanish regiment Marradas, he fought at White Mountain in 1620.In 1622, at the taking of Jülich, he won promotion to the rank of lieutenant.", "He also participated at the battle of Fleurus in 1622 but his military actions over the next eight years are not known.", "In this time, he married the Dutch woman Gertrud van Gent, mother of his eldest children Lambertine Irmgard and Johann Anton.", "He served as an Oberstwachtmeister in a cavalry regiment in the Bavarian army in 1630.He obtained the command of a regiment, both titular and effective, in 1632, and in 1633 and 1634 laid the foundations of his reputation as a swift and fearsome leader of cavalry forays.", "His achievements were even more conspicuous in the great pitched Battle of Nördlingen (1634), after which the emperor made him a ''Freiherr'' of the Empire, and the elector of Bavaria gave him the rank of Lieutenant field marshal.", "About this time, he armed his regiment with the musket in addition to the sword.Johann von Werth as burgrave (governor) of Odenkirchen, oil on canvasIn 1635 and 1636 Werth's forays extended into Lorraine and Luxembourg, after which he projected an expedition into the heart of France.", "Starting in July 1636, from the country of the lower Meuse, he raided far and wide, and even urged his commander-in-chief, Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria, to \"plant the Double Eagle on the Louvre\".", "Though this was not attempted.", "Werth's horsemen appeared at Saint-Denis before a French army of fifty thousand men at Compiègne forced the invaders to retreat.", "The memory of this raid lasted long, and the name of \"Jean de Wert\" figures in folk-songs and serves as a bogey to quieten unruly children.In 1637 Jean de Wert married Maria Isabella von Spaur in St. Verena, Straßberg.In 1637 Werth was once more in the Rhine valley, destroying convoys, relieving besieged towns and surprising the enemy's camps.", "In February 1638 he defeated the Weimar troops in an engagement at Rheinfelden, but shortly afterwards was made prisoner by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar.", "His hopes of being exchanged for the Swedish field marshal Gustaf Horn were dashed when Bernhard had to deliver up his captive to the French.", "Jean de Wert was brought to Paris, amidst great rejoicings from the country people.", "He was lionized by the society of the capital, visited in prison by high ladies.", "So light was his captivity that he said that nothing bound him but his word of honour.", "His eventual release was delayed until March 1642 because the Imperial government feared to see Horn at the head of the Swedish army and would not allow an exchange.When at last Werth reappeared in the field it was as general of cavalry in the Imperial and Bavarian and Cologne services.", "His first campaign against the French marshal Guebriant was uneventful, but his second (1643) in which Baron Franz von Mercy was his commander-in-chief, was the Battle of Tuttlingen in which Werth was instrumental in a surprise victory.", "In 1644 he was in the lower Rhine country, but he returned to Mercy's headquarters in time to fight in the Battle of Freiburg.", "In the following year he played a decisive role in the Second Battle of Nördlingen.", "Mercy was killed in this action, and Werth temporarily commanded the defeated arm until succeeded by Field-marshal Geleen.", "Werth was disappointed, but remained thoroughly loyal to his soldierly code of honour, and found an outlet for his anger in renewed military activity.Wedding contract of Johann von Werth 1648 (SOkA Mladá Boleslav)In 1647 differences arose between the Elector and the Emperor as to the allegiance due from the Bavarian troops, in which, after long hesitation, Werth, fearing that the cause of the Empire and of the Catholic religion would be ruined if the Elector resumed control of the troops, attempted to take his men over the Austrian border.", "But they refused to follow and, escaping with great difficulty from the Elector's vengeance, Werth found a refuge in Austria.", "The Emperor was grateful for his conduct in this affair, ordered the Elector to rescind his ban.", "The last campaign of the war (1648) was uneventful, and shortly after its close he retired to live on the estates which he had bought in the course of his career.", "And it was at one of these, Benatek NE of Prague in Bohemia, a gift from the emperor, that he died on 16 of January 1652.He was buried in the church of Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Benátky.Johann von Werth memorial in Cologne; by Wilhelm AlbermannThe Legend of Jan and Jriet at the St. Severinus City Gate of CologneJohann von Werth (right) among the statues of the (currently) 125 most important people from 64 BC to 1985 AD at Cologne City Hall" ], [ "Legend of Jan and Griet", "Johann von Werth's life became a popular legend in the Rhineland and Cologne that is frequently reenacted at Karneval time:A poor peasant, Jan, fell in love with Griet but she wanted a wealthier partner and declined his offer of marriage.", "Devastated by her rejection he came upon an army recruiter and signed up to go to war.", "Through hard work and good fortune he rose to become a general, celebrating several victories.", "After taking the fort at Hermannstein he was leading his triumphant troops into Cologne through St. Severin's Gate, when he saw his former love Griet selling fruit at a market.", "Griet was filled with regret at turning down such a successful person and exclaimed \"Jan, who would have thought it?\"", "to which he replied \"Griet, who would have had done it!\"", "and turns away.The story has several variants.", "It has inspired many songs including one in 2001 by the rock band BAP.", "Jan von Werth's name has been used for centuries to name military and recreational organisations, particularly groups of mounted marksmen at Schützenfests and Karneval." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", ";Attribution** * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jürgen Habermas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jürgen Habermas''' (, ; ; born 18 June 1929) is a German philosopher and social theorist in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism.", "His work addresses communicative rationality and the public sphere.Associated with the Frankfurt School, Habermas's work focuses on the foundations of epistemology and social theory, the analysis of advanced capitalism and democracy, the rule of law in a critical social-evolutionary context, albeit within the confines of the natural law tradition, and contemporary politics, particularly German politics.", "Habermas's theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests.", "Habermas is known for his work on the concept of modernity, particularly with respect to the discussions of rationalization originally set forth by Max Weber.", "He has been influenced by American pragmatism, action theory, and poststructuralism." ], [ "Biography", "Habermas was born in Düsseldorf, Rhine Province, in 1929.He was born with a cleft palate and had corrective surgery twice during childhood.", "Habermas argues that his speech disability made him think differently about the importance of deep dependence and of communication.", "He grew up in Gummersbach.As a young teenager, he was profoundly affected by World War II.", "Until his graduation from grammar school, Habermas lived in Gummersbach, near Cologne.", "His father, Ernst Habermas, was executive director of the Cologne Chamber of Industry and Commerce, and was described by Habermas as a Nazi sympathizer and, from 1933, a member of the Nazi Party NSDAP.", "Habermas himself was a ''Jungvolkführer'', a leader of the German Jungvolk, which was a section of the Hitler Youth.", "He was brought up in a staunchly Protestant milieu, his grandfather being the director of the seminary in Gummersbach.", "He studied at the universities of Göttingen (1949/50), Zurich (1950/51), and Bonn (1951–54) and earned a doctorate in philosophy from Bonn in 1954 with a dissertation written on the conflict between \"the Absolute\" and history in Schelling's thought, entitled, '''' (\"The Absolute and History: On the Schism in Schelling's Thought\").", "His dissertation committee included Erich Rothacker and Oskar Becker.From 1956 on, he studied philosophy and sociology under the critical theorists Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno at the Goethe University Frankfurt's Institute for Social Research, but because of a rift between the two over his dissertation—Horkheimer had made unacceptable demands for revision—as well as his own belief that the Frankfurt School had become paralyzed with political skepticism and disdain for modern culture, he finished his habilitation in political science at the University of Marburg under the Marxist Wolfgang Abendroth.", "His habilitation work was entitled '''' (published in English translation in 1989 as ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society'').", "It is a detailed social history of the development of the bourgeois public sphere from its origins in the 18th century salons up to its transformation through the influence of capital-driven mass media.", "In 1961 he became a ''Privatdozent'' in Marburg, and—in a move that was highly unusual for the German academic scene of that time—he was offered the position of \"extraordinary professor\" (professor without chair) of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg (at the instigation of Hans-Georg Gadamer and Karl Löwith) in 1962, which he accepted.", "In this same year he gained his first serious public attention, in Germany, with the publication of his habilitation.", "In 1964, strongly supported by Adorno, Habermas returned to Frankfurt to take over Horkheimer's chair in philosophy and sociology.", "The philosopher Albrecht Wellmer was his assistant in Frankfurt from 1966 to 1970.He accepted the position of Director of the Max Planck Institute for the Study of the Scientific-Technical World in Starnberg (near Munich) in 1971, and worked there until 1983, two years after the publication of his magnum opus, ''The Theory of Communicative Action''.", "He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1984.Habermas then returned to his chair at Frankfurt and the directorship of the Institute for Social Research.", "Since retiring from Frankfurt in 1993, Habermas has continued to publish extensively.", "In 1986, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the , which is the highest honour awarded in German research.", "He also holds the position of \"permanent visiting\" professor at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, and \"Theodor Heuss Professor\" at The New School, New York.Habermas was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award in Social Sciences of 2003.Habermas was also the 2004 Kyoto Laureate in the Arts and Philosophy section.", "He traveled to San Diego and on 5 March 2005, as part of the University of San Diego's Kyoto Symposium, gave a speech entitled ''The Public Role of Religion in Secular Context'', regarding the evolution of separation of church and state from neutrality to intense secularism.", "He received the 2005 Holberg International Memorial Prize (about €520,000).", "In 2007, Habermas was listed as the seventh most-cited author in the humanities (including the social sciences) by ''The Times Higher Education Guide'', ahead of Max Weber and behind Erving Goffman.", "Bibliometric studies demonstrate his continuing influence and increasing relevance.Jürgen Habermas was the father of Rebekka Habermas (1959–2023), historian of German social and cultural history and professor of modern history at the University of Göttingen.===Teacher and mentor===Habermas was a famed teacher and mentor.", "Among his most prominent students were the pragmatic philosopher Herbert Schnädelbach (theorist of discourse distinction and rationality), the political sociologist Claus Offe (professor at the Hertie School of Governance in Berlin), the social philosopher Johann Arnason (professor at La Trobe University and chief editor of the journal ''Thesis Eleven''), the social philosopher Hans-Herbert Kögler (Chair of Philosophy at the University of North Florida), the sociological theorist Hans Joas (professor at the University of Erfurt and at the University of Chicago), the theorist of societal evolution Klaus Eder, the social philosopher Axel Honneth, the political theorist David Rasmussen (professor at Boston College and chief editor of the journal ''Philosophy & Social Criticism''), the environmental ethicist Konrad Ott, the anarcho-capitalist philosopher Hans-Hermann Hoppe (who came to reject much of Habermas's thought), the American philosopher Thomas McCarthy, the co-creator of mindful inquiry in social research Jeremy J. Shapiro, the political philosopher Cristina Lafont (Harold H. and Virginia Anderson Professor of Philosophy at Northwestern University), and the assassinated Serbian prime minister Zoran Đinđić." ], [ "Philosophy and social theory", "Habermas has constructed a comprehensive framework of philosophy and social theory drawing on a number of intellectual traditions:* the German philosophical thought of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Schelling, G. W. F. Hegel, Wilhelm Dilthey, Edmund Husserl and Hans-Georg Gadamer* the Marxian tradition—both the theory of Karl Marx himself as well as the critical neo-Marxian theory of the Frankfurt School, i.e.", "Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno and Herbert Marcuse.", "* the sociological theories of Max Weber, Émile Durkheim and George Herbert Mead* the linguistic philosophy and speech act theories of Ludwig Wittgenstein, J. L. Austin, P. F. Strawson, Stephen Toulmin and John Searle* the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg* the American pragmatist tradition of Charles Sanders Peirce and John Dewey* the sociological social systems theory of Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann* Neo-Kantian thoughtJürgen Habermas considers his major contribution to be the development of the concept and theory of communicative reason or communicative rationality, which distinguishes itself from the rationalist tradition, by locating rationality in structures of interpersonal linguistic communication rather than in the structure of the cosmos.", "This social theory advances the goals of human emancipation, while maintaining an inclusive universalist moral framework.", "This framework rests on the argument called universal pragmatics—that all speech acts have an inherent telos (the Greek word for \"purpose\")—the goal of mutual understanding, and that human beings possess the communicative competence to bring about such understanding.", "Habermas built the framework out of the speech-act philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, J. L. Austin and John Searle, the sociological theory of the interactional constitution of mind and self of George Herbert Mead, the theories of moral development of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, and the discourse ethics of his Frankfurt colleague and fellow student Karl-Otto Apel.Habermas's works resonate within the traditions of Kant and the Enlightenment and of democratic socialism through his emphasis on the potential for transforming the world and arriving at a more humane, just, and egalitarian society through the realization of the human potential for reason, in part through discourse ethics.", "While Habermas has stated that the Enlightenment is an \"unfinished project,\" he argues it should be corrected and complemented, not discarded.", "In this he distances himself from the Frankfurt School, criticizing it, as well as much of postmodernist thought, for excessive pessimism, radicalism, and exaggerations.Within sociology, Habermas's major contribution was the development of a comprehensive theory of societal evolution and modernization focusing on the difference between communicative rationality and rationalization on one hand and strategic/instrumental rationality and rationalization on the other.", "This includes a critique from a communicative standpoint of the differentiation-based theory of social systems developed by Niklas Luhmann, a student of Talcott Parsons.His defence of modernity and civil society has been a source of inspiration to others, and is considered a major philosophical alternative to the varieties of poststructuralism.", "He has also offered an influential analysis of late capitalism.Habermas perceives the rationalization, humanization and democratization of society in terms of the institutionalization of the potential for rationality that is inherent in the communicative competence that is unique to the human species.", "Habermas contends that communicative competence has developed through the course of evolution, but in contemporary society it is often suppressed or weakened by the way in which major domains of social life, such as the market, the state, and organizations, have been given over to or taken over by strategic/instrumental rationality, so that the logic of the system supplants that of the lifeworld.===Reconstructive science===Habermas introduces the concept of \"reconstructive science\" with a double purpose: to place the \"general theory of society\" between philosophy and social science and re-establish the rift between the \"great theorization\" and the \"empirical research\".The model of \"rational reconstructions\" represents the main thread of the surveys about the \"structures\" of the world of life (\"culture\", \"society\" and \"personality\") and their respective \"functions\" (cultural reproductions, social integrations and socialization).", "For this purpose, the dialectics between \"symbolic representation\" of \"the structures subordinated to all worlds oflife\" (\"internal relationships\") and the \"material reproduction\" of the social systems in their complex (\"external relationships\" between social systems and environment) has to be considered.This model finds an application, above all, in the \"theory of the social evolution\", starting from the reconstruction of the necessary conditions for a phylogeny of the socio-cultural life forms (the \"hominization\") until an analysis of the development of \"social formations\", which Habermas subdivides into primitive, traditional, modern and contemporary formations.", "\"This paper is an attempt, primarily, to formalize the model of \"reconstruction of the logic of development\" of \"social formations\" summed up by Habermas through the differentiation between vital world and social systems (and, within them, through the \"rationalization of the world of life\" and the \"growth in complexity of the social systems\").", "Secondly, it tries to offer some methodological clarifications about the \"explanation of the dynamics\" of \"historical processes\" and, in particular, about the \"theoretical meaning\" of the evolutional theory's propositions.", "Even if the German sociologist considers that the \"ex-post rational reconstructions\" and \"the models system/environment\" cannot have a complete \"historiographical application\", these certainly act as a general premise in the argumentative structure of the \"historical explanation\"\".===The public sphere===In ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,'' Habermas argues that prior to the 18th century, European culture had been dominated by a \"representational\" culture, where one party sought to \"represent\" itself on its audience by overwhelming its subjects.", "As an example of \"representational\" culture, Habermas argued that Louis XIV's Palace of Versailles was meant to show the greatness of the French state and its King by overpowering the senses of visitors to the Palace.", "Habermas identifies \"representational\" culture as corresponding to the feudal stage of development according to Marxist theory, arguing that the coming of the capitalist stage of development marked the appearance of ''Öffentlichkeit'' (the public sphere).", "In the culture characterized by ''Öffentlichkeit'', there occurred a public space outside of the control by the state, where individuals exchanged views and knowledge.In Habermas's view, the growth in newspapers, journals, reading clubs, Masonic lodges, and coffeehouses in 18th-century Europe, all in different ways, marked the gradual replacement of \"representational\" culture with ''Öffentlichkeit'' culture.", "Habermas argued that the essential characteristic of the ''Öffentlichkeit'' culture was its \"critical\" nature.", "Unlike \"representational\" culture where only one party was active and the other passive, the ''Öffentlichkeit'' culture was characterized by a dialogue as individuals either met in conversation, or exchanged views via the print media.", "Habermas maintains that as Britain was the most liberal country in Europe, the culture of the public sphere emerged there first around 1700, and the growth of ''Öffentlichkeit'' culture took place over most of the 18th century in Continental Europe.", "In his view, the French Revolution was in large part caused by the collapse of \"representational\" culture, and its replacement by ''Öffentlichkeit'' culture.", "Though Habermas's main concern in ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere'' was to expose what he regarded as the deceptive nature of free institutions in the West, his book had a major effect on the historiography of the French Revolution.According to Habermas, a variety of factors resulted in the eventual decay of the public sphere, including the growth of a commercial mass media, which turned the critical public into a passive consumer public; and the welfare state, which merged the state with society so thoroughly that the public sphere was squeezed out.", "It also turned the \"public sphere\" into a site of self-interested contestation for the resources of the state rather than a space for the development of a public-minded rational consensus.His most known work to date, the ''Theory of Communicative Action'' (1981), is based on an adaptation of Talcott Parsons AGIL Paradigm.", "In this work, Habermas voiced criticism of the process of modernization, which he saw as inflexible direction forced through by economic and administrative rationalization.", "Habermas outlined how our everyday lives are penetrated by formal systems as parallel to development of the welfare state, corporate capitalism and mass consumption.", "These reinforcing trends rationalize public life.", "Disfranchisement of citizens occurs as political parties and interest groups become rationalized and representative democracy replaces participatory one.", "In consequence, boundaries between public and private, the individual and society, the system and the lifeworld are deteriorating.", "Democratic public life cannot develop where matters of public importance are not discussed by citizens.", "An \"ideal speech situation\" requires participants to have the same capacities of discourse, social equality and their words are not confused by ideology or other errors.", "In this version of the consensus theory of truth Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an ideal speech situation.Habermas has expressed optimism about the possibility of the revival of the public sphere.", "He discerns a hope for the future where the representative democracy-reliant nation-state is replaced by a deliberative democracy-reliant political organism based on the equal rights and obligations of citizens.", "In such a direct democracy-driven system, the activist public sphere is needed for debates on matters of public importance as well as the mechanism for that discussion to affect the decision-making process." ], [ "Habermas versus postmodernists", "Habermas offered some early criticisms in an essay, \"Modernity versus Postmodernity\" (1981), which has achieved wide recognition.", "In that essay, Habermas raises the issue of whether, in light of the failures of the twentieth century, we \"should try to hold on to the ''intentions of the Enlightenment'', feeble as they may be, or should we declare the entire project of modernity a lost cause?\"", "Habermas refuses to give up on the possibility of a rational, \"scientific\" understanding of the life-world.Habermas has several main criticisms of postmodernism:# Postmodernists are equivocal about whether they are producing serious theory or literature;# Postmodernists are animated by normative sentiments, but the nature of those sentiments remains concealed from the reader;# Postmodernism has a totalizing perspective that fails \"to differentiate phenomena and practices that occur within modern society\";# Postmodernists ignore everyday life and its practices, which Habermas finds absolutely central." ], [ "Key dialogues and engagement with politics", "=== Positivism dispute ===The positivism dispute was a political-philosophical dispute between the critical rationalists (Karl Popper, Hans Albert) and the Frankfurt School (Theodor Adorno, Jürgen Habermas) in 1961, about the methodology of the social sciences.", "It grew into a broad discussion within German sociology from 1961 to 1969.=== Habermas and Gadamer ===There is a controversy between Habermas and Hans-Georg Gadamer about limits of hermeneutics.", "Gadamer completed his magnum opus, ''Truth and Method'', in 1960, and engaged in his debate with Habermas over the possibility of transcending history and culture in order to find a truly objective position from which to critique society.During the 1960s, Gadamer supported Habermas and advocated for him to be offered a job at Heidelberg before he had completed his Habilitation, despite Max Horkheimer's objections.", "While they both criticized positivism, a philosophical disagreement arose between them in the 1970s.", "This disagreement expanded the scope of Gadamer's philosophical influence.", "Despite fundamental agreements between them, such as starting from the hermeneutic tradition and returning to Greek practical philosophy, Habermas argued that Gadamer's emphasis on tradition and prejudice blinded him to the ideological operation of power.", "Habermas believed that Gadamer's approach failed to enable critical reflection on the sources of ideology in society.", "He accused Gadamer of endorsing a dogmatic stance toward tradition, which made it difficult to identify distortions in understanding.", "Gadamer countered that refusing the universal nature of hermeneutics was the more dogmatic stance because it affirmed the deception that the subject can free itself from the past.=== Habermas and Foucault ===There is a dispute concerning whether Michel Foucault's ideas of \"power analytics\" and \"genealogy\" or Jürgen Habermas's ideas of \"communicative rationality\" and \"discourse ethics\" provide a better critique of the nature of power in society.", "The debate compares and evaluates the central ideas of Habermas and Foucault as they pertain to questions of power, reason, ethics, modernity, democracy, civil society, and social action.=== Habermas and Luhmann ===Niklas Luhmann proposed that society could be successfully analyzed through systems theory.", "There is a conflict between Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative action and Luhmann's systems theory.=== Habermas and Apel ===Habermas and Karl-Otto Apel both support a postmetaphysical, universal moral theory, but they disagree on the nature and justification of this principle.", "Habermas disagrees with Apel's view that the principle is a transcendental condition of human activity, while Apel asserts that it is.", "They each criticize the other's position.", "Habermas argues that Apel is too concerned with transcendental conditions, while Apel argues that Habermas doesn't value critical discourse enough.=== Habermas and Rawls ===There is a debate between Habermas and John Rawls.", "The debate centers around the question of how to do political philosophy under conditions of cultural pluralism, if the aim of political philosophy is to uncover the normative foundation of a modern liberal democracy.", "Habermas believes that Rawls's view is inconsistent with the idea of popular sovereignty, while Rawls argues that political legitimacy is solely a matter of sound moral reasoning or that democratic will formation has been unduly downgraded in his theory.===''Historikerstreit'' (Historians' Quarrel)===Habermas is famous as a public intellectual as well as a scholar; most notably, in the 1980s he used the popular press to attack the German historians Ernst Nolte, Michael Stürmer, Klaus Hildebrand and Andreas Hillgruber.", "Habermas first expressed his views on the above-mentioned historians in the ''Die Zeit'' on 11 July 1986 in a ''feuilleton'' (a type of culture and arts opinion essay in German newspapers) entitled \"A Kind of Settlement of Damages\".", "Habermas criticized Nolte, Hildebrand, Stürmer and Hillgruber for \"apologistic\" history writing in regard to the Nazi era, and for seeking to \"close Germany's opening to the West\" that in Habermas's view had existed since 1945.Habermas argued that Nolte, Stürmer, Hildebrand and Hillgruber had tried to detach Nazi rule and the Holocaust from the mainstream of German history, explain away Nazism as a reaction to Bolshevism, and partially rehabilitate the reputation of the Wehrmacht (German Army) during World War II.", "Habermas wrote that Stürmer was trying to create a \"vicarious religion\" in German history which, together with the work of Hillgruber, glorifying the last days of the German Army on the Eastern Front, was intended to serve as a \"kind of NATO philosophy colored with German nationalism\".", "About Hillgruber's statement that Adolf Hitler wanted to exterminate the Jews \"because only such a 'racial revolution' could lend permanence to the world-power status of his ''Reich''\", Habermas wrote: \"Since Hillgruber does not use the verb in the subjunctive, one does not know whether the historian has adopted the perspective of the particulars this time too\".Habermas wrote: \"The unconditional opening of the Federal Republic to the political culture of the West is the greatest intellectual achievement of our postwar period; my generation should be especially proud of this.", "This event cannot and should not be stabilized by a kind of NATO philosophy colored with German nationalism.", "The opening of the Federal Republic has been achieved precisely by overcoming the ideology of Central Europe that our revisionists are trying to warm up for us with their geopolitical drumbeat about \"the old geographically central position of the Germans in Europe\" (Stürmer) and \"the reconstruction of the destroyed European Center\" (Hillgruber).", "The only patriotism that will not estrange us from the West is a constitutional patriotism.", "\"The so-called ''Historikerstreit'' (\"Historians' Quarrel\") was not at all one-sided, because Habermas was himself attacked by scholars like Joachim Fest, Hagen Schulze, Horst Möller, Imanuel Geiss and Klaus Hildebrand.", "In turn, Habermas was supported by historians such as Martin Broszat, Eberhard Jäckel, Hans Mommsen, and Hans-Ulrich Wehler.===Habermas and Derrida===Habermas and Jacques Derrida engaged in a series of disputes beginning in the 1980s and culminating in a mutual understanding and friendship in the late 1990s that lasted until Derrida's death in 2004.They originally came in contact when Habermas invited Derrida to speak at The University of Frankfurt in 1984.The next year Habermas published \"Beyond a Temporalized Philosophy of Origins: Derrida\" in ''The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity'' in which he described Derrida's method as being unable to provide a foundation for social critique.", "Derrida, citing Habermas as an example, remarked that, \"those who have accused me of reducing philosophy to literature or logic to rhetoric ... have visibly and carefully avoided reading me\".", "After Derrida's final rebuttal in 1989 the two philosophers did not continue, but, as Derrida described it, groups in the academy \"conducted a kind of 'war', in which we ourselves never took part, either personally or directly\".At the end of the 1990s, Habermas approached Derrida at a party held at an American university where both were lecturing.", "They then met at Paris over dinner, and participated afterwards in many joint projects.", "In 2000 they held a joint seminar on problems of philosophy, right, ethics, and politics at the University of Frankfurt.", "In December 2000, in Paris, Habermas gave a lecture entitled \"How to answer the ethical question?\"", "at the ''Judeities.", "Questions for Jacques Derrida'' conference organized by Joseph Cohen and Raphael Zagury-Orly.", "Following the lecture by Habermas, both thinkers engaged in a very heated debate on Heidegger and the possibility of Ethics.", "The conference volume was published at the Editions Galilée (Paris) in 2002, and subsequently in English at Fordham University Press (2007).In the aftermath of the 11 September attacks, Derrida and Habermas laid out their individual opinions on 9/11 and the War on Terror in Giovanna Borradori's ''Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques Derrida''.", "In early 2003, both Habermas and Derrida were very active in opposing the coming Iraq War; in a manifesto that later became the book ''Old Europe, New Europe, Core Europe'', the two called for a tighter unification of the states of the European Union in order to create a power capable of opposing American foreign policy.", "Derrida wrote a foreword expressing his unqualified subscription to Habermas's declaration of February 2003 (\"February 15, or, What Binds Europeans Together: Plea for a Common Foreign Policy, Beginning in Core Europe\") in the book, which was a reaction to the Bush administration's demands upon European nations for support in the coming Iraq War.", "Habermas has offered further context for this declaration in an interview.=== Religious dialogue ===Habermas's attitudes toward religion have changed throughout the years.", "Analyst Phillippe Portier identifies three phases in Habermas's attitude towards this social sphere: the first, in the decade of 1980, when the younger Jürgen, in the spirit of Marx, argued against religion seeing it as an \"alienating reality\" and \"control tool\"; the second phase, from the mid-1980s to the beginning of the 21st Century, when he stopped discussing it and, as a secular commentator, relegated it to matters of private life; and the third, from then until now, when Habermas saw a positive social role of religion.In an interview in 1999 Habermas had stated:The original German (from the Habermas Forum website) of the disputed quotation is:This statement has been misquoted in a number of articles and books, where Habermas instead is quoted for saying:In his book ''Zwischen Naturalismus und Religion'' (Between Naturalism and Religion, 2005), Habermas stated that the forces of religious strength, as a result of multiculturalism and immigration, are stronger than in previous decades, and, therefore, there is a need of tolerance which must be understood as a two-way street: secular people need to tolerate the role of religious people in the public square and vice versa.In early 2007, Ignatius Press published a dialogue between Habermas and the then Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith of the Holy Office Joseph Ratzinger (elected as Pope Benedict XVI in 2005), entitled ''The Dialectics of Secularization''.", "The dialogue took place on 14 January 2004 after an invitation to both thinkers by the Catholic Academy of Bavaria in Munich.", "It addressed contemporary questions such as:* Is a public culture of reason and ordered liberty possible in our post-metaphysical age?", "* Is philosophy permanently cut adrift from its grounding in being and anthropology?", "* Does this decline of rationality signal an opportunity or a deep crisis for religion itself?In this debate a shift of Habermas became evident—in particular, his rethinking of the public role of religion.", "Habermas stated that he wrote as a \"methodological atheist,\" which means that when doing philosophy or social science, he presumed nothing about particular religious beliefs.", "Yet while writing from this perspective his evolving position towards the role of religion in society led him to some challenging questions, and as a result conceding some ground in his dialogue with the future Pope, that would seem to have consequences which further complicated the positions he holds about a communicative rational solution to the problems of modernity.", "Habermas believes that even for self-identified liberal thinkers, \"to exclude religious voices from the public square is highly illiberal.", "\"In addition, Habermas has popularized the concept of \"post-secular\" society, to refer to current times in which the idea of modernity is perceived as unsuccessful and at times, morally failed, so that, rather than a stratification or separation, a new peaceful dialogue and coexistence between faith and reason must be sought in order to learn mutually.===Socialist dialogue===Habermas has sided with other 20th-century commentators on Marx such as Hannah Arendt who have indicated concerns with the limits of totalitarian perspectives often associated with Marx's over-estimation of the emancipatory potential of the forces of production.", "Arendt had presented this in her book ''The Origins of Totalitarianism'' and Habermas extends this critique in his writings on functional reductionism in the life-world in his ''Lifeworld and System: A Critique of Functionalist Reason''.", "As Habermas states:Habermas reiterated the positions that what refuted Marx and his theory of class struggle was the \"pacification of class conflict\" by the welfare state, which had developed in the West \"since 1945\", thanks to \"a reformist relying on the instruments of Keynesian economics\".", "Italian philosopher and historian Domenico Losurdo criticised the main point of these claims as \"marked by the absence of a question that should be obvious:— Was the advent of the welfare state the inevitable result of a tendency inherent in capitalism?", "Or was it the result of political and social mobilization by the subaltern classes—in the final analysis, of a class struggle?", "Had the German philosopher posed this question, perhaps he would have avoided assuming the permanence of the welfare state, whose precariousness and progressive dismantlement are now obvious to everyone\".=== Controversy about wars ===In 1999, Habermas addressed the Kosovo War.", "Habermas defended NATO's intervention in an article for ''Die Zeit'', which stirred controversy.In 2001, Habermas argued that the United States should not go to war in Iraq.=== European Union ===During the European debt crisis, Habermas criticized Angela Merkel's leadership in Europe.", "In 2013, Habermas clashed with Wolfgang Streeck, who argued the kind of European federalism espoused by Habermas as the root of the continent's crisis." ], [ "Awards", "* 1974: Hegel Prize* 1976: Sigmund Freud Prize* 1980: Theodor W. Adorno Award* 1985: Geschwister-Scholl-Preis for his work, ''Die neue Unübersichtlichkeit''* 1986: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize* 1987: The Sonning Prize awarded biennially for outstanding contributions to European culture* 1995: Karl Jaspers Prize* 1999: Theodor Heuss Prize* 2001: Peace Prize of the German Book Trade* 2003: The Prince of Asturias Foundation in Social Sciences* 2004: Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy (50 million Yen)* 2005: Holberg International Memorial Prize (520,000 Euro)* 2006: Bruno Kreisky Award* 2008: European Prize for Political Culture (Hans Ringier Foundation) at the Locarno Film Festival (50,000 Euro)* 2010: Ulysses Medal, University College Dublin* 2011: * 2012: * 2012: Heinrich Heine Prize* 2012: * 2013: Erasmus Prize* 2015: Kluge Prize* 2021: Sheikh Zayed Book Award (declined, citing the UAE's political system as a repressive non-democracy)* 2022: Dialectic Medal* 2022 Pour le Mérite" ], [ "Major works", "* ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere'' (1962) * ''Theory and Practice'' (1963)* ''On the Logic of the Social Sciences'' (1967)* ''Toward a Rational Society'' (1968)* ''Technology and Science as Ideology'' (1968)* ''Knowledge and Human Interests'' (1971, German 1968)* ''Legitimation Crisis'' (1975)* ''Communication and the Evolution of Society'' (1976)* ''On the Pragmatics of Social Interaction'' (1976)* ''The Theory of Communicative Action'' (1981)* ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action'' (1983)* ''Philosophical-Political Profiles'' (1983)* ''The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity'' (1985)* ''The New Conservatism'' (1985)* ''The New Obscurity: The Crisis of the Welfare State'' (1986)* ''Postmetaphysical Thinking'' (1988)* ''Justification and Application'' (1991)* ''Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy'' (1992)* ''On the Pragmatics of Communication'' (1992)* ''The Inclusion of the Other'' (1996)* ''A Berlin Republic'' (1997, collection of interviews with Habermas)* ''The Postnational Constellation'' (1998)* ''Religion and Rationality: Essays on Reason, God, and Modernity'' (1998)* ''Truth and Justification'' (1998)* ''The Future of Human Nature'' (2003) * ''Old Europe, New Europe, Core Europe'' (2005) * ''The Divided West'' (2006)* ''The Dialectics of Secularization'' (2007, w/ Joseph Ratzinger)* ''Between Naturalism and Religion: Philosophical Essays'' (2008)* ''Europe.", "The Faltering Project'' (2009)* ''The Crisis of the European Union'' (2012)* ''This Too a History of Philosophy'' (2019)* ''A New Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere and Deliberative Politics'' (2023)" ], [ "See also", "* Foucault–Habermas debate* Positivism dispute" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gregg Daniel Miller, ''Mimesis and Reason: Habermas's Political Philosophy''.", "SUNY Press, 2011.: * ''Jürgen Habermas: a philosophical—political profile'' by Marvin Rintala, Perspectives on Political Science, 2002-01-01* ''Jürgen Habermas'' by Martin Matuštík (2001) * Postnational identity: critical theory and existential philosophy in Habermas, Kierkegaard, and Havel by Martin Matuštík (1993) * Thomas McCarthy, ''The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas'', MIT Press, 1978.: * Raymond Geuss, ''The Idea of a Critical Theory'', Cambridge University Press, 1981.: * J.G.", "Finlayson, ''Habermas: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2004.: * Jane Braaten, ''Habermas's Critical Theory of Society'', State University of New York Press, 1991.", "* Thomas Kupka, Jürgen Habermas' diskurstheoretische Reformulierung des klassischen Vernunftrechts, ''Kritische Justiz'' 27 (1994), pp.", "461–469: * Andreas Dorschel: 'Handlungstypen und Kriterien.", "Zu Habermas' ''Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns'', in: ''Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung'' 44 (1990), nr.", "2, pp.", "220–252.A critical discussion of types of action in Habermas.", "In German.", "* Erik Oddvar Eriksen and Jarle Weigard, ''Understanding Habermas: Communicative Action and Deliberative Democracy'', Continuum International Publishing, 2004 ().", ": * Alexandre Guilherme and W.John Morgan,'Habermas(1929–)-dialogue as communicative rationality', Chapter 9 in ''Philosophy, Dialogue, and Education: Nine modern European philosophers'', Routledge, London and New York, pp.", "140– 154..* Detlef Horster.", "''Habermas: An Introduction''.", "Pennbridge, 1992 ()* Martin Jay, ''Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukacs to Habermas'' (Chapter 9), University of California Press, 1986.", "()* Ernst Piper (ed.)", "''\"Historikerstreit\": Die Dokumentation der Kontroverse um die Einzigartigkeit der nationalsozialistschen Judenvernichtung'', Munich: Piper, 1987, translated into English by James Knowlton and Truett Cates as ''Forever In The Shadow Of Hitler?", ": Original Documents Of the Historikerstreit, The Controversy Concerning The Singularity Of The Holocaust'', Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1993 () * Edgar, Andrew.", "''The Philosophy of Habermas''.", "Мontreal, McGill-Queen's UP, 2005.", "* Adams, Nicholas.", "''Habermas & Theology''.", "Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006.", "* Mike Sandbothe, ''Habermas, Pragmatism, and the Media'', Online publication: sandbothe.net 2008; German original in: Über Habermas.", "Gespräche mit Zeitgenossen, ed.", "by Michael Funken, Darmstadt: Primus, 2008.", "* Müller-Doohm, Stefan.", "''Jürgen Habermas''.", "Frankfurt, Suhrkamp, 2008 (Suhrkamp BasisBiographie, 38).", "* ''Moderne Religion?", "Theologische und religionsphilosophische Reaktionen auf Jürgen Habermas''.", "Hrsg.", "v. Knut Wenzel und Thomas M. Schmidt.", "Freiburg, Herder, 2009.", "* Luca Corchia, '' Jürgen Habermas.", "A bibliography: works and studies (1952–2013): With an Introduction by Stefan Müller-Doohm'', Arnus Edizioni – Il Campano, Pisa, 2013...", "Peter Koller, Christian Hiebaum, ''Jürgen Habermas: Faktizität und Geltung'', Walter de Gruyter\t2016." ], [ "External links", " * Extensive article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Habermas Forum by Thomas Gregersen; updated bibliography, news and literature on Habermas* ''Towards a United States of Europe'', by Jürgen Habermas, at signandsight.com, published 27 March 2006* ''How to save the quality press?''", "Habermas argues for state support for quality newspapers, at signandsight.com, published 21 May 2007* Habermas links collected by Antti Kauppinen (writings; interviews; bibliography; Habermas explained, discussed, reviewed; and other Habermas sites; ''updated 2004'')* Habermas, the Public Sphere, and Democracy: A Critical Intervention by Douglas Kellner* Jurgen Habermas, On Society and Politics* Juergen Habermas gives Memorial Lecture in honor of American Philosopher, Richard Rorty on 2 November 2007 5pm Cubberley Auditorium, at Stanford University.", "Transcript available here.", "* Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques Derrida" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Watson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Dewey Watson''' (born April 6, 1928) is an American molecular biologist, geneticist, and zoologist.", "In 1953, he co-authored with Francis Crick the academic paper proposing the double helix structure of the DNA molecule.", "Watson, Crick and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine \"for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material\".Watson earned degrees at the University of Chicago (BS, 1947) and Indiana University (PhD, 1950).", "Following a post-doctoral year at the University of Copenhagen with Herman Kalckar and Ole Maaløe, Watson worked at the University of Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory in England, where he first met his future collaborator Francis Crick.", "From 1956 to 1976, Watson was on the faculty of the Harvard University Biology Department, promoting research in molecular biology.From 1968, Watson served as director of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL), greatly expanding its level of funding and research.", "At CSHL, he shifted his research emphasis to the study of cancer, along with making it a world-leading research center in molecular biology.", "In 1994, he started as president and served for 10 years.", "He was then appointed chancellor, serving until he resigned in 2007 after making comments claiming that there is a genetic link between intelligence and race.", "In 2019, following the broadcast of a documentary in which Watson reiterated these views on race and genetics, CSHL revoked his honorary titles and severed all ties with him.Watson has written many science books, including the textbook ''Molecular Biology of the Gene'' (1965) and his bestselling book ''The Double Helix'' (1968).", "Between 1988 and 1992, Watson was associated with the National Institutes of Health, helping to establish the Human Genome Project, which completed the task of mapping the human genome in 2003." ], [ "Early life and education", "Watson was born in Chicago on April 6, 1928, as the only son of Jean ( Mitchell) and James D. Watson, a businessman descended mostly from colonial English immigrants to America.", "His mother's father, Lauchlin Mitchell, a tailor, was from Glasgow, Scotland, and her mother, Lizzie Gleason, was the child of parents from County Tipperary, Ireland.", "Raised Catholic, he later described himself as \"an escapee from the Catholic religion\".", "Watson said, \"The luckiest thing that ever happened to me was that my father didn't believe in God.", "\"Watson grew up on the South Side of Chicago and attended public schools, including Horace Mann Elementary School and South Shore High School.", "He was fascinated with bird watching, a hobby shared with his father, so he considered majoring in ornithology.", "Watson appeared on ''Quiz Kids,'' a popular radio show that challenged bright youngsters to answer questions.", "Thanks to the liberal policy of university president Robert Hutchins, he enrolled at the University of Chicago, where he was awarded a tuition scholarship, at the age of 15.Among his professors was Louis Leon Thurstone from whom Watson learned about factor analysis, which he would later reference on his controversial views on race.After reading Erwin Schrödinger's book, ''What Is Life?''", "in 1946, Watson changed his professional ambitions from the study of ornithology to genetics.", "Watson earned his BS degree in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1947.In his autobiography, ''Avoid Boring People'', Watson described the University of Chicago as an \"idyllic academic institution where he was instilled with the capacity for critical thought and an ethical compulsion not to suffer fools who impeded his search for truth\", in contrast to his description of later experiences.", "In 1947 Watson left the University of Chicago to become a graduate student at Indiana University, attracted by the presence at Bloomington of the 1946 Nobel Prize winner Hermann Joseph Muller, who in crucial papers published in 1922, 1929, and in the 1930s had laid out all the basic properties of the heredity molecule that Schrödinger presented in his 1944 book.", "He received his PhD degree from Indiana University in 1950; Salvador Luria was his doctoral advisor." ], [ "Career and research", "===Luria, Delbrück, and the Phage Group===Originally, Watson was drawn into molecular biology by the work of Salvador Luria.", "Luria eventually shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the Luria–Delbrück experiment, which concerned the nature of genetic mutations.", "He was part of a distributed group of researchers who were making use of the viruses that infect bacteria, called bacteriophages.", "He and Max Delbrück were among the leaders of this new \"Phage Group\", an important movement of geneticists from experimental systems such as ''Drosophila'' towards microbial genetics.", "Early in 1948, Watson began his PhD research in Luria's laboratory at Indiana University.", "That spring, he met Delbrück first in Luria's apartment and again that summer during Watson's first trip to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL).The Phage Group was the intellectual medium where Watson became a working scientist.", "Importantly, the members of the Phage Group sensed that they were on the path to discovering the physical nature of the gene.", "In 1949, Watson took a course with Felix Haurowitz that included the conventional view of that time: that genes were proteins and able to replicate themselves.", "The other major molecular component of chromosomes, DNA, was widely considered to be a \"stupid tetranucleotide\", serving only a structural role to support the proteins.", "Even at this early time, Watson, under the influence of the Phage Group, was aware of the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, which suggested that DNA was the genetic molecule.", "Watson's research project involved using X-rays to inactivate bacterial viruses.Watson then went to Copenhagen University in September 1950 for a year of postdoctoral research, first heading to the laboratory of biochemist Herman Kalckar.", "Kalckar was interested in the enzymatic synthesis of nucleic acids, and he wanted to use phages as an experimental system.", "Watson wanted to explore the structure of DNA, and his interests did not coincide with Kalckar's.", "After working part of the year with Kalckar, Watson spent the remainder of his time in Copenhagen conducting experiments with microbial physiologist Ole Maaløe, then a member of the Phage Group.The experiments, which Watson had learned of during the previous summer's Cold Spring Harbor phage conference, included the use of radioactive phosphate as a tracer to determine which molecular components of phage particles actually infect the target bacteria during viral infection.", "The intention was to determine whether protein or DNA was the genetic material, but upon consultation with Max Delbrück, they determined that their results were inconclusive and could not specifically identify the newly labeled molecules as DNA.", "Watson never developed a constructive interaction with Kalckar, but he did accompany Kalckar to a meeting in Italy, where Watson saw Maurice Wilkins talk about X-ray diffraction data for DNA.", "Watson was now certain that DNA had a definite molecular structure that could be elucidated.In 1951, the chemist Linus Pauling in California published his model of the amino acid alpha helix, a result that grew out of Pauling's efforts in X-ray crystallography and molecular model building.", "After obtaining some results from his phage and other experimental research conducted at Indiana University, Statens Serum Institut (Denmark), CSHL, and the California Institute of Technology, Watson now had the desire to learn to perform X-ray diffraction experiments so he could work to determine the structure of DNA.", "That summer, Luria met John Kendrew, and he arranged for a new postdoctoral research project for Watson in England.", "In 1951 Watson visited the Stazione Zoologica 'Anton Dohrn' in Naples.===Identifying the double helix===Science Museum, LondonIn mid-March 1953, Watson and Crick deduced the double helix structure of DNA.", "Crucial to their discovery were the experimental data collected at King's College London—mainly by Rosalind Franklin for which they did not provide proper attribution.", "Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory (where Watson and Crick worked), made the original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay conference on proteins in Belgium on April 8, 1953; it went unreported by the press.", "Watson and Crick submitted a paper entitled \"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid\" to the scientific journal ''Nature'', which was published on April 25, 1953.Bragg gave a talk at the Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953, which resulted in a May 15, 1953, article by Ritchie Calder in the London newspaper ''News Chronicle'', entitled \"Why You Are You.", "Nearer Secret of Life\".Sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. Oughton were some of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of DNA, constructed by Crick and Watson; at the time, they were working at Oxford University's chemistry department.", "All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner, who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new Laboratory of Molecular Biology.", "According to the late Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA.The Cambridge University student newspaper ''Varsity'' also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30, 1953.Watson subsequently presented a paper on the double-helical structure of DNA at the 18th Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Viruses in early June 1953, six weeks after the publication of the Watson and Crick paper in ''Nature''.", "Many at the meeting had not yet heard of the discovery.", "The 1953 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium was the first opportunity for many to see the model of the DNA double helix.Watson's accomplishment is displayed on the monument at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.", "Because the monument memorializes only American laureates, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins (who shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) are omitted.Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for their research on the structure of nucleic acids.", "Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958 and was therefore ineligible for nomination.The publication of the double helix structure of DNA has been described as a turning point in science; understanding of life was fundamentally changed and the modern era of biology began.====Interactions with Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling====Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and her student Raymond Gosling has attracted scrutiny.", "It has been argued that Watson and his colleagues did not properly acknowledge colleague Rosalind Franklin for her contributions to the discovery of the double helix structure.", "Robert P. Crease notes that \"Such stingy behaviour may not be unknown, or even uncommon, among scientists\".", "Franklin's high-quality X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA were unpublished results, which Watson and Crick used without her knowledge or consent in their construction of the double helix model of DNA.", "Franklin's results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals and these results were consistent with the two sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule.", "Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside; before then, Linus Pauling and Watson and Crick had erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards.", "Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel.The X-ray diffraction images collected by Gosling and Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA.", "Watson and Crick had three sources for Franklin's unpublished data: #Her 1951 seminar, attended by Watson;#Discussions with Wilkins, who worked in the same laboratory with Franklin;#A research progress report that was intended to promote coordination of Medical Research Council-supported laboratories.", "Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin all worked in MRC laboratories.In a 1954 article, Watson and Crick acknowledged that, without Franklin's data, \"the formulation of our structure would have been most unlikely, if not impossible\".", "In ''The Double Helix'', Watson later admitted that \"Rosy, of course, did not directly give us her data.", "For that matter, no one at King's realized they were in our hands\".", "In recent years, Watson has garnered controversy in the popular and scientific press for his \"misogynist treatment\" of Franklin and his failure to properly attribute her work on DNA.", "According to one critic, Watson's portrayal of Franklin in ''The Double Helix'' was negative, giving the impression that she was Wilkins' assistant and was unable to interpret her own DNA data.", "Watson's accusation was indefensible since Franklin told Crick and Watson that the helix backbones had to be on the outside.", "From a 2003 piece by Brenda Maddox in ''Nature'':Robert P. Crease remarks that \"Franklin was close to figuring out the structure of DNA, but did not do it.", "The title of \"discoverer\" goes to those who first fit the pieces together\".", "Jeremy Bernstein rejects that Franklin was a \"victim\" and states that \"Watson and Crick made the double-helix scheme work.", "It is as simple as that\".", "Matthew Cobb and Nathaniel C. Comfort write that \"Franklin was no victim in how the DNA double helix was solved\" but that she was \"an equal contributor to the solution of the structure\".A review of the correspondence from Franklin to Watson, in the archives at CSHL, revealed that the two scientists later exchanged constructive scientific correspondence.", "Franklin consulted with Watson on her tobacco mosaic virus RNA research.", "Franklin's letters were framed with the normal and unremarkable forms of address, beginning with \"Dear Jim\", and concluding with \"Best Wishes, Yours, Rosalind\".", "Each of the scientists published their own unique contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA in separate articles, and all of the contributors published their findings in the same volume of ''Nature''.", "These classic molecular biology papers are identified as: Watson J. D. and Crick F. H. C. \"A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid\".", "''Nature'' 171, 737–738 (1953); Wilkins M. H. F., Stokes A. R. & Wilson H. R. \"Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids\".", "''Nature'' 171, 738–740 (1953); Franklin R. and Gosling R. G. \"Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate\".", "''Nature'' 171, 740–741 (1953).===Harvard University===In 1956, Watson accepted a position in the biology department at Harvard University.", "His work at Harvard focused on RNA and its role in the transfer of genetic information.Watson championed a switch in focus for the school from classical biology to molecular biology, stating that disciplines such as ecology, developmental biology, taxonomy, physiology, etc.", "had stagnated and could progress only once the underlying disciplines of molecular biology and biochemistry had elucidated their underpinnings, going so far as to discourage their study by students.Watson continued to be a member of the Harvard faculty until 1976, even though he took over the directorship of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in 1968.During his tenure at Harvard, Watson participated in a protest against the Vietnam War, leading a group of 12 biologists and biochemists calling for \"the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam\".", "In 1975, on the thirtieth anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima, Watson was one of over 2000 scientists and engineers who spoke out against nuclear proliferation to President Gerald Ford, arguing that there was no proven method for the safe disposal of radioactive waste, and that nuclear plants were a security threat due to the possibility of terrorist theft of plutonium.Watson's first textbook, ''The Molecular Biology of the Gene'', used the concept of heads—brief declarative subheadings.", "His next textbook was ''Molecular Biology of the Cell'', in which he coordinated the work of a group of scientist-writers.", "His third was ''Recombinant DNA'', which described the ways in which genetic engineering has brought new information about how organisms function.===Publishing ''The Double Helix''===In 1968, Watson wrote ''The Double Helix'', listed by the board of the Modern Library as number seven in their list of ''100 Best Nonfiction'' books.", "The book details the story of the discovery of the structure of DNA, as well as the personalities, conflicts and controversy surrounding their work, and includes many of his private emotional impressions at the time.", "Watson's original title was to have been \"Honest Jim\".", "Controversy surrounded the publication of the book.", "Watson's book was originally to be published by the Harvard University Press, but Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, among others, objected.", "Watson's home university dropped the project and the book was commercially published.", "In an interview with Anne Sayre for her book, ''Rosalind Franklin and DNA'' (published in 1975 and reissued in 2000), Francis Crick said that he regarded Watson's book as a \"contemptible pack of damned nonsense\".===Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory===In 1968, Watson became the director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL).", "Between 1970 and 1972, the Watsons' two sons were born, and by 1974, the young family made Cold Spring Harbor their permanent residence.", "Watson served as the laboratory's director and president for about 35 years, and later he assumed the role of chancellor and then chancellor emeritus.In his roles as director, president, and chancellor, Watson led CSHL to articulate its present-day mission, \"dedication to exploring molecular biology and genetics in order to advance the understanding and ability to diagnose and treat cancers, neurological diseases, and other causes of human suffering.\"", "CSHL substantially expanded both its research and its science educational programs under Watson's direction.", "He is credited with \"transforming a small facility into one of the world's great education and research institutions.", "Initiating a program to study the cause of human cancer, scientists under his direction have made major contributions to understanding the genetic basis of cancer.\"", "In a retrospective summary of Watson's accomplishments there, Bruce Stillman, the laboratory's president, said, \"Jim Watson created a research environment that is unparalleled in the world of science.", "\"In 2007, Watson said, \"I turned against the left wing because they don't like genetics, because genetics implies that sometimes in life we fail because we have bad genes.", "They want all failure in life to be due to the evil system.", "\"===Human Genome Project===Watson in 1992In 1990, Watson was appointed as the head of the Human Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health, a position he held until April 10, 1992.Watson left the Genome Project after conflicts with the new NIH Director, Bernadine Healy.", "Watson was opposed to Healy's attempts to acquire patents on gene sequences, and any ownership of the \"laws of nature\".", "Two years before stepping down from the Genome Project, he had stated his own opinion on this long and ongoing controversy which he saw as an illogical barrier to research; he said, \"The nations of the world must see that the human genome belongs to the world's people, as opposed to its nations.\"", "He left within weeks of the 1992 announcement that the NIH would be applying for patents on brain-specific cDNAs.", "(The issue of the patentability of genes has since been resolved in the US by the US Supreme Court; see ''Association for Molecular Pathology v. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office''.", ")In 1994, Watson became president of CSHL.", "Francis Collins took over the role as director of the Human Genome Project.Watson was quoted in ''The Sunday Telegraph'' in 1997 as stating: \"If you could find the gene which determines sexuality and a woman decides she doesn't want a homosexual child, well, let her.\"", "The biologist Richard Dawkins wrote a letter to ''The Independent'' claiming that Watson's position was misrepresented by ''The Sunday Telegraph'' article, and that Watson would equally consider the possibility of having a heterosexual child to be just as valid as any other reason for abortion, to emphasise that Watson is in favor of allowing choice.On the issue of obesity, Watson was quoted in 2000, saying: \"Whenever you interview fat people, you feel bad, because you know you're not going to hire them.", "\"Watson has repeatedly supported genetic screening and genetic engineering in public lectures and interviews, arguing that stupidity is a disease and the \"really stupid\" bottom 10% of people should be cured.", "He has also suggested that beauty could be genetically engineered, saying in 2003, \"People say it would be terrible if we made all girls pretty.", "I think it would be great.", "\"In 2007, Watson became the second person to publish his fully sequenced genome online, after it was presented to him on May 31, 2007, by 454 Life Sciences Corporation in collaboration with scientists at the Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine.", "Watson was quoted as saying, \"I am putting my genome sequence on line to encourage the development of an era of personalized medicine, in which information contained in our genomes can be used to identify and prevent disease and to create individualized medical therapies\".===Later life===In 2014, Watson published a paper in ''The Lancet'' suggesting that biological oxidants may have a different role than is thought in diseases including diabetes, dementia, heart disease and cancer.", "For example, type 2 diabetes is usually thought to be caused by oxidation in the body that causes inflammation and kills off pancreatic cells.", "Watson thinks the root of that inflammation is different: \"a lack of biological oxidants, not an excess\", and discusses this in detail.", "One critical response was that the idea was neither new nor worthy of merit, and that ''The Lancet'' published Watson's paper only because of his name.", "Other scientists have expressed their support for his hypothesis and have proposed that it can also be expanded to why a lack of oxidants can result in cancer and its progression.In 2014, Watson sold his Nobel Prize medal to raise money after complaining of being made an \"unperson\" following controversial statements he had made.", "Part of the funds raised by the sale went to support scientific research.", "The medal sold at auction at Christie's in December 2014 for .", "Watson intended to contribute the proceeds to conservation work in Long Island and to funding research at Trinity College, Dublin.", "He was the first living Nobel recipient to auction a medal.", "The medal was later returned to Watson by the purchaser, Alisher Usmanov.===Notable former students===Several of Watson's former doctoral students subsequently became notable in their own right including, Mario Capecchi, Bob Horvitz, Peter B. Moore and Joan Steitz.", "Besides numerous PhD students, Watson also supervised postdoctoral researchers and other interns including Ewan Birney, Ronald W. Davis, Phillip Allen Sharp (postdoc), John Tooze (postdoc) and Richard J. Roberts (postdoc).===Other affiliations===Watson is a former member of the Board of Directors of United Biomedical, Inc., founded by Chang Yi Wang.", "He held the position for six years and retired from the board in 1999.In January 2007, Watson accepted the invitation of Leonor Beleza, president of the Champalimaud Foundation, to become the head of the foundation's scientific council, an advisory organ.In March 2017, Watson was named head consultant of the Cheerland Investment Group, a Chinese investment company which sponsored his trip.Watson has also been an institute adviser for the Allen Institute for Brain Science.James Watson (February 2003)===''Avoid Boring People''===Watson signing autographs after a speech at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on April 30, 2007Watson has had disagreements with Craig Venter regarding his use of EST fragments while Venter worked at NIH.", "Venter went on to found Celera genomics and continued his feud with Watson.", "Watson was quoted as calling Venter \"Hitler\".In his 2007 memoir, ''Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science'', Watson describes his academic colleagues as \"dinosaurs\", \"deadbeats\", \"fossils\", \"has-beens\", \"mediocre\", and \"vapid\".", "Steve Shapin in ''Harvard Magazine'' noted that Watson had written an unlikely \"Book of Manners\", telling about the skills needed at different times in a scientist's career; he wrote Watson was known for aggressively pursuing his own goals at the university.", "E. O. Wilson once described Watson as \"the most unpleasant human being I had ever met\", but in a later TV interview said that he considered them friends and their rivalry at Harvard \"old history\" (when they had competed for funding in their respective fields).In the epilogue to the memoir ''Avoid Boring People'', Watson alternately attacks and defends former Harvard University president Lawrence Summers, who stepped down in 2006 due in part to his remarks about women and science.", "Watson also states in the epilogue, \"Anyone sincerely interested in understanding the imbalance in the representation of men and women in science must reasonably be prepared at least to consider the extent to which nature may figure, even with the clear evidence that nurture is strongly implicated.", "\"===Comments on race ===At a conference in 2000, Watson suggested a link between skin color and sex drive, hypothesizing that dark-skinned people have stronger libidos.", "His lecture argued that extracts of melanin—which gives skin its color—had been found to boost subjects' sex drive.", "\"That's why you have Latin lovers\", he said, according to people who attended the lecture.", "\"You've never heard of an English lover.", "Only an English Patient.\"", "He has also said that stereotypes associated with racial and ethnic groups have a genetic basis: Jews being intelligent, Chinese being intelligent but not creative because of selection for conformity, and Indians being servile because of selection under caste endogamy.", "Regarding intelligence differences between blacks and whites, Watson has asserted that \"all our social policies are based on the fact that their (blacks) intelligence is the same as ours (whites) – whereas all the testing says not really ... people who have to deal with black employees find this not true.", "\"Watson has repeatedly asserted that differences in average measured IQ between blacks and whites are due to genetics.", "In early October 2007, he was interviewed by Charlotte Hunt-Grubbe at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL).", "He discussed his view that Africans are less intelligent than Westerners.", "Watson said his intention was to promote science, not racism, but some UK venues canceled his appearances, and he canceled the rest of his tour.", "An editorial in ''Nature'' said that his remarks were \"beyond the pale\" but expressed a wish that the tour had not been canceled so that Watson would have had to face his critics in person, encouraging scientific discussion on the matter.", "Because of the controversy, the board of trustees at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory suspended Watson's administrative responsibilities.", "Watson issued an apology, then retired at the age of 79 from CSHL from what the lab called \"nearly 40 years of distinguished service\".", "Watson attributed his retirement to his age and to circumstances that he could never have anticipated or desired.In 2008, Watson was appointed chancellor emeritus of CSHL but continued to advise and guide project work at the laboratory.", "In a BBC documentary that year, Watson said he did not see himself as a racist.In January 2019, following the broadcast of a television documentary made the previous year in which he repeated his views about race and genetics, CSHL revoked honorary titles that it had awarded to Watson and cut all remaining ties with him.", "Watson did not respond to the developments." ], [ "Personal life", "Watson is an atheist.", "In 2003, he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.===Marriage and family===Watson married Elizabeth Lewis in 1968.They have two sons, Rufus Robert Watson (b.", "1970) and Duncan James Watson (b.", "1972).", "Watson sometimes talks about his son Rufus, who has schizophrenia, seeking to encourage progress in the understanding and treatment of mental illness by determining how genetics contributes to it." ], [ "Awards and honors", "James D. Watson with the Othmer Gold Medal, 2005Watson has won numerous awards, including:* Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research, 1960* Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences (2001)* Copley Medal of the Royal Society, 1993* CSHL Double Helix Medal Honoree, 2008* Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry, 1960* EMBO Membership in 1985* Gairdner Foundation International Award, 2002* Honorary Member of Royal Irish Academy, 2005* Honorary Fellow, the Hastings Center, an independent bioethics research institution* Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), 2002* Irish America Hall of Fame, inducted March 2011* John J. Carty Award in molecular biology from the National Academy of Sciences* Liberty Medal, 2000* Lomonosov Gold Medal, 1994* Lotos Club Medal of Merit, 2004* National Medal of Science, 1997* Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1962* Othmer Gold Medal (2005)* Presidential Medal of Freedom, 1977* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1986===Honorary degrees received===* DSc, University of Chicago, US, 1961* DSc, Indiana University, US, 1963* LLD, University of Notre Dame, US, 1965* DSc, Long Island University (CW Post), US, 1970* DSc, Adelphi University, US, 1972* DSc, Brandeis University, US, 1973* DSc, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, US, 1974* DSc, Hofstra University, US, 1976* DSc, Harvard University, US, 1978* DSc, Rockefeller University, US, 1980* DSc, Clarkson College of Technology, US, 1981* DSc, SUNY at Farmingdale, US, 1983* MD, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1986* DSc, Rutgers University, US, 1988* DSc, Bard College, US, 1991* DSc, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 1993* DSc, Fairfield University, US, 1993* DSc, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1993* DrHC, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, 1998* ScD, University of Dublin, Ireland, 2001===Professional and honorary affiliations===" ], [ "See also", "* Behavioral genetics* History of molecular biology* History of RNA biology* ''Life Story'' – 1987 BBC docudrama about Watson and Crick's discovery of DNA structure* List of RNA biologists* Predictive medicine* Whole genome sequencing" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Chadarevian, S. (2002) ''Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II''.", "Cambridge University Press .", "* Chargaff, E. (1978) ''Heraclitean Fire''.", "New York: Rockefeller Press.", "* Chomet, S., ed., (1994) ''D.N.A.", ": Genesis of a Discovery'' London: Newman-Hemisphere Press.", "* Collins, Francis.", "(2004) ''Coming to Peace With Science: Bridging the Worlds Between Faith and Biology''.", "InterVarsity Press.", ".", "* Collins, Francis.", "(2007) ''The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief'' Free Press.", ".", "* Crick, F. H. C. (1988) ''What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery'' (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990) .", "* John Finch; 'A Nobel Fellow On Every Floor', Medical Research Council 2008, 381 pp, ; this book is all about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge.", "* Friedberg, E.C.", "; \"Sydney Brenner: A Biography\", CSHL Press October 2010, .", "* Friedburg, E. C. (2005) ''\"The Writing Life of James D.", "Watson\".''", "\"Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press\" .", "* Hunter, G. (2004) ''Light Is A Messenger: the life and science of William Lawrence Bragg''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Inglis, J., Sambrook, J.", "& Witkowski, J.", "A.", "(eds.)", "''Inspiring Science: Jim Watson and the Age of DNA.''", "Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.", "2003..* Judson, H. F. (1996).", "''The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition.''", "Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.", ".", "* Maddox, B.", "(2003).", "''Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA.''", "Harper Perennial.", ".", "* McEleheny, Victor K. (2003) ''Watson and DNA: Making a scientific revolution'', Perseus.", ".", "* Robert Olby; 1974 ''The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA''.", "London: MacMillan.", "; Definitive DNA textbook, with foreword by Francis Crick, revised in 1994 with a 9-page postscript.", "* Robert Olby; (2003) \"Quiet debut for the double helix\" ''Nature'' '''421''' (January 23): 402–405.", "* Robert Olby; \"Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets\", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, , August 2009.", "* Ridley, M. (2006) ''Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives)'' New York: HarperCollins.", ".", "* Anne Sayre, \"Rosalind Franklin and DNA\", New York/London: W.W. Norton and Company, , 1975/2000.", "* James D. Watson, \"The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski\" (2012) Simon & Schuster, .", "* Wilkins, M. (2003) ''The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", ".", "* ''The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4'' (1870 to 1990), Cambridge University Press, 1992.===Selected books published===* James D. Watson, ''The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix'', edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski (2012) Simon & Schuster, .", "* * (Norton Critical Editions, 1981).", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " James D. Watson Collection at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Library* DNA – The Double Helix Game from Nobelprize.org* MSN Encarta biography ( Archived 2009-10-31)* DNA Interactive – This site from the Dolan DNA Learning Center (part of CSHL) commemorates the discovery of the structure of DNA and includes dozens of animations, as well as interviews with James Watson and others.", "* DNA from the Beginning – another DNA Learning Center site on the basics of DNA, genes, and heredity, from Mendel to the Human Genome Project.", "* * * * * ** A Revolution at 50, February 25, 2003* ;Articles and interviews* BBC Four Interviews – Watson and Crick speaking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974.", "* ''NPR Science Friday'': \"A Conversation with Genetics Pioneer James Watson\" – Ira Flatow interviews Watson on the history of DNA and his recent book ''A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society''.", "2002-06-02* ''NPR Science Friday'' \"DNA: The Secret of Life\" – Ira Flatow interviews Watson on his new book.", "2003-05-02* ''Discover'' \"Reversing Bad Truths\" – David Duncan interviews Watson.", "2003-07-01* Two remembrances of James Watson by one of the founders of molecular genetics, Esther Lederberg, can be found at http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON1 and http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON2* James Watson telling his life story at Web of Stories* American Masters: Decoding Watson PBS film about Watson, including extensive interviews with him, his family, and colleagues.", "2019-01-02.", "* James D. Watson, Ph.D.", "Biography and Interview on American Academy of Achievement" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jerk (physics)" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics, '''jerk''' (also known as '''jolt''') is the rate of change of an object's acceleration over time.", "It is a vector quantity (having both magnitude and direction).", "Jerk is most commonly denoted by the symbol and expressed in m/s3 (SI units) or standard gravities per second (''g''0/s)." ], [ "Expressions", "As a vector, jerk can be expressed as the first time derivative of acceleration, second time derivative of velocity, and third time derivative of position:Where:* is acceleration* is velocity* is position* is timeThird-order differential equations of the formare sometimes called ''jerk equations''.", "When converted to an equivalent system of three ordinary first-order non-linear differential equations, jerk equations are the minimal setting for solutions showing chaotic behaviour.", "This condition generates mathematical interest in ''jerk systems''.", "Systems involving fourth-order derivatives or higher are accordingly called ''hyperjerk systems''." ], [ "Physiological effects and human perception", "Human body position is controlled by balancing the forces of antagonistic muscles.", "In balancing a given force, such as holding up a weight, the postcentral gyrus establishes a control loop to achieve the desired equilibrium.", "If the force changes too quickly, the muscles cannot relax or tense fast enough and overshoot in either direction, causing a temporary loss of control.", "The reaction time for responding to changes in force depends on physiological limitations and the attention level of the brain: an ''expected'' change will be stabilized faster than a ''sudden'' decrease or increase of load.To avoid vehicle passengers losing control over body motion and getting injured, it is necessary to limit the exposure to both the maximum force (acceleration) ''and'' maximum jerk, since time is needed to adjust muscle tension and adapt to even limited stress changes.", "Sudden changes in acceleration can cause injuries such as whiplash.", "Excessive jerk may also result in an uncomfortable ride, even at levels that do not cause injury.", "Engineers expend considerable design effort minimizing \"jerky motion\" on elevators, trams, and other conveyances.For example, consider the effects of acceleration and jerk when riding in a car:* Skilled and experienced drivers can accelerate smoothly, but beginners often provide a ''jerky'' ride.", "When changing gears in a car with a foot-operated clutch, the accelerating force is limited by engine power, but an inexperienced driver can cause severe jerk because of intermittent force closure over the clutch.", "* The feeling of being pressed into the seats in a high-powered sports car is due to the acceleration.", "As the car launches from rest, there is a large positive jerk as its acceleration rapidly increases.", "After the launch, there is a small, sustained negative jerk as the force of air resistance increases with the car's velocity, gradually decreasing acceleration and reducing the force pressing the passenger into the seat.", "When the car reaches its top speed, the acceleration has reached 0 and remains constant, after which there is no jerk until the driver decelerates or changes direction.", "* When braking suddenly or during collisions, passengers whip forward with an initial acceleration that is larger than during the rest of the braking process because muscle tension regains control of the body quickly after the onset of braking or impact.", "These effects are not modeled in vehicle testing because cadavers and crash test dummies do not have active muscle control.", "* To minimize the jerk, curves along roads are designed to be clothoids as are railroad curves and roller coaster loops." ], [ "Force, acceleration, and jerk", "For a constant mass , acceleration is directly proportional to force according to Newton's second law of motion:In classical mechanics of rigid bodies, there are no ''forces'' associated with the derivatives of acceleration; however, physical systems experience oscillations and deformations as a result of jerk.", "In designing the Hubble Space Telescope, NASA set limits on both jerk and jounce.The Abraham–Lorentz force is the recoil force on an accelerating charged particle emitting radiation.", "This force is proportional to the particle's jerk and to the square of its charge.", "The Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory is a more advanced theory, applicable in a relativistic and quantum environment, and accounting for self-energy." ], [ "In an idealized setting", "Discontinuities in acceleration do not occur in real-world environments because of deformation, quantum mechanics effects, and other causes.", "However, a jump-discontinuity in acceleration and, accordingly, unbounded jerk are feasible in an idealized setting, such as an idealized point mass moving along a piecewise smooth, whole continuous path.", "The jump-discontinuity occurs at points where the path is not smooth.", "Extrapolating from these idealized settings, one can qualitatively describe, explain and predict the effects of jerk in real situations.Jump-discontinuity in acceleration can be modeled using a Dirac delta function in jerk, scaled to the height of the jump.", "Integrating jerk over time across the Dirac delta yields the jump-discontinuity.For example, consider a path along an arc of radius , which tangentially connects to a straight line.", "The whole path is continuous, and its pieces are smooth.", "Now assume a point particle moves with constant speed along this path, so its tangential acceleration is zero.", "The centripetal acceleration given by is normal to the arc and inward.", "When the particle passes the connection of pieces, it experiences a jump-discontinuity in acceleration given by , and it undergoes a jerk that can be modeled by a Dirac delta, scaled to the jump-discontinuity.For a more tangible example of discontinuous acceleration, consider an ideal spring–mass system with the mass oscillating on an idealized surface with friction.", "The force on the mass is equal to the vector sum of the spring force and the kinetic frictional force.", "When the velocity changes sign (at the maximum and minimum displacements), the magnitude of the force on the mass changes by twice the magnitude of the frictional force, because the spring force is continuous and the frictional force reverses direction with velocity.", "The jump in acceleration equals the force on the mass divided by the mass.", "That is, each time the mass passes through a minimum or maximum displacement, the mass experiences a discontinuous acceleration, and the jerk contains a Dirac delta until the mass stops.", "The static friction force adapts to the residual spring force, establishing equilibrium with zero net force and zero velocity.Consider the example of a braking and decelerating car.", "The brake pads generate kinetic frictional forces and constant braking torques on the disks (or drums) of the wheels.", "Rotational velocity decreases linearly to zero with constant angular deceleration.", "The frictional force, torque, and car deceleration suddenly reach zero, which indicates a Dirac delta in physical jerk.", "The Dirac delta is smoothed down by the real environment, the cumulative effects of which are analogous to damping of the physiologically perceived jerk.", "This example neglects the effects of tire sliding, suspension dipping, real deflection of all ideally rigid mechanisms, etc.Another example of significant jerk, analogous to the first example, is the cutting of a rope with a particle on its end.", "Assume the particle is oscillating in a circular path with non-zero centripetal acceleration.", "When the rope is cut, the particle's path changes abruptly to a straight path, and the force in the inward direction changes suddenly to zero.", "Imagine a monomolecular fiber cut by a laser; the particle would experience very high rates of jerk because of the extremely short cutting time." ], [ "In rotation", "Animation showing a four-position external Geneva drive in operationTiming diagram over one revolution for angle, angular velocity, angular acceleration, and angular jerkConsider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis in an inertial reference frame.", "If its angular position as a function of time is , the angular velocity, acceleration, and jerk can be expressed as follows:* Angular velocity, , is the time derivative of .", "* Angular acceleration, , is the time derivative of .", "* Angular jerk, , is the time derivative of .Angular acceleration equals the torque acting on the body, divided by the body's moment of inertia with respect to the momentary axis of rotation.", "A change in torque results in angular jerk.The general case of a rotating rigid body can be modeled using kinematic screw theory, which includes one axial vector, angular velocity , and one polar vector, linear velocity .", "From this, the angular acceleration is defined asand the angular jerk is given bytaking the angular acceleration from Angular acceleration#Particle in three dimensions as, we obtainreplacing we can have the last item as, and we finally getor vice versa, replacing with :For example, consider a Geneva drive, a device used for creating intermittent rotation of a driven wheel (the blue wheel in the animation) by continuous rotation of a driving wheel (the red wheel in the animation).", "During one cycle of the driving wheel, the driven wheel's angular position changes by 90 degrees and then remains constant.", "Because of the finite thickness of the driving wheel's fork (the slot for the driving pin), this device generates a discontinuity in the angular acceleration , and an unbounded angular jerk in the driven wheel.Jerk does not preclude the Geneva drive from being used in applications such as movie projectors and cams.", "In movie projectors, the film advances frame-by-frame, but the projector operation has low noise and is highly reliable because of the low film load (only a small section of film weighing a few grams is driven), the moderate speed (2.4 m/s), and the low friction.With cam drive systems, use of a dual cam can avoid the jerk of a single cam; however, the dual cam is bulkier and more expensive.", "The dual-cam system has two cams on one axle that shifts a second axle by a fraction of a revolution.", "The graphic shows step drives of one-sixth and one-third rotation per one revolution of the driving axle.", "There is no radial clearance because two arms of the stepped wheel are always in contact with the double cam.", "Generally, combined contacts may be used to avoid the jerk (and wear and noise) associated with a single follower (such as a single follower gliding along a slot and changing its contact point from one side of the slot to the other can be avoided by using two followers sliding along the same slot, one side each)." ], [ "In elastically deformable matter", "An elastically deformable mass deforms under an applied force (or acceleration); the deformation is a function of its stiffness and the magnitude of the force.", "If the change in force is slow, the jerk is small, and the propagation of deformation is considered instantaneous as compared to the change in acceleration.", "The distorted body acts as if it were in a quasistatic regime, and only a changing force (nonzero jerk) can cause propagation of mechanical waves (or electromagnetic waves for a charged particle); therefore, for nonzero to high jerk, a shock wave and its propagation through the body should be considered.The propagation of deformation is shown in the graphic \"Compression wave patterns\" as a compressional plane wave through an elastically deformable material.", "Also shown, for angular jerk, are the deformation waves propagating in a circular pattern, which causes shear stress and possibly other modes of vibration.", "The reflection of waves along the boundaries cause constructive interference patterns (not pictured), producing stresses that may exceed the material's limits.", "The deformation waves may cause vibrations, which can lead to noise, wear, and failure, especially in cases of resonance.Pole with massive topThe graphic captioned \"Pole with massive top\" shows a block connected to an elastic pole and a massive top.", "The pole bends when the block accelerates, and when the acceleration stops, the top will oscillate (damped) under the regime of pole stiffness.", "One could argue that a greater (periodic) jerk might excite a larger amplitude of oscillation because small oscillations are damped before reinforcement by a shock wave.", "One can also argue that a larger jerk might increase the probability of exciting a resonant mode because the larger wave components of the shock wave have higher frequencies and Fourier coefficients.Sinusoidal acceleration profileTo reduce the amplitude of excited stress waves and vibrations, one can limit jerk by shaping motion and making the acceleration continuous with slopes as flat as possible.", "Due to limitations of abstract models, algorithms for reducing vibrations include higher derivatives, such as jounce, or suggest continuous regimes for both acceleration and jerk.", "One concept for limiting jerk is to shape acceleration and deceleration sinusoidally with zero acceleration in between (see graphic captioned \"Sinusoidal acceleration profile\"), making the speed appear sinusoidal with constant maximum speed.", "The jerk, however, will remain discontinuous at the points where acceleration enters and leaves the zero phases." ], [ "In the geometric design of roads and tracks", "A track transition curve limits jerk.", "The transition is shown in red between the blue straight line and green arc.Roads and tracks are designed to limit the jerk caused by changes in their curvature.", "Design standards for high-speed rail vary from 0.2 m/s3 to 0.6 m/s3.Track transition curves limit the jerk when transitioning from a straight line to a curve, or vice versa.", "Recall that in constant-speed motion along an arc, acceleration is zero in the tangential direction and nonzero in the inward normal direction.", "Transition curves gradually increase the curvature and, consequently, the centripetal acceleration.An Euler spiral, the theoretically optimum transition curve, linearly increases centripetal acceleration and results in constant jerk (see graphic).", "In real-world applications, the plane of the track is inclined (cant) along the curved sections.", "The incline causes vertical acceleration, which is a design consideration for wear on the track and embankment.", "The Wiener Kurve (Viennese Curve) is a patented curve designed to minimize this wear.Rollercoasters are also designed with track transitions to limit jerk.", "When entering a loop, acceleration values can reach around 4''g'' (40 m/s2), and riding in this high acceleration environment is only possible with track transitions.", "S-shaped curves, such as figure eights, also use track transitions for smooth rides." ], [ "In motion control", "In motion control, the design focus is on straight, linear motion, with the need to move a system from one steady position to another (point-to-point motion).", "The design concern from a jerk perspective is vertical jerk; the jerk from tangential acceleration is effectively zero since linear motion is non-rotational.Motion control applications include passenger elevators and machining tools.", "Limiting vertical jerk is considered essential for elevator riding convenience.", "ISO 8100-34 specifies measurement methods for elevator ride quality with respect to jerk, acceleration, vibration, and noise; however, the standard does not specify levels for acceptable or unacceptable ride quality.", "It is reported that most passengers rate a vertical jerk of 2 m/s3 as acceptable and 6 m/s3 as intolerable.", "For hospitals, 0.7 m/s3 is the recommended limit.A primary design goal for motion control is to minimize the transition time without exceeding speed, acceleration, or jerk limits.", "Consider a third-order motion-control profile with quadratic ramping and deramping phases in velocity (see figure).This picture shows a schematic diagram of jerk, acceleration, and speed, assuming all three are limited in their magnitude, when linearly going from one point to another, which are sufficiently far apart to reach the respective maxima.This motion profile consists of the following seven segments:# Acceleration build up — positive jerk limit; linear increase in acceleration to the positive acceleration limit; quadratic increase in velocity# Upper acceleration limit — zero jerk; linear increase in velocity# Acceleration ramp down — negative jerk limit; linear decrease in acceleration; (negative) quadratic increase in velocity, approaching the desired velocity limit# Velocity limit — zero jerk; zero acceleration# Deceleration build up — negative jerk limit; linear decrease in acceleration to the negative acceleration limit; (negative) quadratic decrease in velocity# Lower deceleration limit — zero jerk; linear decrease in velocity# Deceleration ramp down — positive jerk limit; linear increase in acceleration to zero; quadratic decrease in velocity; approaching the desired position at zero speed and zero accelerationSegment four's time period (constant velocity) varies with distance between the two positions.", "If this distance is so small that omitting segment four would not suffice, then segments two and six (constant acceleration) could be equally reduced, and the constant velocity limit would not be reached.", "If this modification does not sufficiently reduce the crossed distance, then segments one, three, five, and seven could be shortened by an equal amount, and the constant acceleration limits would not be reached.Other motion profile strategies are used, such as minimizing the square of jerk for a given transition time and, as discussed above, sinusoidal-shaped acceleration profiles.", "Motion profiles are tailored for specific applications including machines, people movers, chain hoists, automobiles, and robotics.=== In manufacturing ===Jerk is an important consideration in manufacturing processes.", "Rapid changes in acceleration of a cutting tool can lead to premature tool wear and result in uneven cuts; consequently, modern motion controllers include jerk limitation features.", "In mechanical engineering, jerk, in addition to velocity and acceleration, is considered in the development of cam profiles because of tribological implications and the ability of the actuated body to follow the cam profile without chatter.Jerk is often considered when vibration is a concern.", "A device that measures jerk is called a \"jerkmeter\"." ], [ "Further derivatives", "Further time derivatives have also been named, as snap or jounce (fourth derivative), crackle (fifth derivative), and pop (sixth derivative).", "However, time derivatives of position of higher order than four appear rarely.The terms ''snap'', ''crackle'', and ''pop''for the fourth, fifth, and sixth derivatives of positionwere inspired by the advertising mascots Snap, Crackle, and Pop." ], [ "See also", "* Geomagnetic jerk* Shock (mechanics)* Yank" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "External links", " What is the term used for the third derivative of position?, description of jerk in the Usenet Physics FAQ* Mathematics of Motion Control Profiles* Elevator-Ride-Quality* Elevator manufacturer brochure* Patent of ''Wiener Kurve''* Description of ''Wiener Kurve''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Ambrose Fleming" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Ambrose Fleming''' FRS (29 November 1849 – 18 April 1945) was an English electrical engineer and physicist who invented the first thermionic valve or vacuum tube, designed the radio transmitter with which the first transatlantic radio transmission was made, and also established the right-hand rule used in physics.He was the eldest of seven children of James Fleming DD (died 1879), a Congregational minister, and his wife Mary Ann, at Lancaster, Lancashire, and baptised on 11 February 1850.A devout Christian, he once preached at St Martin-in-the-Fields in London on evidence for the resurrection.In 1932, he and Douglas Dewar and Bernard Acworth helped establish the Evolution Protest Movement.", "Fleming bequeathed much of his estate to Christian charities, especially those for the poor.", "He was a noted photographer, painted watercolours, and enjoyed climbing the Alps." ], [ "Early years", "Ambrose Fleming was born in Lancaster and educated at Lancaster Royal Grammar School, University College School, London, and then University College London, where he obtained a BSc in 1870.He entered St John's College, Cambridge in 1877, gaining a DSc from the University of London in 1879 and a BA from Cambridge in 1881, before becoming a fellow of St John's in 1883.He went on to lecture at several universities including the University of Cambridge, University College Nottingham, and University College London, where he was the first professor of electrical engineering.", "He was also a consultant to the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company, Swan Company, Ferranti, Edison Telephone, and later the Edison Electric Light Company.", "In 1892, Fleming presented an important paper on electrical transformer theory to the Institution of Electrical Engineers in London." ], [ "Education and marriages", "Fleming started school at about the age of ten, attending a private school where he particularly enjoyed geometry.", "Prior to that his mother tutored him and he had learned, virtually by heart, a book called the ''Child's Guide to Knowledge'', a popular book of the day – even as an adult he would quote from it.", "His schooling continued at the University College School where, although accomplished at maths, he habitually came bottom of the class at Latin.Even as a boy he wanted to become an engineer.", "At 11 he had his own workshop where he built model boats and engines.", "He even built his own camera, the start of a lifelong interest in photography.", "Training to become an engineer was beyond the family's financial resources, but he reached his goal via a path that alternated education with paid employment.Fleming enrolled for a BSc degree at University College London, graduated in 1870, and studied under the mathematician Augustus De Morgan and the physicist George Carey Foster.", "He became a student of chemistry at the Royal College of Science in South Kensington in London (now Imperial College).", "There he first studied Alessandro Volta's battery, which became the subject of his first scientific paper.", "This was the first paper to be read to the new Physical Society of London (now the Institute of Physics) and appears on page one of volume one of their Proceedings.Financial problems again forced him to work for a living and in the summer of 1874 he became science master at Cheltenham College, a public school, earning £400 per year.", "(He later also taught at Rossall School.)", "His own scientific research continued and he corresponded with James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge University.", "After saving £400, and securing a grant of £50 a year, in October 1877 at the age of 27, he once again enrolled as a student, this time at Cambridge.He was among the \"two or perhaps three University students who attended Maxwell's last Course\".", "Maxwell's lectures, he admitted, were difficult to follow.", "Maxwell, he said, often appeared obscure and had \"a paradoxical and allusive way of speaking\".", "On occasions Fleming was the only student at those lectures.", "Fleming again graduated, this time with a First Class Honours degree in chemistry and physics.", "He then obtained a DSc from London and served one year at Cambridge University as a demonstrator of mechanical engineering before being appointed as the first Professor of Physics and Mathematics at University College Nottingham, but he left after less than a year.On 11 June 1887, he married Clara Ripley (1856/7–1917), daughter of Walter Freake Pratt, a solicitor from Bath.", "On 27 July 1928 he married the popular young singer Olive May Franks (b.", "1898/9), of Bristol, daughter of George Franks, a Cardiff businessman." ], [ "Activities and achievements", "After leaving the University of Nottingham in 1882, Fleming took up the post of \"electrician\" to the Edison Electrical Light Company, advising on lighting systems and the new Ferranti alternating current systems.", "In 1884 Fleming joined University College London taking up the Chair of Electrical Technology, the first of its kind in England.", "Although this offered great opportunities, he recalls in his autobiography that the only equipment provided to him was a blackboard and piece of chalk.", "In 1897 the Pender Laboratory was founding at University College London and Fleming took up the Pender Chair after the £5000 was endowed as a memorial to John Pender, the founder of Cable and Wireless.In 1899 Guglielmo Marconi, the inventor of radiotelegraphy, decided to attempt transatlantic radio communication.", "This would require a scale-up in power from the small 200–400 watt transmitters Marconi had used up to then.", "He contracted Fleming, an expert in power engineering, to design the radio transmitter.", "Fleming designed the world's first large radio transmitter, a complicated spark transmitter powered by a 25 kW alternator driven by a combustion engine, built at Poldhu in Cornwall, UK, which transmitted the first radio transmission across the Atlantic on 12 December 1901.Although Fleming was responsible for the design, the director of the Marconi Co. had made Fleming agree that: \"If we get across the Atlantic, the main credit will be and must forever be Mr. Marconi's\".", "Accordingly, the worldwide acclaim that greeted this landmark accomplishment went to Marconi, who only credited Fleming along with several other Marconi employees, saying he did some work on the \"power plant\".", "Marconi also forgot a promise to give Fleming 500 shares of Marconi stock if the project was successful.", "Fleming was bitter about his treatment.", "He honoured his agreement and did not speak about it throughout Marconi's life, but after his death in 1937 said Marconi had been \"very ungenerous\".In 1904, working for the Marconi company to improve transatlantic radio reception, Fleming invented the first thermionic vacuum tube, the two-electrode diode, which he called the oscillation valve, for which he received a patent on 16 November.", "It became known as the Fleming valve.", "The Supreme Court of the United States later invalidated the patent because of an improper disclaimer and, additionally, maintained the technology in the patent was known art when filed.This invention of the vacuum tube is often considered to have been the beginning of electronics.", "Fleming's diode was used in radio receivers and radars for many decades afterwards, until it was superseded by solid state electronic technology more than 50 years later.John Ambrose Fleming (1906)In 1906, Lee De Forest of the US added a control \"grid\" to the valve to create an amplifying vacuum tube RF detector called the ''Audion'', leading Fleming to accuse him of infringing his patents.", "De Forest's tube developed into the triode the first electronic amplifier.", "The triode was vital in the creation of long-distance telephone and radio communications, radars, and early electronic digital computers (mechanical and electro-mechanical digital computers already existed using different technology).", "The court battle over these patents lasted for many years with victories at different stages for both sides.", "Fleming also contributed in the fields of photometry, electronics, wireless telegraphy (radio), and electrical measurements.", "He coined the term ''power factor'' to describe the true power flowing in an AC power system.Fleming retired from University College London in 1927 at the age of 77.He remained active, becoming a committed advocate of the new technology of Television which included serving as the second president of the Television Society.", "He was knighted in 1929, and died at his home in Sidmouth, Devon in 1945.His contributions to electronic communications and radar were of vital importance in winning World War II.", "Fleming was awarded the IRE Medal of Honor in 1933 for \"the conspicuous part he played in introducing physical and engineering principles into the radio art\".", "A note from eulogy at the Centenary celebration of the invention of the thermionic valve::One century ago, in November 1904, John Ambrose Fleming FRS, Pender Professor at UCL, filed in Great Britain, for a device called the Thermionic Valve.", "When inserted together with a galvanometer, into a tuned electrical circuit, it could be used as a very sensitive rectifying detector of high frequency wireless currents, known as radio waves.", "It was a major step forward in the 'wireless revolution'.In November 1905, he patented the \"Fleming Valve\" ().", "As a rectifying diode, and forerunner to the triode valve and many related structures, it can also be considered to be the device that gave birth to modern electronics.In the ensuing years, valves quickly superseded \"cat's whiskers\" and were the main device used to create the electronics industry of today.", "They remained dominant until the transistor took dominance in the early 1970s.Today, descendants of the original valve (or vacuum tube) still play an important role in a range of applications.", "They can be found in the power stages of radio and television transmitters, in musical instrument amplifiers (particularly electric guitar and bass amplifiers), in some high-end audio amplifiers, as detectors of optical and short wavelength radiation, and in sensitive equipment that must be \"radiation-hard\".In 1941 the London Power Company commemorated Fleming by naming a new 1,555 GRT coastal collier SS ''Ambrose Fleming''.On 27 November 2004 a Blue Plaque presented by the Institute of Physics was unveiled at the Norman Lockyer Observatory, Sidmouth, to mark 100 years since the invention of the thermionic radio valve." ], [ "Creationism", "Fleming was a Christian creationist who argued against evolution.", "He was President of the Victoria Institute from 1927 to 1942." ], [ "Lectures", "In 1894 and 1917 Ambrose Fleming was invited to deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on ''The Work of an Electric Current'' and ''Our Useful Servants : Magnetism and Electricity'' respectively." ], [ "Collections", "In 1945 Fleming's widow donated Fleming's library and papers to University College London.", "Fleming's library, which totals around 950 items, includes first editions of works by prominent scientists and engineers such as James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Lodge, James Dewar and Shelford Bidwell.", "Fleming's archive spans 521 volumes and 12 boxes; it contains his laboratory notebooks, lecture notes, patent specifications, and correspondence." ], [ "Books by Fleming", "''Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting: A course of four lectures on electric illumination delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain'' (1894) 228 pages, .", "''The Alternate Current Transformer in Theory and Practice'' \"The Electrician\" Printing and Publishing Company (1896)''Magnets and Electric Currents'' E. & F. N. Spon.", "(1898)''A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room'' \"The Electrician\" Printing and Publishing Company (1901)''Waves and Ripples in Water, Air, and Aether'' MacMillan (1902).", "''The Evidence of Things Not Seen'' Christian Knowledge Society: London (1904)''The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy'' (1906), Longmans Green, London, 671 pages.", "''The Propagation of Electric Currents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors'' (1908) Constable, 316 pages.", "''An Elementary Manual of Radiotelegraphy and Radiotelephony'' (1911) Longmans Green, London, 340 pages.", "''On the power factor and conductivity of dielectrics when tested with alternating electric currents of telephonic frequency at various temperatures '' (1912) Gresham, 82 pages, ASIN: B0008CJBIC''The Wonders of Wireless Telegraphy : Explained in simple terms for the non-technical reader'' Society for promoting Christian Knowledge (1913)''The Wireless Telegraphist's Pocket Book of Notes, Formulae and Calculations'' The Wireless Press (1915)''The Thermionic Valve and its Development in Radio Telegraphy and Telephony'' (1919).", "''Fifty Years of Electricity'' The Wireless Press (1921)''Electrons, Electric Waves and Wireless telephony'' The Wireless Press (1923)''Introduction to Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony'' Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd. (1924)''Mercury-arc Rectifiers and Mercury-vapour Lamps'' London.", "Pitman (1925)''The Electrical Educator'' (3 volumes), The New Era Publishing Co Ltd (1927)''Television'' Television Press London.", "(1928)''Memories of a Scientific life'' Marshall, Morgan & Scott (1934)''Evolution or Creation?''", "(1938) Marshall Morgan and Scott, 114 pages, ASIN: B00089BL7Y – outlines objections to Darwin.", "''Mathematics for Engineers'' George Newnes Ltd (1938)''Physics for Engineers'' George Newnes Ltd (1941)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**** IEEE History Center biography* Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, UCL – home of the original Fleming valve* 100 Years of Electronics 2004 – The Centenary of the Fleming Valve* Life and Times of Ambrose Fleming* Fleming Book Collection at University College London* Fleming Papers at University College London" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John George, Elector of Brandenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "John George and his second consort, Sabine of Ansbach'''John George of Brandenburg''' (; 11 September 1525 – 8 January 1598) was a prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1571–1598)." ], [ "Early life", "Born as a member of the House of Hohenzollern, he was the son of Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg, and his first wife Princess Magdalena of Saxony." ], [ "Biography", "Faced with large debts of 2.5 million guilder accumulated during the reign of his father, John George instituted a grain tax which drove part of the peasantry into dependence on a nobility that was exempt from taxation.", "He had Jews expelled from Brandenburg in 1573, stripped of their assets and prohibited from returning.", "Though a staunch Lutheran opposed to the rise of Calvinism, he permitted the admission of Calvinist refugees from the wars in the Spanish Netherlands and France.", "On 13 July 1574, he founded the Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster, the first humanistic educational institution in Berlin.", "He was succeeded by his son Joachim Frederick.Upon the death of his kinsman Albert I, Duke of Prussia in 1568, the Duchy of Prussia was inherited by the latter's underage son Albert Frederick.", "John George's father was a co-inheritor of the Duchy of Prussia.", "In 1577 the Brandenburg electors became co-regent with Duke Albert Frederick of Prussia." ], [ "Family and children", "John George was married three times.His first wife was Princess Sophie of Legnica (ca.", "1525 – 6 February 1546), whom he married in 1545.They had one child together:# Joachim Frederick (27 January 1546 – 18 July 1608)Secondly, he married Margravine Sabina of Brandenburg-Ansbach (12 May 1529 – 2 November 1575), daughter of George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, in 1548.They had the following children:# George Albert (19 February 1555 – 8 January 1557)# John (1557 – died young), twin with Albert# Albert (1557 – died young), twin with John# Magdalena Sabina (1559 – died young)# Erdmuthe (26 June 1561 – 13 November 1623), married in 1577 to Duke John Frederick of Pomerania# Marie (1562 – died young)# Hedwig (1563 – died young)# Magdalena (1564 – died young)# Margaret (1565 – died young)# Anna Maria (3 February 1567 – 4 November 1618), married in 1581 to Duke Barnim X of Pomerania# Sophie (6 June 1568 – 7 December 1622), married in 1582 to Elector Christian I of SaxonyThirdly, he married Princess Elisabeth of Anhalt-Zerbst ( – 5 October 1607) in 1577.They had the following children:# Christian (30 January 1581 – 30 May 1655)# Magdalena (7 January 1582 – 4 May 1616), married in 1598 to Landgrave Louis V of Hesse-Darmstadt# Joachim Ernest (22 June 1583 – 7 March 1625)# Agnes (17 July 1584 – 26 March 1629), married:## in 1604 Duke Philipp Julius of Pomerania;## in 1628 Duke Francis Charles of Saxe-Lauenburg# Frederick (22 March 1588 – 19 May 1611)#Elisabeth Sophia (13 July 1589 – 24 December 1629), married:## in 1613 to Reichsfürst (Prince) Janusz Radziwiłł;## on 27 February 1628 to Duke Julius Henry of Saxe-Lauenburg# Dorothea Sibylle (19 October 1590 – 9 March 1625), married in 1610 to Duke John Christian of Brieg# George Albert (20 November 1591 – 29 November 1615)# Sigismund (20 November 1592 – 30 April 1640)# John (13 July 1597 – 23 September 1627), Bishop of Havelberg# John George (4 August 1598 – 27 January 1637)" ], [ "Ancestors", "+'''John George's ancestors in three generations''' '''John George, Elector of Brandenburg''' '''Father:'''Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg '''Paternal Grandfather:'''Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg '''Paternal Great-grandfather:'''John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg '''Paternal Great-grandmother:'''Margaret of Thuringia '''Paternal Grandmother:'''Elisabeth of Denmark '''Paternal Great-grandfather:'''John of Denmark '''Paternal Great-grandmother:'''Christina of Saxony '''Mother:'''Magdalena of Saxony '''Maternal Grandfather:'''George, Duke of Saxony '''Maternal Great-grandfather:'''Albert, Duke of Saxony '''Maternal Great-grandmother:''' Sidonie of Poděbrady '''Maternal Grandmother:'''Barbara Jagiellon '''Maternal Great-grandfather:'''Casimir IV Jagiellon '''Maternal Great-grandmother:'''Elisabeth of Austria" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A portrait with ducal titleaged 72" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jahangir" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Nur-ud-Din Muhammad Salim''' (31 August 1569 – 28 October 1627), known by his imperial name '''Jahangir''' (; ), was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605 until his death in 1627.He was the third and only surviving son of Emperor Akbar and his chief empress, Mariam-uz-Zamani, born to them in the year 1569.Nuruddin Muhammad Salim was named after the revered Indian Sufi saint Salim Chishti." ], [ "Early life", "Empress Mariam-uz-Zamani, giving birth to prince Salim in Fatehpur Sikri, painted by Bishandas.", "Prince Salim was the third son born to Akbar and Mariam-uz-Zamani in the capital city of Fatehpur Sikri on 31 August 1569.He had two elder twin brothers, Hassan and Hussain Mirza, born in 1564, both of whom died in infancy.", "Grief-struck, Akbar took Mariam-uz-Zamani along with him after their sons' demise as he set out for a war campaign, and, during his return to Agra, he sought the blessings of Salim Chishti, a reputed khawaja (religious leader) who lived at Fatehpur Sikri.", "Akbar confided in Salim Chisti, who assured him that he would be soon delivered of three sons who would live up to a ripe old age.", "A few years before the birth of Prince Salim, Akbar and Mariam-uz-Zamani went barefoot on a pilgrimage to Ajmer Sharif Dargah to pray for a son.When Akbar was informed of the news that his chief Hindu wife was expecting a child, an order was passed for the establishment of a royal palace in Fatehpur Sikri near the lodgings of Salim Chishti, where the Empress could enjoy the repose in the vicinity of the saint.", "Mariam was shifted to the palace established there and during her pregnancy, Akbar himself used to travel to Sikri and used to spend half of his time in Sikri and another half in Agra.One day, while Mariam-uz-Zamani was pregnant with Salim, the baby stopped kicking in the womb abruptly.", "Akbar was at that time hunting cheetahs when this matter was reported to him.", "Thinking if he could have done anything more for the safety of his unborn child, he vowed that from that day he would never hunt cheetahs on Fridays and Salim notes in his autobiography that Akbar kept his vow throughout his life.", "Salim, too, in reverence for his father's vow, never hunted cheetahs on Friday.", "When Mariam-uz-Zamani was near her confinement, she was shifted to the humble dwelling of Salim by Akbar where she gave birth to Salim.", "He was named after Salim, given the faith of Akbar in the efficacy of the prayers of the holy man.Akbar, overjoyed with the news of his heir ordered a great feast on the occasion of his birth and the release of criminals with great offence.", "Throughout the empire, largesse was bestowed on common people, and he set himself ready to visit Sikri immediately.", "However, he was advised by his courtiers to delay his visit to Sikri on account of the astrological belief prevalent in the country of a father delaying the visit to see his long-awaited son immediately after his birth.", "He, therefore, delayed his visit and visited Sikri after forty-one days of Salim’s birth (the postpartum period, called ''nifās'' in Arabic and Classical Persian).Jahangir's foster mother was the daughter of Salim Chishti, and his foster brother was Qutubuddin Koka, the grandson of Chishti.Salim began his education at the age of five.", "On this occasion, a big feast was thrown by the Emperor to ceremonially initiate his son into education.", "His first tutor was Qutubuddin Koka.", "After some time he was inaugurated into strategic reasoning and military warfare by several tutors.", "His maternal uncle, Bhagwant Das the Kachhwaha ruler of Amer, was supposedly one of his tutors on the subject of warfare tactics.Salim grew up fluent in Persian and premodern Urdu, with a \"respectable\" knowledge of Persianified courtly Chaghatai (\"Turki\"), the Mughal ancestral language." ], [ "Reign", "Abu al-Hasan c.1617He succeeded the throne on Thursday, 3 November 1605, eight days after his father's death.", "Salim ascended the throne with the imperial grand title of Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Badshah Ghazi and thus began his 22-year reign at the age of 36.Soon after, Jahangir had to fend off his son Khusrau Mirza when he attempted to claim the throne based on Akbar's will.", "Khusrau Mirza was defeated in the year 1606 with the support of the Barha and Bukhari sāda and confined in the fort of Agra.Jahangir considered his third son, Khurram (regnal name Shah Jahan) as his favourite son.", "As punishment, Khusrau Mirza was handed over to his younger brother and was partially blinded.", "From the time of his marriage with Mehr-un-Nissa, later known as Empress Nur Jahan, Jahangir left the reins of government in her hands and appointed her family and relatives to high positions.", "Nur Jahan had complete freedom of speech near Jahangir without any reprimand.", "On the contrary, she could nag and fight with him on the smallest issue.", "Thus, her unprecedented freedom of action to control the state caused the displeasure of both his courtiers and foreigners.", "In October 1616, Jahangir sent Prince Khurram to fight against the combined forces of three rebel kingdoms of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.However, when Nur Jahan married her daughter, Mihr-un-nissa Begum, to Jahangir's youngest son, Shahryar Mirza in February 1621, Khurram suspected that his stepmother was trying to maneuver Shahryar as the successor to Jahangir.", "Using the rugged terrain of Deccan to his advantage, Khurram launched a rebellion against Jahangir in 1622.This precipitated a political crisis in Jahangir's court.", "Khurram murdered his blind older brother, Khusrau Mirza, to smooth his path to the throne.Simultaneously, the Safavid emperor Abbas the Great attacked Kandahar in Winter 1622.Since it was both a commercial center at the border of the Mughal Empire and the burial place of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, Jahangir dispatched Prince Shahryar to repel the Safavids.", "However, due to Shahryar's inexperience and harsh Afghan winter, Kandahar fell to the Safavids.In March 1623, Jahangir ordered Mahabat Khan, one of Jahangir's most loyal high generals, to crush Khurram's rebellion in the Deccan.", "After a series of victories by Mahabat Khan over Khurram, the civil war finally ended in October 1625.Jahangir was famous for his \"Chain of Justice\".", "In contemporary paintings, it has been shown as a golden chain with golden bells.", "In his memoir ''Tuzk-e-Jahangiri'', he wrote that he ordered the creation of this chain for his oppressed subjects to appeal to the emperor if they were denied justice at any level.", "The British ambassador to the Mughal court, Thomas Roe, describes how petitioners could use the chain of justice to attract the emperor's attention if his decision was not to their satisfaction during Darshana.", "The Darshana tradition was adopted by the Mughal Emperors from Hindu religio-political rituals as a theatrical event before their subjects.=== Foreign relations ===The East India Company persuaded King James I to send Thomas Roe as a royal envoy to the Agra court of Jahangir.", "Roe resided at Agra for three years, until 1619.At the Mughal court, Roe allegedly became a favourite of Jahangir and may have been his drinking partner; he arrived with gifts of \"many crates of red wine\" and explained to him What beer was and how it was made?.The immediate result of the mission was to obtain permission and protection for an East India Company factory at Surat.", "While no major trading privileges were conceded by Jahangir, \"Roe's mission was the beginning of a Mughal-Company relationship that would develop into something approaching a partnership and see the \"EIC\" gradually drawn into the Mughal nexus\".While Roe's detailed journals are a valuable source of information on Jahangir's reign, the Emperor did not return the favour, with no mention of Roe in his voluminous diaries.In 1623, Emperor Jahangir sent his ''tehsildar'', Khan Alam, to Safavid Persia, accompanied by 800 sepoys, scribes and scholars, along with ten howdahs well decorated in gold and silver, to negotiate peace with Emperor Abbas after a brief conflict in the region around Kandahar.", "Khan Alam soon returned with valuable gifts and groups of masters of the hunt () from both Safavid Iran and the Khanates of Central Asia.In the year 1626, Jahangir began to contemplate an alliance between the Ottoman Empire, the Mughals, and the Khanate of Bukhara of the Uzbeks against the Safavids, who had defeated the Mughals at Kandahar.", "He even wrote a letter to the Ottoman Sultan, Murad IV.", "Jahangir's ambition did not materialise due to his death in 1627." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Marriages", "Prince Salim's first and chief consort was the Kachwaha Rajput princess, daughter of his maternal uncle Raja Bhagwant Das of the Kingdom of Amber Kunwari Manbhawat Deiji entitled Shah Begum, to whom he was betrothed in his tender years.", "His Mansab was raised to Twelve Thousand, in 1585, at the time of his marriage to Shah Begum.", "Nizamuddin remarks that she was considered to be the best and most suitable princess as the first wife of Prince Salim.", "Abul Fazl in Akbarnama illustrates her as a ''jewel of chastity'' and describes her as an extremely beautiful woman whose purity adorned her high extraction and was endowed with remarkable beauty and graces.The marriage with Man Bai took place on 24 February 1585 in her native town Amer which was also the native town of his mother, Mariam-uz-Zamani.", "Akbar alongside several other nobles of the court personally visited Amer and followed this marriage.", "A lavish ceremony took place and the bride's palanquin was carried by Akbar and Salim for some distance in her honor.", "The gifts given by Mariam-uz-Zamani to the bride and bride-groom were valued at twelve lakh rupees.", "She became his favorite wife and soon rose to the level of a consort rather than being a mere wife.", "Jahangir notes that he was extremely fond of her and designated her as his chief consort in the royal harem in his princely days.", "Jahangir also records his attachment and affection for her and makes notes of her unwavering devotion towards him.", "Jahangir honored her with the title \"''Shah Begum\"'' after she gave birth to Prince Khusrau Mirza, the eldest son of Jahangir.Emperor Jahangir weighing his son Prince Khurram (the future Shah Jahan) on a weighing scaleby Manohar c.1615.One of his early favorite wives was a Rathore Rajput princess, Kunwari Manawati Deiji, daughter of Mota Raja Udai Singh of the Kingdom of Marwar.", "The marriage was solemnized on 11 January 1586 at the bride's residence i.e.", "Jodhpur After her death, Jahangir honored her with the title of ‘Bilquis Makani’ ().", "She gave birth to two daughters of Salim, both of whom died during childhood and Prince Khurram, the future emperor Shah Jahan, who was Jahangir's successor to the throne.On 26 June 1586, he married a second Rathore Rajput princess Kunwari Yash Deiji daughter of Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner.", "In July 1586, he married Malika Shikar Begum, daughter of Abu Sa'id Khan Chagatai.", "Also in 1586, he married Sahib-i-Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hasan of Herat, a cousin of Zain Khan Koka.In 1587, he married a Bhati Rajput princess (name not known) entitled Malika Jahan Begum, daughter of Rawal Bhim Singh of the Kingdom of Jaisalmer.", "He also married the daughter of Raja Darya Malbhas.In October 1590, he married Zohra Begum, daughter of Mirza Sanjar Hazara.", "He married a third Rathore Rajput princess Kunwari Karam Deiji, daughter of Raja Keshav Das of Merta linked with the house of Marwar.", "On 11 January 1592, he married Kanwal Rani, daughter of Ali Sher Khan, by his wife, Gul Khatun.", "In October 1592, he married a daughter of Shah Husain Chak of Kashmir.", "In January/March 1593, he married Nur un-Nisa Begum, daughter of a Safavid prince Ibrahim Husain Mirza, by his wife, Gulrukh Begum, daughter of Kamran Mirza brother of Mughal Emperor Humayun.", "In September 1593, he married a daughter of Ali Khan Faruqi, Raja of Khandesh.", "He also married a daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch of Sindh.On 28 June 1596, he married Khas Mahal Begum, daughter of Zain Khan Koka, Subadar of Kabul, and Lahore.", "This marriage was initially opposed by Akbar as he did not approve of the marriage of cousins to the same man however seeing the melancholy of Salim being refused to marry her, Akbar approved of this union.", "She became one of his chief consorts after her marriage.In 1608, he married Saliha Banu Begum, daughter of Qasim Khan, a senior member of the Imperial Household.", "She became one of his chief consorts and was designated the honorary title of Padshah Begum and for most of the reign of Jahangir retained this title.", "After her death, this title was passed to Nur Jahan.Coin of Jahangir depicting himOn 17 June 1608, he married a second Kachwaha Rajput princess Kunwari Koka Kumari eldest daughter of Jagat Singh, Yuvraj of Amer and granddaughter of Raja Man Singh I.", "This marriage was held at the palace of Jahangir's mother, Mariam-uz-Zamani in Agra.", "On 11 January 1610, he married the daughter of Raja Ram Chandra Bundela of Orchha .At some point, he had also married a daughter of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, son of Emperor Humayun.", "She was also one of the chief consorts of Jahangir.Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa (better known by her subsequent title of Nur Jahan) on 25 May 1611.She was the widow of a high-ranking Persian nobleman Sher Afgan.", "Mehr-un-Nisa became his utmost favorite wife after their marriage and was the last of his chief consorts.", "She was witty, intelligent, and beautiful, which attracted Jahangir to her.", "Before being awarded the title of Nur Jahan ('Light of the World'), she was called Nur Mahal ('Light of the Palace').", "After the death of Saliha Bano Begum in the year 1620, she was designated the title of Padshah Begum and held it until the death of Jahangir in 1627.Her abilities are said to range from fashion designing to building architectural monuments." ], [ "Conquests", "Coin of JahangirIn the year 1594, Jahangir was dispatched by his father, the Emperor Akbar, alongside Asaf Khan, also known as Mirza Jafar Beg and Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, to defeat the renegade Raja Vir Singh Deo Bundela and to capture the city of Orchha, which was considered the centre of the revolt.", "Jahangir arrived with a force of 12,000 after many ferocious encounters and finally subdued the Bundela and ordered Vir Singh Deo to surrender.", "After tremendous casualties and the start of negotiations between the two, Vir Singh Deo handed over 5000 Bundela infantry and 1000 cavalry, but he feared Mughal retaliation and remained a fugitive until his death.", "The victorious Jahangir, at 26 years of age, ordered the completion of the Jahangir Mahal a famous Mughal citadel in Orchha to commemorate and honour his victory.Jahangir with falcon on horsebackJahangir then gathered his forces under the command of Ali Kuli Khan and fought Raja Lakshmi Narayan Bhup of the Kingdom of Koch Bihar in the far eastern province of Bengal.", "Raja Lakshmi Narayan then accepted the Mughals as his suzerains and was given the title ''Nazir'', later establishing a garrison at Atharokotha.In 1613, Jahangir issued a sanguinary order for the extirpation of the race of the Kolis who were notorious robbers and plunders living in the most inaccessible parts of the province of Gujarat.", "A large number of the Koli chiefs were slaughtered and the rest hunted to their mountains and deserts.", "169 heads of such Koli chiefs killed in battle by Nur-ul-llah Ibrahim, commander of 'Bollodo'.In 1613, the Portuguese seized the Mughal ship ''Rahimi'', which had set out from Surat on its way with a large cargo of 100,000 rupees and Pilgrims, who were on their way to Mecca and Medina to attend the annual Hajj.", "The ''Rahimi'' was owned by Mariam-uz-Zamani, mother of Jahangir and Akbar's favourite consort.", "She was bestowed the title of 'Mallika-e-Hindustan' (Queen of Hindustan) by Akbar and was subsequently referred to as same during Jahangir's reign.", "The ''Rahimi'' was the largest Indian ship sailing in the Red Sea and was known to the Europeans as the \"great pilgrimage ship\".", "When the Portuguese officially refused to return the ship and the passengers, the outcry at the Mughal court was unusually severe.", "The outrage was compounded by the fact that the owner and the patron of the ship was none other than the revered mother of the current emperor.", "Jahangir himself was outraged and ordered the seizure of the Portuguese town Daman.", "He ordered the apprehension of all Portuguese within the Mughal Empire; he further confiscated churches that belonged to the Jesuits.", "This episode is considered to be an example of the struggle for wealth that would later ensue and lead to colonisation of the Indian sub-continent.Jahangir was responsible for ending a century-long struggle with the Sisodia Rajput house of Mewar.", "The campaign against them was pushed so extensively that they were made to submit with great loss of life and property.In 1608, Jahangir posted Islam Khan I to subdue the rebel Musa Khan, the Masnad-e-Ala of the Baro-Bhuyan confederacy in Bengal, who was able to imprison him.", "Jahangir also captured Kangra Fort in 1615, whose Katoch rulers came under Mughal vassalship during the reign of Akbar.", "Consequently, a siege was laid and the fort was taken in 1620, which \"resulted in the submission of the Raja of Chamba who was the greatest of all the rajas in the region.\"", "The district of Kishtwar, in the vast province of Kashmir, was also conquered the same year." ], [ "Death", "The Tomb of Jahangir in Shahdara, LahoreA lifelong user of opium and wine, Jahangir was frequently ill in the 1620s.", "Jahangir was trying to restore his health by visiting Kashmir and Kabul.", "He went from Kabul to Kashmir but decided to return to Lahore because of a severe cold.On the journey from Kashmir to Lahore, Jahangir died near Bhimber on October 29, 1627.To embalm and preserve his body, the entrails were removed; these were buried inside Baghsar Fort near Bhimber in Kashmir.", "The body was then conveyed by palanquin to Lahore and was buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of that city.", "His son, Shah Jahan, commissioned his tomb and is today a popular tourist attraction site.Jahangir's death launched a minor succession crisis.", "While Nur Jahan desired her son-in-law, Shahryar Mirza, to take the throne, her brother Abu'l-Hassan Asaf Khan was corresponding with his son-in-law, Prince Khurram to take over the throne.", "To counter Nur Jahan, Abu'l Hassan put Dawar Bakhsh as the puppet ruler and confined Nur Jahan in the Shahdara.", "Upon his arrival in Agra in February 1628, Prince Khurram executed both Shahryar and Dawar and took the regnal name Shah Jahan (Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram)." ], [ "Issue", "Jahangir's sons were:* Khusrau Mirza (16 August 1587 – 26 January 1622) — with Shah Begum, daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber.", "* Parviz Mirza (31 October 1589 – 28 October 1626) — with Sahib Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hasan.", "* Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666) — with Bilqis Makani, daughter of Raja Udai Singh of Marwar.", "* Jahandar Mirza (born ) — with a concubine.", "* Shahryar Mirza (16 January 1605 – 23 January 1628) — with a concubine.Jahangir's daughters were:* Sultan-un-nissa Begum (25 April 1586 – 5 September 1646) — with Shah Begum, daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber.", "* Iffat Banu Begum (born 6 April 1589) — with Malika Shikar Begum, daughter of Said Khan Jagatai Of Kashghar.", "* Daulat-un-nissa Begum (born 24 December 1589) — with daughter of Raja Darya Malbhas.", "* Bahar Banu Begum (9 October 1590 – 8 September 1653) — with Karam Deiji , daughter of Keshav Das of Merta.", "* Begum Sultan Begum (born 9 October 1590) — with Bilqis Makani, daughter of Raja Udai Singh of Marwar.", "* A daughter (born 21 January 1591) — with Sahib Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hasan.", "* A daughter (born 14 October 1594) — with Sahib Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hasan.", "* A daughter (born January 1595) — with daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch.", "* A daughter (born 28 August 1595) — with Nur-un-Nissa Begum, daughter of Ibrahim Husain Mirza.", "* Luzzat-un-Nissa Begum (born 23 September 1597) — with Bilqis Makani, daughter of Raja Udai Singh of Marwar." ], [ "Religion", " A Mughal miniature by Bichitr dated from the early 1620s depicting the Mughal emperor ''Jahangir'' preferring an audience with Sufi saint to his contemporaries, the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I and the King of England James I (d. 1625); the picture is inscribed in Persian: \"Though outwardly shahs stand before him, he fixes his gazes on dervishes.", "\"Portrait of Mughal Emperor Jahangir making DuaAccording to M. Athar Ali, Jahangir generally continued the religious policy of Akbar and had a major interest in pantheism.At the start of his regime, many staunch Sunnis were hopeful, because he seemed less tolerant of other faiths than his father had been.", "At the time of his accession and the elimination of Abu'l Fazl, his father's chief minister and the architect of his eclectic religious stance, a powerful group of orthodox noblemen had gained increased power in the Mughal court.", "This included nobles especially like Shaykh Farid, Jahangir's trusted Mir Bakhshi, who held firmly the citadel of orthodoxy in Muslim India.Most notorious was the execution of the Sikh Guru Arjan Dev on Jahangir's orders.", "His lands were confiscated and his sons imprisoned as Jahangir suspected him of helping Khusrau's rebellion.", "It is unclear whether Jahangir even understood what a Sikh was, referring to Guru Arjan as a Hindu, who had \"captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners... for three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they had kept this shop warm.\"", "The trigger for Guru Arjan's execution was his support for Jahangir's rebel son Khusrau Mirza, yet it is clear from Jahangir's own memoirs that he disliked Guru Arjan before then: \"many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this vain affair or bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam.\"", "Guru Arjan's successor Guru Hargobind was imprisoned for sometime but released soon.", "He developed friendly relations with Jahangir and accompanied him on his journey to Kashmir just before the latter's death.Jahangir issued bans on cowslaugher and animal slaughter on certain days of the week in continuance of his father's policy.", "According to the ''Dabistan-i Mazahib'' he appointed Srikant of Kashmir to be qazi of the Hindus so that they would have their own judicial representative.", "He also continued his father's policy of patronizing Brahmins and temples.", "Notably he issued several grants to the Chaitanya sect for their temples in Vrindavan, but also made negative comments about their temples.", "He, like his father, dissaproved of reincarnation and idol worship and ordered the boar image to be removed from Rana Shankar's temple at Pushkar.According to Jahangir's memoirs, he issued a farman banning Jain seorahs (monks) due to alleged scandalous behavior.", "However, the ban was quickly rescinded but Jahangir neglected to mention that in his memoirs.", "There is a wide variety of evidence that Jahangir had good relations with Jains and Jain sources themselves extol him.", "According to Ali, Jahangir wrote his memoirs with his intended audience of Persian-speaking Muslims in mind and sought to portray himself as an anti-idolatry sultan and thus \"modified\" facts.Jahangir's memoirs also omit the fact that three of his nephews at one point converted to Christianity with his permission, although they would later reverse their decision.According to Richard M Eaton, Emperor Jahangir issued many edicts admonishing his nobles not to convert the religion of anybody by force, but the issuance of such orders also suggests that such conversions must have occurred during his rule in some measure.", "He continued the Mughals tradition of being scrupulously secular in outlook.", "Stability, loyalty, and revenue were the main focus, not the religious change among their subjects." ], [ "Art", "Jahangir's inscription on the Allahabad Pillar of Ashoka.Jahangir was fascinated with art and architecture.", "In his autobiography, the Jahangirnama, Jahangir recorded events that occurred during his reign, descriptions of flora and fauna that he encountered, and other aspects of daily life, and commissioned court painters such as Ustad Mansur to paint detailed pieces that would accompany his vivid prose.", "For example, in 1619, he put pen to paper in awe of a royal falcon delivered to his court from the ruler of Iran: “What can I write of the beauty of this bird's colour?", "It had black markings, and every feather on its wings, back, and sides was extremely beautiful,” and then recorded his command that Ustad Mansur paint a portrait of it after it perished.", "\"Nadiri\" was a type of exclusive clothing designed by Jahangir, reserved for his personal use and esteemed courtiers.", "Jahangir bound and displayed much of the art that he commissioned in elaborate albums of hundreds of images, sometimes organized around a theme such as zoology.Jahangir himself was far from modest in his autobiography when he stated his prowess at being able to determine the artist of any portrait by simply looking at a painting.", "As he said: Jahangir's Jade ''hookah'', National Museum, New DelhiJahangir took his connoisseurship of art very seriously.", "He also preserved paintings from Emperor Akbar's period.", "An excellent example of this is the painting done by Ustad Mansur of Musician Naubat Khan, son-in-law of legendary Tansen.", "In addition to their aesthetic qualities, paintings created under his reign were closely catalogued, dated and even signed, providing scholars with fairly accurate ideas as to when and in what context many of the pieces were created.In the foreword to W. M. Thackston's translation of the Jahangirnama, Milo Cleveland Beach explains that Jahangir ruled during a time of considerably stable political control, and had the opportunity to order artists to create art to accompany his memoirs that were “in response to the emperor's current enthusiasms”.", "He used his wealth and his luxury of free time to chronicle, in detail, the lush natural world that the Mughal Empire encompassed.", "At times, he would have artists travel with him for this purpose; when Jahangir was in Rahimabad, he had his painters on hand to capture the appearance of a specific tiger that he shot and killed because he found it to be particularly beautiful.The Jesuits had brought with them various books, engravings, and paintings and, when they saw the delight Akbar held for them, sent for more and more of the same to be given to the Mughals.", "They felt the Mughals were on the \"verge of conversion\", a notion which proved to be very false.", "Instead, both Akbar and Jahangir studied this artwork very closely and replicated and adapted it, adopting much of the early iconographic features and later the pictorial realism for which Renaissance art was known.", "Jahangir was notable for his pride in the ability of his court painters.", "A classic example of this is described in Sir Thomas Roe's diaries, in which the Emperor had his painters copy a European miniature several times creating a total of five miniatures.", "Jahangir then challenged Roe to pick out the original from the copies, a feat Sir Thomas Roe could not do, to the delight of Jahangir.Jahangir was also revolutionary in his adaptation of European styles.", "A collection at the British Museum in London contains seventy-four drawings of Indian portraits dating from the time of Jahangir, including a portrait of the emperor himself.", "These portraits are a unique example of art during Jahangir's reign because faces were not drawn in full, including the shoulders as well as the head as these drawings are.‘’" ], [ "Public health and medicine", "Jahangir took a great interest in public health and medicine.", "Just after his accession, he passed twelve orders, of which at least 2 were related to this area.", "The fifth order forbade the manufacturing and sale of rice spirit and any kind of intoxicating drugs, and the tenth order was instrumental in laying the foundation of free hospitals and appointment of physicians in all the great cities of his empire." ], [ "Criticism", "Jahangir is widely considered to have been a weak and incapable ruler.", "Orientalist Henry Beveridge (editor of the ''Tuzk-e-Jahangiri'') compares Jahangir to the Roman emperor Claudius, for both were \"weak men... in their wrong places as rulers... and had Jahangir been head of a Natural History Museum,... he would have been a better and happier man.\"", "Further he notes, \"He made no addition to the imperial territories, but on the contrary, diminished them by losing Qandahar to the Persians.", "But possibly his peaceful temper, or his laziness, was an advantage, for it saved much bloodshed.", "His greatest fault as a king was his subservience to his wife, Nur-Jahan, and the consequent quarrel with his son, Shah Jahan, who was the ablest and best of his male children\".", "Sir William Hawkins, who visited Jahangir's court in 1609, said: \"In such short that what this man's father, called Ecber Padasha Badshah Akbar, got of the Deccans, this king, Selim Sha Jahangir beginneth to lose.\"", "Italian writer and traveller, Niccolao Manucci, who worked under Jahangir's grandson, Dara Shikoh, began his discussion of Jahangir by saying: \"It is a truth tested by experience that sons dissipate what their fathers gained in the sweat of their brow.", "\"According to John F. Richards, Jahangir's frequent withdrawal to a private sphere of life was partly reflective of his indolence, brought on by his addiction to a considerable daily dosage of wine and opium." ], [ "In media", "Jahangir and Anarkali=== Films and television ===* In the 1939 Hindi film ''Pukar'', Jehangir was portrayed by Chandra Mohan.", "* In the 1953 Hindi film ''Anarkali'', he was portrayed by Pradeep Kumar.", "* In the 1955 Hindi film ''Adil-E-Jahangir'', he was portrayed by D. K.", "Sapru.", "* In the 1955 Telugu film ''Anarkali'', he was portrayed by ANR.", "* In the 1958 Urdu film ''Anarkali'', he was portrayed by Sudhir.", "* In the 1960 Hindi film ''Mughal-e-Azam'', he was portrayed by Dilip Kumar.", "Jalal Agha also played the younger Jahangir at the start of the film.", "* In the 1966 Malayalam film ''Anarkali'', he was portrayed by Prem Nazir.", "* In the 1979 Telugu film ''Akbar Salim Anarkali'', he was portrayed by Balakrishna.", "* In the 1988 Shyam Benegal's TV Series ''Bharat Ek Khoj'', he was portrayed by Vijay Arora.", "* ''Jahangirer Swarnamudra'' is a detective story about a missing gold coin of Jahangir written by Indian filmmaker Satyajit Ray, starring his famous character Feluda.", "It was adapted as a television film in 1998.", "* In the 2000 TV series ''Noorjahan'', he was portrayed by Milnd Soman.", "* In the 2013 Ekta Kapoor's TV Series ''Jodha Akbar'', he was portrayed by Ravi Bhatia.", "Ayaan Zubair Rahmani also played young Salim initially.", "* In the 2014 Indu Sudaresan's TV Series ''Siyaasat'', he was portrayed by Karanvir Sharma and Later Sudhanshu Pandey.", "* In the 2014 Indian television sitcom ''Har Mushkil Ka Hal Akbar Birbal'', Pawan Singh portrayed the role of prince Salim.", "* In the 2018 Colors TV series Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali, he is portrayed by Shaheer Sheikh.", "* In the 2023 ZEE5's web series Taj: Divided by Blood, he is portrayed by Aashim Gulati.=== Literature ===* Jahangir is a principal character in Indu Sundaresan's award-winning historical novel ''The Twentieth Wife'' (2002) as well as in its sequel ''The Feast of Roses'' (2003).", "* Jahangir is a principal character in Alex Rutherford's novel ''Ruler of the World'' (2011) as well as in its sequel ''The Tainted Throne'' (2012) of the series ''Empire of the Moghul''.", "* Jahangir is a character in novel Nur Jahan's Daughter (2005) written by Tanushree Poddar.", "* Jahangir is a character in the novel ''Beloved Empress Mumtaz Mahal: A Historical Novel'' by Nina Consuelo Epton.", "* Jahangir is a principal character in the novel ''Nurjahan: A historical novel'' by Jyoti Jafa.", "* Jahangir is a character in the novel ''Taj, a Story of Mughal India'' by Timeri Murari." ], [ "Works online", "* " ], [ "See also", " Jahangirnama* Hiran Minar* Sheikhupur, Badaun" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Jehangir and Shah Jehan* The World Conqueror: Jahangir* Jains and the Mughals" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Josiah Wedgwood" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Josiah Wedgwood''' (12 July 1730 – 3 January 1795) was an English potter, entrepreneur and abolitionist.", "Founding the Wedgwood company in 1759, he developed improved pottery bodies by systematic experimentation, and was the leader in the industrialisation of the manufacture of European pottery.The renewed classical enthusiasms of the late 1760s and early 1770s were of major importance to his sales promotion.", "His expensive goods were in much demand from the upper classes, while he used emulation effects to market cheaper sets to the rest of society.", "Every new invention that Wedgwood produced – green glaze, creamware, black basalt, and jasperware – was quickly copied.", "Having once achieved efficiency in production, he obtained efficiencies in sales and distribution.", "His showrooms in London gave the public the chance to see his complete range of tableware.Wedgwood's company never made porcelain during his lifetime, but specialised in fine earthenwares and stonewares that had many of the same qualities, but were considerably cheaper.", "He made great efforts to keep the designs of his wares in tune with current fashion.", "He was an early adopter of transfer printing which gave similar effects to hand-painting for a far lower cost.", "Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution that helped drive the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Wedgwood is credited as a pioneer of modern marketing.", "He pioneered direct mail, money back guarantees, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.Etruria Hall, the family home, built 1768–1771 by Joseph Pickford.", "It was restored as part of the 1986 Stoke-on-Trent Garden Festival and is now part of a four-star hotel.A prominent abolitionist fighting slavery, Wedgwood is remembered too for his ''Am I Not a Man And a Brother?''", "anti-slavery medallion.", "He was a member of the Darwin–Wedgwood family, and he was the grandfather of Charles and Emma Darwin." ], [ "Early life", "bottle kilns near St John's parish church, Burslem.There were several related Wedgwood families in the village of Burslem, which around 1650 was the main centre of Staffordshire Potteries.", "Each pot-works had one bottle kiln.", "Thomas Wedgwood set up the Churchyard Works, near St John's parish church.", "In 1679 the business went to his son of the same name, master potter and churchwarden who bought a family pew, whose son Thomas, born in 1685, married Mary Stringer around 1710.She was the daughter of Josiah Stringer, a dissenting minister whose church had been outlawed by the Corporation Act, but preached occasionally.", "The young Thomas and Mary moved to a small pot-works producing moulded ware, then after his father died in 1716 they moved back to the Churchyard Works.", "Their first son, Thomas, was born in 1717, Catherine was born in 1726, and Josiah was their thirteenth and last child.The children were baptised in the parish church; Josiah was baptised on 12 July 1730, probably his date of birth.", "Though her husband continued to occupy the pew, Mary brought them up with the values taught by her father, who held that \"knowledge based on reason, experience, and experiment was preferable to dogma.\"", "Josiah went with the others to dame school then, around 1737 when able to walk to and from Newcastle-under-Lyme about distant, he went with them to the school there of Mr & Mrs Blunt who were reputably Puritans.", "After his father died in June 1739, Josiah finished school then, at about the usual age, began an informal apprenticeship and learnt to \"throw\" pots on the potter's wheel.", "When nearly twelve, he suffered a severe bout of smallpox which affected his right knee, but recovered sufficiently to get a formal indenture on 11 November 1744 to serve as an apprentice potter under his eldest brother Thomas who had taken over the Churchyard Works.", "Josiah resumed potter's wheel work for a year or two, then knee pains came back so he did moulded ware and small ornaments.", "His brother thought his ideas of improvements unnecessary, and turned down his proposed partnership, so in 1751 or 1752 Josiah worked as a partner and manager in a pot-works near Stoke.Several potters locally used practical chemistry to innovate, and Wedgwood very soon went into partnership with Thomas Whieldon, who made high value small items such as snuff boxes.", "After six months of research and preparation, Wedgwood developed an exceptionally brilliant green glaze, and there was immediate demand for products with this glaze.", "Like his partner, Wedgwood occasionally took samples to Birmingham wholesalers to get orders, making business contacts.", "Unfortunately a knee injury spread to general inflammation, forcing him to convalesce in his room for several months.", "He took this as an opportunity to extend his education, reading literature and science books.", "His studies were helped by repeated visits from Wiliam Willet, minister of Newcastle-under-Lyme Meeting House, who had married Wedgwood's sister Catherine in 1754; \"a man of extensive learning and general acquirements\".", "Josiah attended this English Presbyterian chapel, later known as Unitarian, and was a friend of Willet.", "Around 1759 Wedgwood expanded his Burslem business, renting Ivy House Works and cottage from his distant cousins John and Thomas.", "They were often visited by their brother Richard Wedgwood, a wealthy Congleton cheesemonger, along with his daughter Sarah.", "She had been well educated, as was Unitarian practice, soon \"Jos\" wrote to his \"loving Sally\".", "On a business trip in 1762, Wedgwood had another knee accident.", "After attention from a surgeon, he was accommodated by Thomas Bentley, who would become his close business associate.", "While recuperating, he met the chemist Joseph Priestley, who became a close friend, and discussed his dissenting theological ideas.", "In May Wedgwood began a long correspondence with Bentley, writing from Burslem, and moved into larger premises, the Brick House Works and dwelling.Vase on stand with inverted Neck, Josiah Wedgwood and Sons and Thomas Bentley, before 1780, black basalt.", "Chazen Museum of Art, Madison, Wisconsin.=== Marriage and children ===Wedgwood had wooed his distant cousin Sarah (1734–1815) since first meeting her, but her father Richard wanted to ensure his prospective son in law had sufficient means, and insisted on long negotiation by attorneys over the marriage settlement.", "Then, \"Jos\" and \"Sally\" were married on 25 January 1764 at Astbury parish church, near Congleton.", "They had eight children:* Susannah Wedgwood (3 January 1765 – 1817), known to the family as \"Sukey\", married Robert Darwin and became the mother of the English naturalist Charles Darwin.", "Charles married Emma Wedgwood, his cousin.", "* John Wedgwood (1766–1844), joined the business rather reluctantly, mainly interested in horticulture* Richard Wedgwood (1767–1768) (died as a child)During negotiations for the proposed Trent and Mersey Canal, Wedgwood met and befriended Erasmus Darwin (Robert's father), whose family long remembered as saying that Unitarianism was \"a feather-bed to catch a falling Christian\".After more problems with his knee, Wedgwood had his leg amputated on 28 May 1768.", "* Josiah Wedgwood II (1769–1843) (father of Emma Darwin, cousin and wife of Charles Darwin)The Etruria Works built at the canal opened in June 1769, in July the family moved there.", "For several months they stayed in Little Etruria, a house built for Bentley's use, then they moved into the just competed Etruria Hall.", "* Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805) (no children), best known as a pioneer photographer* Catherine Wedgwood (1774–1823) (no children)* Sarah Wedgwood (1776–1856) (no children, very active in the abolition movement and founding member of Birmingham Ladies Society for the Relief of Negro Slaves, the first anti-slavery society for women)* Mary Anne Wedgwood (1778–86) (died as a child)As a Unitarian, aware of legal constraints on nonconformists getting education, Wedgwood supported dissenting academies such as Warrington Academy, where he gave lectures on chemistry, and was made a professor of metallurgy.", "The older children first went to school in 1772; the boys to Hindley, while Sukey went to a dame school in Lancashire along with his niece, the daughter of Mrs. Willet.", "In 1774 he sent his son John to the Bolton boarding school trun by the Unitarian minister Philip Holland, followed by young Josiah the next year, and Tom in 1779." ], [ "Career and work", "=== Pottery ===Teapot, Wedgwood 'caneware', c. 1780–1785.Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Missouri.Wedgwood was keenly interested in the scientific advances of his day and it was this interest that underpinned his adoption of its approach and methods to revolutionise the quality of his pottery.", "His unique glazes began to distinguish his wares from anything else on the market.By 1763, he was receiving orders from the highest-ranking people, including Queen Charlotte.", "Wedgwood convinced her to let him name the line of pottery she had purchased \"Queen's Ware\", and trumpeted the royal association in his paperwork and stationery.", "Anything Wedgwood made for the Queen was automatically exhibited before it was delivered.", "In 1764, he received his first order from abroad.", "Wedgwood marketed his Queen's Ware at affordable prices, everywhere in the world British trading ships sailed.", "In 1767 he wrote, \"The demand for this sd.", "Creamcolour, Alias, Queen Ware, Alias, Ivory, still increases – It is amazing how rapidly the use of it has spread over the whole Globe.\"", "Wedgwood tea and coffee service, 1765, on display at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.", "Wedgwood's creamware was hugely popular, as a cheaper equivalent of porcelain.He first opened a warehouse at Charles Street, Mayfair in London as early as 1765 and it soon became an integral part of his sales organization.", "In two years, his trade had outgrown his rooms in Grosvenor Square.", "In 1767, Wedgwood and Bentley drew up an agreement to divide decorative wares between them, the domestic wares being sold on Wedgwood's behalf.", "A special display room was built to beguile the fashionable company.", "Wedgwood's in fact had become one of the most fashionable meeting places in London.", "His workers had to work day and night to satisfy the demand, and the crowds of visitors showed no sign of abating.", "The proliferating decoration, the exuberant colours, and the universal gilding of rococo were banished, the splendours of baroque became distasteful; the intricacies of ''chinoiserie'' lost their favour.", "The demand was for purity, simplicity and antiquity.", "To encourage this outward spread of fashion and to speed it on its way Wedgwood set up warehouses and showrooms at Bath, Liverpool and Dublin in addition to his showrooms at Etruria and in Westminster.", "Great care was taken in timing the openings, and new goods were held back to increase their effect.Wedgwood, 1774, creamware.", "Plate from the Frog Service for Catherine II of Russia, Brooklyn Museum, New YorkThe most important of Wedgwood's early achievements in vase production was the perfection of the black stoneware body, which he called \"basalt\".", "This body could imitate the colour and shapes of Etruscan or Greek vases which were being excavated in Italy.", "In 1769, \"vases was all the cry\" in London; he opened a new factory called Etruria, north of Stoke.", "Wedgwood became what he wished to be: \"Vase Maker General to the Universe\".", "Around 1771, he started to experiment with Jasperware, but he did not advertise this new product for a couple of years.Sir George Strickland, 6th Baronet, was asked for advice on getting models from Rome.", "Gilding was to prove unpopular, and around 1772, Wedgwood reduced the amount of \"offensive gilding\" in response to suggestions from Sir William Hamilton.", "When English society found the uncompromisingly naked figure of the classics \"too warm\" for their taste, and the ardor of the Greek gods too readily apparent, Wedgwood was quick to cloak their pagan immodesty – gowns for the girls and fig leaves for the gods were usually sufficient.", "Just as he felt that his flowerpots would sell more if they were called \"Duchess of Devonshire flowerpots\", his creamware more if called Queensware, so he longed for Brown, James Wyatt, and the brothers Adam to lead the architect in the use of his chimneypieces and for George Stubbs to lead the way in the use of Wedgwood plaques.Wedgwood hoped to monopolise the aristocratic market and thus win for his wares a special social ''cachet'' that would filter to all classes of society.", "Wedgwood fully realised the value of such a lead and made the most of it by giving his pottery the name of its patron: Queensware, Royal Pattern, Russian pattern, Bedford, Oxford and Chetwynd vases for instance.", "Whether they owned the original or merely possessed a Wedgwood copy mattered little to Wedgwood's customers.", "In 1773 they published the first ''Ornamental Catalogue'', an illustrated catalogue of shapes.", "A plaque, in Wedgwood's blue pottery style, marking the site of his London showrooms between 1774 and 1795 in Wedgwood Mews, is located at 12, Greek Street, London, W1.", "''Horse Frightened by a Lion'' jasperware by Wedgwood and Thomas Bentley, after George Stubbs, 1780In 1773, Empress Catherine the Great ordered the (Green) Frog Service from Wedgwood, consisting of 952 pieces and over a thousand original paintings, for the Kekerekeksinen Palace (''palace on a frog swamp'' ), later known as Chesme Palace.", "Most of the painting was carried out in Wedgwood's decorating studio at Chelsea.", "Its display, Wedgwood thought, 'would bring an number of People of Fashion into our Rooms.", "For over a month the fashionable world thronged the rooms and blocked the streets with their carriages.", "(Catharine paid £2,700.It can still be seen in the Hermitage Museum.)", "Strictly uneconomical in themselves, these productions offered huge advertising value." ], [ "Later years", "As a leading industrialist, Wedgwood was a major backer of the Trent and Mersey Canal dug between the River Trent and River Mersey, during which time he became friends with Erasmus Darwin.", "Later that decade, his burgeoning business caused him to move from the smaller Ivy Works to the newly built Etruria Works, which would run for 180 years.", "The factory was named after the Etruria district of Italy, where black porcelain dating to Etruscan times was being excavated.", "Wedgwood found this porcelain inspiring, and his first major commercial success was its duplication with what he called \"Black Basalt\".", "He combined experiments in his art and in the technique of mass production with an interest in improved roads, canals, schools, and living conditions.", "At Etruria, he even built a village for his workers.", "The motto, ''Sic fortis Etruria crevit,'' was inscribed over the main entrance to the works.Not long after the new works opened, continuing trouble with his smallpox-afflicted knee made necessary the amputation of his right leg.", "In 1780, his long-time business partner Thomas Bentley died, and Wedgwood turned to Darwin for help in running the business.", "As a result of the close association that grew up between the Wedgwood and Darwin families, Josiah's eldest daughter would later marry Erasmus' son.Portland Vase Copy-Wedgwood (circa 1789)To clinch his position as leader of the new fashion, he sought out the famous Barberini vase as the final test of his technical skill.", "Wedgwood's obsession was to duplicate the Portland Vase, a blue-and-white glass vase dating to the first century BC.", "He worked on the project for three years, eventually producing what he considered a satisfactory copy in 1789.In 1784, Wedgwood was exporting nearly 80% of his total produce.", "By 1790, he had sold his wares in every city in Europe.", "To give his customers a greater feeling of the rarity of his goods, he strictly limited the number of jaspers on display in his rooms at any given time.His paper to the Royal Society on the development of the pyrometric device He was elected to the Royal Society in 1783 for the development of the pyrometric device (a type of pyrometer) working on the principle of clay contraction (see Wedgwood scale for details) to measure the high temperatures which are reached in kilns during the firing of ceramics.He was an active member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, often held at Erasmus Darwin House, and is remembered on the Moonstones in Birmingham.=== Death ===After passing on his company to his sons, Wedgwood died at home, probably of cancer of the jaw, in 1795.He was buried three days later in the parish church of Stoke-upon-Trent.", "Seven years later a marble memorial tablet commissioned by his sons was installed there." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "Portrait of WedgwoodOne of the wealthiest entrepreneurs of the 18th century, Wedgwood created goods to meet the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in prosperity that helped drive the Industrial Revolution in Britain.", "He is credited as a pioneer of modern marketing, specifically direct mail, money back guarantees, travelling salesmen, carrying pattern boxes for display, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.", "Wedgwood is also noted as an early adopter/founder of managerial accounting principles in Anthony Hopwood's \"Archaeology of Accounting Systems.\"", "Historian Tristram Hunt called Wedgwood a \"difficult, brilliant, creative entrepreneur whose personal drive and extraordinary gifts changed the way we work and live.", "\"He was a friend, and commercial rival, of the potter John Turner the elder; their works have sometimes been misattributed.", "For the further comfort of his foreign buyers he employed French-, German-, Italian- and Dutch-speaking clerks and answered their letters in their native tongue.Wedgwood belonged to the fifth generation of a family of potters whose traditional occupation continued through another five generations.", "Wedgwood's company is still a famous name in pottery (as part of the Fiskars group), and \"Wedgwood China\" is sometimes used as a term for his Jasperware, the coloured pottery with applied relief decoration (usually white)." ], [ "Abolitionism", "The Wedgwood anti-slavery medallion created as part of anti-slavery campaign by Wedgwood, 1787Wedgwood was a prominent slavery abolitionist.", "His friendship with Thomas Clarkson – abolitionist campaigner and the first historian of the British abolition movement – aroused his interest in slavery.", "Wedgwood mass-produced cameos depicting the seal for the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade and had them widely distributed, which thereby became a popular and celebrated image.", "The Wedgwood anti-slavery medallion was the most famous image of a black person in all of 18th-century art.", "The actual design of the cameo was probably done by either William Hackwood or Henry Webber who were modellers at his factory.From 1787 until his death in 1795, Wedgwood actively participated in the abolition-of-slavery cause.", "His ''Slave Medallion'' brought public attention to abolition.", "Wedgwood reproduced the design in a cameo with the black figure against a white background and donated hundreds to the society for distribution.", "Thomas Clarkson wrote: \"ladies wore them in bracelets, and others had them fitted up in an ornamental manner as pins for their hair.", "At length the taste for wearing them became general, and thus fashion, which usually confines itself to worthless things, was seen for once in the honourable office of promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom\".The design on the medallion became popular and was used elsewhere: large-scale copies were painted to hang on walls and it was used on clay tobacco pipes.William Hackwood.", "Wedgwood anti-slavery medallion, after 1786.Brooklyn Museum" ], [ "Other", "Erasmus Darwin House, Erasmus Darwin Museum house and gardens A locomotive named \"Josiah Wedgwood\" ran on the Cheddleton Railway Centre in 1977.It returned in May 2016 following ten years away.", "* Commemorating the landing of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove in January 1788, Wedgwood made the Sydney Cove Medallion, using a sample of clay from the cove from Sir Joseph Banks, who had himself received it from Governor Arthur Phillip.", "Wedgwood made the commemorative medallion showing an allegorical group described as, \"Hope encouraging Art and Labour, under the influence of Peace, to pursue the employments necessary to give security and happiness to an infant settlement\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Dolan, Brian (2004).", "''Wedgwood: The First Tycoon''.", "Viking Adult.", "** * * McKendrick, Neil.", "\"Josiah Wedgwood and the Commercialization of the Potteries\", in: McKendrick, Neil; Brewer, John & Plumb, J.H.", "(1982), ''The Birth of a Consumer Society: The commercialization of Eighteenth-century England''* *" ], [ "Further reading", " Hunt, Tristram.", "''The Radical Potter: Josiah Wedgwood and the Transformation of Britain'' (2021)* Burton, Anthony.", "''Josiah Wedgwood: A New Biography'' (2020)* Koehn, Nancy F. ''Brand New : How Entrepreneurs Earned Consumers' Trust from Wedgwood to Dell'' (2001) pp. 11–42.", "* Langton, John.", "\"The ecological theory of bureaucracy: The case of Josiah Wedgwood and the British pottery industry.\"", "''Administrative Science Quarterly'' (1984): 330–354.", "* McKendrick, Neil.", "\"Josiah Wedgwood and Factory Discipline.\"", "''Historical Journal'' 4.1 (1961): 30–55.online* McKendrick, Neil.", "\"Josiah Wedgwood and cost accounting in the Industrial Revolution.\"", "''Economic History Review'' 23.1 (1970): 45–67.online* McKendrick, Neil.", "\"Josiah Wedgwood: an eighteenth-century entrepreneur in salesmanship and marketing techniques.\"", "''Economic History Review'' 12.3 (1960): 408–433.online* Meteyard, Eliza.", "''Life and Works of Wedgwood'' (2 vol 1865) vol 1 online; also vol 2 online* Reilly, Robin, ''Josiah Wedgwood 1730–1795'' (1992), scholarly biography* Wedgwood, Julia, and Charles Harold Herford.", "''The Personal Life of Josiah Wedgwood, the Potter'' (1915) onlineYoung, Hilary (ed.", "), ''The Genius of Wedgwood'' (exhibition catalogue), 1995, Victoria and Albert Museum," ], [ "External links", " Wedgwood website Vaizey, Marina, \"Science into Art, Art into Science\", ''The Tretyakov Gallery Magazine'', No 2, 2016 (51) (good online summary) Wedgwood collection at the Lady Lever Art Gallery* Wedgwood Museum* The Great Crash by Jenny Uglow, The Guardian, 7 February 2009* National Museum of Australia The Sydney Cove Medallion (Flash required for close-up viewing).", "* The Story of Wedgwood * Josiah Wedgwood Correspondence (transcripts), John Rylands Library, Manchester." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873''' (36 & 37 Vict.", "c. 66) (sometimes known as the '''Judicature Act 1873''') was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1873.It reorganised the English court system to establish the High Court and the Court of Appeal, and also originally provided for the abolition of the judicial functions of the House of Lords with respect to England.", "It would have retained those functions in relation to Scotland and Ireland for the time being.", "However, the Gladstone Liberal government fell in 1874 before the Act entered into force, and the succeeding Disraeli Conservative government suspended the entry into force of the Act by means of the '''Supreme Court of Judicature (Commencement) Act 1874''' (37 & 38 Vict.", "c. 83) and the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875." ], [ "History", "The legislation for the Judicature Act 1873 was drafted by the Judicature Commission which was chaired by Lord Chancellor Hatherley.", "Other members of the commission included judge George Bramwell, lawyers Sir John Hollams, Sir Robert Collier, and John Burgess Karslake, and parliament member George Ward Hunt." ], [ "Liberal view", "One of the reasons that the Liberal government under Gladstone wanted to abolish the judicial aspect of the House of Lords was that it was concerned for the poor quality of judges at this court.", "Judges at the House of Lords secured their position by mere virtue of the fact that their fathers were hereditary peers and so individuals would automatically inherit seats in the upper house rather than securing their position through merit.", "Therefore, some of the best lawyers in the land were prohibited from sitting as judges in the upper house simply because of their parentage." ], [ "Conservative view", "However, under the Conservative government, the 1874 and 1875 Acts retained the judicial aspect of the House of Lords and ensured the quality of judicial appointments to the House of Lords by legislating under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, for the mechanism of law lords.", "The reigning monarch could appoint any individual to be a peer and thus a judge in the House of Lords.", "These judicial life peers would hold seats only for the duration of their life; their seat would not pass through their inheritance to their son.", "Thus, Queen Victoria and subsequent monarchs were able to appoint leading lawyers to adjudicate in the House of Lords by making them life peers." ], [ "Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876", "Lord Cairns, Disraeli's Lord Chancellor, sought to remove the House of Lords jurisdiction for Scottish and Irish appeals as well, which would have completely removed its judicial jurisdiction.", "However, the Lord Chancellor could not muster the necessary support in the Parliament for the Bill as originally proposed in 1874 or when it was reintroduced in 1875.Finally, when it became clear that the English legal profession was firmly opposed to the reform proposals, the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 removed the provisions for the abolition of the judicial functions of the House of Lords, although it retained the provisions that established the High Court and the Court of Appeal." ], [ "See also", "Judicature ActJudicature Acts (1873 and 1875)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875 at the UK Parliament website" ], [ "Further reading", "Preston, Thomas.", "The Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873.William Amer.", "Lincoln's Inn Gate.", "London.", "1873.", "Haynes, Freeman Oliver.", "The Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, with Explanatory Notes.", "1874.Reviewed at \"Reviews\" (1874) 8 Irish Law Times and Solicitors Journal 483Charley, William Thomas.", "\"Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1873\".", "The New System of Practice and Pleading Under the Supreme Court of Judicature Acts, 1873 & 1875.Waterlow and Sons.", "London.", "1875.Page 1 et seq.", "Clowes, W. A Compendious Index to the Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1873, 36 & 37 Vict.", "C. 66: And the Supreme Court of Judicature Act (1873) Amendment Act, 38 & 39 Vict.", "C. 77.Second Edition.", "Stevens and Sons.", "Chancery Lane.", "London.", "1875.", "William Downes Griffith and Richard Loveland Loveland.", "\"Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873\".", "The Supreme Court of Judicature Acts, 1873, 1875, & 1877: The Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876.And the Rules, Orders, and Costs Thereunder.", "Second Edition.", "Stevens and Haynes.", "Bell Yard, Temple Bar, London.", "1877.Page 1 et seq.", "Robert William Andrews and Arbuthnot Butler Stoney.", "\"Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1873\".", "The Supreme Court of Judicature Acts, and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876.Reeves & Turner.", "Chancery Lane, London.", "1880.Page 1 et seq.", "Thomas Snow, Charles Burney and Francis A Stringer.", "\"The Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1873\".", "The Annual Practice 1905.Sweet and Maxwell.", "Stevens and Sons.", "London.", "1905.Volume 2.Page 405 et seq.", " O'Keefe, David.", "\"Sir George Jessel and the Union of Judicature.\"", "''American Journal of Legal History'' 26 (1982): 227+." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Julian (emperor)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Julian''' (; ; 331 – 26 June 363) was the Caesar of the West from 355 to 360 and Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek.", "His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism in its place, caused him to be remembered as '''Julian the Apostate''' in Christian tradition.", "He is sometimes referred to as '''Julian the Philosopher'''.A nephew of Constantine the Great, Julian was one of few in the imperial family to survive the purges and civil wars during the reign of Constantius II, his cousin.", "Julian became an orphan as a child after his father was executed in 337, and spent much of his life under Constantius's close supervision.", "However, the emperor allowed Julian to pursue freely an education in the Greek-speaking east, with the result that Julian became unusually cultured for an emperor of his time.", "In 355, Constantius II summoned Julian to court and appointed him to rule Gaul.", "Despite his inexperience, Julian showed unexpected success in his new capacity, defeating and counterattacking Germanic raids across the Rhine and encouraging the ravaged provinces' return to prosperity.", "In 360, he was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius.", "However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor.In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire.", "The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia.", "However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital.", "Julian instead moved into Persia's heartland, but he soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while being ceaselessly harassed by Persian skirmishers.", "During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded.", "He was succeeded by Jovian, a senior officer in the imperial guard, who was obliged to cede territory, including Nisibis, in order to save the trapped Roman forces.Julian was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution.", "He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity.", "His efforts to build a Third Temple in Jerusalem were probably intended to harm Christianity rather than please Jews.", "Julian also forbade Christians from teaching and learning classical texts." ], [ "Early life", "Julian, whose full name was Flavius Claudius Julianus, was born at Constantinople, probably in 331, into the family of the reigning emperor, Constantine I.", "His father was Julius Constantius, Constantine's younger half-brother, and his mother was a Bithynian noble named Basilina, daughter of a high-ranking bureaucrat, Julianus, who had served as praetorian prefect and head of government under the late emperor Licinius.", "Julian's mother died shortly after he was born, and he spent his childhood in Constantinople, forming a lasting attachment to the city.", "Julian was probably raised with Greek as his first language, and, being the nephew of Rome's first Christian emperor, he was brought up under the Christian faith.solidus, ''c.''", "361.The obverse shows a bearded Julian inscribed , calling Julian \"father of the nation\" ().The reverse depicts an armed Roman soldier bearing a military standard in one hand and subduing a captive with the other, a reference to the military strength of the Empire, The mint mark indicates the coin was minted in Sirmium, the home of Constantine's family.In the turmoil after the death of Constantine in 337, in order to establish himself and his brothers, Julian's cousin Constantius II appears to have led a massacre of most of Julian's close relatives.", "Constantius II allegedly ordered the murders of many descendants from the second marriage of Constantius Chlorus and Theodora, leaving only Constantius and his brothers Constantine II and Constans I, and their cousins, Julian and Constantius Gallus (Julian's half-brother), as the surviving males related to Emperor Constantine.", "Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II were proclaimed joint emperors, each ruling a portion of Roman territory.", "Julian and Gallus were excluded from public life, were strictly guarded in their youth, and given a Christian education.", "They were likely saved by their youth.", "If Julian's later writings are to be believed, Constantius would later be tormented with guilt at the massacre of 337.Initially growing up in Bithynia, raised by his maternal grandmother, at the age of seven Julian was under the guardianship of Eusebius, the semi-Arian Christian Bishop of Nicomedia, and taught by Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, about whom he later wrote warmly.", "After Eusebius died in 342, both Julian and Gallus were transferred to the imperial estate of Macellum in Cappadocia.", "Here Julian met the Christian bishop George of Cappadocia, who lent him books from the classical tradition.", "At the age of 18, the exile was lifted and he dwelt briefly in Constantinople and Nicomedia.", "He became a lector, a minor office in the Christian church, and his later writings show a detailed knowledge of the Bible, likely acquired in his early life.Julian's conversion from Christianity to paganism happened at around the age of 20.Looking back on his life in 362, Julian wrote that he had spent twenty years in the way of Christianity and twelve in the true way, i.e., the way of Helios.", "Julian began his study of Neoplatonism in Asia Minor in 351, at first under Aedesius, the philosopher, and then Aedesius' student Eusebius of Myndus.", "It was from Eusebius that Julian learned of the teachings of Maximus of Ephesus, whom Eusebius criticized for his more mystical form of Neoplatonic theurgy.", "Eusebius related his meeting with Maximus, in which the theurgist invited him into the temple of Hecate and, chanting a hymn, caused a statue of the goddess to smile and laugh, and her torches to ignite.", "Eusebius reportedly told Julian that he \"must not marvel at any of these things, even as I marvel not, but rather believe that the thing of the highest importance is that purification of the soul which is attained by reason.\"", "In spite of Eusebius' warnings regarding the \"impostures of witchcraft and magic that cheat the senses\" and \"the works of conjurers who are insane men led astray into the exercise of earthly and material powers\", Julian was intrigued, and sought out Maximus as his new mentor.", "According to the historian Eunapius, when Julian left Eusebius, he told his former teacher \"farewell, and devote yourself to your books.", "You have shown me the man I was in search of.", "\"Constantine II died in 340 when he attacked his brother Constans.", "Constans in turn fell in 350 in the war against the usurper Magnentius.", "This left Constantius II as the sole remaining emperor.", "In need of support, in 351 he made Julian's half-brother, Gallus, caesar of the East, while Constantius II himself turned his attention westward to Magnentius, whom he defeated decisively that year.", "In 354 Gallus, who had imposed a rule of terror over the territories under his command, was executed.", "Julian was summoned to Constantius' court in Mediolanum (Milan) in 354, and held for a year, under suspicion of treasonable intrigue, first with his brother and then with Claudius Silvanus; he was cleared, in part because Empress Eusebia intervened on his behalf, and he was permitted to study in Athens (Julian expresses his gratitude to the empress in his third oration).", "While there, Julian became acquainted with two men who later became both bishops and saints: Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great.", "In the same period, Julian was also initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, which he would later try to restore." ], [ "Caesar in Gaul", "Statue at the Musée de Cluny formerly identified as Julian.After dealing with the rebellions of Magnentius and Silvanus, Constantius felt he needed a permanent representative in Gaul.", "In 355, Julian was summoned to appear before the emperor in Mediolanum and on 6 November was made ''Caesar'' of the West, marrying Constantius' sister, Helena.", "Constantius, after his experience with Gallus, intended his representative to be more a figurehead than an active participant in events, so he packed Julian off to Gaul with a small retinue, assuming his prefects in Gaul would keep Julian in check.", "At first reluctant to trade his scholarly life for war and politics, Julian eventually took every opportunity to involve himself in the affairs of Gaul.", "In the following years he learned how to lead and then run an army, through a series of campaigns against the Germanic tribes that had settled on both sides of the Rhine.===Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms===During his first campaign in 356, Julian led an army to the Rhine, where he engaged the inhabitants and recovered several towns that had fallen into Frankish hands, including Colonia Agrippina (Cologne).", "With success under his belt he withdrew for the winter to Gaul, distributing his forces to protect various towns, and choosing the small town of Senon near Verdun to await the spring.", "This turned out to be a tactical error, for he was left with insufficient forces to defend himself when a large contingent of Franks besieged the town and Julian was virtually held captive there for several months, until his general Marcellus deigned to lift the siege.", "Relations between Julian and Marcellus seem to have been poor.", "Constantius accepted Julian's report of events and Marcellus was replaced as ''magister equitum'' by Severus.The following year saw a combined operation planned by Constantius to regain control of the Rhine from the Germanic peoples who had spilt across the river onto the west bank.", "From the south his ''magister peditum'' Barbatio was to come from Milan and amass forces at Augst (near the Rhine bend), then set off north with 25,000 soldiers; Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from Durocortorum (Rheims).", "However, while Julian was in transit, a group of Laeti attacked Lugdunum (Lyon) and Julian was delayed in order to deal with them.", "This left Barbatio unsupported and deep in Alamanni territory, so he felt obliged to withdraw, retracing his steps.", "Thus ended the coordinated operation against the Germanic peoples.With Barbatio safely out of the picture, King Chnodomarius led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus at the Battle of Argentoratum.", "The Romans were heavily outnumbered and during the heat of battle a group of 600 horsemen on the right wing deserted, yet, taking full advantage of the limitations of the terrain, the Romans were overwhelmingly victorious.", "The enemy was routed and driven into the river.", "King Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Constantius in Mediolanum.", "Ammianus, who was a participant in the battle, portrays Julian in charge of events on the battlefield and describes how the soldiers, because of this success, acclaimed Julian attempting to make him Augustus, an acclamation he rejected, rebuking them.", "He later rewarded them for their valor.Rather than chase the routed enemy across the Rhine, Julian now proceeded to follow the Rhine north, the route he followed the previous year on his way back to Gaul.", "At Moguntiacum (Mainz), however, he crossed the Rhine in an expedition that penetrated deep into what is today Germany, and forced three local kingdoms to submit.", "This action showed the Alamanni that Rome was once again present and active in the area.", "On his way back to winter quarters in Paris he dealt with a band of Franks who had taken control of some abandoned forts along the river Meuse.In 358, Julian gained victories over the Salian Franks on the Lower Rhine, settling them in Toxandria in the Roman Empire, north of today's city of Tongeren, and over the Chamavi, who were expelled back to Hamaland.===Taxation and administration===At the end of 357 Julian, with the prestige of his victory over the Alamanni to give him confidence, prevented a tax increase by the Gallic praetorian prefect Florentius and personally took charge of the province of ''Belgica Secunda''.", "This was Julian's first experience with civil administration, where his views were influenced by his liberal education in Greece.", "Properly it was a role that belonged to the praetorian prefect.", "However, Florentius and Julian often clashed over the administration of Gaul.", "Julian's first priority, as ''Caesar'' and nominal ranking commander in Gaul, was to drive out the barbarians who had breached the Rhine frontier.", "He sought to win over the support of the civil population, which was necessary for his operations in Gaul, and also to show his largely Germanic army the benefits of Imperial rule.", "Julian therefore felt it was necessary to rebuild stable and peaceful conditions in the devastated cities and countryside.", "For this reason, Julian clashed with Florentius over the latter's support of tax increases, as mentioned above, and Florentius's own corruption in the bureaucracy.Constantius attempted to maintain some modicum of control over his ''Caesar'', which explains his removal of Julian's close adviser Saturninius Secundus Salutius from Gaul.", "His departure stimulated the writing of Julian's oration, \"Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius\".===Rebellion in Paris===19th century depiction of Julian being proclaimed emperor in Paris (fancifully located in the Thermes de Cluny, then thought to have been the Imperial Palace), standing on a shield in the Frankish manner, in February 360.In the fourth year of Julian's stay in Gaul, the Sassanid emperor, Shapur II, invaded Mesopotamia and took the city of Amida after a 73-day siege.", "In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to join his eastern army, the order by-passing Julian and going directly to the military commanders.", "Although Julian at first attempted to expedite the order, it provoked an insurrection by troops of the ''Petulantes'', who had no desire to leave Gaul.", "According to the historian Zosimus, the army officers were those responsible for distributing an anonymous tract expressing complaints against Constantius as well as fearing for Julian's ultimate fate.", "Notably absent at the time was the prefect Florentius, who was seldom far from Julian's side, though now he was kept busy organizing supplies in Vienne and away from any strife that the order could cause.", "Julian would later blame him for the arrival of the order from Constantius.", "Ammianus Marcellinus even suggested that the fear of Julian gaining more popularity than himself caused Constantius to send the order on the urging of Florentius.The troops proclaimed Julian ''Augustus'' in Paris, and this in turn led to a very swift military effort to secure or win the allegiance of others.", "Although the full details are unclear, there is evidence to suggest that Julian may have at least partially stimulated the insurrection.", "If so, he went back to business as usual in Gaul, for, from June to August of that year, Julian led a successful campaign against the Attuarian Franks.", "In November, Julian began openly using the title ''Augustus,'' even issuing coins with the title, sometimes with Constantius, sometimes without.", "He celebrated his fifth year in Gaul with a big show of games.", "''Solidus'' of Julian issued at Ravenna in 361, during his war with Constantius.", "The reverse reads , 'virtue of the Gallic army', celebrating Julian's legions from Gaul which acclaimed him as emperor.In the spring of 361, Julian led his army into the territory of the Alamanni, where he captured their king, Vadomarius.", "Julian claimed that Vadomarius had been in league with Constantius, encouraging him to raid the borders of Raetia.", "Julian then divided his forces, sending one column to Raetia, one to northern Italy and the third he led down the Danube on boats.", "His forces claimed control of Illyricum and his general, Nevitta, secured the pass of Succi into Thrace.", "He was now well out of his comfort zone and on the road to civil war.", "(Julian would state in late November that he set off down this road \"because, having been declared a public enemy, I meant to frighten him Constantius merely, and that our quarrel should result in intercourse on more friendly terms...\")However, in June, forces loyal to Constantius captured the city of Aquileia on the north Adriatic coast, an event that threatened to cut Julian off from the rest of his forces, while Constantius's troops marched towards him from the east.", "Aquileia was subsequently besieged by 23,000 men loyal to Julian.", "All Julian could do was sit it out in Naissus, the city of Constantine's birth, waiting for news and writing letters to various cities in Greece justifying his actions (of which only the letter to the Athenians has survived in its entirety).", "Civil war was avoided only by the death on 3 November of Constantius, who, in his last will, is alleged by some sources to have recognized Julian as his rightful successor." ], [ "Reign", "The Church of the Holy Apostles, where Julian brought Constantius II to be buried.On 11 December 361, Julian entered Constantinople as sole emperor and, despite his rejection of Christianity, his first political act was to preside over Constantius' Christian burial, escorting the body to the Church of the Apostles, where it was placed alongside that of Constantine.", "This act was a demonstration of his lawful right to the throne.", "He is also now thought to have been responsible for the building of Santa Costanza on a Christian site just outside Rome as a mausoleum for his wife Helena and sister-in-law Constantina.The new Emperor rejected the style of administration of his immediate predecessors.", "He blamed Constantine for the state of the administration and for having abandoned the traditions of the past.", "He made no attempt to restore the tetrarchal system begun under Diocletian, nor did he seek to rule as an absolute autocrat.", "His own philosophic notions led him to idealize the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius.", "In his first panegyric to Constantius, Julian described the ideal ruler as being essentially ''primus inter pares'' (\"first among equals\"), operating under the same laws as his subjects.", "While in Constantinople, therefore, it was not strange to see Julian frequently active in the Senate, participating in debates and making speeches, placing himself at the level of the other members of the Senate.He viewed the royal court of his predecessors as inefficient, corrupt and expensive.", "Thousands of servants, eunuchs and superfluous officials were therefore summarily dismissed.", "He set up the Chalcedon tribunal to deal with the corruption of the previous administration under the supervision of ''magister militum'' Arbitio.", "Several high-ranking officials under Constantius, including the chamberlain Eusebius, were found guilty and executed.", "(Julian was conspicuously absent from the proceedings, perhaps signalling his displeasure at their necessity.)", "He continually sought to reduce what he saw as a burdensome and corrupt bureaucracy within the Imperial administration whether it involved civic officials, secret agents or the imperial postal service.Another effect of Julian's political philosophy was that the authority of the cities was expanded at the expense of the imperial bureaucracy as Julian sought to reduce direct imperial involvement in urban affairs.", "For example, city land owned by the imperial government was returned to the cities, city council members were compelled to resume civic authority, often against their will, and the tribute in gold by the cities called the ''aurum coronarium'' was made voluntary rather than a compulsory tax.", "Additionally, arrears of land taxes were cancelled.", "This was a key reform reducing the power of corrupt imperial officials, as the unpaid taxes on land were often hard to calculate or higher than the value of the land itself.", "Forgiving back taxes both made Julian more popular and allowed him to increase collections of current taxes.While he ceded much of the authority of the imperial government to the cities, Julian also took more direct control himself.", "For example, new taxes and corvées had to be approved by him directly rather than left to the judgement of the bureaucratic apparatus.", "Julian certainly had a clear idea of what he wanted Roman society to be, both in political as well as religious terms.", "The terrible and violent dislocation of the 3rd century meant that the Eastern Mediterranean had become the economic locus of the Empire.", "If the cities were treated as relatively autonomous local administrative areas, it would simplify the problems of imperial administration, which as far as Julian was concerned, should be focused on the administration of the law and defense of the empire's vast frontiers.In replacing Constantius's political and civil appointees, Julian drew heavily from the intellectual and professional classes, or kept reliable holdovers, such as the rhetorician Themistius.", "His choice of consuls for the year 362 was more controversial.", "One was the very acceptable Claudius Mamertinus, previously the Praetorian prefect of Illyricum.", "The other, more surprising choice was Nevitta, Julian's trusted Frankish general.", "This latter appointment made overt the fact that an emperor's authority depended on the power of the army.", "Julian's choice of Nevitta appears to have been aimed at maintaining the support of the Western army which had acclaimed him.===Clash with the Antiochenes===A small chalcedony bust of an emperor, most likely Julian.After five months of dealings at the capital, Julian left Constantinople in May and moved to Antioch, arriving in mid-July and staying there for nine months before launching his fateful campaign against Persia in March 363.Antioch was a city favored by splendid temples along with a famous oracle of Apollo in nearby Daphne, which may have been one reason for his choosing to reside there.", "It had also been used in the past as a staging place for amassing troops, a purpose which Julian intended to follow.His arrival on 18 July was well received by the Antiochenes, though it coincided with the celebration of the Adonia, a festival which marked the death of Adonis, so there was wailing and moaning in the streets—not a good omen for an arrival.Julian soon discovered that wealthy merchants were causing food problems, apparently by hoarding food and selling it at high prices.", "He hoped that the curia would deal with the issue for the situation was headed for a famine.", "When the curia did nothing, he spoke to the city's leading citizens, trying to persuade them to take action.", "Thinking that they would do the job, he turned his attention to religious matters.He tried to resurrect the ancient oracular spring of Castalia at the temple of Apollo at Delphi.", "After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century bishop Babylas were suppressing the god, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple.", "The result was a massive Christian procession.", "Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual.", "He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.When the curia still took no substantial action in regards to the food shortage, Julian intervened, fixing the prices for grain and importing more from Egypt.", "Then landholders refused to sell theirs, claiming that the harvest was so bad that they had to be compensated with fair prices.", "Julian accused them of price gouging and forced them to sell.", "Various parts of Libanius' orations may suggest that both sides were justified to some extent; while Ammianus blames Julian for \"a mere thirst for popularity\".Julian's ascetic lifestyle was not popular either, since his subjects were accustomed to the idea of an all-powerful Emperor who placed himself well above them.", "Nor did he improve his dignity with his own participation in the ceremonial of bloody sacrifices.David Stone Potter said after nearly two millennia:He then tried to address public criticism and mocking of him by issuing a satire ostensibly on himself, called Misopogon or \"Beard Hater\".", "There he blames the people of Antioch for preferring that their ruler have his virtues in the face rather than in the soul.Julian's fellow pagans were of a divided mind about this habit of talking to his subjects on an equal footing: Ammianus Marcellinus saw in that only the foolish vanity of someone \"excessively anxious for empty distinction\", whose \"desire for popularity often led him to converse with unworthy persons\".On leaving Antioch he appointed Alexander of Heliopolis as governor, a violent and cruel man whom the Antiochene Libanius, a friend of the emperor, admits on first thought was a \"dishonourable\" appointment.", "Julian himself described the man as \"undeserving\" of the position, but appropriate \"for the avaricious and rebellious people of Antioch\".===Persian campaign===Julian's rise to ''Augustus'' was the result of military insurrection eased by Constantius's sudden death.", "This meant that, while he could count on the wholehearted support of the Western army which had aided his rise, the Eastern army was an unknown quantity originally loyal to the Emperor he had risen against, and he had tried to woo it through the Chalcedon tribunal.", "However, to solidify his position in the eyes of the eastern army, he needed to lead its soldiers to victory and a campaign against the Sassanid Persians offered such an opportunity.An audacious plan was formulated whose goal was to lay siege on the Sassanid capital city of Ctesiphon and definitively secure the eastern border.", "Yet the full motivation for this ambitious operation is, at best, unclear.", "There was no direct necessity for an invasion, as the Sassanids sent envoys in the hope of settling matters peacefully.", "Julian rejected this offer.", "Ammianus states that Julian longed for revenge on the Persians and that a certain desire for combat and glory also played a role in his decision to go to war.Illustration from ''The Fall of Princes'' by John Lydgate (which is a translation of ''De Casibus Virorum Illustribus'' by Giovanni Boccaccio) depicting \"the skyn of Julyan\".", "There is no evidence that Julian's corpse was skinned and displayed, and it is likely that the illustrator simply confused the fate of Julian's body with that of Emperor Valerian.====Into enemy territory====On 5 March 363, despite a series of omens against the campaign, Julian departed from Antioch with about 65,000–83,000, or 80,000–90,000 men (the traditional number accepted by Gibbon is 95,000 effectives total), and headed north toward the Euphrates.", "En route he was met by embassies from various small powers offering assistance, none of which he accepted.", "He did order the Armenian King Arsaces to muster an army and await instructions.", "He crossed the Euphrates near Hierapolis and moved eastward to Carrhae, giving the impression that his chosen route into Persian territory was down the Tigris.", "For this reason it seems he sent a force of 30,000 soldiers under Procopius and Sebastianus further eastward to devastate Media in conjunction with Armenian forces.", "This was where two earlier Roman campaigns had concentrated and where the main Persian forces were soon directed.", "Julian's strategy lay elsewhere, however.", "He had had a fleet built of over 1,000 ships at Samosata in order to supply his army for a march down the Euphrates and of 50 pontoon ships to facilitate river crossings.", "Procopius and the Armenians would march down the Tigris to meet Julian near Ctesiphon.", "Julian's ultimate aim seems to have been \"regime change\" by replacing king Shapur II with his brother Hormisdas.After feigning a march further eastward, Julian's army turned south to Circesium at the confluence of the Abora (Khabur) and the Euphrates arriving at the beginning of April.", "Passing Dura on 6 April, the army made good progress, bypassing towns after negotiations or besieging those which chose to oppose him.", "At the end of April the Romans captured the fortress of Pirisabora, which guarded the canal approach from the Euphrates to Ctesiphon on the Tigris.", "As the army marched toward the Persian capital, the Sassanids broke the dikes which crossed the land, turning it into marshland, slowing the progress of the Roman army.====Ctesiphon====Julian near Ctesiphon in modern-day Iraq, from a medieval miniatureBy mid-May, the army had reached the vicinity of the heavily fortified Persian capital, Ctesiphon, where Julian partially unloaded some of the fleet and had his troops ferried across the Tigris by night.", "The Romans gained a tactical victory over the Persians before the gates of the city, driving them back into the city.", "However, the Persian capital was not taken.", "Concerned with the risk of becoming encircled and trapped within the city's walls, master-general Victor ordered his soldiers not to enter the open gates of the city in pursuit of the defeated Persians.", "Resultantly, the main Persian army was still at large and approaching, while the Romans lacked a clear strategic objective.", "In the council of war which followed, Julian's generals persuaded him not to mount a siege against the city, given the impregnability of its defences and the fact that Shapur would soon arrive with a large force.", "Julian, not wanting to give up what he had gained and probably still hoping for the arrival of the column under Procopius and Sebastianus, set off east into the Persian interior, ordering the destruction of the fleet.", "This proved to be a hasty decision, for they were on the wrong side of the Tigris with no clear means of retreat and the Persians had begun to harass them from a distance, burning any food in the Romans' path.", "Julian had not brought adequate siege equipment, so there was nothing he could do when he found that the Persians had flooded the area behind him, forcing him to withdraw.", "A second council of war on 16 June 363 decided that the best course of action was to lead the army back to the safety of Roman borders, not through Mesopotamia, but northward to Corduene.=== Death ===During the withdrawal, Julian's forces suffered several attacks from Sassanid forces.", "In one such engagement on 26 June 363, the indecisive Battle of Samarra near Maranga in Mesopotamia, Julian was wounded when the Sassanid army raided his column.", "In the haste of pursuing the retreating enemy, Julian chose speed rather than caution, taking only his sword and leaving his coat of mail.", "He received a wound from a spear that reportedly pierced the lower lobe of his liver and intestines.", "The wound was not immediately deadly.", "Julian was treated by his personal physician, Oribasius of Pergamum, who seems to have made every attempt to treat the wound.", "This probably included the irrigation of the wound with a dark wine, and a procedure known as ''gastrorrhaphy'', the suturing of the damaged intestine.", "On the third day a major hemorrhage occurred and the emperor died during the night.", "It is believed that his final words were \"Thou hast conquered, Galilean.” As Julian wished, his body was buried outside Tarsus, though it was later moved to Constantinople.In 364, Libanius stated that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers; this charge is not corroborated by Ammianus Marcellinus or other contemporary historians.", "John Malalas reports that the supposed assassination was commanded by Basil of Caesarea.", "Fourteen years later, Libanius said that Julian was killed by a Saracen (Lakhmid) and this may have been confirmed by Julian's doctor Oribasius who, having examined the wound, said that it was from a spear used by a group of Lakhmid auxiliaries in Persian service.", "Later Christian historians propagated the tradition that Julian was killed by Saint Mercurius.==== Legacy ====Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor Jovian who reestablished Christianity's privileged position throughout the Empire.Libanius says in his epitaph of the deceased emperor (18.304) that \"I have mentioned representations (of Julian); many cities have set him beside the images of the gods and honour him as they do the gods.", "Already a blessing has been besought of him in prayer, and it was not in vain.", "To such an extent has he literally ascended to the gods and received a share of their power from him themselves.\"", "However, no similar action was taken by the Roman central government, which would be more and more dominated by Christians in the ensuing decades.Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were , or (\"You have won, Galilean\"), supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, Christianity would become the Empire's state religion.", "The phrase introduces the 1866 poem \"Hymn to Proserpine\", which was Algernon Charles Swinburne's elaboration of what a philosophic pagan might have felt at the triumph of Christianity.", "It also ends the Polish Romantic play ''The Undivine Comedy'' written in 1833 by Zygmunt Krasiński.====Tomb====Porphyry sarcophagi outside the Istanbul Archaeological Museum.As he had requested, Julian's body was buried in Tarsus.", "It lay in a tomb outside the city, across a road from that of Maximinus Daia.However, chronicler Zonaras says that at some \"later\" date his body was exhumed and reburied in or near the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, where Constantine and the rest of his family lay.", "His sarcophagus is listed as standing in a \"stoa\" there by Constantine Porphyrogenitus.", "The church was demolished by the Ottomans after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.Today a sarcophagus of porphyry, believed by Jean Ebersolt to be Julian's, stands in the grounds of the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul.4th-century cameo of an emperor, probably Julian, performing sacrifice (National Archaeological Museum, Florence)" ], [ "Religious issues", "===Beliefs===Julian's personal religion was both pagan and philosophical; he viewed the traditional myths as allegories, in which the ancient gods were aspects of a philosophical divinity.", "The chief surviving sources are his works ''To King Helios'' and ''To the Mother of the Gods'', which were written as panegyrics, not theological treatises.As the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire, Julian's beliefs are of great interest for historians, but they are not in complete agreement.", "He learned theurgy from Maximus of Ephesus, a student of Iamblichus; his system bears some resemblance to the Neoplatonism of Plotinus; Polymnia Athanassiadi has brought new attention to his relations with Mithraism, although whether he was initiated into it remains debatable; and certain aspects of his thought (such as his reorganization of paganism under High Priests, and his fundamental monotheism) may show Christian influence.", "Some of these potential sources have not come down to us, and all of them influenced each other, which adds to the difficulties.According to one theory (that of Glen Bowersock in particular), Julian's paganism was highly eccentric and atypical because it was heavily influenced by an esoteric approach to Platonic philosophy sometimes identified as ''theurgy'' and also ''Neoplatonism''.", "Others (Rowland Smith, in particular) have argued that Julian's philosophical perspective was nothing unusual for a \"cultured\" pagan of his time, and, at any rate, that Julian's paganism was not limited to philosophy alone, and that he was deeply devoted to the same gods and goddesses as other pagans of his day.Because of his Neoplatonist background, Julian accepted the creation of humanity as described in Plato's ''Timaeus''.", "Julian writes, \"when Zeus was setting all things in order there fell from him drops of sacred blood, and from them, as they say, arose the race of men.\"", "Further he writes, \"they who had the power to create one man and one woman only, were able to create many men and women at once...\" His view contrasts with the Christian belief that humanity is derived from the one pair, Adam and Eve.", "Elsewhere he argues against the single pair origin, indicating his disbelief, noting for example, \"how very different in their bodies are the Germans and Scythians from the Libyans and Ethiopians.", "\"The Christian historian Socrates Scholasticus was of the opinion that Julian believed himself to be Alexander the Great \"in another body\" via transmigration of souls, \"in accordance with the teachings of Pythagoras and Plato\".The diet of Julian is said to have been predominantly vegetable-based.=== Restoration of state paganism ===''Julian the Apostate presiding at a conference of sectarians'', by Edward Armitage, 1875After gaining the purple, Julian started a religious reformation of the empire, which was intended to restore the lost strength of the Roman state.", "He supported the restoration of Hellenistic polytheism as the state religion.", "His laws tended to target wealthy and educated Christians, and his aim was not to destroy Christianity but to drive the religion out of \"the governing classes of the empire—much as Chinese Buddhism was driven back into the lower classes by a revived Confucian mandarinate in 13th century China.", "\"He restored pagan temples which had been confiscated since Constantine's time, or simply appropriated by wealthy citizens; he repealed the stipends that Constantine had awarded to Christian bishops, and removed their other privileges, including a right to be consulted on appointments and to act as private courts.", "He also reversed some favors that had previously been given to Christians.", "For example, he reversed Constantine's declaration that Majuma, the port of Gaza, was a separate city.", "Majuma had a large Christian congregation while Gaza was still predominantly pagan.On 4 February 362, Julian promulgated an edict to guarantee freedom of religion.", "This edict proclaimed that all the religions were equal before the law, and that the Roman Empire had to return to its original religious eclecticism, according to which the Roman state did not impose any religion on its provinces.", "The edict was seen as an act of favor toward the Jews, in order to upset the Christians.Coptic icon showing Saint Mercurius killing Julian.", "According to a tradition, Saint Basil (an old school-mate of Julian) had been imprisoned at the start of Julian's Sassanid campaign.", "Basil prayed to Mercurius to help him, and the saint appeared in a vision to Basil, claiming to have speared Julian to death.Since the persecution of Christians by past Roman Emperors had seemingly only strengthened Christianity, many of Julian's actions may have been designed to harass Christians and undermine their ability to organize resistance to the re-establishment of paganism in the empire.", "Julian's preference for a non-Christian and non-philosophical view of Iamblichus' theurgy seems to have convinced him that it was right to outlaw the Christian liturgy and demand the suppression of the Christian Holy Mysteries (Sacraments).In his ''School Edict'', Julian required that all public teachers be approved by the Emperor; the state paid or supplemented much of their salaries.", "Ammianus Marcellinus explains this as intending to prevent Christian teachers from using pagan texts (such as the ''Iliad'', which was widely regarded as divinely inspired) that formed the core of classical education: \"If they want to learn literature, they have Luke and Mark: Let them go back to their churches and expound on them\", the edict says.", "This was an attempt to remove some of the influence of the Christian schools which at that time and later used ancient Greek literature in their teachings in their effort to present the Christian religion as being superior to paganism.", "The edict also dealt a severe financial blow to many Christian scholars, tutors, and teachers, as it deprived them of students.In his ''Tolerance Edict'' of 362, Julian decreed the reopening of pagan temples, the restitution of confiscated temple properties, and the return from exile of \"heretical\" Christian bishops who had been censured or excommunicated by the Church.", "The latter was an instance of tolerance of different religious views, but it may also have been an attempt by Julian to foster schisms and divisions between his Christian rivals, since disputes over what constituted orthodox Catholic teaching could become quite fierce.His care in the institution of a pagan hierarchy in opposition to that of the Church's hierarchy was due to his wish to create a society in which every aspect of the life of the citizens was to be connected, through layers of intermediate levels, to the consolidated figure of the Emperor—the final provider for all the needs of his people.", "Within this project, there was no place for a parallel institution, such as the Church's hierarchy or Christian charity.====Paganism's shift under Julian====Roman gods.", "Depiction from the 9th century Paris Gregory.Julian's popularity among the people and the army during his brief reign suggest that he might have brought paganism back to the fore of Roman public and private life.", "In fact, during his lifetime, neither pagan nor Christian ideology reigned supreme, and the greatest thinkers of the day argued about the merits and rationality of each religion.", "Most importantly for the pagan cause, though, Rome was still a predominantly pagan empire that had not wholly accepted Christianity.", "Even so, Julian's short reign did not stem the tide of Christianity.", "The emperor's ultimate failure can arguably be attributed to the many religious traditions and deities that paganism promulgated.", "Most pagans sought religious affiliations that were unique to their culture and people, and they had internal divisions that prevented them from creating any one 'pagan religion'.", "Indeed, the term pagan was simply a convenient appellation for Christians to lump together the believers of a system they opposed.", "In truth, there was no Roman religion, as modern observers would recognize it.", "Instead, paganism came from a system of observances that one historian has characterized as \"no more than a spongy mass of tolerance and tradition.", "\"This system of tradition had already shifted dramatically by the time Julian came to power; gone were the days of massive sacrifices honoring the gods.", "The communal festivals that involved sacrifice and feasting, which once united communities, now tore them apart—Christian against pagan.", "Civic leaders did not even have the funds, much less the support, to hold religious festivals.", "Julian found the financial base that had supported these ventures (sacred temple funds) had been seized by his uncle Constantine to support the Christian Church.", "In all, Julian's short reign simply could not shift the feeling of inertia that had swept across the Empire.", "Christians had denounced sacrifice, stripped temples of their funds, and cut priests and magistrates off from the social prestige and financial benefits accompanying leading pagan positions in the past.", "Leading politicians and civic leaders had little motivation to rock the boat by reviving pagan festivals.", "Instead, they chose to adopt the middle ground by having ceremonies and mass entertainment that were religiously neutral.After witnessing the reign of two emperors bent on supporting the Church and stamping out paganism, it is understandable that pagans simply did not embrace Julian's idea of proclaiming their devotion to polytheism and their rejection of Christianity.", "Many chose to adopt a practical approach and not support Julian's public reforms actively for fear of a Christian revival.", "However, this apathetic attitude forced the emperor to shift central aspects of pagan worship.", "Julian's attempts to reinvigorate the people shifted the focus of paganism from a system of tradition to a religion with some of the same characteristics that he opposed in Christianity.", "For example, Julian attempted to introduce a tighter organization for the priesthood, with greater qualifications of character and service.", "Classical paganism simply did not accept this idea of priests as model citizens.", "Priests were elites with social prestige and financial power who organized festivals and helped pay for them.", "Yet Julian's attempt to impose moral strictness on the civic position of priesthood only made paganism more in tune with Christian morality, drawing it further from paganism's system of tradition.Indeed, this development of a pagan order created the foundations of a bridge of reconciliation over which paganism and Christianity could meet.", "Likewise, Julian's persecution of Christians, who by pagan standards were simply part of a different cult, was quite an un-pagan attitude that transformed paganism into a religion that accepted only one form of religious experience while excluding all others—such as Christianity.", "In trying to compete with Christianity in this manner, Julian fundamentally changed the nature of pagan worship.", "That is, he made paganism a religion, whereas it once had been only a system of tradition.====Juventinus and Maximus====Many of the Church fathers viewed the emperor with hostility, and told stories of his supposed wickedness after his death.", "A sermon by Saint John Chrysostom, entitled ''On Saints Juventinus and Maximinus,'' tells the story of two of Julian's soldiers at Antioch, who were overheard at a drinking party, criticizing the emperor's religious policies, and taken into custody.", "According to Chrysostom, the emperor had made a deliberate effort to avoid creating martyrs of those who disagreed with his reforms; but Juventinus and Maximinus admitted to being Christians, and refused to moderate their stance.", "Chrysostom asserts that the emperor forbade anyone from having contact with the men, but that nobody obeyed his orders; so he had the two men executed in the middle of the night.", "Chrysostom urges his audience to visit the tomb of these martyrs.====Charity====The fact that Christian charities were open to all, including pagans, put this aspect of Roman citizens' lives out of the control of Imperial authority and under that of the Church.", "Thus Julian envisioned the institution of a Roman philanthropic system, and cared for the behaviour and the morality of the pagan priests, in the hope that it would mitigate the reliance of pagans on Christian charity, saying: ''\"These impious Galileans not only feed their own poor, but ours also; welcoming them into their agapae, they attract them, as children are attracted, with cakes.", "\"''===Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple===Subterranean fires defeat Julian's effort to rebuild the temple.In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Persia, in keeping with his effort to oppose Christianity, he allowed Jews to rebuild their temple.", "The point was that the rebuilding of the temple would invalidate Jesus' prophecy about its destruction in 70, which Christians had cited as proof of Jesus' truth.", "But fires broke out and stopped the project.", "A personal friend of his, Ammianus Marcellinus, wrote this about the effort:The failure to rebuild the Temple may be ascribed to the Galilee earthquake of 363.In the contemporary Orations of St. Gregory Nazianzen, the builders were described as \"being driven against one another, as though by a furious blast of wind, and sudden heaving of the earth\" driving some to seek refuge in a church where \"a flame issued forth... and stopped them.\"", "This, according to Gregory, is \"what all people nowadays report and believe.\"", "The 18th century writer Edward Gibbon considered this to be unreliable, positing instead sabotage or accident.", "Divine intervention is a common view among Christian historians, and it was seen as proof of Jesus' divinity.Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him \"Julian the Hellene\".", "However, it is believed by most historians that Julian's favor towards the Jews was more of an attempt to impede the growth of Christianity as opposed to any genuine affection towards Judaism." ], [ "Works", "Julian wrote several works in Greek, some of which have come down to us.Budé Date Work CommentWrightI356/7''Panegyric in Honour of Constantius''Written to reassure Constantius that he was on his side.III~June 357''Panegyric in Honour of Eusebia''Expresses gratitude for Eusebia's support.IIIIII357/8''The Heroic Deeds of Constantius''Indicates his support of Constantius, while being critical.", "(Sometimes called \"second panegyric to Constantius\".", ")IIIV359''Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius''Grapples with the removal of his close advisor in Gaul.VIIIV361''Letter to the Senate and People of Athens''An attempt to explain the actions leading up to his rebellion.–VIearly 362''Letter to Themistius the Philosopher''Response to an ingratiating letter from Themistius, outlining Julian's political reading.–VIIMarch 362''To the Cynic Heracleios''Attempt to set Cynics straight regarding their religious responsibilities.VIIVIII~March 362''Hymn to the Mother of the Gods''A defense of Hellenism and Roman tradition.VIX~May 362''To the Uneducated Cynics''Another attack on Cynics who he thought didn't follow the principles of Cynicism.VIXDecember 362''The Caesars''Satire describing a competition among Roman emperors as to who was the best.", "Strongly critical of Constantine.–XIDecember 362''Hymn to King Helios''Attempt to describe the Roman religion as seen by Julian.IVXIIearly 363''Misopogon, or Beard-Hater''Written as a satire on himself, while attacking the people of Antioch for their shortcomings.––362/3''Against the Galileans''Polemic against Christians, which now only survives as fragments.––362''Fragment of a Letter to a Priest''Attempt to counteract the aspects that he thought were positive in Christianity.––359–363''Letters''Both personal and public letters from much of his career.––?", "''Epigrams''Small number of short verse works.–* Budé indicates the numbers used by Athanassiadi given in the Budé edition (1963 & 1964) of Julian's ''Opera''.", "* Wright indicates the oration numbers provided in W. C. Wright's edition of Julian's works.", "''Ioulianou autokratoros ta sozomena'' (1696)The religious works contain involved philosophical speculations, and the panegyrics to Constantius are formulaic and elaborate in style.The ''Misopogon'' (or \"Beard Hater\") is a light-hearted account of Julian's clash with the inhabitants of Antioch after he was mocked for his beard and generally scruffy appearance for an emperor.", "''The Caesars'' is a humorous tale of a contest between notable Roman emperors: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Constantine, with the competition also including Alexander the Great.", "This was a satiric attack upon the recent Constantine, whose worth, both as a Christian and as the leader of the Roman Empire, Julian severely questions.One of the most important of his lost works is his ''Against the Galileans'', intended to refute the Christian religion.", "The only parts of this work which survive are those excerpted by Cyril of Alexandria, who gives extracts from the three first books in his refutation of Julian, ''Contra Julianum''.", "These extracts do not give an adequate idea of the work: Cyril confesses that he had not ventured to copy several of the weightiest arguments.=== Problems regarding authenticity ===Julian's works have been edited and translated several times since the Renaissance, most often separately; but many are translated in the Loeb Classical Library edition of 1913, edited by Wilmer Cave Wright.", "Wright mentions, however, that there are many problems surrounding Julian's vast collection of works, mainly the letters ascribed to Julian.", "The collections of letters existing today are the result of many smaller collections, which contained varying numbers of Julian's works in various combinations.", "For example, in Laurentianus 58.16, the largest collection of letters ascribed to Julian was found, containing 43 manuscripts.", "The origins of many letters in these collections are unclear.Joseph Bidez and François Cumont compiled the different collections in 1922 and arrived at a total of 284 items.", "157 of these were considered genuine, and 127 were regarded as spurious.", "This contrasts starkly with Wright's earlier mentioned collection, which contains only 73 items which are considered genuine, along with 10 apocryphal letters.", "Michael Trapp notes, however, that when comparing Bidez and Cumont's work with Wright's, Bidez and Cumont regard as many as sixteen of Wright's genuine letters as spurious.", "Which works can be ascribed to Julian is thus very much up to debate.The problems surrounding a collection of Julian's works are exacerbated by the fact that Julian was a motivated writer, which means it is possible that many more letters could have circulated despite his short reign.", "Julian himself attests to the large number of letters he had to write in a letter that is itself likely to be genuine.", "Julian's religious agenda gave him even more work than the average emperor as he sought to instruct his newly styled pagan priests and dealt with discontented Christian leaders and communities.", "An example of him instructing his pagan priests is found in a fragment in the Vossianus MS., inserted in the Letter to Themistius.Additionally, Julian's hostility towards the Christian faith inspired vicious counteractions by Christian authors, as in Gregory of Nazianzus' invectives against Julian.", "Christians no doubt suppressed some of Julian's works as well.", "This Christian influence is still visible in Wright's much smaller collection of Julian's letters.", "She comments that some letters are suddenly cut off when the contents become hostile towards Christians and believes this to be the result of Christian censorship.", "Notable examples appear in the ''Fragment of a letter to a Priest'' and the ''letter to High-Priest Theodorus.''" ], [ "Family tree", "Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections'''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings''''''2: Constantine's children'''" ], [ "In popular culture", "===Literature===* The ''Julian Romance'' is a late antique Syriac romance of Julian's reign from a hostile Christian perspective.", "* In 1681 Lord Russell, an outspoken opponent of King Charles II of England and his brother The Duke of York, got his chaplain to write a ''Life of Julian the Apostate''.", "This work made use of the Roman Emperor's life in order to address contemporary English political and theological debates – specifically, to reply to the conservative arguments of Dr Hickes's sermons, and defend the lawfulness of resistance in extreme cases.", "* In 1847, the controversial German theologian David Friedrich Strauss published in Mannheim the pamphlet ''Der Romantiker auf dem Thron der Cäsaren'' (\"A Romantic on the Throne of the Caesars\"), in which Julian was satirised as \"an unworldly dreamer, a man who turned nostalgia for the ancients into a way of life and whose eyes were closed to the pressing needs of the present\".", "In fact, this was a veiled criticism of the contemporary King Frederick William IV of Prussia, known for his romantic dreams of restoring the supposed glories of feudal Medieval society.", "* Julian's life inspired the play ''Emperor and Galilean'' published in 1873 by Henrik Ibsen.", "* The late nineteenth century English novelist George Gissing read an English translation of Julian's work in 1891* Julian's life and reign were the subject of the novel ''The Death of the Gods (Julian the Apostate)'' (1895) in the trilogy of historical novels entitled \"Christ and Antichrist\" (1895–1904) by the Russian Symbolist poet, novelist and literary theoretician Dmitrii S.", "Merezhkovskii.", "* The opera ''Der Apostat'' (1924) by the composer and conductor Felix Weingartner is about Julian.", "* In 1945, Nikos Kazantzakis authored the tragedy ''Julian the Apostate'' in which the emperor is depicted as an existentialist hero committed to a struggle which he knows will be in vain.", "It was first staged in Paris in 1948.", "* Julian was the subject of a novel, ''Julian'' (1964), by Gore Vidal, describing his life and times.", "It is notable for, among other things, its scathing critique of Christianity.", "* Julian appeared in ''Gods and Legions'', by Michael Curtis Ford (2002).", "Julian's tale was told by his closest companion, the Christian saint Caesarius, and accounts for the transition from a Christian philosophy student in Athens to a pagan Roman Augustus of the old nature.", "* Julian's letters are an important part of the symbolism of Michel Butor's novel ''La Modification''.", "* The fantasy alternate history ''The Dragon Waiting'' by John M. Ford, while set in the time of the Wars of the Roses, uses the reign of Julian as its point of divergence.", "His reign not being cut short, he was successful in disestablishing Christianity and restoring a religiously eclectic societal order which survived the fall of Rome and into the Renaissance.", "Characters in the novel refer to him as \"Julian the Wise\".", "The dystopian speculative fiction novel by Robert Charles Wilson, ''Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America,'' parallels the life of Julian with the titular character as the hereditary president of an oligarchic future United States of America who tries to restore science and combat the fundamentalist Christianity that has taken over the country.", "A student paper by the narrator fills out the center of the 2022 novel ''Elizabeth Finch'' by Julian Barnes.C.P.", "Cavafy wrote 6 poems about Julian in 1923–1935.===Film=== An Italian movie treatment of his life, ''Giuliano l'Apostata'', was released in 1919.===Street named===During the British Mandate period in Jerusalem, ‘Julian Way,’ initially named after the Emperor, was later renamed King David Street after the establishment of the State of Israel." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Ancient sources ===* Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', Libri XV-XXV (books 15–25).", "See J.C. Rolfe, ''Ammianus Marcellinus'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1935/1985.3 Volumes.", "* Ammianus Marcellinus, ''The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens.''", "Translated by C. D. Yonge.", "Full text at Internet Archive at The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens.", "Gutenberg etext# 28587.", "* ''Julian the emperor: containing Gregory Nazianzen's two Invectives and Libanius' Monody : with Julian's extant theosophical works.", "'', Translated by C.W.", "King.", "George Bell and Sons, London, 1888.At the Internet Archive* Claudius Mamertinus, \"''Gratiarum actio Mamertini de consulato suo Iuliano Imperatori''\", ''Panegyrici Latini'', panegyric delivered in Constantinople in 362, also as a speech of thanks at his assumption of the office of consul of that year* Gregory Nazianzen, ''Orations'', \" First Invective Against Julian\", \" Second Invective Against Julian\".", "Both transl.", "C.W.", "King, 1888.", "* Libanius, ''Monody – Funeral Oration for Julian the Apostate''.", "Transl.", "C.W.", "King, 1888.", "* Conti, Stefano (2004).", "''Die Inschriften Kaiser Julians.''", "Franz Steiner.", "Stuttgart.", ".===Modern sources===* * Baker-Brian, Nicholas; Tougher, Shaun.", "(2012).", "''Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate.''", "The Classical Press of Wales.", "Swansea.", ".", "http://www.classicalpressofwales.co.uk/emperor_author.htm* ** Dodgeon, Michael H. & Samuel N.C. Lieu, ''The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363'', Routledge, London, 1991.", " * Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros.", "2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery.", "''World Journal of Surgery'' '''24''': 615–619Murdoch, Adrian.", "''The Last Pagan: Julian the Apostate and the Death of the Ancient World'', Stroud, 2005, ** Ridley, R.T., \"Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)\", ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte'', Vol.", "22, No.", "2, 1973, pp.", "317–330 Smith, Rowland.", "''Julian's gods: religion and philosophy in the thought and action of Julian the Apostate'', London, 1995.", "Veyne, Paul.", "''L'Empire Gréco-Romain''.", "Seuil, Paris, 2005.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Edward Alexander, ''On Rome and the Gods: The Life and Works of Emperor Julian,'', Invictus Publishing, 2023, * García Ruiz, María Pilar, \"Julian's Self-Representation in Coins and Texts.\"", "In ''Imagining Emperors in the Later Roman Empire'', Ed.", "D.W.P.", "Burgersdijk and A.J.", "Ross.", "Leiden.", "Brill.", "2018.204–233.. Gardner, Alice, ''Julian Philosopher and Emperor and the Last Struggle of Paganism Against Christianity,'' G.P.", "Putnam's Son, London, 1895.. Downloadable at Julian, philosopher and emperor.", "Hunt, David.", "\"Julian\".", "In ''The Cambridge Ancient History'', Volume 13 (Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey editors).", "CUP, Cambridge, 1998.", "Lieu, Samuel N.C. & Dominic Montserrat: editors, ''From Constantine to Julian: A Source History'' Routledge: New York, 1996.", "Neander, August, ''The Emperor Julian and His Generation, An Historical Picture,'' translated by G.V.", "Cox, John W. Parker, London, 1859.. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian and his generation.", "Rendall, Gerald Henry, ''The Emperor Julian: Paganism and Christianity with Genealogical, Chronological and Bibliographical Appendices,'' George Bell and Sons, London, 1879.. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian.", "Rohrbacher, David.", "''Historians of Late Antiquity''.", "Routledge: New York, 2002.", "Rosen, Klaus.", "''Julian.", "Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser''.", "Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2006.", "Вус, Олег.", "Юлиан Апостат.", "Персидский поход и загадка битвы у Туммара 26 июня 363 г.", "// МАИАСП.", "2019.Вып.", "11.С.", "271–299.In Russian.", "https://www.academia.edu/85590664/Julian_the_Apostate_The_Persian_campaign_and_the_riddle_of_battle_at_Tummar_on_June_26_363" ], [ "External links", "** Laws of Julian.", "Two laws by Constantius II, while Julian was Caesar.", "* Imperial Laws and Letters Involving Religion, some of which are by Julian relating to Christianity.", "* A 4th century chalcedony portrait of Julian, Saint Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum.", "* Julian's Spin Doctor: The Persian Mutiny, Article by Adam J.", "Bravo.", "* Rowland Smith's \"Julian's Gods\", Review by Thomas Banchich.", "* Excerpt from by Adrian Murdoch, ''The Last Pagan'' at the California Literary Review.", "* The Julian Society.", "A society of pagans who admire Julian.", "* HellenicFaith.com.", "A neo-pagan group seeking to revive the form of Neoplatonic Hellenism that was promoted by Julian.", "* The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity, by Gerald Henry Rendall* Julian the Apostate why he was important, and his place in world history, by Andrew Selkirk* ''Letters'' in ''Epistolographi graeci'', R. Hercher (ed.", "), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1873, pp.", "337–391.", "* Entry in ''The Encyclopedia of Ancient History'', *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John II''' (2 August 1455 – 9 January 1499) was Elector of Brandenburg from 1486 until his death, the fourth of the House of Hohenzollern.", "After his death he received the cognomen '''''Cicero''''', after the Roman orator of the same name, but the elector's eloquence and interest in the arts is debatable." ], [ "Life", "John Cicero was the eldest son of Elector Albert III Achilles of Brandenburg with his first wife Margaret of Baden.", "As his father then ruled as Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (from 1457 also as Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach), he was born at the Hohenzollern residence of Ansbach in Franconia, where he spent his childhood years until in 1466 he received the call to Brandenburg as presumed heir by his uncle Elector Frederick II.", "He joined him in the War of the Succession of Stettin with the Pomeranian dukes, until Frederick resigned in 1470 and was succeeded by John's father, who in 1473 appointed him regent of the Brandenburg lands.", "After the Pomeranian struggle he also had to deal with the inheritance conflict upon the 1476 death of the Piast duke Henry XI of Głogów, husband of his half-sister Barbara.On 25 August 1476 in Berlin John married Margaret of Wettin, a daughter of Landgrave William III of Thuringia with Anne, Duchess of Luxembourg.", "Their children were:# Wolfgang, born and died 1482.# Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg (21 February 1484 – 11 July 1535), Elector of Brandenburg.# Elisabeth, born and died 1486.# Anna of Brandenburg (27 August 1487, Berlin – 3 May 1514, Kiel), married 10 April 1502 to King Frederick I of Denmark.# Ursula of Brandenburg (17 October 1488 – 18 September 1510, Güstrow), married 16 February 1507 to Duke Henry V, Duke of Mecklenburg.# Albert of Mainz (1490, Berlin – 24 September 1545, Mainz), Cardinal since 1518, Archbishop of Magdeburg in 1513–45, Archbishop of Mainz in 1514–45.John succeeded his father as elector in 1486, while the Franconian possessions of the Hohenzollern dynasty passed to his younger brothers Frederick I and Siegmund.", "He decreed that the ''Stadtschloss'' in Berlin, erected at the behest of his uncle Frederick II, should serve as the permanent residence of the Brandenburg electors, the beginning of the city's history as a state capital.", "He also implemented an excise tax on beer in 1488, which sparked several disturbances, mainly in the towns of the Altmark region.", "In 1490 John was able to purchase the former Lusatian territory around Zossen, acknowledged by the Bohemian king Vladislaus II, and maintained the succession claims of the Hohenzollern dynasty to the Pomeranian lands held by the House of Griffins.", "He died in 1499 from pleural effusion at Arneburg Castle and was succeeded by his eldest son Joachim I. John was the first of the Hohenzollern electors to be buried in Brandenburg, first at Lehnin Abbey, later transferred to Berlin Cathedral by order of his grandson Joachim II." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joachim Frederick''' (27 January 1546 – 18 July 1608), of the House of Hohenzollern, was Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from 1598 until his death." ], [ "Biography", "Joachim Frederick was born in Cölln to John George, Elector of Brandenburg, and Sophie of Legnica.", "He served as administrator of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg from 1566 to 1598, then succeeded his father as Elector of Brandenburg in 1598.Joachim Frederick was succeeded at his death by his son John Sigismund.", "Joachim Frederick's first marriage on 7 March 1570 was to Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin, daughter of John, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin, and Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.", "Joachim Frederick's second marriage, on 23 October 1603, was to Eleanor of Prussia, born 21 August 1583, daughter of Albert Frederick and Marie Eleonore of Cleves.", "He became regent of the Duchy of Prussia in 1605.His titles also included \"duke (Dux) of Stettin, Pomerania, Cassubia, Vandalorum and Crossen\", according to the terms of the Treaty of Grimnitz, although the Pomeranian titles were only nominal.Joachim Frederick and Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin had these children: John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg (8 November 1572 – 23 December 1619)Anne Catherine (26 June 1575 – 29 March 1612), married King Christian IV of DenmarkGirl 1576John George, Duke of Jägerndorf (16 December 1577 – 2 March 1624) married Eva Christina of Württemberg (1590 - 1657), daughter of Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg and Sibylla of Anhalt.", "Elected Bishop of Strasbourg 1592; resigned 1604.", "''Herrenmeister'' (Grand Master) of the Order of Saint John from 1616 until his death.", "August Frederick (16 February 1580 – 23 April 1601)Albert Frederick (29 April 1582 – 3 December 1600)Joachim (13 April 1583 – 10 June 1600)Ernest (13 April 1583 – 18 September 1613)Barbara Sophie (16 November 1584 – 13 February 1636), married John Frederick, Duke of WürttembergGirl 1585/6Christian William (28 August 1587 – 1 January 1665)Joachim Frederick and Eleanor of Prussia had only one child: Marie Eleonore (22 March 1607 – 18 February 1675), married Louis Philip, Count Palatine of Simmern-Kaiserslautern" ], [ "Legacy", "Joachim-Friedrich Strasse street sign, BerlinJoachim-Friedrich Strasse in Berlin is named after him." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Sigismund''' (; 8 November 1572 – 23 December 1619) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from the House of Hohenzollern.", "He became the Duke of Prussia through his marriage to Duchess Anna, the eldest daughter of Duke Albert Frederick of Prussia who died without sons.", "Their marriage resulted in the potential creation of Brandenburg-Prussia, which became a reality after Poland's leader appointed John Sigismund in charge of Prussia in regency and, shortly thereafter, Albert Frederick died without an able, direct male heir." ], [ "Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia", "John Sigismund was born in Halle an der Saale to Joachim III Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, and his first wife Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin.", "He succeeded his father as Margrave of Brandenburg in 1608.In 1611, John Sigismund traveled from Königsberg to Warsaw, where on 16 November 1611 he gave feudal homage to Sigismund III Vasa, King of Poland (the Duchy of Prussia was a Polish fief at the time).", "He officially became Duke of Prussia in 1618, although he had served as regent on behalf of the mentally-disturbed Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia, for several years prior.", "He suffered a stroke in 1616 from which he didn't recover and died in 1619.John Sigismund gave the Reichshof Castrop to his teacher and educator Carl Friedrich von Bordelius, whereas he received the territories of Cleves, Mark, and Ravensberg in the Treaty of Xanten in 1614." ], [ "Religious policy", "John Sigismund's most significant action was his conversion from Lutheranism to Calvinism, after he had earlier equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants in the Duchy of Prussia under pressure from the King of Poland.", "He was probably won over to Calvinism during a visit to Heidelberg in 1606, but it was not until 25 December 1613 that he publicly took communion according to the Calvinist rite.", "The vast majority of his subjects in Brandenburg, including his wife Anna of Prussia, remained deeply Lutheran, however.", "After the Elector and his Calvinist court officials drew up plans for mass conversion of the population to the new faith in February 1614, as provided for by the rule of ''Cuius regio, eius religio'' within the Holy Roman Empire, there were serious protests, with his wife backing the Lutherans.", "Resistance was so strong that in 1615, John Sigismund backed down and relinquished all attempts at forcible conversion.", "Instead, he allowed his subjects to be either Lutheran or Calvinist according to the dictates of their own consciences.", "Henceforward, Brandenburg-Prussia would be a bi-confessional state." ], [ "Family and children", "On 30 October 1594, John Sigismund married Anna of Prussia, daughter of Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia (1553–1618).", "She was the elder sister of his stepmother.", "They were parents to eight children:* George William of Brandenburg (13 November 1595 – 1 December 1640).", "His successor.", "* Anne Sophia of Brandenburg (15 March 1598 – 19 December 1659).", "Married Frederick Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg.", "* Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg (11 November 1599 – 28 March 1655).", "Married Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.", "They were parents of Christina of Sweden.", "* Catherine of Brandenburg (28 May 1602 – 27 August 1644).", "Married first Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania and secondly Franz Karl of Saxe-Lauenburg.", "* Joachim Sigismund of Brandenburg (25 July 1603 – 22 February 1625).", "* Agnes of Brandenburg (31 August 1606 – 12 March 1607).", "* John Frederick of Brandenburg (18 August 1607 – 1 March 1608).", "* Albrecht Christian of Brandenburg (7–14 March 1609)." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Settlement of Dortmund between Brandenburg and Palatinate-Neuburg and the conflict of succession in Jülich, in full text*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jackson Pollock" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Paul Jackson Pollock''' (; January 28, 1912August 11, 1956) was an American painter.", "A major figure in the abstract expressionist movement, Pollock was widely noticed for his \"drip technique\" of pouring or splashing liquid household paint onto a horizontal surface, enabling him to view and paint his canvases from all angles.", "It was called all-over painting and action painting, since he covered the entire canvas and used the force of his whole body to paint, often in a frenetic dancing style.", "This extreme form of abstraction divided the critics: some praised the immediacy of the creation, while others derided the random effects.", "In 2016, Pollock's painting titled ''Number 17A'' was reported to have fetched US$200 million in a private purchase.A reclusive and volatile personality, Pollock struggled with alcoholism for most of his life.", "In 1945, he married the artist Lee Krasner, who became an important influence on his career and on his legacy.", "Pollock died at the age of 44 in an alcohol-related single-car collision when he was driving.", "In December 1956, four months after his death, Pollock was given a memorial retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City.", "A larger, more comprehensive exhibition of his work was held there in 1967.In 1998 and 1999, his work was honored with large-scale retrospective exhibitions at MoMA and at the Tate in London." ], [ "Early life (1912–1936)", "Paul Jackson Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming, in 1912, the youngest of five brothers.", "His parents, Stella May (née McClure) and LeRoy Pollock, were born and grew up in Tingley, Iowa, and were educated at Tingley High School.", "Pollock's mother is interred at Tingley Cemetery, Ringgold County, Iowa.", "His father had been born with the surname McCoy, but took the surname of his adoptive parents, neighbors who adopted him after his own parents had died within a year of each other.", "Stella and LeRoy Pollock were Presbyterian; they were of Irish and Scots-Irish descent, respectively.", "LeRoy Pollock was a farmer and later a land surveyor for the government, moving for different jobs.", "Stella, proud of her family's heritage as weavers, made and sold dresses as a teenager.", "In November 1912, Stella took her sons to San Diego; Jackson was just 10 months old and would never return to Cody.", "He subsequently grew up in Arizona and Chico, California.While living in the Vermont Square neighborhood of Los Angeles, he enrolled at Manual Arts High School, from which he was expelled.", "He had already been expelled in 1928 from another high school.", "During his early life, Pollock explored Native American culture while on surveying trips with his father.", "He was also heavily influenced by Mexican muralists, particularly José Clemente Orozco, whose fresco ''Prometheus'' he would later call \"the greatest painting in North America\".In 1930, following his older brother Charles Pollock, he moved to New York City, where they both studied under Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League.", "Benton's rural American subject matter had little influence on Pollock's work, but his rhythmic use of paint and his fierce independence were more lasting.", "In the early 1930s, Pollock spent a summer touring the Western United States together with Glen Rounds, a fellow art student, and Benton, their teacher." ], [ "Career (1936–1954)", "Pollock was introduced to the use of liquid paint in 1936 at an experimental workshop in New York City by the Mexican muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros.", "In the summer, he went to Dartmouth College to study José Clemente Orozco's 3,200 square foot mural, “The Epic of American Civilization.” He later used paint pouring as one of several techniques on canvases of the early 1940s, such as ''Male and Female'' and ''Composition with Pouring I''.", "After his move to Springs, New York, he began painting with his canvases laid out on the studio floor and he developed what was later called his \"drip\" technique.From 1938 to 1942 Pollock worked for the WPA Federal Art Project.", "During this time Pollock was trying to deal with his established alcoholism; from 1938 through 1941 he underwent Jungian psychotherapy with Dr. Joseph L. Henderson and later with Dr. Violet Staub de Laszlo in 1941–42.Henderson engaged him through his art, encouraging Pollock to make drawings.", "Jungian concepts and archetypes were expressed in his paintings.", "Some psychiatrists have hypothesized that Pollock might have had bipolar disorder.Pollock signed a gallery contract with Peggy Guggenheim in July 1943.He received the commission to create the ''Mural'' (1943) for the entry to her new townhouse.", "At the suggestion of her friend and advisor Marcel Duchamp, Pollock painted the work on canvas, rather than the wall, so that it would be portable.", "After seeing the big mural, the art critic Clement Greenberg wrote: \"I took one look at it and I thought, 'Now that's great art,' and I knew Jackson was the greatest painter this country had produced.\"", "The catalog introducing his first exhibition described Pollock's talent as \"volcanic.", "It has fire.", "It is unpredictable.", "It is undisciplined.", "It spills out of itself in a mineral prodigality, not yet crystallized.", "\"===Drip period===Pollock's most famous paintings were made during the \"drip period\" between 1947 and 1950.He became famous following an August 8, 1949, four-page spread in ''Life'' magazine that asked, \"Is he the greatest living painter in the United States?\"", "Thanks to the mediation of Alfonso Ossorio, a close friend of Pollock, and the art historian Michel Tapié, the young gallery owner Paul Facchetti, from March 7, 1952, managed to realize the first exhibition of Pollock's works from 1948 to 1951 in his Studio Paul Facchetti in Paris and in Europe.", "At the peak of his fame, Pollock abruptly abandoned the drip style.", "Pollock's drip paintings were influenced by the artist Janet Sobel; the art critic Clement Greenberg would later report that Pollock \"admitted\" to him that Sobel's work \"had made an impression on him.", "\"Pollock's work after 1951 was darker in color, including a collection painted in black on unprimed canvases.", "These paintings have been referred to as his \"Black pourings\" and when he exhibited them at the Betty Parsons Gallery in New York, none of them sold.", "Parsons later sold one to a friend at half the price.", "These works show Pollock attempting to find a balance between abstraction and depictions of the figure.He later returned to using color and continued with figurative elements.", "During this period, Pollock had moved to the Sidney Janis Gallery, a more commercial gallery; the demand for his work from collectors was great.", "In response to this pressure, along with personal frustration, his alcoholism deepened.===Relationship with Lee Krasner===Pollock and Lee Krasner met while they both exhibited at the McMillen Gallery in 1942.Krasner was unfamiliar yet intrigued with Pollock's work and went to his apartment, unannounced, to meet him following the gallery exhibition.", "In October 1945, Pollock and Krasner were married in a church with two witnesses present for the event.", "In November, they moved out of the city to the Springs area of East Hampton on the south shore of Long Island.", "With the help of a down-payment loan from Peggy Guggenheim, they bought a wood-frame house and barn at 830 Springs Fireplace Road.", "Pollock converted the barn into a studio.", "In that space, he perfected his big \"drip\" technique of working with paint, with which he would become permanently identified.", "When the couple found themselves free from work they enjoyed spending their time together cooking and baking, working on the house and garden, and entertaining friends.Pollock's studio in Springs, New YorkKrasner's influence on her husband's art was something critics began to reassess by the latter half of the 1960s due to the rise of feminism at the time.", "Krasner's extensive knowledge and training in modern art and techniques helped her bring Pollock up to date with what contemporary art should be.", "Krasner is often considered to have tutored her husband in the tenets of modernistic painting.", "Pollock was then able to change his style to fit a more organized and cosmopolitan genre of modern art, and Krasner became the one judge he could trust.", "At the beginning of the two artists' marriage, Pollock would trust his peers' opinions on what did or did not work in his pieces.", "Krasner was also responsible for introducing him to many collectors, critics, and artists, including Herbert Matter, who would help further his career as an emerging artist.", "Art dealer John Bernard Myers once said \"there would never have been a Jackson Pollock without a Lee Pollock\", whereas fellow painter Fritz Bultman referred to Pollock as Krasner's \"creation, her Frankenstein\", both men recognizing the immense influence Krasner had on Pollock's career.Jackson Pollock's influence on his wife's artwork is often discussed by art historians.", "Many people thought that Krasner began to reproduce and reinterpret her husband's chaotic paint splatters in her own work.", "There are several accounts where Krasner intended to use her own intuition as a way to move towards Pollock's ''I am nature'' technique in order to reproduce nature in her art." ], [ "Later years and death (1955–1956)", "Jackson Pollock's grave in the rear with Lee Krasner's grave in front in the Green River CemeteryIn 1955, Pollock painted ''Scent'' and ''Search'', his last two paintings.", "He did not paint at all in 1956, but was making sculptures at Tony Smith's home: constructions of wire, gauze, and plaster.", "Shaped by sand-casting, they have heavily textured surfaces similar to what Pollock often created in his paintings.Pollock and Krasner's relationship began to crumble by 1956, owing to Pollock's continuing alcoholism and infidelity involving another artist, Ruth Kligman.", "On August 11, 1956, at 10:15 p.m., Pollock died in a single-car crash in his Oldsmobile convertible while driving under the influence of alcohol.", "At the time, Krasner was visiting friends in Europe; she abruptly returned on hearing the news from a friend.", "One of the passengers, Edith Metzger, was also killed in the accident, which occurred less than a mile from Pollock's home.", "The other passenger, Ruth Kligman, survived.", "In December 1956, four months after his death, Pollock was given a memorial retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City.", "A larger, more comprehensive exhibition of his work was held there in 1967.In 1998 and 1999, his work was honored with large-scale retrospective exhibitions at MoMA and at The Tate in London.For the rest of her life, his widow Lee Krasner managed his estate and ensured that Pollock's reputation remained strong despite changing art world trends.", "The couple are buried in Green River Cemetery in Springs with a large boulder marking his grave and a smaller one marking hers." ], [ "Artistry", "===Influence and technique===The work of Thomas Hart Benton, Pablo Picasso and Joan Miró influenced Pollock.Pollock started using synthetic resin-based paints called alkyd enamels, which at that time was a novel medium.", "Pollock described this use of household paints, instead of artist's paints, as \"a natural growth out of a need\".", "He used hardened brushes, sticks, and even basting syringes as paint applicators.", "Pollock's technique of pouring and dripping paint is thought to be one of the origins of the term action painting.", "With this technique, Pollock was able to achieve his own signature style palimpsest paintings, with paints flowing from his chosen tool onto the canvas.", "By defying the convention of painting on an upright surface, he added a new dimension by being able to view and apply paint to his canvases from all directions.In 1936, Pollock participated in an experimental workshop run by the Mexican muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros.", "It was there that he first used liquid enamel paints, which he continued to incorporate in his paintings in the early to mid 1940s, long before he encountered the work of the Ukrainian American artist Janet Sobel (1894–1968) (born Jennie Lechovsky).", "Peggy Guggenheim included Sobel's work in her ''The Art of This Century Gallery'' in 1945.Jackson Pollock and art critic Clement Greenberg saw Sobel's work there in 1946 and later Greenberg noted that Sobel was \"a direct influence on Jackson Pollock's drip painting technique\".", "In his essay \"American-Type Painting\", Greenberg noted those works were the first of all-over painting he had seen, and said, \"Pollock admitted that these pictures had made an impression on him\".While painting this way, Pollock moved away from figurative representation, and challenged the Western tradition of using easel and brush.", "He used the force of his whole body to paint, which was expressed on the large canvases.", "In 1956, ''Time'' magazine dubbed Pollock \"Jack the Dripper\" due to his painting style.Pollock observed Native American sandpainting demonstrations in the 1940s.", "Referring to his style of painting on the floor, Pollock stated, \"I feel nearer, more a part of the painting, since this way I can walk round it, work from the four sides and literally be in the painting.", "This is akin to the methods of the Indian sand painters of the West.\"", "Other influences on his drip technique include the Mexican muralists and Surrealist automatism.", "Pollock denied reliance on \"the accident\"; he usually had an idea of how he wanted a particular work to appear.", "His technique combined the movement of his body, over which he had control, the viscous flow of paint, the force of gravity, and the absorption of paint into the canvas.", "It was a mixture of controllable and uncontrollable factors.", "Flinging, dripping, pouring, and spattering, he would move energetically around the canvas, almost as if in a dance, and would not stop until he saw what he wanted to see.Austrian artist Wolfgang Paalen's article on totem art of the indigenous people of British Columbia, in which the concept of space in totemist art is considered from an artist's point of view, influenced Pollock as well; Pollock owned a signed and dedicated copy of the Amerindian Number of Paalen's magazine (DYN 4–5, 1943).", "He had also seen Paalen's surrealist paintings in an exhibition in 1940.Another strong influence must have been Paalen's surrealist ''fumage'' technique, which appealed to painters looking for new ways to depict what was called the \"unseen\" or the \"possible\".", "The technique was once demonstrated in Matta's workshop, about which Steven Naifeh reports, \"Once, when Matta was demonstrating the Surrealist technique Paalen's Fumage, Jackson Pollock turned to (Peter) Busa and said in a stage whisper: 'I can do that without the smoke.", "Pollock's painter friend Fritz Bultman even stated, \"It was Wolfgang Paalen who started it all.", "\"In 1950, Hans Namuth, a young photographer, wanted to take pictures—both stills and moving—of Pollock at work.", "Pollock promised to start a new painting especially for the photographic session, but when Namuth arrived, Pollock apologized and told him the painting was finished.Photographer Hans Namuth extensively documented Pollock's unique painting techniquesNamuth said that when he entered the studio:===From naming to numbering===Continuing to evade the viewer's search for figurative elements in his paintings, Pollock abandoned titles and started numbering his works.", "He said about this, \"Look passively and try to receive what the painting has to offer and not bring a subject matter or preconceived idea of what they are to be looking for.\"", "His wife said, \"He used to give his pictures conventional titles ... but now he simply numbers them.", "Numbers are neutral.", "They make people look at a picture for what it is—pure painting.", "\"===Critical debate===Pollock's work has been the subject of important critical debates.", "Critic Robert Coates once derided a number of Pollock's works as \"mere unorganized explosions of random energy, and therefore meaningless\".", "''Reynold's News'', in a 1959 headline, said, \"This is not art—it's a joke in bad taste.\"", "French abstract painter Jean Hélion, on the other hand, remarked on first seeing a Pollock, \"It filled out space going on and on because it did not have a start or end to it.\"", "Clement Greenberg supported Pollock's work on formalistic grounds.", "It fit well with Greenberg's view of art history as a progressive purification in form and elimination of historical content.", "He considered Pollock's work to be the best painting of its day and the culmination of the Western tradition via Cubism and Cézanne to Manet.In a 1952 article in ''ARTnews'', Harold Rosenberg coined the term \"action painting\" and wrote that \"what was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event.", "The big moment came when it was decided to paint 'just to paint'.", "The gesture on the canvas was a gesture of liberation from value—political, aesthetic, moral.\"", "Many people assumed that he had modeled his \"action painter\" paradigm on Pollock.", "The Congress for Cultural Freedom, an organization to promote American culture and values, backed by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), sponsored exhibitions of Pollock's work.", "Some left-wing scholars, including Eva Cockcroft, have argued that the United States government and wealthy elite embraced Pollock and abstract expressionism to place the United States in the forefront of global art and devalue socialist realism.", "Cockcroft wrote that Pollock became a \"weapon of the Cold War\".Pollock described his art as \"motion made visible memories, arrested in space\"." ], [ "Legacy", "===Influence===Pollock's staining into raw canvas was adapted by the Color Field painters Helen Frankenthaler and Morris Louis.", "Frank Stella made \"all-over composition\" a hallmark of his works of the 1960s.", "Joseph Glasco was introduced to Pollock by Alfonso Ossorio in 1949.Throughout his life, Glasco continued to reflect on Pollock’s artistic influence, particularly in the early to mid-1970s when his style changed to all-over collage paintings with their emphasis on rhythm and process.", "The Happenings artist Allan Kaprow, sculptors Richard Serra and Eva Hesse, and many contemporary artists have retained Pollock's emphasis on the process of creation; they were influenced by his approach to the process, rather than the look of his work.In 2004, ''One: Number 31, 1950'' was ranked the eighth-most influential piece of modern art in a poll of 500 artists, curators, critics, and dealers.===In pop culture and media===In the early 1990s, three groups of movie makers were developing Pollock biographical projects, each based on a different source.", "The project that at first seemed most advanced was a joint venture between Barbra Streisand's Barwood Films and Robert De Niro's TriBeCa Productions (De Niro's parents were friends of Krasner and Pollock).", "The script, by Christopher Cleveland, was to be based on Jeffrey Potter's 1985 oral biography, ''To a Violent Grave'', a collection of reminiscences by Pollock's friends.", "Streisand was to play the role of Lee Krasner, and De Niro was to portray Pollock.", "A second was to be based on ''Love Affair'' (1974), a memoir by Ruth Kligman, who was Pollock's lover in the six months before his death.", "This was to be directed by Harold Becker, with Al Pacino playing Pollock.In 2000, the biographical film ''Pollock'', based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning biography, ''Jackson Pollock: An American Saga'', directed by and starring Ed Harris, was released.", "Marcia Gay Harden won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Lee Krasner.", "The movie was the project of Harris, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor.", "Harris himself painted the works seen in the film.", "The Pollock-Krasner Foundation did not authorize or collaborate with any production.In September 2009, the art historian Henry Adams claimed in ''Smithsonian'' magazine that Pollock had written his name in his famous painting ''Mural'' (1943).", "The painting is now insured for US$140 million.", "In 2011, the Republican Iowa State Representative Scott Raecker introduced a bill to force the sale of the artwork, held by the University of Iowa, to fund scholarships, but his bill created such controversy that it was quickly withdrawn.===Art market===In 1973, ''Number 11, 1952'' (also known as ''Blue Poles'') was purchased by the Australian Gough Whitlam government for the National Gallery of Australia for US$2 million (A$1.3 million at the time of payment).", "This was the highest price ever paid for a modern painting and the painting is now one of the most popular exhibits.", "The artwork contains only a fleeting reference to the ''real world'' and ''Blue Poles'' has become the flagship of autonomous art.", "''Blue Poles'' was a centerpiece of the Museum of Modern Art's 1998 retrospective in New York, the first time the painting had been shown in America since its purchase.In November 2006, Pollock's ''No.", "5, 1948'' became the world's most expensive painting, when it was sold privately to an undisclosed buyer for the sum of US$140 million.", "Another artist record was established in 2004, when ''No.", "12'' (1949), a medium-sized drip painting that had been shown in the United States Pavilion at the 1950 Venice Biennale, fetched US$11.7 million at Christie's, New York.", "In 2012, ''Number 28, 1951'', one of the artist's combinations of drip and brushwork in shades of silvery gray with red, yellow, and shots of blue and white, also sold at Christie's, New York, for US$20.5 million—US$23 million with fees—within its estimated range of US$20 million to US$30 million.In 2013, Pollock's ''Number 19'' (1948) was sold by Christie's for a reported US$58,363,750 during an auction that ultimately reached US$495 million total sales in one night, which Christie's reports as a record to date as the most expensive auction of contemporary art.In February 2016, Bloomberg News reported that Kenneth C. Griffin had purchased Jackson Pollock's 1948 painting ''Number 17A'' for US$200 million, from David Geffen.In 2023, an unknown Pollock painting was reportedly discovered in Bulgaria after international police agencies were able to track down a group of international art smugglers.", "The painting is reportedly worth up to 50 million euros." ], [ "Authenticity issues", "The Pollock-Krasner Authentication Board was created by the Pollock-Krasner Foundation in 1990 to evaluate newly found works for an upcoming supplement to the 1978 catalogue.", "In the past, however, the Pollock-Krasner Foundation has declined to be involved in authentication cases.In 2006, a documentary, ''Who the $&% Is Jackson Pollock?", "'', was made concerning Teri Horton, a truck driver who bought an abstract painting for five dollars at a thrift store in California in 1992.This work may be a lost Pollock painting, but its authenticity is debated.", "Thomas Hoving is shown in the documentary and states that the painting is on a primed canvas, which Pollock never used.", "''Untitled 1950'', which the New York-based Knoedler Gallery had sold in 2007 for $17 million to Pierre Lagrange, a London hedge-fund multimillionaire, was subject to an authenticity suit before the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.", "Done in the painter's classic drip-and-splash style and signed \"J. Pollock\", the modest-sized painting (15 by 28 1/2 in) was found to contain yellow paint pigments not commercially available until about 1970.The suit was settled in a confidential agreement in 2012.===Fractal computer analysis===In 1999, the physicist and artist Richard Taylor used computer analysis to show similarities between Pollock's painted patterns and fractals (patterns that recur on multiple size scales) found in natural scenery, reflecting Pollock's own words: \"I am nature\".", "His research team labelled Pollock's style fractal expressionism.In 2003, 24 Pollockesque paintings and drawings were found in a locker in Wainscott, New York.", "In 2005, The Pollock-Krasner Foundation requested a fractal analysis to be used for the first time in an authenticity dispute.", "Researchers at the University of Oregon used the technique to identify differences between the patterns in the six disputed paintings analyzed and those in 14 established Pollocks.", "Pigment analysis of the paintings by researchers at Harvard University showed the presence in one painting of a synthetic pigment that was not patented until the 1980s, and materials in two others that were not available in Pollock's lifetime.In 2007, a traveling museum exhibition of the paintings was mounted and was accompanied by a comprehensive book, ''Pollock Matters'', written by Ellen G. Landau, one of the four sitting scholars from the former Pollock Krasner Foundation authentication panel from the 1990s, and Claude Cernuschi, a scholar in Abstract Expressionism.", "In the book, Landau demonstrates the many connections between the family who owns the paintings and Jackson Pollock during his lifetime to place the paintings in what she believes to be their proper historic context.", "Landau also presents the forensic findings of Harvard University and presents possible explanations for the forensic inconsistencies that were found in three of the 24 paintings.", "However, the scientist who invented one of the modern pigments dismissed the possibility that Pollock used this paint as being \"unlikely to the point of fantasy\".Subsequently, over 10 scientific groups have performed fractal analysis on over 50 of Pollock's works.", "A 2015 study that used fractal analysis as one of its techniques achieved a 93% success rate distinguishing real from fake Pollocks.", "Current research of Fractal Expressionism focuses on human response to viewing fractals.", "Cognitive neuroscientists have shown that Pollock's fractals induce the same stress-reduction in observers as computer-generated fractals and naturally occurring fractals." ], [ "Archives", "Lee Krasner donated Pollock's papers to the Archives of American Art in 1983.They were later archived with her own papers.", "The Archives of American Art also houses the Charles Pollock papers, which include correspondence, photographs, and other files relating to his brother Jackson.A separate organization, the Pollock-Krasner Foundation, was established in 1985.The foundation functions as the official estate for both Pollock and his widow, but also under the terms of Krasner's will, serves \"to assist individual working artists of merit with financial need\".", "The U.S. copyright representative for the Pollock-Krasner Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.The Pollock-Krasner House and Studio is owned and administered by the Stony Brook Foundation, a nonprofit affiliate of Stony Brook University.", "Regular tours of the house and studio occur from May through October." ], [ "List of major works", "Pollock's studio-floor in Springs, New York, the visual result of being his primary painting surface from 1946 until 1953 (1942) ''Male and Female'' Philadelphia Museum of Art* (1942) ''Stenographic Figure'' Museum of Modern Art* (1942) ''The Moon Woman'' Peggy Guggenheim Collection* (1943) ''Mural'' University of Iowa Museum of Art, given by Peggy Guggenheim* (1943) ''The She-Wolf'' Museum of Modern Art* (1943) ''Blue (Moby Dick)'' Ohara Museum of Art* (1945) ''Night Mist'' Norton Museum of Art* (1945) ''Troubled Queen'' Museum of Fine Arts, Boston* (1946) ''Eyes in the Heat'' Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice* (1946) ''The Key'' Art Institute of Chicago* (1946) ''The Tea Cup'' Collection Frieder Burda* (1946) ''Shimmering Substance'', from ''The Sounds In The Grass'' Museum of Modern Art* (1946) ''Free Form '', MoMA* (1947) ''Portrait of H.M.'' University of Iowa Museum of Art, given by Peggy Guggenheim.", "* (1947) ''Full Fathom Five'' Museum of Modern Art* (1947) ''Cathedral'' Dallas Museum of Art* (1947) ''Enchanted Forest'' Peggy Guggenheim Collection* (1947) ''Lucifer'' The Anderson Collection at Stanford University* (1947) ''Sea Change'' Seattle Art Museum, given by Peggy Guggenheim* (1948) ''Painting''* (1948) ''Number 5'' (4 ft x 8 ft) Private collection* (1948) ''Number 8'' Neuburger Museum at the State University of New York at Purchase* (1948) ''Number 13A: Arabesque'' Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut* (1948) ''Composition (White, Black, Blue and Red on White)'' New Orleans Museum of Art* (1948) ''Summertime: Number 9A'' Tate Modern* (1948) \"Number 19\" * (1949) ''Number 1'' Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles* (1949) ''Number 3'' Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.* (1949) ''Number 10'' Museum of Fine Arts, Boston* (1949) ''Number 11'' Indiana University Art Museum Bloomington, Indiana* (1950) ''Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist)'' National Gallery of Art* (1950) ''Mural on Indian red ground, 1950'' Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art* (1950) ''Autumn Rhythm (Number 30), 1950'' Metropolitan Museum of Art* (1950) ''Number 29, 1950'' National Gallery of Canada* (1950) ''Number 32'', Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, BRD* (1950) ''One: Number 31, 1950'' Museum of Modern Art* (1951) ''Number 7'' National Gallery of Art* (1951) ''Black and White (Number 6)'' San Francisco Museum of Modern Art* (1952) ''Convergence'' Albright-Knox Art Gallery* (1952) ''Blue Poles: No.", "11, 1952'' National Gallery of Australia* (1952) ''Number 12, 1952'' Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection* (1953) ''Portrait and a Dream'' Dallas Museum of Art* (1953) ''Easter and the Totem'' The Museum of Modern Art* (1953) ''Ocean Greyness'' Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum* (1953) ''The Deep'' Centre Georges Pompidou" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "********** mcah.columbia.edu" ], [ "External links", "* Exhibition-'Memories Arrested' 2012* Pollock-Krasner House and Study Center* Pollock-Krasner Foundation* Pollock and The Law* National Gallery of Art web feature, includes highlights of Pollock's career, numerous examples of his work, photographs and motion footage of Pollock, plus an in-depth discussion of his 1950 painting ''Lavender Mist''* ''Blue Poles'' at the NGA* Fractal Expressionism – the fractal qualities of Pollock's drip paintings.", "* Jackson Pollock Papers at the Smithsonian's Archives of American Art* \"Jackson Pollock, John Cage and William Burroughs\", talk at MOMA* pictures of Pollock, slideshow ''Life Magazine''Works by Jackson Pollock (public domain in Canada)Museum links* The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation* Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), Los Angeles, California* Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA), Los Angeles, California* Jackson Pollock at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jet Li" ], [ "Introduction", " use both this parameter and \|birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> death_place = death_cause = resting_place = resting_place_coordinates = burial_place = burial_coordinates = monuments = nationality = other_names = citizenship = education = alma_mater = occupation = years_active = 1982–present era = employer = organization = agent = known_for = notable_works = style = height = television = spouse = partner = children = 4 parents = mother = father = relatives = family = callsign = awards = Full list website = module = module2 = module3 = module4 = module5 = module6 = signature = signature_size = signature_alt = footnotes = }}'''Li Lianjie''' (courtesy name '''Yangzhong'''; born 26 April 1963), better known by his stage name '''Jet Li''', is a Chinese-born Singaporean martial artist, former Wushu champion, film actor, film producer, and philanthropist.", "He is widely regarded as one of the most iconic Chinese film stars and one of the most renowned martial arts stars of his generation.", "After three years of training with acclaimed Wushu teacher Wu Bin, Li won his first national championship for the Beijing Wushu Team.", "Between 1974 and 1979, he won the title of Men's All-Around National Wushu Champion five times.", "After retiring from competitive Wushu at age 18, Li went on to win great acclaim in China as an actor, making his debut with the film ''Shaolin Temple'' (1982), which instantly catapulted him to stardom in East Asia.", "He went on to star in many critically acclaimed films, most notably as the lead in Zhang Yimou's ''Hero'' (2002), ''Fist of Legend'' (1994), the first three films in the ''Once Upon a Time in China'' series (1991–1993), in which he portrayed folk hero Wong Fei-hung, and ''Fearless'' (2006), which is loosely based on the life of Huo Yuanjia.", "His movie career in China is credited with reviving Wushu in Hong Kong martial arts films during the 1990s, and revitalising the Shaolin Temple.", "Li is also noted for his contribution to making new Wuxia films popular internationally during his career.Li's first role in a non-Chinese film was as a villain in ''Lethal Weapon 4'' (1998), and his first leading role in a Hollywood film was as Han Sing in ''Romeo Must Die'' (2000).", "He has gone on to star in many international action films, including in French cinema with the Luc Besson-produced films ''Kiss of the Dragon'' (2001) and ''Unleashed'' (2005).", "He co-starred in ''The One'' (2001) and ''War'' (2007) with Jason Statham, ''The Forbidden Kingdom'' (2008) with Jackie Chan, the first three of ''The Expendables'' films with Sylvester Stallone, and as the title character villain in ''The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor'' (2008).After a long movie career, in 2007 Li turned to philanthropy.", "He founded the One Foundation, an independent fundraising foundation in mainland China which mainly focuses on natural disaster relief, environmental protection, medical treatment, education and poverty problems.", "Since the start of the foundation, Li has been involved with recovery efforts in seven disasters, including the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, the 2008 Typhoon Morakot in Taiwan, and the 2013 Lushan earthquake in Ya’an, Sichuan.", "Li also subsequently founded ''Taiji Zen'', an online health and wellness program providing instruction in meditation and tai chi." ], [ "Early life and martial arts career", "Li was born in Beijing, China, and was the youngest of two boys and two girls.", "His ancestral home is in Shenyang, China.", "When he was two years old, his father died and his family then lived in poverty.Li was eight when his talent for Wushu was noticed as he practiced at a school summer course.", "He then attended a non-sparring wushu event, followed by joining the Beijing Wushu Team which did a martial art display at the All China Games.", "Renowned coaches Li Junfeng and Wu Bin made extra efforts to help the talented boy develop.", "Wu Bin even bought food for Li's family in order to boost Li's protein intake.", "A very young Li competed against adults and was the national all-around champion from 1975 to 1979.According to Li, once, as a child, when the Chinese National Wushu Team went to perform for President Richard Nixon in the United States, he was asked by Nixon to be his personal bodyguard.", "Li replied, \"I don't want to protect any individual.", "When I grow up, I want to defend my one billion Chinese countrymen!", "\"Li is a master of several styles of wushu, especially ''changquan'' and ''fanziquan''.", "He has also studied other arts including ''baguazhang'', tai chi, ''xingyiquan'', drunken boxing, Eagle Claw, and Praying Mantis.", "He did not learn ''Nanquan'' (\"Southern Boxing\"), because his training focused only in the Northern Shaolin Styles.", "He has also mastered wushu's main weapons, such as ''Sanjiegun'' (Three Section Staff), ''Gun'', ''Dao'' (Broadsword), ''Jian'' (Straight Sword).Li retired from competitive wushu when he was only 18 due to a knee injury, but became an assistant coach of the Beijing Wushu team for a few years.", "Li's martial arts prowess would eventually contribute to his domestic and international fame." ], [ "Acting career", "=== Chinese and Hong Kong films ===Avenue of Stars in Hong KongThe fame gained by his sports winnings led to a career as a martial arts film star, beginning in mainland China and then continuing into Hong Kong.", "Li acquired his screen name in 1982 in the Philippines when a publicity company thought his real name was too hard to pronounce.", "They likened his career to an aircraft, which likewise \"takes-off\" as quickly, so they placed the name Jet Li on the movie posters.", "Soon everybody was calling him by this new name, which was also based on the nickname, \"Jet\", given to him as a young student, due to his speed and grace when training with the Beijing Wushu team.He made his film debut with the 1982 film ''Shaolin Temple''.", "The film broke box office records in China, grossing () at the Chinese box office, from an estimated ticket sales.", "The sequel ''Kids From Shaolin'' sold an estimated tickets, making it 1984's highest-grossing film in China.Some of his more famous Chinese films include:* The ''Shaolin Temple'' series (1, 2 and 3), which are considered to be the films which sparked the rebirth of the real Shaolin Temple in Dengfeng, China;* The ''Once Upon a Time in China'' series (Chinese title: ''Wong Fei Hung''), about the legendary Chinese folk hero Master Wong Fei Hung.", "* ''Fist of Legend'' (Chinese title: ''Jing Wu Ying Xiong''), a remake of Bruce Lee's ''Fist of Fury.", "''* The ''Fong Sai Yuk'' films about another Chinese folk hero.Li starred in the 1995 film ''High Risk'', where Li plays a Captain who becomes disillusioned after his wife is murdered by crime lords.", "Along the way, he pairs up with a wacky sell-out actor, Frankie (played by Jacky Cheung), and proceeds to engage in a series of violent battles in a high-rise building.", "The setting is similar to that of ''Die Hard'' and both their Chinese film titles.", "This movie is notable in that director Wong Jing had such a terrible experience working with Jackie Chan in Jing's previous film ''City Hunter'' that he chose to make Cheung's character a biting satire of Chan.", "Li would later publicly apologise to Chan for taking part in it.Li had two wuxia feature films released in 2011, ''The Sorcerer and the White Snake'' and ''Flying Swords of Dragon Gate''; the latter was helmed by Tsui Hark.To promote tai chi, in 2012, Li starred in a film titled ''Tai Chi'' and co-produced the movie with Chen Kuo-Fu.", "Li portrayed tai chi master Yang Luchan.=== American/Western films ===In 1998, he made his international film debut in ''Lethal Weapon 4'' which also marked the first time he had ever played a villain in a film.", "He agreed to do ''Lethal Weapon 4'' after the producer Joel Silver promised to give him the leading role in his next film, ''Romeo Must Die'' (2000), alongside singer Aaliyah.", "The film became a box office hit.", "Though Li spoke very little English at the time of production, his performance as Chinese mafia hitman Wah Sing Ku was praised.Li turned down Chow Yun-fat's role in ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' (2000) because he promised his wife that he would not make any films during her pregnancy.", "He also turned down the role of Seraph in ''The Matrix'' trilogy, based on his belief that the role was not one which required his skills and that the films were iconic and stunning enough without adding his name to the cast list.", "Li was also cast as Kato in ''The Green Hornet'' when the film was still in development in 2000.In 2001, it was moved to another studio.", "When the film was moved on again and released in 2011, the role of Kato was portrayed by Jay Chou.In 2001, he appeared in two more films: ''The One'', which was the first of his films with Jason Statham, and ''Kiss of the Dragon'' opposite Bridget Fonda which did moderately well at the box office.", "In July 2001, Li agreed to produce and star in an action film with Jackie Chan which was to be released in 2002 or 2003, but no further news of their collaboration surfaced until 2006.In 2002, the period martial arts epic film ''Hero'' was released in the Chinese market.", "This film was both a commercial and critical success and became the highest-grossing motion picture in Chinese film history at the time.", "In 2003 he reunited with producer Joel Silver for the action thriller film ''Cradle 2 the Grave'' where he starred alongside rapper DMX and fellow martial artist Mark Dacascos.", "In 2004, Li lent his likeness, voice and provided motion capture work for the video game ''Jet Li: Rise to Honor''.Li was presented the Visionary Award by East West Players, the oldest Asian American theatre in the United States, in 2002 by contemporary John Woo.", "The award recognizes \"artists who have raised the visibility of the Asian Pacific American community through theater, film and television.\"", "He delivered his acceptance speech in his native language of Mandarin.Li took on a more serious role in the 2005 film, ''Unleashed'' (a.k.a.", "''Danny the Dog''), where he portrayed an adult with the mentality of a child who has been raised like an animal.", "Although his martial arts skills were used extensively, it was a somber film with more depth than had been previously seen in Li's films, and co-starred dramatic actors Bob Hoskins and Morgan Freeman.In 2006, the martial arts film epic ''Fearless'', was released worldwide.", "Although he will continue to make martial arts films, ''Fearless'' is his last wushu epic.", "In ''Fearless'', he played Huo Yuanjia, the real-life founder of Chin Woo Athletic Association, who reportedly defeated foreign boxers and Japanese martial artists in publicised events at a time when China's power was seen as eroding.", "Together with the film ''Fist of Legend'', Li has portrayed both Chen Jun, the student and avenger of Huo Yuanjia (a.k.a.", "Fok Yun Gap), as well as Huo Yuanjia himself.", "''Fearless'' was released on 26 January 2006 in Hong Kong, followed by a 22 September 2006 release in the United States where it reached second place in its first weekend.Li has stated in an interview with the ''Shenzhen Daily'' newspaper that this will be his last martial arts epic, which is also stated in the film's television promotions.", "However, he plans to continue his film career in other genres.", "Specifically, he plans to continue acting in epic action and martial arts films dealing more with religious and philosophical issues.Li's 2007 Hollywood film, ''War'', was released in August of that year, and re-teamed him with actor Jason Statham, who previously starred with him in ''The One'', and action choreographer Corey Yuen.", "''War'' raked in a disappointing at the box office, becoming one of Li's lowest grossers in America; however, it was a hit on video, accumulating nearly in rental revenue, more than doubling its box office take.", "With the exception of ''Romeo Must Die'' and the worldwide release of ''Hero'', most of Li's American/Western films have been only modest hits like ''Kiss of the Dragon'', ''The One'', ''Unleashed'', ''Cradle 2 the Grave'', and the worldwide release of ''Fearless''.Li in 2006In late 2007, Li returned again to China to participate in the China/Hong Kong co-production of the period war film ''The Warlords'' with Andy Lau and Takeshi Kaneshiro.", "This film, with its focus on dramatics rather than martial arts, netted Li the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor.Li and fellow martial arts veteran Jackie Chan finally appeared together onscreen for the first time in ''The Forbidden Kingdom'', which began filming in May 2007 and was released to critical and commercial success on 18 April 2008.The film was based on the legend of the Monkey King from the Chinese folk novel ''Journey to the West''.", "Li also starred as the lead villain Emperor Han in the fantasy action film ''The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor'' with actors Brendan Fraser, Isabella Leong and Michelle Yeoh.After a one-year hiatus from filmmaking, Li returned to acting in 2010, portraying a mercenary in the film ''The Expendables'', teaming up with action stars Sylvester Stallone, Jason Statham, Dolph Lundgren, Mickey Rourke, Eric Roberts, Steve Austin, Terry Crews, and Randy Couture.", "It was the third time he had teamed up with Statham.", "In 2012, he reprised his role briefly in the sequel ''The Expendables 2'' and returned for the third film ''The Expendables 3'' in 2014.Li was initially stated to be appearing with Vin Diesel in ''XXX: Return of Xander Cage'', but according to a Facebook post by Diesel, Li was replaced by Donnie Yen.Li was cast as the Emperor of China for the 2020 live action movie, ''Mulan''." ], [ "Personal life", "Li is a practitioner of Tibetan Buddhism.", "His master is Lho Kunsang.In 1987, Li married Beijing Wushu Team member and ''Kids from Shaolin'' co-star Huang Qiuyan, with whom he has two daughters, Si and Taimi.", "They divorced in 1990.In 1999, Li married Nina Li Chi (born Li Zhi), a Shanghai-born, Hong Kong–based actress.", "He has two daughters with her, Jane (born 2000) and Jada (born 2002).He was in the Maldives when a tsunami hit during the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.", "Although it was widely reported at the time that he had died during the disaster, he only suffered a minor foot injury, caused by a piece of floating furniture while he was guiding his four-year-old daughter Jane and the nanny holding his one-year-old daughter Jada to safety of higher ground amid dangerously rising ocean water.", "The four of them were by the pool and slightly above the beach when the wave came ashore, barely escaping to the upper floors of a hotel building.Li was appointed by the Chinese Wushu Association as the \"Image Ambassador of Wushu\" (or IWUF ambassador) at the 2007 World Wushu Championships in Beijing.In 2009, Li, who previously had US citizenship after years working in the United States, renounced his US citizenship.", "He was thought to have taken up Singaporean citizenship, although Singaporean authorities did not initially provide any confirmation of this.", "On 28 July 2009, the chairman of One Foundation (the charity fund of Li) announced that Li had indeed become a Singaporean citizen.", "He was said to have chosen Singapore for its education system for his two younger daughters.In 2009, he launched his own fitness program, Wuji.", "The program consists of elements of martial arts, yoga and pilates; Adidas launched a special clothing line for it that bears the initials of \"JL\".In 2013, Li revealed that he suffers from hyperthyroidism and had been dealing with the issue for the past three years.", "In 2016, he stated that he had recovered from his illness and that accepting fewer film offers was due to his charity work and not because of his health conditions.In his free time he likes to play badminton and table tennis, ride his bicycle, read and meditate.", "He collects rare Tibetan beads.", "He says he is never bored in his free time." ], [ "Views on life and martial arts", "Li, as a Buddhist, believes that the difficulties of everyday life can be overcome with the help of religious philosophies.", "He thinks that fame is not something he can control; therefore, he does not care about it.According to Li, everything he has ever wanted to tell the world can be found in three of his films: the message of ''Hero'' is that the suffering of one person can never be as significant as the suffering of a nation; ''Unleashed'' shows that violence is never a solution; and ''Fearless'' tells that the biggest enemy of a person is himself.", "Li thinks that the greatest weapon is a smile and the largest power is love.About Wushu, he said that he believes the essence of martial arts is not power or speed but inner harmony, and considers it a sad development that today's Wushu championships place greater emphasis on form than on the essence of being a martial artist.", "He believes Wushu now lacks individuality and competitors move like machines, whereas according to his views Wushu should not be considered a race where the fastest athlete wins.", "He would like to see Wushu as a form of art, where artists have a distinctive style.", "Li blames the new competition rules that, according to him, place limitations on martial artists.Li believes that Wushu is not primarily for self-defense and instead of trying to play the hero people should think about peaceful resolutions of conflicts and call the police if necessary: \"A gun outdoes years of martial arts training in a split second.", "Like I've said many times before, it is important to differentiate between movies and reality.", "The hero in movies may be able to knock the gun off his opponent and save the day, but in real life – probably that is not the case.\"", "He has also stated that he has never had to use his martial arts skills in a real-life fight and he does not wish to, either.=== Taiji Zen === In 2011, Li founded Taiji Zen, along with co-founder Executive chairman Jack Ma.", "Taiji Zen combined the martial art of tai chi (''taijiquan'' in Chinese) with practices such as meditation.", "It packaged these into several different classes and online programs.=== Philanthropy ===Li speaks at the World Economic Forum in Tianjin, China, September 2008Li has been a \"philanthropic ambassador\" of the Red Cross Society of China since January 2006.He contributed 500,000 yuan () of box office revenues from his film ''Fearless'' to the Red Cross' psychological sunshine project, which promotes mental health.In April 2007, touched by his life-shaking experience in the Maldives when he was close to dying during the 2004 tsunami, Li formed his own non-profit foundation called The One Foundation.", "The One Foundation supports international disaster relief efforts in conjunction with the Red Cross as well as other efforts, including mental health awareness and suicide prevention.", "Since the starting of the foundation, Li has been involved with recovery efforts in seven disasters, including the 2008 Sichuan earthquake and Typhoon Morakot in Taiwan.", "In the 2013 Lushan earthquake in Ya'an, Sichuan, Li and other members of the entertainment sector were the first to appeal for donations of money, goods and materials to help the victims of the disaster.", "Wu Jing was a One Foundation volunteer and helped in the effort.Li discussed his commitment to philanthropy in an interview with the December 2009 issue of ''Alliance'' magazine, stating that \"grassroots non-government organizations can help the government in its blind spots.", "Government relief is not always detail-oriented.", "Grassroots NGOs can't be as big as a government effort, but they need to be flexible and independent.", "\"In September 2010, he was appointed by the International Red Cross as the first Good Will Ambassador.", "He posted online, saying: \"Today I signed a deal with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies – IFRC – to become the FIRST goodwill ambassador in the history of this humanitarian organization.", "I am very honored!", "At the same time, I will not pause to celebrate, but instead keep pushing forward and do my best to help the world!", "Thank you all once again for your support and belief in me!", "\"It was also announced in September 2010, when Li was attending his wax unveiling ceremony in Hong Kong Madame Tussauds, that Li would be meeting Bill Gates and Warren Buffett to talk about charity work.", "\"Three days ago, I received an email from Gates, hoping I could make time because he and Buffett hoped I could go for a 30-minute chat before the dinner about the future we face as human beings, so I will go,\" Li said." ], [ "Filmography", "By US box office statistics, the most successful Jet Li film as of August 2010 is ''Lethal Weapon 4'', which grossed over $130 million domestically, while the second is ''The Expendables'' with over $103 million.", "''Hero'' is the third most successful foreign language film in the US, and one of the most critically acclaimed Li movies.", "''Fearless'' is the seventh most successful foreign language film of all time in the US.", "From an aggregated critical point of view, the best acclaimed Li movie is ''Fist of Legend'' (Rotten Tomatoes: 100%) and the worst is ''War'' (Rotten Tomatoes: 14%)." ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award Category Film Result 1995 Golden Horse Film Festival Special Award 1999 MTV Movie Awards Best Villain ''Lethal Weapon 4'' 2001 Best Fight ''Romeo Must Die'' 2002 ''The One'' 2003 ''Cradle 2 the Grave'' 2006 Hundred Flowers Awards Best Actor ''Fearless'' 2007 Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards Hong Kong Film Awards 2008 ''The Warlords'' Shanghai Film Critics Awards Asian Film Awards Hundred Flowers Awards" ], [ "See also", "* Cinema of China* Cinema of Hong Kong" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ducker, Chris, and Stuart Cutler.", "''The HKS Guide to Jet Li''.", "London: Hong Kong Superstars, 2000.", "* Marx, Christy.", "''Jet Li''.", "Martial Arts Masters.", "Rosen Publishing Group, 2002..* Parish, James Robert.", "''Jet Li: A Biography''.", "New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2002..* Farquhar, M.(2010) ‘Jet Li: \"Wushu Master\" in Sport and Film’ in Jeffreys, Elaine.", "& Edwards, Louise (eds.", "), Celebrity in China, Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong pp.", "103–124." ], [ "External links", "* * * Li's Foundation: The One Foundation Project* Jet Li Biography (HKCinema)* Jet Li Biography (HKFilm)* Jet Li discusses The One Foundation* Interview At FarEastFilms.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jianghu" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Jianghu''''' () is a Chinese term that generally refers to the milieu in which many Chinese ''wuxia'', outlaw fiction, and romantic fantasy stories are set.", "The term is used flexibly, and can be used to describe a fictionalized version of rural historical China (usually using loose influences from across the ~1000 BC–280 AD period); a setting of feuding martial arts clans and the people of that community; a secret and possibly criminal underworld; a general sense of the \"mythic world\" where fantastical stories happen; or some combination thereof." ], [ "Etymology", "The original meaning of ''jianghu'' comes from \"river\" () and \"lake\" (), which might have originally referred to the Yangtze River and Dongting Lake (or Lake Tai), and in a wider sense refers to the wilderness and rural areas in general.", "These regions are usually overseen by local gentries (if there are any) at best, and are outside the direct administrative capacity of local magistrates and law enforcement, and thus are seen by many (particularly outlaws) as a \"free world\" where anyone can hide and anything can be done." ], [ "Background", "In modern Chinese culture, ''jianghu'' is commonly accepted as an alternative universe coexisting with the actual historical one in which the context of the wuxia genre was set.", "Unlike the normal world, in the ''jianghu'' ''xia'' (wanderers or knight-errants) are free to act on their own initiative, including with violence, to punish evil and foes, and to reward goodness and allies.", "While the term literally means \"rivers and lakes\", it is broader than that: roads, inns, bandit lairs, deserted temples, and the wilderness are all classic places associated with the ''jianghu'', places far from government interference.", "Vigilantism is normal and accepted in a way that would be impermissible in a more realistic setting.", "Different wuxia novels have their own versions of the ''jianghu'' and its implications.", "Authors vary on whether they have one consistent setting or reinvent the ''jianghu'' in each work; Jin Yong's ''Condor Trilogy'' has one continuity, whereas Gu Long's ''jianghu'' would be distinct in every novel, for two examples.One of the most notable sources for helping define what would be thought of as the ''jianghu'' was the 14th-century novel ''Water Margin''.", "In the novel, a band of noble outlaws, who mounted regular sorties in an attempt to right the wrongs of corrupt officials, have retreated to their hideout.", "These outlaws were called the ''Chivalrous men of the Green Forests'' () and they then proceed to have various adventures, mixing heroism with more roguish activities.One of the earliest coinage of ''jianghu'' was by a dejected Song dynasty poet Fan Zhongyan (989—1052) in his poem ''Yueyang Lou Ji'', in which the context of ''jianghu'' was set out as distant to the courts and temples, meaning a world in its own right." ], [ "Evolving interpretations of the term ''jianghu''", "The meaning of the term ''jianghu'' has evolved over the course of Chinese history, but usually refers to the martial arts world of ancient China.", "First coined by Zhuangzi in the late 4th century BC, it referred to a way of life different from that of being actively involved in politics.", "At the time, it referred to the way of life of underachieving or maligned scholar-officials who distanced themselves from the circles of political power.", "In this sense, ''jianghu'' could be loosely interpreted as the way of life of a hermit.Over the centuries, ''jianghu'' gained greater acceptance among the common people and gradually became a term for a sub-society parallel to, and sometimes orthogonal to, mainstream society.", "This sub-society initially included merchants, craftsmen, beggars and vagabonds, but over time it assimilated bandits, outlaws and gangs who lived \"outside the existing law\".", "During the Song and Yuan dynasties, bards and novelists began using the term ''jianghu'' in the process of creating literature covering a fictional society of adventurers and rebels who lived not by existing societal laws, but by their own moral principles or extralegal code of conduct.", "The core of these moral principles encompassed ''xia'' (), ''yi'' (), ''li'' (), ''zhong'' () and ''chou'' ().", "Stories in this genre bloomed and enriched various interpretations of ''jianghu''.", "At the same time, the term ''jianghu'' also developed intricate interconnections with gang culture because of outlaws' mutually shared distaste towards governments.The inclusion of martial arts as a feature of ''jianghu'' was a recent development in the early 20th century.", "Novelists started creating a fantasy world of ''jianghu'' in which characters are martial artists and in which the characters' enforcement of righteousness is symbolised by conflicts between different martial artists or martial arts schools and the ultimate triumph of good over evil.", "Martial arts became a tool used by characters in a ''jianghu'' story to enforce their moral beliefs.", "On the other hand, there are characters who become corrupted by power derived from their formidable prowess in martial arts and end up abandoning their morality in their pursuit of power.", "Around this time, the term ''jianghu'' became closely related to a similar term, ''wulin'' (), which referred exclusively to a community of martial artists.", "This fantasy world of ''jianghu'' remains as the mainstream definition of ''jianghu'' in modern Chinese popular culture, particularly wuxia culture.=== Current interpretations of the term ''jianghu'' ===In more martial arts-centered stories, a common aspect of ''jianghu'' is that the courts of law are dysfunctional and that all disputes and differences (within the community) can only be resolved by members of the community, through the use of mediation, negotiation, or force, predicating the need for the code of ''xia'' and acts of chivalry.", "Law and order within the ''jianghu'' are maintained by the various orthodox and righteous schools and heroes.", "Sometimes these schools may gather to form an alliance against a common foe or organization.A leader, called the ''wulin mengzhu'' (), is elected from among the schools in order to lead them and ensure law and order within the ''jianghu''.", "The leader is usually someone with a high level of mastery in martial arts and a great reputation for righteousness who is often involved in some conspiracy and/or killed.", "In some stories, the leader may not be the greatest martial artist in the ''jianghu''; in other stories, the position of the leader is hereditary.", "The leader is an arbiter who presides and adjudicates over all inequities and disputes.", "The leader is a ''de jure'' chief justice of the affairs of the ''jianghu''." ], [ "Relationship with the government", "Members of the ''jianghu'' are also expected to keep their distance from any government offices or officials, without necessarily being antagonistic.", "It was acceptable for ''jianghu'' members who are respectable members of society (usually gentries owning properties or big businesses) to maintain respectful but formal and passive relationships with the officials, such as paying due taxes and attending local community events.", "Even then, they are expected to shield any fugitives from the law, or at the least not to turn over fugitives to the officials.", "Local officials who are savvier would know better than to expect co-operation from ''jianghu'' members and would refrain from seeking help except to apprehend the worst and most notorious criminals.", "If the crimes also violated some of the moral tenets of ''jianghu'', ''jianghu'' members may assist the government officials.An interesting aspect is that while senior officials are kept at a distance, ''jianghu'' members may freely associate with low-ranking staff such as runners, jailers, or clerks of the magistrates.", "The ''jianghu'' members maintained order among their own in the community and prevent any major disturbance, thus saving a lot of work for their associates in the ''yamen''.", "In return, the runners turn a blind eye to certain ''jianghu'' activities that are officially disapproved, the jailers ensured incarcerated ''jianghu'' members are not mistreated, and the clerks pass on useful tips to the ''jianghu'' community.", "This reciprocal arrangement allowed their superiors to maintain order in their jurisdiction with the limited resources available and ''jianghu'' members greater freedom." ], [ "Norms of the ''jianghu''", "Although many ''jianghu'' members were Confucian-educated, their attitudes towards the way of life in the ''jianghu'' is largely overshadowed by pragmatism.", "In other words, they feel that Confucian values are to be respected and upheld if they are useful, and to be discarded if they are a hindrance.The basic (spoken and unspoken) norms of the ''jianghu'' are:# No using of dirty tricks such as eye-gouging during fights unless one has a personal feud with the opponent.# Personal feuds do not extend to family members.# Always show respect for seniors and elders according to their status or age.# Complete obedience to one's ''shifu'' (martial arts master).# No learning of martial arts from another person without prior permission from one's ''shifu''.# No using of martial arts against those who are not trained in martial arts.# No violating of women.# No sexual relationships with the wives of friends.# One's word is one's bond." ], [ "Usage in modern times", "The term ''jianghu'' is linked to cultures other than those pertaining to martial arts in wuxia stories.", "It is also applied to anarchic societies.", "For instance, the triads and other Chinese secret societies use the term ''jianghu'' to describe their world of organised crime.", "Sometimes, the term ''jianghu'' may be replaced by the term \"underworld\" ''à la'' \"criminal underworld\".In modern terminology, ''jianghu'' may mean any circle of interest, ranging from the entertainment industry to sports to even politics and the business circle.", "Colloquially, retirement is also referred to as \"leaving the ''jianghu''\" ().", "In ''wuxia'' stories, when reputable figures decide to retire from the ''jianghu'', they will do so in a ceremony known as \"washing hands in the golden basin\" (): they wash their hands in a golden basin filled with water, signifying that they will no longer be involved in the affairs of the ''jianghu''.", "When reclusive figures retired from the ''jianghu'' reappear, their return is described as \"re-entering the ''jianghu''\" ().", "Another common expression to describe the disappointment, frustration and involuntariness one might have experienced during everyday work goes as \"when one is in the ''jianghu'', his body (i.e.", "action) is not up to himself (人在江湖，身不由己)\"." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacopo Amigoni" ], [ "Introduction", "''Juno Receiving the Head of Argos'' (1730-32) Oil on canvas, 108 x 72 cm.", "Moor Park, Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire.", "'''Jacopo Amigoni''' (ca.", "1685 – September 1752), also named '''Giacomo Amiconi''', was an Italian painter of the late-Baroque or Rococo period, who began his career in Venice, but traveled and was prolific throughout Europe, where his sumptuous portraits were much in demand." ], [ "Biography", "He was born in Naples.", "Amigoni initially painted both mythological and religious scenes; but as the panoply of his patrons expanded northward, he began producing many parlour works depicting gods in sensuous languor or games.", "His style influenced Giuseppe Nogari.", "Among his pupils were Charles Joseph Flipart, Michelangelo Morlaiter, Pietro Antonio Novelli, Joseph Wagner, and Antonio Zucchi.Starting in 1717, he is documented as working in Bavaria in the Castle of Nymphenburg (1719); in the castle of Schleissheim (1725–1729); and in the Benedictine abbey of Ottobeuren.", "He returned to Venice in 1726.His ''Arraignment of Paris'' hangs in the Villa Pisani at Stra.", "From 1730 to 1739 he worked in England, in Pown House, Moor Park Wolterton Hall and in the theatre of Covent Garden.", "From there, he helped convince Canaletto to travel to England by telling him of the ample patronage available.In London or during a trip to Paris in 1736, he met the celebrated castrato Farinelli, whose portrait he painted twice in 1735 and again in 1752.Amigoni also encountered the painting of François Lemoyne and François Boucher.In 1739 he returned to Italy, perhaps to Naples and surely to Montecassino, in whose Abbey existed two canvases (destroyed during World War II).", "He travelled to Venice to paint for Sigismund Streit, for the Casa Savoia and other buildings of the city.In 1747 he left Italy for Madrid, encouraged by Farinelli, who held a court appointment there.", "He became court painter to Ferdinand VI of Spain and director of the Royal Academy of Saint Fernando.", "He painted a group portrait that included himself, Farinelli, Metastasio, Teresa Castellini, and an unidentified young man.", "The young man may have been the Austrian Archduke Joseph, the Habsburg heir to the throne.", "Amigoni died in Madrid.Amigoni was the father of the pastellist Caterina Amigoni Castellini, and the brother of the artist Carlotta Amigoni." ], [ "Partial anthology", "* ''Consul Marcus Curius Dentatus prefers turnips to the Samnites' gifts''* ''Caroline Wilhelmina of Brandenburg-Ansbach''* Print after Amigoni of ''Princess Amelia Sophia Eleanora''* Prints after portraits by Amigoni.", "* ''Venus disarming cupid''.", "* ''Venus and Adonis''" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Jacopo Amigoni - Bacchus and Ariadne - Google Art Project.jpg\|Bacchus and Ariadne, 1740File:Jacopo Amigoni - Venus and Adonis.jpg\|Venus and AdonisFile:Circa 1750 portrait painting of the Infanta Maria Antonia of Spain (1729-1785) by Jacopo Amigoni (Prado).jpg\|The Infanta María Antonia of Spain, Daughter of Philip V, 1750File:Jacopo Amigoni (1682-1752) - Frederick, Prince of Wales (1707-51) - RCIN 401500 - Royal Collection.jpg\|Frederick, Prince of Wales, 1735File:Jacopo amigoni, il cantante farinelli con amici, 1750-52 circa.JPG\|The singer Farinelli and friends, 1750 or 1752File:Jacopo Amigoni – Ritratto di Farinelli.jpg\|Portrait of the singer Carlo Broschi named Farinelli, 1734/1735" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jean-François Millet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean-François Millet''' (; 4 October 1814 – 20 January 1875) was a French artist and one of the founders of the Barbizon school in rural France.", "Millet is noted for his paintings of peasant farmers and can be categorized as part of the Realism art movement.", "Toward the end of his career, he became increasingly interested in painting pure landscapes.", "He is known best for his oil paintings but is also noted for his pastels, Conté crayon drawings, and etchings." ], [ "Life and work", "===Youth===''The Sheepfold''.", "In this painting by Millet, the waning Moon throws a mysterious light across the plain between the villages of Barbizon and Chailly.", "The Walters Art Museum.Millet was the first child of Jean-Louis-Nicolas and Aimée-Henriette-Adélaïde Henry Millet, members of the farming community in the village of Gruchy, in Gréville-Hague, Normandy, close to the coast.", "Under the guidance of two village priests—one of them was vicar Jean Lebrisseux—Millet acquired a knowledge of Latin and modern authors.", "But soon he had to help his father with the farm work; because Millet was the eldest of the sons.", "So all the farmer's work was familiar to him: to mow, make hay, bind the sheaves, thresh, winnow, spread manure, plow, sow, etc.", "All these motifs returned in his later art.In 1833, his father sent him to Cherbourg to study with a portrait painter named Bon Du Mouchel.", "By 1835 he was studying with Théophile Langlois de Chèvreville, a pupil of Baron Gros, in Cherbourg.", "A stipend provided by Langlois and others enabled Millet to move to Paris in 1837, where he studied at the École des Beaux-Arts with Paul Delaroche.", "In 1839, his scholarship was terminated, and his first submission to the Salon, ''Saint Anne Instructing the Virgin'', was rejected by the jury.===Paris===''Woman Baking Bread'', 1854.Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo.After his first painting, a portrait, was accepted at the Salon of 1840, Millet returned to Cherbourg to begin a career as a portrait painter.", "The following year he married Pauline-Virginie Ono, and they moved to Paris.", "After rejections at the Salon of 1843 and Pauline's death by consumption in April 1844, Millet returned again to Cherbourg.", "In 1845, Millet moved to Le Havre with Catherine Lemaire, whom he married in a civil ceremony in 1853; they had nine children and remained together for the rest of Millet's life.", "In Le Havre he painted portraits and small genre pieces for several months, before moving back to Paris.It was in Paris in the middle 1840s that Millet befriended Constant Troyon, Narcisse Diaz, Charles Jacque, and Théodore Rousseau, artists who, like Millet, became associated with the Barbizon school; Honoré Daumier, whose figure draftsmanship influenced Millet's subsequent rendering of peasant subjects; and :fr:Alfred Sensier, a government bureaucrat who became a lifelong supporter and eventually the artist's biographer.", "In 1847, his first Salon success came with the exhibition of a painting ''Oedipus Taken down from the Tree'', and in 1848, his ''Winnower'' was bought by the government.", "''The Captivity of the Jews in Babylon'', Millet's most ambitious work at the time, was unveiled at the Salon of 1848, but was scorned by art critics and the public alike.", "The painting eventually disappeared shortly thereafter, leading historians to believe that Millet destroyed it.", "In 1984, scientists at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston x-rayed Millet's 1870 painting ''The Young Shepherdess'' looking for minor changes, and discovered that it was painted over ''Captivity''.", "It is now believed that Millet reused the canvas when materials were in short supply during the Franco-Prussian War.===Barbizon===In 1849, Millet painted ''Harvesters'', a commission for the state.", "In the Salon of that year, he exhibited ''Shepherdess Sitting at the Edge of the Forest'', a very small oil painting which marked a turning away from previous idealized pastoral subjects, in favor of a more realistic and personal approach.", "In June of that year, he settled in Barbizon with Catherine and their children.", "''Harvesters Resting (Ruth and Boaz)'', Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (1850–1853)In 1850, Millet entered into an arrangement with Sensier, who provided the artist with materials and money in return for drawings and paintings, while Millet simultaneously was free to continue selling work to other buyers as well.", "At that year's Salon, he exhibited ''Haymakers'' and ''The Sower'', his first major masterpiece and the earliest of the iconic trio of paintings that included ''The Gleaners'' and ''The Angelus''.From 1850 to 1853, Millet worked on ''Harvesters Resting (Ruth and Boaz)'', a painting he considered his most important, and on which he worked the longest.", "Conceived to rival his heroes Michelangelo and Poussin, it was also the painting that marked his transition from the depiction of symbolic imagery of peasant life to that of contemporary social conditions.", "It was the only painting he ever dated, and was the first work to garner him official recognition, a second-class medal at the 1853 salon.In the mid-1850s, Millet produced a small number of etchings of peasant subjects, such as ''Man with a Wheelbarrow'' (1855) and ''Woman Carding Wool'' (1855–1857).====''The Gleaners''====''The Gleaners'', 1857.Musée d'Orsay, Paris.This is one of the most well known of Millet's paintings, ''The Gleaners'' (1857).", "While Millet was walking the fields around Barbizon, one theme returned to his pencil and brush for seven years—gleaning—the centuries-old right of poor women and children to remove the bits of grain left in the fields following the harvest.", "He found the theme an eternal one, linked to stories from the Old Testament.", "In 1857, he submitted the painting ''The Gleaners'' to the Salon to an unenthusiastic, even hostile, public.", "(Earlier versions include a vertical composition painted in 1854, an etching of 1855–56 which directly presaged the horizontal format of the painting now in the Musée d'Orsay.", ")A warm golden light suggests something sacred and eternal in this daily scene where the struggle to survive takes place.", "During his years of preparatory studies, Millet contemplated how best to convey the sense of repetition and fatigue in the peasants' daily lives.", "Lines traced over each woman's back lead to the ground and then back up in a repetitive motion identical to their unending, backbreaking labor.", "Along the horizon, the setting sun silhouettes the farm with its abundant stacks of grain, in contrast to the large shadowy figures in the foreground.", "The dark homespun dresses of the gleaners cut robust forms against the golden field, giving each woman a noble, monumental strength.====''The Angelus''====''The Angelus'', 1857–1859, Musée d'Orsay, Paris.The painting was commissioned by Thomas Gold Appleton, an American art collector based in Boston, Massachusetts.", "Appleton previously studied with Millet's friend, the Barbizon painter Constant Troyon.", "It was completed during the summer of 1857.Millet added a steeple and changed the initial title of the work, ''Prayer for the Potato Crop'' to ''The Angelus'' when the purchaser failed to take possession of it in 1859.Displayed to the public for the first time in 1865, the painting changed hands several times, increasing only modestly in value, since some considered the artist's political sympathies suspect.", "Upon Millet's death a decade later, a bidding war between the US and France ensued, ending some years later with a price tag of 800,000 gold francs.The disparity between the apparent value of the painting and the poor estate of Millet's surviving family was a major impetus in the invention of the , intended to compensate artists or their heirs when works are resold.===Later years===''Hunting Birds at Night'', 1874, Philadelphia Museum of Art.", "''Calling Home the Cows'', c. 1866, National Gallery of Art.Despite mixed reviews of the paintings he exhibited at the Salon, Millet's reputation and success grew throughout the 1860s.", "At the beginning of the decade, he contracted to paint 25 works in return for a monthly stipend for the next three years and in 1865, another patron, Emile Gavet, began commissioning pastels for a collection that eventually included 90 works.", "In 1867, the Exposition Universelle hosted a major showing of his work, with the ''Gleaners'', ''Angelus'', and ''Potato Planters'' among the paintings exhibited.", "The following year, Frédéric Hartmann commissioned ''Four Seasons'' for 25,000 francs, and Millet was named Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur.In 1870, Millet was elected to the Salon jury.", "Later that year, he and his family fled the Franco-Prussian War, moving to Cherbourg and Gréville, and did not return to Barbizon until late in 1871.His last years were marked by financial success and increased official recognition, but he was unable to fulfill government commissions due to failing health.", "On 3 January 1875, he married Catherine in a religious ceremony.", "Millet died on 20 January 1875." ], [ "Legacy", "The Potato Harvest'' (1855).", "The Walters Art Museum.Millet was an important source of inspiration for Vincent van Gogh, particularly during his early period.", "Millet and his work are mentioned many times in Vincent's letters to his brother Theo.", "Millet's late landscapes served as influential points of reference to Claude Monet's paintings of the coast of Normandy; his structural and symbolic content influenced Georges Seurat as well.Millet is the main protagonist of Mark Twain's play ''Is He Dead?''", "(1898), in which he is depicted as a struggling young artist who fakes his death to score fame and fortune.", "Most of the details about Millet in the play are fictional.Millet's painting ''L'homme à la houe'' inspired the famous poem \"The Man With the Hoe\" (1898) by Edwin Markham.", "His paintings also served as the inspiration for American poet David Middleton's collection ''The Habitual Peacefulness of Gruchy: Poems After Pictures by Jean-François Millet'' (2005).The ''Angelus'' was reproduced frequently in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "Salvador Dalí was fascinated by this work, and wrote an analysis of it, ''The Tragic Myth of The Angelus of Millet''.", "Rather than seeing it as a work of spiritual peace, Dalí believed it held messages of repressed sexual aggression.", "Dalí was also of the opinion that the two figures were praying over their buried child, rather than to the Angelus.", "Dalí was so insistent on this fact that eventually an X-ray was done of the canvas, confirming his suspicions: the painting contains a painted-over geometric shape strikingly similar to a coffin.", "However, it is unclear whether Millet changed his mind on the meaning of the painting, or even if the shape actually is a coffin." ], [ "Gallery", "File:1841, Millet, Jean-François, Portrait of Louis-Alexandre Marolles.jpg\|''Portrait of Louis-Alexandre Marolles'', 1841, Princeton University Art MuseumFile:The Abduction of the Sabine Women by Jean-François Millet.png\|''The Abduction of the Sabine Women'' by Jean-François Millet, c.1844–1847File:Going to Work by Jean-François Millet, 1851-53.jpg\|''Going to Work'', 1851–1853File:Jean-François Millet - Femme filature (1855-60).jpg\|''Woman Spinning (The Spinning Wheel)'', c. 1855-60.Clark Art InstituteFile:Mille - Shepherdess Seated on a Rock - Metropolitan.jpg\|''Shepherdess Seated on a Rock'', 1856File:Jean-François Millet - Apport à la maison le veau né dans les champs (1860).jpg\|''Bringing home the calf born in the fields'', c. 1860, Princeton University Art MuseumFile:Jean-François Millet - Shepherd Tending His Flock - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Shepherd Tending His Flock'', early 1860sFile:Jean-François Millet - La leçon à tricoter.jpg\|''The Knitting Lesson'', c. 1860.Clark Art InstituteFile:Jean-François Millet - Potato Planters - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Potato Planters'', 1861File:Jean-François Millet - The Goose Girl - Walters 37153.jpg\|''The Goose Girl'', 1863File:Jean-François Millet Pastora.jpg\|''Shepherdess with her Flock'', 1864File:The Sower- Jean-François Millet.jpg\|''The Sower'', c. 1865.Clark Art InstituteFile:Haystacks Autumn 1873 Jean-Francois Millet.jpg\|''Haystacks: Autumn'', c. 1874, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Millet Gréville.JPG\|'' The Coast of Gréville'', undated National Museum, StockholmFile:Jean-François Millet - Jeune fille gardant ses moutons (1860-62).jpg\|''Young Girl Guarding her Sheep'', c. 1860-62.Clark Art Institute" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Champa, Kermit S. ''The Rise of Landscape Painting in France: Corot to Monet''.", "Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1991.", "* Honour, H. and Fleming, J.", "''A World History of Art''.", "7th edn.", "London: Laurence King Publishing, 2009.", "* Lepoittevin, Lucien.", "''Catalogue raisonné Jean-François Millet'' en 2 volumes – Paris 1971 / 1973* Lepoittevin, Lucien.", "\"Le Viquet – Retour sur les premiers pas : un Millet inconnu\" – N° 139 Paques 2003.", "* Lepoittevin, Lucien.", "''Jean François Millet (Au delà de l'Angélus)'' – Ed de Monza – 2002 – ()* Lepoittevin, Lucien.", "''Jean François Millet : Images et symboles'', Éditions Isoète Cherbourg 1990.", "()* Moreau-Nélaton, E. ''Monographie de reference, Millet raconté par lui-même'' – 3 volumes – Paris 1921* Murphy, Alexandra R. ''Jean-François Millet''.", "Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1984.", "* Plaideux, Hugues.", "\"L'inventaire après décès et la déclaration de succession de Jean-François Millet\", in ''Revue de la Manche'', t. 53, fasc.", "212, 2e trim.", "2011, p. 2–38.", "* Plaideux, Hugues.", "\"Une enseigne de vétérinaire cherbourgeois peinte par Jean-François Millet en 1841\", in ''Bulletin de la Société française d'histoire de la médecine et des sciences vétérinaires'', n° 11, 2011, p. 61–75.", "* Pollock, Griselda.", "''Millet''.", "London: Oresko, 1977..* Stokes, Simon.", "''Art and Copyright''.", "Hart Publishing, 2001.", "* Tadie, Andrew.", "Poetry and Peace: The Habitual Peacefulness of Gruchy: Poems After Pictures by Jean-François Millet by David Middleton .", "''Modern Age: A Quarterly Review''.", "Summer/Fall 2009 (Vol.", "51:3)" ], [ "External links", "* jeanmillet.org; 125 works by Jean-François Millet* Jean-François Millet at Artcyclopedia* Maura Coughlin's article on Millet's Norman milkmaids* Influence on Van Gogh* Influence on Dali – grieving parents or praying peasants in ''The Angelus''?", "* * * \"Jean-François Millet\", poem by Florence Earle Coates* Cartwright, Julia, (1902) ''Jean François Millet: his life and letters'' London: Swan Sonnenschein and Co.* Sensier, Alfred, (1881) ''Jean-Francois Millet – Peasant and Painter'' (transl.", "Helena de Kay) London: Macmillan and Co." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacques Callot" ], [ "Introduction", "Jacques Callot, Lucas Vorsterman the Elder after Anthony van Dyck'''Jacques Callot''' (; – 1635) was a baroque printmaker and draftsman from the Duchy of Lorraine (an independent state on the north-eastern border of France, southwestern border of Germany and overlapping the southern Netherlands).", "He is an important person in the development of the old master print.", "He made more than 1,400 etchings that chronicled the life of his period, featuring soldiers, clowns, drunkards, Gypsies, beggars, as well as court life.", "He also etched many religious and military images, and many prints featured extensive landscapes in their background." ], [ "Life and training", "''The Large Hunt'', a famous technical showpieceCallot was born and died in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine, now in France.", "He came from an important family (his father was master of ceremonies at the court of the Duke), and he often describes himself as having noble status in the inscriptions to his prints.", "At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, but soon afterward travelled to Rome where he learned engraving from an expatriate Frenchman, Philippe Thomassin.", "He probably then studied etching with Antonio Tempesta in Florence, where he lived from 1612 to 1621.More than 2,000 preparatory drawings and studies for prints survive, but no paintings by him are known, and he probably never trained as a painter.During his period in Florence he became an independent master, and worked often for the Medici court.", "After the death of Cosimo II de' Medici during 1621, he returned to Nancy where he lived for the rest of his life, visiting Paris and the Netherlands later during the decade.", "He was commissioned by the courts of Lorraine, France and Spain, and by publishers, mostly in Paris.", "Although he remained in Nancy, his prints were distributed widely through Europe; Rembrandt was a keen collector of them." ], [ "Technical innovations: échoppe, new hard ground, stopping-out", "Massacre of the Innocents, showing the use of multiple stoppings-out to create the fainter lines of the distant view.", "13.7 x 10.5 cmHis technique was exceptional, and was helped by important technical advances he made.", "He developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do.He also seems to have been responsible for an improved recipe for the etching ground that coated the plate and was removed to form the image, using lute-makers varnish rather than a wax-based formula.", "This enabled lines to be etched more deeply, prolonging the life of the plate in printing, and also greatly reducing the risk of \"foul-biting\", such that acid gets through the ground to the plate where it is not intended to, producing spots or blotches on the image.", "Previously the risk of foul-biting had always been present, preventing an engraver from investing too much time on a single plate that risked being ruined by foul-biting.", "Now etchers could do the very detailed work that was previously the monopoly of engravers, and Callot made good use of the new possibilities.He also made more extensive and sophisticated use of multiple \"stoppings-out\" than previous etchers had done.", "This is the technique of letting the acid dissolve lightly over the whole plate, then stopping-out those parts of the work which the artist wishes to keep shallow by covering them with ground before bathing the plate in acid again.", "He achieved unprecedented subtlety in effects of distance and light and shade by careful control of this process.", "Most of his prints were relatively small – as much as about six inches or 15 cm on their longest dimension.One of his devotees, the Parisian Abraham Bosse spread Callot's innovations all over Europe with the first published manual of etching, which was translated into Italian, Dutch, German and English." ], [ "''Miseries of War''", "One of ''Les Grandes Misères de la guerre''His most famous prints are his two series of prints each on \"the Miseries and Misfortunes of War\".", "These are known as ''Les Grandes Misères de la guerre'', consisting of 18 prints published during 1633, and the earlier and incomplete ''Les Petites Misères'' – referring to their sizes, large and small (though even the large set are only about 8 x 13 cm).", "These images show soldiers pillaging and burning their way through towns, country and convents, before being variously arrested and executed by their superiors, lynched by peasants, or surviving to live as crippled beggars.", "At the end the generals are rewarded by their monarch.", "During 1633, the year the larger set was published, Lorraine had been invaded by the French during the Thirty Years' War and Callot's artwork is still noted with Francisco Goya's ''Los Desastres de la Guerra'' (''The Disasters of War''), which was influenced by Callot – (Goya owned a series of the prints), as among the most powerful artistic statements of the inhumanity of war." ], [ "Grotesque Dwarves", "Callot's series of \"'''Grotesque Dwarves'''\" were to inspire Derby porcelain and other companies to create pottery figures known as \"Mansion House Dwarves\" or \"Grotesque Dwarves\".", "The former title comes from a father and son who were paid to wander around the Mansion House in London wearing oversized hats that contained advertisements.Varie Figure Gobbi – Series of 21 etchings, 16161620 Callot Varie Figure Gobbi anagoria.JPG\|Varie Figure Gobbi, Städelsches Kunstinstitut1620 Callot Der Maskierte mit verdrehten Beinen anagoria.JPG\|Masked Dwarf with Contorted Legs1620 Callot Zwergkrüppel mit Kapuze anagoria.JPG\|Crippled Dwarf with Hood1620 Callot Der Zwerg mit dem dicken Bauch anagoria.JPG\|The Fat Dwarf1620 Callot Der Zwerg mit dem Buckel anagoria.JPG\|The Hunchbacked Dwarf1620 Callot Zwerg mit Hängebauch und hohem Hut anagoria.JPG\|The Potbellied Dwarf with the Tall Hat1620 Callot Zwerg mit Violine anagoria.JPG\|Dwarf with ViolinJacques Callot V.jpg\|Example of Jacques Callot's work" ], [ "Other notable works", "''The Fair at Impruneta'', 1620* A large series depicting ''commedia dell'arte'' figures called ''Balli di Sfessania'', in a simple, caricature-like style, from his years in Florence.", "* Series on the Lives of Christ and Mary.", "* Series on the story of the Prodigal Son.", "* ''The Giant Tifeo beneath Mount Ischia'' (1617).", "* ''The Fair at Impruneta'' (1620).", "* ''The Fair at Gondreville'' (1624).", "* ''The Temptation of St Anthony'' (1635, Fitzwillaim Museum).", "''Temptation of Saint Anthony''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, 1971, nos 455–460..DP Becker in KL Spangeberg (ed), Six Centuries of Master Prints, Cincinnati Art Museum, 1993, no 74 (Large Miseries of War), ." ], [ "External links", "* Bodkin Prints – Links to over 1,000 Callot prints (see section B)* Jacques Callot on the Internet from Artcyclopedia.", "* Brief bio of Callot from Web Gallery of Art* Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Jacques Callot (see index)*Jacques Callot etchings, ca.", "1615–1635, Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, Accession No.", "890027." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Campbell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph John Campbell''' (March 26, 1904 – October 30, 1987) was an American writer.", "He was a professor of literature at Sarah Lawrence College who worked in comparative mythology and comparative religion.", "His work covers many aspects of the human experience.", "Campbell's best-known work is his book ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949), in which he discusses his theory of the journey of the archetypal hero shared by world mythologies, termed the monomyth.Since the publication of ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', Campbell's theories have been applied by a wide variety of modern writers and artists.", "His philosophy has been summarized by his own often repeated phrase: \"Follow your bliss.\"", "He gained recognition in Hollywood when George Lucas credited Campbell's work as influencing his ''Star Wars'' saga.Campbell's approach to folklore topics such as myth and his influence on popular culture has been the subject of criticism, especially from academic folklorists." ], [ "Life", "===Background===Joseph Campbell was born in White Plains, New York, on March 26, 1904, the elder son of hosiery importer and wholesaler Charles William Campbell, from Waltham, Massachusetts, and Josephine (née Lynch), from New York.", "Campbell was raised in an upper-middle-class Irish Catholic family; he related that his paternal grandfather Charles had been \"a peasant\" who came to Boston from County Mayo in Ireland, and became the gardener and caretaker at the Lyman estate at Waltham, where his son Charles William Campbell grew up and became a successful salesman at a department store prior to establishing his hosiery business.", "During his childhood, he moved with his family to New Rochelle, New York.", "In 1919, a fire destroyed the family home in New Rochelle, killing his maternal grandmother and injuring his father, who tried to save her.In 1921, Campbell graduated from the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut.", "While at Dartmouth College he studied biology and mathematics, but decided that he preferred the humanities.", "He transferred to Columbia University, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature in 1925 and a Master of Arts degree in medieval literature in 1927.At Dartmouth he had joined Delta Tau Delta.", "An accomplished athlete, he received awards in track and field events, and, for a time, was among the fastest half-mile runners in the world.In 1924, Campbell traveled to Europe with his family.", "On the ship during his return trip he encountered the messiah elect of the Theosophical Society, Jiddu Krishnamurti; they discussed Indian philosophy, sparking in Campbell an interest in Hindu and Indian thought.", "In 1927, he received a fellowship from Columbia University to study in Europe.", "Campbell studied Old French, Provençal, and Sanskrit at the University of Paris and the University of Munich.", "He learned to read and speak French and German.On his return to Columbia University in 1929, Campbell expressed a desire to pursue the study of Sanskrit and modern art in addition to medieval literature.", "Lacking faculty approval, Campbell withdrew from graduate studies.", "Later in life he jested that it is a sign of incompetence to have a PhD in the liberal arts, the discipline covering his work.===The Great Depression===With the arrival of the Great Depression, Campbell spent the next five years (1929–1934) living in a rented shack in Woodstock, New York.", "There, he contemplated the next course of his life while engaged in intensive and rigorous independent study.", "He later said that he \"would divide the day into four three-hour periods, of which I would be reading in three of the three-hour periods, and free one of them ...", "I would get nine hours of sheer reading done a day.", "And this went on for five years straight.", "\"Campbell traveled to California for a year (1931–1932), continuing his independent studies and becoming a close friend of the budding writer John Steinbeck and his wife Carol.", "Campbell had met Carol's sister, Idell, on a Honolulu cruise and she introduced him to the Steinbecks.", "Campbell had an affair with Carol.", "On the Monterey Peninsula, Campbell, like John Steinbeck, fell under the spell of the marine biologist Ed Ricketts (the model for \"Doc\" in Steinbeck's novel ''Cannery Row'' as well as central characters in several other novels).", "Campbell lived for a while next door to Ricketts, participated in professional and social activities at his neighbor's, and accompanied him, along with Xenia and Sasha Kashevaroff, on a 1932 journey to Juneau, Alaska on the ''Grampus''.", "Campbell began writing a novel centered on Ricketts as a hero but, unlike Steinbeck, did not complete his book.Bruce Robison writes thatCampbell continued his independent reading while teaching for a year in 1933 at the Canterbury School in Connecticut, during which time he also attempted to publish works of fiction.", "While teaching at the Canterbury School, Campbell sold his first short story ''Strictly Platonic'' to ''Liberty'' magazine.===Sarah Lawrence College===In 1934, Campbell accepted a position as Professor of Literature at Sarah Lawrence College in Yonkers, New York.", "In 1938, he married one of his former students, the dancer-choreographer Jean Erdman.", "For most of their 49 years of marriage they shared a two-room apartment in Greenwich Village in New York City.", "In the 1980s they also purchased an apartment in Honolulu and divided their time between the two cities.", "They did not have any children.Early in World War II, Campbell attended a lecture by the Indologist Heinrich Zimmer; the two men became good friends.", "After Zimmer's death, Campbell was given the task of editing and posthumously publishing Zimmer's papers, which he would do over the following decade.In 1955–1956, as the last volume of Zimmer's posthumous treatise, ''The Art of Indian Asia, Its Mythology and Transformations',' was finally about to be published, Campbell took a sabbatical from Sarah Lawrence College and traveled, for the first time, to Asia.", "He spent six months in southern Asia (mostly India) and another six in East Asia (mostly Japan).", "This year had a profound influence on his thinking about Asian religion and myth, and also on the necessity for teaching comparative mythology to a larger, non-academic audience.In 1972, Campbell retired from Sarah Lawrence College, after having taught there for 38 years.===Later life and death===Jonathan Young, 1985.Campbell attended a Grateful Dead concert in 1986, and marveled that \"Everyone has just lost themselves in everybody else here!\"", "With the Grateful Dead, Campbell put on a conference called \"Ritual and Rapture from Dionysus to the Grateful Dead\".Campbell died at his home in Honolulu, Hawaii, on October 30, 1987, from complications of esophageal cancer.", "Before his death he had completed filming the series of interviews with Bill Moyers that aired the following spring as ''The Power of Myth''.", "He is buried in O'ahu Cemetery, Honolulu." ], [ "Influences", "===Art, literature, philosophy===Campbell often referred to the work of modern writers James Joyce and Thomas Mann in his lectures and writings, as well as to the art of Pablo Picasso.", "He was introduced to their work during his stay as a graduate student in Paris.", "Campbell eventually corresponded with Mann.The works of Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche had a profound effect on Campbell's thinking; he quoted their writing frequently.The \"follow your bliss\" philosophy attributed to Campbell following the original broadcast of ''The Power of Myth'' (see below) derives from the Hindu Upanishads; however, Campbell was possibly also influenced by the 1922 Sinclair Lewis novel ''Babbitt''.", "In ''The Power of Myth,'' Campbell quotes from the novel:===Psychology and anthropology===The anthropologist Leo Frobenius and his disciple Adolf Ellegard Jensen were important to Campbell's view of cultural history.", "Campbell was also influenced by the psychological work of Abraham Maslow and Stanislav Grof.Campbell's ideas regarding myth and its relation to the human psyche are dependent in part on the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, but in particular on the work of Jung, whose studies of human psychology greatly influenced Campbell.", "Campbell's conception of myth is closely related to the Jungian method of dream interpretation, which is heavily reliant on symbolic interpretation.", "Jung's insights into archetypes were heavily influenced by the ''Bardo Thodol'' (also known as ''The Tibetan Book of the Dead'').", "In his book ''The Mythic Image'', Campbell quotes Jung's statement about the ''Bardo Thodol'', that it" ], [ "Comparative mythology and theories", "===Monomyth===Campbell's concept of ''monomyth'' (one myth) refers to the theory that sees all mythic narratives as variations of a single great story.", "The theory is based on the observation that a common pattern exists beneath the narrative elements of most great myths, regardless of their origin or time of creation.", "Campbell often referred to the ideas of Adolf Bastian and his distinction between what he called \"folk\" and \"elementary\" ideas, the latter referring to the prime matter of monomyth while the former to the multitude of local forms the myth takes in order to remain an up-to-date carrier of sacred meanings.", "The central pattern most studied by Campbell is often referred to as \"the hero's journey\" and was first described in ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949).", "An enthusiast of novelist James Joyce, Campbell borrowed the term \"monomyth\" from Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake''.", "Campbell also made heavy use of Carl Jung's theories on the structure of the human psyche, and he often used terms such as anima, animus and ego consciousness.As a strong believer in the psychic unity of mankind and its poetic expression through mythology, Campbell made use of the concept to express the idea that the whole of the human race can be seen as engaged in the effort of making the world ''\"transparent to transcendence\"'' by showing that underneath the world of phenomena lies an eternal source which is constantly pouring its energies into this world of time, suffering, and ultimately death.", "To achieve this task one needs to speak about things that existed before and beyond words, a seemingly impossible task, the solution to which lies in the metaphors found in myths.", "These metaphors are statements that point beyond themselves into the transcendent.", "The Hero's Journey was the story of the man or woman who, through great suffering, reached an experience of the eternal source and returned with gifts powerful enough to set their society free.As this story spread through space and evolved through time, it was broken down into various local forms (masks), depending on the social structures and environmental pressures that existed for the culture that interpreted it.", "The basic structure, however, has remained relatively unchanged and can be classified using the various stages of a hero's adventure through the story, stages such as ''the Call to Adventure, Receiving Supernatural Aid, Meeting with the Goddess/Atonement with the Father'' and ''Return''.", "These stages, as well as the symbols one encounters throughout the story, provide the necessary metaphors to express the spiritual truths the story is trying to convey.", "Metaphors for Campbell, in contrast with ''similes'' which make use of the word ''like'', pretend to a literal interpretation of what they are referring to, as in the sentence \"Jesus is the Son of God\" rather than \"the relationship of man to God is ''like'' that of a son to a father\".In the 1987 documentary ''Joseph Campbell: A Hero's Journey'', he explains God in terms of a metaphor:God is a metaphor for a mystery that absolutely transcends all human categories of thought, even the categories of being and non-being.", "Those are categories of thought.", "I mean it's as simple as that.", "So it depends on how much you want to think about it.", "Whether it's doing you any good.", "Whether it is putting you in touch with the mystery that's the ground of your own being.", "If it isn't, well, it's a lie.", "So half the people in the world are religious people who think that their metaphors are facts.", "Those are what we call theists.", "The other half are people who know that the metaphors are not facts.", "And so, they're lies.", "Those are the atheists.===Functions of myth===Campbell often described mythology as having a fourfold function within human society.", "These appear at the end of his work ''The Masks of God: Creative Mythology'', as well as various lectures.", "; The Mystical/Metaphysical Function: ''Awakening and maintaining in the individual a sense of awe and gratitude before the 'mystery of being' and his or her participation in it'': According to Campbell, the absolute mystery of life, what he called transcendent reality, cannot be captured directly in words or images.", "Symbols and mythic metaphors on the other hand point outside themselves and into that reality.", "They are what Campbell called \"being statements\" and their enactment through ritual can give to the participant a sense of that ultimate mystery as an experience.", "\"Mythological symbols touch and exhilarate centers of life beyond the reach of reason and coercion....", "The first function of mythology is to reconcile waking consciousness to the ''mysterium tremendum et fascinans'' of this universe ''as it is''.", "\"; The Cosmological Function: ''Explaining the shape of the universe'': For pre-modern societies, myth also functioned as a ''proto-science'', offering explanations for the physical phenomena that surrounded and affected their lives, such as the change of seasons and the life cycles of animals and plants.", "; The Sociological Function: ''Validate and support the existing social order'': Ancient societies had to conform to an existing social order if they were to survive at all.", "This is because they evolved under \"pressure\" from necessities much more intense than the ones encountered in our modern world.", "Mythology confirmed that order and enforced it by reflecting it into the stories themselves, often describing how the order arrived from divine intervention.", "Campbell often referred to these \"conformity\" myths as the ''\"Right Hand Path\"'' to reflect the brain's left hemisphere's abilities for logic, order and linearity.", "Together with these myths however, he observed the existence of the ''\"Left Hand Path\"'', mythic patterns like the ''\"Hero's Journey\"'' which are revolutionary in character in that they demand from the individual a surpassing of social norms and sometimes even of morality.", "; The Pedagogical/Psychological Function: ''Guide the individual through the stages of life'': As a person goes through life, many psychological challenges will be encountered.", "Myth may serve as a guide for successful passage through the stages of one's life.===Evolution of myth===Campbell's view of mythology was by no means static and his books describe in detail how mythologies evolved through time, reflecting the realities in which each society had to adjust.", "Various stages of cultural development have different yet identifiable mythological systems.", "In brief these are:; The Way of the Animal Powers: ''Hunting and gathering societies'': At this stage of evolution religion was animistic, as all of nature was seen as being infused with a spirit or divine presence.", "At center stage was the main hunting animal of that culture, whether the buffalo for Native Americans or the eland for South African tribes, and a large part of religion focused on dealing with the psychological tension that came from the reality of the necessity to kill versus the divinity of the animal.", "This was done by presenting the animals as springing from an eternal archetypal source and coming to this world as ''willing victims'', with the understanding that their lives would be returned to the soil or to the Mother through a ritual of restoration.", "The act of slaughter then becomes a ritual where both parties, animal and mankind, are equal participants.", "In ''Mythos'' and ''The Power of Myth'', Campbell recounts the story he calls \"The Buffalo's Wife\" as told by the Blackfoot tribe of North America.", "The story tells of a time when the buffalos stopped coming to the hunting plains, leaving the tribe to starve.", "The chief's daughter promises to marry the buffalo chief in return for their reappearance, but is eventually spared and taught the buffalo dance by the animals themselves, through which the spirits of their dead will return to their eternal life source.", "Indeed, Campbell taught that throughout history mankind has held a belief that all life comes from and returns to another dimension which transcends temporality, but which can be reached through ritual.", "; The Way of the Seeded Earth: ''Early agrarian societies'': Beginning in the fertile grasslands of the Levant and the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia in the Bronze Age and moving to Europe, the practice of agriculture spread along with a new way of understanding mankind's relationship to the world.", "At this time the earth was seen as the Mother, and the myths focused around Her life-giving powers.", "The plant and cultivation cycle was mirrored in religious rituals which often included human sacrifice, symbolic or literal.", "The main figures of this system were a female Great Goddess, Mother Earth, and her ever-dying and ever-resurrected son/consort, a male God.", "At this time the focus was to participate in the repetitive rhythm the world moved in expressed as the four seasons, the birth and death of crops and the phases of the moon.", "At the center of this motion was the Mother Goddess from whom all life springs and to whom all life returns.", "This often gave Her a dual aspect as both mother and destroyer.", "; The Way of the Celestial Lights: ''The first high civilizations'': As the first agricultural societies evolved into the high civilisations of Mesopotamia and Babylonia, the observation of the stars inspired them with the idea that life on earth must also follow a similar mathematically predetermined pattern in which individual beings are but mere participants in an eternal cosmic play.", "The king was symbolised by the Sun with the golden crown as its main metaphor, while his court were the orbiting planets.", "The Mother Goddess remained, but her powers were now fixed within the rigid framework of a clockwork universe.", ": However, two barbarian incursions changed that.", "As the Indo-European (Aryan) people descended from the north and the Semites swept up from the Arabian desert, they carried with them a male dominated mythology with a warrior god whose symbol was the thunder.", "As they conquered, mainly due to the superior technology of iron smithing, their mythology blended with and subjugated the previous system of the Earth Goddess.", "Many mythologies of the ancient world, such as those of Greece, India, and Persia, are a result of that fusion with gods retaining some of their original traits and character but now belonging to a single system.", "Figures such as Zeus and Indra are thunder gods who now interact with Demeter and Dionysus, whose ritual sacrifice and rebirth, bearing testament to his pre-Indo-European roots, were still enacted in classical Greece.", "But for the most part, the focus heavily shifted toward the masculine, with Zeus ascending the throne of the gods and Dionysus demoted to a mere demi-god.", ": This demotion was very profound in the case of the biblical imagery where the female elements were marginalized to an extreme.", "Campbell believed that Eve and the snake that tempted her were once fertility gods worshipped in their own right, with the tree of knowledge being the Tree of Life.", "He also found significance in the biblical story of Cain and Abel, with Cain being a farmer whose agrarian offering is not accepted by God, while herder Abel's animal sacrifice is.", "In the lecture series of Mythos, Campbell speaks of the Mysteries of Eleusis in Ancient Greece, where Demeter's journey in the underworld was enacted for young men and women of the time.", "There he observed that wheat was presented as the ultimate mystery with wine being a symbol of Dionysus, much like in the Christian mysteries where bread and wine are considered to incarnate the body and blood of Jesus.", "Both religions carry the same \"seeded earth\" cosmology in different forms while retaining an image of the ever-dying, ever-resurrected God.", "; The Way of Man: ''Medieval mythology, romantic love, and the birth of the modern spirit'': Campbell recognized that the poetic form of courtly love, carried through medieval Europe by the traveling troubadours, contained a complete mythology in its own right.", "In'' The Power of Myth'' as well as the \"Occidental Mythology\" volume of ''The Masks of God'', Campbell describes the emergence of a new kind of erotic experience as a \"person to person\" affair, in contrast with the purely physical definition given to Eros in the ancient world and the communal agape found in the Christian religion.", "An archetypal story of this kind is the legend of Tristan and Isolde which, apart from its mystical function, shows the transition from an arranged-marriage society as practiced in the Middle Ages and sanctified by the church, into the form of marriage by \"falling in love\" with another person that we recognize today.", "So what essentially started from a mythological theme has since become a social reality, mainly due to a change in perception brought about by a new mythologyand represents a central foundational manifestation of Campbell's overriding interpretive message, \"Follow your bliss.", "\": Campbell believed that in the modern world the function served by formal, traditional mythological systems has been taken on by individual creators such as artists and philosophers.", "In the works of some of his favorites, such as Thomas Mann, Pablo Picasso and James Joyce, he saw mythological themes that could serve the same life-giving purpose that mythology had once played.", "Accordingly, Campbell believed the religions of the world to be the various culturally influenced \"masks\" of the same fundamental, transcendent truths.", "All religions can bring one to an elevated awareness above and beyond a dualistic conception of reality, or idea of \"pairs of opposites\" such as being and non-being, or right and wrong.", "Indeed, he quotes from the Rigveda in the preface to ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'': \"Truth is one, the sages speak of it by many names.\"" ], [ "Influence", "===Joseph Campbell Foundation===In 1991, Campbell's widow, choreographer Jean Erdman, worked with Campbell's longtime friend and editor, Robert Walter, to create the Joseph Campbell Foundation.Initiatives undertaken by the JCF include: ''The Collected Works of Joseph Campbell'', a series of books and recordings that aims to pull together Campbell's myriad-minded work; the Erdman Campbell Award; the Mythological RoundTables, a network of local groups around the globe that explore the subjects of comparative mythology, psychology, religion and culture; and the collection of Campbell's library and papers housed at the OPUS Archives and Research Center.===Film and television===George Lucas was the first Hollywood filmmaker to credit Campbell's influence.", "Lucas stated, following the release of the first ''Star Wars'' film in 1977, that its story was shaped, in part, by ideas described in ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' and other works of Campbell's.", "The linkage between ''Star Wars'' and Campbell was further reinforced when later reprints of Campbell's book used the image of Luke Skywalker on the cover.", "Lucas discusses this influence at great length in the authorized biography of Joseph Campbell, ''A Fire in the Mind'':It was not until after the completion of the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy in 1983, however, that Lucas met Campbell or heard any of his lectures.", "In 1984, Campbell gave a lecture at the Palace of Fine Arts in San Francisco, with Lucas in the audience, who was introduced through their mutual friend Barbara McClintock.", "A few years later, Lucas invited Campbell to watch the entire ''Star Wars'' trilogy at Skywalker Ranch, which Campbell called \"real art\".", "This meeting led to the filming of the 1988 documentary ''The Power of Myth'' at Skywalker Ranch.", "In his interviews with Bill Moyers, Campbell discusses the way in which Lucas used ''The Hero's Journey'' in the ''Star Wars'' films (IV, V, and VI) to re-invent the mythology for the contemporary viewer.", "Moyers and Lucas filmed an interview 12 years later in 1999 called the ''Mythology of Star Wars with George Lucas & Bill Moyers'' to further discuss the impact of Campbell's work on Lucas' films.", "In addition, the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution sponsored an exhibit during the late 1990s called ''Star Wars: The Magic of Myth'', which discussed the ways in which Campbell's work shaped the ''Star Wars'' films.Many filmmakers of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have acknowledged the influence of Campbell's work on their own craft.", "Christopher Vogler, a Hollywood screenwriter, created a seven-page company memo based on Campbell's work, ''A Practical Guide to The Hero With a Thousand Faces'', which led to the development of Disney's 1994 film ''The Lion King''.", "Among films that many viewers have recognized as closely following the pattern of the monomyth are ''The Matrix'' series, the Batman series and the ''Indiana Jones'' series.", "Dan Harmon, the creator of the TV show ''Community'' and co-creator of the TV show ''Rick and Morty'', often references Campbell as a major influence.", "According to him, he uses a \"story circle\" to formulate every story he writes, in a formulation of Campbell's work.", "A fictionalized version of Campbell himself appears in the seventh episode of the sixth season of ''Rick and Morty'', \"Full Meta Jackrick\".===Popular literature===After the explosion of popularity brought on by the ''Star Wars'' films and ''The Power of Myth'', creative artists in many media recognized the potential to use Campbell's theories to try to unlock human responses to narrative patterns.", "Novelists, songwriters, video game designers have studied Campbell's work in order to better understand mythology – in particular, the monomyth – and its impact.The novelist Richard Adams acknowledges a debt to Campbell's work and specifically to the concept of the monomyth.", "In his best known work, ''Watership Down'', Adams uses extracts from ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' as chapter epigrams.Dan Brown mentioned in a ''New York Times'' interview that Joseph Campbell's works, particularly ''The Power of Myth'' and ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', inspired him to create the character of Robert Langdon.===\"Follow your bliss\"===One of Campbell's most identifiable, most quoted and arguably most misunderstood sayings was his maxim to \"follow your bliss\".", "He derived this idea from the Upanishads:He saw this not merely as a mantra, but as a helpful guide to the individual along the hero journey that each of us walks through life:Campbell began sharing this idea with students during his lectures in the 1970s.", "By the time that ''The Power of Myth'' was aired in 1988, six months following Campbell's death, \"Follow your bliss\" was a philosophy that resonated deeply with the American publicboth religious and secular.During his later years, when some students took him to be encouraging hedonism, Campbell is reported to have grumbled, \"I should have said, 'Follow your ''blisters''." ], [ "Academic reception and criticism", "Campbell's approach to myth, a genre of folklore, has been the subject of criticism from folklorists, academics who specialize in folklore studies.", "American folklorist Barre Toelken says that few psychologists have taken the time to become familiar with the complexities of folklore, and that, historically, Jung-influenced psychologists and authors have tended to build complex theories around single versions of a tale that support a theory or a proposal.", "To illustrate his point, Toelken employs Clarissa Pinkola Estés's (1992) ''Women Who Run with the Wolves'', citing its inaccurate representation of the folklore record, and Campbell's \"monomyth\" approach as another.", "Regarding Campbell, Toelken writes, \"Campbell could construct a monomyth of the hero only by citing those stories that fit his preconceived mold, and leaving out equally valid stories… which did not fit the pattern\".", "Toelken traces the influence of Campbell's monomyth theory into other then-contemporary popular works, such as Robert Bly's ''Iron John: A Book About Men'' (1990), which he says suffers from similar source selection bias.Similarly, American folklorist Alan Dundes was highly critical of both Campbell's approach to folklore, designating him as a \"non-expert\" and gives various examples of what he considers source bias in Campbell's theories, as well as media representation of Campbell as an expert on the subject of myth in popular culture.", "Dundes writes, \"Folklorists have had some success in publicising the results of our efforts in the past two centuries such that members of other disciplines have, after a minimum of reading, believe they are qualified to speak authoritatively of folkloristic matters.", "It seems that the world is full of self-proclaimed experts in folklore, and a few, such as Campbell, have been accepted as such by the general public (and public television, in the case of Campbell)\".", "According to Dundes, \"there is no single idea promulgated by amateurs that has done more harm to serious folklore study than the notion of archetype\".According to anthropologist Raymond Scupin, \"Joseph Campbell's theories have not been well received in anthropology because of his overgeneralizations, as well as other problems.", "\"Campbell's Sanskrit scholarship has been questioned.", "Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, a former Sanskrit professor at the University of Toronto, said that he once met Campbell, and that the two \"hated each other at sight\", commenting that, \"When I met Campbell at a public gathering he was quoting Sanskrit verses.", "He had no clue as to what he was talking about; he had the most superficial knowledge of India but he could use it for his own aggrandizement.", "I remember thinking: this man is corrupt.", "I know that he was simply ''lying'' about his understanding\".", "According to Richard Buchen, librarian of the Joseph Campbell Collection at the Pacifica Graduate Institute, Campbell could not translate Sanskrit well, but worked closely with three scholars who did.Ellwood observes that ''The Masks of God'' series \"impressed literate laity more than specialists\"; he quotes Stephen P. Dunn as remarking that in ''Occidental Mythology'' Campbell \"writes in a curiously archaic style – full of rhetorical questions, exclamations of wonder and delight, and expostulations directed at the reader, or perhaps at the author's other self – which is charming about a third of the time and rather annoying the rest.\"", "Ellwood says that \"Campbell was not really a social scientist, and those in the latter camp could tell\" and records a concern about Campbell's \"oversimplification of historical matters and tendency to make myth mean whatever he wanted it to mean\".", "The critic Camille Paglia, writing in ''Sexual Personae'' (1990), expressed disagreement with Campbell's \"negative critique of fifth-century Athens\" in ''Occidental Mythology'', arguing that Campbell missed the \"visionary and exalted\" androgyny in Greek statues of nude boys.", "Paglia has written that while Campbell is \"a seminal figure for many American feminists\", she loathes him for his \"mawkishness and bad research.\"", "Paglia has called Campbell \"mushy\" and a \"false teacher\", and described his work as a \"fanciful, showy mishmash\".Campbell has also been accused of antisemitism by some authors.", "In ''Tikkun'' magazine, Tamar Frankiel noted that Campbell called Judaism the \"Yahweh Cult\" and that he spoke of Judaism in almost exclusively negative terms.", "In a 1989 ''New York Review of Books'' article, Brendan Gill accused Campbell of both antisemitism and prejudice against blacks.", "Gill's article resulted in a series of letters to the editor, some supporting the charge of antisemitism and others defending him.", "However, according to Robert S. Ellwood, Gill relied on \"scraps of evidence, largely anecdotal\" to support his charges.", "In 1991, Masson also accused Campbell of \"hidden anti-Semitism\" and \"fascination with conservative, semifascistic views\"." ], [ "Works", "===Early collaborations===The first published work that bore Campbell's name was ''Where the Two Came to Their Father'' (1943), an account of a Navajo ceremony that was performed by singer (medicine man) Jeff King and recorded by artist and ethnologist Maud Oakes, recounting the story of two young heroes who go to the hogan of their father, the Sun, and return with the power to destroy the monsters that are plaguing their people.", "Campbell provided a commentary.", "He would use this tale through the rest of his career to illustrate both the universal symbols and structures of human myths and the particulars (\"folk ideas\") of Native American stories.As noted above, James Joyce was an important influence on Campbell.", "Campbell's first important book (with Henry Morton Robinson), ''A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake'' (1944), is a critical analysis of Joyce's final text ''Finnegans Wake''.", "In addition, Campbell's seminal work, ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949), discusses what Campbell called the ''monomyth'' – the cycle of the journey of the hero – a term that he borrowed directly from Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake''.===''The Hero with a Thousand Faces''===From his days in college through the 1940s, Joseph Campbell turned his hand to writing fiction.", "In many of his later stories (published in the posthumous collection ''Mythic Imagination'') he began to explore the mythological themes that he was discussing in his Sarah Lawrence classes.", "These ideas turned him eventually from fiction to non-fiction.Originally titled ''How to Read a Myth'', and based on the introductory class on mythology that he had been teaching at Sarah Lawrence College, ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' was published in 1949 as Campbell's first foray as a solo author; it established his name outside of scholarly circles and remains, arguably, his most influential work to this day.", "The book argues that hero stories such as Krishna, Buddha, Apollonius of Tyana, and Jesus all share a similar mythological basis.", "Not only did it introduce the concept of the hero's journey to popular thinking, but it also began to popularize the very idea of comparative mythology itselfthe study of the human impulse to create stories and images that, though they are clothed in the motifs of a particular time and place, draw nonetheless on universal, eternal themes.", "Campbell asserted:Wherever the poetry of myth is interpreted as biography, history, or science, it is killed.", "The living images become only remote facts of a distant time or sky.", "Furthermore, it is never difficult to demonstrate that as science and history, mythology is absurd.", "When a civilization begins to reinterpret its mythology in this way, the life goes out of it, temples become museums, and the link between the two perspectives becomes dissolved.===''The Masks of God''===Published between 1959 and 1968, Campbell's four-volume work ''The Masks of God'' covers mythology from around the world, from ancient to modern.", "Where ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' focused on the commonality of mythology (the \"elementary ideas\"), the '' Masks of God'' books focus upon historical and cultural variations the monomyth takes on (the \"folk ideas\").", "In other words, where ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' draws perhaps more from psychology, the '' Masks of God'' books draw more from anthropology and history.", "The four volumes of ''Masks of God'' are as follows: ''Primitive Mythology'', ''Oriental Mythology'', ''Occidental Mythology'', and ''Creative Mythology''.===''Historical Atlas of World Mythology''===At the time of his death, Campbell was in the midst of working on a large-format, lavishly illustrated series titled ''Historical Atlas of World Mythology''.", "This series was to build on Campbell's idea, first presented in ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', that myth evolves over time through four stages:* ''The Way of the Animal Powers''the myths of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers which focus on shamanism and animal totems.", "* ''The Way of the Seeded Earth''the myths of Neolithic, agrarian cultures which focus upon a mother goddess and associated fertility rites.", "* ''The Way of the Celestial Lights''the myths of Bronze Age city-states with pantheons of gods ruling from the heavens, led by a masculine god-king.", "* ''The Way of Man''religion and philosophy as it developed after the Axial Age (c. 6th century BCE), in which the mythic imagery of previous eras was made consciously metaphorical, reinterpreted as referring to psycho-spiritual, not literal-historical, matters.", "This transition is evident in the East in Buddhism, Vedanta, and philosophical Taoism; and in the West in the Mystery cults, Platonism, Christianity and Gnosticism.Only the first volume was completed at the time of Campbell's death.", "Campbell's editor Robert Walter completed the publication of the first three of five parts of the second volume after Campbell's death.", "The works are now out of print.", ", Joseph Campbell Foundation is currently undertaking to create a new, ebook edition.===''The Power of Myth''===Campbell's widest popular recognition followed his collaboration with Bill Moyers on the PBS series ''The Power of Myth'', which was first broadcast in 1988, the year following Campbell's death.", "The series discusses mythological, religious, and psychological archetypes.", "A book, ''The Power of Myth'', containing expanded transcripts of their conversations, was released shortly after the original broadcast.===''Collected Works''===The ''Collected Works of Joseph Campbell'' series is a project initiated by the Joseph Campbell Foundation to release new, authoritative editions of Campbell's published and unpublished writing, as well as audio and video recordings of his lectures.", "Working with New World Library and Acorn Media UK, as well as publishing audio recordings and ebooks under its own banner, the project has produced over seventy-five titles.", "The series's executive editor is Robert Walter, and the managing editor is David Kudler.===Other books===''Where the Two Came to Their Father: A Navaho War Ceremonial'' (1943).", "With Jeff King and Maud Oakes, Old Dominion Foundation''The Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension'' (1968).", "Viking Press''Myths to Live By'' (1972).", "Viking Press''Erotic irony and mythic forms in the art of Thomas Mann'' (1973; monograph, later included in ''The Mythic Dimension'')''The Mythic Image'' (1974).", "Princeton University Press''The Inner Reaches of Outer Space: Metaphor As Myth and As Religion'' (1986).", "Alfred van der Marck Editions''Transformations of Myth Through Time'' (1990).", "Harper and Row''A Joseph Campbell Companion: Reflections on the Art of Living'' (1991).", "Editor Robert Walter, from material by Diane K. Osbon''Mythic Worlds, Modern Words: On the Art of James Joyce'' (1993).", "Editor Edmund L. Epstein''The Mythic Dimension: Selected Essays (1959–1987)'' (1993).", "Editor Anthony Van Couvering''Baksheesh & Brahman: Indian Journals (1954–1955)'' (1995).", "Editors Robin/Stephen Larsen & Anthony Van Couvering''Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor'' (2001).", "Editor Eugene Kennedy, New World Library .", "First volume in the Collected Works of Joseph Campbell''The Inner Reaches of Outer Space'' (2002)''Sake & Satori: Asian Journals – Japan'' (2002).", "Editor David Kudler''Myths of Light: Eastern Metaphors of the Eternal'' (2003).", "Editor David Kudler''Pathways to Bliss: Mythology and Personal Transformation'' (2004).", "Editor David Kudler''Mythic Imagination: Collected Short Fiction of Joseph Campbell'' (2012)''Goddesses: Mysteries of the Feminine Divine'' (2013).", "Editor Safron Rossi''Romance of the Grail: The Magic and Mystery of Arthurian Myth'' (2015).", "Editor Evans Lansing Smith''The Ecstasy of Being: Mythology and Dance'' (2017).", "Editor Nancy Allison* ''Correspondence 1927–1987'' (2019, 2020).", "Editors Dennis Patrick Slattery & Evans Lansing Smith===Interview books===''The Power of Myth'' (1988).", "with Bill Moyers and editor Betty Sue Flowers, Doubleday, hardcover: ''An Open Life: Joseph Campbell in Conversation with Michael Toms'' (1989).", "Editors John Maher and Dennie Briggs, foreword by Jean Erdman Campbell.", "Larson Publications, Harper Perennial 1990 paperback: ''This business of the gods: Interview with Fraser Boa'' (Unlicensed – 1989)''The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work'' (1990).", "Editor Phil Cousineau.", "Harper & Row 1991 paperback: .", "Element Books 1999 hardcover: .", "New World Library centennial edition with introduction by Phil Cousineau, foreword by executive editor Stuart L. Brown: * ''Myth and Meaning: Conversations on Mythology and Life'' (2023).", "Hardcover, New World Library, ===Audio recordings===''Mythology and the Individual''''The Power of Myth'' (with Bill Moyers) (1987)''Transformation of Myth through Time'' Volume 1–3 (1989)''The Hero with a Thousand Faces: The Cosmogonic Cycle'' (read by Ralph Blum; 1990)''The Way of Art'' (1990–unlicensed)''The Lost Teachings of Joseph Campbell'' Volume 1–9 (with Michael Toms; 1993)''On the Wings of Art: Joseph Campbell; Joseph Campbell on the Art of James Joyce'' (1995)''The Wisdom of Joseph Campbell'' (with Michael Toms; 1991)* ''Audio Lecture Series'': ''Series I – lectures up to 1970''* ''Volume 1: Mythology and the Individual''* ''Volume 2: Inward Journey: East and West''* ''Volume 3: The Eastern Way''* ''Volume 4: Man and Myth''* ''Volume 5: Myths and Masks of God''* ''Volume 6: The Western Quest'' ''Series II – lectures from 1970 to 1978''* ''Volume 1: A Brief History of World Mythology''* ''Volume 2: Mythological Perspectives''* ''Volume 3: Christian Symbols and Ideas''* ''Volume 4: Psychology and Asia Philosophies''* ''Volume 5: Your Myth Today''* ''Volume 6: Mythic Ideas and Modern Culture'' ''Series III – lectures from 1983 to 1986''* ''Volume 1: The Mythic Novels of James Joyce''''Myth and Metaphor in Society'' (with Jamake Highwater) (abridged; 2002)===Video recordings===''The Hero's Journey: A Biographical Portrait''This film, made shortly before his death in 1987, follows Campbell's personal questa pathless journey of questioning, discovery, and ultimately of joy in a life to which he said, \"Yes.", "\"''Sukhavati: A Mythic Journey''This film is a personal, transcendent, and perhaps spiritual portrait of Campbell.", "MythosThis series comprises talks that Campbell himself believed summed up his views on \"the one great story of mankind.\"", "It is essentially a repackaging of the lectures featured in ''Transformations of Myth Through Time''.", "'' Psyche & Symbol'' (12-part telecourse, Bay Area Open College, 1976)'' Transformations of Myth Through Time'' (1989)''Joseph Campbell and the Power of Myth'' (1988)''Myth and Metaphor in Society'' (with Jamake Highwater; 1993)===TV appearances===''Bill Moyers Journal'': Joseph Campbell – Myths to Live By (Part One), April 17, 1981''Bill Moyers Journal'': Joseph Campbell – Myths to Live By (Part Two), April 24, 1981===Edited books===Gupta, Mahendranath.", "''The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna'' (1942) (translation from Bengali by Swami Nikhilananda; Joseph Campbell and Margaret Woodrow Wilson, with translation assistants; foreword by Aldous Huxley)''Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization''.", "Heinrich Zimmer (1946)''The King and the Corpse: Tales of the Soul's Conquest of Evil''.", "Heinrich Zimmer (1948)''Philosophies of India''.", "Heinrich Zimmer (1951)''The Portable Arabian Nights'' (1951)''The Art of Indian Asia''.", "Heinrich Zimmer (1955)''Man and Time: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''.", "Various authors (1954–1969)''Man and Transformation: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''.", "Various authors (1954–1969)''The Mysteries: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''.", "Various authors (1954–1969)''The Mystic Vision: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''.", "Various authors (1954–1969)''Spirit and Nature: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''.", "Various authors (1954–1969)''Spiritual Disciplines: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''.", "Various authors (1954–1969)''Myths, Dreams, Religion''.", "Various authors (1970)''The Portable Jung''.", "Carl Jung (1971)" ], [ "See also", "* Aarne–Thompson classification systems* Archetypal literary criticism* ''The Golden Bough''* Polytheistic myth as psychology* Vladimir Propp* Religion and mythology* Script analysis* ''The Seven Basic Plots''* Joseph Campbell Foundation (JCF)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "'''Books''' * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Articles'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Joseph Campbell Foundation* The Joseph Campbell Library at Pacifica Graduate Institute" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Dowland" ], [ "Introduction", "Title page of 1604 ''Lachrimae'''''John Dowland''' (c. 1563 – buried 20 February 1626) was an English Renaissance composer, lutenist, and singer.", "He is best known today for his melancholy songs such as \"Come, heavy sleep\", \"Come again\", \"Flow my tears\", \"I saw my Lady weepe\", \"Now o now I needs must part\" and \"In darkness let me dwell\".", "His instrumental music has undergone a major revival, and with the 20th century's early music revival, has been a continuing source of repertoire for lutenists and classical guitarists." ], [ "Career and compositions", "Very little is known of John Dowland's early life, but it is generally thought he was born in London; some sources even put his birth year as 1563.Irish historian W. H. Grattan Flood claimed that he was born in Dalkey, near Dublin, but no corroborating evidence has ever been found either for that or for Thomas Fuller's claim that he was born in Westminster.", "There is a piece of evidence pointing to Dublin as his place of origin: he dedicated the song \"From Silent Night\" to 'my loving countryman Mr. John Forster the younger, merchant of Dublin in Ireland'.", "The Forsters were a prominent Dublin family at the time, providing several Lord Mayors to the city.In 1580 Dowland went to Paris, where he was in service to Sir Henry Cobham, the ambassador to the French court, and his successor Sir Edward Stafford.", "He became a Roman Catholic at this time.", "Around 1584, Dowland moved back to England and married.", "In 1588 he was admitted Mus.", "Bac.", "from Christ Church, Oxford.", "In 1594 a vacancy for a lutenist came up at the English court, but Dowland's application was unsuccessful – he claimed his religion led to his not being offered a post at Elizabeth I's Protestant court.", "However, his conversion was not publicised, and being Catholic did not prevent some other important musicians (such as William Byrd) from a court career.From 1598 Dowland worked at the court of Christian IV of Denmark, though he continued to publish in London.", "King Christian was very interested in music and paid Dowland astronomical sums; his salary was 500 daler a year, making him one of the highest-paid servants of the Danish court.", "Though Dowland was highly regarded by King Christian, he was not the ideal servant, often overstaying his leave when he went to England on publishing business or for other reasons.", "Dowland was dismissed in 1606 and returned to England; in early 1612 he secured a post as one of James I's lutenists.", "There are few compositions dating from the moment of his royal appointment until his death in London in 1626.While the date of his death is not known, \"Dowland's last payment from the court was on 20 January 1626, and he was buried at St Ann's, Blackfriars, London, on 20 February 1626.", "\"Two major influences on Dowland's music were the popular consort songs, and the dance music of the day.", "Most of Dowland's music is for his own instrument, the lute.", "It includes several books of solo lute works, lute songs (for one voice and lute), part-songs with lute accompaniment, and several pieces for viol consort with lute.", "The poet Richard Barnfield wrote that Dowland's \"heavenly touch upon the lute doth ravish human sense.", "\"One of his better known works is the lute song \"Flow my tears\", the first verse of which runs:He later wrote what is probably his best known instrumental work, ''Lachrimae, or Seaven Teares, Figured in Seaven Passionate Pavans'', a set of seven pavanes for five viols and lute, each based on the theme derived from the lute song \"Flow my tears\".", "It became one of the best known collections of consort music in his time.", "His pavane, \"Lachrymae antiquae\", was also popular in the seventeenth century, and was arranged and used as a theme for variations by many composers.", "He wrote a lute version of the popular ballad \"My Lord Willoughby's Welcome Home\".Dowland's music often displays the melancholia that was rare in music at that time, and he pioneered it together with Johann Froberger.", "He wrote a consort piece with the punning title ''\"Semper Dowland, semper dolens\"'' (always Dowland, always doleful), which may be said to sum up much of his work.Richard Barnfield, Dowland's contemporary, refers to him in poem VIII of ''The Passionate Pilgrim'' (1598), a Shakespearean sonnet:" ], [ "Published works", "Only one comprehensive monograph of Dowland's life and works, by Diana Poulton, is available in print.", "The fullest catalog list of Dowland's works is that compiled by K. Dawn Grapes in ''John Dowland: A Research and Information Guide'' (Routledge, 2019).", "The numbering for the lute pieces follow the same system as Diana Poulton created in her ''The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland''.", "''P'' numbers are therefore sometimes used to designate individual pieces.", "=== ''Whole Book of Psalms'' (1592) ===Published by Thomas Est in 1592, ''The Whole Booke of Psalmes'' contained works by 10 composers, including 6 pieces by Dowland.# Put me not to rebuke, O Lord (Psalm 38)# All people that on earth do dwell (Psalm 100)# My soul praise the Lord (Psalm 104)# Lord to thee I make my moan (Psalm 130)# Behold and have regard (Psalm 134)# A Prayer for the Queens most excellent Maiestie=== ''New Book of Tablature'' (1596) ===The ''New Booke of Tabliture'' was published by William Barley in 1596.It contains seven solo lute pieces by Dowland.=== ''Lamentatio Henrici Noel'' (1596) ===Perhaps written for the professional choir of Westminster Abbey.# The Lamentation of a sinner# Domine ne in furore (Psalm 6)# Miserere mei Deus (Psalm 51)# The humble sute of a sinner# The humble complaint of a sinner# De profundis (Psalm 130)# Domine exaudi (Psalm 143)Of uncertain attribution are:# Ye righteous in the Lord# An heart that's broken# I shame at my unworthiness=== ''First Book of Songs'' (1597) ===Dowland in London in 1597 published his ''First Booke of Songes or Ayres'', a set of 21 lute-songs and one of the most influential collections in the history of the lute.", "Brian Robins wrote that \"many of the songs were composed long before the publication date, ...", "However, far from being immature, the songs of Book I reveal Dowland as a fully fledged master.\"", "It is set out in a way that allows performance by a soloist with lute accompaniment or by various other combinations of singers and instrumentalists.", "The lute-songs are listed below.", "After them, at the end of the collection, comes \"My Lord Chamberlaine, His Galliard\", a piece for two people to play on one lute.# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # === ''Second Book of Songs'' (1600) ===Dowland published his ''Second Booke of Songs or Ayres'' in 1600.It has 22 lute songs.", "There is also an instrumental work, Dowland’s adew for Master Oliver Cromwell.", "The songs are as follows:# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # === ''Third Book of Songs'' (1603) ===The ''Third and Last Booke of Songs or Aires'' was published in 1603.The 21 songs are:# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # === ''Lachrimae'' (1604) ===The ''Lachrimae, or Seaven Teares'' was published in 1604.It contains the seven pavans of Lachrimae itself and 14 others, including the famous ''Semper Dowland semper Dolens''.# Lachrimae Antiquae# Lachrimae Antiquae Nouae# Lachrimae Gementes# Lachrimae Tristes# Lachrimae Coactae# Lachrimae Amantis# Lachrimae Verae# Semper Dowland semper Dolens (P.9)# Sir Henry Vmptons Funeral# M. Iohn Langtons Pauan# The King of Denmarks Galiard (P.40)# The Earle of Essex Galiard# Sir Iohn Souch his Galiard# M. Henry Noell his Galiard# M. Giles Hoby his Galiard# M. Nicho.", "Gryffith his Galiard# M. Thomas Collier his Galiard with two trebles# Captaine Piper his Galiard (P.19)# M. Bucton his Galiard# Mrs Nichols Almand# M. George Whitehead his Almand=== ''Micrologus'' (1609) ===Dowland published a translation of the ''Micrologus'' of Andreas Ornithoparcus in 1609, originally printed in Latin in Leipzig in 1517.=== ''Varietie of Lute-Lessons'' (1610)===This was published by Dowland's son Robert in 1610 and contains solo lute works by his father and others.===''A Musicall Banquet'' (1610)===This was likewise published by Dowland's son that year.", "It contains three songs by his father: # Farre from Triumphing Court# Lady If You So Spight Me# In Darknesse Let Me Dwell=== ''A Pilgrimes Solace'' (1612) ===Dowland's last work ''A Pilgrimes Solace'', was published in 1612, and seems to have been conceived more as a collection of contrapuntal music than as solo works.", "Edmund Fellowes praised it as the last masterpiece in the English school of lutenist song before John Attey's ''First Booke of Ayres of Foure Parts, with Tableture for the Lute'' (1622).", "John Palmer also wrote, \"Although this book produced no hits, it is arguably Dowland's best set, evincing his absorption of the style of the Italian monodists.", "\"# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #" ], [ "Unpublished works", "Many of Dowland's works survive only in manuscript form." ], [ "Suspicions of treason", "Dowland performed a number of espionage assignments for Sir Robert Cecil in France and Denmark; despite his high rate of pay, Dowland seems to have been only a court musician.", "However, we have in his own words the fact that he was for a time embroiled in treasonous Catholic intrigue in Italy, whither he had travelled in the hopes of meeting and studying with Luca Marenzio, a famed madrigal composer.", "Whatever his religion, however, he was still intensely loyal to the Queen, though he seems to have had something of a grudge against her for her remark that he, Dowland, \"was a man to serve any prince in the world, but he was an obstinate Papist.\"", "But in spite of this, and though the plotters offered him a large sum of money from the Pope, as well as safe passage for his wife and children to come to him from England, in the end he declined to have anything further to do with their plans and begged pardon from Sir Robert Cecil and from the Queen." ], [ "Private life", "John Dowland was married and had children, as referenced in his letter to Sir Robert Cecil.", "However, he had long periods of separation from his family, as his wife stayed in England while he worked on the Continent.His son Robert Dowland (c. 1591 – 1641) was also a musician, working for some time in the service of the first Earl of Devonshire, and taking over his father's position of lutenist at court when John died.Dowland's melancholic lyrics and music have often been described as his attempts to develop an \"artistic persona\" in spite of actually being a cheerful person, but many of his own personal complaints, and the tone of bitterness in many of his comments, suggest that much of his music and his melancholy truly did come from his own personality and frustration." ], [ "Modern interpretations", "One of the first 20th-century musicians who successfully helped reclaim Dowland from the history books was the singer-songwriter Frederick Keel.", "Keel included fifteen Dowland pieces in his two sets of ''Elizabethan love songs'' published in 1909 and 1913, which achieved popularity in their day.", "These free arrangements for piano and low or high voice were intended to fit the tastes and musical practices associated with art songs of the time.In 1935, Australian-born composer Percy Grainger, who also had a deep interest in music made before Bach, arranged Dowland's ''Now, O now I needs must part'' for piano.", "Some years later, in 1953, Grainger wrote a work titled ''Bell Piece (Ramble on John Dowland's 'Now, O now I needs must part')'', which was a version scored for voice and wind band, based on his previously mentioned transcription.In 1951 the counter-tenor Alfred Deller recorded songs by Dowland, Thomas Campion, and Philip Rosseter with the label HMV (His Master's Voice) HMV C.4178 and another HMV C.4236 of Dowland's \"Flow my Tears\".", "In 1977, Harmonia Mundi also published two records of Deller singing Dowland's Lute songs (HM 244&245-H244/246).Dowland's song \"Come Heavy Sleepe, the Image of True Death\" was the inspiration for Benjamin Britten's ''Nocturnal after John Dowland'', written in 1963 for the guitarist Julian Bream.", "It consists of eight variations, all based on musical themes drawn from the song or its lute accompaniment, finally resolving into a guitar setting of the song itself.Dowland's music became part of the repertoire of the early music revival with Bream and tenor Peter Pears, and later with Christopher Hogwood and David Munrow and the Early Music Consort in the late 1960s and later with the Academy of Ancient Music from the early 1970s.Jan Akkerman, guitarist of the Dutch progressive rock band Focus, recorded \"Tabernakel\" in 1973 (though released in 1974), an album of John Dowland songs and some original material, performed on lute.The complete works of John Dowland were recorded by the Consort of Musicke, and released on the L'Oiseau Lyre label, though they recorded some of the songs as vocal consort music; the ''Third Book of Songs'' and ''A Pilgrim's Solace'' have yet to be recorded in their entirety as collections of solo songs.The 1999 ECM New Series recording ''In Darkness Let Me Dwell'' features new interpretations of Dowland songs performed by tenor John Potter, lutenist Stephen Stubbs, and baroque violinist Maya Homburger in collaboration with English jazz musicians John Surman and Barry Guy.Nigel North recorded Dowland's complete works for solo lute on four CDs between 2004 and 2007, on Naxos records.Paul O'Dette recorded the complete lute works for Harmonia Mundi on five CDs issued from 1995 to 1997.Elvis Costello included a recording (with Fretwork and the Composers Ensemble) of Dowland's \"Can she excuse my wrongs\" as a bonus track on the 2006 re-release of his ''The Juliet Letters''.In October 2006, Sting, who says he has been fascinated by the music of John Dowland for 25 years, released an album featuring Dowland's songs titled ''Songs from the Labyrinth'', on Deutsche Grammophon, in collaboration with Edin Karamazov on lute and archlute.", "They described their treatment of Dowland's work in a ''Great Performances'' appearance.", "To give some idea of the tone and intrigues of life in late Elizabethan England, Sting also recites throughout the album portions of a 1593 letter written by Dowland to Sir Robert Cecil.", "The letter describes Dowland's travels to various points of Western Europe, then breaks into a detailed account of his activities in Italy, along with a heartfelt denial of the charges of treason whispered against him by unknown persons.", "Dowland most likely was suspected of this for travelling to the courts of various Catholic monarchs and accepting payment from them greater than what a musician of the time would normally have received for performing.Science fiction writer Philip K. Dick referred to Dowland in many of his works, including the novel ''Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said'' (1974), even using the pseudonym \"Jack Dowland\" once." ], [ "Scores", "''The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland'', with lute tablature and keyboard notation, was transcribed and edited by Diana Poulton and Basil Lam, Faber Music Limited, London 1974." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "****** 2004/2009.", "(facsimile and commentary; with three unique works by Dowland).", "Also published by University of California Press, *****" ], [ "External links", "=== Generic information ===\" John Dowland\" – Oxford Bibliographies (biography and annotated source suggestions)* The work of John Dowland – list of publications and works.", "(Partially in German) ** * * *** Music Collection in Cambridge Digital Library, which contains many early copies/examples of Dowland's compositions=== Video and audio resources ===* Some video performances of John Dowland's songs by Valeria Mignaco, soprano & Alfonso Marin, lute* Four Pieces by John Dowland performed by lutenist Brian Wright* Another Lute Website Overview of video's of solo work and songs of John Dowland.", "* Lachrimae or Seaven Teares – 1604 by Hespèrion XX dir.", "Jordi Savall" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John James Audubon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John James Audubon''' (born '''Jean-Jacques Rabin''', April 26, 1785 – January 27, 1851) was a French-American self-trained artist, naturalist, and ornithologist.", "His combined interests in art and ornithology turned into a plan to make a complete pictorial record of all the bird species of North America.", "He was notable for his extensive studies documenting all types of American birds and for his detailed illustrations, which depicted the birds in their natural habitats.", "His major work, a color-plate book titled ''The Birds of America'' (1827–1839), is considered one of the finest ornithological works ever completed.", "Audubon is also known for identifying 25 new species.", "He is the eponym of the National Audubon Society, and his name adorns a large number of towns, neighborhoods, and streets across the United States.", "Dozens of scientific names first published by Audubon are still in use by the scientific community." ], [ "Early life", "Audubon was born in Les Cayes in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) on his father's sugarcane plantation.", "He was the son of Lieutenant Jean Audubon, a French naval officer (and privateer) from the south of Brittany, and his mistress, Jeanne Rabine, a 27-year-old chambermaid from Les Touches, Brittany (now in the modern region Pays de la Loire).", "They named him Jean Rabin.", "Another 1887 biographer has stated that his mother was a lady from a Louisiana plantation.", "His mother died when he was a few months old, as she had suffered from tropical disease since arriving on the island.", "His father already had an unknown number of mixed-race children (among them a daughter named Marie-Madeleine), some by his mixed-race housekeeper, Catherine \"Sanitte\" Bouffard (described as a quadroon, meaning she was three-quarters European in ancestry).", "Following Jeanne Rabin's death, Audubon renewed his relationship with Sanitte Bouffard and had a daughter by her, named Muguet.", "Bouffard also took care of the infant boy Jean.The senior Audubon had commanded ships.", "During the American Revolution, he was imprisoned by Britain.", "After his release, he helped the American cause.", "He had long worked to save money and secure his family's future with real estate.", "Due to repeated uprisings of slaves in the Caribbean, he sold part of his plantation in Saint-Domingue in 1789 and purchased a 284-acre farm called Mill Grove, 20 miles from Philadelphia, to diversify his investments.", "Increasing tension in Saint-Domingue between the colonists and slaves, who greatly outnumbered them, convinced the senior Audubon to return to France, where he became a member of the Republican Guard.", "In 1788 he arranged for Jean and in 1791 for Muguet to be transported to France.La Gerbetière, mansion owned by Audubon's father in Couëron, where young Audubon was raisedThe children were raised in Couëron, near Nantes, France, by Audubon and his French wife, Anne Moynet Audubon, whom he had married years before his time in Saint-Domingue.", "In 1794 they formally adopted both the children to regularize their legal status in France.", "They renamed the boy Jean-Jacques Fougère Audubon and the girl Rose.From his earliest days, the younger Audubon had an affinity for birds.", "\"I felt an intimacy with them...bordering on frenzy that must accompany my steps through life.\"", "His father encouraged his interest in nature:He would point out the elegant movement of the birds, and the beauty and softness of their plumage.", "He called my attention to their show of pleasure or sense of danger, their perfect forms and splendid attire.", "He would speak of their departure and return with the seasons.In France during the years of the French Revolution and its aftermath, Audubon grew up to be a handsome and gregarious man.", "He played flute and violin, and learned to ride, fence, and dance.", "Audubon enjoyed roaming in the woods, often returning with natural curiosities, including birds' eggs and nests, of which he made crude drawings.", "His father planned to make a seaman of his son.", "At twelve, Audubon went to military school and became a cabin boy.", "He quickly found out that he was susceptible to seasickness and not fond of mathematics or navigation.", "After failing the officer's qualification test, Audubon ended his incipient naval career.", "He returned to exploring fields again, focusing on birds." ], [ "Immigration to the United States", "Plate 41 of ''The Birds of America'' by Audubon, depicting ruffed grouseIn 1803, his father obtained a false passport so that Jean-Jacques could go to the United States to avoid conscription in the Napoleonic Wars.", "18-year-old Jean-Jacques boarded ship, anglicizing his name to John James Audubon.", "Jean Audubon and Claude Rozier arranged a business partnership for their sons John James Audubon and Jean Ferdinand Rozier to pursue lead mining in Pennsylvania at Audubon's Pennsylvania property of Mill Grove.", "The Audubon-Rozier partnership was based on Rozier's buying half of Jean Audubon's share of a plantation in Haiti, and lending money to the partnership as secured by half interest in the lead mining.John James Audubon, ''Long Haired Squirrel'', .Audubon caught yellow fever upon arrival in New York City.", "The ship's captain placed him in a boarding house run by Quaker women who nursed Audubon to recovery and taught him English.", "He traveled with the family's Quaker lawyer to the Audubon family farm at Mill Grove.", "The homestead is located on the Perkiomen Creek a few miles from Valley Forge.Audubon lived with the tenants in the two-story stone house, in an area that he considered a paradise.", "\"Hunting, fishing, drawing, and music occupied my every moment; cares I knew not, and cared naught about them.\"", "Studying his surroundings, Audubon quickly learned the ornithologist's rule, which he wrote down as, \"The nature of the place—whether high or low, moist or dry, whether sloping north or south, or bearing tall trees or low shrubs—generally gives hint as to its inhabitants.", "\"Plate 1 of ''The Birds of America'' by Audubon depicting a wild turkeyHis father hoped that the lead mines on the property could be commercially developed, as lead was an essential component of bullets.", "This could provide his son with a profitable occupation.", "At Mill Grove, Audubon met the owner of the nearby Fatland Ford estate, William Bakewell, and his daughter Lucy Bakewell.Audubon set about to study American birds, determined to illustrate his findings in a more realistic manner than most artists did then.", "He began drawing and painting birds, and recording their behavior.", "After an accidental fall into a creek, Audubon contracted a severe fever.", "He was nursed and recovered at Fatland Ford, with Lucy at his side.Risking conscription in France, Audubon returned in 1805 to see his father and ask permission to marry.", "He also needed to discuss family business plans.", "While there, he met the naturalist and physician Charles-Marie D'Orbigny, who improved Audubon's taxidermy skills and taught him scientific methods of research.", "Although his return ship was overtaken by an English privateer, Audubon and his hidden gold coins survived the encounter.Audubon resumed his bird studies and created his own nature museum, perhaps inspired by the great museum of natural history created by Charles Willson Peale in Philadelphia.", "Peale's bird exhibits were considered scientifically advanced.", "Audubon's room was brimming with birds' eggs, stuffed raccoons and opossums, fish, snakes, and other creatures.", "He had become proficient at specimen preparation and taxidermy.Deeming the mining venture too risky, with his father's approval Audubon sold part of the Mill Grove farm, including the house and mine, and retaining some land for investment." ], [ "Banding experiment with eastern phoebes", "In volume 2 of ''Ornithological Biography'' (1834), Audubon told a story from his childhood, 30 years after the events reportedly took place, that has since garnered him the label of \"first bird bander in America\".", "The story has since been exposed as likely apocryphal.", "In the spring of 1804, according to the story, Audubon discovered a nest of the \"Pewee Flycatcher\", now known as the eastern phoebe (''Sayornis phoebe''), in a small grotto on the property of Mill Grove.", "To determine whether the other phoebes on the property were \"descended from the same stock\", Audubon (1834:126) said that he tied silver threads to the legs of five nestlings:I took the whole family out, and blew off the exuviae of the feathers from the nest.", "I attached light threads to their legs: these they invariably removed, either with their bills, or with the assistance of their parents.", "I renewed them, however, until I found the little fellows habituated to them; and at last, when they were about to leave the nest, I fixed a light silver thread to the leg of each, loose enough not to hurt the part, but so fastened that no exertions of theirs could remove it.He also said that he had \"ample proof afterwards that the brood of young Pewees, raised in the cave, returned the following spring, and established themselves farther up on the creek, and among the outhouses in the neighbourhood … having caught several of these birds on the nest, he had the pleasure of finding that two of them had the little ring on the leg.\"", "However, multiple independent primary sources (including original, dated drawings of European species) demonstrate that Audubon was in France during the spring of 1805, not in Pennsylvania as he later claimed.", "Furthermore, Audubon's claim to have re-sighted 2 out of 5 of the banded phoebes as adults (i.e., a 40% rate of natal philopatry) has not been replicated by modern studies with much larger sample sizes (e.g., 1.6% rate among 549 nestlings banded; and 1.3% rate among 217 nestlings banded).", "These facts cast doubt on the truth of Audubon's story." ], [ "Marriage and family", "Lucy Bakewell AudubonPlate from ''The Birds of America'' by Audubon of a Carolina pigeon (now called mourning dove)In 1808, Audubon moved to Kentucky, which was rapidly being settled.", "Six months later, he married Lucy Bakewell at her family estate, Fatland Ford, Pennsylvania, and took her the next day to Kentucky.", "The two shared many common interests, and began to explore the natural world around them.", "Though their finances were tenuous, the Audubons started a family.", "They had two sons, Victor Gifford (1809–1860) and John Woodhouse Audubon (1812–1862), and two daughters who died while still young, Lucy at two years (1815–1817) and Rose at nine months (1819–1820).", "Both sons eventually helped publish their father's works.", "John W. Audubon became a naturalist, writer, and painter in his own right." ], [ "Starting out in business", "Audubon and Jean Ferdinand Rozier moved their merchant business partnership west at various stages, ending ultimately in Ste.", "Genevieve, Missouri, a former French colonial settlement west of the Mississippi River and south of St. Louis.", "Shipping goods ahead, Audubon and Rozier started a general store in Louisville, Kentucky on the Ohio River; the city had an increasingly important slave market and was the most important port between Pittsburgh and New Orleans.", "Soon he was drawing bird specimens again.", "He regularly burned his earlier efforts to force continuous improvement.", "He also took detailed field notes to document his drawings.Due to rising tensions with the British, President Jefferson ordered an embargo on British trade in 1808, hurting Audubon's trading business.", "In 1810, Audubon moved his business further west to the less competitive Henderson, Kentucky, area.", "He and his small family took over an abandoned log cabin.", "In the fields and forests, Audubon wore typical frontier clothes and moccasins, having \"a ball pouch, a buffalo horn filled with gunpowder, a butcher knife, and a tomahawk on his belt\".He frequently turned to hunting and fishing to feed his family, as business was slow.", "On a prospecting trip down the Ohio River with a load of goods, Audubon joined up with Shawnee and Osage hunting parties, learning their methods, drawing specimens by the bonfire, and finally parting \"like brethren\".", "Audubon had great respect for Native Americans: \"Whenever I meet Indians, I feel the greatness of our Creator in all its splendor, for there I see the man naked from His hand and yet free from acquired sorrow.\"", "Audubon also admired the skill of Kentucky riflemen and the \"regulators\", citizen lawmen who created a kind of justice on the Kentucky frontier.", "In his travel notes, he claims to have encountered Daniel Boone.The Audubon family owned several slaves while he was in Henderson, until they needed money at which point they were sold.", "Audubon was condemned contemporaneously by abolitionists.", "Audubon was dismissive of abolitionists in both the US and the United Kingdom.Audubon and Rozier mutually agreed to end their partnership at Ste.", "Genevieve on April 6, 1811.Audubon had decided to work at ornithology and art and wanted to return to Lucy and their son in Kentucky.", "Rozier agreed to pay Audubon US$3,000 (), with $1,000 in cash and the balance to be paid over time.The terms of the dissolution of the partnership include those by Audubon:John James Audubon house, Henderson, Kentucky.Audubon was working in Missouri and out riding when the 1811 New Madrid earthquake struck.", "When Audubon reached his house, he was relieved to find no major damage, but the area was shaken by aftershocks for months.", "The quake is estimated to have ranked from 8.4 to 8.8 on today's moment magnitude scale of severity, stronger than the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 which is estimated at 7.8.Audubon writes that while on horseback, he first believed the distant rumbling to be the sound of a tornado,but the animal knew better than I what was forthcoming, and instead of going faster, so nearly stopped that I remarked he placed one foot after another on the ground with as much precaution as if walking on a smooth piece of ice.", "I thought he had suddenly foundered, and, speaking to him, was on point of dismounting and leading him, when he all of a sudden fell a-groaning piteously, hung his head, spread out his forelegs, as if to save himself from falling, and stood stock still, continuing to groan.", "I thought my horse was about to die, and would have sprung from his back had a minute more elapsed; but as that instant all the shrubs and trees began to move from their very roots, the ground rose and fell in successive furrows, like the ruffled water of a lake, and I became bewildered in my ideas, as I too plainly discovered, that all this awful commotion was the result of an earthquake.", "I had never witnessed anything of the kind before, although like every person, I knew earthquakes by description.", "But what is description compared to reality!", "Who can tell the sensations which I experienced when I found myself rocking, as it were, upon my horse, and with him moving to and fro like a child in a cradle, with the most imminent danger around me.He noted that as the earthquake retreated, \"the air was filled with an extremely disagreeable sulphurous odor.\"" ], [ "Citizenship and debt", "A cinnamon bear by J.T.", "Bowen after AudubonDuring a visit to Philadelphia in 1812 following Congress' declaration of war against Great Britain, Audubon became an American citizen and had to give up his French citizenship.", "After his return to Kentucky, he found that rats had eaten his entire collection of more than 200 drawings.", "After weeks of depression, he took to the field again, determined to re-do his drawings to an even higher standard.The War of 1812 upset Audubon's plans to move his business to New Orleans.", "He formed a partnership with Lucy's brother and built up their trade in Henderson.", "Between 1812 and the Panic of 1819, times were good.", "Audubon bought land and slaves, founded a flour mill, and enjoyed his growing family.", "After 1819, Audubon went bankrupt and was thrown into jail for debt.", "The little money he earned was from drawing portraits, particularly death-bed sketches, greatly esteemed by country folk before photography.", "He wrote, \"My heart was sorely heavy, for scarcely had I enough to keep my dear ones alive; and yet through these dark days I was being led to the development of the talents I loved.\"" ], [ "Early ornithological career", "Plate 181 of ''The Birds of America'' by Audubon depicting a golden eagle, 1833–34Audubon worked for a brief time as the first paid employee of the Western History Society, now known as The Museum of Natural History at The Cincinnati Museum Center.", "He then traveled south on the Mississippi with his gun, paintbox, and assistant Joseph Mason, who stayed with him from October 1820 to August 1822 and painted the plant life backgrounds of many of Audubon's bird studies.", "He was committed to find and paint all the birds of North America for eventual publication.", "His goal was to surpass the earlier ornithological work of poet-naturalist Alexander Wilson.", "Though he could not afford to buy Wilson's work, Audubon used it to guide him when he had access to a copy.In 1818, Rafinesque visited Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to study fishes and was a guest of Audubon.", "In the middle of the night, Rafinesque noticed a bat in his room and thought it was a new species.", "He happened to grab Audubon's favourite violin in an effort to knock the bat down, resulting in the destruction of the violin.", "Audubon reportedly took revenge by showing drawings and describing some fictitious fishes and rodents to Rafinesque; Rafinesque gave scientific names to some of these fishes in his ''Ichthyologia Ohiensis''.On October 12, 1820, Audubon traveled into Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida in search of ornithological specimens.", "He traveled with George Lehman, a professional Swiss landscape artist.", "The following summer, he moved upriver to the Oakley Plantation in Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, where he taught drawing to Eliza Pirrie, the young daughter of the owners.", "Though low-paying, the job was ideal, as it afforded him much time to roam and paint in the woods.", "(The plantation has been preserved as the Audubon State Historic Site, and is located at 11788 Highway 965, between Jackson and St.", "Francisville.", ")Audubon called his future work ''The Birds of America''.", "He attempted to paint one page each day.", "Painting with newly discovered technique, he decided his earlier works were inferior and re-did them.", "He hired hunters to gather specimens for him.", "Audubon realized the ambitious project would take him away from his family for months at a time.Audubon sometimes used his drawing talent to trade for goods or sell small works to raise cash.", "He made charcoal portraits on demand at $5 each and gave drawing lessons.", "In 1823, Audubon took lessons in oil painting technique from John Steen, a teacher of American landscape, and history painter Thomas Cole.", "Though he did not use oils much for his bird work, Audubon earned good money painting oil portraits for patrons along the Mississippi.", "(Audubon's account reveals that he learned oil painting in December 1822 from Jacob Stein, an itinerant portrait artist.", "After they had enjoyed all the portrait patronage to be expected in Natchez, Mississippi, during January–March 1823, they resolved to travel together as perambulating portrait-artists.)", "During this period (1822–1823), Audubon also worked as an instructor at Jefferson College in Washington, Mississippi.Lucy became the steady breadwinner for the couple and their two young sons.", "Trained as a teacher, she conducted classes for children in their home.", "Later she was hired as a local teacher in Louisiana.", "She boarded with their children at the home of a wealthy plantation owner, as was often the custom of the time.In 1824, Audubon returned to Philadelphia to seek a publisher for his bird drawings.", "He took oil painting lessons from Thomas Sully and met Charles Bonaparte, who admired his work and recommended he go to Europe to have his bird drawings engraved.", "Audubon was nominated for membership at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia by Charles Alexandre Lesueur, Reuben Haines, and Isaiah Lukens, on July 27, 1824.However, he failed to gather enough support, and his nomination was rejected by vote on August 31, 1824; around the same time accusations of scientific misconduct were levied by Alexander Lawson and others." ], [ "''The Birds of America''", "Plate from ''The Birds of America'', featuring the extinct ivory-billed woodpeckerWith his wife's support, in 1826 at age 41, Audubon took his growing collection of work to England.", "He sailed from New Orleans to Liverpool on the cotton-hauling ship ''Delos'', reaching England in the autumn of 1826 with his portfolio of over 300 drawings.", "With letters of introduction to prominent Englishmen, and paintings of imaginary species including the \"Bird of Washington\", Audubon gained their quick attention.", "\"I have been received here in a manner not to be expected during my highest enthusiastic hopes.", "\"An American flamingo by Audubon, Brooklyn MuseumAn American crow by Audubon, Brooklyn MuseumThe British could not get enough of Audubon's images of backwoods America and its natural attractions.", "He met with great acceptance as he toured around England and Scotland, and was lionized as \"the American woodsman\".", "He raised enough money to begin publishing his ''The Birds of America''.", "This monumental work consists of 435 hand-colored, life-size prints of 497 bird species, made from engraved copper plates of various sizes depending on the size of the image.", "They were printed on sheets measuring about .", "The work illustrates slightly more than 700 North American bird species, of which some were based on specimens collected by fellow ornithologist John Kirk Townsend on his journey across America with Thomas Nuttall in 1834 as part of Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth's second expedition across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.The pages were organized for artistic effect and contrasting interest, as if the reader were taking a visual tour.", "(Some critics thought he should have organized the plates in Linnaean order as befitting a \"serious\" ornithological treatise.)", "The first and perhaps most famous plate was the wild turkey.", "Among the earliest plates printed was the \"Bird of Washington\", which generated favorable publicity for Audubon as his first discovery of a new species.", "However, no specimen of the species has ever been found, and research published in 2020 suggests that this plate was a mixture of plagiarism and ornithological fraud.The cost of printing the entire work was $115,640 (over $2,000,000 today), paid for from advance subscriptions, exhibitions, oil painting commissions, and animal skins, which Audubon hunted and sold.", "Audubon's great work was a remarkable accomplishment.", "It took more than 14 years of field observations and drawings, plus his single-handed management and promotion of the project to make it a success.", "A reviewer wrote,All anxieties and fears which overshadowed his work in its beginning had passed away.", "The prophecies of kind but overprudent friends, who did not understand his self-sustaining energy, had proved untrue; the malicious hope of his enemies, for even the gentle lover of nature has enemies, had been disappointed; he had secured a commanding place in the respect and gratitude of men.Colorists applied each color in assembly-line fashion (over fifty were hired for the work).", "The original edition was engraved in aquatint by Robert Havell Jr., who took over the task after the first ten plates engraved by W. H. Lizars were deemed inadequate.", "Known as the Double Elephant folio for its double elephant paper size, it is often regarded as the greatest picture book ever produced and the finest aquatint work.", "By the 1830s the aquatint process had been largely superseded by lithography.", "A contemporary French critic wrote, \"A magic power transported us into the forests which for so many years this man of genius has trod.", "Learned and ignorant alike were astonished at the spectacle ...", "It is a real and palpable vision of the New World.", "\"A green heron by Audubon, Brooklyn MuseumAudubon sold oil-painted copies of the drawings to make extra money and publicize the book.", "A potential publisher had Audubon's portrait painted by John Syme, who clothed the naturalist in frontier clothes; the portrait was hung at the entrance of his exhibitions, promoting his rustic image.", "The painting is now held in the White House art collection, and is not frequently displayed.", "The New-York Historical Society holds all 435 of the preparatory watercolors for ''The Birds of America''.", "Lucy Audubon sold them to the society after her husband's death.", "All but 80 of the original copper plates were melted down when Lucy Audubon, desperate for money, sold them for scrap to the Phelps Dodge Corporation.King George IV was among the avid fans of Audubon and subscribed to support publication of the book.", "Britain's Royal Society recognized Audubon's achievement by electing him as a fellow.", "He was the second American to be elected after statesman Benjamin Franklin.", "While in Edinburgh to seek subscribers for the book, Audubon gave a demonstration of his method of supporting birds with wire at professor Robert Jameson's Wernerian Natural History Association.", "Student Charles Darwin was in the audience.", "Audubon also visited the dissecting theatre of the anatomist Robert Knox.", "Audubon was also successful in France, gaining the King and several of the nobility as subscribers.A painting of the roseate spoonbill by John James Audubon.", "Plate CCCXXI.", "''The Birds of America'' became very popular during Europe's Romantic era.", "Audubon's dramatic portraits of birds appealed to people in this period's fascination with natural history." ], [ "Later career", "Two white gyrfalcons by AudubonLucy Audubon Audubon returned to America in 1829 to complete more drawings for his magnum opus.", "He also hunted animals and shipped the valued skins to British friends.", "He was reunited with his family.", "After settling business affairs, Lucy accompanied him back to England.", "Audubon found that during his absence, he had lost some subscribers due to the uneven quality of coloring of the plates.", "Others were in arrears in their payments.", "His engraver fixed the plates and Audubon reassured subscribers, but a few begged off.", "He responded, \"''The Birds of America'' will then raise in value as much as they are now depreciated by certain fools and envious persons.\"", "He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1830 and to the American Philosophical Society in 1831.He followed ''The Birds of America'' with a sequel ''Ornithological Biographies''.", "This was a collection of life histories of each species written with Scottish ornithologist William MacGillivray.", "The two books were printed separately to avoid a British law requiring copies of all publications with text to be deposited in copyright libraries, a huge financial burden for the self-published Audubon.", "Both books were published between 1827 and 1839.During the 1830s, Audubon continued making expeditions in North America.", "During a trip to Key West, a companion wrote in a newspaper article, \"Mr. Audubon is the most enthusiastic and indefatigable man I ever knew ... Mr. Audubon was neither dispirited by heat, fatigue, or bad luck ... he rose every morning at 3 o'clock and went out ... until 1 o'clock.\"", "Then he would draw the rest of the day before returning to the field in the evening, a routine he kept up for weeks and months.", "In the posthumously published book ''The Life of John James Audubon The Naturalist'', edited by his widow and derived primarily from his notes, Audubon related visiting the northeastern Florida coastal sugar plantation of John Joachim Bulow for Christmas 1831/early January 1832.It was started by his father and at 4,675 acres, was the largest in East Florida.", "Bulow had a sugar mill built there under direction of a Scottish engineer, who accompanied Audubon on an excursion in the region.", "The mill was destroyed in 1836 in the Seminole Wars.", "The plantation site is preserved today as the Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic State Park.In March 1832, Audubon booked passage at St. Augustine, Florida, aboard the schooner ''Agnes'', bound for Charleston, South Carolina.", "A gale forced the vessel to berth at the mouth of the Savannah River, where an officer of the United States Army Corps of Engineers on Cockspur Island where Fort Pulaski was under construction, transported Audubon upstream to Savannah, Georgia, on their barge.", "Just as he was about to board a Charleston-bound stage coach, he remembered William Gaston, a Savannah resident who had once befriended him.", "Audubon stayed at City Hotel, and the next day sought out and found the acquaintance, \"who showed but little enthusiasm for his ''Birds of America''\" and who doubted that the book would sell a single copy in the city.", "A dejected Audubon continued to talk to the merchant and a mutual friend who, by chance, had appeared.", "The merchant, having further considered his position, said, \"I subscribe to your work\", gave him $200 for the first volume, and promised to act as his agent in finding additional subscriptions.In 1833, Audubon sailed north from Maine, accompanied by his son John, and five other young colleagues, to explore the ornithology of Labrador.", "On the return voyage, their ship ''Ripley'' made a stop at St. George's, Newfoundland.", "There Audubon and his assistants documented 36 species of birds.Audubon painted some of his works while staying at the Key West house and gardens of Capt.", "John H. Geiger.", "This site was preserved as the Audubon House and Tropical Gardens.In 1841, having finished the ''Ornithological Biographies'', Audubon returned to the United States with his family.", "He bought an estate on the Hudson River in northern Manhattan.", "(The roughly 20-acre estate came to be known as Audubon Park in the 1860s when Audubon's widow began selling off parcels of the estate for the development of free-standing single family homes.)", "Between 1840 and 1844, he published an octavo edition of ''The Birds of America'', with 65 additional plates.", "Printed in standard format to be more affordable than the oversize British edition, it earned $36,000 and was purchased by 1100 subscribers.", "Audubon spent much time on \"subscription-gathering trips\", drumming up sales of the octavo edition, as he hoped to leave his family a sizeable income." ], [ "Death", "Audubon made some excursions out West where he hoped to record Western species he had missed, but his health began to fail.", "In 1848, he manifested signs of senility or possibly dementia from what is now called Alzheimer's disease, his \"noble mind in ruins\".", "He died at his family home in northern Manhattan on January 27, 1851.Audubon is buried in the graveyard at the Church of the Intercession in the Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum at 155th Street and Broadway in Manhattan, near his home.", "An imposing monument in his honor was erected at the cemetery, which is now recognized as part of the Heritage Rose District of NYC.Audubon's final work dealt with mammals; he prepared ''The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America'' (1845–1849) in collaboration with his good friend Rev.", "John Bachman of Charleston, South Carolina, who supplied much of the scientific text.", "His son, John Woodhouse Audubon, drew most of the plates.", "The work was completed by Audubon's sons, and the second volume was published posthumously in 1851." ], [ "Art and methods", "Audubon developed his own methods for drawing birds.", "First, he killed them using fine shot.", "He then used wires to prop them into a natural position, unlike the common method of many ornithologists, who prepared and stuffed the specimens into a rigid pose.", "When working on a major specimen like an eagle, he would spend up to four 15-hour days, preparing, studying, and drawing it.", "His paintings of birds are set true-to-life in their natural habitat.", "He often portrayed them as if caught in motion, especially feeding or hunting.", "This was in stark contrast to the stiff representations of birds by his contemporaries, such as Alexander Wilson.", "Audubon based his paintings on his extensive field observations.", "He worked primarily with watercolor early on.", "He added colored chalk or pastel to add softness to feathers, especially those of owls and herons.", "He employed multiple layers of watercoloring, and sometimes used gouache.", "All species were drawn life size which accounts for the contorted poses of the larger birds as Audubon strove to fit them within the page size.", "Smaller species were usually placed on branches with berries, fruit, and flowers.", "He used several birds in a drawing to present all views of anatomy and wings.", "Larger birds were often placed in their ground habitat or perching on stumps.", "At times, as with woodpeckers, he combined several species on one page to offer contrasting features.", "He frequently depicted the birds' nests and eggs, and occasionally natural predators, such as snakes.", "He usually illustrated male and female variations, and sometimes juveniles.", "In later drawings, Audubon used assistants to render the habitat for him.", "In addition to faithful renderings of anatomy, Audubon also employed carefully constructed composition, drama, and slightly exaggerated poses to achieve artistic as well as scientific effects.File:John James Audubons Plate 76 - Birds of America (Virginian Partridge).jpg\|Plate 76 of ''The Birds of America'' by Audubon showing a northern bobwhite under attack by a young red-shouldered hawk, painted 1825File:John James Audubons Birds of America - Plate 76 (Detail).jpg\|Detail from the adjacent image" ], [ "Dispute over accuracy", "The success of ''Birds of America'' may be considered to be marred by numerous accusations of plagiarism, scientific fraud, and deliberate manipulation of the primary record.", "Research has uncovered that Audubon falsified (and fabricated) scientific data, published fraudulent data and images in scientific journals and commercial books, invented new species to impress potential subscribers, and to \"prank\" rivals, and most likely stole the holotype specimen of Harris's hawk (''Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi'') before pretending not to know its collector, who was one of his subscribers.", "He failed to credit work by Joseph Mason, prompting a series of articles in 1835 by critic John Neal questioning Audubon's honesty and trustworthiness.", "Audubon also repeatedly lied about the details of his autobiography, including the place and circumstances of his birth.", "His diaries, which might have cleared up some of these issues, were destroyed by his granddaughter, who published a doctored version that realigned the \"primary\" record with some of his false narratives.The litany of misconduct in Audubon's scientific career has drawn comparisons to others such as Richard Meinertzhagen.", "Similar to early biographies of Meinertzhagen, Audubon's scientific misconduct has been repeatedly ignored and/or played down by biographers, who defend ''Ornithological Biography'' as a \"valuable resource and a very good read\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Audubon in later years, Portrait of Audubon at the National Mississippi River Museum & AquariumAudubon's influence on ornithology and natural history was far reaching.", "Nearly all later ornithological works were inspired by his artistry and high standards.", "Charles Darwin quoted Audubon three times in ''On the Origin of Species'' and also in later works.", "Despite some errors in field observations, he made a significant contribution to the understanding of bird anatomy and behavior through his field notes.", "''The Birds of America'' is still considered one of the greatest examples of book art.", "Audubon discovered 25 new species and 12 new subspecies.", "* He was elected to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Linnean Society, and the Royal Society in recognition of his contributions.", "* The homestead Mill Grove in Audubon, Pennsylvania, is open to the public and contains a museum presenting all his major works, including ''The Birds of America''.", "* The Audubon Museum at John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky, houses many of Audubon's original watercolors, oils, engravings and personal memorabilia.", "* In 1905, the National Audubon Society was incorporated and named in his honor.", "Its mission \"is to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds ...\"* He was honored in 1940 by the US Post Office with a 1 cent Famous Americans Series postage stamp; the stamp is green.", "* He was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 22¢ Great Americans series postage stamp.", "* On December 6, 2010, a copy of ''The Birds of America'' was sold at a Sotheby's auction for $11.5 million, the second highest price for a single printed book.", "* On April 26, 2011, Google celebrated his 226th birthday by displaying a special Google Doodle on its global homepage.", "* Audubon's life and contributions to science and art was the subject of the 2017 film ''Audubon''.===Audubon in popular culture===depicting Western people from ''Lives of Great People of the Occident'', published by the Japanese Ministry of Education in 1873.\|alt=A woodcut in Ukiyo-e style depicting a man with moustache and sideburns kneeling and opening a trunk.", "He watches a rat running away.Audubon is the subject of the 1969 book-length poem, ''Audubon: A Vision'' by Robert Penn Warren.", "Stephen Vincent Benét, with his wife Rosemary Benét, included a poem about Audubon in the children's poetry book ''A Book of Americans''.Audubon's 1833 trip to Labrador is the subject of the novel ''Creation'' by Katherine Govier.", "Audubon and his wife, Lucy, are the chief characters in the \"June\" section of the Maureen Howard novel ''Big as Life: Three Tales for Spring''.", "In the novel ''Audubon's Watch'', John Gregory Brown explores a mysterious death that took place on a Louisiana plantation when Audubon worked there as a young man.George Voskovec plays Audubon in the 1952 American film ''The Iron Mistress'', which stars Alan Ladd as James Bowie.", "The film imagines a friendship between the two men.In 1985, The National Gallery of Art 20C History Project produced a documentary, \"John James Audubon: The Birds of America\", now widely available online.In July 2007, PBS's American Masters series aired an episode titled \"John James Audubon: Drawn from Nature\", Supplemental material is available on the PBS website.Audubon appears in the short story \"Audubon In Atlantis\" by Harry Turtledove, published in the 2010 collection ''Atlantis and Other Places''.The choral oratorio ''Audubon'' by James Kallembach was premiered on November 9, 2018, in Boston, Massachusetts by Chorus pro Musica.", "The work depicts scenes of Audubon's life and descriptions of the birds he drew with text drawn from the 2004 biography by Richard Rhodes.===Places named in his honor===Clipper ship ''Audubon''* Audubon Park and Zoo in New Orleans, where he lived beginning in 1821* Audubon and Audubon Park, both in New Jersey.", "Many streets in Audubon Park are named after birds drawn by him.", "* Audubon, Pennsylvania, also has the Audubon Bird Sanctuary.", "Most of the streets in this small town are named after birds that he drew.", "Audubon Middle School (formerly Junior High) in the Leimert Park neighborhood of Los Angeles, California.", " Audubon Nature Institute, a family of museums, parks, and other organizations in New Orleans, eight of which bear the Audubon name* Audubon Park and country club in Louisville, Kentucky, is in the area of his former general store.", "* Several towns and Audubon County, Iowa* John James Audubon Bridge (Mississippi River), connecting Pointe Coupee and West Feliciana Parishes; over thirty of Audubon's bird paintings were created in West Feliciana Parish.", "* The northbound span of the Bi-State Vietnam Gold Star Bridges was originally named the Audubon Memorial Bridge.", "* Audubon Park, in Memphis, Tennessee, is associated with the nearby Botanic Garden.", "* John James Audubon State Park and the Audubon Museum (located within the park) in Henderson, Kentucky* Audubon Parkway, also in Kentucky, is a limited-access highway connecting Henderson with Owensboro, Kentucky.", "* Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Nantes and Rue Audubon in Paris, France* Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France* Lycée Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France.", "* Marais Audubon between Couëron and St Etienne de Mont-luc, France* Audubon Circle, a major intersection and neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts; Park Drive (parkway), which runs through the Audubon Circle, was formerly named Audubon Road.", "* John James Audubon Parkway in Amherst, New York* Audubon Avenue in New York, New York* Audubon Bird Sanctuary, Dauphin Island, Alabama* Audubon National Wildlife Refuge, Coleharbor, North Dakota* Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Northeast Minneapolis, Minnesota* Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Orlando, Florida.", "The streets are named after birds, such as Falcon Drive and Raven Road.", "* Wildcat Glades Conservation and Audubon Center in Joplin, Missouri* Audubon International, a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit organization that administers a wide range of environmental education and certification programs on properties such as golf courses, hotels, school campuses, ski areas, cemeteries, corporate parks, and agricultural lands* The Scioto Audubon Metro Park in Columbus, Ohio* Audubon Recreation Center in Garland, Texas* Mount Audubon (13229 ft/4032 m), Colorado* Audubon Mountain, in Chugach Mountains of Alaska* Audubon High School in Camden County, New Jersey, and many primary schools around the United States* Audubon Golf Trail – a collection of golf courses spread throughout Louisiana* John James Audubon Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois* Pascagoula River Audubon Center in Moss Point, Mississippi* Audubon House & Gallery in Key West, Florida* Audubon Street, home to the Audubon Arts District and The Audubon New Haven apartment building, in New Haven, Connecticut* Audubon Swamp Garden, part of the Magnolia Plantation and Gardens park along the Ashley River in Charleston, South Carolina=== Surviving bird specimens ===Some of Audubon's bird specimens survive in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London, the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and there are 5 specimens in the collections of World Museum, National Museums Liverpool.File:NML-VZ T8161.jpg\|Zenaida dove.", "NML-VZ T8161 collected by John James Aububon.File:NML-VZ D3904.jpg\|Lewis's woodpecker.", "NML-VZ D3904 collected by John James Aubudon.File:NML-VZ D2109.jpg\|Violet-green swallow.", "NML-VZ D2109 collected by John James Audubon.File:NML-VZ D2124.jpg\|Violet-green swallow.", "NML-VZ D2124 collected by John James Audubon.File:NML-VZ D2949.jpg\|Reddish egret.", "NML-VZ D2949 collected by John James Audubon." ], [ "Works", "===Posthumous collections===* John James Audubon, ''Selected Journals and Other Writings'' (Ben Forkner, ed.)", "(Penguin Nature Classics, 1996) * John James Audubon, ''Writings & Drawings'' (Christoph Irmscher, ed.)", "( The Library of America, 1999) * John James Audubon, ''The Audubon Reader'' (Richard Rhodes, ed.)", "(Everyman Library, 2006) * ''Audubon: Early Drawings'' (Richard Rhodes, Scott V. Edwards, Leslie A. Morris) ( Harvard University Press and Houghton Library 2008) * John James Audubon, ''Audubon and His Journals'' (The European Journals 1826–1829, the Labrador Journal 1833, the Missouri River Journals 1843), edited by Maria Audubon, volumes 1 and 2, originally published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1897 (in 16x16px Wikisource)." ], [ "See also", "* Audubon House and Tropical Gardens, Key West, Florida* Audubon International* Audubon Mural Project* Audubon Park Historic District, New York City* Audubon State Historic Site, West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana* List of wildlife artists* National Audubon Society* Passenger pigeon" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* Anon.", "(1887) '' Sketch of J.J. Audubon''.", "''The Popular Science Monthly''.", "pp. 687–692.", "* Arthur, Stanley Clisby (1937).", "''Audubon; An Intimate Life of the American Woodsman''.", "New Orleans: Harmanson.", "view excerpts online** Burroughs, J.", "(1902). ''", "John James Audubon''.", "Boston: Small, Maynard & company.", "* Chalmers, John (2003).", "''Audubon in Edinburgh and his Scottish Associates''.", "NMS Publishing, Edinburgh, 978 1 901663 79 2* Ford, Alice (1969).", "''Audubon By Himself''.", "Garden City NY: The Natural History Press* Ford, Alice (1964; revised 1988).", "''John James Audubon''.", "University of Oklahoma Press* Fulton, Maurice G. (1917).", "''Southern Life in Southern Literature; selections of representative prose and poetry''.", "Boston, New York etc.", ": Ginn and Co. view online here* Jackson E Christine (2013).", "''John James Audubon and English Perspective'' Christine E Jackson * Herrick, Francis Hobart (1917).", "''Aububon the naturalist: A History of his Life and Time.''", "D. Appleton and Company, New York.", "Volume I Volume II ( combined 2nd 1938 edition)* * Norman, Ana.", "\"Audubon Collecting Guide: An Overview of the Antique Original Editions of Audubon’s Birds of America\" Joel Oppenheimer, Inc. https://www.audubonart.com/audubon-collecting-guide/* Norman, Ana.", "\"What are the differences between an Audubon Havell engraving and Bien Lithograph?", "How to differentiate between the two Double-Elephant folio Editions\" Joel Oppenheimer Gallery, JUNE 20, 2023.https://www.audubonart.com/what-are-the-differences-between-an-audubon-havell-engraving-and-bien-lithograph/* Norman, Ana.", "\"A Guide to the Watermarks and Paper Types Found in Audubon’s Havell edition of The Birds of America\" Joel Oppenheimer Gallery, MAY 26, 2023.https://www.audubonart.com/a-guide-to-the-watermarks-and-paper-types-found-in-audubons-havell-edition-of-the-birds-of-america/* Norman, Ana.", "\"Audubon’s Miniature Folio – The Octavo Edition of Birds of America\" Joel Oppenheimer Gallery, JUNE 21, 2023.https://www.audubonart.com/audubons-miniature-folio-the-octavo-edition-of-birds-of-america/ * Olson, Roberta J.M.", "(2012).", "''Audubon's Aviary: The Original Watercolors for The Birds of America''.", "New York: Skira/Rizzoli and New-York Historical Society.", "* Discusses the series of names assigned to Audubon as a youth.", "* Punke, Michael (2007).", "''Last Stand: George Bird Grinnell, the Battle to Save the Buffalo, and the Birth of the New West''.", "Smithsonian Books.", "* Rhodes, Richard (2004).", "''John James Audubon: The Making of an American''.", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf.", "* * Small, E., Catling, Paul M., Cayouette, J., and Brookes, B (2009).", "''Audubon: Beyond Birds: Plant Portraits and Conservation Heritage of John James Audubon''.", "NRC Research Press, Ottawa, * Souder, William (2005) ''Under a Wild Sky: John James Audubon and the Making of The Birds of America''.", "New York: Macmillan.", "* Streshinsky, Shirley (1993).", "''Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness''.", "New York: Villard Books," ], [ "External links", "* Audubon Birds of America at New York Historical Society* * * Works by John James Audubon at Toronto Public Library* * John James Audubon at American Art Gallery* Audubon's ''Birds of America'' at the University of Pittsburgh, a complete high resolution digitization of all 435 double elephant folios as well as his ''Ornithological Biography''* The John James Audubon Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University* \"Audubon biography\", National Audubon Society* \"Louise Hauss and David Brent Miller Audubon Collection\", Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art, Auburn University* John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky* Audubon's ''Birds of America'', podcast from the Beinecke Library, Yale University* John James Audubon and Audubon family letters, (ca.", "1783–1845) from the Smithsonian Archives of American Art* View works by John James Audubon online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.", "* Watercolors for ''Birds of America'' at the New York Historical Society* Burgwin Family Papers, 1844–1963, AIS.1971.14, Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh.", "Includes Audubon-Bakewell family materials.", "* John James Audubon Collection at the Library of Congress* Identification guide to Audubon print editions* ''Blue jay: Corvus cristatus'' by John James Audubon at the Cleveland Public Library Art Collection* Victor Gifford Audubon Collection.", "General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.", "* Audubon Art Gallery.", "Online gallery of John James Audubon art prints." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Masefield" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Edward Masefield''' (; 1 June 1878 – 12 May 1967) was an English poet and writer, and Poet Laureate from 1930 until 1967.Among his best known works are the children's novels ''The Midnight Folk'' and ''The Box of Delights'', and the poems \"The Everlasting Mercy\" and \"Sea-Fever\"." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Masefield was born in Ledbury in Herefordshire to George Masefield, a solicitor, and his wife Caroline (née Parker).", "He was baptised in the Church at Preston Cross, just outside Ledbury.", "His mother died giving birth to his sister when Masefield was six, and he went to live with his aunt.", "His father died soon afterwards, following a mental breakdown.", "After an unhappy education at the King's School in Warwick (now known as Warwick School), where he was a boarder between 1888 and 1891, he left to board , both to train for a life at sea and to break his addiction to reading, of which his aunt thought little.", "He spent several years aboard this ship, and found that he could spend much of his time reading and writing.", "It was aboard the ''Conway'' that Masefield's love of story-telling grew.", "While he was on the ship, he listened to the stories told about sea lore, continued to read, and decided that he was to become a writer and story-teller himself.", "Masefield gives an account of life aboard the ''Conway'' in his book ''New Chum''.In 1894 Masefield boarded the ''Gilcruix'', destined for Chile.", "This first voyage brought him the experience of sea sickness, but his record of his experiences while sailing through extreme weather shows his delight in seeing flying fish, porpoises and birds.", "He was awed by the beauty of nature, including a rare sighting of a nocturnal rainbow, on this voyage.", "On reaching Chile, he suffered from sunstroke and was hospitalised.", "He eventually returned home to England as a passenger aboard a steamship.", "His experiences on the voyage were used as material for his narrative poem ''Dauber'' (1913).In 1895 Masefield returned to sea on a windjammer destined for New York City.", "However, the urge to become a writer and the hopelessness of life as a sailor overtook him, and in New York he jumped ship and travelled throughout the countryside.", "For several months he lived as a vagrant, drifting between odd jobs, before he returned to New York City and found work as a barkeeper's assistant.", "Some time around Christmas 1895, he read the December edition of ''Truth'', a New York periodical, which contained the poem \"The Piper of Arll\" by Duncan Campbell Scott.", "Ten years later, Masefield wrote to Scott to tell him what reading that poem had meant to him:From 1895 to 1897, Masefield was employed at the huge Alexander Smith carpet factory in Yonkers, New York, where long hours were expected and conditions were far from ideal.", "He purchased up to 20 books a week, and devoured both modern and classical literature.", "His interests at this time were diverse, and his reading included works by George du Maurier, Alexandre Dumas (père), Thomas Browne, William Hazlitt, Charles Dickens, Rudyard Kipling, and Robert Louis Stevenson.", "Chaucer also became very important to him during this time, as well as Keats and Shelley.", "In 1897, Masefield returned home to England as a passenger aboard a steamship.In 1901, when Masefield was 23, he met his future wife, Constance de la Cherois Crommelin (6 February 186718 February 1960, Rockport, County Antrim, Northern Ireland; a sister to Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin), who was 35 and of Huguenot descent.", "They married on 23 June 1903 at St. Mary, Bryanston Square.", "Educated in classics and English Literature, and a mathematics teacher, Constance was a good match for him, despite the difference in their ages.", "The couple had two children: Judith, born Isabel Judith, 28 April 1904, in London, died in Sussex, 1 March 1988; and Lewis Crommelin, born in 1910, in London, killed in action in Africa, 29 May 1942.In 1902 Masefield was put in charge of the fine arts section of the Arts and Industrial Exhibition in Wolverhampton.", "By then his poems were being published in periodicals and his first collection of verse, ''Salt-Water Ballads'', was published that year.", "It included the poem \"Sea-Fever\".", "Masefield then wrote two novels, ''Captain Margaret'' (1908) and ''Multitude and Solitude'' (1909).", "In 1911, after a long period of writing no poems, he composed ''The Everlasting Mercy'', the first of his narrative poems, and within the next year had produced two more, \"The Widow in the Bye Street\" and \"Dauber\".", "As a result, he became widely known to the public and was praised by the critics.", "In 1912 he was awarded the annual Edmond de Polignac Prize.1912===From the First World War to appointment as Poet Laureate===When the First World War began in 1914 Masefield was old enough to be exempted from military service, but he joined the staff of a British hospital for French soldiers, the Hôpital Temporaire d'Arc-en-Barrois in Haute-Marne, serving a six-week term during the spring of 1915.He later published an account of his experiences.", "At about this time Masefield moved his country retreat from Buckinghamshire to Lollingdon Farm in Cholsey, the setting that inspired a number of poems and sonnets under the title ''Lollingdon Downs'', and which his family used until 1917.After returning home, Masefield was invited to the United States on a three-month lecture tour.", "Although his primary purpose was to lecture on English literature, he also intended to collect information on the mood and views of Americans regarding the war in Europe.", "When he returned to England, he submitted a report to the British Foreign Office and suggested that he should be allowed to write a book about the failure of the Allied effort in the Dardanelles that might be used in the United States to counter German propaganda there.", "The resulting work, ''Gallipoli'', was a success.", "Masefield then met the head of British Military Intelligence in France and was asked to write an account of the Battle of the Somme.", "Although Masefield had grand ideas for his book, he was denied access to official records and what was intended to be the preface was published as ''The Old Front Line'', a description of the geography of the Somme area.In 1918 Masefield returned to America on his second lecture tour, spending much of his time speaking and lecturing to American soldiers waiting to be sent to Europe.", "These speaking engagements were very successful.", "On one occasion a battalion of black soldiers danced and sang for him after his lecture.", "During this tour he matured as a public speaker and realised his ability to touch the emotions of his audience with his style of speaking, learning to speak publicly from his own heart rather than from dry scripted speeches.", "Towards the end of his visit both Yale and Harvard Universities conferred honorary doctorates of letters on him.Masefield photographed by E. O. Hoppé in 1915Masefield entered the 1920s as an accomplished and respected writer.", "His family was able to settle on Boar's Hill, a somewhat rural setting not far from Oxford, where Masefield took up beekeeping, goat-herding and poultry-keeping.", "He continued to meet with success: the first edition of his ''Collected Poems'' (1923) sold about 80,000 copies.", "A narrative poem, ''Reynard The Fox'' (1920), has been critically compared with works by Geoffrey Chaucer, not necessarily to Masefield's credit.", "This was followed by ''Right Royal'' and ''King Cole'', poems in which the relationship between humanity and nature is emphasised.After ''King Cole'', Masefield turned away from long poems and back to novels.", "Between 1924 and 1939 he published 12 novels, which vary from stories of the sea (''The Bird of Dawning'', ''Victorious Troy'') to social novels about modern England (''The Hawbucks'', ''The Square Peg''), and from tales of an imaginary land in Central America (''Sard Harker'', ''Odtaa'') to fantasies for children (''The Midnight Folk'', ''The Box of Delights'').", "In this same period he wrote a large number of dramatic pieces.", "Most of these were based on Christian themes, and Masefield, to his amazement, encountered a ban on the performance of plays on biblical subjects that went back to the Reformation and had been revived a generation earlier to prevent production of Oscar Wilde's ''Salome''.", "However, a compromise was reached and in 1928 his ''The Coming of Christ'' was the first play to be performed in an English cathedral since the Middle Ages.===Encouraging the speaking of verse===In 1921 Masefield gave the British Academy's Shakespeare Lecture and received an honorary doctorate of literature from the University of Oxford.", "In 1923 he organised Oxford Recitations, an annual contest whose purpose was \"to discover good speakers of verse and to encourage 'the beautiful speaking of poetry'\".", "Given the numbers of contest applicants, the event's promotion of natural speech in poetical recitations, and the number of people learning how to listen to poetry, Oxford Recitations was generally deemed a success.", "Masefield was similarly a founding member of the Scottish Association for the Speaking of Verse in 1924.He later came to question whether the Oxford events should continue as a contest, considering that they might better be run as a festival.", "However, in 1929, after he broke with the competitive element, Oxford Recitations came to an end.", "The Scottish Association for the Speaking of Verse, on the other hand, continued to develop through the influence of associated figures such as Marion Angus and Hugh MacDiarmid and exists today as the Poetry Association of Scotland.===Later years===In 1930, on the death of Robert Bridges, a new poet laureate was needed.", "On the recommendation of the Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, King George V appointed Masefield, who remained in the post until his death in 1967.The only person to hold the office for a longer period was Alfred, Lord Tennyson.", "On Masefield's appointment, ''The Times'' wrote of him that \"his poetry could touch to beauty the plain speech of everyday life\".", "Masefield took his appointment seriously and produced a large quantity of poems for royal occasions, which were sent to ''The Times'' for publication.", "Masefield's modesty was shown by his inclusion of a stamped and self-addressed envelope with each submission so that the poem could be returned if it was found unacceptable.", "Later he was commissioned to write a poem to be set to music by the Master of the King's Musick, Sir Edward Elgar, and performed at the unveiling of the Queen Alexandra Memorial by the King on 8 June 1932.This was the ode \"So Many True Princesses Who Have Gone\".After his appointment, Masefield was awarded the Order of Merit by King George V and many honorary degrees from British universities.", "In 1937 he was elected President of the Society of Authors.", "Masefield encouraged the continued development of English literature and poetry, and began the annual awarding of the Royal Medals for Poetry for a first or second published edition of poems by a poet under the age of 35.Additionally, his speaking engagements called him further away, often on much longer tours, yet he still produced significant amounts of work in a wide variety of genres.", "To those he had already used he now added autobiography, producing ''New Chum'', ''In the Mill'', and ''So Long to Learn''.It was not until he was about 70 that Masefield slowed his pace, mainly due to illness.", "In 1960 Constance died aged 93, after a long illness.", "Although her death was heartrending, he had spent a tiring year watching the woman he loved die.", "He continued his duties as poet laureate.", "''In Glad Thanksgiving'', his last book, was published when he was 88 years old.In late 1966 Masefield developed gangrene in his ankle.", "This spread to his leg and he died of the infection on 12 May 1967.In accordance with his stated wishes, he was cremated and his ashes were placed in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.", "However, the following verse by Masefield was discovered later, addressed to his \"Heirs, Administrators, and Assigns\":" ], [ "Legacy", "Masefield Centre (library and IT)The Masefield Centre at Warwick School, which Masefield attended, and John Masefield High School in Ledbury, Herefordshire, have been named in his honour.", "Interest groups such as the John Masefield Society ensure the longevity of Masefield's opus.", "In 1977 Folkways Records released an album of readings of some of his poems, including some read by Masefield himself.", "Recordings preserved include Masefield's 1914 Good Friday.===Song settings===In addition to the commission for Queen Alexandra's Memorial Ode with music by Elgar, many of Masefield's short poems were set as art songs by British composers of the time.", "Best known by far is John Ireland's \"Sea-Fever\".", "Frederick Keel composed several songs drawn from the ''Salt-Water Ballads'' and elsewhere.", "Of these, \"Trade Winds\" was particularly popular in its day, despite the tongue-twisting challenges the text presents to the singer.", "Keel's defiant setting of \"Tomorrow\", written while interned at Ruhleben during World War I, was frequently programmed at the BBC Proms after the war.", "Another memorable wartime composition is Ivor Gurney's climactic declamation of \"By a bierside\", a setting quickly set down in 1916 during a brief spell behind the lines.=== Selected works=======Collections of poems====* ''Salt-Water Ballads'' (1902)* ''Ballads'' (1903)''Ballads and Poems'' (1910) ''The Everlasting Mercy'' (1911)* ''The Widow in the Bye Street'' (1912)* ''Dauber: A Poem (1912)''* ''The Story of a Round-House and Other Poems'' (1912)* ''The Daffodil Fields'' (1913)* ''Philip the King and Other Poems'' (1914)''Salt-Water Poems and Ballads'' (1916)Sonnets (1916) ''Sonnets and Poems'' (1916)* ''Lollingdon Downs and Other Poems with Sonnets'' (1917)* ''Rosas'' (1918)''A Poem Rosas and Two Plays (1919)'' ''Reynard the Fox: or the Ghost Heath Run'' (1919)''Animula'' Limited to 250 copies (1920) ''Enslaved and Other Poems'' (1920)Right Royal (1920)* ''King Cole'' (1921)''Selected Poems'' (1922)''The Dream'' Illustrations by Judith Masefield, Limited Edition (1922)''King Cole and Other Poems'' (1923)''The Collected Poems of John Masefield'' (1923)''Poems'' (1925)''Sonnets of Good Cheer to The Lena Ashwell Players'' (1926)''Midsummer Night and Other Tales in Verse'' (1928)''South and East'' Illustrated by Jacynth Parsons, Limited to 2,750 (1929)''Minnie Maylow's Story and Other Tales and Scenes'' (1931)''A Tale of Troy'' (1932)''A Letter from Pontus and Other Verse'' (1936)''The Country Scene'' (With Pictures by Edward Seago) (1937)''Tribute to Ballet'' (With Pictures by Edward Seago) (1938)''Some Verses to Some Germans'' 10 Page Pamphlet (1939)''Gautama the Enlightened and Other Verse'' (1941)''Natalie Maisie and Pavilastukay'' (1942)''Land Workers'' 11 page Pamphlet (1942)''A Generation Risen'' Illustrations by Edward Seago (1943)''Wonderings (Between One and Six Years)'' (1943)''The Bullying of the Badger'' (1949)''On the Hill'' (1949)''The Story of Ossian'' Long-playing record only (1959)''The Bluebells and Other Verses'' (1961)''Old Raiger and Other Verses'' (1964)''In Glad Thanksgiving'' (1966)====Prose fiction==== ''A Mainsail Haul'' (1905)* ''A Tarpaulin Muster'' (short stories) (1907)''Captain Margaret'' (1908)''Multitude and Solitude'' (1909)''Martin Hyde: The Duke's Messenger'' (1909)''Lost Endeavour'' (Nelson, 1910).", "* ''A Book of Discoveries'' (children's novel) (1910)''The Street of Today'' (1911)''Jim Davis'' (Wells Gardner, 1911).", "''Sard Harker'' (Heinemann, 1924)''ODTAA'' (1926)''The Midnight Folk'' (children's novel) (1927)''The Hawbucks'' (1929)''The Bird of Dawning'' (Heinemann, 1933).", "''The Taking of the Gry'' (1934)''The Box of Delights: or When the Wolves Were Running'' (children's novel) (1935)''Victorious Troy: or The Harrying Angel'' (1935)''Eggs and Baker'' (1936)''The Square Peg: or The Gun Fella'' (1937)''Dead Ned'' (1938)''Live and Kicking Ned'' (1939)''Basilissa: A Tale of the Empress Theodora'' (1940)''Conquer: A Tale of the Nika Rebellion in Byzantium'' (1941)''Badon Parchments'' (1947)====Plays====''The Campden Wonder'' (1907)''The Tragedy of Pompey the Great'' (1910)''Philip the King'' (1914)''The Locked Chest'' (1916)''Good Friday: A Play in Verse'' (1916)''The Tragedy of Nan'' (Originally known as ''Nan'')''A King's Daughter: A Tragedy in Verse'' (1923)''The Trial of Jesus'' (1925)''The Witch'' (1926) (trans.", "from the Norwegian play ''Anne Pedersdotter'' by Hans Wiers-Jenssen)''Tristan and Isolt: A Play in Verse'' (1927)''The Coming of Christ'' (1928)''Easter: A Play for Singers'' (1929)====Non-fiction and autobiographical==== ''Sea Life in Nelson's Time'' (1905)* ''Gallipoli'' (1916)* ''The Old Front Line'' (1917)* ''The Battle of the Somme'' (1919)* ''The Wanderer of Liverpool'' (1930)* ''Recent Prose'' (1924)* ''Poetry: a Lecture Given at the Queen's Hall in London on Thursday, October 15, 1931''* ''The Conway: From Her Foundation to the Present Day'' (1933)''Some Memories of W. B. Yeats'' (1940) \"In the Mill\" (1941)* ''The Nine Days Wonder (The Operation Dynamo)'' (1941)* ''New Chum'' (1944) * ''So Long to Learn'' (autobiography) (1952)* ''Grace Before Ploughing'' (autobiography) (Heinemann, 1966)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Babington Smith, Constance (1978).", "''John Masefield: A Life''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Fraser Bragg Drew (1973).", "''John Masefield's England: A Study of the National Themes in His Work''.", "Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.", "* Spark, Muriel (1953, rev.", "1962, 1991).", "''John Masefield''.", "* Lurie, Alison (2003) 'John Masefield's Boxes of Delight', Chap.", "5 of '' Boys and Girls Forever''.", "Penguin Books.", "* Archival material at" ], [ "External links", "* The John Masefield Society website * John Masefield Papers at the Harry Ransom Center* Essay: \"John Masefield 1878–1967\" at the Poetry Foundation* Portraits at the National Portrait Gallery* * Three plays by John Masefield on Great War Theatre* Finding aid to Helen MacLachlan papers, including John Masefield correspondence, at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library.===Electronic editions===* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph McCarthy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Raymond McCarthy''' (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S.", "Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957.Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in the United States in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread communist subversion.", "; He alleged that numerous communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers had infiltrated the United States federal government, universities, film industry, and elsewhere.", "Ultimately, he was censured for refusing to cooperate with, and abusing members of, the committee established to investigate whether or not he should be censured.", "The term \"McCarthyism\", coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist activities.", "Today, the term is used more broadly to mean demagogic, reckless, and unsubstantiated accusations, as well as public attacks on the character or patriotism of political opponents.Born in Grand Chute, Wisconsin, McCarthy commissioned into the Marine Corps in 1942, where he served as an intelligence briefing officer for a dive bomber squadron.", "Following the end of World War II, he attained the rank of major.", "He volunteered to fly twelve combat missions as a gunner-observer.", "These missions were generally safe, and after one where he was allowed to shoot as much ammunition as he wanted to, mainly at coconut trees, he acquired the nickname \"Tail-Gunner Joe\".", "Some of his claims of heroism were later shown to be exaggerated or falsified, leading many of his critics to use \"Tail-Gunner Joe\" as a term of mockery.McCarthy successfully ran for the U.S. Senate in 1946, defeating Robert M. La Follette Jr. After three largely undistinguished years in the Senate, McCarthy rose suddenly to national fame in February 1950, when he asserted in a speech that he had a list of \"members of the Communist Party and members of a spy ring\" who were employed in the State Department.", "In succeeding years after his 1950 speech, McCarthy made additional accusations of Communist infiltration into the State Department, the administration of President Harry S. Truman, the Voice of America, and the U.S. Army.", "He also used various charges of communism, communist sympathies, disloyalty, or sex crimes to attack a number of politicians and other individuals inside and outside of government.", "This included a concurrent \"Lavender Scare\" against suspected homosexuals; as homosexuality was prohibited by law at the time, it was also perceived to increase a person's risk for blackmail.With the highly publicized Army–McCarthy hearings of 1954, and following the suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester C. Hunt that same year, McCarthy's support and popularity faded.", "On December 2, 1954, the Senate voted to censure Senator McCarthy by a vote of 67–22, making him one of the few senators ever to be disciplined in this fashion.", "He continued to speak against communism and socialism until his death at the age of 48 at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, on May 2, 1957.His death certificate listed the cause of death as \"Hepatitis, acute, cause unknown\".", "Doctors had not previously reported him to be in critical condition.", "Some biographers say this was caused or exacerbated by alcoholism." ], [ "Early life and education", "McCarthy was born in 1908 on a farm in Grand Chute, Wisconsin, the fifth of nine children.", "His mother, Bridget McCarthy (nee Tierney), was from County Tipperary, Ireland.", "His father, Timothy McCarthy, was born in the United States, the son of an Irish father and a German mother.", "McCarthy dropped out of junior high school at age 14 to help his parents manage their farm.", "He entered Little Wolf High School, in Manawa, Wisconsin, when he was 20 and graduated in one year.He attended Marquette University from 1930 to 1935.McCarthy worked his way through college by coaching, boxing etc.", "He first studied electrical engineering for two years, then law, and received a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1935 from Marquette University Law School in Milwaukee." ], [ "Career", "McCarthy was admitted to the bar in 1935.While working at a law firm in Shawano, Wisconsin, he launched an unsuccessful campaign for district attorney as a Democrat in 1936.During his years as an attorney, McCarthy made money on the side by gambling.In 1939, McCarthy had better success when he ran for the nonpartisan elected post of 10th District circuit judge.", "McCarthy became the youngest circuit judge in the state's history by defeating incumbent Edgar V. Werner, who had been a judge for 24 years.", "In the campaign, McCarthy lied about Werner's age of 66, claiming that he was 73, and so allegedly too old and infirm to handle the duties of his office.", "Writing of Werner in ''Reds: McCarthyism In Twentieth-Century America,'' Ted Morgan wrote: \"Pompous and condescending, he (Werner) was disliked by lawyers.", "His judgements had often been reversed by the Wisconsin Supreme Court, and he was so inefficient that he had piled up a huge backlog of cases.", "\"McCarthy's judicial career attracted some controversy because of the speed with which he dispatched many of his cases as he worked to clear the heavily backlogged docket he had inherited from Werner.", "Wisconsin had strict divorce laws, but when McCarthy heard divorce cases, he expedited them whenever possible, and he made the needs of children involved in contested divorces a priority.", "When it came to other cases argued before him, McCarthy compensated for his lack of experience as a jurist by demanding and relying heavily upon precise briefs from the contesting attorneys.", "The Wisconsin Supreme Court reversed a low percentage of the cases he heard, but he was also censured in 1941 for having lost evidence in a price fixing case.===Military service===Marine Corps uniformIn 1942, shortly after the U.S. entered World War II, McCarthy joined the United States Marine Corps, despite the fact that his judicial office exempted him from military service.", "His college education qualified him for a direct commission, and he entered the Marines as a first lieutenant.According to Morgan, writing in ''Reds,'' McCarthy's friend and campaign manager, attorney and judge Urban P. Van Susteren, had applied for active duty in the U.S. Army Air Forces in early 1942, and advised McCarthy: \"Be a hero—join the Marines.\"", "When McCarthy seemed hesitant, Van Susteren asked, \"You got shit in your blood?", "\"DFC and Air Medal from Colonel John R. Lanigan, commanding officer of Fifth Marine Reserve District, December 1952He served as an intelligence briefing officer for a dive bomber squadron VMSB-235 in the Solomon Islands and Bougainville for 30 months (August 1942 – February 1945), and held the rank of captain at the time he resigned his commission in April 1945.He volunteered to fly twelve combat missions as a gunner-observer.", "These missions were generally safe, and after one where he was allowed to shoot as much ammunition as he wanted to, mainly at coconut trees, he acquired the nickname \"Tail-Gunner Joe\".", "McCarthy remained in the Marine Corps Reserve after the war, attaining the rank of lieutenant colonel.He later falsely claimed participation in 32 aerial missions in order to qualify for a Distinguished Flying Cross and multiple awards of the Air Medal, which the Marine Corps chain of command decided to approve in 1952 because of his political influence.", "McCarthy also publicized a letter of commendation which he claimed had been signed by his commanding officer and Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, then Chief of Naval Operations.", "However, his commander revealed that McCarthy had written this letter himself, probably while preparing award citations and commendation letters as an additional duty, and that he had signed his commander's name, after which Nimitz signed it during the process of just signing numerous other such letters.", "A \"war wound\"—a badly broken leg—that McCarthy made the subject of varying stories involving airplane crashes or anti-aircraft fire had in fact happened aboard ship during a raucous celebration for sailors crossing the equator for the first time.", "Because of McCarthy's various lies about his military heroism, his \"Tail-Gunner Joe\" nickname was sarcastically used as a term of mockery by his critics.McCarthy campaigned for the Republican Senate nomination in Wisconsin while still on active duty in 1944 but was defeated by Alexander Wiley, the incumbent.", "After he left the Marines in April 1945, five months before the end of the Pacific war in September 1945, McCarthy was reelected unopposed to his circuit court position.", "He then began a much more systematic campaign for the 1946 Republican Senate primary nomination, with support from Thomas Coleman, the Republican Party's political boss in Wisconsin.", "In this race, he was challenging three-term senator Robert M. La Follette Jr., founder of the Wisconsin Progressive Party and son of the celebrated Wisconsin governor and senator Robert M. La Follette Sr.===Senate campaign===In his campaign, McCarthy attacked La Follette for not enlisting during the war, although La Follette had been 46 when Pearl Harbor was bombed.", "He also claimed La Follette had made huge profits from his investments while he, McCarthy, had been away fighting for his country.", "In fact, McCarthy had invested in the stock market himself during the war, netting a profit of $42,000 in 1943 (equal to $ today).", "Where McCarthy got the money to invest in the first place remains a mystery.", "La Follette's investments consisted of partial interest in a radio station, which earned him a profit of $47,000 over two years.According to Jack Anderson and Ronald W. May, McCarthy's campaign funds, much of them from out of state, were ten times more than La Follette's and McCarthy's vote benefited from a Communist Party vendetta against La Follette.", "The suggestion that La Follette had been guilty of war profiteering was deeply damaging, and McCarthy won the primary nomination 207,935 votes to 202,557.It was during this campaign that McCarthy started publicizing his war-time nickname \"Tail-Gunner Joe\", using the slogan, \"Congress needs a tail-gunner\".", "Journalist Arnold Beichman later stated that McCarthy \"was elected to his first term in the Senate with support from the Communist-controlled United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, CIO\", which preferred McCarthy to the anti-communist Robert M. La Follette.In the general election against Democratic opponent Howard J. McMurray, McCarthy won 61.2% to McMurray's 37.3%, and thus joined Alexander Wiley, whom he had challenged unsuccessfully two years earlier, in the Senate." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1950, McCarthy assaulted journalist Drew Pearson in the cloakroom at the Sulgrave Club, reportedly kneeing him in the groin.", "McCarthy, who admitted the assault, claimed he merely \"slapped\" Pearson.", "In 1952, using rumors collected by Pearson as well as other sources, Nevada publisher Hank Greenspun wrote that McCarthy was a frequent patron at the White Horse Inn, a Milwaukee gay bar, and cited his involvement with young men.", "Greenspun named some of McCarthy's alleged lovers, including Charles E. Davis, an ex-Communist and \"confessed homosexual\" who claimed that he had been hired by McCarthy to spy on U.S. diplomats in Switzerland.McCarthy's FBI file also contains numerous allegations, including a 1952 letter from an Army lieutenant who said, \"When I was in Washington some time ago, McCarthy picked me up at the bar in the Wardman Hotel and took me home, and while I was half-drunk he committed sodomy on me.\"", "J. Edgar Hoover conducted a perfunctory investigation of the Senator's alleged sexual assault; Hoover's approach was that \"homosexuals are very bitter against Senator McCarthy for his attack upon those who are supposed to be in the Government.", "\"Although some notable McCarthy biographers have rejected these rumors, others have suggested that he may have been blackmailed.", "During the early 1950s, McCarthy launched a series of attacks on the CIA, claiming it had been infiltrated by communist agents.", "Allen Dulles, who suspected McCarthy was using information supplied by Hoover, refused to cooperate.", "According to the historian David Talbot, Dulles also compiled a \"scandalous\" intimate dossier on the Senator's personal life and used the homosexual stories to take him down.In any event, McCarthy did not sue Greenspun for libel.", "(He was told that if the case went ahead he would be compelled to take the witness stand and to refute the charges made in the affidavit of the young man, which was the basis for Greenspun's story.", ")In 1953, he married Jean Fraser Kerr, a researcher in his office.", "In January 1957, McCarthy and his wife adopted an infant with the help of Roy Cohn's close friend Cardinal Francis Spellman.", "They named the baby girl Tierney Elizabeth McCarthy." ], [ "United States Senate", "Senator McCarthy's first three years in the Senate were unremarkable.", "McCarthy was a popular speaker, invited by many different organizations, covering a wide range of topics.", "His aides and many in the Washington social circle described him as charming and friendly, and he was a popular guest at cocktail parties.", "He was far less well liked among fellow senators, however, who found him quick-tempered and prone to impatience and even rage.", "Outside of a small circle of colleagues, he was soon an isolated figure in the Senate, who was often widely criticized.McCarthy was active in labor-management issues, with a reputation as a moderate Republican.", "He fought against continuation of wartime price controls, especially on sugar.", "His advocacy in this area was associated by critics with a $20,000 personal loan McCarthy received from a Pepsi bottling executive, earning the Senator the derisive nickname \"The Pepsi-Cola Kid\".McCarthy supported the Taft–Hartley Act over Truman's veto, angering labor unions in Wisconsin but solidifying his business base.===Malmedy massacre trial===In an incident for which he would be widely criticized, McCarthy lobbied for the commutation of death sentences given to a group of Waffen-SS soldiers convicted of war crimes for carrying out the 1944 Malmedy massacre of American prisoners of war.", "McCarthy was critical of the convictions because the German soldiers' confessions were allegedly obtained through torture during the interrogations.", "He argued that the U.S. Army was engaged in a coverup of judicial misconduct, but never presented any evidence to support the accusation.Shortly after this, a 1950 poll of the Senate press corps voted McCarthy \"the worst U.S. senator\" currently in office.McCarthy biographer Larry Tye has written that antisemitism may have factored into McCarthy's outspoken views on Malmedy.", "Although he had substantial Jewish support, notably Lewis Rosenstiel of Schenley Industries, Rabbi Benjamin Schultz of the American Jewish League Against Communism, and the columnist George Sokolsky, who convinced him to hire Roy Cohn and G. David Schine, McCarthy frequently used anti-Jewish slurs.", "In this and McCarthy's other characteristics, such as the enthusiastic support he received from antisemitic politicians like Ku Klux Klansman Wesley Swift and his tendency, according to friends, to his copy of ''Mein Kampf,'' stating, \"That's the way to do it,\" McCarthy's critics characterize him as driven by antisemitism.", "However, historian Larry Tye says that this is not the case.", "Based on accounts of his opposition to Soviet antisemitism, friendship with and employment of Jews, pro-Israel outlook, and testimony of colleagues to his lack of antisemitism, Tye suggests that those aspects his critics denote as antisemitic are rather byproducts of McCarthy's absolute lack of a filter and his inability to avoid colleagues colored by hatred.", "Tye says, \"He certainly knew how to hate, but he wasn't that antisemitic kindof bigot.\"", "This perspective that McCarthy was not an antisemite is supported by other historians.Tye cites three quotes from European historian Steven Remy, chief Malmedy prosecutor COL Burton Ellis JAG USA, and massacre victim and survivor Virgil P. Lary, Jr:It was later found that McCarthy had received \"evidence\" of the false torture claims from Rudolf Aschenauer, a prominent Neo-Nazi agitator who often served as a defense attorney for Nazi war criminals, such as Einsatzgruppen commander Otto Ohlendorf.===\"Enemies within\"===McCarthy experienced a meteoric rise in national profile beginning on February 9, 1950, when he gave a Lincoln Day speech to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling, West Virginia.", "His words in the speech are a matter of some debate, as no audio recording was saved.", "However, it is generally agreed that he produced a piece of paper that he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department.", "McCarthy is usually quoted to have said: \"The State Department is infested with communists.", "I have here in my hand a list of 205—a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department.", "\"There is some dispute with whether or not McCarthy actually gave the number of people on the list as being \"205\" or \"57\".", "In a later telegram to President Truman, and when entering the speech into the ''Congressional Record'', he used the number 57.The origin of the number 205 can be traced: in later debates on the Senate floor, McCarthy referred to a 1946 letter that then–Secretary of State James Byrnes sent to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath.", "In that letter, Byrnes said State Department security investigations had resulted in \"recommendation against permanent employment\" for 284 persons, and that 79 of these had been removed from their jobs; this left 205 still on the State Department's payroll.", "In fact, by the time of McCarthy's speech only about 65 of the employees mentioned in the Byrnes letter were still with the State Department, and all of these had undergone further security checks.At the time of McCarthy's speech, communism was a significant concern in the United States.", "This concern was exacerbated by the actions of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe, the victory of the communists in the Chinese Civil War, the Soviets' development of a nuclear weapon the year before, and by the contemporary controversy surrounding Alger Hiss and the confession of Soviet spy Klaus Fuchs.", "With this background and due to the sensational nature of McCarthy's charge against the State Department, the Wheeling speech soon attracted a flood of press interest in McCarthy's claim.===Tydings Committee===McCarthy himself was taken aback by the massive media response to the Wheeling speech, and he was accused of continually revising both his charges and figures.", "In Salt Lake City, Utah, a few days later, he cited a figure of 57, and in the Senate on February 20, 1950, he claimed 81.During a five-hour speech, McCarthy presented a case-by-case analysis of his 81 \"loyalty risks\" employed at the State Department.", "It is widely accepted that most of McCarthy's cases were selected from the so-called \"Lee list\", a report that had been compiled three years earlier for the House Appropriations Committee.", "Led by a former Federal Bureau of Investigation agent named Robert E. Lee, the House investigators had reviewed security clearance documents on State Department employees, and had determined that there were \"incidents of inefficiencies\"in the security reviews of 108 employees.", "McCarthy hid the source of his list, stating that he had penetrated the \"iron curtain\" of State Department secrecy with the aid of \"some good, loyal Americans in the State Department\".", "In reciting the information from the Lee list cases, McCarthy consistently exaggerated, representing the hearsay of witnesses as facts and converting phrases such as \"inclined towards Communism\" to \"a Communist\".Senator Millard TydingsIn response to McCarthy's charges, the Senate voted unanimously to investigate, and the Tydings Committee hearings were called.", "This was a subcommittee of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations set up in February 1950 to conduct \"a full and complete study and investigation as to whether persons who are disloyal to the United States are, or have been, employed by the Department of State\".Many Democrats were incensed at McCarthy's attack on the State Department of a Democratic administration, and had hoped to use the hearings to discredit him.", "The Democratic chairman of the subcommittee, Senator Millard Tydings, was reported to have said, \"Let me have him McCarthy for three days in public hearings, and he'll never show his face in the Senate again.", "\"During the hearings, McCarthy made charges against nine specific people: Dorothy Kenyon, Esther Brunauer, Haldore Hanson, Gustavo Durán, Owen Lattimore, Harlow Shapley, Frederick Schuman, John S. Service, and Philip Jessup.", "They all had previously been the subject of charges of varying worth and validity.", "Owen Lattimore became a particular focus of McCarthy's, who at one point described him as a \"top Russian spy\".From its beginning, the Tydings Committee was marked by intense partisan infighting.", "Its final report, written by the Democratic majority, concluded that the individuals on McCarthy's list were neither Communists nor pro-communist, and said the State Department had an effective security program.", "The Tydings Report labeled McCarthy's charges a \"fraud and a hoax,\" and described them as using incensing rhetoric—saying that the result of McCarthy's actions was to \"confuse and divide the American people ... to a degree far beyond the hopes of the Communists themselves\".", "Republicans were outraged by the Democratic response.", "They responded to the report's rhetoric in kind, with William E. Jenner stating that Tydings was guilty of \"the most brazen whitewash of treasonable conspiracy in our history\".The full Senate voted three times on whether to accept the report, and each time the voting was precisely divided along party lines.===Fame and notoriety===Herbert Block, who signed his work \"Herblock\", coined the term \"McCarthyism\" in this cartoon in the March 29, 1950, ''Washington Post.", "''From 1950 onward, McCarthy continued to exploit the fear of Communism and to press his accusations that the government was failing to deal with Communism within its ranks.", "McCarthy also began investigations into homosexuals working in the foreign policy bureaucracy, who were considered prime candidates for blackmail by the Soviets.", "These accusations received wide publicity, increased his approval rating, and gained him a powerful national following.In Congress, there was little doubt that homosexuals did not belong in sensitive government positions.", "Since the late 1940s, the government had been dismissing about five homosexuals a month from civilian posts; by 1954, the number had grown twelve-fold.", "As historian David M. Barrett would write, \"Mixed in with the hysterics were some logic, though: homosexuals faced condemnation and discrimination, and most of them—wishing to conceal their orientation—were vulnerable to blackmail.\"", "Director of Central Intelligence Roscoe Hillenkoetter was called to Congress to testify on homosexuals being employed at the CIA.", "He said, \"The use of homosexuals as a control mechanism over individuals recruited for espionage is a generally accepted technique which has been used at least on a limited basis for many years.\"", "As soon as the DCI said these words, his aide signaled to take the remainder of the DCI's testimony off the record.", "Political historian David Barrett uncovered Hillenkoetter's notes, which reveal the remainder of the statement: \"While this agency will never employ homosexuals on its rolls, it might conceivably be necessary, and in the past has actually been valuable, to use known homosexuals as agents in the field.", "I am certain that if Joseph Stalin or a member of the Politburo or a high satellite official were known to be a homosexual, no member of this committee or of the Congress would balk against our use of any technique to penetrate their operations ... after all, intelligence and espionage is, at best, an extremely dirty business.\"", "The senators reluctantly agreed the CIA had to be flexible.McCarthy's methods also brought on the disapproval and opposition of many.", "Barely a month after McCarthy's Wheeling speech, the term \"McCarthyism\" was coined by ''Washington Post'' cartoonist Herbert Block.", "Block and others used the word as a synonym for demagoguery, baseless defamation, and mudslinging.", "Later, it would be embraced by McCarthy and some of his supporters.", "\"McCarthyism is Americanism with its sleeves rolled,\" McCarthy said in a 1952 speech, and later that year, he published a book titled ''McCarthyism: The Fight For America''.McCarthy sought to discredit his critics and political opponents by accusing them of being Communists or communist sympathizers.", "In the 1950 Maryland Senate election, McCarthy campaigned for John Marshall Butler in his race against four-term incumbent Millard Tydings, with whom McCarthy had been in conflict during the Tydings Committee hearings.", "In speeches supporting Butler, McCarthy accused Tydings of \"protecting Communists\" and \"shielding traitors\".", "McCarthy's staff was heavily involved in the campaign and collaborated in the production of a campaign tabloid that contained a composite photograph doctored to make it appear that Tydings was in intimate conversation with Communist leader Earl Russell Browder.", "A Senate subcommittee later investigated this election and referred to it as \"a despicable, back-street type of campaign\", as well as recommending that the use of defamatory literature in a campaign be made grounds for expulsion from the Senate.", "The pamphlet was clearly labeled a composite.", "McCarthy said it was \"wrong\" to distribute it; though staffer Jean Kerr thought it was fine.", "After he lost the election by almost 40,000 votes, Tydings claimed foul play.In addition to the Tydings–Butler race, McCarthy campaigned for several other Republicans in the 1950 elections, including Everett Dirksen against Democratic incumbent and Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas.", "Dirksen, and indeed all the candidates McCarthy supported, won their elections, and those he opposed lost.", "The elections, including many that McCarthy was not involved in, were an overall Republican sweep.", "Although his impact on the elections was unclear, McCarthy was credited as a key Republican campaigner.", "He was now regarded as one of the most powerful men in the Senate and was treated with new-found deference by his colleagues.", "In the 1952 Senate elections McCarthy was returned to his Senate seat with 54.2% of the vote, compared to Democrat Thomas Fairchild's 45.6%.", "As of 2020, McCarthy is the last Republican to win Wisconsin's Class 1 Senate seat.===McCarthy and the Truman administration===McCarthy and President Truman clashed often during the years both held office.", "McCarthy characterized Truman and the Democratic Party as soft on, or even in league with, Communists, and spoke of the Democrats' \"twenty years of treason\".", "Truman, in turn, once referred to McCarthy as \"the best asset the Kremlin has\", calling McCarthy's actions an attempt to \"sabotage the foreign policy of the United States\" in a cold war and comparing it to shooting American soldiers in the back in a hot war.It was the Truman Administration's State Department that McCarthy accused of harboring 205 (or 57 or 81) \"known Communists\".", "Truman's Secretary of Defense, George Marshall, was the target of some of McCarthy's most vitriolic rhetoric.", "Marshall had been Army Chief of Staff during World War II and was also Truman's former Secretary of State.", "Marshall was a highly respected general and statesman, remembered today as the architect of victory and peace, the latter based on the Marshall Plan for post-war reconstruction of Europe, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.McCarthy made a lengthy speech on Marshall, later published in 1951 as a book titled ''America's Retreat From Victory: The Story of George Catlett Marshall''.", "Marshall had been involved in American foreign policy with China, and McCarthy charged that Marshall was directly responsible for the loss of China to Communism.", "In the speech McCarthy also implied that Marshall was guilty of treason;declared that \"if Marshall were merely stupid, the laws of probability would dictate that part of his decisions would serve this country's interest\"; and most famously, accused him of being part of \"a conspiracy so immense and an infamy so black as to dwarf any previous venture in the history of man\".In December 1950, McCarthy teamed with right-wing radio star Fulton Lewis Jr. to smear Truman's nominee for Assistant Secretary of Defense, Anna M. Rosenberg.", "Their smear campaign attracted allies in anti-Semites and extremists like Gerald L. K. Smith, who falsely claimed Rosenberg, who was Jewish, was a communist.", "Unlike other women targets of McCarthyism, Rosenberg emerged with her career and integrity intact.", "When the smear campaign fizzled out, journalist Edward R. Murrow said \"the character assassin has missed.", "\"During the Korean War, when Truman dismissed General Douglas MacArthur, McCarthy charged that Truman and his advisors must have planned the dismissal during late-night sessions when \"they've had time to get the President cheerful\" on bourbon and Bénédictine.", "McCarthy declared, \"The son of a bitch should be impeached.", "\"===Support from Roman Catholics and the Kennedy family===One of the strongest bases of anti-Communist sentiment in the United States was the Catholic community, which constituted over 20% of the national vote.", "McCarthy identified himself as Catholic, and although the great majority of Catholics were Democrats, as his fame as a leading anti-Communist grew, he became popular in Catholic communities across the country, with strong support from many leading Catholics, diocesan newspapers, and Catholic journals.", "At the same time, some Catholics opposed McCarthy, notably the anti-Communist author Father John Francis Cronin and the influential journal ''Commonweal''.McCarthy established a bond with the powerful Kennedy family, which had high visibility among Catholics.", "McCarthy became a close friend of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., himself a fervent anti-Communist, and he was also a frequent guest at the Kennedy compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts.", "He dated two of Kennedy's daughters, Patricia and Eunice.", "It has been stated that McCarthy was godfather to Robert F. Kennedy's first child, Kathleen Kennedy.", "This claim has been acknowledged by Robert's wife and Kathleen's mother Ethel, though Kathleen later claimed that she looked at her baptismal certificate and that her actual godfather was Manhattanville College of the Sacred Heart professor Daniel Walsh.Robert Kennedy was unusual among his Harvard friends for defending McCarthy when they discussed politics after graduation.", "He was chosen by McCarthy to be a counsel for his investigatory committee, but resigned after six months due to disagreements with McCarthy and Committee Counsel Roy Marcus Cohn.", "Joseph Kennedy had a national network of contacts and became a vocal supporter, building McCarthy's popularity among Catholics and making sizable contributions to McCarthy's campaigns.", "The Kennedy patriarch hoped that one of his sons would be president.", "Mindful of the anti-Catholic prejudice which Al Smith faced during his 1928 campaign for that office, Joseph Kennedy supported McCarthy as a national Catholic politician who might pave the way for a younger Kennedy's presidential candidacy.Unlike many Democrats, John F. Kennedy, who served in the Senate with McCarthy from 1953 until the latter's death in 1957, never attacked McCarthy.", "McCarthy did not campaign for Kennedy's 1952 opponent, Republican incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., due to his friendship with the Kennedys and, reportedly, a $50,000 donation from Joseph Kennedy.", "Lodge lost despite Eisenhower winning the state in the presidential election.", "When a speaker at a February 1952 final club dinner stated that he was glad that McCarthy had not attended Harvard College, an angry Kennedy jumped up, denounced the speaker, and left the event.", "When Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. asked John Kennedy why he avoided criticizing McCarthy, Kennedy responded by saying, \"Hell, half my voters in Massachusetts look on McCarthy as a hero\".===McCarthy and Eisenhower===Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th President of the United StatesDuring the 1952 presidential election, the Eisenhower campaign toured Wisconsin with McCarthy.", "In a speech delivered in Green Bay, Eisenhower declared that while he agreed with McCarthy's goals, he disagreed with his methods.", "In draft versions of his speech, Eisenhower had also included a strong defense of his mentor, George Marshall, which was a direct rebuke of McCarthy's frequent attacks.", "However, under the advice of conservative colleagues who were afraid that Eisenhower could lose Wisconsin if he alienated McCarthy supporters, he deleted this defense from later versions of his speech.", "The deletion was discovered by William H. Laurence, a reporter for ''The New York Times,'' and featured on its front page the next day.", "Eisenhower was widely criticized for giving up his personal convictions, and the incident became the low point of his campaign.With his victory in the 1952 presidential race, Dwight Eisenhower became the first Republican president in 20 years.", "The Republican Party also held a majority in the House of Representatives and the Senate.", "After being elected president, Eisenhower made it clear to those close to him that he did not approve of McCarthy and he worked actively to diminish his power and influence.", "Still, he never directly confronted McCarthy or criticized him by name in any speech, thus perhaps prolonging McCarthy's power by giving the impression that even the President was afraid to criticize him directly.", "Oshinsky disputes this, stating that \"Eisenhower was known as a harmonizer, a man who could get diverse factions to work toward a common goal. ...", "Leadership, he explained, meant patience and conciliation, not 'hitting people over the head.", "'\"McCarthy won reelection in 1952 with 54% of the vote, defeating former Wisconsin State Attorney General Thomas E. Fairchild but, as stated above, badly trailing a Republican ticket which otherwise swept the state of Wisconsin; all the other Republican winners, including Eisenhower himself, received at least 60% of the Wisconsin vote.Those who expected that party loyalty would cause McCarthy to tone down his accusations of Communists being harbored within the government were soon disappointed.", "Eisenhower had never been an admirer of McCarthy, and their relationship became more hostile once Eisenhower was in office.", "In a November 1953 speech that was carried on national television, McCarthy began by praising the Eisenhower Administration for removing \"1,456 Truman holdovers who were ... gotten rid of because of Communist connections and activities or perversion.\"", "He then went on to complain that John Paton Davies Jr. was still \"on the payroll after eleven months of the Eisenhower administration,\" even though Davies had actually been dismissed three weeks earlier, and repeated an unsubstantiated accusation that Davies had tried to \"put Communists and espionage agents in key spots in the Central Intelligence Agency.\"", "In the same speech, he criticized Eisenhower for not doing enough to secure the release of missing American pilots shot down over China during the Korean War.", "By the end of 1953, McCarthy had altered the \"twenty years of treason\" catchphrase he had coined for the preceding Democratic administrations and began referring to \"twenty-''one'' years of treason\" to include Eisenhower's first year in office.As McCarthy became increasingly combative towards the Eisenhower Administration, Eisenhower faced repeated calls that he confront McCarthy directly.", "Eisenhower refused, saying privately \"nothing would please him McCarthy more than to get the publicity that would be generated by a public repudiation by the President.\"", "On several occasions Eisenhower is reported to have said of McCarthy that he did not want to \"get down in the gutter with that guy.", "\"===Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations===With the beginning of his second term as senator in January 1953, McCarthy was made chairman of the Senate Committee on Government Operations.", "According to some reports, Republican leaders were growing wary of McCarthy's methods and gave him this relatively mundane panel rather than the Internal Security Subcommittee—the committee normally involved with investigating Communists—thus putting McCarthy \"where he can't do any harm\", in the words of Senate Majority Leader Robert A. Taft.", "However, the Committee on Government Operations included the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, and the mandate of this subcommittee was sufficiently flexible to allow McCarthy to use it for his own investigations of Communists in the government.", "McCarthy appointed Roy Cohn as chief counsel and 27-year-old Robert F. Kennedy as an assistant counsel to the subcommittee.", "Later, McCarthy also hired Gerard David Schine, heir to a hotel-chain fortune, on the recommendation of George Sokolsky.This subcommittee would be the scene of some of McCarthy's most publicized exploits.", "When the records of the closed executive sessions of the subcommittee under McCarthy's chairmanship were made public in 2003–04, Senators Susan Collins and Carl Levin wrote the following in their preface to the documents:Senator McCarthy's zeal to uncover subversion and espionage led to disturbing excesses.", "His browbeating tactics destroyed careers of people who were not involved in the infiltration of our government.", "His freewheeling style caused both the Senate and the Subcommittee to revise the rules governing future investigations, and prompted the courts to act to protect the Constitutional rights of witnesses at Congressional hearings. ...", "These hearings are a part of our national past that we can neither afford to forget nor permit to re-occur.The subcommittee first investigated allegations of Communist influence in the Voice of America, at that time administered by the State Department's United States Information Agency.", "Many VOA personnel were questioned in front of television cameras and a packed press gallery, with McCarthy lacing his questions with hostile innuendo and false accusations.", "A few VOA employees alleged Communist influence on the content of broadcasts, but none of the charges were substantiated.", "Morale at VOA was badly damaged, and one of its engineers committed suicide during McCarthy's investigation.", "Ed Kretzman, a policy advisor for the service, would later comment that it was VOA's \"darkest hour when Senator McCarthy and his chief hatchet man, Roy Cohn, almost succeeded in muffling it.", "\"The subcommittee then turned to the overseas library program of the International Information Agency.", "Cohn toured Europe examining the card catalogs of the State Department libraries looking for works by authors he deemed inappropriate.", "McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro-communist authors before his subcommittee and the press.", "The State Department bowed to McCarthy and ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves \"material by any controversial persons, Communists, fellow travelers, etc.\"", "Some libraries went as far as burning the newly-forbidden books.", "Shortly after this, in one of his public criticisms of McCarthy, President Eisenhower urged Americans: \"Don't join the book burners. ...", "Don't be afraid to go in your library and read every book.", "\"Soon after receiving the chair to the Subcommittee on Investigations, McCarthy appointed J.", "B. Matthews as staff director of the subcommittee.", "One of the nation's foremost anti-communists, Matthews had formerly been staff director for the House Un-American Activities Committee.", "The appointment became controversial when it was learned that Matthews had recently written an article titled \"Reds and Our Churches\", which opened with the sentence, \"The largest single group supporting the Communist apparatus in the United States is composed of Protestant Clergymen.\"", "A group of senators denounced this \"shocking and unwarranted attack against the American clergy\" and demanded that McCarthy dismiss Matthews.", "McCarthy initially refused to do this.", "As the controversy mounted, however, and the majority of his own subcommittee joined the call for Matthews's ouster, McCarthy finally yielded and accepted his resignation.", "For some McCarthy opponents, this was a signal defeat of the senator, showing he was not as invincible as he had formerly seemed.===Investigating the Army===In autumn 1953, McCarthy's committee began its ill-fated inquiry into the United States Army.", "This began with McCarthy opening an investigation into the Army Signal Corps laboratory at Fort Monmouth.", "McCarthy, newly married to Jean Kerr, cut short his honeymoon to open the investigation.", "He garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the army researchers, but after weeks of hearings, nothing came of his investigations.", "Unable to expose any signs of subversion, McCarthy focused instead on the case of Irving Peress, a New York dentist who had been drafted into the army in 1952 and promoted to major in November 1953.Shortly thereafter it came to the attention of the military bureaucracy that Peress, who was a member of the left-wing American Labor Party, had declined to answer questions about his political affiliations on a loyalty-review form.", "Peress's superiors were therefore ordered to discharge him from the army within 90 days.", "McCarthy subpoenaed Peress to appear before his subcommittee on January 30, 1954.Peress refused to answer McCarthy's questions, citing his rights under the Fifth Amendment.", "McCarthy responded by sending a message to Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens, demanding that Peress be court-martialed.", "On that same day, Peress asked for his pending discharge from the army to be effected immediately, and the next day Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker, his commanding officer at Camp Kilmer in New Jersey, gave him an honorable separation from the army.", "At McCarthy's encouragement, \"Who promoted Peress?\"", "became a rallying cry among many anti-communists and McCarthy supporters.", "In fact, and as McCarthy knew, Peress had been promoted automatically through the provisions of the Doctor Draft Law, for which McCarthy had voted.===Army–McCarthy hearings===Early in 1954, the U.S. Army accused McCarthy and his chief counsel, Roy Cohn, of improperly pressuring the army to give favorable treatment to G. David Schine, a former aide to McCarthy and a friend of Cohn's, who was then serving in the army as a private.", "McCarthy claimed that the accusation was made in bad faith, in retaliation for his questioning of Zwicker the previous year.", "The Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, usually chaired by McCarthy himself, was given the task of adjudicating these conflicting charges.", "Republican senator Karl Mundt was appointed to chair the committee, and the Army–McCarthy hearings convened on April 22, 1954.McCarthy chats with Roy Cohn (right) at the Army-McCarthy hearings.The army consulted with an attorney familiar with McCarthy to determine the best approach to attacking him.", "Based on his recommendation, it decided not to pursue McCarthy on the issue of communists in government: \"The attorney feels it is almost impossible to counter McCarthy effectively on the issue of kicking Communists out of Government, because he generally has some basis, no matter how slight, for his claim of Communist connection.", "\"The hearings lasted for 36 days and were broadcast on live television by ABC and DuMont, with an estimated 20 million viewers.", "After hearing 32 witnesses and two million words of testimony, the committee concluded that McCarthy himself had not exercised any improper influence on Schine's behalf, but that Cohn had engaged in \"unduly persistent or aggressive efforts\".", "The committee also concluded that Army Secretary Robert Stevens and Army Counsel John Adams \"made efforts to terminate or influence the investigation and hearings at Fort Monmouth\", and that Adams \"made vigorous and diligent efforts\" to block subpoenas for members of the Army Loyalty and Screening Board \"by means of personal appeal to certain members of the McCarthy committee\".Of far greater importance to McCarthy than the committee's inconclusive final report was the negative effect that the extensive exposure had on his popularity.", "Many in the audience saw him as bullying, reckless, and dishonest, and the daily newspaper summaries of the hearings were also frequently unfavorable.Late in the hearings, Senator Stuart Symington made an angry and prophetic remark to McCarthy.", "Upon being told by McCarthy that \"You're not fooling anyone\", Symington replied: \"Senator, the American people have had a look at you now for six weeks; you're not fooling anyone, either.", "\"In Gallup polls of January 1954, 50% of those polled had a positive opinion of McCarthy.", "In June, that number had fallen to 34%.", "In the same polls, those with a negative opinion of McCarthy increased from 29% to 45%.An increasing number of Republicans and conservatives were coming to see McCarthy as a liability to the party and to anti-communism.", "Representative George H. Bender noted, \"There is a growing impatience with the Republican Party.", "McCarthyism has become a synonym for witch-hunting, Star Chamber methods, and the denial of ... civil liberties.\"", "Frederick Woltman, a reporter with a long-standing reputation as a staunch anti-communist, wrote a five-part series of articles criticizing McCarthy in the ''New York World-Telegram.''", "He stated that McCarthy \"has become a major liability to the cause of anti-communism\", and accused him of \"wild twisting of facts and near-facts that repels authorities in the field\".", "Joseph N. Welch (left) being questioned by Senator McCarthy, June 9, 1954.The most famous incident in the hearings was an exchange between McCarthy and the army's chief legal representative, Joseph Nye Welch.", "On June 9, 1954, the 30th day of the hearings, Welch challenged Roy Cohn to provide U.S. Attorney General Herbert Brownell Jr. with McCarthy's list of 130 Communists or subversives in defense plants \"before the sun goes down\".", "McCarthy stepped in and said that if Welch was so concerned about persons aiding the Communist Party, he should check on a man in his Boston law office named Fred Fisher, who had once belonged to the National Lawyers Guild, a progressive lawyers' association.In an impassioned defense of Fisher, Welch responded, \"Until this moment, Senator, I think I never really gauged your cruelty or your recklessness ...\" When McCarthy resumed his attack, Welch interrupted him: \"Let us not assassinate this lad further, Senator.", "You've done enough.", "Have you no sense of decency, Sir, at long last?", "Have you left no sense of decency?\"", "When McCarthy once again persisted, Welch cut him off and demanded the chairman \"call the next witness\".", "At that point, the gallery erupted in applause and a recess was called.===Edward R. Murrow, ''See It Now''===Edward R. Murrow, pioneer in broadcast journalism.Even before McCarthy's clash with Welch in the hearings, one of the most prominent attacks on McCarthy's methods was an episode of the television documentary series ''See It Now'', hosted by journalist Edward R. Murrow, which was broadcast on March 9, 1954.Titled \"A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy\", the episode consisted largely of clips of McCarthy speaking.", "In these clips, McCarthy accuses the Democratic party of \"twenty years of treason\", describes the American Civil Liberties Union as \"listed as 'a front for, and doing the work of', the Communist Party\", and berates and harangues various witnesses, including General Zwicker.In his conclusion, Murrow said of McCarthy:The following week, ''See It Now'' ran another episode critical of McCarthy, this one focusing on the case of Annie Lee Moss, an African-American army clerk who was the target of one of McCarthy's investigations.", "The Murrow shows, together with the televised Army–McCarthy hearings of the same year, were the major causes of a nationwide popular opinion backlash against McCarthy, in part because for the first time his statements were being publicly challenged by noteworthy figures.", "To counter the negative publicity, McCarthy appeared on ''See It Now'' on April 6, 1954, and made a number of charges against the popular Murrow, including the accusation that he colluded with VOKS, the \"Russian espionage and propaganda organization\".", "This response did not go over well with viewers, and the result was a further decline in McCarthy's popularity.===\"Joe Must Go\" recall attempt===On March 18, 1954, ''Sauk-Prairie Star'' editor Leroy Gore of Sauk City, Wisconsin urged the recall of McCarthy in a front-page editorial that ran alongside a sample petition that readers could fill out and mail to the newspaper.", "A Republican and former McCarthy supporter, Gore cited the senator with subverting President Eisenhower's authority, disrespecting Wisconsin's own Gen. Ralph Wise Zwicker and ignoring the plight of Wisconsin dairy farmers faced with price-slashing surpluses.Despite critics' claims that a recall attempt was foolhardy, the \"Joe Must Go\" movement caught fire and was backed by a diverse coalition including other Republican leaders, Democrats, businessmen, farmers and students.", "Wisconsin's constitution stipulates the number of signatures needed to force a recall election must exceed one-quarter the number of voters in the most recent gubernatorial election, requiring the anti-McCarthy movement to gather some 404,000 signatures in sixty days.", "With little support from organized labor or the state Democratic Party, the roughly organized recall effort attracted national attention, particularly during the concurrent Army-McCarthy hearings.Following the deadline of June 5, the final number of signatures was never determined because the petitions were sent out of state to avoid a subpoena from Sauk County district attorney Harlan Kelley, an ardent McCarthy supporter who was investigating the leaders of the recall campaign on the grounds that they had violated Wisconsin's Corrupt Practices Act.", "Chicago newspapermen later tallied 335,000 names while another 50,000 were said to be hidden in Minneapolis, with other lists buried on Sauk County farms.===Public opinion===+ McCarthy's Support in Gallup Polls Date Favorable No Opinion Unfavorable Net Favorable'''1952 August'''15 63 22 −7'''1953 April'''19 59 22 −3'''1953 June'''35 35 30 +5'''1953 August'''34 24 42 −8'''1954 January'''50 21 29 +21'''1954 March'''46 18 36 +10'''1954 April'''38 16 46 −8'''1954 May'''35 16 49 −14'''1954 June'''34 21 45 −11'''1954 August'''36 13 51 −15'''1954 November'''35 19 46 −11===Censure and the Watkins Committee===Senator Ralph Flanders, who introduced the resolution calling for McCarthy to be censuredSeveral members of the U.S. Senate had opposed McCarthy well before 1953.Senator Margaret Chase Smith, a Maine Republican, was the first.", "She delivered her \"Declaration of Conscience\" speech on June 1, 1950, calling for an end to the use of smear tactics, without mentioning McCarthy or anyone else by name.", "Only six other Republican senators—Wayne Morse, Irving Ives, Charles W. Tobey, Edward John Thye, George Aiken, and Robert C. Hendrickson—agreed to join her in condemning McCarthy's tactics.", "McCarthy referred to Smith and her fellow senators as \"Snow White and the six dwarfs\".On March 9, 1954, Vermont Republican senator Ralph E. Flanders gave a humor-laced speech on the Senate floor, questioning McCarthy's tactics in fighting communism, likening McCarthyism to \"house-cleaning\" with \"much clatter and hullabaloo\".", "He recommended that McCarthy turn his attention to the worldwide encroachment of Communism outside North America.In a June 1 speech, Flanders compared McCarthy to Adolf Hitler, accusing him of spreading \"division and confusion\" and saying, \"Were the Junior Senator from Wisconsin in the pay of the Communists he could not have done a better job for them.", "\"On June 11, Flanders introduced a resolution to have McCarthy removed as chair of his committees.", "Although there were many in the Senate who believed that some sort of disciplinary action against McCarthy was warranted, there was no clear majority supporting this resolution.", "Some of the resistance was due to concern about usurping the Senate's rules regarding committee chairs and seniority.", "Flanders next introduced a resolution to censure McCarthy.", "The resolution was initially written without any reference to particular actions or misdeeds on McCarthy's part.", "As Flanders put it, \"It was not his breaches of etiquette, or of rules or sometimes even of laws which is so disturbing,\" but rather his overall pattern of behavior.", "Ultimately a \"bill of particulars\" listing 46 charges was added to the censure resolution.", "A special committee, chaired by Senator Arthur Vivian Watkins, was appointed to study and evaluate the resolution.", "This committee opened hearings on August 31.Arthur V. WatkinsAfter two months of hearings and deliberations, the Watkins Committee recommended that McCarthy be censured on two of the 46 counts: his contempt of the Subcommittee on Rules and Administration, which had called him to testify in 1951 and 1952, and his abuse of General Zwicker in 1954.The Zwicker count was dropped by the full Senate on the grounds that McCarthy's conduct was arguably \"induced\" by Zwicker's own behavior.", "In place of this count, a new one was drafted regarding McCarthy's statements about the Watkins Committee itself.The two counts on which the Senate ultimately voted were:* That McCarthy had \"failed to co-operate with the Sub-committee on Rules and Administration\", and \"repeatedly abused the members who were trying to carry out assigned duties ...\"* That McCarthy had charged \"three members of the Watkins Select Committee with 'deliberate deception' and 'fraud' ... that the special Senate session ... was a 'lynch party, and had characterized the committee \"as the 'unwitting handmaiden', 'involuntary agent' and 'attorneys in fact' of the Communist Party\", and had \"acted contrary to senatorial ethics and tended to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute, to obstruct the constitutional processes of the Senate, and to impair its dignity\".On December 2, 1954, the Senate voted to \"condemn\" McCarthy on both counts by a vote of 67 to 22.The Democrats present unanimously favored condemnation and the Republicans were split evenly.", "The only senator not on record was John F. Kennedy, who was hospitalized for back surgery; Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted.", "Immediately after the vote, Senator H. Styles Bridges, a McCarthy supporter, argued that the resolution was \"not a censure resolution\" because the word \"condemn\" rather than \"censure\" was used in the final draft.", "The word \"censure\" was then removed from the title of the resolution, though it is generally regarded and referred to as a censure of McCarthy, both by historiansand in Senate documents.", "McCarthy himself said, \"I wouldn't exactly call it a vote of confidence.\"", "He added, \"I don't feel I've been lynched.", "\"Indiana Senator William E. Jenner, one of McCarthy's friends and fellow Republicans likened McCarthy's conduct, however, to that of \"the kid who came to the party and peed in the lemonade.\"" ], [ "Final years", "Harry J. Anslinger criticized and supplied McCarthy's morphine addictionAfter his condemnation and censure, Joseph McCarthy continued to perform his senatorial duties for another two and a half years.", "His career as a major public figure, however, had been ruined.", "His colleagues in the Senate avoided him; his speeches on the Senate floor were delivered to a near-empty chamber or received with intentional and conspicuous displays of inattention.The press that had once recorded his every public statement now ignored him, and outside speaking engagements dwindled almost to nothing.", "Eisenhower, finally freed of McCarthy's political intimidation, quipped to his Cabinet that McCarthyism was now \"McCarthywasm\".Still, McCarthy continued to rail against Communism.", "He warned against attendance at summit conferences with \"the Reds\", saying that \"you cannot offer friendship to tyrants and murderers ... without advancing the cause of tyranny and murder.", "\"He declared that \"co-existence with Communists is neither possible nor honorable nor desirable.", "Our long-term objective must be the eradication of Communism from the face of the earth.\"", "In one of his final acts in the Senate, McCarthy opposed President Eisenhower's nomination to the Supreme Court of William J. Brennan, after reading a speech Brennan had given shortly beforehand in which he characterized McCarthy's anti-Communist investigations as \"witch hunts\".", "McCarthy's opposition failed to gain any traction, however, and he was the only senator to vote against Brennan's confirmation.McCarthy's biographers agree that he was a changed man, for the worse, after the censure; declining both physically and emotionally, he became a \"pale ghost of his former self\", in the words of Fred J. Cook.It was reported that McCarthy suffered from cirrhosis of the liver and was frequently hospitalized for alcohol abuse.Numerous eyewitnesses, including Senate aide George Reedy and journalist Tom Wicker, reported finding him drunk in the Senate.Journalist Richard Rovere (1959) wrote:He had always been a heavy drinker, and there were times in those seasons of discontent when he drank more than ever.", "But he was not always drunk.", "He went on the wagon (for him this meant beer instead of whiskey) for days and weeks at a time.", "The difficulty toward the end was that he couldn't hold the stuff.", "He went to pieces on his second or third drink, and he did not snap back quickly.McCarthy had also become addicted to morphine.", "Harry J. Anslinger, head of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, became aware of McCarthy's addiction in the 1950s, and demanded he stop using the drug.", "McCarthy refused.", "In Anslinger's memoir, ''The Murderers'', McCarthy is anonymously quoted as saying:I wouldn't try to do anything about it, Commissioner ...", "It will be the worse for you ... and if it winds up in a public scandal and that should hurt this country, I wouldn't care … The choice is yours.Anslinger decided to give McCarthy access to morphine in secret from a pharmacy in Washington, DC.", "The morphine was paid for by the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, right up to McCarthy's death.", "Anslinger never publicly named McCarthy, and he threatened, with prison, a journalist who had uncovered the story.", "However, McCarthy's identity was known to Anslinger's agents, and journalist Maxine Cheshire confirmed his identity with Will Oursler, co-author of ''The Murderers,'' in 1978." ], [ "Death", "Fox River in the backgroundMcCarthy died in the Bethesda Naval Hospital on May 2, 1957, at the age of 48.His death certificate listed the cause of death as \"Hepatitis, acute, cause unknown\"; previously doctors had not reported him to be in critical condition.", "It was hinted in the press that he died of alcoholism (cirrhosis of the liver), an estimation that is now accepted by modern biographers.", "Thomas C. Reeves argues that he effectively died by suicide.", "He was given a state funeral that was attended by 70 senators, and a Solemn Pontifical Requiem Mass was celebrated before more than 100 priests and 2,000 others at Washington's St. Matthew's Cathedral.", "Thousands of people viewed his body in Washington.", "He was buried in St. Mary's Parish Cemetery, Appleton, Wisconsin, where more than 17,000 people filed through St. Mary's Church in order to pay him their last respects.", "Three senators—George W. Malone, William E. Jenner, and Herman Welker—had flown from Washington to Appleton on the plane that carried McCarthy's casket.", "Robert F. Kennedy attended the funeral in Wisconsin.", "McCarthy was survived by his wife, Jean, and their daughter, Tierney.In the summer of 1957, a special election was held in order to fill McCarthy's seat.", "In the primaries, voters in both parties turned away from McCarthy's legacy.", "The Republican primary was won by Governor Walter J. Kohler Jr., who called for a clean break from McCarthy's approach; he defeated former Representative Glenn Robert Davis, who charged that President Eisenhower was soft on Communism.", "Kohler was defeated in the special general election by Democrat William Proxmire.", "After assuming his seat, Proxmire did not pay the customary tribute to his predecessor and stated instead that McCarthy was a \"disgrace to Wisconsin, to the Senate, and to America.\"", "As of 2024, McCarthy is the last Republican to have held, or won election to, Wisconsin's Class 1 Senate seat." ], [ "Legacy", "William Bennett, former Reagan Administration Secretary of Education, summed up his perspective in his 2007 book ''America: The Last Best Hope'':===House Un-American Activities Committee===McCarthy's hearings are often incorrectly conflated with the hearings of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).", "HUAC is best known for its investigations of Alger Hiss and the Hollywood film industry, which led to the blacklisting of hundreds of actors, writers, and directors.", "HUAC was a House committee, and as such it had no formal connection to McCarthy, who served in the Senate, although the existence of the House Un-American Activities Committee thrived in part as a result of McCarthy's activities.", "HUAC was active for 37 years (1938–1975).===In popular culture===From the start of his notoriety, McCarthy served as a favorite subject for political cartoonists.", "He was traditionally depicted in a negative light, normally pertaining to McCarthyism and his accusations.", "Herblock's cartoon that coined the term ''McCarthyism'' appeared less than two months after the senator's now famous February 1950 speech in Wheeling, West Virginia.In 1951, Ray Bradbury published \"The Fireman\", an allegory on suppression of ideas.", "This served as the basis for ''Fahrenheit 451'' published in 1953.Bradbury said that he wrote ''Fahrenheit 451'' because of his concerns at the time (during the McCarthy era) about the threat of book burning in the United States.", "Bob Hope was one of the first comedians to make jokes about McCarthy.", "During his 1952 Christmas show, Hope made a joke about Santa Claus writing to let Joe McCarthy know he was going to wear his red suit despite the Red Scare.", "Hope continued to offer McCarthy jokes as they were well received by most people, although he did receive some hate mail.In 1953, the popular daily comic strip ''Pogo'' introduced the character Simple J. Malarkey, a pugnacious and conniving wildcat with an unmistakable physical resemblance to McCarthy.", "After a worried Rhode Island newspaper editor protested to the syndicate that provided the strip, creator Walt Kelly began depicting the Malarkey character with a bag over his head, concealing his features.", "The explanation was that Malarkey was hiding from a Rhode Island Red hen, a clear reference to the controversy over the Malarkey character.", "In 1953, playwright Arthur Miller published ''The Crucible'', suggesting the Salem witch trials were analogous to McCarthyism.As his fame grew, McCarthy increasingly became the target of ridicule and parody.", "He was impersonated by nightclub and radio impressionists and was satirized in ''Mad'' magazine, on ''The Red Skelton Show'', and elsewhere.", "Several comedy songs lampooning the senator were released in 1954, including \"Point of Order\" by Stan Freberg and Daws Butler, \"Senator McCarthy Blues\" by Hal Block, and unionist folk singer Joe Glazer's \"Joe McCarthy's Band\", sung to the tune of \"McNamara's Band\".", "Also in 1954, the radio comedy team Bob and Ray parodied McCarthy with the character \"Commissioner Carstairs\" in their soap opera spoof \"Mary Backstayge, Noble Wife\".", "That same year, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation radio network broadcast a satire, ''The Investigator'', whose title character was a clear imitation of McCarthy.", "A recording of the show became popular in the United States, and was reportedly played by President Eisenhower at cabinet meetings.", "The 1953 short story ''Mr.", "Costello, Hero'' by Theodore Sturgeon was described by noted journalist and author Paul Williams as \"the all-time great story about Senator Joseph McCarthy, who he was and how he did what he did.", "\"====Post-censure reaction====''Mr.", "Costello, Hero'' was adapted in 1958 by X Minus One into a radio teleplay and broadcast on July 3, 1956.While the radio adaptation retains much of the story, it completely remakes the narrator and in fact gives him a line spoken in the original by Mr. Costello himself, thus changing the tone of the story considerably.", "In a 1977 interview Sturgeon commented that it was his concerns about the ongoing McCarthy Hearings that prompted him to write the story.A more serious fictional portrayal of McCarthy played a central role in the 1959 novel ''The Manchurian Candidate'' by Richard Condon.", "The character of Senator John Iselin, a demagogic anti-communist, is closely modeled on McCarthy, even to the varying numbers of Communists he asserts are employed by the federal government.", "He remains a major character in the 1962 film version.The 1962 novel ''Advise and Consent'' by Allen Drury features an overzealous demagogue, Senator Fred Van Ackerman, based on McCarthy.", "Although the fictional senator is an ultra liberal who proposes surrender to the Soviet Union, his portrayal strongly resembles the popular perception of McCarthy's character and methods.McCarthy was portrayed by Peter Boyle in the 1977 Emmy-winning television movie ''Tail Gunner Joe'', a dramatization of McCarthy's life.", "He was portrayed by Joe Don Baker in the 1992 HBO film ''Citizen Cohn''.", "Archival footage of McCarthy himself was used in the 2005 film ''Good Night, and Good Luck'' about Edward R. Murrow and the ''See It Now'' episode that challenged McCarthy.", "In the German-French docu-drama ''The Real American – Joe McCarthy'' (2012), directed by Lutz Hachmeister, McCarthy is portrayed by the British actor and comedian John Sessions.", "In Lee Daniels' 2020 film, ''The United States vs. Billie Holiday'', McCarthy is portrayed by actor Randy Davison.R.E.M.", "'s song \"Exhuming McCarthy\", from their 1987 album ''Document'', deals largely with McCarthy and contains sound clips from the Army-McCarthy Hearings.", "'Joe' McCarthy is also mentioned in Billy Joel's 1989 song \"We Didn't Start the Fire\".McCarthyism is one of the subjects of Barbara Kingsolver's novel ''The Lacuna''.McCarthy is a secondary character in the Showtime television drama \"Fellow Travelers.", "\"=== Reconsideration ===McCarthy remains a controversial figure.", "Arthur Herman, popular historian and senior fellow of the Hudson Institute, says that new evidence—in the form of Venona-decrypted Soviet messages, Soviet espionage data now opened to the West, and newly released transcripts of closed hearings before McCarthy's subcommittee—has partially vindicated McCarthy by showing that some of his identifications of Communists were correct and the scale of Soviet espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s was larger than many scholars had suspected.In ''Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies'', journalist M. Stanton Evans similarly argued that evidence from the Venona documents shows significant penetration by Soviet agents.Historian John Earl Haynes, who studied the Venona decryptions extensively, challenged Herman's efforts to rehabilitate McCarthy, arguing that McCarthy's attempts to \"make anti-communism a partisan weapon\" actually \"threatened the post-War anti-Communist consensus\", thereby ultimately harming anti-Communist efforts more than helping them.", "Haynes concluded that, of the 159 people who were identified on lists used or referenced by McCarthy, evidence only substantially proved that nine of them had aided Soviet espionage efforts—while several hundred Soviet spies were actually known based on Venona and other evidence, most were never named by McCarthy.", "Haynes' own view was that a number of those accused on McCarthy's lists above, perhaps a majority, likely posed some form of possible security risk, but a significant minority of others likely did not, and several were indisputably no risk at all." ], [ "See also", "* List of deaths through alcohol* List of United States Congress members who died in office (1950–99)* List of United States senators expelled or censured" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Primary sources===* * * * * * * * * * * ===Secondary sources===* Anderson, Jack and May, Ronald W (1952).", "''McCarthy: the man, the Senator, the \"ism\",'' Beacon Press.", "* * * * Caballero, Raymond.", "''McCarthyism vs. Clinton Jencks.''", "Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.", "* Crosby, Donald F. \"The Jesuits and Joe McCarthy\".", "''Church History'' 1977 46(3): 374–388.Fulltext: in Jstor* * * * * Gauger, Michael.", "\"Flickering Images: Live Television Coverage and Viewership of the Army-McCarthy Hearings\".", "''Historian'' 2005 67(4): 678–693.Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco.", "Audience ratings show that few people watched the hearings.", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * \"Papa\" Prell's radio broadcast on \"Tail Gunner Joe\", including taped segments from the trial.", "* The McCarthy–Welch exchange* Joseph McCarthy Papers Marquette University Library* * * Documents on McCarthyism at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library* ''The Redhunter: a novel based on the life and times of Senator Joe McCarthy'' by William F. Buckley, Jr.*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Hancock" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Hancock''' ( – October 8, 1793) was an American Founding Father, merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution.", "He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first and third Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.", "He is remembered for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence, so much so that in the United States, ''John Hancock'' or ''Hancock'' has become a colloquialism for a person's signature.", "He also signed the Articles of Confederation, and used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788.Before the American Revolution, Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies, having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle.", "He began his political career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams, an influential local politician, though the two men later became estranged.", "Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause as tensions increased between colonists and Great Britain in the 1760s.", "He became very popular in Massachusetts, especially after British officials seized his sloop ''Liberty'' in 1768 and charged him with smuggling.", "Those charges were eventually dropped; he has often been described as a smuggler in historical accounts, but the accuracy of this characterization has been questioned." ], [ "Early life", "Coat of arms of John HancockHancock was born on January 23, 1737, in Braintree, Massachusetts, in a part of town that eventually became the separate city of Quincy.", "He was the son of Colonel John Hancock Jr. of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter (widow of Samuel Thaxter Junior), who was from nearby Hingham.", "As a child, Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams, whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735.The Hancocks lived a comfortable life and owned one slave to help with household work.After Hancock's father died in 1744, he was sent to live with his uncle and aunt, Thomas Hancock and Lydia (Henchman) Hancock.", "Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock, which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum, whale oil, and fish.", "Thomas Hancock's highly successful business made him one of Boston's richest and best-known residents.", "He and Lydia, along with several servants and slaves, lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill.", "The couple, who did not have any children of their own, became the dominant influence on John's life.After graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750, Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelor's degree in 1754.Upon graduation, he began to work for his uncle, just as the French and Indian War had begun.", "Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war.", "John Hancock learned much about his uncle's business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm.", "Hancock worked hard, but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes.From 1760 to 1761, Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers.", "Upon returning to Boston, Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncle's health failed, becoming a full partner in January 1763.He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762, which connected him with many of Boston's most influential citizens.", "When Thomas Hancock died in August 1764, John inherited the business, Hancock Manor, two or three household slaves, and thousands of acres of land, becoming one of the wealthiest men in the colonies.", "The household slaves continued to work for John and his aunt, but were eventually freed through the terms of Thomas Hancock's will; there is no evidence that John Hancock ever bought or sold slaves." ], [ "Growing imperial tensions", "After its victory in the Seven Years' War, the British Empire was deeply in debt.", "Looking for new sources of revenue, the British Parliament sought, for the first time, to directly tax the colonies, beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764.The earlier Molasses Act of 1733, a tax on shipments from the West Indies, had produced hardly any revenue because it was widely bypassed by smuggling, which was seen as a victimless crime.", "Not only was there little social stigma attached to smuggling in the colonies, but in port cities where trade was the primary generator of wealth, smuggling enjoyed considerable community support, and it was even possible to obtain insurance against being caught.", "Colonial merchants developed an impressive repertoire of evasive maneuvers to conceal the origin, nationality, routes, and content of their illicit cargoes.", "This included the frequent use of fraudulent paperwork to make the cargo appear legal and authorized.", "And much to the frustration of the British authorities, when seizures did happen local merchants were often able to use sympathetic provincial courts to reclaim confiscated goods and have their cases dismissed.", "For instance, Edward Randolph, the appointed head of customs in New England, brought 36 seizures to trial from 1680 to the end of 1682—and all but two of these were acquitted.", "Alternatively, merchants sometimes took matters into their own hands and stole illicit goods back while impounded.The Sugar Act provoked outrage in Boston, where it was widely viewed as a violation of colonial rights.", "Men such as James Otis and Samuel Adams argued that because the colonists were not represented in Parliament, they could not be taxed by that body; only the colonial assemblies, where the colonists were represented, could levy taxes upon the colonies.", "Hancock was not yet a political activist; however, he criticized the tax for economic, rather than constitutional, reasons.Around 1772, Hancock commissioned John Singleton Copley to paint this portrait of Samuel Adams, Hancock's early political mentor.Hancock emerged as a leading political figure in Boston just as tensions with Great Britain were increasing.", "In March 1765, he was elected as one of Boston's five selectmen, an office previously held by his uncle for many years.", "Soon after, Parliament passed the 1765 Stamp Act, a tax on legal documents such as wills that had been levied in Britain for many years but which was wildly unpopular in the colonies, producing riots and organized resistance.", "Hancock initially took a moderate position: as a loyal British subject, he thought that the colonists should submit to the act even though he believed that Parliament was misguided.", "Within a few months Hancock had changed his mind, although he continued to disapprove of violence and the intimidation of royal officials by mobs.", "Hancock joined the resistance to the Stamp Act by participating in a boycott of British goods, which made him popular in Boston.", "After Bostonians learned of the impending repeal of the Stamp Act, Hancock was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in May 1766.Hancock's political success benefited from the support of Samuel Adams, the clerk of the House of Representatives and a leader of Boston's \"popular party\", also known as \"Whigs\" and later as \"Patriots\".", "The two men made an unlikely pair.", "Fifteen years older than Hancock, Adams had a somber, Puritan outlook that stood in marked contrast to Hancock's taste for luxury and extravagance.", "Apocryphal stories later portrayed Adams as masterminding Hancock's political rise so that the merchant's wealth could be used to further the Whig agenda.", "Historian James Truslow Adams portrays Hancock as shallow and vain, easily manipulated by Adams.", "Historian William M. Fowler, who wrote biographies of both men, argues that this characterization was an exaggeration and that the relationship between the two was symbiotic, with Adams as the mentor and Hancock the protégé." ], [ "Townshend Acts crisis", "After the repeal of the Stamp Act, Parliament took a different approach to raising revenue, passing the 1767 Townshend Acts, which established new duties on various imports and strengthened the customs agency by creating the American Customs Board.", "The British government believed that a more efficient customs system was necessary because many colonial American merchants had been smuggling.", "Smugglers violated the Navigation Acts by trading with ports outside of the British Empire and avoiding import taxes.", "Parliament hoped that the new system would reduce smuggling and generate revenue for the government.Colonial merchants, even those not involved in smuggling, found the new regulations oppressive.", "Other colonists protested that new duties were another attempt by Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent.", "Hancock joined other Bostonians in calling for a boycott of British imports until the Townshend duties were repealed.", "In their enforcement of the customs regulations, the Customs Board targeted Hancock, Boston's wealthiest Whig.", "They may have suspected that he was a smuggler or they may have wanted to harass him because of his politics, especially after Hancock snubbed Governor Francis Bernard by refusing to attend public functions when the customs officials were present.On April 9, 1768, two customs employees (called tidesmen) boarded Hancock's brig ''Lydia'' in Boston Harbor.", "Hancock was summoned, and finding that the agents lacked a writ of assistance (a general search warrant), he did not allow them to go below deck.", "When one of them later managed to get into the hold, Hancock's men forced the tidesman back on deck.", "Customs officials wanted to file charges, but the case was dropped when Massachusetts Attorney General Jonathan Sewall ruled that Hancock had broken no laws.", "Later, some of Hancock's most ardent admirers called this incident the first act of physical resistance to British authority in the colonies and credit Hancock with initiating the American Revolution.===''Liberty'' affair===The next incident proved to be a major event in the coming of the American Revolution.", "On the evening of May 9, 1768, Hancock's sloop ''Liberty'' arrived in Boston Harbor, carrying a shipment of Madeira wine.", "When custom officers inspected the ship the next morning, they found that it contained 25 pipes of wine, just one fourth of the ship's carrying capacity.", "Hancock paid the duties on the 25 pipes of wine, but officials suspected that he had arranged to have more wine unloaded during the night to avoid paying the duties for the entire cargo.", "They did not have any evidence to prove this, however, since the two tidesmen who had stayed on the ship overnight gave a sworn statement that nothing had been unloaded.alt=Full-length portrait of a young man seated at a table.", "He wears a finely tailored dark suit, knee breeches with white stockings, and a wig in the style of an English gentleman.", "He holds a quill pen in his right hand, and is turning the pages of a large book with the other hand.One month later, while the British warship HMS ''Romney'' was in port, one of the tidesmen changed his story: he claimed that he had been forcibly held on the ''Liberty'' while it had been illegally unloaded.", "On June 10, customs officials seized the ''Liberty''.", "Bostonians were already angry because the captain of the ''Romney'' had been impressing colonists and not just deserters from the Royal Navy, an arguably illegal activity.", "A riot broke out when officials began to tow the ''Liberty'' out to the ''Romney'', which was also arguably illegal.", "The confrontation escalated when sailors and marines coming ashore to seize the ''Liberty'' were mistaken for a press gang.", "After the riot, customs officials relocated to the ''Romney'' and then to Castle William (an island fort in the harbor), claiming that they were unsafe in town.", "Whigs insisted that the customs officials were exaggerating the danger so that London would send troops to Boston.British officials filed two lawsuits stemming from the ''Liberty'' incident: an ''in rem'' suit against the ship and an ''in personam'' suit against Hancock.", "Royal officials as well as Hancock's accuser stood to gain financially since, as was the custom, any penalties assessed by the court would be awarded to the governor, the informer, and the Crown, each getting a third.", "The first suit, filed on June 22, 1768, resulted in the confiscation of the ''Liberty'' in August.", "Customs officials then used the ship to enforce trade regulations until it was burned by angry colonists in Rhode Island the following year.The second trial began in October 1768, when charges were filed against Hancock and five others for allegedly unloading 100 pipes of wine from the ''Liberty'' without paying the duties.", "If convicted, the defendants would have had to pay a penalty of triple the value of the wine, which came to £9,000.With John Adams serving as his lawyer, Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice admiralty court, which had no jury and was not required to allow the defense to cross-examine the witnesses.", "After dragging out for nearly five months, the proceedings against Hancock were dropped without explanation.Although the charges against Hancock were dropped, many writers later described him as a smuggler.", "The accuracy of this characterization has been questioned.", "\"Hancock's guilt or innocence and the exact charges against him\", wrote historian John W. Tyler in 1986, \"are still fiercely debated.\"", "Historian Oliver Dickerson argues that Hancock was the victim of an essentially criminal racketeering scheme perpetrated by Governor Bernard and the customs officials.", "Dickerson believes that there is no reliable evidence that Hancock was guilty in the ''Liberty'' case and that the purpose of the trials was to punish Hancock for political reasons and to plunder his property.", "Opposed to Dickerson's interpretation were Kinvin Wroth and Hiller Zobel, the editors of John Adams's legal papers, who argue that \"Hancock's innocence is open to question\" and that the British officials acted legally, if unwisely.", "Lawyer and historian Bernard Knollenberg concludes that the customs officials had the right to seize Hancock's ship, but towing it out to the ''Romney'' had been illegal.", "Legal historian John Phillip Reid argues that the testimony of both sides was so politically partial that it is not possible to objectively reconstruct the incident.Aside from the ''Liberty'' affair, the degree to which Hancock was engaged in smuggling, which may have been widespread in the colonies, has been questioned.", "Given the clandestine nature of smuggling, records are scarce.", "If Hancock was a smuggler, no documentation of this has been found.", "John W. Tyler identified 23 smugglers in his study of more than 400 merchants in revolutionary Boston but found no written evidence that Hancock was one of them.", "Biographer William Fowler concludes that while Hancock was probably engaged in some smuggling, most of his business was legitimate, and his later reputation as the \"king of the colonial smugglers\" is a myth without foundation." ], [ "Massacre to Tea Party", "alt=A wide view of a port town with several wharves.", "In the foreground, there are eight large sailing ships and an assortment of smaller vessels.", "Soldiers are disembarking from small boats onto a long wharf.", "The skyline of the town, with nine tall spires and many smaller buildings, is in the distance.", "A key at the bottom of the drawing indicates some prominent landmarks and the names of the warships.The ''Liberty'' affair reinforced a previously made British decision to suppress unrest in Boston with a show of military might.", "The decision had been prompted by Samuel Adams's 1768 Circular Letter, which was sent to other British American colonies in hopes of coordinating resistance to the Townshend Acts.", "Lord Hillsborough, secretary of state for the colonies, sent four regiments of the British Army to Boston to support embattled royal officials and instructed Governor Bernard to order the Massachusetts legislature to revoke the Circular Letter.", "Hancock and the Massachusetts House voted against rescinding the letter and instead drew up a petition demanding Governor Bernard's recall.", "When Bernard returned to England in 1769, Bostonians celebrated.The British troops remained, however, and tensions between soldiers and civilians eventually resulted in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of March 1770.Hancock was not involved in the incident, but afterwards he led a committee to demand the removal of the troops.", "Meeting with Bernard's successor, Governor Thomas Hutchinson, and the British officer in command, Colonel William Dalrymple, Hancock claimed that there were 10,000 armed colonists ready to march into Boston if the troops did not leave.", "Hutchinson knew that Hancock was bluffing, but the soldiers were in a precarious position when garrisoned within the town, and so Dalrymple agreed to remove both regiments to Castle William.", "Hancock was celebrated as a hero for his role in getting the troops withdrawn.", "His re-election to the Massachusetts House in May was nearly unanimous.This portrait of Hancock was published in England in 1775.After Parliament partially repealed the Townshend duties in 1770, Boston's boycott of British goods ended.", "Politics became quieter in Massachusetts, although tensions remained.", "Hancock tried to improve his relationship with Governor Hutchinson, who in turn sought to woo Hancock away from Adams's influence.", "In April 1772, Hutchinson approved Hancock's election as colonel of the Boston Cadets, a militia unit whose primary function was to provide a ceremonial escort for the governor and the General Court.", "In May, Hutchinson even approved Hancock's election to the Council, the upper chamber of the General Court, whose members were elected by the House but subject to veto by the governor.", "Hancock's previous elections to the council had been vetoed, but now Hutchinson allowed the election to stand.", "Hancock declined the office, however, not wanting to appear to have been co-opted by the governor.", "Nevertheless, Hancock used the improved relationship to resolve an ongoing dispute.", "To avoid hostile crowds in Boston, Hutchinson had been convening the legislature outside of town; now he agreed to allow the General Court to sit in Boston once again, to the relief of the legislators.Hutchinson had dared to hope that he could win over Hancock and discredit Adams.", "To some, it seemed that Adams and Hancock were indeed at odds: when Adams formed the Boston Committee of Correspondence in November 1772 to advocate colonial rights, Hancock declined to join, creating the impression that there was a split in the Whig ranks.", "But whatever their differences, Hancock and Adams came together again in 1773 with the renewal of major political turmoil.", "They cooperated in the revelation of private letters of Thomas Hutchinson, in which the governor seemed to recommend \"an abridgement of what are called \"English liberties\" to bring order to the colony.", "The Massachusetts House, blaming Hutchinson for the military occupation of Boston, called for his removal as governor.Even more trouble followed Parliament's passage of the 1773 Tea Act.", "On November 5, Hancock was elected as moderator at a Boston town meeting that resolved that anyone who supported the Tea Act was an \"Enemy to America\".", "Hancock and others tried to force the resignation of the agents who had been appointed to receive the tea shipments.", "Unsuccessful in this, they attempted to prevent the tea from being unloaded after three tea ships had arrived in Boston Harbor.", "Hancock was at the fateful meeting on December 16 where he reportedly told the crowd, \"Let every man do what is right in his own eyes.\"", "Hancock did not take part in the Boston Tea Party that night, but he approved of the action, although he was careful not to publicly praise the destruction of private property.Over the next few months, Hancock was disabled by gout, which troubled him with increasing frequency in the coming years.", "By March 5, 1774, he had recovered enough to deliver the fourth annual Massacre Day oration, a commemoration of the Boston Massacre.", "Hancock's speech denounced the presence of British troops in Boston, who he said had been sent there \"to enforce obedience to acts of Parliament, which neither God nor man ever empowered them to make\".", "The speech, probably written by Hancock in collaboration with Adams, Joseph Warren, and others, was published and widely reprinted, enhancing Hancock's stature as a leading Patriot." ], [ "Revolution begins", "This March 24, 1775 resolution in the Massachusetts Provincial Congress of which Hancock was president, resolves that measures for \"putting this colony into a complete state of defense, be still most vigorously pursued by the several towns, as well as individual inhabitants\".Parliament responded to the Tea Party with the Boston Port Act, one of the so-called Coercive Acts intended to strengthen British control of the colonies.", "Hutchinson was replaced as governor by General Thomas Gage, who arrived in May 1774.On June 17, the Massachusetts House elected five delegates to send to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which was being organized to coordinate colonial response to the Coercive Acts.", "Hancock did not serve in the first Congress, possibly for health reasons or possibly to remain in charge while the other Patriot leaders were away.Gage dismissed Hancock from his post as colonel of the Boston Cadets.", "In October 1774, Gage canceled the scheduled meeting of the General Court.", "In response, the House resolved itself into the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, a body independent of British control.", "Hancock was elected as president of the Provincial Congress and was a key member of the Committee of safety.", "The Provincial Congress created the first minutemen companies, consisting of militiamen who were to be ready for action on a moment's notice.Wary of returning to Boston, Hancock was staying at the alt=The main part of the home is a wooden, two-and-a-half story rectangular building with large windows, one central door, and a central chimney.", "A smaller wing extends back from the right side.", "There are large trees in the background and a low rock wall in the foreground.On December 1, 1774, the Provincial Congress elected Hancock as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress to replace James Bowdoin, who had been unable to attend the first Congress because of illness.", "Before Hancock reported to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, the Provincial Congress unanimously re-elected him as their president in February 1775.Hancock's multiple roles gave him enormous influence in Massachusetts, and as early as January 1774 British officials had considered arresting him.", "After attending the Provincial Congress in Concord in April 1775, Hancock and Samuel Adams decided that it was not safe to return to Boston before leaving for Philadelphia.", "They stayed instead at Hancock's childhood home in Lexington.Gage received a letter from Lord Dartmouth on April 14, 1775, advising him \"to arrest the principal actors and abettors in the Provincial Congress whose proceedings appear in every light to be acts of treason and rebellion\".", "On the night of April 18, Gage sent out a detachment of soldiers on the fateful mission that sparked the American Revolutionary War.", "The purpose of the British expedition was to seize and destroy military supplies that the colonists had stored in Concord.", "According to many historical accounts, Gage also instructed his men to arrest Hancock and Adams; if so, the written orders issued by Gage made no mention of arresting the Patriot leaders.", "Gage apparently decided that he had nothing to gain by arresting Hancock and Adams, since other leaders would simply take their place, and the British would be portrayed as the aggressors.Although Gage had evidently decided against seizing Hancock and Adams, Patriots initially believed otherwise.", "From Boston, Joseph Warren dispatched messenger Paul Revere to warn Hancock and Adams that British troops were on the move and might attempt to arrest them.", "Revere reached Lexington around midnight and gave the warning.", "Hancock, still considering himself a militia colonel, wanted to take the field with the Patriot militia at Lexington, but Adams and others convinced him to avoid battle, arguing that he was more valuable as a political leader than as a soldier.", "As Hancock and Adams made their escape, the first shots of the war were fired at Lexington and Concord.", "Soon after the battle, Gage issued a proclamation granting a general pardon to all who would \"lay down their arms, and return to the duties of peaceable subjects\"—with the exceptions of Hancock and Samuel Adams.", "Singling out Hancock and Adams in this manner only added to their renown among Patriots." ], [ "President of Congress", "Hancock's wife Dorothy Quincy, by John Singleton Copley, c. 1772With the war underway, Hancock made his way to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia with the other Massachusetts delegates.", "On May 24, 1775, he was unanimously elected President of the Continental Congress, succeeding Peyton Randolph after Henry Middleton declined the nomination.", "Hancock was a good choice for president for several reasons.", "He was experienced, having often presided over legislative bodies and town meetings in Massachusetts.", "His wealth and social standing inspired the confidence of moderate delegates, while his association with Boston radicals made him acceptable to other radicals.", "His position was somewhat ambiguous because the role of the president was not fully defined, and it was not clear if Randolph had resigned or was on a leave of absence.", "Like other presidents of Congress, Hancock's authority was mostly limited to that of a presiding officer.", "He also had to handle a great deal of official correspondence, and he found it necessary to hire clerks at his own expense to help with the paperwork.In Congress on June 15, 1775, Massachusetts delegate John Adams nominated George Washington as commander-in-chief of the army then gathered around Boston.", "Years later, Adams wrote that Hancock had shown great disappointment at not getting the command for himself.", "This brief comment from 1801 is the only source for the oft-cited claim that Hancock sought to become commander-in-chief.", "In the early 20th century, historian James Truslow Adams wrote that the incident initiated a lifelong estrangement between Hancock and Washington, but some subsequent historians have expressed doubt that the incident, or the estrangement, ever occurred.", "According to historian Donald Proctor, \"There is no contemporary evidence that Hancock harbored ambitions to be named commander-in-chief.", "Quite the contrary.\"", "Hancock and Washington maintained a good relationship after the alleged incident, and in 1778 Hancock named his only son ''John George Washington Hancock''.", "Hancock admired and supported General Washington, even though Washington politely declined Hancock's request for a military appointment.When Congress recessed on August 1, 1775, Hancock took the opportunity to wed his fiancée, Dorothy \"Dolly\" Quincy.", "The couple was married on August 28 in Fairfield, Connecticut.", "They had two children, neither of whom survived to adulthood.", "Their daughter Lydia Henchman Hancock was born in 1776 and died ten months later.", "Their son John was born in 1778 and died in 1787 after suffering a head injury while ice skating.While president of Congress, Hancock became involved in a long-running controversy with Harvard.", "As treasurer of the college since 1773, he had been entrusted with the school's financial records and about £15,000 in cash and securities.", "In the rush of events at the onset of the Revolutionary War, Hancock had been unable to return the money and accounts to Harvard before leaving for Congress.", "In 1777, a Harvard committee headed by James Bowdoin, Hancock's chief political and social rival in Boston, sent a messenger to Philadelphia to retrieve the money and records.", "Hancock was offended, but he turned over more than £16,000, though not all of the records, to the college.", "When Harvard replaced Hancock as treasurer, his ego was bruised and for years he declined to settle the account or pay the interest on the money he had held, despite pressure put on him by Bowdoin and other political opponents.", "The issue dragged on until after Hancock's death, when his estate finally paid the college more than £1,000 to resolve the matter.Hancock served in Congress through some of the darkest days of the Revolutionary War.", "The British drove Washington from New York and New Jersey in 1776, which prompted Congress to flee to Baltimore.", "Hancock and Congress returned to Philadelphia in March 1777 but were compelled to flee six months later when the British occupied Philadelphia.", "Hancock wrote innumerable letters to colonial officials, raising money, supplies, and troops for Washington's army.", "He chaired the Marine Committee and took pride in helping to create a small fleet of American frigates, including the USS ''Hancock'', which was named in his honor.===Signing the Declaration===alt=In relation to the other signatures, Hancock's is at the top and center.alt=The handwriting of Hancock's signature, which slants slightly to the right, is firm and legible.", "The final letter loops back to underline his name in a flourish.Hancock was president of Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopted and signed.", "He is primarily remembered by Americans for his large, flamboyant signature on the Declaration, so much so that \"John Hancock\" became, in the United States, an informal synonym for ''signature''.", "According to legend, Hancock signed his name largely and clearly so that King George could read it without his spectacles, but the story is apocryphal and originated years later.Contrary to popular mythology, there was no ceremonial signing of the Declaration on July 4, 1776.After Congress approved the wording of the text on July 4, the ''fair copy'' was sent to be printed.", "As president, Hancock may have signed the document that was sent to the printer John Dunlap, but this is uncertain because that document is lost, perhaps destroyed in the printing process.", "Dunlap produced the first published version of the Declaration, the widely distributed Dunlap broadside.", "Hancock, as President of Congress, was the only delegate whose name appeared on the broadside, although the name of Charles Thomson, secretary of the Continental Congress but not a delegate, was also on it as \"Attested by\" implying that Hancock had signed the fair copy.", "This meant that until a second broadside was issued six months later with all of the signers listed, Hancock was the only delegate whose name was publicly attached to the treasonous document.", "Hancock sent a copy of the Dunlap broadside to George Washington, instructing him to have it read to the troops \"in the way you shall think most proper\".Hancock's name was printed, not signed, on the Dunlap broadside; his iconic signature appears on a different document—a sheet of parchment that was carefully handwritten sometime after July 19 and signed on August 2 by Hancock and those delegates present.", "Known as the engrossed copy, this is the famous document on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C." ], [ "Return to Massachusetts", "In John Trumbull's painting ''The Declaration of Independence'', Hancock, as presiding officer, is seated on the right as the drafting committee presents their work.In October 1777, after more than two years in Congress, Hancock requested a leave of absence.", "He asked Washington to arrange a military escort for his return to Boston.", "Although Washington was short on manpower, he nevertheless sent fifteen horsemen to accompany Hancock on his journey home.", "By this time Hancock had become estranged from Samuel Adams, who disapproved of what he viewed as Hancock's vanity and extravagance, which Adams believed were inappropriate in a republican leader.", "When Congress voted to thank Hancock for his service, Adams and the other Massachusetts delegates voted against the resolution, as did a few delegates from other states.Back in Boston, Hancock was re-elected to the House of Representatives.", "As in previous years, his philanthropy made him popular.", "Although his finances had suffered greatly because of the war, he gave to the poor, helped support widows and orphans, and loaned money to friends.", "According to biographer William Fowler, \"John Hancock was a generous man and the people loved him for it.", "He was their idol.\"", "In December 1777, he was re-elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress and as moderator of the Boston town meeting.Hancock House, a replica of Hancock Manor in Boston, was built in Ticonderoga, New York, by the Ticonderoga Historical Society and is open as a museum.Hancock rejoined the Continental Congress in Pennsylvania in June 1778, but his brief time there was unhappy.", "In his absence, Congress had elected Henry Laurens as its new president, which was a disappointment to Hancock, who had hoped to reclaim his chair.", "Hancock got along poorly with Samuel Adams and missed his wife and newborn son.", "On July 9, 1778, Hancock and the other Massachusetts delegates joined the representatives from seven other states in signing the Articles of Confederation; the remaining states were not yet prepared to sign, and the Articles were not ratified until 1781.Hancock returned to Boston in July 1778, motivated by the opportunity to finally lead men in combat.", "Back in 1776, he had been appointed as the senior major general of the Massachusetts militia.", "Now that the French fleet had come to the aid of the Americans, General Washington instructed General John Sullivan to lead an attack on the British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island, in August 1778.Hancock nominally commanded 6,000 militiamen in the campaign, although he let the professional soldiers do the planning and issue the orders.", "It was a fiasco: French Admiral d'Estaing abandoned the operation, after which Hancock's militia mostly deserted Sullivan's Continentals.", "Hancock suffered some criticism for the debacle but emerged from his brief military career with his popularity intact.After much delay, the Massachusetts Constitution finally went into effect in October 1780.To no one's surprise, Hancock was elected Governor of Massachusetts in a landslide, garnering over 90% of the vote.", "In the absence of formal party politics, the contest was one of personality, popularity, and patriotism.", "Hancock was immensely popular and unquestionably patriotic given his personal sacrifices and his leadership of the Second Continental Congress.", "Bowdoin, his principal opponent, was cast by Hancock's supporters as unpatriotic, citing among other things his refusal (which was due to poor health) to serve in the First Continental Congress.", "Bowdoin's supporters, who were principally well-off commercial interests from Massachusetts coastal communities, cast Hancock as a foppish demagogue who pandered to the populace.Hancock governed Massachusetts through the end of the Revolutionary War and into an economically troubled postwar period, repeatedly winning re-election by wide margins.", "Hancock took a hands-off approach to governing, avoiding controversial issues as much as possible.", "According to William Fowler, Hancock \"never really led\" and \"never used his strength to deal with the critical issues confronting the commonwealth.\"", "Hancock governed until his surprise resignation on January 29, 1785.Hancock cited his failing health as the reason, but he may have become aware of growing unrest in the countryside and wanted to get out of office before the trouble came.Hancock's critics sometimes believed that he used claims of illness to avoid difficult political situations.", "Historian James Truslow Adams writes that Hancock's \"two chief resources were his money and his gout, the first always used to gain popularity, and the second to prevent his losing it\".", "The turmoil that Hancock avoided ultimately blossomed as Shays' Rebellion, which Hancock's successor Bowdoin had to deal with.", "After the uprising, Hancock was re-elected in 1787, and he promptly pardoned all the rebels.", "The next year, a controversy arose when three free blacks were kidnapped from Boston and sent to work as slaves in the French colony of Martinique in the West Indies.", "Governor Hancock wrote to the governors of the islands on their behalf.", "As a result, the three men were released and returned to Massachusetts.", "Hancock was re-elected to annual terms as governor for the remainder of his life." ], [ "Final years", "Hancock's memorial in Boston's Granary Burying Ground, dedicated in 1896When he had resigned as governor in 1785, Hancock was again elected as a delegate to Congress, known as the Confederation Congress after the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781.Congress had declined in importance after the Revolutionary War and was frequently ignored by the states.", "Hancock was elected to serve as its president on November 23, 1785, but he never attended because of his poor health and because he was disinterested.", "He sent Congress a letter of resignation in June 1786.In an effort to remedy the perceived defects of the Articles of Confederation, delegates were first sent to the Annapolis Convention in 1786 and then to the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, where they drafted the United States Constitution, which was then sent to the states for ratification or rejection.", "Hancock, who was not present at the Philadelphia Convention, had misgivings about the Constitution's lack of a bill of rights and its shift of power to a central government.", "In January 1788, Hancock was elected president of the Massachusetts ratifying convention, although he was ill and not present when the convention began.", "Hancock mostly remained silent during the contentious debates, but as the convention was drawing to close, he gave a speech in favor of ratification.", "For the first time in years, Samuel Adams supported Hancock's position.", "Even with the support of Hancock and Adams, the Massachusetts convention narrowly ratified the Constitution by a vote of 187 to 168.Hancock's support was probably a deciding factor in the ratification.Hancock was put forth as a candidate in the 1789 U.S. presidential election.", "As was the custom in an era where political ambition was viewed with suspicion, Hancock did not campaign or even publicly express interest in the office; he instead made his wishes known indirectly.", "Like everyone else, Hancock knew that Washington was going to be elected as the first president, but Hancock may have been interested in being vice president, despite his poor health.", "Hancock received only four electoral votes in the election, however, none of them from his home state; the Massachusetts electors all voted for John Adams, who received the second-highest number of electoral votes and thus became vice president.", "Although Hancock was disappointed with his performance in the election, he continued to be popular in Massachusetts.His health failing, Hancock spent his final few years as essentially a figurehead governor.", "With his wife at his side, he died in bed on October 8, 1793, at age 56.By order of acting governor Samuel Adams, the day of Hancock's burial was a state holiday; the lavish funeral was perhaps the grandest given to an American up to that time." ], [ "Legacy", "USS ''John Hancock''Despite his grand funeral, Hancock faded from popular memory after his death.", "According to historian Alfred F. Young, \"Boston celebrated only one hero in the half-century after the Revolution: George Washington.\"", "As early as 1809, John Adams lamented that Hancock and Samuel Adams were \"almost buried in oblivion\".", "In Boston, little effort was made to preserve Hancock's historical legacy.", "His house on Beacon Hill was torn down in 1863 after both the city of Boston and the Massachusetts legislature decided against maintaining it.", "According to Young, the conservative \"new elite\" of Massachusetts \"was not comfortable with a rich man who pledged his fortune to the cause of revolution\".", "In 1876, with the centennial of American independence renewing popular interest in the Revolution, plaques honoring Hancock were put up in Boston.", "In 1896, a memorial column was erected over Hancock's essentially unmarked grave in the Granary Burying Ground.No full-length biography of Hancock appeared until the 20th century.", "A challenge facing Hancock biographers is that, compared to prominent Founding Fathers like Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, Hancock left relatively few personal writings for historians to use in interpreting his life.", "As a result, most depictions of Hancock have relied on the voluminous writings of his political opponents, who were often scathingly critical of him.", "According to historian Charles Akers, \"The chief victim of Massachusetts historiography has been John Hancock, the most gifted and popular politician in the Bay State's long history.", "He suffered the misfortune of being known to later generations almost entirely through the judgments of his detractors, Tory and Whig.", "\"Hancock's most influential 20th-century detractor was historian James Truslow Adams, who wrote negative portraits of Hancock in ''Harper's Magazine'' and the ''Dictionary of American Biography'' in the 1930s.", "Adams argued that Hancock was a \"fair presiding officer\" but had \"no great ability\", and was prominent only because of his inherited wealth.", "Decades later, historian Donald Proctor argued that Adams had uncritically repeated the negative views of Hancock's political opponents without doing any serious research.", "Adams \"presented a series of disparaging incidents and anecdotes, sometimes partially documented, sometimes not documented at all, which in sum leave one with a distinctly unfavorable impression of Hancock\".", "According to Proctor, Adams evidently projected his own disapproval of 1920s businessmen onto Hancock and ended up misrepresenting several key events in Hancock's career.", "Writing in the 1970s, Proctor and Akers called for scholars to evaluate Hancock based on his merits rather than on the views of his critics.", "Since that time, historians have usually presented a more favorable portrait of Hancock while acknowledging that he was not an important writer, political theorist, or military leader.Many places and things in the United States have been named in honor of Hancock.", "The U.S. Navy has named vessels USS ''Hancock'' and USS ''John Hancock''; a World War II Liberty ship was also named in his honor.", "Ten states have a Hancock County named for him; other places named after him include Hancock, Massachusetts; Hancock, Michigan; Hancock, New Hampshire; Hancock, New York; and Mount Hancock in New Hampshire.", "The defunct John Hancock University was named for him, as was the John Hancock Financial company, founded in Boston in 1862; it had no connection to Hancock's own business ventures.", "The financial company passed on the name to the John Hancock Tower in Boston, the John Hancock Center in Chicago, as well as the John Hancock Student Village at Boston University.", "Hancock was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780." ], [ "See also", "* List of richest Americans in history* Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence* Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Barbier, Brooke.", "''King Hancock: The Radical Influence of a Moderate Founding Father.''", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2023.. * Baxter, William T. ''The House of Hancock: Business in Boston, 1724–1775''.", "1945.Reprint, New York: Russell & Russell, 1965.Deals primarily with Thomas Hancock's business career.", "* Brandes, Paul D. ''John Hancock's Life and Speeches: A Personalized Vision of the American Revolution, 1763–1793''.", "Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1996..", "Contains the full text of many speeches.", "* Brown, Abram E. ''John Hancock, His Book''.", "Boston, 1898.Mostly extracts from Hancock's letters.", "* Sears, Lorenzo.", "''John Hancock, The Picturesque Patriot''.", "1912.The first full biography of Hancock.", "* Reprints the primary documents." ], [ "External links", "* Profile at ''Biography.com''* Profile at ''UShistory.org''* Profile at ''History.com''* Official Massachusetts biography of Hancock* Hancock family papers at the Harvard library (Collection Identifier: Mss:766 1712-1854 H234)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John W. Campbell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Wood Campbell Jr.''' (June 8, 1910 – July 11, 1971) was an American science fiction writer and editor.", "He was editor of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' (later called ''Analog Science Fiction and Fact'') from late 1937 until his death and was part of the Golden Age of Science Fiction.", "Campbell wrote super-science space opera under his own name and stories under his primary pseudonym, Don A. Stuart.", "Campbell also used the pen names Karl Van Kampen and Arthur McCann.", "His novella ''Who Goes There?''", "was adapted as the films ''The Thing from Another World'' (1951), ''The Thing'' (1982), and ''The Thing'' (2011).Campbell began writing science fiction at age 18 while attending MIT.", "He published six short stories, one novel, and eight letters in the science fiction magazine ''Amazing Stories'' from 1930 to 1931.This work established Campbell's reputation as a writer of space adventure.", "When in 1934 he began to write stories with a different tone, he wrote as Don A. Stuart.", "From 1930 until 1937, Campbell was prolific and successful under both names; he stopped writing fiction shortly after he became editor of ''Astounding'' in 1937.It is as editor of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' from late 1937 until his death for which Campbell is primarily remembered today.", "In 1939, Campbell started the fantasy magazine ''Unknown'', which was canceled after only four years.", "Referring to his time spent as an editor, ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'' states: \"More than any other individual, he helped to shape modern sf.\"", "Isaac Asimov called Campbell \"the most powerful force in science fiction ever\" and said the \"first ten years of his editorship he dominated the field completely.\"", "In his capacity as an editor, Campbell published some of the very earliest work, and helped shape the careers of virtually every important science-fiction author to debut between 1938 and 1946, including Asimov, Robert A. Heinlein, Theodore Sturgeon, and Arthur C. Clarke.An increasingly strong interest in pseudoscience later alienated Campbell from Asimov.", "In the 1960s, Campbell's controversial essays supporting segregation, and other remarks and writings surrounding slavery and race, served to distance him from many in the science fiction community.", "Nevertheless, Campbell remained an important figure in science fiction publishing up until his death.", "Campbell and ''Astounding'' shared one of the inaugural Hugo Awards with H. L. Gold and ''Galaxy'' at the 1953 World Science Fiction Convention.", "Subsequently, Campbell and ''Astounding'' won the Hugo Award for Best Professional Editor seven additional times as well as winning the Hugo Award for Best Professional Magazine four times.", "Campbell and ''Analog'' won the Hugo Award for Best Professional Magazine yet another four times and Campbell's novella ''Who Goes There?''", "also won a Hugo Award for Best Novella, bringing his total award count to an amazing seventeen times.Shortly after his death in 1971, the University of Kansas science fiction program established the annual John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel and also renamed its annual Campbell Conference after him.", "The World Science Fiction Society established the annual John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer, since renamed the Astounding Award for Best New Writer.", "The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Campbell in 1996, in its inaugural class of two deceased and two living persons." ], [ "Biography", "John Campbell was born in Newark, New Jersey, in 1910.His father, John Wood Campbell Sr., was an electrical engineer.", "His mother, Dorothy (née Strahern) had an identical twin who visited them often and who disliked John.", "John was unable to tell them apart and says he was frequently rebuffed by the person he took to be his mother.", "Campbell attended the Blair Academy, a boarding school in rural Warren County, New Jersey, but did not graduate because of lack of credits for French and trigonometry.He also attended, without graduating, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he was befriended by the mathematician Norbert Wiener (who coined the term ''cybernetics'') – but he failed German, and MIT dismissed him in his junior year in 1931.After two years at Duke University, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science in physics in 1934.Campbell began writing science fiction at age 18 while attending MIT and sold his first stories quickly.", "From January 1930 to June 1931, ''Amazing Stories'' published six of his short stories, one novel, and six letters.", "Campbell was editor of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' (later called ''Analog Science Fiction and Fact'') from late 1937 until his death.", "He stopped writing fiction after he became the editor of ''Astounding''.", "Between December 11, 1957, and June 13, 1958, he hosted a weekly science fiction radio program called ''Exploring Tomorrow''.", "The scripts were written by authors such as Gordon R. Dickson and Robert Silverberg.Campbell and Doña Stewart married in 1931.They divorced in 1949, and he married Margaret (Peg) Winter in 1950.He spent most of his life in New Jersey and died of heart failure at his home in Mountainside, New Jersey.", "He was an atheist.=== Writing career ===Campbell's first published story, \"When the Atoms Failed\", was cover-featured in the January 1930 issue of ''Amazing Stories''.Campbell as depicted in the January 1932 issue of ''Wonder Stories''The first installment of Campbell's serial \"Uncertainty\" took the cover of the October 1936 issue of ''Amazing Stories''.Editor T. O'Conor Sloane lost Campbell's first manuscript that he accepted for ''Amazing Stories'', entitled \"Invaders of the Infinite\".", "\"When the Atoms Failed\" appeared in January 1930, followed by five more during 1930.Three were part of a space opera series featuring the characters Arcot, Morey, and Wade.", "A complete novel in the series, ''Islands of Space'', was the cover story in the Spring 1931 ''Quarterly''.", "During 1934–35 a serial novel, ''The Mightiest Machine'', ran in ''Astounding Stories'', edited by F. Orlin Tremaine, and several stories featuring lead characters Penton and Blake appeared from late 1936 in ''Thrilling Wonder Stories'', edited by Mort Weisinger.The early work for ''Amazing'' established Campbell's reputation as a writer of space adventure.", "When in 1934, he began to publish stories with a different tone he wrote as Don A. Stuart, a pseudonym derived from his wife's maiden name.From 1930 until the later part of that decade, Campbell was prolific and successful under both names.", "Three significant stories published under the pseudonym are ''Twilight'' (''Astounding'', November 1934), ''Night'' (''Astounding'', October 1935), and ''Who Goes There?''", "(''Astounding'', August 1938).", "''Who Goes There?", "'', about a group of Antarctic researchers who discover a crashed alien vessel, formerly inhabited by a malevolent shape-changing occupant, was published in ''Astounding'' almost a year after Campbell became its editor and it was his last significant piece of fiction, at age 28.It was filmed as ''The Thing from Another World'' (1951), ''The Thing'' (1982), and again as ''The Thing'' (2011).Campbell held the amateur radio call sign W2ZGU, and wrote many articles on electronics and radio for a wide range of magazines.=== Editing career ===Tremaine hired Campbell to succeed him as the editor of ''Astounding'' from its October 1937 issue.", "Campbell was not given full authority for ''Astounding'' until May 1938, but had been responsible for buying stories somewhat earlier.", "He began to make changes almost immediately, instigating a \"mutant\" label for unusual stories, and in March 1938, changing the title from ''Astounding Stories'' to ''Astounding Science-Fiction''.Lester del Rey's first story, in March 1938, was an early find for Campbell, and in 1939, he published such an extraordinary group of new writers for the first time that the period is generally regarded as the beginning of the \"Golden Age of Science Fiction\", and the July 1939 issue in particular.", "The July issue contained A. E. van Vogt's first story, \"Black Destroyer\", and Asimov's early story, \"Trends\"; August brought Robert A. Heinlein's first story, \"Life-Line\", and the next month Theodore Sturgeon's first story appeared.Also in 1939, Campbell started the fantasy magazine ''Unknown'' (later ''Unknown Worlds'').", "Although ''Unknown'' was canceled after only four years, a victim of wartime paper shortages, the magazine's editorial direction was significant in the evolution of modern fantasy.Campbell died in 1971 at the age of 61 in Mountainside, New Jersey.", "At the time of his sudden death after 34 years at the helm of ''Analog,'' Campbell's quirky personality and eccentric editorial demands had alienated some of his most illustrious writers to the point that they no longer submitted works to him.", "The November 1949 issue" ], [ "Influence", "''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'' wrote: \"More than any other individual, he helped to shape modern sf\", and Darrell Schweitzer credits him with having \"decreed that SF writers should pull themselves up out of the pulp mire and start writing intelligently, for adults\".", "After 1950, new magazines such as ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' and ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'' moved in different directions and developed talented new writers who were not directly influenced by him.", "Campbell often suggested story ideas to writers (including \"Write me a creature that thinks ''as well as'' a man, or ''better than'' a man, but not ''like'' a man\" ), and sometimes asked for stories to match cover paintings he had already bought.Campbell had a strong formative influence on Asimov and eventually became a friend.", "Asimov said of Campbell's influence on the field:By his own example and by his instruction and by his undeviating and persisting insistence, he forced first ''Astounding'' and then all science fiction into his mold.", "He abandoned the earlier orientation of the field.", "He demolished the stock characters who had filled it; eradicated the penny dreadful plots; extirpated the Sunday-supplement science.", "In a phrase, he blotted out the purple of pulp.", "Instead, he demanded that science-fiction writers understand science and understand people, a hard requirement that many of the established writers of the 1930s could not meet.", "Campbell did not compromise because of that: those who could not meet his requirements could not sell to him, and the carnage was as great as it had been in Hollywood a decade before, while silent movies had given way to the talkies.One example of the type of speculative but plausible science fiction that Campbell demanded from his writers is \"Deadline\", a short story by Cleve Cartmill that appeared during the wartime year of 1944, a year before the detonation of the first atomic bomb.", "As Ben Bova, Campbell's successor as editor at ''Analog'', wrote, it \"described the basic facts of how to build an atomic bomb.", "Cartmill and Campbell worked together on the story, drawing their scientific information from papers published in the technical journals before the war.", "To them, the mechanics of constructing a uranium-fission bomb seemed perfectly obvious.\"", "The FBI descended on Campbell's office after the story appeared in print and demanded that the issue be removed from the newsstands.", "Campbell convinced them that by removing the magazine \"the FBI would be advertising to everyone that such a project existed and was aimed at developing nuclear weapons\" and the demand was dropped.Campbell was also responsible for the grim and controversial ending of Tom Godwin's short story \"The Cold Equations\".", "Writer Joe Green recounted that Campbell hadthree times sent 'Cold Equations' back to Godwin, before he got the version he wanted ... Godwin kept coming up with ingenious ways to save the girl!", "Since the strength of this deservedly classic story lies in the fact that the life of one young woman must be sacrificed to save the lives of many, it simply would not have the same impact if she had lived.Between December 11, 1957, and June 13, 1958, Campbell hosted a weekly science fiction radio program called ''Exploring Tomorrow''." ], [ "Views", "===Slavery, race, and segregation===Green wrote that Campbell \"enjoyed taking the 'devil's advocate' position in almost any area, willing to defend even viewpoints with which he disagreed if that led to a livelier debate\".", "As an example, he wrote:Campbell pointed out that the much-maligned 'peculiar institution' of slavery in the American South had in fact provided the blacks brought there with a higher standard of living than they had in Africa ...", "I suspected, from comments by Asimov, among others – and some ''Analog'' editorials I had read – that John held some racist views, at least in regard to blacks.Finally, however, Green agreed with Campbell that \"rapidly increasing mechanization after 1850 would have soon rendered slavery obsolete anyhow.", "It would have been better for the USA to endure it a few more years than suffer the truly horrendous costs of the Civil War.", "\"In a June 1961 editorial called \"Civil War Centennial\", Campbell argued that slavery had been a dominant form of human relationships for most of history and that the present was unusual in that anti-slavery cultures dominated the planet.", "He wroteIt's my bet that the South would have been integrated by 1910.The job would have been done – and done right – half a century sooner, with vastly less human misery, and with almost no bloodshed ...", "The only way slavery has ever been ended, anywhere, is by introducing industry ...", "If a man is a skilled and competent machinist – if the lathes work well under his hands – the industrial management will be forced, to remain in business, to accept that fact, whether the man be black, white, purple, or polka-dotted.According to Michael Moorcock, Campbell suggested that some people preferred slavery.He also, when faced with the Watts riots of the mid-sixties, seriously proposed and went on to proposing that there were 'natural' slaves who were unhappy if freed.", "I sat on a panel with him in 1965, as he pointed out that the worker bee when unable to work dies of misery, that the moujiks when freed went to their masters and begged to be enslaved again, that the ideals of the anti-slavers who fought in the Civil War were merely expressions of self-interest and that the blacks were 'against' emancipation, which was fundamentally why they were indulging in 'leaderless' riots in the suburbs of Los Angeles.", "In 1963, Campbell published an essay supporting segregated schools and arguing that \"the Negro race\" had failed to \"produce super-high-geniuses\".", "In 1965, he continued his defense of segregation and related practices, critiquing \"the arrogant defiance of law by many of the Negro 'Civil Rights' groups\".", "On February 10, 1967, Campbell rejected Samuel R. Delany's ''Nova'' a month before it was ultimately published, with a note and phone call to his agent explaining that he did not feel his readership \"would be able to relate to a black main character\".=== Medicine and health ===Campbell was a critic of government regulation of health and safety, excoriating numerous public health initiatives and regulations.Campbell was a heavy smoker throughout his life and was seldom seen without his customary cigarette holder.", "In the ''Analog'' of September 1964, nine months after the Surgeon General's first major warning about the dangers of cigarette smoking had been issued (January 11, 1964) Campbell ran an editorial, \"A Counterblaste to Tobacco\" that took its title from the anti-smoking book of the same name by King James I of England.", "In it, he stated that the connection to lung cancer was \"esoteric\" and referred to \"a barely determinable possible correlation between cigarette smoking and cancer\".", "He said that tobacco's calming effects led to more effective thinking.", "In a one-page piece about automobile safety in ''Analog'' dated May 1967, Campbell wrote of \"people suddenly becoming conscious of the fact that cars kill more people than cigarettes do, even if the antitobacco alarmists were completely right...\"In 1963, Campbell published an angry editorial about Frances Oldham Kelsey who, while at the FDA, refused to permit thalidomide to be sold in the United States.In other essays, Campbell supported crank medicine, arguing that government regulation was more harmful than beneficial and that regulating quackery prevented the use of many possible beneficial medicines (''e.g.", "'', krebiozen).=== Pseudoscience, parapsychology, and politics ===In the 1930s, Campbell became interested in Joseph Rhine's theories about ESP (Rhine had already founded the Parapsychology Laboratory at Duke University when Campbell was a student there), and over the following years his growing interest in parapsychology would be reflected in the stories he published when he encouraged the writers to include these topics in their tales, leading to the publication of numerous works about telepathy and other \"psionic\" abilities.", "This post-war \"psi-boom\" has been dated by science fiction scholars to roughly the mid-1950s to the early 1960s, and continues to influence many popular culture tropes and motifs.", "Campbell rejected the Shaver Mystery in which the author claimed to have had a personal experience with a sinister ancient civilization that harbored fantastic technology in caverns under the earth.His increasing beliefs in pseudoscience would eventually start to isolate and alienate him from some of his writers.", "He wrote favorably about such things as the \"Dean drive\", a device that supposedly produced thrust in violation of Newton's third law, and the \"Hieronymus machine\", which could supposedly amplify psi powers.In 1949, Campbell worked closely with L. Ron Hubbard on the techniques that Hubbard later turned into Dianetics.", "When Hubbard's therapy failed to find support from the medical community, Campbell published the earliest forms of Dianetics in ''Astounding''.", "He wrote of L. Ron Hubbard's initial article in ''Astounding'' that \"it is, I assure you in full and absolute sincerity, one of the most important articles ever published.", "\"Campbell continued to promote Hubbard's theories until 1952, when the pair split acrimoniously over the direction of the movement.Asimov wrote: \"A number of writers wrote pseudoscientific stuff to ensure sales to Campbell, but the best writers retreated, I among them. ...\"", "Elsewhere Asimov went on to further explainCampbell championed far-out ideas ...", "He pained very many of the men he had trained (including me) in doing so, but felt it was his duty to stir up the minds of his readers and force curiosity right out to the border lines.", "He began a series of editorials ... in which he championed a social point of view that could sometimes be described as far right (he expressed sympathy for George Wallace in the 1968 national election, for instance).", "There was bitter opposition to this from many (including me – I could hardly ever read a Campbell editorial and keep my temper)." ], [ "Assessment by peers", "Damon Knight described Campbell as a \"portly, bristled-haired blond man with a challenging stare\".", "\"Six-foot-one, with hawklike features, he presented a formidable appearance,\" said Sam Moskowitz.", "\"He was a tall, large man with light hair, a beaky nose, a wide face with thin lips, and with a cigarette in a holder forever clamped between his teeth\", wrote Asimov.Algis Budrys wrote that \"John W. Campbell was the greatest editor SF has seen or is likely to see, and is in fact one of the major editors in all English-language literature in the middle years of the twentieth century.", "All about you is the heritage of what he built\".Asimov said that Campbell was \"talkative, opinionated, quicksilver-minded, overbearing.", "Talking to him meant listening to a monologue...\" Knight agreed: \"Campbell's lecture-room manner was so unpleasant to me that I was unwilling to face it.", "Campbell talked a good deal more than he listened, and he liked to say outrageous things.", "\"British novelist and critic Kingsley Amis dismissed Campbell brusquely: \"I might just add as a sociological note that the editor of ''Astounding,'' himself a deviant figure of marked ferocity, seems to think he has invented a psi machine.", "\"Several science-fiction novelists have criticized Campbell as prejudiced – Samuel R. Delany for Campbell's rejection of a novel due to the black main character, and Joe Haldeman in the dedication of ''Forever Peace'', for rejecting a novel due to a female soldier protagonist.British science-fiction novelist Michael Moorcock, as part of his \"Starship Stormtroopers\" editorial, said Campbell's ''Astounding'' and its writers were \"wild-eyed paternalists to a man, fierce anti-socialists\" with \"stories full of crew-cut wisecracking, cigar-chewing, competent guys (like Campbell's image of himself)\"; they sold magazines because their \"work reflected the deep-seated conservatism of the majority of their readers, who saw a Bolshevik menace in every union meeting\".", "He viewed Campbell as turning the magazine into a vessel for right-wing politics, \"by the early 1950s ... a crypto-fascist deeply philistine magazine pretending to intellectualism and offering idealistic kids an 'alternative' that was, of course, no alternative at all\".SF writer Alfred Bester, an editor of ''Holiday Magazine'' and a sophisticated Manhattanite, recounted at some length his \"one demented meeting\" with Campbell, a man he imagined from afar to be \"a combination of Bertrand Russell and Ernest Rutherford\".", "The first thing Campbell said to him was that Freud was dead, destroyed by the new discovery of Dianetics, which, he predicted, would win L. Ron Hubbard the Nobel Peace Prize.", "Campbell ordered the bemused Bester to \"think back.", "Clear yourself.", "Remember!", "You can remember when your mother tried to abort you with a button hook.", "You've never stopped hating her for it.\"", "Bester commented: \"It reinforced my private opinion that a majority of the science-fiction crowd, despite their brilliance, were missing their marbles.", "\"After 1950, Theodore Sturgeon only published one story in ''Astounding'' but dozens in other magazines.Asimov remained grateful for Campbell's early friendship and support.", "He dedicated ''The Early Asimov'' (1972) to him, and concluded it by stating that \"There is no way at all to express how much he meant to me and how much he did for me except, perhaps, to write this book evoking, once more, those days of a quarter century ago\".", "His final word on Campbell was that \"in the last twenty years of his life, he was only a diminishing shadow of what he had once been.\"", "Even Heinlein, perhaps Campbell's most important discovery and a \"fast friend\", tired of him.Poul Anderson wrote that Campbell \"had saved and regenerated science fiction\", which had become \"the product of hack pulpsters\" when he took over ''Astounding''.", "\"By his editorial policies and the help and encouragement he gave his writers (always behind the scenes), he raised both the literary and the intellectual standard anew.", "Whatever progress has been made stems from that renaissance\"." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Shortly after Campbell's death, the University of Kansas science fiction program—now the Center for the Study of Science Fiction—established the annual John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel and also renamed after him its annual Campbell Conference.", "The World Science Fiction Society established the annual John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer.", "All three memorials became effective in 1973.However, following Jeannette Ng's August 2019 acceptance speech of the award for Best New Writer at Worldcon 77, in which she criticized Campbell's politics and called him a fascist, the publishers of ''Analog'' magazine announced that the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer would immediately be renamed to \"The ''Astounding Award'' for Best New Writer\".The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Campbell in 1996, in its inaugural class of two deceased and two living persons.Campbell and ''Astounding'' shared one of the inaugural Hugo Awards with H. L. Gold and ''Galaxy'' at the 1953 World Science Fiction Convention.", "Subsequently, he won the Hugo Award for Best Professional Magazine seven times to 1965.In 2018 he won a retrospective Hugo Award for Best Editor, Short Form (1943).The Martian impact crater Campbell was named after him." ], [ "Works", "This shortened bibliography lists each title once.", "Some titles that are duplicated are different versions, whereas other publications of Campbell's with different titles are simply selections from or retitlings of other works, and have hence been omitted.", "The main bibliographic sources are footnoted from this paragraph and provided much of the information in the following sections.===Novels===* ''Beyond the End of Space'' (1933)* ''Conquest of the Planets'' (1935)* ''The Mightiest Machine'' (1947); Aarn Munro #1* ''The Incredible Planet'' (1949); Aarn Munro #2* ''The Black Star Passes'' (1953); Arcot, Wade, Morey #1* ''Islands of Space'' (1956); Arcot, Wade, Morey #2* ''Invaders from the Infinite'' (1961); Arcot, Wade, Morey #3* ''The Ultimate Weapon'' (1966)=== Short story collections and omnibus editions ===* ''Who Goes There?''", "(1948)* ''The Moon is Hell'' (1951)* ''Cloak of Aesir'' (1952)* ''The Planeteers'' (1966)* ''The Best of John W. Campbell'' (1973)* ''The Space Beyond'' (1976)* ''The Best of John W. Campbell'' (1976) (Differs from 1973 version)* ''A New Dawn: The Don A. Stuart Stories of John W. Campbell, Jr.'' (2003)=== Edited books ===* ''From Unknown Worlds'' (1948)* ''The Astounding Science Fiction Anthology'' (1952)* ''Prologue to Analog'' (1962)* ''Analog I'' (1963)* ''Analog II'' (1964)* ''Analog 3'' (1965)* ''Analog 4'' (1966)* ''Analog 5'' (1967)* ''Analog 6'' (1968)* ''Analog 7'' (1969)* ''Analog 8'' (1971)=== Nonfiction ===* Editorial Number Three: \"Letter from the Editor\", in ''A Requiem for Astounding'' (1964)* ''Collected Editorials from Analog'' (1966)* ''The John W. Campbell Letters, Volume 1'' (1986)* ''The John W. Campbell Letters with Isaac Asimov & A.E.", "van Vogt, Volume II'' (1993)* ''Astounding: John W. Campbell, Isaac Asimov, Robert A. Heinlein, L. Ron Hubbard, and the Golden Age of Science Fiction'', (2018) is a history of the era known as the golden age of science fiction shepherded by Campbell and a biography of Campbell himself written by Alec Nevala-Lee.=== Memorial works ===Memorial works (Festschrift) include:" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references === * * * * * * * * * Selected letters of Robert A. Heinlein* ** Reprinted in" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Nevala-Lee, Alec.", "\"Astounding\" 2018.Morrow/Dey Street." ], [ "External links", "===Audio===* John W. Campbell as host of the Mutual Broadcasting System's ''Exploring Tomorrow'' (1957–58)* John W. Campbell interviewed by Fred Lerner, 1962===Biography and criticism===* * Astounding: The Campbell Years by Frederik Pohl* \"John W. Campbell, Jr.\" by Ben Bova, ''Analog'' June 2015 (thousandth issue)===Bibliography and works===* * * * * * * * * John Wood Campbell, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joule" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''joule''' (pronounced , or ; symbol: '''J''') is the unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI).", "It is equal to the amount of work done when a force of one newton displaces a mass through a distance of one metre in the direction of that force.", "It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second.", "It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889)." ], [ "Definition", "In terms of SI base units and in terms of SI derived units with special names, the joule is defined as Symbol Meaning J joule kg kilogram m metre s second N newton Pa pascal W watt C coulomb V voltOne joule can also be defined by any of the following:* The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb-volt (C⋅V).", "This relationship can be used to define the volt.", "* The work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt-second (W⋅s) (compare kilowatt-hour, which is 3.6 megajoules).", "This relationship can be used to define the watt." ], [ "History", "The cgs system had been declared official in 1881, at the first International Electrical Congress.The erg was adopted as its unit of energy in 1882.Wilhelm Siemens, in his inauguration speech as chairman of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (23 August 1882) first proposed the ''Joule'' as unit of heat, to be derived from the electromagnetic units Ampere and Ohm, in cgs units equivalent to .The naming of the unit in honour of James Prescott Joule (1818–1889), at the time retired but still living (aged 63), is due to Siemens::\"Such a heat unit, if found acceptable, might with great propriety, I think, be called the Joule, after the man who has done so much to develop the dynamical theory of heat.", "\"At the second International Electrical Congress, on 31 August 1889, the joule was officially adopted alongside the watt and the ''quadrant'' (later renamed to henry).Joule died in the same year, on 11 October 1889.At the fourth congress (1893), the \"international ampere\" and \"international ohm\" were defined, with slight changes in the specifications for their measurement, with the \"international joule\" being the unit derived from them.In 1935, the International Electrotechnical Commission (as the successor organisation of the International Electrical Congress) adopted the \"Giorgi system\", which by virtue of assuming a defined value for the magnetic constant also implied a redefinition of the Joule.", "The Giorgi system was approved by the International Committee for Weights and Measures in 1946.The joule was now no longer defined based on electromagnetic unit, but instead as the unit of work performed by one unit of force (at the time not yet named newton)over the distance of 1 metre.", "The joule was explicitly intended as the unit of energy to be used in both electromagnetic and mechanical contexts.", "The ratification of the definition at the ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures, in 1948,added the specification that the joule was also to be preferred as the unit of heat in the context of calorimetry, thereby officially deprecating the use of the calorie.", "This definition was the direct precursor of the joule as adopted in the modern International System of Units in 1960.The definition of the joule as J = kg⋅m2⋅s−2 has remained unchanged since 1946, but the joule as a derived unit has inherited changes in the definitions of the second (in 1960 and 1967), the metre (in 1983) and the kilogram (in 2019)." ], [ "Practical examples", "One joule represents (approximately):* The amount of electricity required to run a device for .", "* The energy required to accelerate a mass at through a distance of .", "* The kinetic energy of a mass travelling at , or a mass travelling at .", "* The energy required to lift an apple up 1 m, assuming the apple has a mass of 101.97 g.* The heat required to raise the temperature of 0.239 g of water from 0 °C to 1 °C.", "* The typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s ().", "* The kinetic energy of a human moving very slowly ().", "* The kinetic energy of a tennis ball moving at .", "* The food energy (kcal) in slightly more than half of an ordinary-sized sugar crystal (/crystal)." ], [ "Multiples", "; : is about one electronvolt.", "The minimal energy needed to change a bit of data in computation at around room temperature – approximately – is given by the Landauer limit.", "; : is about the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito.", "; : The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) produces collisions of the microjoule order (7 TeV) per particle.", "; : Nutritional food labels in most countries express energy in kilojoules (kJ).", "One square metre of the Earth receives about of solar radiation every second in full daylight.", "A human in a sprint has approximately 3 kJ of kinetic energy, while a cheetah in a (76 mph) sprint has approximately 20 kJ.", "One watt-hour of electricity is .", "; : The megajoule is approximately the kinetic energy of a one megagram (tonne) vehicle moving at (100 mph).", "The energy required to heat of liquid water at constant pressure from to is approximately .", "One kilowatt-hour of electricity is .", "; : is about the chemical energy of combusting of petroleum.", "2 GJ is about the Planck energy unit.", "One megawatt-hour of electricity is .", "; : The terajoule is about (which is often used in energy tables).", "About of energy was released by Little Boy.", "The International Space Station, with a mass of approximately and orbital velocity of , has a kinetic energy of roughly .", "In 2017, Hurricane Irma was estimated to have a peak wind energy of .", "One gigawatt-hour of electricity is .", "; : is about of TNT, which is the amount of energy released by the Tsar Bomba, the largest man-made explosion ever.", "One terawatt-hour of electricity is .", "; : The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan had of energy according to its rating of 9.0 on the moment magnitude scale.", "Yearly U.S. energy consumption amounts to roughly , and the world final energy consumption was in 2021.One petawatt-hour of electricity is .", "; : The zettajoule is somewhat more than the amount of energy required to heat the Baltic sea by 1 °C, assuming properties similar to those of pure water.", "Human annual world energy consumption is approximately .", "The energy to raise the temperature of Earth's atmosphere 1 °C is approximately .", "; : The yottajoule is a little less than the amount of energy required to heat the Indian Ocean by 1 °C, assuming properties similar to those of pure water.", "The thermal output of the Sun is approximately per second." ], [ "Conversions", "1 joule is equal to (approximately unless otherwise stated):* (exactly)* * (gram calories)* (food calories)* * (foot-pound)* (foot-poundal)* (kilowatt-hour)* (watt-hour)* (litre-atmosphere)* (by way of mass–energy equivalence)Units defined exactly in terms of the joule include:* 1 thermochemical calorie = 4.184J* 1 International Table calorie = 4.1868J* 1W⋅h = 3600J (or 3.6kJ)* 1kW⋅h = (or 3.6MJ)* 1W⋅s = * 1ton TNT = * 1foe =" ], [ "Newton-metre and torque", "In mechanics, the concept of force (in some direction) has a close analogue in the concept of torque (about some angle): Linear Angular Force Torque Mass Moment of inertia Displacement AngleA result of this similarity is that the SI unit for torque is the newton-metre, which works out algebraically to have the same dimensions as the joule, but they are not interchangeable.", "The General Conference on Weights and Measures has given the unit of energy the name ''joule'', but has not given the unit of torque any special name, hence it is simply the newton-metre (N⋅m) – a compound name derived from its constituent parts.", "The use of newton-metres for torque but joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunication.The distinction may be seen also in the fact that energy is a scalar quantity – the dot product of a force vector and a displacement vector.", "By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a force vector and a distance vector.", "Torque and energy are related to one another by the equationwhere ''E'' is energy, ''τ'' is (the vector magnitude of) torque, and ''θ'' is the angle swept (in radians).", "Since plane angles are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions." ], [ "Watt-second", "A '''watt-second''' (symbol '''W s''' or '''W⋅s''') is a derived unit of energy equivalent to the joule.", "The watt-second is the energy equivalent to the power of one watt sustained for one second.", "While the watt-second is equivalent to the joule in both units and meaning, there are some contexts in which the term \"watt-second\" is used instead of \"joule\", such as in the rating of photographic electronic flash units." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jeepster Records" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeepster Records''' is an English, London-based independent record label, founded in 1995, and specializing in British indie and alternative bands, particularly Glasgow-based acts.", "It is most notable for its signing of Belle and Sebastian and Snow Patrol." ], [ "Early success", "Jeepster Records was founded in 1995 by Mark Jones and Stefano D’Andrea, through a mutual interest in the contemporary indie scene.", "Following their establishment and after extensive scouting, the label signed their first act, the newly formed Belle and Sebastian, in August 1996.In November of the same year, the band's first album with Jeepster, ''If You're Feeling Sinister'' was released.", "This established both Belle & Sebastian and Jeepster, and enabled them to release several EPs with Belle & Sebastian throughout 1997, as well as signing their second act, Snow Patrol, later in the year.", "1998 then saw increased activity, with the signing of Salako, and the release of albums for all three of their signed bands; most notably Belle & Sebastian's ''The Boy With The Arab Strap''.The label's strong relationship with Belle & Sebastian enabled them in 1999 to sign Stuart David's side-project Looper, and Isobel Campbell's solo project The Gentle Waves, releasing albums for each that same year, along with a string of EPs and singles for their entire roster.", "The label enjoyed further good publicity when Belle & Sebastian won Best Newcomer in the 1999 Brit Awards.", "Later that year, Jeepster reissued Belle & Sebastian's debut album ''Tigermilk'', which had previously been available only on limited issue vinyl.2000 saw new albums released for Belle & Sebastian, Looper, and The Gentle Waves, as well as Belle & Sebastian's first appearance on ''Top of the Pops''.", "Towards the end of the year, the label released the ''It's a Cool Cool Christmas'' compilation in association with XFM, with proceeds going to The Big Issue charity.", "The album was only available during this Christmas period, and featured Belle & Sebastian and Snow Patrol, as well as numerous other bands such as The Flaming Lips and Teenage Fanclub.", "The following year finally marked the release of Snow Patrol's second album ''When It's All Over We Still Have To Clear Up'', which, despite slightly disappointing initial sales, would eventually go gold in the wake of the band's later fame, along with their debut ''Songs For Polarbears''." ], [ "Dormant period", "Despite critical acclaim for its acts, Jeepster was financially troubled by 2002, largely due to increasing recording and marketing costs, and difficulty cultivating the images of their acts in the eye of the general public.", "This forced the label into a corner, and they had no choice but to decline renewal of the contracts of their most successful artists in order to continue producing their existing catalogue.", "While they were unable to retain their signed artists and didn’t consider signing new acts for this period, there were several additions to the catalogue in the next few years.The label released a Belle & Sebastian DVD in 2003, ''Fans Only'', and, in 2005, ''Push Barman to Open Old Wounds'', a compilation comprising all of Belle & Sebastian's singles and EPs released under Jeepster.", "This was followed in 2006 by re-releases of ''Songs for Polarbears'' and ''When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up'', including previously unreleased bonus tracks." ], [ "Later signings", "In a stronger financial position by April 2006, Jeepster announced its first new signing in years, Reading-based act SixNationState.", "Following renewed scouting of the Glasgow underground scene, the label soon after announced the signing of another band, Parka, in November of the same year.Following several singles releases by both bands, the label released its first new album in six and a half years in late 2007: SixNationState's self-titled debut album.", "In May 2008, Parka's own debut, ''Attack of the Hundred Yard Hardman'' was also released.Before the end of 2008, Jeepster would release another Belle & Sebastian compilation, ''The BBC Sessions'', collecting the tracks that the band had recorded for the BBC in 1996, which included rarities and unreleased songs, together with live recordings from Belfast.Jeepster contributed six songs to the Polydor Records Snow Patrol compilation ''Up To Now'' in 2009." ], [ "Discography", "''If You're Feeling Sinister'' - Belle & Sebastian (1996)''Dog On Wheels'' - Belle & Sebastian (1997)''Lazy Line Painter Jane'' - Belle & Sebastian (1997)''3.. 6.. 9 Seconds of Light'' - Belle & Sebastian (1997)''Little Hide'' - Snow Patrol (1998)''100 Things You Should Have Done In Bed'' - Snow Patrol (1998)''Growing Up In The Night'' - Salako (1998)''Re-Inventing Punctuation'' - Salako (1998)''Songs for Polarbears'' - Snow Patrol (1998)''The Boy with the Arab Strap'' - Belle & Sebastian (1998)''Velocity Girl/Absolute Gravity'' - Snow Patrol (1998)''The Moonlight Radiates A Purple Glow In His World'' - Salako (1998)''This Is Just a Modern Rock Song'' - Belle & Sebastian (1998)''Ballad Of Ray Suzuki'' - Looper (1999)'' Up a Tree'' - Looper (1999)''Weathershow'' - The Gentle Waves (1999)''The Green Fields of Foreverland'' - The Gentle Waves (1999)''The Bird In The Bag'' - Salako (1999)''Starfighter Pilot'' - Snow Patrol (1999)''Tigermilk'' - Belle & Sebastian (1999)''Musicality'' - Salako (1999)''Mappleton Sands 20/12/98'' - Salako (1999)''Who's Afraid Of Y2K'' - Looper (1999)''Mondo '77'' - Looper (2000)''Ventimiglia 12/08/99'' - Salako (2000)''The Geometrid'' - Looper (2000)''Legal Man'' - Belle & Sebastian (2000)''Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant'' - Belle & Sebastian (2000)''Falling from Grace'' - The Gentle Waves (2000)''Ask Me How I Am'' - Snow Patrol (2000)''Swansong for You'' - The Gentle Waves (2000)''It's a Cool Cool Christmas'' - Various Artists (2000)''One Night Is Not Enough'' - Snow Patrol (2001)''When It's All Over We Still Have To Clear Up'' - Snow Patrol (2001)''Jonathan David'' - Belle & Sebastian (2001)''I'm Waking Up To Us'' - Belle & Sebastian (2001)''Storytelling'' - Belle & Sebastian (2002)''Fans Only'' (DVD) - Belle & Sebastian (2003)''Push Barman to Open Old Wounds'' - Belle & Sebastian (2005)''Songs For Polarbears'' (reissue) - Snow Patrol (2006)''When It's All Over We Still Have To Clear Up'' (reissue) - Snow Patrol (2006)''Fire!''", "- SixNationState (2006)''Where Are You Now?''", "- SixNationState (2007)''If You Wanna?''", "- Parka (2007)''We Could Be Happy'' - SixNationState (2007)''SixNationState'' - SixNationState (2007)''Disco Dancer'' - Parka (2008)''Better Anyway'' - Parka (2008)''Attack Of The Hundred Yard Hardman'' - Parka (2008)''The BBC Sessions'' - Belle & Sebastian (2008)" ], [ "See also", "List of independent UK record labelsLists of record labels" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Chrysostom" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Chrysostom''' (; ; 14 September 407) was an important Early Church Father who served as archbishop of Constantinople.", "He is known for his preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, his ''Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom'', and his ascetic sensibilities.", "The epithet (''Chrysostomos'', anglicized as Chrysostom) means \"golden-mouthed\" in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence.", "Chrysostom was among the most prolific authors in the early Christian Church.He is honoured as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches, as well as in some others.", "The Eastern Orthodox, together with the Byzantine Catholics, hold him in special regard as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs (alongside Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus).", "The feast days of John Chrysostom in the Eastern Orthodox Church are 14 September, 13 November and 27 January.", "In the Roman Catholic Church he is recognized as a Doctor of the Church.", "Because the date of his death is occupied by the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (14 September), the General Roman Calendar celebrates him since 1970 on the previous day, 13 September; from the 13th century to 1969 it did so on 27 January, the anniversary of the translation of his body to Constantinople.", "Of other Western churches, including Anglican provinces and Lutheran churches, some commemorate him on 13 September, others on 27 January.", "John Chrysostom is honored on the calendars of the Church of England and the Episcopal Church on 13 September.", "The Coptic Church also recognizes him as a saint (with feast days on 16 Thout and 17 Hathor)." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===John was born in Antioch, Roman Syria (modern-day Antakya, Hatay, Turkey) in 347.Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian.", "His father was a high-ranking military officer.", "John's father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother.", "He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader (one of the minor orders of the Church).", "It is sometimes said that he was bitten by a snake when he was ten years old, leading to him getting an infection from the bite.As a result of his mother's influential connections in the city, John began his education under the pagan preacher Libanius.", "From Libanius, John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric, as well as a love of the Greek language and literature.", "Eventually, he became a lawyer.As he grew older, however, John became more deeply committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus, founder of the re-constituted School of Antioch.", "According to the Christian historian Sozomen, Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his successor \"if the Christians had not taken him from us\".John lived in extreme asceticism and became a hermit in about 375; he spent the next two years continually standing, scarcely sleeping, and committing the Bible to memory.", "As a consequence of these practices, his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged and poor health forced him to return to Antioch.===Diaconate and service in Antioch===John was first appointed as a reader in the church of Antioch by Zeno of Verona upon the latter's return from Jerusalem.", "Later, he was ordained as a deacon in 381 by the bishop Meletius of Antioch who was not then in communion with Alexandria and Rome.", "After the death of Meletius, John separated himself from the followers of Meletius, without joining Paulinus, the rival of Meletius for the bishopric of Antioch.", "But after the death of Paulinus (388) he was ordained a presbyter (priest) by Evagrius of Antioch, the successor of Paulinus by the Eustathian faction in the city.", "He was destined later to bring about reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome, thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years.In Antioch, over the course of twelve years (386–397), John gained popularity because of the eloquence of his public speaking at the Golden Church, Antioch's cathedral, especially his insightful expositions of Bible passages and moral teaching.", "The most valuable of his works from this period are his homilies on various books of the Bible.", "He emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor.", "He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property:Do you wish to honour the body of Christ?", "Do not ignore him when he is naked.", "Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk, only then to neglect him outside where he is cold and ill-clad.", "He who said: \"This is my body\" is the same who said: \"You saw me hungry and you gave me no food\", and \"Whatever you did to the least of my brothers you did also to me\"... What good is it if the Eucharistic table is overloaded with golden chalices when your brother is dying of hunger?", "Start by satisfying his hunger and then with what is left you may adorn the altar as well.His straightforward understanding of the Scriptures – in contrast to the Alexandrian tendency towards allegorical interpretation – meant that the themes of his talks were practical, explaining the Bible's application to everyday life.", "Such straightforward preaching helped Chrysostom to garner popular support.One incident that happened during his service in Antioch illustrates the influence of his homilies.", "When Chrysostom arrived in Antioch, Flavian, the bishop of the city, had to intervene with emperor Theodosius I on behalf of citizens who had gone on a rampage mutilating statues of the emperor and his family.", "During the weeks of Lent in 387, John preached more than twenty homilies in which he entreated the people to see the error of their ways.", "These made a lasting impression on the general population of the city: many pagans converted to Christianity as a result of the homilies.", "The city was ultimately spared from severe consequences.===Archbishop of Constantinople===John Chrysostom confronting Aelia Eudoxia, in a 19th-century anti-clerical painting by Jean-Paul LaurensIn the autumn of 397, John was appointed archbishop of Constantinople, after having been nominated without his knowledge by the eunuch Eutropius.", "He had to leave Antioch in secret due to fears that the departure of such a popular figure would cause civil unrest.During his time as archbishop he adamantly refused to host lavish social gatherings, which made him popular with the common people, but unpopular with wealthy citizens and the clergy.", "His reforms of the clergy were also unpopular.", "He told visiting regional preachers to return to the churches they were meant to be serving – without any pay-out.", "Also he founded a number of hospitals in Constantinople.Schmidt, Alvin J.", "''Under the Influence: How Christianity Transformed Civilization'', Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan, 2001, p. 157His time in Constantinople was more tumultuous than his time in Antioch.", "Theophilus, the patriarch of Alexandria, wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and opposed John's appointment to Constantinople.", "Theophilus had disciplined four Egyptian monks (known as \"the Tall Brothers\") over their support of Origen's teachings.", "They fled to John and were welcomed by him.", "Theophilus therefore accused John of being too partial to the teaching of Origen.", "He made another enemy in Aelia Eudoxia, wife of emperor Arcadius, who assumed that John's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at her.", "Eudoxia, Theophilus and other of his enemies held a synod in 403 (the Synod of the Oak) to charge John, in which his connection to Origen was used against him.", "It resulted in his deposition and banishment.", "He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as the people became \"tumultuous\" over his departure, even threatening to burn the imperial palace.", "There was an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of God's anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement.Peace was short-lived.", "A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the Augustaion, near his cathedral, the Constantinian Hagia Sophia.", "John denounced the dedication ceremonies as pagan and spoke against the empress in harsh terms: \"Again Herodias raves, again she dances, and again desires to receive John's head on a charger\", an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist.", "Once again he was banished, this time to the Caucasus in Abkhazia.", "His banishment sparked riots among his supporters in the capital, and in the fighting the cathedral built by Constantius II was burnt down, necessitating the construction of the second cathedral on the site, the Theodosian Hagia Sophia.Around 405, John began to lend moral and financial support to Christian monks who were enforcing the emperors' anti-pagan laws, by destroying temples and shrines in Phoenicia and nearby regions.===Exile and death===The exile of John Chrysostom.", "Scene from the 11th century Menologion of Basil II.The causes of John's exile are not clear, though Jennifer Barry suggests that they have to do with his connections to Arianism.", "Other historians, including Wendy Mayer and Geoffrey Dunn, have argued that \"the surplus of evidence reveals a struggle between Johannite and anti-Johannite camps in Constantinople soon after John's departure and for a few years after his death\".", "Faced with exile, John Chrysostom wrote an appeal for help to three churchmen: Pope Innocent I; Venerius, the bishop of Mediolanum (Milan); and Chromatius, the bishop of Aquileia.", "In 1872, church historian William Stephens wrote:The Patriarch of the Eastern Rome appeals to the great bishops of the West, as the champions of an ecclesiastical discipline which he confesses himself unable to enforce, or to see any prospect of establishing.", "No jealousy is entertained of the Patriarch of the Old Rome by the patriarch of the New Rome.", "The interference of Innocent is courted, a certain primacy is accorded him, but at the same time he is not addressed as a supreme arbitrator; assistance and sympathy are solicited from him as from an elder brother, and two other prelates of Italy are joint recipients with him of the appeal.Pope Innocent I protested John's banishment from Constantinople to the town of Cucusus (Göksun) in Cappadocia, but to no avail.", "Innocent sent a delegation to intercede on behalf of John in 405.It was led by Gaudentius of Brescia; Gaudentius and his companions, two bishops, encountered many difficulties and never reached their goal of entering Constantinople.John wrote letters which still held great influence in Constantinople.", "As a result of this, he was further exiled from Cucusus (where he stayed from 404 to 407) to Pitiunt (Pityus) (in modern Georgia).", "He never reached this destination alive, as he died at Comana Pontica (modern-day Gümenek, Tokat, Turkey) on 14 September 407 during the journey.", "He died in the Presbyterium or community of the clergy belonging to the church of Saint Basiliscus of Comana.", "His last words are said to have been \"\" ('Glory be to God for all things').===Veneration and canonization===Byzantine 11th-century soapstone relief of John Chrysostom, LouvreJohn came to be venerated as a saint soon after his death.", "Almost immediately after, an anonymous supporter of John (known as pseudo-Martyrius) wrote a funeral oration to reclaim John as a symbol of Christian orthodoxy.", "But three decades later, some of his adherents in Constantinople remained in schism.", "Proclus, archbishop of Constantinople (434–446), hoping to bring about the reconciliation of the Johannites, preached a homily praising his predecessor in the Church of Hagia Sophia.", "He said, \"O John, your life was filled with sorrow, but your death was glorious.", "Your grave is blessed and reward is great, by the grace and mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ O graced one, having conquered the bounds of time and place!", "Love has conquered space, unforgetting memory has annihilated the limits, and place does not hinder the miracles of the saint.", "\"These homilies helped to mobilize public opinion, and the patriarch received permission from the emperor to return Chrysostom's relics to Constantinople, where they were enshrined in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 28 January 438.The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as a \"Great Ecumenical Teacher\", with Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian.", "These three saints, in addition to having their own individual commemorations throughout the year, are commemorated together on 30 January, a feast known as the Synaxis of the Three Hierarchs.In the Eastern Orthodox Church there are several feast days dedicated to him:27 January, Translation of the relics of Saint John Chrysostom from Comana to Constantinople30 January, Synaxis of the Three Great Hierarchs14 September, Repose of Saint John Chrysostom13 November, celebration was transferred from 14 September by the 10th century AD as the Exaltation of the Holy Cross became more prominent.", "According to Brian Croke, 13 November is the date news of John Chrysostom's death reached Constantinople.In 1908 Pope Pius X named him the patron saint of preachers." ], [ "Writings", "Some 700 sermons and 246 letters by John Chrysostom survive, plus biblical commentaries, moral discourses, and theological treatises.===Homilies=======Paschal Homily====The Byzantine emperor Nicephorus III receives a book of homilies from John Chrysostom; the Archangel Michael stands on his left (11th-century illuminated manuscript).The best known of his many homilies is an extremely brief one, the Paschal Homily (''Hieratikon''), which is read at the first service of Pascha (Easter), the midnight Orthros (Matins), in the Eastern Orthodox Church.====General ====Chrysostom's extant homiletical works are vast, including many hundreds of exegetical homilies on both the New Testament (especially the works of Paul the Apostle) and the Old Testament (particularly on Genesis).", "Among his extant exegetical works are sixty-seven homilies on Genesis, fifty-nine on the Psalms, ninety on the Gospel of Matthew, eighty-eight on the Gospel of John, and fifty-five on the Acts of the Apostles.The homilies were written down by stenographers and subsequently circulated, revealing a style that tended to be direct and greatly personal, but formed by the rhetorical conventions of his time and place.", "In general, his homiletical theology displays much characteristic of the Antiochian school (i.e., more literal in interpreting biblical events), but he also uses a good deal of the allegorical interpretation more associated with the Alexandrian school.John's social and religious world was formed by the continuing and pervasive presence of paganism in the life of the city.", "One of his regular topics was the paganism in the culture of Constantinople, and in his homilies he thunders against popular pagan amusements: the theatre, horseraces, and the revelry surrounding holidays.", "In particular, he criticizes Christians for taking part in such activities: If you ask Christians who is Amos or Obadiah, how many apostles there were or prophets, they stand mute; but if you ask them about the horses or drivers, they answer with more solemnity than sophists or rhetors.One of the recurring features of John's homilies is his emphasis on care for the needy.", "Echoing themes found in the Gospel of Matthew, he calls upon the rich to lay aside materialism in favor of helping the poor, often employing all of his rhetorical skills to shame wealthy people to abandon conspicuous consumption: Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber-pot when another man made in the image of God is perishing in the cold?", "Along these lines, he wrote often about the need for almsgiving and its importance alongside fasting and prayer, e.g.", "\"Prayer without almsgiving is unfruitful.", "\"conch mosaic of John Chrysostom from the south-east apse of the nave of the Hosios Loukas monasteryCyril of Alexandria attributed the destruction of the Ephesian Temple of Artemis to John Chrysostom, referring to him as \"the destroyer of the demons and overthrower of the temple of Diana\".", "A later Archbishop of Constantinople, Proclus repeated the allegation, saying \"In Ephesus, he despoiled the art of Midas\".", "Both claims are considered spurious.====Homilies against Jews and Judaizing Christians====During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch (386–387), John denounced Jews and Judaizing Christians in a series of eight homilies delivered to Christians in his congregation who were taking part in Jewish festivals and other Jewish observances.", "It is disputed whether the main targets were specifically Judaizers or Jews in general.", "His homilies were expressed in the conventional manner, using the uncompromising rhetorical form known as the ''psogos'' (Greek: blame, censure).One of the purposes of these homilies was to prevent Christians from participating in Jewish customs, and thus prevent the perceived erosion of Chrysostom's flock.", "In his homilies, John criticized those \"Judaizing Christians\", who were participating in Jewish festivals and taking part in other Jewish observances, such as the shabbat, submitted to circumcision and made pilgrimage to Jewish holy places.", "There had been a revival of Jewish faith and tolerance in Antioch in 361, so Chrysostom's followers and the greater Christian community were in contact with Jews frequently, and Chrysostom was concerned that this interaction would draw Christians away from their faith identity.John claimed that synagogues were full of Christians, especially Christian women, on the shabbats and Jewish festivals, because they loved the solemnity of the Jewish liturgy and enjoyed listening to the shofar on Rosh Hashanah, and applauded famous preachers in accordance with the contemporary custom.", "Due to Chrysostom's stature in the Christian church, both locally and within the greater church hierarchy, his sermons were fairly successful in spreading anti-Jewish sentiment.In Greek the homilies are called ''Kata Ioudaiōn'' (), which is translated as in Latin and 'Against the Jews' in English.", "The original Benedictine editor of the homilies, Bernard de Montfaucon, gives the following footnote to the title: \"A discourse against the Jews; but it was delivered against those who were Judaizing and keeping the fasts with them the Jews.", "\"According to Patristics scholars, opposition to any particular view during the late 4th century was conventionally expressed in a manner, using the rhetorical form known as the psogos, whose literary conventions were to vilify opponents in an uncompromising manner; thus, it has been argued that to call Chrysostom an \"anti-Semite\" is to employ anachronistic terminology in a way incongruous with historical context and record.", "This does not preclude assertions that Chrysostom's theology was a form of anti-Jewish supersessionism.Anglican priest James Parkes called Chrysostom's writing on Jews \"the most horrible and violent denunciations of Judaism to be found in the writings of a Christian theologian\".", "According to historian William I. Brustein, his sermons against Jews gave further momentum to the idea that Jews are collectively responsible for the death of Jesus.", "Steven T. Katz cites Chrysostom's homilies as \"the decisive turn in the history of Christian anti-Judaism, a turn whose ultimate disfiguring consequence was enacted in the political antisemitism of Adolf Hitler.\"", "John Chrysostom with Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nazianzus on a late-15th-century icon of the Three Holy Hierarchs from the Cathedral of St Sophia, Novgorod====Homily against homosexuality====According to Robert H. Allen, \"Chrysostom's learning and eloquence spans and sums up a long age of ever-growing moral outrage, fear and loathing of homosexuality.\"", "His most notable discourse in this regard is his fourth homily on Romans 1:26, where he argues as follows: All these affections then were vile, but chiefly the mad lust after males; for the soul is more the sufferer in sins, and more dishonored, than the body in diseases.", "...", "The men have done an insult to nature itself.", "And a yet more disgraceful thing than these is it, when even the women seek after these intercourses, who ought to have more sense of shame than men.He says the active male victimizes the passive male in a way that leaves him more enduringly dishonored than even a victim of murder since the victim of this act must \"live under\" the shame of the \"insolency\".", "The victim of a murder, by contrast, carries no dishonor.", "He asserts that punishment will be found in Hell for such transgressors and that women can be guilty of the sin as much as men.", "Chrysostom argues that the male passive partner has effectively renounced his manhood and become a woman – such an individual deserves to be \"driven out and stoned\".", "He attributes the cause to \"luxury\".", "\"Do not, he means (Paul), because you have heard that they burned, suppose that the evil was only in desire.", "For the greater part of it came of their luxuriousness, which also kindled into flame their lust\".According to scholar Michael Carden, Chrysostom was particularly influential in shaping early Christian thought that same-sex desire was an evil, claiming that he altered a traditional interpretation of Sodom as a place of inhospitality to one where the sexual transgressions of the Sodomites became paramount.", "However, other scholars – such as Kruger and Nortjé-Meyer – dispute this, arguing that the author of the Epistle of Jude already interpreted the sin of Sodom as homosexuality in the New Testament.===Treatises===Apart from his homilies, a number of John's other treatises have had a lasting influence.", "One such work is John's early treatise ''Against Those Who Oppose the Monastic Life'', written while he was a deacon (sometime before 386), which was directed to parents, pagan as well as Christian, whose sons were contemplating a monastic vocation.", "Chrysostom wrote that, already in his day, it was customary for Antiochenes to send their sons to be educated by monks.Another important treatise written by John is titled ''On the Priesthood'' (written 390/391, it contains in Book 1 an account of his early years and a defence of his flight from ordination by bishop Meletios of Antioch, and then proceeds in later books to expound on his exalted understanding of the priesthood).", "Two other notable books by John are ''Instructions to Catechumens'' and ''On the Incomprehensibility of the Divine Nature''.", "In addition, he wrote a series of letters to the deaconess Olympias, of which seventeen are extant.===Liturgy===Beyond his preaching, the other lasting legacy of John is his influence on Christian liturgy.", "Two of his writings are particularly notable.", "He harmonized the liturgical life of the church by revising the prayers and rubrics of the Divine Liturgy, or celebration of the Holy Eucharist.", "To this day, Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches of the Byzantine Rite typically celebrate the ''Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom'' as the normal Eucharistic liturgy, although his exact connection with it remains a matter of debate among experts." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "Saint Patrick's Cathedral, New York CityDuring a time when city clergy were subject to criticism for their high lifestyle, John was determined to reform his clergy in Constantinople.", "These efforts were met with resistance and limited success.", "He was an excellent preacher whose homilies and writings are still studied and quoted.", "As a theologian, he has been and continues to be very important in Eastern Christianity, and is generally considered among the Three Holy Hierarchs of the Greek Church, but has been less important to Western Christianity.", "His writings have survived to the present day more so than any of the other Greek Fathers.===Catechism of the Catholic Church===The Catechism of the Catholic Church cites him in eighteen sections, particularly his reflections on the purpose of prayer and the meaning of the Lord's Prayer: Consider how Jesus Christ teaches us to be humble, by making us see that our virtue does not depend on our work alone but on grace from on high.", "He commands each of the faithful who prays to do so universally, for the whole world.", "For he did not say \"thy will be done in me or in us\", but \"on earth\", the whole earth, so that error may be banished from it, truth take root in it, all vice be destroyed on it, virtue flourish on it, and earth no longer differ from heaven.===Protestant clergy===Protestant clerics, such as Richard Salter Storrs, refer to him as \"one of the most eloquent preachers who ever since apostolic times have brought to men the divine tidings of truth and love\", and the 19th-century John Henry Newman described John as a \"bright, cheerful, gentle soul; a sensitive heart\".===Music and literature===John's liturgical legacy has inspired several musical compositions.", "Particularly noteworthy are Sergei Rachmaninoff's ''Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom'', Op.", "31, composed in 1910, one of his two major unaccompanied choral works; Pyotr Tchaikovsky's ''Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom'', Op.", "41; and Ukrainian composer Kyrylo Stetsenko's ''Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom''.", "Arvo Pärt's ''Litany'' sets Chrysostom's twenty-four prayers, one for each hour of the day, for soli, mixed choir and orchestra.", "And the compositions of Alexander Grechaninovs ''Liturgy of Johannes Chrysostomos'' No.", "1, Op.", "13 (1897), ''Liturgy of Johannes Chrysostomos'' No.", "2, Op.", "29 (1902), ''Liturgia Domestica (Liturgy Johannes Chrysostomos'' No.", "3), Op.", "79 (1917) and ''Liturgy of Johannes Chrysostomos'' No.", "4, Op.", "177 (1943) are noteworthy.James Joyce's novel ''Ulysses'' includes a character named Mulligan who brings 'Chrysostomos' into another character (Stephen Dedalus)'s mind because Mulligan's gold-stopped teeth and his gift of the gab earn him the title which St. John Chrysostom's preaching earned him, 'golden-mouthed': \"Mulligan peered sideways up and gave a long low whistle of call, then paused awhile in rapt attention, his even white teeth glistening here and there with gold points.", "Chrysostomos.", "\"===Legend of the penance of Saint John Chrysostom===''The Penance of St. John Chrysostom''.", "Engraving by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1509.The saint can be seen in the background on all fours, while the princess and their baby dominate the foreground.A late medieval legend relates that, when John Chrysostom was a hermit in the desert, he was approached by a royal princess in distress.", "John, thinking she was a demon, at first refused to help her, but the princess convinced him that she was a Christian and would be devoured by wild beasts if she were not allowed to enter his cave.", "He therefore admitted her, carefully dividing the cave in two parts, one for each of them.", "In spite of these precautions, the sin of fornication was committed, and in an attempt to hide it the distraught John took the princess and threw her over a precipice.", "He then went to Rome to beg absolution, which was refused.", "Realising the appalling nature of his crimes, Chrysostom made a vow that he would never rise from the ground until his sins were expiated, and for years he lived like a beast, crawling on all fours and feeding on wild grasses and roots.", "Subsequently, the princess reappeared, alive, and suckling John's baby, who miraculously pronounced his sins forgiven.", "This last scene was very popular from the late 15th century onwards as a subject for engravers and artists.", "The theme was depicted by Albrecht Dürer around 1496, Hans Sebald Beham and Lucas Cranach the Elder, among others.", "Martin Luther mocked this same legend in his ''Die Lügend von S. Johanne Chrysostomo'' (1537) to analyse the pitfalls of the Christian Legendary (hagiography).", "The legend was recorded in Croatia in the 16th century.===Relics===The return of the relics of Saint John Chrysostom to the Church of the Holy Apostles in ConstantinopleJohn Chrysostom died in the city of Comana in 407 on his way to his place of exile.", "There his relics remained until 438 when, thirty years after his death, they were transferred to Constantinople during the reign of the empress Eudoxia's son, the emperor Theodosius II (408–450), under the guidance of John's disciple, Proclus, who by that time had become archbishop of Constantinople (434–447).Most of John's relics were looted from Constantinople by crusaders in 1204 and taken to Rome, but some of his bones were returned to the Orthodox Church on 27 November 2004 by Pope John Paul II.", "Since 2004 the relics have been enshrined in the Church of St. George, Istanbul.The skull, however, having been kept at the monastery at Vatopedi on Mount Athos in northern Greece, was not among the relics that were taken by the crusaders in the 13th century.", "In 1655, at the request of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the skull was taken to Russia, for which the monastery was compensated in the sum of 2,000 rubles.", "In 1693, having received a request from the Vatopedi Monastery for the return of Saint John's skull, Tsar Peter the Great ordered that the skull remain in Russia but that the monastery was to be paid 500 rubles every four years.", "The Russian state archives document these payments up until 1735.The skull was kept at the Moscow Kremlin, in the Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God, until 1920, when it was confiscated by the Soviets and placed in the Museum of Silver Antiquities.", "In 1988, in connection with the 1,000th anniversary of the Baptism of Russia, the head, along with other important relics, was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church and kept at the Epiphany Cathedral, until being moved to the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour after its restoration.Today, the monastery at Vatopedi posits a rival claim to possessing the skull of John Chrysostom, and there a skull is venerated by pilgrims to the monastery as that of Saint John.", "Two sites in Italy also claim to have the saint's skull: the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence and the ''Dal Pozzo'' chapel in Pisa.", "The right hand of Saint John is preserved at Philotheou Monastery on Mount Athos, and numerous smaller relics are scattered throughout the world." ], [ "Collected works", "Widely used editions of Chrysostom's works are available in Greek, Latin, English, and French.", "The Greek edition is edited by Sir Henry Savile (eight volumes, Eton, 1613); the most complete Greek and Latin edition is edited by Bernard de Montfaucon (thirteen volumes, Paris, 1718–38, republished in 1834–40, and reprinted in Migne's ''Patrologia Graeca'', volumes 47–64).", "There is an English translation in the first series of the ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'' (London and New York, 1889–90).", "A selection of his writings has been published more recently in the original with facing French translation in ''Sources Chrétiennes''." ], [ "See also", "* Saint John Chrysostom, patron saint archive" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* Allen, Pauline and Mayer, Wendy (2000).", "''John Chrysostom''.", "Routledge.", "* Attwater, Donald (1960).", "''St.", "John Chrysostom: Pastor and Preacher''.", "London: Catholic Book Club.", "** Blamires, Harry (1996).", "''The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide Through Ulysses''.", "London: Routledge.", "* Brändle, R., V. Jegher-Bucher, and Johannes Chrysostomus (1995).", "Acht Reden gegen Juden (Bibliothek der griechischen Literatur 41), Stuttgart: Hiersemann.", "* Brustein, William I.", "(2003).", "''Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "** Carter, Robert (1962).", "\"The Chronology of St. John Chrysostom's Early Life.\"", "''Traditio'' '''18''':357–364.", "* Chrysostom, John (1979).", "''Discourses Against Judaizing Christians'', trans.", "Paul W. Harkins.", "The Fathers of the Church; v. 68.Washington: Catholic University of America Press.", "* Chuvin, Pierre (1990).", "\"A chronicle of the last pagans\".", "Harvard University Press* Dumortier, Jean (1951).", "\"La valeur historique du dialogue de Palladius et la chronologie de saint Jean Chrysostome.\"", "''Mélanges de science religieuse'' '''8''', 51–56.", "* Hartney, Aideen (2004).", "''John Chrysostom and the Transformation of the City''.", "London: Duckworth.", ".", "* Joyce, James (1961).", "''Ulysses''.", "New York: The Modern Library.", "* Kelly, John Norman Davidson (1995).", "''Golden Mouth: The Story of John Chrysostom-Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop''.", "Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.", ".", "* Laqueur, Walter (2006).", "''The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.G.", "(1990) ''Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church and State in the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press.", ".", "* Lewy, Yohanan Hans (1997).", "\"John Chrysostom\".", "''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0).", "Ed.", "Cecil Roth.", "Keter Publishing House.", ".", "* Meeks, Wayne A., and Robert L. Wilken (1978).", "''Jews and Christians in Antioch in the First Four Centuries of the Common Era'' (The Society of Biblical Literature, Number 13).", "Missoula: Scholars Press.", ".", "* Morris, Stephen.", "\"'Let Us Love One Another': Liturgy, Morality, and Political Theory in Chrysostom's Sermons on Rom.", "12–13 and II Thess.", "2,\" ''in: Speculum Sermonis: Interdisciplinary Reflections on the Medieval Sermon'', ed.", "Georgiana Donavin, Cary J. Nederman, and Richard Utz.", "Turnhout: Brepols, 2004.pp. 89–112.", "* Palladius, Bishop of Aspuna.", "''Palladius on the Life And Times of St. John Chrysostom'', transl.", "and edited by Robert T. Meyer.", "New York: Newman Press, 1985..* * * Pradels, W. (2002).", "\"Lesbos Cod.", "Gr.", "27 : The Tale of a Discovery\", ''Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum'' 6, pp. 81–89.", "* Pradels, W., R. Brändle, and M. Heimgartner (2001).", "\"Das bisher vermisste Textstück in Johannes Chrysostomus, Adversus Judaeos, Oratio 2\", Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 5, pp. 23–49.", "* Pradels, W., R. Brändle, and M. Heimgartner (2002).", "\"The sequence and dating of the series of John Chrysostom's eight discourses Adversus Judaeos\", Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 6, 90–116.", "* Schaff, Philip, and Henry Wace (eds.)", "(1890).", "''Socrates, Sozomenus: Church Histories'' (''A Select Library of Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church'', second series, '''vol.", "II''').", "New York: The Christian Literature Company.", "* Stark, Rodney (1997).", "''The Rise of Christianity.", "How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Stephens, W.R.W.", "(1883).", "''Saint John Chrysostom, His Life and Times''.", "London: John Murray.", "Stow, Kenneth (2006).", "''Jewish Dogs, An Imagine and Its Interpreters: Continiuity in the Catholic-Jewish Encounter''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press.", ".", " * * Willey, John H. (1906).", "''Chrysostom: The Orator''.", "Cincinnati: Jennings and Graham.", "* Woods, Thomas (2005).", "''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization''.", "Washington, D.C.: Regenery.", "===Further reading=======Primary sources====''Sermon on Alms'' Translated by Margaret M. Sherwood from the Parallel Greek and Latin Text of the Abbé Migne (New York: The New York School of Philanthropy, 1917)''The priesthood: a translation of the Peri hierosynes of St. John Chrysostom'', by WA Jurgens, (New York: Macmillan, 1955)''Commentary on Saint John the apostle and evangelist: homilies 1–47'', translated by Sister Thomas Aquinas Goggin, Fathers of the Church vol 33, (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc, 1957)''Commentary on Saint John the Apostle and Evangelist'', translated by Sister Thomas Aquinas Goggin.", "Homilies 48–88, Fathers of the Church vol 41, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1959) translation of ''Homiliae in Ioannem''''Baptismal instructions'', translated and annotated by Paul W Harkins, (Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1963)''Discourses against judaizing Christians'', translated by Paul W Harkins., Fathers of the Church vol 68, (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1979)''On the incomprehensible nature of God'', translated by Paul W Harkins.", "Fathers of the Church vol 72, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1984)''On wealth and poverty'', translated and introduced by Catharine P Roth, (Crestwood, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1984)* translations of ''Discourse on blessed Babylas'', and ''Against the Greeks: Demonstration against the pagans that Christ is God''.", "* translation of Homilies on Genesis 1–17*Samuel NC Lieu, ed, ''The Emperor Julian: panegyric and polemic.", "Claudius Mamertinus, John Chrysostom, Ephrem the Syrian'', (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1986.)", "contains translation of John Chrysostom, ''Homily on St. Babylas, against Julian and the pagans'' XIV–XIX''Commentaries on the sages'', translated with an introduction by Robert Charles Hill, 2 vols, (Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2006) Vol 1 is a translation of the ''Commentary on Job''; vol 2 is a translation of the ''Commentary on Proverbs''====Secondary sources====***" ], [ "External links", " Quotes by Saint John Chrysostom by Orthodox Church Quotes* On Saint John Chrysostom's Antioch Years by Pope Benedict XVI* Symposium Commemorating the 1600th Anniversary of Saint John's Repose* Jewish Encyclopedia: Chrysostomus, Joannes* John Chrysostom on Patristique.org (French)* Was St. John Chrysostom Anti-Semitic?", "* Saint John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople Orthodox icon and synaxarion (13 November feast day)* Translation of the relics of Saint John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople (27 January feast day)* Synaxis of the Ecumenical Teachers and Hierarchs: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, and John Chrysostom (30 January feast day)* Colonnade Statue St Peter's Square* John Chrysostom Mosaic in Hagia Sophia* —online bibliography of scholarship on John Chrysostom===Works===* * * The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom* Study Text of the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom (Ruthenian Edition, with Scriptural references)Writings of Chrysostom in the Christian Classics Ethereal Library edition of the ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers:''* On the Priesthood, Ascetic Treatises, Select Homilies and Letters, Homilies on the Statues Homilies on the Gospel of St. Matthew ' Homilies on the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Romans Homilies on First and Second Corinthians Homilies on the Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Thessalonians, Timothy, Titus, and Philemon** Homilies on the Gospel of St. John and the Epistle to the Hebrews* The ''Hieratikon'' Easter Sermon of St. John Chrysostom* Eight Homilies Against the Jews* ''Opera Omnia'' by Migne ''Patrologia Graeca'' with analytical indexes* The Auxiliary Resources page on the Electronic Manipulus florum Project Website provides digital transcriptions of the Latin translations of ''De laudibus sancti Pauli homeliae'' (PG 50, 473–514), ''Dialogus de sacerdotio'' (PG 48, 623–91), and ''In epistolam ad Hebraeos homeliae'' (PG 63, 9–236), as well as the Latin text of the Pseudo-Chrysostom ''Opus imperfectum in Mattheum'' (PG 56, 611–946).", "It also provides digital transcriptions of Anianus of Celeda's prologue on the homilies on Matthew and his Latin translations of the first eight homilies (PG 58, 975–1058) and also Anianus of Celeda's prologue and his Latin translations of Chrysostom's homelies 1–25 on Matthew from the ''editio princeps'' published in Venice in 1503.", "* The ''Chrysostomus Latinus in Iohannem'' Online (CLIO) Project is an Open Access resource that provides Burgundio of Pisa's translation of Chrysostom's 88 homilies on the Gospel of John (1173), which has never been printed, as well as the later Latin translations of Francesco Griffolini (1462) and Bernard de Montfaucon (1728), along with Montfaucon's critical edition of the original Greek text.", "* The ''Chrysostomus Latinus in Mattheum'' Online (CLIMO) Project is a new Open Access project that seeks to follow the successful format of the CLIO Project.", "At present (July 2020) it provides transcriptions of Burgundio's preface and Homily 2.", "* Ps.Chrysostom Homily 2 on Christmas at Tertullian.org and here at Archive.org.", "* S. John Chrysostom: Homilies at OPenn===Orthodox feast days===* 27 January, Translation of the relics of Saint John Chrysostom to Constantinople* 30 January, Synaxis of the Three Great Hierarchs* 14 September, Repose of Saint John Chrysostom* 13 November, Saint John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Heckman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Joseph Heckman''' (born April 19, 1944) is an American economist and Nobel laureate who serves as the Henry Schultz Distinguished Service Professor in Economics at the University of Chicago, where he is also a professor at the College, a professor at the Harris School of Public Policy, Director of the Center for the Economics of Human Development (CEHD), and Co-Director of Human Capital and Economic Opportunity (HCEO) Global Working Group.", "He is also a professor of law at the Law School, a senior research fellow at the American Bar Foundation, and a research associate at the NBER.", "He received the John Bates Clark Medal in 1983, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2000, which he shared with Daniel McFadden.", "He is known principally for his pioneering work in econometrics and microeconomics.", "Heckman is noted for his contributions to selection bias and self-selection in quantitative analysis in the social sciences, especially the Heckman correction, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Economics.", "He is also well known for his empirical research in labor economics and his scholarship on the efficacy of early childhood education programs.", "As of December 2022, according to RePEc, he is the second-most influential economist in the world." ], [ "Early years", "Heckman was born to John Jacob Heckman and Bernice Irene Medley in Chicago, Illinois.", "He received his B.A.", "in mathematics from Colorado College in 1965 and his Ph.D. in economics from Princeton University in 1971 after completing a doctoral dissertation titled \"Three essays on the supply of labor and the demand for goods\" under the supervision of Stanley W. Black." ], [ "Career", "He served as an assistant professor at Columbia University before he moved to the University of Chicago, in 1973.He has been a dissertation advisor for over 70 students, including Carolyn Heinrich, George Borjas, Stephen Cameron, Mark Rosenzweig, and Russ Roberts.In addition to serving as the Henry Schultz Distinguished Service Professor and director of the Economics Research Center in the department of economics, Heckman is also a professor of law at the Law School and a professor at the Harris School of Public Policy, where he is director of both the Center for Social Program Evaluation and Center for the Study of Childhood Development.", "He also serves as a member of the Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics's Research Council.", "Heckman has held many appointments at other institutions and notably served as the Distinguished Chair of Microeconometrics at University College London (2004-2008), a Professor of Science and Society at University College Dublin (2005-2014), and as the Alfred Cowles Distinguished Visiting Professor at Yale University (2008-2011).", "His current appointments include Presidential Scholar-in-Residence at the University of Southern California's Leonard D. Schaeffer Center for Health Policy and Economics (2015-) and International Research Fellow at the Institute for Fiscal Studies (2014-).=== Center for the Economics of Human Development ===Founded in 2014 and directed by Heckman, the Center for the Economics of Human Development (CEHD), at the University of Chicago, umbrellas his multiple research areas and initiatives that encompass rigorous empirical research to determine effective human capital policies and program design.", "CEHD initiatives include the Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working Group, the Pritzker Consortium on Early Childhood Development, the Heckman Equation, the Research Network on the Determinants of Life Course Capabilities and Outcomes, and the Asian Family in Transition Initiative.", "Along with professor Steve Durlauf, Heckman is the Co-Director of the HCEO Working Group." ], [ "Research", "Heckman is noted for his contributions to selection bias and self-selection analysis, especially Heckman correction, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Economics.", "He is also well known for his empirical research in labor economics, particularly regarding the efficacy of early childhood education programs.His work has been devoted to the development of a scientific basis for economic policy evaluation, with special emphasis on models of individuals and disaggregated groups, and the problems and possibilities created by heterogeneity, diversity, and unobserved counterfactual states.", "He developed a body of new econometric tools that address these issues.", "His research has given policymakers important new insights into areas such as education, jobtraining, the importance of accounting for general equilibrium in the analysis of labor markets, anti-discrimination law, and civil rights.", "He demonstrated a strong causal effect of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in promoting African-American economic progress.", "He has recently demonstrated that the high school dropout rate is increasing in the US.", "He has studied the economic benefits of sorting in the labor market, the ineffectiveness of active labor market programs, and the economic returns to education.His recent research focuses on inequality, human development and lifecycle skill formation, with a special emphasis on the economics of early childhood education.", "He is currently conducting new social experiments on early childhood interventions and reanalyzing old experiments.", "He is also studying the emergence of the underclass in the US and Western Europe.", "For example, he showed that a high IQ only improved an individual's chances of financial success by 1 or 2%.", "Instead, \"conscientiousness,\" or \"diligence, perseverance and self-discipline,\" are what led to financial success.In the early 1990s, his pioneering research, on the outcomes of people who obtain the GED certificate, received national attention.Heckman has published over 300 articles and several books.", "His books include ''Inequality in America: What Role for Human Capital Policy?''", "(with Alan Krueger); ''Evaluating Human Capital Policy, Law, and Employment: Lessons from Latin America and the Caribbean'' (with Carmen Pages); the ''Handbook of Econometrics'', volumes 5, 6A, and 6B (edited with Edward Leamer); ''Global Perspectives on the Rule of Law,'' (edited with R. Nelson and L. Cabatingan); and ''The Myth of Achievement Tests: The GED and the Role of Character in American Life'' (with John Eric Humphries and Tim Kautz).He is currently co-editor of the ''Journal of Political Economy''.", "He is also a member of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) and the American Philosophical Society.", "He is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Econometric Society (of which he is also former president), the Society of Labor Economics, the American Statistical Association, and the International Statistical Institute." ], [ "Awards", "Heckman has received numerous awards for his work, including the John Bates Clark Medal of the American Economic Association in 1983, the 2005 and 2007 Dennis Aigner Award for Applied Econometrics from the ''Journal of Econometrics'', the 2005 Jacob Mincer Award for Lifetime Achievement in Labor Economics, the 2005 Ulysses Medal from the University College Dublin, the 2007 Theodore W. Schultz Award from the American Agricultural Economics Association, the Gold Medal of the President of the Italian Republic awarded by the International Scientific Committee of the Pio Manzú Centre in 2008, the Distinguished Contributions to Public Policy for Children Award from the Society for Research in Child Development in 2009, the 2014 Frisch Medal from the Econometric Society, the 2014 Spirit of Erikson Award from the Erikson Institute, and the 2016 Dan David Prize for Combating Poverty." ], [ "Personal life", "Heckman in 1979 married sociologist Lynne Pettler-Heckman, who died July 8, 2017.They had two children: a son, Jonathan (b.", "1982) who is a physicist at the University of Pennsylvania, and a daughter, Alma (b.", "1986), who is an assistant professor of history at the University of California at Santa Cruz." ], [ "See also", "* List of economists* List of think tanks" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* James J. Heckman's Homepage at the University of Chicago Center for the Economics of Human Development'* Heckman Media Coverage & Policy Impact* IDEAS/RePEc* Interview with James J. Heckman in The Region, Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank, 2005* Interview with James Heckman on the economic arguments for investing in the health of our children's learning* * * James Heckman: In early childhood education, ‘Quality really matters.’ Phone interview with the Washington Post* ** includes the Prize Lecture 8 December 2000 ''Microdata, Heterogeneity and the Evaluation of Public Policy''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judith of Poland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Judith of Poland''' (, ; b.", "1130/35 – died 8 July 1171/75) was a member of the House of Piast and by marriage margravine of Brandenburg." ], [ "Early years", "Judith was the daughter of Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland by his second wife, Salomea of Berg.", "She was probably named after either her paternal grandmother, Judith of Bohemia, or her older half-sister, the princess of Murom.", "Judith was one of the youngest children of her parents; her date of birth remains unknown.", "According to Polish medieval chronicles, she was sent to Hungary as a bride of the son of King Béla II.", "According to the ''Annales Cracovienses Compilati'', this event took place in 1136; since it can be assumed that the Polish princess was younger than her betrothed, and also are known the birth dates of the youngest children of Bolesław III (Agnes in 1137 and Casimir in 1138), Judith in consequence could have been born between 1130 and 1135.The marriage never took place: by 1146, the engagement was broken with the consent of both parties and Judith returned to Poland.", "The reason for this may have been the wedding of Mieszko (Judith's brother) with the Hungarian princess Elisabeth (daughter of King Béla II), which sufficiently secured the Polish-Hungarian alliance." ], [ "Margravine of Brandenburg", "In Kruszwica on 6 January 1148 Judith married Otto, eldest son of Albert the Bear, the first Margrave of Brandenburg.", "This union was contracted in connection with the Ascanian efforts to support the Junior Dukes in opposition to King Conrad III of Germany, who supported the deposed High Duke Władysław II as legal ruler of Poland.", "During her marriage, she bore her husband two sons, Otto (who later succeeded his father as Margrave of Brandenburg) in 1149, and Henry (who inherited the Counties of Tangermünde and Gardelegen) in 1150.Nothing is known about the political role that Judith had to play in Germany.", "After his father's death in 1170, Otto became the second Margrave of Brandenburg and Judith the Margravine consort." ], [ "Death and aftermath", "Like her birth date, Judith's date of death remains unknown.", "Only the day, 8 July, is known thanks to the ''Regesta Historia Brandenburgensis'', which records the death in \"''VIII Id Jul''\" of \"''Juditha marchionissa gemma Polonorum''\".", "By contrast, the year of death can be determined only through indirect sources.", "In documents from 1170 Judith is named as a living person.", "It is assumed that Judith died between 1171 and 1175.She was buried in the Brandenburg Cathedral.Judith's oldest son, Otto II, inherited the Margraviate of Brandenburg after the death of his father in 1184.He never married or had children; because his brother Henry died before him (in 1192) also without issue, after Otto II's death in 1205 Brandenburg was inherited by his younger half-brother Albert II, son of Otto I and Ada." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jeffrey Archer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeffrey Howard Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare''' (born 15 April 1940) is an English novelist, life peer, convicted criminal, and former elected politician who remains a member of the House of Lords.", "Before becoming an author, Archer was a Member of Parliament (1969–1974), but did not seek re-election after a financial scandal that left him almost bankrupt.Archer revived his fortunes as a novelist.", "His 1979 novel ''Kane and Abel'' remains one of the best-selling books in the world, with an estimated 34 million copies sold worldwide.", "Overall his books have sold more than 320 million copies worldwide.Archer became deputy chairman of the Conservative Party (1985–86), before resigning after a newspaper accused him of paying money to a prostitute.", "In 1987, he won a court case and was awarded large damages because of this claim.", "He was made a life peer in 1992 and subsequently became Conservative candidate to be the first elected Mayor of London.", "He resigned his candidacy in 1999 after it emerged that he had lied in his 1987 libel case.", "He was imprisoned (2001–2003) for perjury and perverting the course of justice, ending his active political career." ], [ "Early life and education", "Jeffrey Howard Archer was born in the City of London Maternity Hospital in Holloway, London on 15 April 1940.He was two weeks old when his family moved to Somerset, eventually settling in the seaside town of Weston-super-Mare, where Archer spent most of his early life.His father, William (died 1956), was 64 years old when Jeffrey Archer was born.", "Early in his career, Archer gave conflicting accounts to the press of his father's supposed, but non-existent, military career.", "William Archer was, in fact, a bigamist, fraudster, and conman, who impersonated another William Archer, a deceased war medal holder.", "He was at different times employed as a chewing gum salesman in New York and a mortgage broker in London.", "In the latter capacity, he was charged at the Old Bailey with a series of fraud offences.", "On being released on bail, he absconded to the US under the name William Grimwood.In the US, William Archer fathered a child, Rosemary Turner (21 June 1917 – 11 October 1986), Jeffrey's half-sister.", "In 1940 Rosemary married lawyer Brien McMahon who went on to become the Democratic senator for Connecticut (1945–1952) and a contender for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1952.After Brien McMahon's death that year, Rosemary married, in 1953, the Belgian ambassador to Washington, Baron Silvercruys.", "The First Lady, Mamie Eisenhower, was the guest-of-honour at their wedding.As a boy Archer dreamed of being captain of the Bristol Rovers Football Club.", "He is still a fan of the club.===Wellington School===In 1951, Archer won a scholarship to Wellington School in Somerset (not Wellington College in Berkshire, as he was later inclined to claim) after passing the 11-plus.", "At this time his mother, Lola, was employed as a journalist on Weston's local newspaper, the ''Weston Mercury''.", "She wrote a weekly column entitled \"Over the Teacups\", and frequently wrote about Jeffrey, calling him 'Tuppence'.", "Although Archer enjoyed the local fame this brought him, it caused him to be the victim of bullying while at Wellington School.Archer left school with O-levels in English literature, art, and history.", "He then spent a few years in a variety of jobs, including training with the army and a short period with the Metropolitan Police.", "He later worked as a physical education teacher, first at Vicar's Hill, a preparatory school in Hampshire, and later at Dover College in Kent.===Oxford===In 1963 Archer was offered a place at the Oxford University Department for Continuing Education to study for a Diploma of Education.", "The course was based in the department, and Archer became a member of Brasenose College.", "There have been claims that Archer provided false evidence of his academic qualifications to Brasenose, the apparent citing of an American institution which was actually a bodybuilding club, for instance, in gaining admission to the course.", "It has also been alleged Archer provided false statements about three non-existent A-Level passes and a U.S. university degree.", "Although the diploma course only lasted a year, Archer spent a total of three years at Oxford.", "At Oxford, Archer was successful in athletics, competing in sprinting and hurdling, and became president of the Oxford University Athletic Club.", "Television coverage survives of him making false starts in a 1964 sprint race, but he was not disqualified.", "He gained a blue in athletics and went on to run for England, and once competed for Great Britain.Archer raised money for the charity Oxfam, obtaining the support of The Beatles in a fundraising drive.", "The band accepted his invitation to visit the Principal's lodge at Brasenose College, where they were photographed with Archer and dons of the college, although they did not play there.", "The critic Sheridan Morley, then a student at Merton, was present and recalled the occasion:" ], [ "Early career", "After leaving Oxford, Archer continued as a charity fundraiser, initially working for the National Birthday Trust, a medical charity that promoted safe childbirth, before joining the United Nations Association (UNA) as its chief fundraiser.", "The then chairman of the UNA, Humphry Berkeley, alleged that there were numerous discrepancies in Archer's expense claims while he worked at the UNA.Around this time, Archer began a career in politics, serving as a Conservative councillor for Havering on the Greater London Council (1967–1970).Archer set up his own fundraising and public relations company, Arrow Enterprises, in 1969.That same year he opened an art gallery, the Archer Gallery, in Mayfair.", "The gallery specialised in modern art, including pieces by the sculptor and painter Leon Underwood.", "The gallery ultimately lost money, however, and Archer sold it two years later." ], [ "Member of Parliament", "At 29, Archer was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for the Lincolnshire constituency of Louth, holding the seat for the Conservative Party in a by-election on 4 December 1969.Archer beat Ian Gow to the selection after winning over a substantial proportion of younger members at the selection meeting.", "The national party had concerns about Archer's selection, specifically relating to the UNA expenses allegations made by Humphry Berkeley, himself a former Conservative MP.", "Berkeley tried to persuade the Conservative Central Office that Archer was unsuitable as a parliamentary candidate.", "Archer brought a defamation action against Berkeley and the story was kept out of the press, although a truncated version of the story did appear in ''The Times''.", "The case was eventually settled out of court, with Archer agreeing to pay legal costs of around £30,000.Louth constituency had three key areas: Louth, Cleethorpes, and Immingham.", "During his time as an MP, Archer was a regular at the Immingham Conservative Club in the most working-class part of the constituency.", "In 1970 he took part in the Kennedy Memorial Test, a 50-mile running/walking race from Louth to Skegness and back.In parliament, Archer was on the left of the Conservative Party, rebelling against some of his party's policies.", "He advocated free TV licences for elderly people and was against museum entrance charges.", "In 1971, he employed David Mellor to deal with his correspondence.", "He tipped Mellor to reach the cabinet.", "In an interview, in February 1999 Archer said, \"I hope we don't return to extremes.", "I'm what you might call centre-right but I've always disliked the right wing as much as I've disliked the left wing.\"" ], [ "Financial crisis", "In 1974, Archer was a casualty of a fraudulent investment scheme involving a Canadian company called Aquablast.", "The debacle lost him his first fortune and left him almost £500,000 in debt.", "Fearing imminent bankruptcy, he stood down as an MP at the October 1974 general election.While he was a witness in the Aquablast case in Toronto in 1975, Archer was accused of stealing three suits from a department store.", "Archer denied the accusation for many years, but in the late 1990s he finally acknowledged that he had taken the suits, although he claimed that at the time he had not realised he had left the shop.", "No charges were ever brought." ], [ "Writing career", "Archer wrote his first book, ''Not a Penny More, Not a Penny Less'', in the autumn of 1974, as a means of avoiding bankruptcy.", "The book was picked up by the literary agent Deborah Owen and published first in the U.S., then eventually in Britain in the autumn of 1976.A radio adaptation was aired on BBC Radio 4 in the early 1980s and a BBC Television adaptation of the book was broadcast in 1990.", "''Kane and Abel'' (1979) proved to be his best-selling work, reaching number one on ''The New York Times'' bestsellers list.", "Like most of his early work, it was edited by Richard Cohen, the Olympic fencing gold-medallist.", "It was made into a television mini-series by CBS in 1985, starring Peter Strauss and Sam Neill.", "The following year, Granada TV screened a 10-part adaptation of another Archer bestseller, ''First Among Equals'', which told the story of four men and their quest to become prime minister.", "In the U.S. edition of the novel, the character of Andrew Fraser was eliminated, reducing the number of protagonists to three.As well as novels and short stories, Archer has also written three stage plays.", "The first, ''Beyond Reasonable Doubt'', opened in 1987 and ran at the Queen's Theatre in London's West End for over a year.", "Archer's next play, ''Exclusive'', opened at the Strand Theatre, London, in September 1989.It was not well received by critics, and closed after a few weeks.", "His final play, ''The Accused'', opened at the Theatre Royal, Windsor on 26 September 2000, before transferring to the Theatre Royal Haymarket in the West End in December.In 1988, author Kathleen Burnett accused Archer of plagiarizing a story she had written, and including it in his short-story collection, ''A Twist in the Tale''.", "Archer denied he had plagiarized the story, claiming he had simply been inspired by the idea.While Archer's books are commercially successful, critics have been generally unfavorable towards his writing.", "Journalist Hugo Barnacle, writing for ''The Independent'' about ''The Fourth Estate'' (1996), thought the novel, while demonstrating that \"the editors don't seem to have done any work\", was \"not wholly unsatisfactory\".Archer has said that he spends considerable time writing and re-writing each book.", "He goes abroad to write the first draft, working in blocks of two hours at a time, then writes anything up to 17 drafts in total.", "Since 2010, Archer has written the first draft of each new book at his villa in Majorca, called \"Writer's Block\".In 2011, Archer published the first of seven books in ''The Clifton Chronicles'' series, which follow the life of Harry Clifton from his birth in 1920, through to his funeral in 1993.The first novel in the series, ''Only Time Will Tell'', tells the story of Harry from 1920 through to 1940, and was published in the UK on 12 May 2011.The seventh and final novel in the series, ''This Was a Man'', was published on 3 November 2016.", "''The Short, the Long and the Tall'', an illustrated collection of Archer's short stories, was published in November 2020, with watercolor illustrations by artist Paul Cox.", "''Over My Dead Body'' was published in October 2021, and is the fourth book in a series featuring detective William Warwick.", "The book was critically acclaimed and became a New York Times bestseller.In January 2020 it was reported that Archer had sued his former literary agents, Curtis Brown, for £500,000 in unpaid royalties." ], [ "Return to politics", "===Deputy party chairman===Archer's political career revived in the 1980s, and he became a popular speaker among the Conservative grassroots.", "He was appointed deputy chairman of the Conservative Party by Margaret Thatcher in September 1985.Norman Tebbit, party chairman, had misgivings over the appointment, as did other prominent members of the party, including William Whitelaw and Edward Heath.", "During his tenure as deputy chairman, Archer was responsible for a number of embarrassing moments, including his statement, made during a live radio interview, that many young, unemployed people were simply unwilling to find work.", "At the time of Archer's comment, unemployment in the UK stood at a record 3.4 million.", "Archer was later forced to apologise for the remark, saying that his words had been \"taken out of context\".", "Archer resigned as deputy chairman in October 1986 due to a scandal caused by an article in ''The News of the World'', which led with the story, \"Tory boss Archer pays vice-girl\", and claimed Archer had paid Monica Coghlan, a prostitute, £2,000 through an intermediary at Victoria Station to go abroad.===''Daily Star'' libel case===Shortly after ''The News of the World'' story broke, rival tabloid the ''Daily Star'' ran a story alleging Archer had paid for sex with Coghlan, something ''The News of the World'' had been careful to avoid stating directly.", "Archer responded by suing the ''Daily Star''.", "The case came to court in July 1987.Explaining the payment to Coghlan as the action of a philanthropist rather than that of a guilty man, Archer won the case and was awarded £500,000 damages.", "Archer stated he would donate the money to charity.", "However, this case would ultimately result in Archer's final exit from front-line politics some years later.", "The description the judge (Mr Justice Caulfield) gave of Mrs Archer in his jury instructions included: \"Remember Mary Archer in the witness-box.", "Your vision of her probably will never disappear.", "Has she elegance?", "Has she fragrance?", "Would she have, without the strain of this trial, radiance?", "How would she appeal?", "Has she had a happy married life?", "Has she been able to enjoy, rather than endure, her husband Jeffrey?\"", "The judge then went on to say of Jeffrey Archer: \"Is he in need of cold, unloving, rubber-insulated sex in a seedy hotel round about quarter to one on a Tuesday morning after an evening at the Caprice?", "\"Although the Archers claimed they were a normal, happily married couple, by this time, according to the journalist Adam Raphael, Jeffrey and Mary Archer were living largely separate lives.", "The editor of the ''Daily Star'', Lloyd Turner, was sacked six weeks after the trial by the paper's owner Lord Stevens of Ludgate.", "Adam Raphael soon afterwards found proof that Archer had perjured himself at the trial, but his superiors were unwilling to take the risk of a potentially costly libel case.", "''The News of the World'' later settled out-of-court with Archer, acknowledging they, too, had libelled him.===Kurdish charity and peerage===When Saddam Hussein suppressed Kurdish uprisings in 1991, Archer, with the Red Cross, set up the charity Simple Truth, a fundraising campaign on behalf of the Kurds.", "In May 1991, Archer organised a charity pop concert, starring Rod Stewart, Paul Simon, Sting and Gloria Estefan, who all performed free of charge.", "Archer stated that his charity had raised £57,042,000, though it was later reported that only £3 million came from the Simple Truth concert and appeal, the rest from aid projects sponsored by the British and other governments, with significant amounts pledged before the concert.", "The charity would later incur further controversy.", "Having been previously rejected, Archer was made a life peer on 27 July 1992 as '''Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare''', ''of Mark in the County of Somerset''.", "Prime Minister John Major recommended him largely because of Archer's role in aid to the Kurds.", "Archer and Major had been friends for a number of years.===Political statements in 1990s===In a speech at the 1993 Conservative conference, Archer urged then Home Secretary Michael Howard, to \"Stand and deliver,\" saying: \"Michael, I am sick and tired of being told by old people that they are frightened to open the door, they're frightened to go out at night, frightened to use the parks and byways where their parents and grandparents walked with freedom ... We say to you: stand and deliver!\".", "He then attacked violent films and urged tougher prison conditions to prevent criminals from re-offending.", "He criticised the role of \"do-gooders\" and finished off the speech by denouncing the opposition party's law and order policies.", "This was a time when Archer was actively seeking another front-line political role.On ''Question Time'' on 20 January 1994, Archer said that 18 should be the age of consent for gay sex, as opposed to 21, which it was at the time.", "Archer though was opposed to the age of consent for gay men being 16.Historian David Starkey was on the same edition, and said of Archer: \"Englishmen like you enjoy sitting on the fence so much because you enjoy the sensation.\"", "Archer has also consistently been an opponent of a return to capital punishment.===Allegations of insider dealings===In January 1994, Mary Archer, then a director of Anglia Television, attended a directors' meeting at which an impending takeover of Anglia Television by MAI, which owned Meridian Broadcasting, was discussed.", "The following day, Jeffrey Archer bought 50,000 shares in Anglia Television, acting on behalf of a friend, Broosk Saib.", "Shortly after this, it was announced publicly that Anglia Television would be taken over by MAI.", "As a result, the shares jumped in value, whereupon Archer sold them on behalf of his friend for a profit of £77,219.The arrangements he made with the stockbrokers meant he did not have to pay at the time of buying the shares.An inquiry was launched by the Stock Exchange into possible insider trading.", "The Department of Trade and Industry, headed by Michael Heseltine, announced that Archer would not be prosecuted due to insufficient evidence.", "His solicitors admitted that he had made a mistake, but Archer later said that he had been exonerated.===London mayoral candidature===In 1999, Archer had been selected by the Conservative Party as candidate for the London mayoral election of 2000, with the support of two former Prime Ministers, Baroness Thatcher and John Major.On 21 November 1999 the ''News of the World'' published allegations made by Ted Francis, a former friend, that Archer had committed perjury in his 1987 libel case.", "Archer withdrew his candidature the following day.", "After the allegations broke, Archer was disowned by his party.", "Conservative leader William Hague explained: \"This is the end of politics for Jeffrey Archer.", "I will not tolerate such behaviour in my party.\"", "On 4 February 2000, Archer was expelled from the party for five years." ], [ "Perjury trial and imprisonment", "===Trial===On 26 September 2000, Archer was charged with perjury and perverting the course of justice during the 1987 libel trial.", "Ted Francis was charged with perverting the course of justice.", "Simultaneously, Archer starred in a production of his own courtroom play ''The Accused'', staged at London's Theatre Royal Haymarket.", "The play concerned the court trial of an alleged murderer and assigned the role of jury to the audience, which would vote on the guilt of Archer's character at the end of each performance.The perjury trial began on 30 May 2001, a month after Monica Coghlan's death in a road traffic collision.", "Ted Francis claimed that Archer had asked him to provide a false alibi for the night Archer was alleged to have been with Monica Coghlan.", "Angela Peppiatt, Archer's former personal assistant, also claimed Archer had fabricated an alibi in the 1987 trial.", "Peppiatt had kept a diary of Archer's movements, which contradicted evidence given during the 1987 trial.", "Andrina Colquhoun, Archer's former mistress, confirmed that they had been having an affair in the 1980s, thus contradicting the claim that he and Mary Archer had been \"happily married\" at the time of the trial.Archer never spoke during the trial, though his wife Mary again gave evidence as she had done during the 1987 trial.", "On 19 July 2001, Archer was found guilty of perjury and perverting the course of justice at the 1987 trial.", "He was sentenced to four years' imprisonment by Mr Justice Potts.", "Francis was found not guilty.", "Prominent journalists admitted to having accepted Archer's hospitality after he was convicted.", "Archer's mother had died shortly before he was sentenced and he was released for the day to attend her funeral.===Prison===Archer was initially sent to HM Prison Belmarsh, a Category \"A\" prison, but was moved to HM Prison Wayland, a Category \"C\" prison in Norfolk, on 9 August 2001.Despite automatically qualifying as a category \"D\" prisoner, given it was a first conviction and he did not pose a serious risk of harm to the public, his status as such was suspended pending a police investigation into allegations about his Kurdish charity.", "He was then transferred to HM Prison North Sea Camp, an open prison, in October 2001.From there he was let out to work, briefly, at the Theatre Royal in Lincoln, and allowed occasional home visits.Media reports claimed he had abused this privilege by attending a lunch with a friend, Education Secretary Gillian Shephard.", "In September 2002 he was transferred to a Category \"B\" prison, Lincoln.", "After three weeks, he was moved to the Category \"D\" HM Prison Hollesley Bay in Suffolk.During his imprisonment, Archer was visited by a number of high-profile friends, including actor Donald Sinden and entertainer Barry Humphries (who performed as Dame Edna Everage).In October 2002, Archer repaid the ''Daily Star'' the £500,000 damages he had received in 1987, as well as legal costs and interest of £1.3 million.", "That month, he was suspended from Marylebone Cricket Club for seven years.On 21 July 2003, Archer was released on licence from Hollesley Bay after serving half of his sentence.He remained a peer, there being no legal provision through which his peerage could be removed at the time other than passing a new Act of Parliament.", "He also retained membership of the House of Lords, which did not then have the power to expel members; however, Archer has not taken an active part in the proceedings of the House.", "Politically, he is a non-affiliated member.===Prison diaries===While in prison, Archer wrote the three-volume memoir ''A Prison Diary'', with volumes fashioned after Dante's ''Divine Comedy'', and named after the first three prisons in which he was kept.", "His prison term also served as inspiration for nine of the 12 short stories in the collection ''Cat O' Nine Tales''.===Kurdish aid controversy===In July 2001, shortly after Archer was jailed for perjury, Scotland Yard began investigating allegations that millions of pounds had disappeared from his Kurdish charity.", "In 1991, Archer had claimed to have raised £57,042,000.In 1992, the Kurdish Disaster Fund wrote to Archer, complaining: \"You must be concerned that the Kurdish refugees have seen hardly any of the huge sums raised in the west in their name.\"", "Kurdish groups claimed that little more than £250,000 had been received by groups in Iraq.A British Red Cross-commissioned KPMG audit of the cash showed no donations were handled by Archer and any misappropriation was \"unlikely\"; however, KPMG also could find no evidence to support Archer's claims to have raised £31.5 million from overseas governments.", "The police said they would launch a \"preliminary assessment of the facts\" from the audit but were not investigating the Simple Truth fund." ], [ "Subsequent incidents", "In 2004, the government of Equatorial Guinea alleged that Archer was one of the financiers of the failed 2004 coup d'état attempt against it, citing bank details and telephone records as evidence.", "In 2009, Archer said: \"I am completely relaxed about it.", "Mr Mann Simon Mann, the English mercenary leader of the coup has made clear that it's nothing to do with me.\"", "In 2011, Mann, imprisoned in Equatorial Guinea for his role in leading the failed 2004 coup d'état but released on humanitarian grounds later, told ''The Daily Telegraph'' that his forthcoming book, ''Cry Havoc'', would reveal \"the financial involvement of a controversial and internationally famous member of the British House of Lords in the plot, backed up by banking records.\"", "He claimed documents from the bank accounts in Guernsey of two companies Mann used as vehicles for organising the coup, showed a 'J H Archer' paying $135,000 into one of the firms." ], [ "Personal life", "Archer has been married to Mary Weeden since July 1966.They met at Oxford University, where Weeden was studying chemistry at St Anne's College.", "She went on to specialise in solar power.They have two children: William Archer (born 1972), a theatrical producer, and James Archer (born 1974), a financial adviser and businessman.In 1979, the Archers purchased the Old Vicarage, Grantchester, a house associated with the poet Rupert Brooke.", "Every summer, they host a lavish garden party in the grounds to celebrate their wedding anniversary.", "Following the near-bankruptcy of the Aquablast scandal, by the early 1980s, Archer was back in a comfortable financial position and began to hold shepherd's pie and Krug parties for prominent people at his London penthouse, which overlooks the River Thames and the Houses of Parliament.On 26 February 2006, on Andrew Marr's ''Sunday AM'' programme, Archer said he had no interest in returning to front-line politics and would pursue his writing instead." ], [ "Archer in fiction", "Archer was satirically portrayed as a misunderstood secret agent, saviour of Britain and mankind and \"overall thoroughly good chap\", by actor Damian Lewis in the BBC drama ''Jeffrey Archer: The Truth'' (2002).", "Scriptwriter Guy Jenkin explained that \"my Jeffrey Archer is the man who has frequently saved Britain over the last 30 years.", "He's beloved of all women he comes across, all men, all dogs—he's a superhero.\"", "Ian Hislop and Nick Newman's 1994 BBC Radio 4 satirical series ''Gush'' purported to be \"written by master storyteller Archie Jeffries\".In the Amazon series ''Good Omens'', a reference is made by one of the angels in Aziraphale's bookshop: \"Something smells evil.\"", "Aziraphale replies, \"Oh, that would be the Jeffrey Archer books, I'm afraid.", "\"In the ''Doctor Who'' episode ''Silence in the Library'', the Doctor mentions that the Library has whole continents of Jeffrey Archer." ], [ "Works", "Archer has published 42 works, which have been translated into 33 languages, with combined sales of more than 275 million copies.===Kane and Abel series===''Kane and Abel'' (1979)''The Prodigal Daughter'' (1982)''Shall We Tell the President?''", "(1986 - revised edition)===Clifton Chronicles===''Only Time Will Tell'' (2011)''The Sins of the Father'' (2012)''Best Kept Secret'' (2013)''Be Careful What You Wish For'' (2014)''Mightier Than the Sword'' (2015)''Cometh The Hour'' (2016)''This Was a Man'' (2016)===William Warwick series===''Nothing Ventured'' (2019)''Hidden in Plain Sight'' (2020)''Turn a Blind Eye'' (2021)''Over My Dead Body'' (2021)''Next in Line'' (2022)''Traitor's Gate'' (2023)===Other novels===''Not a Penny More, Not a Penny Less'' (1976)''First Among Equals'' (1984)''A Matter of Honour'' (1986)''As the Crow Flies'' (1991)''Honour Among Thieves'' (1993)''The Fourth Estate'' (1996)''The Eleventh Commandment'' (1998)''Sons of Fortune'' (2002)''False Impression'' (2005)''The Gospel According to Judas by Benjamin Iscariot'', with Francis J. Moloney (2007)''A Prisoner of Birth'' (2008)''Paths of Glory'' (2009)''Heads You Win'' (2018)===Short stories/collections===''A Quiver Full of Arrows'' (including \"Old Love\") (1980)''A Twist in the Tale'' (1988)''Fools, Knaves, and Heroes: Great Political Short Stories'' Editor, Introduction.", "(1991)''Twelve Red Herrings'' (1994)''The Collected Short Stories'' (1997) Collects ''A Quiver Full of Arrows'', ''A Twist in the Tale'' and ''Twelve Red Herrings''''To Cut a Long Story Short'' (2000)''Cat O'Nine Tales'' (2006)''And Thereby Hangs a Tale'' (2010)''The New Collected Short Stories'' (2011) Collects ''To Cut a Long Story Short'', ''Cat O'Nine Tales'', and ''And Thereby Hangs a Tale''''The Jeffrey Archer Short Story Challenge Collection'' Editor, Contributor (''Unique'') (2013)''Four Warned'' (Quick Reads, 2014) Four shorts stories, all previously published (in ''Twelve Red Herrings'', ''Cat O'Nine Tales'' and ''And Thereby Hangs a Tale'')''It Can't Be October Already'' (2017) Single short story (included in ''Cat O'Nine Tales'')''Tell Tale'' (2017)''The Short, the Long and the Tall'' (2020)===Plays===''Beyond Reasonable Doubt'' (1987)''Exclusive'' (1989)''The Accused'' (2000)===Prison diaries (non-fiction)===1.", "''Hell — Belmarsh'' (2002)2.", "''Purgatory — Wayland'' (2003)3.", "''Heaven — North Sea Camp'' (2004)===For children===''By Royal Appointment'' (1980)''Willy Visits the Square World'' (1980)''Willy and the Killer Kipper'' (1981)''The First Miracle'' (1994)" ], [ "See also", "Jonathan Aitken — Archer's contemporary, another Conservative politician imprisoned for perjuryChris Huhne — Liberal Democrat politician, imprisoned for perverting the course of justice" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", " * * * * * * * In Depth: Archer Trial, bbc.co.uk; accessed 26 November 2015.", "* Curtis Brown Literary Agency, curtisbrown.co.uk; accessed 26 November 2014.===Interviews===* Interview about becoming Mayor of London at BBC News* Interview with Jeffrey Archer on Veronika Asks* Writing tips from Jeffrey Archer* Interview of Jeffrey Archer in the Hindu * Jeffrey Archer 'The Sins of the Father' interview * Interview With Author Jeffrey Archer" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johannes Brahms" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johannes Brahms''' (; 7 May 1833 – 3 April 1897) was a German composer, pianist, and conductor of the mid-Romantic period.", "Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, he spent much of his professional life in Vienna.", "He is sometimes grouped with Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven as one of the \"Three Bs\" of music, a comment originally made by the nineteenth-century conductor Hans von Bülow.Brahms composed for symphony orchestra, chamber ensembles, piano, organ, voice, and chorus.", "A virtuoso pianist, he premiered many of his own works.", "He worked with leading performers of his time, including the pianist Clara Schumann and the violinist Joseph Joachim (the three were close friends).", "Many of his works have become staples of the modern concert repertoire.Brahms has been considered both a traditionalist and an innovator, by his contemporaries and by later writers.", "His music is rooted in the structures and compositional techniques of the Classical masters.", "Embedded within those structures are deeply Romantic motifs.", "While some contemporaries found his music to be overly academic, his contribution and craftsmanship were admired by subsequent figures as diverse as Arnold Schoenberg and Edward Elgar.", "The detailed construction of Brahms's works was a starting point and an inspiration for a generation of composers." ], [ "Life", "===Early years (1833–1850)===bombing in 1943.Brahms's father, Johann Jakob Brahms, was from the town of Heide in Holstein.", "The family name was also sometimes spelt 'Brahmst' or 'Brams', and derives from 'Bram', the German word for the shrub broom.", "Against the family's will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg in 1826, where he found work as a jobbing musician and a string and wind player.", "In 1830, he married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen, a seamstress 17 years older than he was.", "In the same year he was appointed as a horn player in the Hamburg militia.", "Eventually he became a double-bass player in the Stadttheater Hamburg and the Hamburg Philharmonic Society.", "As Johann Jakob prospered, the family moved over the years to ever better accommodation in Hamburg.", "Johannes Brahms was born in 1833; his sister Elisabeth (Elise) had been born in 1831 and a younger brother Fritz Friedrich (Fritz) was born in 1835.Fritz also became a pianist; overshadowed by his brother, he emigrated to Caracas in 1867, and later returned to Hamburg as a teacher.Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training; Johannes also learnt to play the violin and the basics of playing the cello.", "From 1840 he studied piano with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel.", "Cossel complained in 1842 that Brahms \"could be such a good player, but he will not stop his never-ending composing.\"", "At the age of 10, Brahms made his debut as a performer in a private concert including Beethoven's quintet for piano and winds Op.", "16 and a piano quartet by Mozart.", "He also played as a solo work an étude of Henri Herz.", "By 1845 he had written a piano sonata in G minor.", "His parents disapproved of his early efforts as a composer, feeling that he had better career prospects as a performer.From 1845 to 1848 Brahms studied with Cossel's teacher, the pianist and composer Eduard Marxsen.", "Marxsen had been a personal acquaintance of Beethoven and Schubert, admired the works of Mozart and Haydn, and was a devotee of the music of J. S. Bach.", "Marxsen conveyed to Brahms the tradition of these composers and ensured that Brahms's own compositions were grounded in that tradition.", "In 1847 Brahms made his first public appearance as a solo pianist in Hamburg, playing a fantasy by Sigismund Thalberg.", "His first full piano recital, in 1848, included a fugue by Bach as well as works by Marxsen and contemporary virtuosi such as Jacob Rosenhain.", "A second recital in April 1849 included Beethoven's ''Waldstein'' sonata and a waltz fantasia of his own composition and garnered favourable newspaper reviews.Brahms's compositions at this period are known to have included piano music, chamber music and works for male voice choir.", "Under the pseudonym 'G.", "W. Marks', some piano arrangements and fantasies were published by the Hamburg firm of Cranz in 1849.The earliest of Brahms's works which he acknowledged (his ''Scherzo'' Op.", "4 and the song ''Heimkehr'' Op.", "7 no.", "6) date from 1851.However, Brahms was later assiduous in eliminating all his early works; even as late as 1880 he wrote to his friend Elise Giesemann to send him his manuscripts of choral music so that they could be destroyed.Persistent stories of the impoverished adolescent Brahms playing in bars and brothels have only anecdotal provenance, and many modern scholars dismiss them; the Brahms family was relatively prosperous, and Hamburg legislation very strictly forbade music in, or the admittance of minors to, brothels.===Early career (1850–1862)===Ede Reményi (l.) and Brahms in 1852Brahms in 1853Clara Schumann in 1857, photograph by Franz HanfstaenglIn 1850 Brahms met the Hungarian violinist Ede Reményi and accompanied him in a number of recitals over the next few years.", "This was his introduction to \"gypsy-style\" music such as the ''csardas'', which was later to prove the foundation of his most lucrative and popular compositions, the two sets of ''Hungarian Dances'' (1869 and 1880).", "1850 also marked Brahms's first contact (albeit a failed one) with Robert Schumann; during Schumann's visit to Hamburg that year, friends persuaded Brahms to send the former some of his compositions, but the package was returned unopened.In 1853 Brahms went on a concert tour with Reményi.", "In late May the two visited the violinist and composer Joseph Joachim at Hanover.", "Brahms had earlier heard Joachim playing the solo part in Beethoven's violin concerto and been deeply impressed.", "Brahms played some of his own solo piano pieces for Joachim, who remembered fifty years later: \"Never in the course of my artist's life have I been more completely overwhelmed\".", "This was the beginning of a friendship which was lifelong, albeit temporarily derailed when Brahms took the side of Joachim's wife in their divorce proceedings of 1883.Brahms also admired Joachim as a composer, and in 1856 they were to embark on a mutual training exercise to improve their skills in (in Brahms's words) \"double counterpoint, canons, fugues, preludes or whatever\".", "Bozarth notes that \"products of Brahms's study of counterpoint and early music over the next few years included \"dance pieces, preludes and fugues for organ, and neo-Renaissance and neo-Baroque choral works\".After meeting Joachim, Brahms and Reményi visited Weimar, where Brahms met Franz Liszt, Peter Cornelius, and Joachim Raff, and where Liszt performed Brahms's Op.", "4 Scherzo at sight.", "Reményi claimed that Brahms then slept during Liszt's performance of his own Sonata in B minor; this and other disagreements led Reményi and Brahms to part company.Brahms visited Düsseldorf in October 1853, and, with a letter of introduction from Joachim, was welcomed by Schumann and his wife Clara.", "Schumann, greatly impressed and delighted by the 20-year-old's talent, published an article entitled \"Neue Bahnen\" (\"New Paths\") in the 28 October issue of the journal ''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik'' nominating Brahms as one who was \"fated to give expression to the times in the highest and most ideal manner\".", "This praise may have aggravated Brahms's self-critical standards of perfection and dented his confidence.", "He wrote to Schumann in November 1853 that his praise \"will arouse such extraordinary expectations by the public that I don't know how I can begin to fulfil them\".", "While in Düsseldorf, Brahms participated with Schumann and Schumann's pupil Albert Dietrich in writing a movement each of a violin sonata for Joachim, the \"F-A-E Sonata\", the letters representing the initials of Joachim's personal motto ''Frei aber einsam'' (\"Free but lonely\").Schumann's accolade led to the first publication of Brahms's works under his own name.", "Brahms went to Leipzig where Breitkopf & Härtel published his Opp.", "1–4 (the Piano Sonatas nos.", "1 and 2, the Six Songs Op.", "3, and the Scherzo Op.", "4), whilst Bartholf Senff published the Third Piano Sonata Op.", "5 and the Six Songs Op.", "6.In Leipzig, he gave recitals including his own first two piano sonatas, and met with Ferdinand David, Ignaz Moscheles, and Hector Berlioz, among others.After Schumann's attempted suicide and subsequent confinement in a mental sanatorium near Bonn in February 1854 (where he died of pneumonia in 1856), Brahms based himself in Düsseldorf, where he supported the household and dealt with business matters on Clara's behalf.", "Clara was not allowed to visit Robert until two days before his death, but Brahms was able to visit him and acted as a go-between.", "Brahms began to feel deeply for Clara, who to him represented an ideal of womanhood.", "Their intensely emotional platonic relationship lasted until Clara's death.", "In June 1854 Brahms dedicated to Clara his Op.", "9, the ''Variations on a Theme of Schumann''.", "Clara continued to support Brahms's career by programming his music in her recitals.After the publication of his Op.", "10 Ballades for piano, Brahms published no further works until 1860.His major project of this period was the Piano Concerto in D minor, which he had begun as a work for two pianos in 1854 but soon realized needed a larger-scale format.", "Based in Hamburg at this time, he gained, with Clara's support, a position as musician to the tiny court of Detmold, the capital of the Principality of Lippe, where he spent the winters of 1857 to 1860 and for which he wrote his two Serenades (1858 and 1859, Opp.", "11 and 16).", "In Hamburg he established a women's choir for which he wrote music and conducted.", "To this period also belong his first two Piano Quartets (Op.", "25 and Op.", "26) and the first movement of the third Piano Quartet, which eventually appeared in 1875.The end of the decade brought professional setbacks for Brahms.", "The premiere of the First Piano Concerto in Hamburg on 22 January 1859, with the composer as soloist, was poorly received.", "Brahms wrote to Joachim that the performance was \"a brilliant and decisive – failure ...", "It forces one to concentrate one's thoughts and increases one's courage ...", "But the hissing was too much of a good thing ...\" At a second performance, audience reaction was so hostile that Brahms had to be restrained from leaving the stage after the first movement.", "As a consequence of these reactions Breitkopf and Härtel declined to take on his new compositions.", "Brahms consequently established a relationship with other publishers, including Simrock, who eventually became his major publishing partner.", "Brahms further made an intervention in 1860 in the debate on the future of German music which seriously misfired.", "Together with Joachim and others, he prepared an attack on Liszt's followers, the so-called \"New German School\" (although Brahms himself was sympathetic to the music of Richard Wagner, the School's leading light).", "In particular they objected to the rejection of traditional musical forms and to the \"rank, miserable weeds growing from Liszt-like fantasias\".", "A draft was leaked to the press, and the ''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik'' published a parody which ridiculed Brahms and his associates as backward-looking.", "Brahms never again ventured into public musical polemics.Brahms's personal life was also troubled.", "In 1859 he became engaged to Agathe von Siebold.", "The engagement was soon broken off, but even after this Brahms wrote to her: \"I love you!", "I must see you again, but I am incapable of bearing fetters.", "Please write me ... whether ...", "I may come again to clasp you in my arms, to kiss you, and tell you that I love you.\"", "They never saw one another again, and Brahms later confirmed to a friend that Agathe was his \"last love\".===Maturity (1862–1876)===Johannes Brahms, photographed Brahms had hoped to be given the conductorship of the Hamburg Philharmonic, but in 1862 this post was given to the baritone Julius Stockhausen.", "(Brahms continued to hope for the post; but when he was finally offered the directorship in 1893, he demurred as he had \"got used to the idea of having to go along other paths\".)", "In autumn 1862 Brahms made his first visit to Vienna, staying there over the winter.", "There he became an associate of two close members of Wagner's circle, his earlier friend Peter Cornelius and Karl Tausig, and of Joseph Hellmesberger Sr. and Julius Epstein, respectively the Director and head of violin studies, and the head of piano studies, at the Vienna Conservatoire.", "Brahms's circle grew to include the notable critic (and opponent of the 'New German School') Eduard Hanslick, the conductor Hermann Levi and the surgeon Theodor Billroth, who were to become amongst his greatest advocates.In January 1863 Brahms met Richard Wagner for the first time, for whom he played his ''Handel Variations'' Op.", "24, which he had completed the previous year.", "The meeting was cordial, although Wagner was in later years to make critical, and even insulting, comments on Brahms's music.", "Brahms however retained at this time and later a keen interest in Wagner's music, helping with preparations for Wagner's Vienna concerts in 1862/63, and being rewarded by Tausig with a manuscript of part of Wagner's ''Tannhäuser'' (which Wagner demanded back in 1875).", "The ''Handel Variations'' also featured, together with the first Piano Quartet, in his first Viennese recitals, in which his performances were better received by the public and critics than his music.Although Brahms entertained the idea of taking up conducting posts elsewhere, he based himself increasingly in Vienna and soon made it his home.", "In 1863, he was appointed conductor of the Wiener Singakademie.", "He surprised his audiences by programming many works by the early German masters such as Heinrich Schütz and J. S. Bach, and other early composers such as Giovanni Gabrieli; more recent music was represented by works of Beethoven and Felix Mendelssohn.", "Brahms also wrote works for the choir, including his Motet, Op.", "29.Finding however that the post encroached too much of the time he needed for composing, he left the choir in June 1864.From 1864 to 1876 he spent many of his summers in Lichtental, where Clara Schumann and her family also spent some time.", "His house in Lichtental, where he worked on many of his major compositions including ''A German Requiem'' and his middle-period chamber works, is preserved as a museum.In February 1865 Brahms's mother died, and he began to compose his large choral work ''A German Requiem'', Op.", "45, of which six movements were completed by 1866.Premieres of the first three movements were given in Vienna, but the complete work was first given in Bremen in 1868 to great acclaim.", "A seventh movement (the soprano solo \"Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit\") was added for the equally successful Leipzig premiere (February 1869).", "The work went on to receive concert and critical acclaim throughout Germany and also in England, Switzerland and Russia, marking effectively Brahms's arrival on the world stage.", "Brahms also experienced at this period popular success with works such as his first set of ''Hungarian Dances'' (1869), the ''Liebeslieder Waltzes'', Op.", "52, (1868/69), and his collections of lieder (Opp.", "43 and 46–49).", "Following such successes he finally completed a number of works that he had wrestled with over many years such as the cantata ''Rinaldo'' (1863–1868), his first two string quartets Op.", "51 nos.", "1 and 2 (1865–1873), the third piano quartet (1855–1875), and most notably his first symphony which appeared in 1876, but which had been begun as early as 1855.During 1869 Brahms had felt himself falling in love with the Schumann's daughter Julie (then aged 24 to his 36) but did not declare himself; when later that year Julie's engagement to Count Marmorito was announced, he wrote and gave to Clara the manuscript of his ''Alto Rhapsody'' (Op.", "53).", "Clara wrote in her diary that \"he called it ''his'' wedding song\" and noted \"the profound pain in the text and the music\".From 1872 to 1875, Brahms was director of the concerts of the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.", "He ensured that the orchestra was staffed only by professionals, and conducted a repertoire which ran from Bach to the nineteenth century composers who were not of the 'New German School'; these included Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Joachim, Ferdinand Hiller, Max Bruch and himself (notably his large scale choral works, the ''German Requiem'', the ''Alto Rhapsody'', and the patriotic ''Triumphlied'', Op.", "55, which celebrated Prussia's victory in the 1870/71 Franco-Prussian War).", "1873 saw the premiere of his orchestral ''Variations on a Theme by Haydn'', originally conceived for two pianos, which has become one of his most popular works.===Years of fame (1876–1890)===Eduard Hanslick offering incense to Brahms; cartoon from the Viennese satirical magazine ''Figaro'', 1890Brahms's first symphony, Op.", "68, appeared in 1876, though it had been begun (and a version of the first movement had been announced by Brahms to Clara and to Albert Dietrich) in the early 1860s.", "During the decade it evolved very gradually; the finale may not have begun its conception until 1868.Brahms was cautious and typically self-deprecating about the symphony during its creation, writing to his friends that it was \"long and difficult\", \"not exactly charming\" and, significantly \"long and in C Minor\", which, as Richard Taruskin points out, made it clear \"that Brahms was taking on the model of models for a symphony: Beethoven's Fifth\".In May 1876, Cambridge University offered to grant honorary degrees of Doctor of Music to both Brahms and Joachim, provided that they composed new pieces as \"theses\" and were present in Cambridge to receive their degrees.", "Brahms was averse to traveling to England, and requested to receive the degree 'in absentia', offering as his thesis the previously performed (November 1876) symphony.", "But of the two, only Joachim went to England and only he was granted a degree.", "Brahms \"acknowledged the invitation\" by giving the manuscript score and parts of his first symphony to Joachim, who led the performance at Cambridge 8 March 1877 (English premiere).Despite the warm reception the first symphony received, Brahms remained dissatisfied and extensively revised the second movement before the work was published.", "There followed a succession of well-received orchestral works: the Second Symphony Op.", "73 (1877), the Violin Concerto Op.", "77 (1878), dedicated to Joachim who was consulted closely during its composition, and the ''Academic Festival Overture'' (written following the conferring of an honorary degree by the University of Breslau) and ''Tragic Overture'' of 1880.The commendation of Brahms by Breslau as \"the leader in the art of serious music in Germany today\" led to a bilious comment from Wagner in his essay \"On Poetry and Composition\": \"I know of some famous composers who in their concert masquerades don the disguise of a street-singer one day, the hallelujah periwig of Handel the next, the dress of a Jewish Czardas-fiddler another time, and then again the guise of a highly respectable symphony dressed up as Number Ten\" (referring to Brahms's First Symphony as a putative tenth symphony of Beethoven).Brahms was now recognised as a major figure in the world of music.", "He had been on the jury which awarded the Vienna State Prize to the (then little-known) composer Antonín Dvořák three times, first in February 1875, and later in 1876 and 1877 and had successfully recommended Dvořák to his publisher, Simrock.", "The two men met for the first time in 1877, and Dvořák dedicated to Brahms his String Quartet, Op.", "34 of that year.", "He also began to be the recipient of a variety of honours; Ludwig II of Bavaria awarded him the Maximilian Order for Science and Art in 1874, and the music-loving Duke George of Meiningen awarded him in 1881 the Commander's Cross of the Order of the House of Meiningen.At this time Brahms also chose to change his image.", "Having been always clean-shaven, in 1878 he surprised his friends by growing a beard, writing in September to the conductor Bernhard Scholz: \"I am coming with a large beard!", "Prepare your wife for a most awful sight.\"", "The singer George Henschel recalled that after a concert \"I saw a man unknown to me, rather stout, of middle height, with long hair and a full beard.", "In a very deep and hoarse voice he introduced himself as 'Musikdirektor Müller' ... an instant later, we all found ourselves laughing heartily at the perfect success of Brahms's disguise\".", "The incident also displays Brahms's love of practical jokes.In 1882 Brahms completed his Piano Concerto No.", "2, Op.", "83, dedicated to his teacher Marxsen.", "Brahms was invited by Hans von Bülow to undertake a premiere of the work with the Meiningen Court Orchestra.", "This was the beginning of his collaboration with Meiningen and with von Bülow, who was to rank Brahms as one of the 'Three Bs'; in a letter to his wife he wrote: \"You know what I think of Brahms: after Bach and Beethoven the greatest, the most sublime of all composers.\"", "The following years saw the premieres of his Third Symphony, Op.", "90 (1883) and his Fourth Symphony, Op.", "98 (1885).", "Richard Strauss, who had been appointed assistant to von Bülow at Meiningen, and had been uncertain about Brahms's music, found himself converted by the Third Symphony and was enthusiastic about the Fourth: \"a giant work, great in concept and invention\".", "Another, but cautious, supporter from the younger generation was Gustav Mahler who first met Brahms in 1884 and remained a close acquaintance; he rated Brahms as superior to Anton Bruckner, but more earth-bound than Wagner and Beethoven.In 1889, Theo Wangemann, a representative of the American inventor Thomas Edison, visited the composer in Vienna and invited him to make an experimental recording.", "Brahms played an abbreviated version of his first Hungarian Dance and of Josef Strauss's ''Die Libelle'' on the piano.", "Although the spoken introduction to the short piece of music is quite clear, the piano playing is largely inaudible due to heavy surface noise.In that same year, Brahms was named an honorary citizen of Hamburg.===Last years (1890–1897)===Johann Strauss II (left) and Brahms, photographed in ViennaBrahms had become acquainted with Johann Strauss II, who was eight years his senior, in the 1870s, but their close friendship belongs to the years 1889 and after.", "Brahms admired much of Strauss's music, and encouraged the composer to sign up with his publisher Simrock.", "In autographing a fan for Strauss's wife Adele, Brahms wrote the opening notes of ''The Blue Danube'' waltz, adding the words \"unfortunately not by Johannes Brahms\".Grave in the Vienna Central Cemetery; monument designed by Victor Horta and sculpture by Ilse von TwardowskiAfter the successful Vienna premiere of his Second String Quintet, op.", "111, in 1890, the 57-year-old Brahms came to think that he might retire from composition, telling a friend that he \"had achieved enough; here I had before me a carefree old age and could enjoy it in peace.\"", "He also began to find solace in escorting the mezzo-soprano Alice Barbi and may have proposed to her (she was only 28).", "His admiration for Richard Mühlfeld, clarinettist with the Meiningen orchestra, revived his interest in composing and led him to write the Clarinet Trio, Op.", "114 (1891); Clarinet Quintet, Op.", "115 (1891); and the two Clarinet Sonatas, Op.", "120 (1894).", "Brahms also wrote at this time his final cycles of piano pieces, Opp.", "116–119 and the ''Vier ernste Gesänge'' (Four Serious Songs), Op.", "121 (1896) which were prompted by the death of Clara Schumann and dedicated to the artist Max Klinger who was his great admirer.", "The last of the Eleven Chorale Preludes for organ, Op.", "122 (1896) is a setting of \"O Welt ich muss dich lassen\" (\"O world I must leave thee\") and is the last notes that Brahms wrote.", "Many of these works were written in his house in Bad Ischl, where Brahms had first visited in 1882 and where he spent every summer from 1889 onwards.In the summer of 1896 Brahms was diagnosed with jaundice and pancreatic cancer, and later in the year his Viennese doctor diagnosed him with liver cancer (from which his father Jakob had died).", "His last public appearance was on 7 March 1897 when he saw Hans Richter conduct his Symphony No.", "4; there was an ovation after each of the four movements.", "He made the effort, three weeks before his death, to attend the premiere of Johann Strauss's operetta ''Die Göttin der Vernunft'' (The Goddess of Reason) in March 1897.His condition gradually worsened and he died on 3 April 1897, in Vienna, aged 63.Brahms is buried in the Vienna Central Cemetery in Vienna, under a monument designed by Victor Horta with sculpture by Ilse von Twardowski." ], [ "Music", "===Style and influences===Brahms maintained a classical sense of form and order in his works, in contrast to the opulence of the music of many of his contemporaries.", "Thus, many admirers (though not necessarily Brahms himself) saw him as the champion of traditional forms and \"pure music\", as opposed to the \"New German\" embrace of programme music.Brahms venerated Beethoven; in the composer's home, a marble bust of Beethoven looked down on the spot where he composed, and some passages in his works are reminiscent of Beethoven's style.", "Brahms's First Symphony bears strongly the influence of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, as the two works are both in C minor and end in the struggle towards a C major triumph.", "The main theme of the finale of the First Symphony is also reminiscent of the main theme of the finale of Beethoven's Ninth, and when this resemblance was pointed out to Brahms he replied that any dunce could see that.", "In 1876, when the work was premiered in Vienna, it was immediately hailed as \"Beethoven's Tenth\".", "Indeed, the similarity of Brahms's music to that of late Beethoven had first been noted as early as November 1853 in a letter from Albert Dietrich to Ernst Naumann.Brahms was a master of counterpoint.", "\"For Brahms, ... the most complicated forms of counterpoint were a natural means of expressing his emotions,\" writes Geiringer.", "\"As Palestrina or Bach succeeded in giving spiritual significance to their technique, so Brahms could turn a canon in motu contrario or a canon per augmentationem into a pure piece of lyrical poetry.\"", "Writers on Brahms have commented on his use of counterpoint.", "For example, of Op.", "9, ''Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann,'' Geiringer writes that Brahms \"displays all the resources of contrapuntal art\".", "In the A major piano quartet Opus 26, Jan Swafford notes that the third movement is \"demonic-canonic, echoing Haydn's famous minuet for string quartet called the 'Witch's Round.", "Swafford further opines that \"thematic development, counterpoint, and form were the dominant technical terms in which Brahms ... thought about music\".Allied to his skill in counterpoint was his subtle handling of rhythm and meter.", "The ''New Grove Dictionary of Music'' speculates that his contact with Hungarian and gypsy folk music as a teenager led to \"his lifelong fascination with the irregular rhythms, triplet figures and use of rubato\" in his compositions.", "The Hungarian Dances are among Brahms's most-appreciated pieces.", "According to \"only one composer rivals him in the advanced nature of his rhythmic thinking, and that is Stravinsky.", "\"His consummate skills in counterpoint and rhythm are richly present in ''A German Requiem'', a work that was partially inspired by his mother's death in 1865 (at which time he composed a funeral march that was to become the basis of Part Two, \"Denn alles Fleisch\"), but which also incorporates material from a symphony which he started in 1854 but abandoned following Schumann's suicide attempt.", "He once wrote that the Requiem \"belonged to Schumann\".", "The first movement of this abandoned symphony was re-worked as the first movement of the First Piano Concerto.Brahms loved the classical composers Mozart and Haydn.", "He especially admired Mozart, so much so that in his final years, he reportedly declared Mozart as the greatest composer.", "On 10 January 1896, Brahms conducted the Academic Festival Overture and both piano concertos in Berlin, and during the following celebration, Brahms interrupted Joachim's toast with \"Ganz recht; auf Mozart's Wohl\" (Quite right; here's Mozart's health).", "Brahms also compared Mozart with Beethoven to the latter's disadvantage, in a letter to Richard Heuberger, in 1896: \"Dissonance, true dissonance as Mozart used it, is not to be found in Beethoven.", "Look at ''Idomeneo''.", "Not only is it a marvel, but as Mozart was still quite young and brash when he wrote it, it was a completely new thing.", "You couldn't commission great music from Beethoven since he created only lesser works on commission—his more conventional pieces, his variations and the like.\"", "Brahms collected first editions and autographs of Mozart and Haydn's works and edited performing editions.", "He studied the music of pre-classical composers, including Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Giovanni Gabrieli, Johann Adolph Hasse, Heinrich Schütz, Domenico Scarlatti, George Frideric Handel, and, especially, Johann Sebastian Bach.", "His friends included leading musicologists, and, with Friedrich Chrysander, he edited an edition of the works of François Couperin.", "Brahms also edited works by C. P. E. Bach and W. F. Bach.", "He looked to older music for inspiration in the art of counterpoint; the themes of some of his works are modelled on Baroque sources such as Bach's ''The Art of Fugue'' in the fugal finale of Cello Sonata No.", "1 or the same composer's Cantata No.", "150 in the passacaglia theme of the Fourth Symphony's finale.", "Peter Phillips hears affinities between Brahms's rhythmically charged contrapuntal textures and those of Renaissance masters such as Giovanni Gabrieli and William Byrd.", "Referring to Byrd's ''Though Amaryllis dance'', Philips remarks that \"the cross-rhythms in this piece so excited E. H. Fellowes that he likened them to Brahms's compositional style.", "\"The early Romantic composers had a major influence on Brahms, particularly Schumann, who encouraged Brahms as a young composer.", "During his stay in Vienna in 1862–63, Brahms became particularly interested in the music of Franz Schubert.", "The latter's influence may be identified in works by Brahms dating from the period, such as the two piano quartets Op.", "25 and Op.", "26, and the Piano Quintet which alludes to Schubert's String Quintet and Grand Duo for piano four hands.", "The influence of Chopin and Mendelssohn on Brahms is less obvious, although occasionally one can find in his works what seems to be an allusion to one of theirs (for example, Brahms's Scherzo, Op.", "4, alludes to Chopin's Scherzo in B-flat minor; the scherzo movement in Brahms's Piano Sonata in F minor, Op.", "5, alludes to the finale of Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor).Brahms considered giving up composition when it seemed that other composers' innovations in extended tonality resulted in the rule of tonality being broken altogether.", "Although Wagner became fiercely critical of Brahms as the latter grew in stature and popularity, he was enthusiastically receptive of the early ''Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel''; Brahms himself, according to many sources, deeply admired Wagner's music, confining his ambivalence only to the dramaturgical precepts of Wagner's theory.Brahms wrote settings for piano and voice of 144 German folk songs, and many of his lieder reflect folk themes or depict scenes of rural life.===Works===Brahms wrote a number of major works for orchestra, including four symphonies, two piano concertos (No.", "1 in D minor; No.", "2 in B-flat major), a Violin Concerto, a Double Concerto for violin and cello, and the ''Tragic Overture'', along with somewhat lesser orchestral pieces such as the two Serenades, and the ''Academic Festival Overture''.His large choral work ''A German Requiem'' is not a setting of the liturgical ''Missa pro defunctis'' but a setting of texts which Brahms selected from the Luther Bible.", "The work was composed in three major periods of his life.", "An early version of the second movement was first composed in 1854, not long after Robert Schumann's attempted suicide, and this was later used in his first piano concerto.", "The majority of the Requiem was composed after his mother's death in 1865.The fifth movement was added after the official premiere in 1868, and the work was published in 1869.His works in variation form include the ''Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel'' and the ''Paganini Variations'', both for solo piano, and the ''Variations on a Theme by Haydn'' (now sometimes called the ''Saint Anthony Variations'') in versions for two pianos and for orchestra.", "The final movement of the Fourth Symphony, Op.", "98, is a passacaglia.", "He set a number of folksongs.His chamber works include three string quartets, two string quintets, two string sextets, a clarinet quintet, a clarinet trio, a horn trio, a piano quintet, three piano quartets, and four piano trios (the fourth being published posthumously).", "He composed several instrumental sonatas with piano, including three for violin, two for cello, and two for clarinet (which were subsequently arranged for viola by the composer).", "His solo piano works range from his early piano sonatas and ballades to his late sets of character pieces.", "Brahms was a significant Lieder composer, who wrote over 200 of them.", "His chorale preludes for organ, Op.", "122, which he wrote shortly before his death, have become an important part of the organ repertoire.", "They were published posthumously in 1902.The last of this set is a setting of the choral.", "\"O Welt ich muss dich lassen\" (\"O world I now must leave thee\") and were the last notes he wrote.Brahms was an extreme perfectionist.", "He destroyed many early works – including a violin sonata he had performed with Reményi and violinist Ferdinand David – and once claimed to have destroyed 20 string quartets before he issued his official First in 1873.Over the course of several years, he changed an original project for a symphony in D minor into his first piano concerto.", "In another instance of devotion to detail, he laboured over the official First Symphony for almost fifteen years, from about 1861 to 1876.Even after its first few performances, Brahms destroyed the original slow movement and substituted another before the score was published.A factor that contributed to his perfectionism was Schumann's early enthusiasm, which Brahms was determined to live up to.Brahms strongly preferred writing absolute music that does not refer to an explicit scene or narrative, and he never wrote an opera or a symphonic poem.===Influence===Monument dedicated to Brahms, by Max Klinger (1909)Brahms looked both backward and forward; his output was often bold in its exploration of harmony and rhythm.", "As a result, he was an influence on composers of both conservative and modernist tendencies.", "Within his lifetime, his idiom left an imprint on several composers within his personal circle, who strongly admired his music, such as Heinrich von Herzogenberg, Robert Fuchs, and Julius Röntgen, as well as on Gustav Jenner, who was his only formal composition pupil.", "Antonín Dvořák, who received substantial assistance from Brahms, deeply admired his music and was influenced by it in several works, such as the Symphony No.", "7 in D minor and the F minor Piano Trio.", "Features of the \"Brahms style\" were absorbed in a more complex synthesis with other contemporary (chiefly Wagnerian) trends by Hans Rott, Wilhelm Berger, Max Reger and Franz Schmidt, whereas the British composers Hubert Parry and Edward Elgar and the Swede Wilhelm Stenhammar all testified to learning much from Brahms.", "As Elgar said, \"I look at the Third Symphony of Brahms, and I feel like a pygmy.", "\"Ferruccio Busoni's early music shows much Brahmsian influence, and Brahms took an interest in him, though Busoni later tended to disparage Brahms.", "Towards the end of his life, Brahms offered substantial encouragement to Ernst von Dohnányi and to Alexander von Zemlinsky.", "Their early chamber works (and those of Béla Bartók, who was friendly with Dohnányi) show a thoroughgoing absorption of the Brahmsian idiom.", "Zemlinsky, moreover, was in turn the teacher of Arnold Schoenberg, and Brahms was apparently impressed by drafts of two movements of Schoenberg's early Quartet in D major which Zemlinsky showed him in 1897.In 1933, Schoenberg wrote an essay \"Brahms the Progressive\" (re-written 1947), which drew attention to his fondness for motivic saturation and irregularities of rhythm and phrase; in his last book (''Structural Functions of Harmony'', 1948), he analysed Brahms's \"enriched harmony\" and exploration of remote tonal regions.", "These efforts paved the way for a re-evaluation of his reputation in the 20th century.", "Schoenberg went so far as to orchestrate one of Brahms's piano quartets.", "Schoenberg's pupil Anton Webern, in his 1933 lectures, posthumously published under the title ''The Path to the New Music'', claimed Brahms as one who had anticipated the developments of the Second Viennese School, and Webern's own Op.", "1, an orchestral passacaglia, is clearly in part a homage to, and development of, the variation techniques of the passacaglia-finale of Brahms's Fourth Symphony.", "Ann Scott has shown how Brahms anticipated the procedures of the serialists by redistributing melodic fragments between instruments, as in the first movement of the Clarinet Sonata, Op.", "120, No.", "2.Brahms was honoured in the German hall of fame, the Walhalla memorial.", "On 14 September 2000, he was introduced there as the 126th \"rühmlich ausgezeichneter Teutscher\" and 13th composer among them, with a bust by sculptor .=== Instruments ===Brahms played principally on German and Viennese pianos.", "In his early years he used a piano made by the Hamburg company Baumgarten & Heins.", "Later, in 1864, he wrote to Clara Schumann about his attraction to instruments by Streicher.", "In 1873 he received a Streicher piano op.", "6713 and kept it in his house until his death.", "He wrote to Clara: \"There on my Streicher I always know exactly what I write and why I write one way or another.\"", "Another instrument in Brahms's possession was a Conrad Graf piano – a wedding present of the Schumanns, that Clara Schumann later gave to Brahms and which he kept until 1873.In the 1880s for his public performances Brahms used a Bösendorfer several times.", "In his Bonn concerts he played on a Steinweg Nachfolgern in 1880 and a Blüthner in 1883.Brahms also used a Bechstein in several of his concerts: 1872 in Würzburg, 1872 in Cologne and 1881 in Amsterdam." ], [ "Beliefs", "Brahms was baptised into the Lutheran church as an infant, and was confirmed at the age of fifteen (at St. Michael's Church, Hamburg), but has been described as an agnostic and a humanist.", "The devout Catholic Antonín Dvořák wrote in a letter: \"Such a man, such a fine soul – and he believes in nothing!", "He believes in nothing!\"", "When asked by conductor Karl Reinthaler to add additional explicitly religious text to his ''German Requiem'', Brahms is reported to have responded, \"As far as the text is concerned, I confess that I would gladly omit even the word German and instead use Human; also with my best knowledge and will I would dispense with passages like John 3:16.On the other hand, I have chosen one thing or another because I am a musician, because I needed it, and because with my venerable authors I can't delete or dispute anything.", "But I had better stop before I say too much.\"" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * In * * * )* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Brahms Institut, Lübeck Academy of Music* * * Free scores Mutopia Project* * Texts and translations of vocal music by Brahms, LiederNet Archive* * Listings of live performances, Bachtrack* Johannes Brahms WebSource* Digitised recordings at the British Library Sounds" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jean-Paul Sartre" ], [ "Introduction", "Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre in Beijing, 1955'''Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre''' (, ; ; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic, considered a leading figure in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism.", "Sartre was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism (and phenomenology).", "His work has influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to do so.", "He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature despite attempting to refuse it, saying that he always declined official honors and that \"a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution.", "\"Sartre held an open relationship with prominent feminist and fellow existentialist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir.", "Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, which they considered bourgeois, in both lifestyles and thought.", "The conflict between oppressive, spiritually destructive conformity (''mauvaise foi'', literally, 'bad faith') and an \"authentic\" way of \"being\" became the dominant theme of Sartre's early work, a theme embodied in his principal philosophical work ''Being and Nothingness'' (''L'Être et le Néant'', 1943).", "Sartre's introduction to his philosophy is his work ''Existentialism Is a Humanism'' (''L'existentialisme est un humanisme'', 1946), originally presented as a lecture." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie (Schweitzer).", "When Sartre was two years old, his father died of an illness, which he most likely contracted in Indochina.", "Anne-Marie moved back to her parents' house in Meudon, where she raised Sartre with help from her father Charles Schweitzer, a teacher of German who taught Sartre mathematics and introduced him to classical literature at a very early age.", "When he was twelve, Sartre's mother remarried, and the family moved to La Rochelle, where he was frequently bullied, in part due to the wandering of his blind right eye (sensory exotropia).As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergson's essay ''Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness''.", "He attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris.", "He studied and earned certificates in psychology, history of philosophy, logic, general philosophy, ethics and sociology, and physics, as well as his '''' (roughly equivalent to an MA thesis) in Paris at the École Normale Supérieure (ENS), an institution of higher education that was the alma mater for several prominent French thinkers and intellectuals.", "(His 1928 MA thesis under the title \"L'Image dans la vie psychologique: rôle et nature\" \"Image in Psychological Life: Role and Nature\" was supervised by Henri Delacroix.)", "It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, friendship with Raymond Aron.", "Perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartre's philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojève's seminars, which continued for a number of years.From his first years in the École normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters.", "In 1927, his antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson.", "In the same year, with his comrades Nizan, Larroutis, Baillou and Herland, he organized a media prank following Charles Lindbergh's successful New York City–Paris flight; Sartre & Co. called newspapers and informed them that Lindbergh was going to be awarded an honorary École degree.", "Many newspapers, including ''Le Petit Parisien'', announced the event on 25 May.", "Thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike.", "The scandal led Lanson to resign.In 1929 at the École normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist.", "The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous.", "The first time Sartre took the agrégation, he failed.", "He took it a second time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place, with Beauvoir second.From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre (at the Lycée de Le Havre, the present-day , 1931–1936), Laon (at the Lycée de Laon, 1936–37), and, finally, Paris (at the Lycée Pasteur, 1937–1939, and at the Lycée Condorcet, 1941–1944; see below).In 1932, Sartre read ''Voyage au bout de la nuit'' by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on him.In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français d'Allemagne in Berlin where he studied Edmund Husserl's phenomenological philosophy.", "Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinas's ''Théorie de l'intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl'' (''The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology'').The neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a whole generation of French thinkers, including Sartre, to discover Hegel's ''Phenomenology of Spirit''.===World War II===In 1939, Sartre was drafted into the French Army, where he served as a meteorologist.", "He was captured by German troops in 1940 in Padoux, and he spent nine months as a prisoner of war—in Nancy and finally in , Trier, where he wrote his first theatrical piece, ''Barionà, fils du tonnerre'', a drama concerning Christmas.", "It was during this period of confinement that Sartre read Martin Heidegger's ''Sein und Zeit'', later to become a major influence on his own essay on phenomenological ontology.", "Because of poor health (he claimed that his poor eyesight and exotropia affected his balance), Sartre was released in April 1941.According to other sources, he escaped after a medical visit to the ophthalmologist.", "Given civilian status, he recovered his teaching position at Lycée Pasteur near Paris and settled at the Hotel Mistral.", "In October 1941, he was given a position, previously held by a Jewish teacher who had been forbidden to teach by Vichy law, at Lycée Condorcet in Paris.Sartre (third from left) and other French journalists visit General George C. Marshall in the Pentagon, 1945After coming back to Paris in May 1941, he participated in the founding of the underground group ''Socialisme et Liberté'' (\"Socialism and Liberty\") with other writers Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint Desanti, Dominique Desanti, Jean Kanapa, and École Normale students.", "In spring of 1941, Sartre suggested with \"cheerful ferocity\" at a meeting that the ''Socialisme et Liberté'' assassinate prominent war collaborators like Marcel Déat, but de Beauvoir noted his idea was rejected as \"none of us felt qualified to make bombs or hurl grenades\".", "The British historian Ian Ousby observed that the French always had far more hatred for collaborators than they did for the Germans, noting it was French people like Déat that Sartre wanted to assassinate rather than the military governor of France, General Otto von Stülpnagel, and the popular slogan always was \"Death to Laval!\"", "rather than \"Death to Hitler!\".", "In August Sartre and de Beauvoir went to the French Riviera seeking the support of André Gide and André Malraux.", "However, both Gide and Malraux were undecided, and this may have been the cause of Sartre's disappointment and discouragement.", "''Socialisme et liberté'' soon dissolved and Sartre decided to write instead of being involved in active resistance.", "He then wrote ''Being and Nothingness'', ''The Flies'', and ''No Exit'', none of which were censored by the Germans, and also contributed to both legal and illegal literary magazines.In his essay \"Paris under the Occupation\", Sartre wrote that the \"correct\" behaviour of the Germans had entrapped too many Parisians into complicity with the occupation, accepting what was unnatural as natural:Sartre noted when Wehrmacht soldiers asked Parisians politely in their German-accented French for directions, people usually felt embarrassed and ashamed as they tried their best to help out the Wehrmacht which led Sartre to remark \"We could not be ''natural''\".", "French was a language widely taught in German schools and most Germans could speak at least some French.", "Sartre himself always found it difficult when a Wehrmacht soldier asked him for directions, usually saying he did not know where it was that the soldier wanted to go, but still felt uncomfortable as the very act of speaking to the Wehrmacht meant he had been complicit in the Occupation.", "Ousby wrote: \"But, in however humble a fashion, everyone still had to decide how they were going to cope with life in a fragmenting society ...", "So Sartre's worries ... about how to react when a German soldier stopped him in the street and asked politely for directions were not as fussily inconsequential as they might sound at first.", "They were emblematic of how the dilemmas of the Occupation presented themselves in daily life\".", "Sartre wrote the very \"correctness\" of the Germans caused moral corruption in many people who used the \"correct\" behavior of the Germans as an excuse for passivity, and the very act of simply trying to live one's day-to-day existence without challenging the occupation aided the \"New Order in Europe\", which depended upon the passivity of ordinary people to accomplish its goals.Throughout the occupation, it was German policy to plunder France, and food shortages were always a major problem as the majority of food from the French countryside went to Germany.", "Sartre wrote about the \"languid existence\" of the Parisians as people waited obsessively for the one weekly arrival of trucks bringing food from the countryside that the Germans allowed, writing: \"Paris would grow peaked and yawn with hunger under the empty sky.", "Cut off from the rest of the world, fed only through the pity or some ulterior motive, the town led a purely abstract and symbolic life\".", "Sartre himself lived on a diet of rabbits sent to him by a friend of de Beauvoir living in Anjou.", "The rabbits were usually in an advanced state of decay, full of maggots, and despite being hungry, Sartre once threw out one rabbit as uneatable, saying it had more maggots in it than meat.", "Sartre also remarked that conversations at the Café de Flore between intellectuals had changed, as the fear that one of them might be a ''mouche'' (informer) or a writer of the ''corbeau'' (anonymous denunciatory letters) meant that no one really said what they meant anymore, imposing self-censorship.", "Sartre and his friends at the Café de Flore had reasons for their fear; by September 1940, the ''Abwehr'' alone had already recruited 32,000 French people to work as ''mouches'' while by 1942 the Paris ''Kommandantur'' was receiving an average of 1,500 letters per day sent by the ''corbeaux''.Sartre wrote under the occupation Paris had become a \"sham\", resembling the empty wine bottles displayed in shop windows as all of the wine had been exported to Germany, looking like the old Paris, but hollowed out, as what had made Paris special was gone.", "Paris had almost no cars on the streets during the occupation as the oil went to Germany while the Germans imposed a nightly curfew, which led Sartre to remark that Paris \"was peopled by the absent\".", "Sartre also noted that people began to disappear under the occupation, writing:Sartre wrote the ''feldgrau'' (\"field grey\") uniforms of the Wehrmacht and the green uniforms of the Order Police which had seemed so alien in 1940 had become accepted, as people were numbed into accepting what Sartre called \"a pale, dull green, unobtrusive strain, which the eye almost expected to find among the dark clothes of the civilians\".", "Under the occupation, the French often called the Germans ''les autres'' (\"the others\"), which inspired Sartre's aphorism in his play ''Huis clos'' (\"No Exit\") of \"''l'enfer, c'est les Autres''\" (\"Hell is other people\").", "Sartre intended the line \"''l'enfer, c'est les Autres''\" at least in part to be a dig at the German occupiers.Sartre was a very active contributor to ''Combat'', a newspaper created during the clandestine period by Albert Camus, a philosopher and author who held similar beliefs.", "Sartre and de Beauvoir remained friends with Camus until 1951, with the publication of Camus's ''The Rebel''.", "Sartre wrote extensively post-war about neglected minority groups, namely French Jews and black people.", "In 1946, he published ''Anti-Semite and Jew,'' after having published the first part of the essay, \"Portrait de l'antisémite,\" the year before in ''Les Temps modernes, No.", "3.''", "In the essay, in the course of explaining the etiology of \"hate\" as the hater's projective fantasies when reflecting on the Jewish question, he attacks antisemitism in France during a time when the Jews who came back from concentration camps were quickly abandoned.", "In 1947, Sartre published several articles concerning the condition of African Americans in the United States—specifically the racism and discrimination against them in the country—in his second ''Situations'' collection.", "Then, in 1948, for the introduction of Léopold Sédar Senghor's ''l'Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache (Anthology of New Negro and Malagasy Poetry)'', he wrote \"Black Orpheus\" (re-published in ''Situations III),'' a critique of colonialism and racism in light of the philosophy Sartre developed in ''Being and Nothingness.''", "Later, while Sartre was labeled by some authors as a resistant, the French philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitch criticized Sartre's lack of political commitment during the German occupation, and interpreted his further struggles for liberty as an attempt to redeem himself.", "According to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted; not a resister who wrote.In 1945, after the war ended, Sartre moved to an apartment on the rue Bonaparte, where he was to produce most of his subsequent work and where he lived until 1962.It was from there that he helped establish a quarterly literary and political review, ''Les Temps modernes'' (''Modern Times''), in part to popularize his thought.", "He ceased teaching and devoted his time to writing and political activism.", "He would draw on his war experiences for his great trilogy of novels, ''Les Chemins de la Liberté'' (''The Roads to Freedom'') (1945–1949).===Cold War politics and anticolonialism===Jean-Paul Sartre (middle) and Simone de Beauvoir (left) meeting with Che Guevara (right) in Cuba, 1960The first period of Sartre's career, defined in large part by ''Being and Nothingness'' (1943), gave way to a second period—when the world was perceived as split into communist and capitalist blocs—of highly publicized political involvement.", "Sartre tended to glorify the Resistance after the war as the uncompromising expression of morality in action, and recalled that the ''résistants'' were a \"band of brothers\" who had enjoyed \"real freedom\" in a way that did not exist before nor after the war.", "Sartre was \"merciless\" in attacking anyone who had collaborated or remained passive during the German occupation; for instance, criticizing Camus for signing an appeal to spare the collaborationist writer Robert Brasillach from being executed.", "His 1948 play ''Les mains sales'' (''Dirty Hands'') in particular explored the problem of being a politically \"engaged\" intellectual.", "He embraced Marxism but did not join the Communist Party.", "For a time in the late 1940s, Sartre described French nationalism as \"provincial\" and in a 1949 essay called for a \"United States of Europe\".", "In an essay published in the June 1949 edition of the journal ''Politique étrangère'', Sartre wrote:About the Korean War, Sartre wrote: \"I have no doubt that the South Korean feudalists and the American imperialists have promoted this war.", "But I do not doubt either that it was begun by the North Koreans\".", "In July 1950, Sartre wrote in ''Les Temps Modernes'' about his and de Beauvoir's attitude to the Soviet Union:Sartre held that the Soviet Union was a \"revolutionary\" state working for the betterment of humanity and could be criticized only for failing to live up to its own ideals, but that critics had to take in mind that the Soviet state needed to defend itself against a hostile world; by contrast Sartre held that the failures of \"bourgeois\" states were due to their innate shortcomings.", "The Swiss journalist François Bondy wrote that, based on a reading of Sartre's numerous essays, speeches and interviews \"a simple basic pattern never fails to emerge: social change must be comprehensive and revolutionary\" and the parties that promote the revolutionary charges \"may be criticized, but only by those who completely identify themselves with its purpose, its struggle and its road to power\", deeming Sartre's position to be \"existentialist\".Sartre believed at this time in the moral superiority of the Eastern Bloc, arguing that this belief was necessary \"to keep hope alive\" and opposed any criticism of Soviet Union to the extent that Maurice Merleau-Ponty called him an \"ultra-Bolshevik\".", "Sartre's expression \"workers of Billancourt must not be deprived of their hopes\" (Fr.", "\"il ne faut pas désespérer Billancourt\"), became a catchphrase meaning communist activists should not tell the whole truth to the workers in order to avoid decline in their revolutionary enthusiasm.In 1954, just after Stalin's death, Sartre visited the Soviet Union, which he stated he found a \"complete freedom of criticism\" while condemning the United States for sinking into \"prefascism\".", "Sartre wrote about those Soviet writers expelled from the Soviet Writers' Union \"still had the opportunity of rehabilitating themselves by writing better books\".", "Sartre's comments on Hungarian revolution of 1956 are quite representative to his frequently contradictory and changing views.", "On one hand, Sartre saw in Hungary a true reunification between intellectuals and workers only to criticize it for \"losing socialist base\".In 1964 Sartre attacked Khrushchev's \"Secret Speech\" which condemned the Stalinist repressions and purges.", "Sartre argued that \"the masses were not ready to receive the truth\".In 1973 he argued that \"revolutionary authority always needs to get rid of some people that threaten it, and their death is the only way\".", "A number of people, starting from Frank Gibney in 1961, classified Sartre as a \"useful idiot\" due to his uncritical position.Sartre came to admire the Polish leader Władysław Gomułka, a man who favored a \"Polish road to socialism\" and wanted more independence for Poland, but was loyal to the Soviet Union because of the Oder-Neisse line issue.", "Sartre's newspaper ''Les Temps Modernes'' devoted a number of special issues in 1957 and 1958 to Poland under Gomułka, praising him for his reforms.", "Bondy wrote of the notable contradiction between Sartre's \"ultra Bolshevism\" as he expressed admiration for the Chinese leader Mao Zedong as the man who led the oppressed masses of the Third World into revolution while also praising more moderate Communist leaders like Gomułka.As an anti-colonialist, Sartre took a prominent role in the struggle against French rule in Algeria, and the use of torture and concentration camps by the French in Algeria.", "He became an eminent supporter of the FLN in the Algerian War and was one of the signatories of the ''Manifeste des 121''.", "Consequently, Sartre became a domestic target of the paramilitary Organisation armée secrète (OAS), escaping two bomb attacks in the early '60s.", "He later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence.", "(He had an Algerian mistress, Arlette Elkaïm, who became his adopted daughter in 1965.)", "He opposed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and, along with Bertrand Russell and others, organized a tribunal intended to expose U.S. war crimes, which became known as the Russell Tribunal in 1967.Sketch of Sartre for ''The New York Times'' by Reginald Gray, 1965His work after Stalin's death, the ''Critique de la raison dialectique'' (''Critique of Dialectical Reason''), appeared in 1960 (a second volume appearing posthumously).", "In the ''Critique'' Sartre set out to give Marxism a more vigorous intellectual defense than it had received until then; he ended by concluding that Marx's notion of \"class\" as an objective entity was fallacious.", "Sartre's emphasis on the humanist values in the early works of Marx led to a dispute with a leading leftist intellectual in France in the 1960s, Louis Althusser, who claimed that the ideas of the young Marx were decisively superseded by the \"scientific\" system of the later Marx.", "In the late 1950s, Sartre began to argue that the European working classes were too apolitical to carry out the revolution predicated by Marx, and influenced by Frantz Fanon started to argue it was the impoverished masses of the Third World, the \"real damned of the earth\", who would carry out the revolution.", "A major theme of Sartre's political essays in the 1960s was of his disgust with the \"Americanization\" of the French working class who would much rather watch American TV shows dubbed into French than agitate for a revolution.Sartre went to Cuba in the 1960s to meet Fidel Castro and spoke with Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara.", "After Guevara's death, Sartre would declare him to be \"not only an intellectual but also the most complete human being of our age\" and the \"era's most perfect man\".", "Sartre would also compliment Guevara by professing that \"he lived his words, spoke his own actions and his story and the story of the world ran parallel\".", "However he stood against the persecution of gays by Castro's government, which he compared to Nazi persecution of the Jews, and said: \"In Cuba there are no Jews, but there are homosexuals\".During a collective hunger strike in 1974, Sartre visited Red Army Faction member Andreas Baader in Stammheim Prison and criticized the harsh conditions of imprisonment.Towards the end of his life, Sartre began to describe himself as a \"special kind\" of anarchist.===Late life and death===Hélène de Beauvoir's house in Goxwiller, where Sartre tried to hide from the media after being awarded the Nobel Prize.In 1964 Sartre renounced literature in a witty and sardonic account of the first ten years of his life, ''Les Mots'' (''The Words'').", "The book is an ironic counterblast to Marcel Proust, whose reputation had unexpectedly eclipsed that of André Gide (who had provided the model of ''littérature engagée'' for Sartre's generation).", "Literature, Sartre concluded, functioned ultimately as a bourgeois substitute for real commitment in the world.", "In October 1964, Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature but he declined it.", "He was the first Nobel laureate to voluntarily decline the prize, and remains one of only two laureates to do so.", "According to Lars Gyllensten, in the book ''Minnen, bara minnen'' (\"Memories, Only Memories\") published in 2000, Sartre himself or someone close to him got in touch with the Swedish Academy in 1975 with a request for the prize money, but was refused.", "In 1945, he had refused the Légion d'honneur.", "The Nobel prize was announced on 22 October 1964; on 14 October, Sartre had written a letter to the Nobel Institute, asking to be removed from the list of nominees, and warning that he would not accept the prize if awarded, but the letter went unread; on 23 October, ''Le Figaro'' published a statement by Sartre explaining his refusal.", "He said he did not wish to be \"transformed\" by such an award, and did not want to take sides in an East vs. West cultural struggle by accepting an award from a prominent Western cultural institution.", "Nevertheless, he was that year's prizewinner.", "rightThough his name was then a household word (as was \"existentialism\" during the tumultuous 1960s), Sartre remained a simple man with few possessions, actively committed to causes until the end of his life, such as the May 1968 strikes in Paris during the summer of 1968 during which he was arrested for civil disobedience.", "President Charles de Gaulle intervened and pardoned him, commenting that \"you don't arrest Voltaire\".cimetière du Montparnasse.Sartre's and de Beauvoir's grave in 2016, with a new gravestone.", "Note the Metro tickets left by visitors.In 1975, when asked how he would like to be remembered, Sartre replied:Sartre's physical condition deteriorated, partially because of the merciless pace of work (and the use of amphetamine) he put himself through during the writing of the ''Critique'' and a massive analytical biography of Gustave Flaubert (''The Family Idiot''), both of which remained unfinished.", "He had hypertension, and became almost completely blind in 1973.Sartre was a notorious chain smoker, which could also have contributed to the deterioration of his health.Sartre died on 15 April 1980 in Paris from pulmonary edema.", "He had not wanted to be buried at Père-Lachaise Cemetery between his mother and stepfather, so it was arranged that he be buried at Montparnasse Cemetery.", "At his funeral on Saturday, 19 April, 50,000 Parisians descended onto boulevard du Montparnasse to accompany Sartre's cortege.", "The funeral started at \"the hospital at 2:00 p.m., then filed through the fourteenth arrondissement, past all Sartre's haunts, and entered the cemetery through the gate on the Boulevard Edgar Quinet\".", "Sartre was initially buried in a temporary grave to the left of the cemetery gate.", "Four days later the body was disinterred for cremation at Père-Lachaise Cemetery, and his ashes were reburied at the permanent site in Montparnasse Cemetery, to the right of the cemetery gate." ], [ "Thought", "Sartre's primary idea is that people, as humans, are \"condemned to be free\".", "He explained, \"This may seem paradoxical because condemnation is normally an external judgment which constitutes the conclusion of a judgment.", "Here, it is not the human who has chosen to be like this.", "There is a contingency of human existence.", "It is a condemnation of their being.", "Their being is not determined, so it is up to everyone to create their own existence, for which they are then responsible.", "They cannot not be free, there is a form of necessity for freedom, which can never be given up.", "\"This theory relies upon his position that there is no creator, and is illustrated using the example of the paper cutter.", "Sartre says that if one considered a paper cutter, one would assume that the creator would have had a plan for it: an essence.", "Sartre said that human beings have no essence before their existence because there is no Creator.", "Thus: \"existence precedes essence\".", "This forms the basis for his assertion that because one cannot explain one's own actions and behavior by referring to any specific human nature, they are necessarily fully responsible for those actions.", "\"We are left alone, without excuse.\"", "\"We can act without being determined by our past which is always separated from us.", "\"Sartre maintained that the concepts of authenticity and individuality have to be earned but not learned.", "We need to experience \"death consciousness\" so as to wake up ourselves as to what is really important; the authentic in our lives which is life experience, not knowledge.", "Death draws the final point when we as beings cease to live for ourselves and permanently become objects that exist only for the outside world.", "In this way death emphasizes the burden of our free, individual existence.", "\"We can oppose authenticity to an inauthentic way of being.", "Authenticity consists in experiencing the indeterminate character of existence in anguish.", "It is also to know how to face it by giving meaning to our actions and by recognizing ourselves as the author of this meaning.", "On the other hand, an inauthentic way of being consists in running away, in lying to oneself in order to escape this anguish and the responsibility for one's own existence.", "\"While Sartre had been influenced by Heidegger, the publication of ''Being and Nothingness'' did mark a split in their perspectives, with Heidegger remarking in ''Letter on Humanism:''Herbert Marcuse also had issues with Sartre's metaphysical interpretation of human existence in ''Being and Nothingness'' and suggested the work projected anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: Sartre also took inspiration from phenomenological epistemology, explained by Franz Adler in this way: \"Man chooses and makes himself by acting.", "Any action implies the judgment that he is right under the circumstances not only for the actor, but also for everybody else in similar circumstances.\"", "Also important is Sartre's analysis of psychological concepts, including his suggestion that consciousness exists as something other than itself, and that the conscious awareness of things is not limited to their knowledge: for Sartre intentionality applies to the emotions as well as to cognitions, to desires as well as to perceptions.", "\"When an external object is perceived, consciousness is also conscious of itself, even if consciousness is not its own object: it is a non-positional consciousness of itself.\"", "However his critique of psychoanalysis, particularly of Freud has faced some counter-critique.", "Richard Wollheim and Thomas Baldwin argued that Sartre's attempt to show that Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious is mistaken was based on a misinterpretation of Freud." ], [ "Career as public intellectual", "Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir at the Balzac Memorial.While the broad focus of Sartre's life revolved around the notion of human freedom, he began a sustained intellectual participation in more public matters towards the end of the Second World War, around 1944–1945.Before World War II, he was content with the role of an apolitical liberal intellectual: \"Now teaching at a lycée in Laon ... Sartre made his headquarters the Dome café at the crossing of Montparnasse and Raspail boulevards.", "He attended plays, read novels, and dined women.", "He wrote.", "And he was published.\"", "Sartre and his lifelong companion, de Beauvoir, existed, in her words, where \"the world about us was a mere backdrop against which our private lives were played out\".The war opened Sartre's eyes to a political reality he had not yet understood until forced into continual engagement with it: \"the world itself destroyed Sartre's illusions about isolated self-determining individuals and made clear his own personal stake in the events of the time.\"", "Returning to Paris in 1941, he formed the \"Socialisme et Liberté\" resistance group.", "In 1943, after the group disbanded, Sartre joined a writers' Resistance group, in which he remained an active participant until the end of the war.", "He continued to write ferociously, and it was due to this \"crucial experience of war and captivity that Sartre began to try to build up a positive moral system and to express it through literature\".The symbolic initiation of this new phase in Sartre's work is packaged in the introduction he wrote for a new journal, ''Les Temps modernes'', in October 1945.Here he aligned the journal, and thus himself, with the Left and called for writers to express their political commitment.", "Yet, this alignment was indefinite, directed more to the concept of the Left than a specific party of the Left.Sartre's philosophy lent itself to his being a public intellectual.", "He envisaged culture as a very fluid concept; neither pre-determined, nor definitely finished; instead, in true existential fashion, \"culture was always conceived as a process of continual invention and re-invention.\"", "This marks Sartre, the intellectual, as a pragmatist, willing to move and shift stance along with events.", "He did not dogmatically follow a cause other than the belief in human freedom, preferring to retain a pacifist's objectivity.", "It is this overarching theme of freedom that means his work \"subverts the bases for distinctions among the disciplines\".", "Therefore, he was able to hold knowledge across a vast array of subjects: \"the international world order, the political and economic organisation of contemporary society, especially France, the institutional and legal frameworks that regulate the lives of ordinary citizens, the educational system, the media networks that control and disseminate information.", "Sartre systematically refused to keep quiet about what he saw as inequalities and injustices in the world.", "\"Sartre always sympathized with the Left, and supported the French Communist Party (PCF) until the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary.", "Following the Liberation the PCF were infuriated by Sartre's philosophy, which appeared to lure young French men and women away from the ideology of communism and into Sartre's own existentialism.", "From 1956 onwards Sartre rejected the claims of the PCF to represent the French working classes, objecting to its \"authoritarian tendencies\".", "In the late 1960s Sartre supported the Maoists, a movement that rejected the authority of established communist parties.", "However, despite aligning with the Maoists, Sartre said after the May events: \"If one rereads all my books, one will realize that I have not changed profoundly, and that I have always remained an anarchist.\"", "He would later explicitly allow himself to be called an anarchist.In the aftermath of a war that had for the first time properly engaged Sartre in political matters, he set forth a body of work which \"reflected on virtually every important theme of his early thought and began to explore alternative solutions to the problems posed there\".", "The greatest difficulties that he and all public intellectuals of the time faced were the increasing technological aspects of the world that were outdating the printed word as a form of expression.", "In Sartre's opinion, the \"traditional bourgeois literary forms remain innately superior\", but there is \"a recognition that the new technological 'mass media' forms must be embraced\" if Sartre's ethical and political goals as an authentic, committed intellectual are to be achieved: the demystification of bourgeois political practices and the raising of the consciousness, both political and cultural, of the working class.Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir and Claude Lanzmann meeting President Gamal Abdel Nasser at his home in Cairo, February 1967.The struggle for Sartre was against the monopolising moguls who were beginning to take over the media and destroy the role of the intellectual.", "His attempts to reach a public were mediated by these powers, and it was often these powers he had to campaign against.", "He was skilled enough, however, to circumvent some of these issues by his interactive approach to the various forms of media, advertising his radio interviews in a newspaper column for example, and vice versa.Sartre's role as a public intellectual occasionally put him in physical danger, such as in June 1961, when a plastic bomb exploded in the entrance of his apartment building.", "His public support of Algerian self-determination at the time had led Sartre to become a target of the campaign of terror that mounted as the colonists' position deteriorated.", "A similar occurrence took place the next year and he had begun to receive threatening letters from Oran, Algeria.Sartre's role in this conflict included his comments in his preface to Frantz Fanon's ''The Wretched of the Earth'' that, \"To shoot down a European is to kill two birds with one stone, to destroy an oppressor and the man he oppresses at the same time: there remains a dead man and a free man\".", "This comment led to some criticisms from the right, such as by Brian C. Anderson and Michael Walzer.", "Writing for the Hoover Institution, Walzer suggested that Sartre, a European, was a hypocrite for not volunteering to be killed.However Sartre's stances regarding post-colonial conflict have not been entirely without controversy on the left; Sartre's preface is omitted from some editions of ''The Wretched of the Earth'' printed after 1967.The reason for this is for his public support for Israel in the Six-Day War.", "Fanon's widow, Josie considered Sartre's pro-Israel stance as inconsistent with the anti-colonialist position of the book, from which his preface was eventually omitted.", "When interviewed at Howard University in 1978, she explained \"when Israel declared war on the Arab countries during the Six-Day War, there was a great pro-Zionist movement in favor of Israel among western (French) intellectuals.", "Sartre took part in this movement.", "He signed petitions favoring Israel.", "I felt that his pro-Zionist attitudes were incompatible with Fanon's work\".", "Recent reprints of Fanon's book have generally included Sartre's preface." ], [ "Literature", "Sartre wrote successfully in a number of literary modes and made major contributions to literary criticism and literary biography.", "His plays are richly symbolic and serve as a means of conveying his philosophy.", "The best-known, ''Huis-clos'' (''No Exit''), contains the famous line \"L'enfer, c'est les autres\", usually translated as \"Hell is other people.\"", "Aside from the impact of ''Nausea'', Sartre's major work of fiction was ''The Roads to Freedom'' trilogy which charts the progression of how World War II affected Sartre's ideas.", "In this way, ''Roads to Freedom'' presents a less theoretical and more practical approach to existentialism.John Huston got Sartre to script his film ''Freud: The Secret Passion''.", "However it was too long and Sartre withdrew his name from the film's credits.", "Nevertheless, many key elements from Sartre's script survive in the finished film.Despite their similarities as polemicists, novelists, adapters, and playwrights, Sartre's literary work has been counterposed, often pejoratively, to that of Camus in the popular imagination.", "In 1948 the Roman Catholic Church placed Sartre's ''œuvre'' on the ''Index Librorum Prohibitorum'' (List of Prohibited Books)." ], [ "Works", "===Novels and Short Story Collection===* ''Nausea'' / ''La nausée'' (1938)* ''The Wall'' / ''Le mur'' (1939) – collection of 5 short stories====''The Roads to Freedom''====# ''The Age of Reason'' / ''L'âge de raison'' (1945)# ''The Reprieve'' / ''Le sursis'' (1945)# ''Troubled Sleep'' (London ed.", "(Hamilton) has title: ''Iron in the Soul'') / ''La mort dans l'âme'' (1949)# ''The Last Chance'' (1949 and 1981) – unfinished===Plays===* ''Bariona'' / ''Bariona, ou le fils du tonnerre'' (1940)* ''The Flies'' / ''Les mouches'' (1943)* ''No Exit'' / ''Huis clos'' (1944)* ''The Respectful Prostitute'' / ''La putain respectueuse'' (1946)* ''The Victors (Men Without Shadows)'' / ''Morts sans sépulture'' (1946)* ''In the Mesh'' / ''L'engrénage'' (1948)* ''Dirty Hands'' / ''Les mains sales'' (1948)* ''Intimacy'' (1949)* ''The Devil and the Good Lord'' / ''Le diable et le bon dieu'' (1951)* ''Kean'' (1953)* ''Nekrassov'' (1955)* ''The Condemned of Altona'' / ''Les séquestrés d'Altona'' (1959)* ''Hurricane over Cuba'', written and printed in 1961 in Brazil, along with Rubem Braga and Fernando Sabino (1961)* ''The Trojan Women'' / ''Les Troyennes'' (1965)===Screenplays===* ''Typhus'', wr.", "1944, pub.", "2007; adapted as ''The Proud and the Beautiful''* ''The Chips Are Down'' / ''Les jeux sont faits'' (screenplay, dir.", "Jean Delannoy; 1947)* ''The Crucible'' (screenplay, 1957; dir.", "Raymond Rouleau)* ''Freud: The Secret Passion'' (screenplay, 1962; dir.", "John Huston; Sartre had his name removed from the film)* ''The Freud Scenario'' / ''Le scénario Freud'' (1984)===Autobiographical===* ''Sartre By Himself'' / ''Sartre par lui-mème'' (1959)* ''The Words'' / ''Les Mots'' (1964)* ''Witness to My Life'' & ''Quiet Moments in a War'' / ''Lettres au Castor et à quelques autres'' (1983)* ''War Diaries: Notebooks from a Phony War'' / ''Les carnets de la drole de guerre'' (1984)===Philosophic essays===* ''The Transcendence of the Ego'' / ''La transcendance de l'égo'' (1936)* ''Imagination: A Psychological Critique'' / ''L'imagination'' (1936)* ''Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions'' / ''Esquisse d'une théorie des émotions'' (1939)* ''The Imaginary'' / ''L'imaginaire'' (1940)* ''Being and Nothingness'' / ''L'être et le néant'' (1943)* ''Existentialism Is a Humanism'' / ''L'existentialisme est un humanisme'' (1946)* ''Existentialism and Human Emotions'' / ''Existentialisme et émotions humaines'' (1957)* ''Search for a Method'' / ''Question de méthode'' (1957)* ''Critique of Dialectical Reason'' / ''Critique de la raison dialectique'' (1960, 1985)* ''Notebooks for an Ethics'' / ''Cahiers pour une morale'' (1983)* ''Truth and Existence'' / ''Vérité et existence'' (1989)* ''Anti-Semite and Jew'' / ''Réflexions sur la question juive'' (wr.", "1944, pub.", "1946)* ''Baudelaire'' (1946)* ''Situations I: Literary Critiques'' / ''Critiques littéraires'' (1947)* ''Situations II: What Is Literature?''", "/ ''Qu'est-ce que la littérature ?''", "(1947)* \"Black Orpheus\" / \"Orphée noir\" (1948)* ''Situations III'' (1949)* ''Saint Genet, Actor and Martyr'' / ''S.G., comédien et martyr'' (1952)* ''The Henri Martin Affair'' / ''L'affaire Henri Martin'' (1953)* ''Situations IV: Portraits'' (1964)* ''Situations V: Colonialism and Neocolonialism'' (1964)* ''Situations VI: Problems of Marxism, Part 1'' (1966)* ''Situations VII: Problems of Marxism, Part 2'' (1967)* ''The Family Idiot'' / ''L'idiot de la famille'' (1971–72)* ''Situations VIII: Autour de 1968'' (1972)* ''Situations IX: Mélanges'' (1972)* ''Situations X: Life/Situations: Essays Written and Spoken'' / ''Politique et Autobiographie'' (1976)" ], [ "See also", "* Sartre's ''Roads to Freedom'' Trilogy* Situation (Sartre)* Place Jean-Paul-Sartre-et-Simone-de-Beauvoir* 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * (Detailed chronology of Sartre's life on pages 485–510.", ")* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Allen, James Sloan, \"Condemned to Be Free\", ''Worldly Wisdom: Great Books and the Meanings of Life'', Savannah: Frederic C. Beil, 2008..* Catalano, Joseph S., ''A Commentary on Jean-Paul Sartre's Critique of Dialectical Reason'', University of Chicago Press, 1987..* Cattarini, L. S., ''Beyond Sartre and Sterility: Surviving Existentialism'' (Montreal, 2018: contact argobookshop.ca) * Churchill, Steven and Reynolds, Jack (eds.", "), ''Jean-Paul Sartre: Key Concepts'', London/New York: Routledge, 2014.", "* Desan, Wilfrid, ''The Tragic Finale: An Essay on the philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre'' (1954).", "* Doran, Robert, \"Sartre's ''Critique of Dialectical Reason'' and the Debate with Lévi-Strauss\", ''Yale French Studies'' 123 (2013): 41–62.", "* Flynn, Thomas, ''Sartre and Marxist Existentialism: The Test Case of Collective Responsibility'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.", "* * Judaken, Jonathan, (2006) ''Jean-Paul Sartre and the Jewish Question: Anti-antisemitism and the Politics of the French Intellectual''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.", "* Laing, R. D. and Cooper, D. G., ''Reason and Violence: A Decade of Sartre's Philosophy, 1950–1960'', New York: Pantheon, 1971.", "* Lilar, Suzanne, ''A propos de Sartre et de l'amour'', Paris: Grasset, 1967.", "* Madsen, Axel, ''Hearts and Minds: The Common Journey of Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre'', William Morrow & Co, 1977.", "* Roudinesco, Élisabeth, ''Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser, Deleuze, Derrida'', New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.", "* Said, Edward, 2000: My Encounter with Sartre, London Review of Books* Sartre, Jean-Paul and Levy, Benny, ''Hope Now: The 1980 Interviews'', translated by Adrian van den Hoven, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.", "* Siegler, Marcel, ''Needful Structures.", "The Dialectics of Action, Technology, and Society in Sartre's Later Philosophy'', Bielefeld: transcript, 2023.. * Spade, P. V. Class Lecture Notes on Jean-Paul Sartre's ''Being and Nothingness''.", "1996.", "* Vagnarelli, Gianluca, ''La democrazia tumultuaria.", "Sulla filosofia politica di Jean-Paul Sartre'', Macerata, EUM, 2010.", "* Webber, Jonathan, ''The Existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre'', London: Routledge, 2009.", "* Wittmann, H., ''Sartre und die Kunst.", "Die Porträtstudien von Tintoretto bis Flaubert'', Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1996.", "* Wittmann, H., ''L'esthétique de Sartre.", "Artistes et intellectuels'', translated from German by N. Weitemeier and J. Yacar, Éditions L'Harmattan (Collection L'ouverture philosophique), Paris, 2001.", "* Wittmann, H., ''Sartre and Camus in Aesthetics.", "The Challenge of Freedom'', edited by Dirk Hoeges.", "Dialoghi/Dialogues.", "Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, vol.", "13, Frankfurt/M: Peter Lang, 2009.." ], [ "External links", "* * ===By Sartre===* * \"Americans and Their Myths\"—Sartre's essay in ''The Nation'' (18 October 1947 issue)* Sartre Texts on Philosophy Archive* Sartre Internet Archive on Marxists.org* * George H. Bauer Jean Paul Sartre Manuscript Collection.", "General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.===On Sartre===* UK Sartre Society* Groupe d'études sartriennes, Paris*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Paul Jones" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Paul Jones''' (born '''John Paul'''; July 6, 1747 July 18, 1792) was a Scottish American naval captain who was a naval commander in the American Revolutionary War.", "Often called the \"Father of the American Navy\", a title sometimes also credited to John Barry, John Adams, and sometimes Joshua Humphreys, Jones is highly regarded as one of the greatest naval commanders in the history of the United States.Jones was a Freemason and made many friends among U.S. political elites, including John Hancock, Benjamin Franklin, and even his enemies, who accused him of piracy.", "His actions in British waters during the American Revolutionary War earned him an international reputation that endures to this day.Jones was born and raised in Scotland, became a sailor at the age of thirteen, and served as commander of several merchantmen.", "After having killed one of his mutinous crew members with a sword, he fled to the Colony of Virginia and around 1775 joined the newly founded Continental Navy in their fight against the Kingdom of Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War.", "He commanded U.S. Navy ships stationed in France, led one failed assault on Britain, and several attacks on British merchant ships.", "Left without a command in 1787, he joined the Imperial Russian Navy and obtained the rank of rear admiral." ], [ "Early life and training", "The birthplace and original home of John Paul Jones in Arbigland in southern ScotlandJohn Paul Jones' house in Fredericksburg, Virginia, which he inherited from his brother WilliamJohn Paul, as he was then known, was born on the estate of Arbigland near Kirkbean in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright on the southwest coast of Scotland.", "His parents married on November 29, 1733, in New Abbey, Kirkcudbrightshire.John Paul started his maritime career when he was 13, sailing out of Whitehaven in the northern English county of Cumberland as apprentice aboard ''Friendship'' under Captain Benson.", "Paul's older brother William Paul had married and settled in Fredericksburg, Colony of Virginia.", "Virginia was the destination of many of the younger Paul's voyages.For several years, Paul sailed aboard a number of merchant and slave ships, including the ''King George'' in 1764 as third mate and ''Two Friends'' as first mate in 1766.In 1768, he abandoned his prestigious position on the profitable ''Two Friends'' while docked in Jamaica.", "He found his own passage back to Scotland and eventually obtained another position.John Paul's career was quickly and unexpectedly advanced during his next voyage aboard the brig ''John'', which sailed from port in 1768, when both the captain and a ranking mate suddenly died of yellow fever.", "Paul managed to navigate the ship back to a safe port, and in reward for this feat the vessel's grateful Scottish owners made him master of the ship and its crew, giving him ten percent of the cargo.", "He led two voyages to the West Indies before running into difficulty.During his second voyage in 1770, John Paul had one of his crew flogged after trying to start a mutiny about early payment of wages, leading to accusations that his discipline was \"unnecessarily cruel\".", "These claims were initially dismissed, but his favorable reputation was destroyed when the sailor died a few weeks later.", "John Paul was arrested for his involvement in the man's death.", "He was imprisoned in Kirkcudbright Tolbooth but later released on bail.", "The negative effect of this episode on his reputation is indisputable.", "The local governor encouraged John Paul to leave the area and change his name while on bail.", "The man who died of his injuries was not a usual sailor but an adventurer from a very influential Scottish family.Leaving Scotland, John Paul commanded a London-registered vessel named ''Betsy'', a West Indiaman mounting 22 guns, engaging in commercial speculation in Tobago for about 18 months.", "This came to an end, however, when he killed a mutinous crew member with a sword in a dispute over wages.", "Years later, in a letter to Benjamin Franklin describing the incident, John Paul claimed that the killing was committed in self-defense, but he was not willing to be tried in an Admiral's Court, where the family of his first victim had been influential.He felt compelled to flee to Fredericksburg, Virginia, leaving his fortune behind; he also sought to arrange the affairs of his brother, who had died there without leaving any immediate family.", "He was granted land in Frederick County, Virginia.", "About this time, John Paul assumed the surname of Jones (in addition to his original surname).", "There is a long-held tradition in the state of North Carolina that John Paul adopted the name \"Jones\" in honor of Willie Jones of Halifax, North Carolina.", "Jones courted Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, the future bride of Patrick Henry and made a valuable friendship with Dr. John K. Read during his time in Virginia.", "In the summer of 1775, Jones met Joseph Hewes and other revolutionary leaders in Philadelphia.From that period, America became \"the country of his fond election\", as he afterwards expressed himself to Baron Joan Derk van der Capellen tot den Pol.", "It was not long afterward that John Paul Jones joined the American navy to fight against Britain." ], [ "Naval career", "===American colonies===Sources struggle with this period of Jones's life, especially the specifics of his family situation, making it difficult to pinpoint historically Jones's motivations for emigrating to America.", "It is not known whether his plans were not developing as expected for the plantation or if he was inspired by a revolutionary spirit.", "It is known that he was elected to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia in 1774.Jones left for Philadelphia shortly after settling in North America to volunteer his services around 1775 to the newly founded Continental Navy, precursor to the United States Navy.", "During this time, the Navy and Marines were being formally established, and suitable ship's officers and captains were in great demand.", "Jones's potential would likely have gone unrecognized were it not for the endorsement of Richard Henry Lee, who knew of his abilities.", "With help from influential members of the Continental Congress, Jones was appointed as a 1st Lieutenant of the newly converted 24-gun frigate in the Continental Navy on December 7, 1775.===Revolutionary War command=======Early command====Jones sailed from the Delaware River in February 1776 aboard ''Alfred'' on the Continental Navy's maiden cruise.", "It was aboard this vessel that Jones took the honour of hoisting the first U.S. ensign, the Grand Union Flag, over a naval vessel.The fleet had been expected to cruise along the coast but was ordered instead by Commodore Esek Hopkins to sail for The Bahamas, where Nassau was raided for military supplies.", "The fleet had an unsuccessful encounter with a British packet ship on their return voyage.", "Jones was then assigned command of the sloop .", "Congress had recently ordered the construction of thirteen frigates for the American Navy, one of which was to be commanded by Jones.", "In exchange for this prestigious command, Jones accepted his commission aboard the smaller ''Providence''.", "Over the summer of 1776 as commander of ''Providence'', Jones performed various services for the Continental Navy and Congress.", "These services included the transport of troops, the movement of supplies, and the escort of convoys.", "During this time, Jones was able to assist a 'brig from Hispaniola' that was being chased by HMS ''Cerberus'' and laden with military stores.", "The brig was then purchased by Congress and put in commission as with Captain Hoysted Hacker commanding.", "During a later six-week voyage to Nova Scotia, Jones captured sixteen prizes and inflicted significant damage in the Raid on Canso.Jones's next command came as a result of Commodore Hopkins's orders to liberate hundreds of American prisoners forced to labour in coal mines in Nova Scotia, and also to raid British shipping.", "On November 1, 1776, Jones set sail in command of ''Alfred'' to carry out this mission.", "Winter conditions prevented freeing the prisoners, but the mission did result in the capture of ''Mellish'', a vessel carrying a vital supply of winter clothing intended for General John Burgoyne's troops in Canada.====Command of ''Ranger''====The coat of arms of John Paul Jones of JonesDespite his successes at sea, Jones' disagreements with those in authority reached a new level upon arrival in Boston on December 16, 1776.While at the port, he began feuding with Commodore Hopkins, as Jones believed that Hopkins was hindering his advancement by talking down his campaign plans.", "As a result of this and other frustrations, Jones was assigned the smaller command of the newly constructed on June 14, 1777, the same day that the new Stars and Stripes flag was adopted.After making the necessary preparations, Jones sailed for France on November 1, 1777, with orders to assist the American cause however possible.", "The American commissioners in France were Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, and they listened to Jones's strategic recommendations.", "They promised him the command of , a new vessel being constructed for America by the Netherlands in Amsterdam.", "Britain, however, was able to divert ''L'Indien'' away from American hands by exerting pressure to ensure its sale to France instead (which had not yet allied with America).", "Jones was again left without a command, an unpleasant reminder of his stagnation in Boston from late 1776 until early 1777.It is thought that during this time Jones developed his close friendship with Franklin, whom he greatly admired.On February 6, 1778, France signed the Treaty of Alliance with America, formally recognizing the independence of the new American republic.", "Eight days later, Captain Jones's ''Ranger'' became the first American naval vessel to be formally saluted by the French, with a nine-gun salute fired from Captain La Motte-Piquet's flagship.", "Jones wrote of the event: \"I accepted his offer all the more for after all it was a recognition of our independence and in the nation\".", "On April 10, Jones set sail from Brest, France, for the western coasts of Great Britain.====''Ranger'' attacks the British====A portrait of Whitehaven, on the northwest coast of England, by Matthias Read completed between 1730 and 1735U.S.", "Navy receives a copy of the local newspaper from April 1778 from the Whitehaven Harbour Commission chairman in June 2005Jones had some early successes against British merchant shipping in the Irish Sea.", "He persuaded his crew on April 17, 1778, to participate in an assault on Whitehaven, the town where his maritime career had begun.", "Jones later wrote about the poor command qualities of his senior officers (having tactfully avoided such matters in his official report): \"'Their object', they said, 'was gain not honor'.", "They were poor: instead of encouraging the morale of the crew, they excited them to disobedience; they persuaded them that they had the right to judge whether a measure that was proposed to them was good or bad\".", "Contrary winds forced them to abandon the attempt and drive ''Ranger'' towards Ireland, causing more trouble for British shipping on the way.On April 20, Jones learned from captured sailors that the Royal Navy sloop of war was anchored off Carrickfergus, Ireland.", "According to the diary of ''Ranger''s surgeon, Jones's first intention was to attack the vessel in broad daylight, but his sailors were \"unwilling to undertake it\", another incident omitted from the official report.", "Therefore, the attack took place just after midnight, but the mate responsible for dropping the anchor to halt ''Ranger'' right alongside ''Drake'' misjudged the timing in the dark (Jones claimed in his memoirs that the man was drunk), so Jones had to cut his anchor cable and run.", "The wind shifted, and ''Ranger'' recrossed the Irish Sea to make another attempt at raiding Whitehaven.Jones led the assault with two boats of fifteen men just after midnight on April 23, hoping to set fire to and sink all of the ships anchored in Whitehaven's harbor, which numbered between 200 and 400 wooden vessels and consisted of a full merchant fleet and many coal transporters.", "They also hoped to terrorize the townspeople by lighting further fires.", "As it happened, the journey to shore was slowed by the shifting wind, as well as a strong ebb tide.", "They successfully spiked the town's big defensive guns to prevent them being fired, but lighting fires proved difficult, as the lanterns in both boats had run out of fuel.", "To remedy this, some of the party were sent to raid a public house on the quayside, but the temptation to stop for a quick drink led to a further delay.", "Dawn was breaking by the time they returned and began the arson attacks, so efforts were concentrated on the coal ship ''Thompson'' in the hope that the flames would spread to adjacent vessels, all grounded by the low tide.", "However, in the twilight, one of the crew slipped away and alerted residents on a harbourside street.", "A fire alert was sounded, and large numbers of people came running to the quay, forcing the Americans to retreat and extinguishing the flames with the town's two fire-engines.", "The townspeople's hopes of sinking Jones's boats with cannon fire were dashed because of the prudent spiking.A 1903 illustration of John Paul Jones seizing Lady Selkirk's silverwareJones next crossed the Solway Firth from Whitehaven to Scotland, hoping to hold for ransom Dunbar Douglas, 4th Earl of Selkirk, who lived on St Mary's Isle near Kirkcudbright.", "The earl, Jones reasoned, could be exchanged for American sailors impressed into the Royal Navy.", "The earl was discovered to be absent from his estate, so his wife entertained the officers and conducted negotiations.", "Canadian historian Peter C. Newman gives credit to the governess for protecting the young heir to the Earldom of Selkirk, Thomas Douglas, and to the butler for filling a sack half with coal and topping it up with the family silver, in order to fob off the Americans.", "Jones claimed that he intended to return directly to his ship and continue seeking prizes elsewhere, but his crew wished to \"pillage, burn, and plunder all they could\".", "Ultimately, Jones allowed the crew to seize a silver plate set adorned with the family's emblem to placate their desires, but nothing else.", "Jones bought the plate when it was later sold off in France, and he returned it to the Earl of Selkirk after the war.The attacks on St Mary's Isle and Whitehaven resulted in no prizes or profits which would be shared with the crew under normal circumstances.", "Throughout the mission, the crew acted as if they were aboard a privateer, not a warship, led by Lieutenant Thomas Simpson, Jones's second-in-command.====Return to Ireland====A 1781 illustration of Jones by Moreau le JeuneJones led ''Ranger'' back across the Irish Sea, hoping to make another attempt at ''Drake'', still anchored off Carrickfergus.", "Late in the afternoon of April 24, the ships, roughly equal in firepower, engaged in combat.", "Earlier in the day, the Americans had captured the crew of a reconnaissance boat and learned that ''Drake'' had taken on dozens of soldiers with the intention of grappling and boarding ''Ranger'', so Jones made sure that did not happen, capturing ''Drake'' after an hour-long gun battle in which British captain George Burdon was killed.", "Lieutenant Simpson was given command of ''Drake'' for the return journey to Brest.", "The ships separated during the return journey as ''Ranger'' chased another prize, leading to a conflict between Simpson and Jones.", "Both ships arrived at port safely, but Jones filed for a court-martial of Simpson, keeping him detained on the ship.Partly through the influence of John Adams, who was still serving as a commissioner in France, Simpson was released from Jones's accusation.", "Adams implies in his memoirs that the overwhelming majority of the evidence supported Simpson's claims.", "Adams seemed to believe Jones was hoping to monopolize the mission's glory, especially by detaining Simpson on board while he celebrated the capture with numerous important European dignitaries.", "Even with the wealth of perspectives, including the commander's, it is difficult to determine what occurred.", "It is clear, however, that the crew felt alienated by their commander, who might well have been motivated by his pride.", "Jones believed his intentions were honorable and his actions were strategically essential to the Revolution.", "Regardless of any controversy surrounding the mission, ''Ranger''s capture of ''Drake'' was one of the Continental Navy's few significant military victories during the Revolution.", "''Ranger''s victory became an important symbol of the American spirit and served as an inspiration for the permanent establishment of the U.S. Navy after the revolution.====''Bonhomme Richard''====John Adams reviews Jones' Irish Marines at Lorient on 13 May 1779''Action Between the Serapis and Bonhomme Richard'' a 1780 portrait by Richard PatonJohn Paul Jones flag\" was entered into Dutch records to help Jones avoid charges of piracy when he captured the ''Serapis'' under an \"unknown flag.", "\"\"Paul Jones the Pirate\", a British caricature of John Paul JonesIn 1779, Captain Jones took command of the 42-gun , a merchant ship rebuilt and given to America by the French shipping magnate, Jacques-Donatien Le Ray.", "On August 14, as a vast French and Spanish invasion fleet approached England, he provided a diversion by heading for Ireland at the head of a five-ship squadron including the 36-gun , 32-gun USS ''Pallas'', 12-gun , and ''Le Cerf'', also accompanied by two privateers, and ''Granville''.", "When the squadron was only a few days out of Groix, ''Monsieur'' separated because of a disagreement between her captain and Jones.", "Several Royal Navy warships were sent towards Ireland in pursuit of Jones, but on this occasion, he continued right around the north of Scotland into the North Sea.", "Jones's main problems, as on his previous voyage, resulted from insubordination, particularly by Pierre Landais, captain of ''Alliance''.", "On September 23, the squadron met a large merchant convoy off the coast of Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire.", "The 44-gun British frigate and the 22-gun hired armed ship placed themselves between the convoy and Jones's squadron, allowing the merchants to escape.Shortly after 7 p.m. the Battle of Flamborough Head began.", "''Serapis'' engaged ''Bonhomme Richard'', and ''Alliance'' fired from a considerable distance at ''Countess''.", "Quickly recognizing that he could not win a battle of big guns, and with the wind dying, Jones made every effort to lock ''Richard'' and ''Serapis'' together (his famous, albeit apocryphal, quotation, \"I have not yet begun to fight!\"", "was said to have been uttered in reply to a demand to surrender in this phase of the battle).", "After about an hour, he succeeded, and he began clearing the British decks with his deck guns and his Marine marksmen in the rigging.", "''Alliance'' sailed past and fired a broadside, doing at least as much damage to ''Richard'' as to ''Serapis''.", "Meanwhile, ''Countess of Scarborough'' had enticed ''Pallas'' downwind of the main battle, beginning a separate engagement.", "When ''Alliance'' approached this contest, about an hour after it had begun, the badly damaged ''Countess'' surrendered.With ''Bonhomme Richard'' burning and sinking, it seems that her ensign was shot away; when one of the officers shouted a surrender, believing his captain to be dead, the British commander asked, seriously this time, if they had struck their colors.", "Jones later remembered saying something like \"I am determined to make you strike\", but the words allegedly heard by crew-members and reported in newspapers a few days later were more like: \"I may sink, but I'll be damned if I strike\".", "An attempt by the British to board ''Bonhomme Richard'' was thwarted, and a grenade caused the explosion of a large quantity of gunpowder on ''Serapis'' lower gun-deck.", "''Alliance'' returned to the main battle, firing two broadsides.", "Again, these did at least as much damage to ''Richard'' as to ''Serapis'', but the tactic worked to the extent that ''Serapis'' was unable to move.", "With ''Alliance'' keeping well out of the line of his own great guns, Captain Pearson of ''Serapis'' accepted that prolonging the battle could achieve nothing, so he surrendered.", "Most of ''Bonhomme Richard''s crew transferred to other vessels, and after a day and a half of frantic repair efforts, it was decided that the ship could not be saved.", "''Bonhomme Richard'' was allowed to sink, and Jones took command of ''Serapis'' for the trip to the island of Texel in neutral (but American-sympathizing) Holland.In the following year, King Louis XVI of France honored Jones with the title \"Chevalier\".", "Jones accepted the honor and desired the title to be used thereafter: when the Continental Congress in 1787 resolved that a medal of gold be struck in commemoration of his \"valor and brilliant services\" it was to be presented to \"Chevalier John Paul Jones\".", "He also received from Louis XVI a decoration of \"l'Institution du Mérite Militaire\" and a sword.", "By contrast, in Britain at this time, he was usually denigrated as a pirate.Jones was also admitted as an original member of The Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Pennsylvania when it was established in 1783.===Russian service===A 1908 plaster casting of John Paul Jones taken from an original model in 1781 by Jean-Antoine Houdon, now housed at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, LondonIn June 1782, Jones was appointed to command the 74-gun , but his command fell through when Congress decided to give ''America'' to the French as replacement for the wrecked ''Le Magnifique''.", "As a result, he was given assignment in Europe in 1783 to collect prize money due his former hands.", "At length, this too expired and Jones was left without prospects for active employment, leading him on April 23, 1787, to enter into the service of the Empress Catherine II of Russia, who placed great confidence in Jones, saying: \"He will get to Constantinople\".", "He was granted name as a French subject Павел де Жонес (''Pavel de Zhones'', Paul de Jones).Jones avowed his intention, however, to preserve the condition of an American citizen and officer.", "As a rear admiral aboard the 24-gun flagship ''Vladimir'', he took part in the naval campaign in the Dnieper-Bug Liman, an arm of the Black Sea, into which the Southern Bug and Dnieper rivers flows, against the Turks, in concert with the Dnieper Flotilla commanded by Prince Charles of Nassau-Siegen.", "Jones (and Nassau-Siegen) repulsed the Ottoman forces from the area, but the jealous intrigues of Nassau-Siegen (and perhaps Jones's own ineptitude for Imperial politics) turned the Russian commander Prince Grigory Potemkin against Jones.", "Jones was recalled to Saint Petersburg for the claimed purpose of transfer to a command in the North Sea.", "Other factors may have included the theoretical resentment of rival officers, some of whom were several ex-British naval officers also in Russian employment, who regarded Jones as a renegade and refused to speak to him.On June 8, 1788, Jones was awarded the Order of Saint Anna, but he left the following month, an embittered man.", "In 1789, Jones arrived in Warsaw, Poland, where he befriended Tadeusz Kościuszko, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War.", "Kościuszko advised him to leave the service of the autocratic Russia and serve another power, suggesting Sweden.", "Despite Kościuszko's backing, the Swedes, while somewhat interested, in the end decided not to recruit Jones.", "Catherine, who retained a personal enmity for Jones, had blocked his appointment to not just the Swedish navy, but the Danish navy also.Portrait 1890, based on a work of c. 1781" ], [ "Rape of Katerina Stepanova", "In April 1789, Jones was accused of raping a 10-year-old girl named Katerina Stepanova.", "This event is contentious among biographers, as John Paul Jones was a foreigner among the Russian court, threatening the power structure that existed at the times.", "Most biographers are skeptical of these accounts labeling them fabrication, intrigue, or slander and argue that Jones was framed as a way to remove him from power.", "She testified to the police that she had been summoned to his apartment to sell him butter, when he punched her in the face, gagged her with a white handkerchief, and vaginally penetrated her; a regimental surgeon and a midwife both examined her and found evidence to substantiate these physical and sexual assaults.", "There had been a delay on one day in reporting the rape, which meant the case would ordinarily not continue, due to Russian statutory codes considering any such delay evidence of consent, but Catherine intervened directly to allow the legal proceedings to continue.Jones responded to the allegations by claiming that he had paid the girl for sex several times, denying that he had deprived her of her virginity, and suggesting she was older than 10.However, Jones would later change his story and claim the accusation was entirely false, stemming from the supposed desire of Katerina's mother, Sophia Fyodorovna, to gain financially from a prominent man.", "He involved the Comte de Ségur, the French representative at the Russian court (and also Jones's last friend in the capital), who investigated the accusation and suggested to Potemkin that it was false, and that Jones was the victim of a plot by Prince Charles for his own purposes.", "Jones went on to gather evidence, producing Katerina's father, Stephan Holtszwarthen, to testify in court that his daughter was 12 and that his wife had left him for another man, lived in a brothel, and was herself promiscuous.The international pressure applied by American and French connections via the Comte de Ségur exerted a softening influence on Catherine.", "She granted him two years leave abroad, a de facto exile.", "According to Jacob Bell::The Empress' actions here proved her priorities.", "She dismissed a tried naval commander, especially sought out by her agents abroad, during wartime, showing that she merited the allegations against Jones higher than his potential martial service.During this period, he wrote his ''Narrative of the Campaign of the Liman''." ], [ "Later life", "The John Paul Jones Memorial in Washington, D.C.In May 1790, Jones arrived in Paris.", "He still retained his position as Russian Rear Admiral, with a corresponding pension which allowed him to remain in retirement until his death two years later, but he was no longer able to find a foothold in Paris society.", "Thomas Carlyle wrote of him, \"Poor Paul!", "Hunger and dispiritment track thy sinking footsteps\".", "During this time he made several attempts to re-enter the service in the Russian Navy.", "However, Catherine did not respond to his letters, explaining to their go-between Baron von Grimm that Jones' service record was not exceptional and that Russian seamen refused to serve under him, because of the accusation that he raped a girl.By this time, his memoirs had been published in Edinburgh.", "Inspired by them, James Fenimore Cooper and Alexandre Dumas later wrote their own adventure novels: Cooper's 1824 novel ''The Pilot'' contains fictionalized accounts of Jones's maritime activities, and Dumas' ''Captain Paul'' is a follow-up novel to ''The Pilot'', published in 1846.According to Walter Herrick::Jones was a sailor of indomitable courage, of strong will, and of great ability in his chosen career....", "He was also a hypocrite, a brawler, a rake, and a professional and social climber.Jones was an investor in western lands with William Trent." ], [ "Death", "In June 1792, Jones was appointed U.S. Consul to treat with the Dey of Algiers for the release of American captives.", "Before Jones was able to fulfill his appointment, he was found dead lying face-down on his bed in his third-floor Paris apartment, No.", "19 Rue de Tournon, on July 18, 1792.He was 45 years old.", "The cause of death was interstitial nephritis.", "A small procession of servants, friends and loyal family walked his body for burial.", "He was buried in Paris at the Saint Louis Cemetery, which belonged to the French royal family.", "In their obituaries, the American press had partially forgotten his achievements and some described him as a French war hero.Jones's grave was either unmarked, or the marker was stolen at an unknown point.", "By the time Americans began searching for his coffin in 1899, the record of his burial plot had also been lost, burned by the Paris Commune during the ''semaine sanglante''.", "Meanwhile, his personal papers had been transferred between several people and finally were displayed in the shop window of a New York bakery, where in 1824 a customer noticed them and purchased them.", "A New York newspaper described the papers as documents belonging to \"Franklin, Hancock, La Fayette and John Adams,\" failing to mention Jones himself.===Exhumation and reburial===John Barry honored on U.S. postageNavy Issue of 1936Jones's marble and bronze sarcophagus at the U.S.", "Naval Academy in Annapolis, MarylandIn 1905, Jones' remains were identified by U.S.", "Ambassador to France General Horace Porter, who had searched for six years to track down the body using a poor 1851 copy of the missing burial record.", "After Jones's death, Frenchman Pierrot Francois Simmoneau had donated over 460 francs to mummify the body.", "It had been preserved in alcohol and interred in a lead coffin \"in the event that should the United States decide to claim his remains, they might more easily be identified.\"", "Porter knew what to look for in his search.", "With the aid of an old map of Paris, Porter's team, which included anthropologist Louis Capitan, identified the site of the former St. Louis Cemetery for Alien Protestants.", "Sounding probes were used to search for lead coffins, and five coffins were ultimately exhumed.", "The third, unearthed on April 7, 1905, was immediately recognized as Jones by the excavators.", "A post-mortem examination by Doctors Capitan and Georges Papillault confirmed their impression, finding several points by which the corpse could be identified as Jones.", "The autopsy confirmed the original listing of cause of death.", "The face was later compared to a bust by Jean-Antoine Houdon.Jones's body was brought to the United States aboard the , escorted by three other cruisers, one being the .", "On approaching the American coastline, seven U.S. Navy battleships joined the procession escorting Jones's body back to America.", "On April 24, 1906, Jones's coffin was installed in Bancroft Hall at the U.S.", "Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, following a ceremony in Dahlgren Hall, presided by President Theodore Roosevelt who gave a speech paying tribute to Jones and holding him up as an example to the officers of the Navy.", "On January 26, 1913, the captain's remains were finally re-interred in a bronze and marble sarcophagus designed by Sylvain Salières at the Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis." ], [ "Posthumous pardon at Whitehaven", "Jones was given an honorary pardon in 1999 by the port of Whitehaven for his raid on the town, in the presence of Lieutenant Steve Lyons representing the U.S.", "Naval Attaché to the UK, and Yuri Fokine the Russian Ambassador to the UK.", "The U.S. Navy was also awarded the Freedom of the Port of Whitehaven, the only time the honour has been granted in its 400-year history.", "The pardon and freedom were arranged by Gerard Richardson as part of the launch of the series of Maritime Festival.", "Richardson's of Whitehaven, a wine and coffee merchant in the town, is now the honorary consulate to the U.S. Navy for the Town and Port of Whitehaven.", "The consul is Rear Admiral (retired) U.S. Navy Steve Morgan, and the deputy consul is Rob Romano." ], [ "In popular culture", "* James Fenimore Cooper wrote a historical novel The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea, published in 1823, features John Paul Jones as its main character.", "This novel was later reinterpreted by the French writer Alexandre Dumas in ''Captain Paul'' (''Le Capitaine Paul''), published in 1838.", "* In 1923, Franklin Delano Roosevelt wrote a screenplay about Jones and sent it to Paramount Pictures founder Adolph Zukor, who politely rejected it.", "* There is a single Hollywood film about him, ''John Paul Jones'' (1959), which includes a largely fictionalized portrayal of his private life.", "There is also a single 45-minute documentary about him, produced in 1995.", "* Johnny Horton wrote a sea shanty about John Paul Jones in 1960.", "* The Longest Johns also made a song referring to him from the British perspective titled \"John Paul Jones Is A Pirate\".", "* John Paul Jones is referenced in ''Sitka'' by Louis L'Amour, when Jean LaBarge alludes to Jones's service in the Imperial Russian Army." ], [ "See also", "* Bibliography of early American naval history* Commodore John Hazelwood, commander of the Continental Navy and Pennsylvania Navy during the Philadelphia campaign* John Paul Jones Cottage Museum, birthplace of Jones in Scotland* John Paul Jones House, residence in New Hampshire during construction of ''America''* , a steam gunboat, commissioned in 1862, decommissioned in 1867* , a , commissioned in 1902, decommissioned in 1919* , a , commissioned in 1921, decommissioned in 1945* , a of the U.S. Navy.", "Commissioned 1956; decommissioned 1982* , an in active service in the U.S. Navy.", "Commissioned in 1993." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* , 482 pp; original from Univ.", "California.", "* .", "* , 2 vols.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* Herrick Jr. \"Jones, John Paul \" in John A. Garraty, ''Encyclopedia of American Biography'' (1974) pp 598–599.online* * , 549 pp.", "* .", "* Sherburne, John H. ''The Life and Character of John Paul Jones''.", "Adriance, Sherman & Co. Publishing.", "New York, pp.", "10, 1851.", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* , 271 pp.", "* , 289 pp.", "* 320 pp.", "* , 408 pp." ], [ "External links", "* .", "* .", "* Excerpts form the Journals of my Campaign – John Paul Jones* John Paul Jones Museum* Official report by Jones from aboard ''Serapis'' in Holland (1779)* The Best Quote Jones Never Wrote* John Paul Jones and Asymmetric Warfare* Battle of Flamborough Head* Jones's attack upon Whitehaven, as reported in ''Lloyd's Evening Post'', 1778* The American Revolution Institute" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Boulting brothers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Edward Boulting''' (21 December 1913 – 17 June 1985) and '''Roy Alfred Clarence Boulting''' (21 December 1913 – 5 November 2001), known collectively as the '''Boulting brothers''', were English filmmakers and identical twins who became known for their series of satirical comedies in the 1950s and 1960s.", "They produced many of their films through their own production company, '''Charter Film Productions''', which they founded in 1937." ], [ "Early life", "The twin brothers were born to Arthur Boulting and his wife Rosetta (Rose) ''née'' Bennett in Bray, Berkshire, England, on 21 December 1913.John was the elder by half an hour.", "John was named Joseph Edward John Boulting and Roy was named Alfred Fitzroy Clarence Boulting.", "Their elder brother Sydney Boulting became an actor and stage producer as Peter Cotes; he was the original director of ''The Mousetrap''.", "A younger brother, Guy, died aged eight.Both twins were educated at Reading School, where they formed a film society.", "They were extras in Anthony Asquith's 1931 film ''Tell England'' while still at school.As a teenager, Roy emigrated to Canada, working for a while as a shop assistant, but also writing dialogue for at least one Canadian film.", "He worked his passage home aboard a cattle freighter in about 1933, working first in film sales before moving into film production as assistant director on a 1936 comedy quickie ''Apron Fools''.", "The money he made on his passage home went to finance the brothers' first work, a short entitled ''Ripe Earth'' (1938), about the village of Thaxted, Essex, narrated by Leo Genn.From January to November 1937, John served on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War as an ambulance driver with the Spanish Medical Aid Committee (not, as sometimes reported, with the International Brigades), where — according to Richard Attenborough — he was nearly captured.", "John also served with the British Film Unit as an officer in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War.", "Roy served as a captain in the British Army, first with a tank regiment for more than a year and then with the Army Film Unit, where he made several short documentaries." ], [ "Careers", "Frank Capra (right) confers with Roy Boulting on the editing of the film ''Tunisian Victory''The brothers constituted a producer-director team.", "For most of their careers one produced while the other directed, but the product remained essentially a 'Boulting Brothers film'.", "They were socialists, as John demonstrated with his involvement in the Spanish Civil War (see above), and wanted all film, including comedies, to reflect the real world.===Charter Film Productions===In 1937, they set up '''Charter Film Productions''' and made several short features, including ''The Landlady'' (1937) and ''Consider Your Verdict'' (1938), which attracted critical and commercial attention.They made quota quickies such as ''Trunk Crime'' (1939) and ''Inquest'' (1939).===Feature films===Being eager to speak out against the Third Reich, the brothers made their film, ''Pastor Hall'' (1940), a biopic of Martin Niemöller, a German preacher who refused to kowtow to the Nazis.", "Roy directed and John produced.", "The film had to have its initial release delayed by the British Government, which was not yet ready to be openly critical of Nazism.", "Once released, the film was well received by the critics and the public.They followed up with ''Thunder Rock'' (1942) with Michael Redgrave, a passionate anti-isolationist allegory distinguished by imaginative cinematography and a theatrical but highly atmospheric lighthouse setting.", "It was financed by MGM.===Military service===In 1941, Roy joined the Army Film Unit, where he was responsible for ''Desert Victory'', which won the Academy Award for Best Documentary in 1944.He also worked on ''Tunisian Victory'' (1944) and ''Burma Victory'' (1945).", "John joined the RAF Film Unit, where he made ''Journey Together'' in 1945, a dramatised documentary about the training and combat experience of a bomber crew with Richard Attenborough in the lead part.", "Terence Rattigan worked on the script.===Post-war films===After the war, the Boultings made the drama ''Fame Is the Spur'' (1947) with Redgrave.", "More successful at the box-office was ''Brighton Rock'' (1947), starring Attenborough as the gangster \"Pinkie\" from the novel by Graham Greene.", "Also well liked was ''The Guinea Pig'' (1948), starring Richard Attenborough as a young working-class boy sent to a public school.", "It was made for Pilgrim Pictures who the Boultings left shortly afterwards.", "The Boultings co-directed the thriller ''Seven Days to Noon'' (1950), which won an Oscar for Best Story.", "It led to a less popular sequel, ''High Treason'' (1951).", "John directed ''The Magic Box'' (1951), a biopic of William Friese-Greene and a film containing numerous cameo appearances.", "It was shown at the 1951 Festival of Britain but on general release the following year proved a box office disappointment.===Hollywood-financed films===Roy received an offer to direct a World War Two naval film, ''Sailor of the King'' (1953), starring Jeffrey Hunter for 20th Century Fox.", "''Seagulls Over Sorrento'' (1954) was another war naval story financed by a Hollywood studio (in this case MGM) with an imported star (Gene Kelly); it was not a big success.", "The brothers collaborated on a comedy, ''Josephine and Men'' (1955) then Roy was hired by United Artists to do an action film with Hollywood stars, ''Run for the Sun'' (1956).===Satires===In the mid-50s, the Boulting brothers became identified with \"affectionate\" satires on British institutions.", "The sequence began with John's ''Private's Progress'' (1956), a look at army life, starring Attenborough, Terry-Thomas and Ian Carmichael and co written by Frank Harvey.", "It was the second most commercially successful film in Britain in 1956.They followed it with ''Lucky Jim'' (1957), set in academia, adapted from the novel by Kingsley Amis.", "It starred Carmichael and Terry-Thomas.", "''Brothers in Law'' (1957) with Carmichael, Attenborough and Thomas, took on the legal profession.", "They had a break from satirising institutions with ''Happy Is the Bride'' (1958), an adaptation of ''Quiet Wedding'', then returned to it with ''Carlton-Browne of the F.O.''", "(1959), focusing on diplomacy.The Boultings took on increasingly powerful trade unions and ever corrupt board room power with ''I'm All Right Jack'' (1959), a sequel to ''Private's Progress'' with Carmichael, Thomas and Attenborough reprising their roles, and Harvey co-writing.", "The film featured a performance by Peter Sellers as trade union foreman Fred Kite.", "It was the most popular film at the British box office in 1959.", "''Suspect'' (1960) was a return to the thriller genre for the brothers.", "''A French Mistress'' (1960) was a comedy farce.", "''Heavens Above!''", "(1963) looked at religion in Britain, starring Sellers and Carmichael.", "It was a minor hit.", "''Rotten to the Core'' (1965) was a heist comedy which attempted to make a star of Anton Rodgers in a Peter Sellers-type role, playing multiple parts.", "It featured a young Charlotte Rampling.===Hayley Mills===The Boultings directed and produced the northern comedy ''The Family Way'' (1966), starring John Mills and his teenage daughter Hayley.", "Roy Boulting and Hayley Mills began a relationship during the shoot despite a 33-year age difference; they married in 1971.Roy wrote and directed ''Twisted Nerve'' (1968), a thriller starring Mills and Hywel Bennett.", "The brothers had a massive hit with ''There's a Girl in My Soup'' (1970) starring Sellers and Goldie Hawn.", "Roy was called in to replace the director on ''Mr.", "Forbush and the Penguins'' (1971), and he brought in Mills to star.", "The movie was not successful.", "Neither was the comedy ''Soft Beds, Hard Battles'' (1974) made by the brothers starring Peter Sellers.", "Roy Boulting lost a considerable amount of money on the film.", "In 1975, Roy was working on a stage play, ''The Family Games''.", "He worked on the script for ''The Kingfisher Caper'' (1975), starring Mills.===Later career===In the US, Roy directed ''The Last Word'' (1979), a comedy starring Richard Harris that was barely seen.", "When John died of cancer in 1985, Roy stopped making films.", "His last credit was directing an episode of the ''Miss Marple'' series for TV, ''The Moving Finger'' (1985).", "He was working on an adaptation of Terence Rattigan's play ''Deja Vu'' when he died.", "When the National Film Theatre mounted its biggest retrospective to date of British cinema in the late 1980s, Roy who launched it, introduced ''Desert Victory''.", "The Boulting Brother's films have been described as being \"a sensitive barometer of the changing times\"." ], [ "Personal lives", "John Boulting was married four times.", "He had six children: two sons by his first marriage; three daughters by his second.", "He also had a third son.", "With his first wife, Veronica, daughter of Irish barrister, John Craig Nelson Davidson, he had sons Norris (b.", "1941) and Nicholas (b.", "1943).", "Norris is the father of TV presenter and journalist Ned Boulting.", "With his second wife, Jacqueline (Jackie), he had three daughters: Jody, Emma & Lucy; the last of whom, Lucy Boulting Hill, has become a successful casting director.", "John's grandson, Jordan Stephens (son of Emma), is one half of British hip hop duo Rizzle Kicks.", "Roy Boulting was married five times.", "He had seven children, all sons: two by his second marriage; three by his third; one through his relationship with Victoria Vaughan; and one by his fourth.", "With his second wife, Jean Capon (née Gamage), he had sons Jonathan (b.", "1944) and Laurence (b.", "1945), the latter becoming a successful film producer and director in his own right.", "With his second marriage, in March 1951, to Enid Munnik (née Groenewald/Grünewald), he had three children: first, Fitzroy (b.", "1951); then identical twins Edmund and Rupert (b.", "1952).", "The couple divorced in 1964.Enid, an established fashion model and later fashion editor at the French magazine ''Elle'', later married the 9th Earl of Hardwicke) in April 1970.The model and actress Ingrid Boulting is Enid's daughter from her first marriage, to Cornelius Munnik.Following his split with his third wife, Roy entered into a relationship with another fashion model, Victoria Vaughan.", "They had one son together.", "The relationship ended with his involvement with Hayley Mills.", "In 1971, Roy married, for the fourth time, Hayley Mills, 33 years his junior, whom he had met on the set of ''The Family Way''.", "Their son is musician and filmmaker Crispian Mills.", "The couple separated in 1975, and divorced in 1977.His fifth and final marriage, in October 1978, was to actress Sandra Payne.", "They divorced in 1984." ], [ "Deaths", "John Boulting died on 17 June 1985 at his home in Sunningdale, Berkshire, and Roy Boulting 16 years later on 5 November 2001 in the Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford; both died of cancer." ], [ "In popular culture", "A still from ''The Family Way'' was used for The Smiths single \"I Started Something I Couldn't Finish\"." ], [ "Filmography", "===Films directed jointly===''Seven Days to Noon'' (1950)''Suspect / The Risk'' (1960)''Heavens Above!''", "(1963)===Films directed by John===''Journey Together'' (1945)''Brighton Rock'' (1948)''The Magic Box'' (1951)''Private's Progress'' (1956)''Lucky Jim'' (1957)''I'm All Right Jack'' (1959)''Rotten to the Core'' (1965)===Films directed by Roy===''Trunk Crime'' (1939)''Inquest'' (1939)''Pastor Hall'' (1940)''Thunder Rock'' (1942)''Tunisian Victory'' (1944, documentary co-directed with Frank Capra)''Fame Is the Spur'' (1947)''The Guinea Pig'' (1948)''High Treason'' (1951)''Single-Handed'' (1953)''Seagulls Over Sorrento'' (1954)''Josephine and Men'' (1955)''Run for the Sun'' (1956)''Brothers in Law'' (1957)''Happy Is the Bride'' (1958)''Carlton-Browne of the F.O.''", "(1959)''A French Mistress'' (1960)''The Family Way'' (1966)''Twisted Nerve'' (1968)''There's a Girl in My Soup'' (1970)''Mr.", "Forbush and the Penguins'' (1971)''Soft Beds, Hard Battles'' (1973)''The Last Word'' (1979)" ], [ "References", "Burton Alan, O'Sullivan Tim, Wells Paul; Eds.", "2000.", "''The Family Way: The Boulting Brothers and British Film Culture''.", "Trowbridge: Flicks Books." ], [ "External links", "** John Boulting at the British Film Institute* Roy Boulting at the British Film Institute* Charter Film Productions at the British Film Institute**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Frankenheimer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Michael Frankenheimer''' (February 19, 1930 – July 6, 2002) was an American film and television director known for social dramas and action/suspense films.", "Among his credits were ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' (1962), ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962), ''Seven Days in May'' (1964), ''The Train'' (1964), ''Seconds'' (1966), ''Grand Prix'' (1966), ''French Connection II'' (1975), ''Black Sunday'' (1977), ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' (1996), and ''Ronin'' (1998).He won four Emmy Awards – three consecutive – in the 1990s for directing the television movies ''Against the Wall'', ''The Burning Season'', ''Andersonville'', and ''George Wallace'', the last of which also received a Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film.Frankenheimer's 30 feature films and over 50 plays for television were notable for their influence on contemporary thought.", "He became a pioneer of the \"modern-day political thriller\", having begun his career at the height of the Cold War.He was technically highly accomplished from his days in live television; many of his films were noted for creating \"psychological dilemmas\" for his male protagonists along with having a strong \"sense of environment\", similar in style to films by director Sidney Lumet, for whom he had earlier worked as assistant director.", "He developed a \"tremendous propensity for exploring political situations\" which would ensnare his characters.Movie critic Leonard Maltin writes that \"in his time 1960s ... Frankenheimer worked with the top writers, producers and actors in a series of films that dealt with issues that were just on top of the moment – things that were facing us all.\"" ], [ "Childhood and schooling", "Frankenheimer was born in Queens, New York City, the son of Helen Mary (''née'' Sheedy) and Walter Martin Frankenheimer, a stockbroker.", "His father was of German Jewish descent, his mother was Irish Catholic, and Frankenheimer was raised in his mother's religion.", "As a youth Frankenheimer, the eldest of three siblings, struggled to assert himself with his domineering father.Growing up in New York City he became fascinated with cinema at an early age, and recalls avidly attending movies every weekend.", "Frankenheimer reports that in 1938, at the age of age of seven or eight, he attended a 25-episode, 7 hour marathon of ''The Lone Ranger'' accompanied by his aunt.In 1947, he graduated from La Salle Military Academy in Oakdale, Long Island, New York, and in 1951 he earned a baccalaureate in English from Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts.", "As captain of the tennis team at Williams, Frankenheimer briefly considered a professional career in tennis, but reconsidered:===Air Force Film Squadron: 1951-1953===After graduating Williams College, Frankenheimer was drafted into the Air Force and assigned to the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC), serving in the Pentagon mailroom at Washington, D. C. He quickly applied for and was transferred, without any formal qualifications, to an Air Force film squadron in Burbank, California.", "It was there that Lieutenant Frankenheimer \"really started to think seriously about directing.", "\"Frankenheimer recollects his early apprenticeship with the Air Force photography unit as one of almost unlimited freedom.", "As a junior officer, Frankenheimer superiors \"couldn't have cared less\" what he did in terms of utilizing the filmmaking equipment.", "Frankenheimer reports that he was free to set up the lighting, operate the camera and perform the editing on projects he personally conceived.", "His first film was a documentary about an asphalt manufacturing plant in Sherman Oaks, California.Lieutenant Frankenheimer recalls moonlighting, at $40-a-week, as writer, producer and cameraman making television infomercials for a local cattle breeder in Northridge, California, in which livestock were presented on the interior stage sets.", "The FCC terminated the programming after 15 weeks.", "In addition to mastering the basic elements of filmmaking, Frankenheimer began reading widely on film technique, including the writings of Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein.Frankenheimer was discharged from the military in 1953." ], [ "Television's \"Golden Age\": 1953-1960", "Columbia Broadcasting Studios (CBS), 1952During his years in military service, Frankenheimer strenuously sought a film career in Southern California.", "Failing this, at age 23, he returned to New York upon his military discharge to seek work in the emerging television industry.", "His earnestness impressed Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) television executives, landing him a job in the summer of 1953 to serve as a director of photography on ''The Garry Moore Show''.", "Frankenheimer recalls his apprenticeship at CBS:Frankenheimer was picked up as assistant to director Sidney Lumet's for CBS's historical dramatization series ''You Are There'', and further on Charles Russell's ''Danger'' and Edward R. Murrow's ''Person to Person''.", "In late 1954 Frankenheimer replaced Lumet as director on ''You Are There'' and ''Danger'' under a 5-year contract (with a studio standard option to terminate a director with a two-week notice).", "Frankenheimer's directorial début was ''The Plot Against King Solomon'' (1954), a critical success.Throughout the 1950s he directed over 140 episodes of shows like ''Playhouse 90'' and ''Climax!''", "under the auspices of CBS executive Hubbell Robinson and producer Martin Manulis.", "These included outstanding adaptations of works by Shakespeare, Eugene O'Neill, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway and Arthur Miller.", "Leading actors and actresses from stage and film starred in these live productions, among them Ingrid Bergman, John Gielgud, Mickey Rooney, Geraldine Page and Jack Lemmon.", "Frankenheimer is widely considered a preeminent figure in the so-called \"Golden Age of Television\".Film historian Stephen Bowie offers this appraisal of Frankenheimer's legacy from the \"Golden Age\" of television:" ], [ "Film career", "Frankenheimer's earliest films addressed contemporary issues such as \"juvenile delinquency, criminality and the social environment\" and are represented by ''The Young Stranger'' (1957), ''The Young Savages'' (1961) and ''All Fall Down'' (1962).===''The Young Stranger'' (1957)===Frankenheimer's first foray into filmmaking occurred while he was still under contract to CBS television.", "The head of CBS in California, William Dozier, became the CEO of RKO movie studios.", "Frankenheimer was assigned to direct a film version of his television ''Climax!''", "production entitled \"Deal a Blow\", written by William Dozier's son, Robert.", "The 1956 movie version, ''The Young Stranger'' stars James MacArthur as the rebellious teenage son of a powerful Hollywood movie producer (James Daly).", "Frankenheimer recalled that he found his first film experience unsatisfactory:Frankenheimer adds that in the late 1950s, television was transitioning from live productions to taped shows: \"... a live television director was like being a village blacksmith after the advent of the automobile ...", "I knew I had to get out...\" In 1961 Frankenheimer abandoned television and returned to filmmaking after a four-year hiatus, continuing his examination of the social themes that informed his 1957 ''The Young Stranger''.", "Film historian Gordon Gow distinguishes Frankenheimer's handling of themes addressing individualism and \"misfits\" during the Fifties' obsession with disaffected teenagers:===''The Young Savages'' (1961)===Frankenheimer's second cinematic effort is based on novelist Evan Hunter's ''A Matter of Conviction'' (1959).", "United Artists publicity executives changed the box-office title to the vaguely lurid ''The Young Savages,'' to which Frankenheimer objected.", "The story involves the attempted political exploitation of a brazen murder involving Puerto Rican and Italian youth gangs set in New York City's Spanish Harlem.", "District Attorney, Dan Cole (Edward Andrews), who is seeking the state governorship, sends assistant D. A. Hank Bell (Burt Lancaster) to gather evidence to secure a conviction.", "Bell, who grew up in the tenement district, has escaped from his impoverished origins to achieve social and economic success.", "He initially adopts a cynical hostility towards the youths he investigates, which serves his own career aims.", "The narrative explores the human and legal complexities of the case and Bell's struggle to confront his personal and social prejudices and commitments.", "The film's arresting opening sequence depicting a killing, which is key to the plot, reveals Frankenheimer's origins in television.", "The action, \"brilliantly filmed and edited\", occurs preliminary to the credits, and is accompanied by an impelling soundtrack by composer David Amram, serving to quickly rivet audience interest.", "''The Young Savages'', though focusing on juvenile delinquency, is cinematically a significant advance over Frankenheimer's similarly themed first film effort ''The Young Stranger'' (1957).", "Film historian Gerald Pratley attributes this to Frankenheimer's insistence on hand-picking his leading technical support for the project, including set designer Bert Smidt, cinematographer Lionel Lindon and scenarist JP Miller.", "Pratley observed:Though \"contrived and familiar in its social concerns\" Frankenheimer and leading man Burt Lancaster, both Liberals in their political outlook, dramatize the \"poverty, violence and despair of city life\" with a restraint such that \"the events and characters seem consistently believable.", "\"Frankenheimer recalled \"I shot ''The Young Savages'' mainly to show people that I could make a movie, and while it was not completely successful, my point was proved...The film was made on a relatively cheap budget and shooting on location in New York for a Hollywood company is very expensive.", "Those were the days before Mayor Lindsay when you had to pay off every other cop on the beat…\"===''All Fall Down'' (1962)===The coming of age film ''All Fall Down'' was both filmed and released while Frankenheimer's ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' (1962) was in post-production and his ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962) was in pre-production.The picture was scripted by William Inge, who also wrote ''Splendor in the Grass'' (1961) and concerns character Berry-Berry (Warren Beatty), an emotionally irresponsible hustler, and his adoring younger brother Clinton (Brandon deWilde), to whom Berry-Berry appears as a romantic Byronesque figure.", "The older brother's cruel treatment of Echo O'Brien (Eva Marie Saint), his lover who becomes pregnant, disabuses the naive Clinton of Berry-Berry's perfection.", "His anguished insight permits Clinton to achieve emotional maturity and independence.", "Film critic David Walsh comments:===''Birdman of Alcatraz'' (1962)===Based on a biography by Thomas E. Gaddis, ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' (1962) is a documentary-like dramatization of the life of Robert Stroud, sentenced to life imprisonment in solitary confinement for killing a prison guard.", "While serving his sentence, Stroud (Burt Lancaster) becomes a respected expert in avian diseases though the study of canaries.", "Frankenheimer traces Stroud's emergence from his anti-social misanthropy towards a humane maturity, despite the brutal conditions of his incarceration.In 1962, the production and filming of ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' was already underway when United Artists enlisted Frankenheimer to replace British director Charles Crichton.", "As such, key production decisions had already been made, and Frankenheimer regarded himself as a “hired director” with little direct control over the production.", "Producer Harold Hecht and screenwriter Guy Trosper insisted on an exhaustive adaption of the Gaddis biography.", "The filmed rough cut that emerged was over four hours in length.", "When simply editing the work was ruled out as impracticable, the script was rewritten and the film largely re-shot, producing a final cut of 2 ½ hours.", "According to Frankenheimer, he had an option in the 1950s to make a television adaption of the Stroud story, but CBS was warned off by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, and the project was dropped.===''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962)===Frankenheimer's 1962 political thriller ''The Manchurian Candidate'' is widely regarded as his most remarkable cinematic work.", "Biographer Gerald Prately observes that “the impact of this film was enormous.", "With it, John Frankenheimer became a force to be reckoned with in contemporary cinema; it established him as the most artistic, realistic and vital filmmaker at work in America or elsewhere.”Frankenheimer and producer George Axelrod bought Richard Condon's 1959 novel after it had already been turned down by many Hollywood studios.", "After Frank Sinatra committed to the film, they secured backing from United Artists.", "The plot centers on Korean War veteran Raymond Shaw, part of a prominent political family.", "Shaw is brainwashed by Chinese and Russian captors after his Army platoon are imprisoned.", "He returns to civilian life in the United States, where he becomes an unwitting “sleeper” assassin in an international communist conspiracy to subvert and overthrow the U.S. government.The film co-starred Laurence Harvey (as Sergeant Raymond Shaw), Janet Leigh, James Gregory and John McGiver.", "Angela Lansbury, as the mother and controller to her “sleeper” assassin son, garnered an Academy Award nomination for a “riveting” performance” in “the greatest screen role of her career.” Frank Sinatra, as Major Bennett Marco, who reverses Shaw's mind control mechanisms and exposes the conspiracy, delivers perhaps his most satisfactory film performance.Frankenheimer declared that both technically and conceptually, he had “complete control” over the production.The technical “fluency” exhibited in ''The Manchurian Candidate'' reveals Frankenheimer's struggle to convey this Cold War narrative.", "Film historian Andrew Sarris remarked that the director was “obviously sweating over his technique...instead of building sequences, Frankenheimer explodes them prematurely, preventing his films from coming together coherently.” ''The Manchurian Candidate'', nonetheless, conveys the “paranoia and delirium of the Cold War years” through its documentary-style mise-en-scène.", "A demonstration of Frankenheimer's bravura direction and “visual inventiveness” appears in the notable brainwashing sequence, presenting the sinister proceedings from the perspective of both the perpetrator and victim.", "The complexity of the sequence and its antecedents in television are described by film critic Stephen Bowie: In 1968, Frankenheimer acknowledged that the methods he used on television were “the same kind of style I used on ''The Manchurian Candidate''.", "It was the first time I had the assurance and self-confidence to go back to what I had been really good at in television.” Compositionally, Frankenheimer concentrates his actors into “long lens” menage, in which dramatic interactions occur at close-up, mid-shot and long-shot, a configuration that he repeated “obsessively.” Film critic Stepen Bowie observes that “this style meant that Frankenheimer's early output became a cinema of exactitude rather than spontaneity.”''The Manchurian Candidate'' was released in the post-Red Scare period of the early 1960s, when anti-Communist political ideology still prevailed.", "Just one month after the film's release, the John F. Kennedy administration was in the midst of Cuban Missile Crisis and nuclear brinkmanship with the Soviet Union.That Frankenheimer and screenwriter Axelrod persisted in the production is a measure of their political liberalism, in a historical period when, according to biographer Gerald Pratley “ it was clearly dangerous to speak of politics in the out-spoken, satiric vein that characterized this picture.” Film critic David Walsh adds that “the level of conviction and urgency” that informs ''The Manchurian Candidate'', reflects “the relative confidence and optimism American liberals felt in the early 1960s.”Frankenheimer's “terrifying parable” of the American political milieu was sufficiently well-received to avoid its summary rejection by distributors.", "''The Manchurian Candidate'', due its subject matter and its proximity to the Kennedy assassination is inextricably linked to that event.", "Frankenheimer acknowledged as much when, in 1968, he described ''The Manchurian Candidate'' as “a horribly prophetic film.", "It's frightening what's happened in our country since that film was made.”After completing ''The Manchurian Candidate'', Frankenheimer recalls that he was determined to continue filmmaking: “I wanted to initiate the project, I wanted to have full control, I never wanted to go back to be hired as a director again.” He was offered a contract to direct a biopic about French singer Edith Piaf, with Natalie Wood in the starring role.", "He emphatically rejected the offer when he learned that Piaf's songs would be sung in English, rather than in the original French.In 1963, Frankenheimer and screenwriter George Axelrod were introduced to the producer Edward Lewis, considering a TV production concerning the American Civil Liberties Union.", "When the project was deemed too expensive for television, Frankenheimer was approached by an associate of Lewis, actor and producer Kirk Douglas, to purchase and adapt to film the novel ''Seven Days in May'' by Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey II.===''Seven Days in May'' (1964)===''Seven Days in May'' (1964), based closely on Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey II's best-selling novel and a screenplay by Rod Serling, dramatizes an attempted military coup d’état in the United States, set in 1974.The perpetrators are led by General James M. Scott (Burt Lancaster), chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) a virulently anti-Communist authoritarian.", "When US President Jordan Lyman (Fredric March) negotiates a nuclear disarmament treaty with the Soviet Union—an act that Scott considers treasonable—Scott mobilizes his military cabal.", "Operating at a remote base in West Texas, they prepare to commandeer the nation's communication networks and seize control of Congress.", "When Scott's JCS aide Colonel Martin “Jiggs” Casey (Kirk Douglas) discovers the planned coup he is appalled, and convinces President Lyman as to the gravity of the threat.", "Lyman mobilizes his own governmental loyalists, and a clash over Constitutional principles between Lyman and Scott plays out in the Oval Office, with the President denouncing the General as a traitor to the US Constitution.", "When Scott is exposed publicly, his military supporters abandon him, and the conspiracy collapses.", "Frankenheimer points to the topical continuity of his political thrillers:The character of General Scott has been identified by film historians as a composite of two leading military and political figures: Curtis LeMay and Edwin Walker.", "The film places great emphasis on the sanctity of US Constitutional norms as a bulwark against encroachments by anti-democratic elements in the United States.", "Biographer Gerald Pratley writes:Film critic Joanne Laurier adds that “screenwriter Rod Serling and Frankenheimer's major theme is the need for the military to be subordinated to elected civilian rule.” As visual emphasis “the opening credits of ''Seven Days in May'' roll over an image of the original 1787 draft of the Constitution of the United States.", "''Seven Days in May'' has been widely praised for the high caliber of the performances by the cast.", "Biographer Charles Higham writes that “the film is played with extraordinary skill, proving that Frankenheimer's intensity communicated itself successfully to his actors.”Frankenheimer, a former Air Force officer who worked briefly in the Pentagon, anticipated hostility from the military establishment to the premise of ''Seven Days in May''.", "Indeed, internal memos circulated in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) registering alarm that ''Seven Days in May'' could potentially damage the bureau's reputation.", "Film critics Joanne Laurier and David Walsh report that “The military and FBI took a very definite note of Seven Days in May, revealing their intense sensitivity to such criticism.", "A memo uncovered in Ronald Reagan's FBI file reveals that the bureau was concerned the film would be used as Communist propaganda and was therefore ‘harmful to our Armed Forces and Nation.’” President Kennedy personally expressed approval for the film adaption, and his Press Secretary Pierre Salinger permitted Frankenheimer to view the Oval Office so as to sketch its interior.", "''Seven Days in May'', filmed in the summer of 1963, was scheduled for release in December that year, but was delayed due to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in November.", "The release of director Stanley Kubrick's satire Dr. Strangelove (1964) was similarly postponed.Frankenheimer recognized the “prophetic” aspects of his ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962), a film that examines conspiratorial political assassinations.", "The historical context in which ''Seven Days in May'' appeared inevitably links it to the 1963 Kennedy assassination.", "Film critic David Walsh makes the connection explicit: “By the time ''Seven Days in May'' reached movie theaters, Kennedy had been assassinated, in an operation widely believed to have been organized by those with CIA or military connections.”''Seven Days in May'' was well received by critics and movie-goers.===''The Train'' (1964)===In early 1964, Frankenheimer was reluctant to embark upon another film project due to fatigue: “''The Train'' is a film I had no intention of ever doing and was not a subject that I cared that much about...I'd just finished ''Seven Days in May'' (1964).", "I was quite tired.” Adapted from the novel ''Le Front de l’Art: Le front de l’art: Défense des collections françaises, 1939-1945'' by Rose Valland, the documentary-styled picture examines the desperate struggle by the French Resistance to intercept a train loaded with priceless art treasures and sabotage it before Wehrmacht officers could escape with it to Nazi Germany.", "The film dramatizes a contest of wills between French railway inspector Labiche (Burt Lancaster) and German art connoisseur Colonel von Waldheim (Paul Scofield), tasked with seizing the art work.", "Shooting for ''The Train'' had commenced in France when filmmaker Arthur Penn, originally enlisted to direct the adaption, was dismissed by actor-producer Lancaster, allegedly over personal incompatibility and irreconcilable interpretive differences.Frankenheimer, who had successfully directed Lancaster on three previous films, consented to replace Penn, but with grave reservations, considering the screenplay “almost appalling” and noting that “the damn train didn't leave the station until p. 140.” Frankenheimer postponed production of ''Seconds'' (1966) to accommodate Lancaster's production.Filming for ''The Train'' was temporarily shut down and the existing footage discarded.", "Frankenheimer, in collaboration with screenwriters Nedrick Young (uncredited), Franklin Coen, Frank Davis and Walter Bernstein framed an entirely new script that combined suspense, intrigue and action, reflecting Lancaster's prerequisites.Frankenheimer inserts an ethical question into the narrative: Is it justified to sacrifice a human life to save a work of art?", "His controversial answer was emphatically, no.", "Film critic Stephen Bowie observes ““Frankenheimer's thesis—that human life has more value than art—may seem simplistic, but it adds an essential moral component to what would otherwise be just an expensive live-action version of an electric train set.”The Train is lauded for its documentary-like realism and Frankenheimer's masterful integration of the human narrative with its tour-de-force action scenes.", "Biographer Gerald Pratley offers this appraisal of Frankenheimer's handling of the complex series of train sequences, discerning the influence of Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein: Film critic Tim Palen elaborates on Frankenheimer's technical expertise in ''The Train'': “The director makes excellent use of wide angle lenses, long tracking shots, and extreme close-ups whilst maintaining depth of field...deliberately ensures that elaborate camera movement and cutting was planned so that ‘logistically you knew where each train was,’ in relation to the action.” The Train exemplifies the centrality of technical applications that began to characterize Frankenheimer's approach to film in the late 1960s “brandishing style for its own sake.”''The Train''’s original screenplay received an Academy Award nomination.", "It had cost $6.7 million.", "and was one of the 13 most popular films in the UK in 1965.===''Seconds'' (1966)===''Seconds'' presents a surreal and disturbing tale of a disillusioned corporate executive, Arthur Hamilton (John Randolph).", "In an effort to escape his empty existence, he submits to a traumatic surgical procedure that transforms his body into that of a younger man, Tony Wilson (Rock Hudson).", "Randolph's effort to erase his former self in a new persona proves futile and leads to his horrific demise.", "Biographer Gerald Pratley describes ''Seconds'' as “a cold, grey, frightening picture of a dehumanized world...based on the age-old search for eternal youth...an amalgam of mystery, horror and science fiction…”Based on a novel by David Ely and a screenplay by Lewis John Carlino, Frankenheimer explained his thematic objectives:Frankenheimer acknowledged his difficulty in casting for the elderly and demoralized Arthur Hamilton, which required the director to convincingly show his metamorphosis, both surgically and physiologically, into the youthful and artistic Tony Wilson.", "A dual role played by a single actor was considered, with Frankenheimer advocating for British actor Laurence Olivier.", "Paramount rejected this in favor of two players, in which one actor (Randolph) undergoes a radical transformation to emerge with the appearance and identity of the other (Hudson).", "Rock Hudson's portrayal of Wilson introduced a troubling plausibility issue that Frankenheimer fully recognized: “We knew we were going to have a terrible time getting audiences to believe that the man who went into the operating room (Randolph) could emerge as Rock Hudson, citing the physical disparity between the actors as problematic.", "Film historian Gerald Pratley concurs: “the weakness in ''Seconds'' is trying to convince audiences that the actor playing Hamilton could emerge, after plastic surgery, as Wilson in the form of Rock Hudson.", "This is where the star system has worked against Frankeheimer.” Frankenheimer identified the source of the film's weakness less on the physical disparities in his actors, and more on his difficulties conveying the themes required to explain Wilson's inability to adjust socially to his new life: “We thought we had shown why Wilson failed, but after the film was finished I realized we had not.” Frankenheimer's technical prowess is on display in ''Seconds'', where the director and his cameraman James Wong Howe experimented with various lenses, including the 9.5 mm fisheye lens to achieve the “distortion and exaggeration” that would dramatize Hamilton's struggle to “break free of his emotional straightjacket.”Howe and Frankenheimer's use of visual distortions are central to revealing his character's hallucinatory mental states, and according to Frankenheimer “almost psychedelic”.", "In one scene, a total of four Arriflexes are brought to bear to emphasis Hamilton's sexual impotency with his estranged wife.", "Film historian Peter Wilshire considers Frankenheimer's choice of James Wong Howe as cameraman for the project was his “most important directional decision.” Howe was nominated at the Academy Awards in Best Cinematography for his efforts.", "At Frankenheimer's urging, Paramount executives agreed to enter ''Seconds'' at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival, hoping the film might confer prestige on the studio and enhance box office returns.", "On the contrary, Seconds was savaged by European critics at the film competition, regarding it as misanthropic and “cruel”.", "Frankenheimer recalled “it was a disaster” and declined to attend the festival's post-preview press conference.", "In the aftermath of this fiasco, Paramount withdraw promotional resources and ''Seconds'' failed at the box office.", "As consolation for its critical and commercial failures, ''Seconds'' was ultimately rewarded with a cult following among cineastes.Critical appraisal of the film has varied widely.", "Gerald Pratley, in 1968, declares that ''Seconds'', despite its poor reception in 1966, will one day be recognized as “a masterpiece.” Film critic Peter Wilshire offers qualified praise: “In spite of its obvious weaknesses, ''Seconds'' is an extremely complex, innovative, and ambitious film.” Brian Baxter disparages ''Seconds'' as “embarrassing...unconvincing, even as science fiction.” and critic David Walsh considers ''Seconds'' “particularly wrongheaded, strained and foolish.” Biographer Charles Higham writes:===''Grand Prix'' (1966)===Grand Prix''By the mid-sixties, Frankenheimer had emerged as one of Hollywood's leading directors.As such, M-G-M provided lavish financing for ''Grand Prix'' (1966), Frankenheimer's first color film and shot in 70mm Cinerama.", "A former amateur race car driver himself, he approached the project with genuine enthusiasm.The screenplay by Robert Alan Aurthur and an uncredited Frankenheimer, concerns the professional and personal fortunes of Formula One racer Pete Aron (James Garner) during an entire season of competitive racing.", "The action climaxes at Monza, where Aron, Scott Stoddard (Brian Bedford), Jean Pierre Sarti (Yves Montand) and Nino Barlini (Antonio Sabàto Sr.) compete for the championship, with tragic results.", "Wishing to craft a highly realistic rendering of racing and its milieu, he assembled a panoply of innovative film techniques with ingenious apparatus and special effects.", "Working closely with cinematographer Lionel Lindon, Frankenheimer mounted cameras directly onto the race cars, eliminating process shots and providing audiences with a driver's-eye view of the action.", "Frankenheimer incorporated split-screens to juxtapose documentary-like interviews of the racers with high-speed action shots on the track.", "Frankenheimer explains his use of the “hydrogen cannon”:Characterized largely by Frankenheimer's bravura application of his striking cinematic style, ''Grand Prix'' has been termed “largely a technical exercise” by film critic David Walsh and “brandishing style for its own sake” according to The Film Encyclopedia.", "Film historian Andrew Sarris observed that Frankenheimer's style had “degenerated into an all-embracing academicism, a veritable glossary of film techniques.” A commercial success, ''Grand Prix'' garnered three Oscars at the Academy Awards for Best Sound Effects (by Gordon Daniel), Best Editing (Henry Berman, Stu Linder and Frank Santillo), and for Best Sound Recording (Franklin Milton and Roy Charman)===''The Extraordinary Seaman'' (1969)===Frankenheimer's first foray into “light comedy” represents a major departure from his often dystopian and dramatic work addressing social issues and his big budget action films.", "''The Extraordinary Seaman'' presents a menagerie of misfit characters set in the final days of World War II in the Pacific theatre.", "British Lt.", "Commander Finchhaven, R. N. (David Niven), a ghost, is condemned to a Flying Dutchman-like existence, roaming the seas in his ship ''Curmudgeon'' in search of redemption for his shameful ineptitude during a World War I combat mission.", "During World War II, the ''Curmudgeon'' is chartered, then beached on a remote Pacific Island by party goers.", "Four castaway American sailors stumble upon the unseaworthy vessel: Lt. Morton Krim (Alan Alda), Cook 3/C W.W. J. Oglethorpe (Mickey Rooney), Gunner's Mate Orville Toole (Jack Carter) and Seaman 1/C Lightfoot Star (Manu Tupou).", "Jennifer Winslow (Faye Dunaway), the proprietor of a jungle garage, provides supplies to repair the derelict ''Curmudgeon'' for passage off the island.", "Commander Finchaven enlists the largely incompetent crew to seek out and sink a Japanese battleship and thus vindicate his family honor.", "The 79-minute picture depicts the crew's subsequent “hazards and misadventures.” ''The Extraordinary Seaman'', based on a screenplay and story by Phillip Rock, is a spoof of war-time conventions and clichés which integrates newsreel clips from the period for comic effect.Frankenheimer engages in a mock-heroic burlesque, titling the film's episodes “Grand Alliance”, “The Gathering Storm”, “Their Finest Hour”, The Hinge of Fate” and “Triumph and Tragedy”, borrowed from Winston Churchill's post-war memoirs.Filmed during the Vietnam War, film historian Gerald Pratley discerns “a strong thematic relationship” between Frankenheimer's opposition to US invasion of Indo-China and ''The Extraordinary Seaman''.", "Frankenheimer recalls that he and screenwriter Phillip Rock “decided we could really use this premise of a ghostly naval officer to make an anti-war statement.", "I think we did, and it terrified MGM.", "\"Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer delayed the release of the film for two years, reportedly due its poor response among critics and “dismal screenings”, though Frankenheimer attributes the delay to legalities obtaining release of historic newsreel footage.", "The studio made only perfunctory efforts to promote and exhibit the film after ''The Extraordinary Seaman''’s poor critical reviews and weak box-office response.===''The Fixer'' (1968)===Frankenheimer approached his film adaption of Bernard Malamud's ''The Fixer'' with alacrity, obtaining the galleys for the 1966 novel in advance of its publication.", "The Fixer is based on the 1913 persecution and trial of the Jewish peasant Menahem Mendel Beilis, accused of Blood Libel during the reign of Czar Nicholas II''The Fixer'' was widely praised by movie critics for Frankenheimer's success in eliciting outstanding performances from Alan Bates as the brutalized Yakov Shepsovitch Bok, Dirk Bogarde as Boris Bibikov, his humane court appointed defense attorney, and David Warner as Count Odoevsky.", "Minister of Justice.", "Bates received his only Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in this role.", "Renata Adler of the New York Times observed “the direction, by John Frankenheimer, is powerful and discreet.", "It averts its eyes at the easy, ugly consummations of violence...and gives you credit for imagining the result.” This, despite Frankenheimer's admission that “there is a very violent scene in ''The Fixer''”:Whereas Frankenheimer was deeply gratified with his cinematic handling of Malamud's Pulitzer Prize winning work, declaring “I feel better about ''The Fixer'' than anything I’ve ever done in my life”, a number of movie critics registered severe critiques.", "Film critic Roger Ebert wrote:Ebert adds “What were needed were fewer self-conscious humanistic speeches... Frankenheimer should have shown us his hero's suffering, and the Kafkaesque legal tortures of the state, without commenting on them.”Film critic Renata Adler singles out screenwriter and blacklist victim Dalton Trumbo for disparagement: Adler concludes “it is not enough to put Bok-Bates in a few cliché predicaments...the dialogue becomes demeaning and vulgar when drawn out with hack-plot fiction approximations of eloquence.” Biographer Charles Higham dismisses the film, writing that “since the commercial failure of ''Seconds'' (1966), Frankenheimer's films have been mediocre, ranging from ''The Fixer'' (1968) to ''The Horsemen'' (1971).”Frankenheimer became a close friend of Senator Robert F. Kennedy during the making of ''The Manchurian Candidate'' in 1962.In 1968, Kennedy asked Frankenheimer to make some commercials for use in the presidential campaign, at which he hoped to become the Democratic candidate.", "On the night he was assassinated in June 1968, it was Frankenheimer who had driven Kennedy from Los Angeles Airport to the Ambassador Hotel for his acceptance speech.", "''The Gypsy Moths'' was a romantic drama about a troupe of barnstorming skydivers and their impact on a small midwestern town.", "The celebration of Americana starred Frankenheimer regular Lancaster, reuniting him with ''From Here to Eternity'' co-star Deborah Kerr, and it also featured Gene Hackman.", "The film failed to find an audience, but Frankenheimer claimed it was one of his favorites.===1970s===Frankenheimer followed this with ''I Walk the Line'' in 1970.The film, starring Gregory Peck and Tuesday Weld, about a Tennessee sheriff who falls in love with a moonshiner's daughter, was set to songs by Johnny Cash.", "Frankenheimer's next project took him to Afghanistan.", "''The Horseman'' focused on the relationship between a father and son, played by Jack Palance and Omar Sharif.", "Sharif's character, an expert horseman, played the Afghan national sport of buzkashi.", "''Impossible Object'', also known as ''Story of a Love Story'', suffered distribution difficulties and was not widely released.", "Next came a four-hour film of O'Neill's ''The Iceman Cometh'', in 1973, starring Lee Marvin, and the decidedly offbeat ''99 and 44/100% Dead'', a crime black comedy starring Richard Harris.With his fluent French and knowledge of French culture, Frankenheimer was asked to direct ''French Connection II'', set entirely in Marseille.", "With Hackman reprising his role as New York cop Popeye Doyle, the film was a success and got Frankenheimer his next job.", "''Black Sunday'', based on author Thomas Harris's only non-Hannibal Lecter novel, involves an Israeli Mossad agent (Robert Shaw) chasing a pro-Palestinian terrorist (Marthe Keller) and a PTSD-afflicted Vietnam vet (Bruce Dern), who plan a spectacular mass-murder involving the Goodyear Blimp which flies over the Super Bowl.", "It was shot on location at the actual Super Bowl X in January 1976 in Miami, with the use of a real Goodyear Blimp.", "The film tested very highly, and Paramount and Frankenheimer had high expectations for it, but it was not a hit (with Paramount blaming the failure on the special effects work in the climax, and Universal Studios releasing the similarly themed thriller ''Two-Minute Warning'' only six months prior).In 1977, Carter DeHaven hired Frankenheimer to direct William Sackheim and Michael Kozoll's screenplay for ''First Blood''.", "After considering Michael Douglas, Powers Boothe, and Nick Nolte for the role of John Rambo Frankenheimer cast Brad Davis.", "He also cast George C. Scott as Colonel Trautman.", "However, the production was abandoned after Orion Pictures acquired its distributor Filmways, and Sackheim and Kozoll's script would be rewritten by Sylvester Stallone as the basis for Ted Kotcheff's 1982 film.Frankenheimer is quoted in Champlin's biography as saying that his alcohol problem caused him to do work that was below his own standards on ''Prophecy'' (1979), an ecological monster movie about a mutant grizzly bear terrorizing a forest in Maine.===1980s===In 1981, Frankenheimer travelled to Japan to shoot the cult martial-arts action film ''The Challenge'', with Scott Glenn and Japanese actor Toshiro Mifune.", "He told Champlin that his drinking became so severe while shooting in Japan that he actually drank on set, which he had never done before, and as a result he entered rehab on returning to America.", "The film was released in 1982, along with his HBO television adaptation of the acclaimed play ''The Rainmaker''.In 1985, Frankenheimer directed an adaptation of the Robert Ludlum bestseller ''The Holcroft Covenant'', starring Michael Caine.", "That was followed the next year with another adaptation, ''52 Pick-Up'', from the novel by Elmore Leonard.", "''Dead Bang'' (1989) followed Don Johnson as he infiltrated a group of white supremacists.", "In 1990, he returned to the Cold War political thriller genre with ''The Fourth War'' with Roy Scheider (with whom Frankenheimer had worked previously on ''52 Pick-Up'') as a loose cannon Army colonel drawn into a dangerous personal war with a Soviet officer.", "It was not a commercial success.===1990s===Andersonville'' in 1994Most of his 1980s films were less than successful, both critically and financially, but Frankenheimer was able to make a comeback in the 1990s by returning to his roots in television.", "He directed two films for HBO in 1994: ''Against the Wall'' and ''The Burning Season'' that won him several awards and renewed acclaim.", "The director also helmed two films for Turner Network Television, ''Andersonville'' (1996) and ''George Wallace'' (1997), that were highly praised.Frankenheimer's 1996 film ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'', which he took over after the firing of original director Richard Stanley, was the cause of countless stories of production woes and personality clashes and received scathing reviews.", "Frankenheimer was said to be unable to stand Val Kilmer, the young co-star of the film and whose disruption had reportedly led to the removal of Stanley half a week into production.", "When Kilmer's last scene was completed, Frankenheimer reportedly said, \"Now get that bastard off my set.\"", "He also stated, \"There are two things I will never ever do in my whole life: I will never climb Mt.", "Everest and I will never work with Val Kilmer ever again.\"", "The veteran director also professed that \"Will Rogers never met Val Kilmer\".", "In an interview, Frankenheimer refused to discuss the film, saying only that he had a miserable time making it.However, his next film, 1998's ''Ronin'', starring Robert De Niro, was a return to form, featuring Frankenheimer's now trademark elaborate car chases woven into a labyrinthine espionage plot.", "Co-starring an international cast including Jean Reno and Jonathan Pryce, it was a critical and box-office success.", "As the 1990s drew to a close, he even had a rare acting role, appearing in a cameo as a U.S. general in ''The General's Daughter'' (1999).", "He earlier had an uncredited cameo as a TV director in his 1977 film ''Black Sunday''.===Last years and death===Frankenheimer's last theatrical film, 2000's ''Reindeer Games'', starring Ben Affleck, underperformed.", "In 2001, he worked on the BMW action short-film ''Ambush'' for the promotional series ''The Hire'', starring Clive Owen.", "Frankenheimer's final film, ''Path to War'' (2002) for HBO was nominated for numerous awards.", "A look back at the Vietnam War, it starred Michael Gambon as President Lyndon Johnson along with Alec Baldwin and Donald Sutherland.Frankenheimer was scheduled to direct ''Exorcist: The Beginning'', but it was announced before filming started that he was withdrawing, citing health concerns.", "Paul Schrader replaced him.", "About a month later he died suddenly in Los Angeles, California, from a stroke due to complications following spinal surgery at the age of 72." ], [ "Politics", "Frankenheimer was born into a politically conservative family and attended a Catholic military academy.", "He served as a junior officer in the US Air Force during the Korean War.", "In his youth, he briefly considered entering the priesthood.", "He came of age during the height of the Red Scare and the Anti-Communist House Un-American Activities Committee investigations during the early 1950s, a period that saw the blacklisting of left-wing filmmakers and screenwriters by the Hollywood studios.", "Frankenheimer's early liberal political sensibilities first manifested themselves in disputes with his conservative father, a stockbroker: Frankenheimer's “liberal sensibility” emerged professionally when he began his apprenticeship in the early TV industry: Film critic David Walsh notes that “any medium which emerged as the profit-driven property of large American corporations and under the close scrutiny of the US authorities in the midst of the Cold War, with its anticommunism, conformism and generally stagnant intellectual climate, would inevitably be deformed by those processes...Frankenheimer worked and apparently thrived within this overall artistic and ideological framework.” ===Political relationships with the Kennedys===In a 1998 interview with film critic Alex Simon, Frankenheimer recalled that his first contact with Kennedy family politics occurred during the 1960 presidential campaigns: In light of Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, Frankenheimer lamented, \"Then he was killed, and I'd always felt guilty about not having done that work for him early on.\"", "During his filming of ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962), Frankenheimer reports that he and producer/screenwriter George Axelrod were anxious that the Kennedy administration might object to the plot, which graphically depicts an assassination attempt on a liberal presidential candidate by a right-wing conspiracy.", "When cast member Frank Sinatra, a personal friend of Kennedy, was sent to sound out his reaction to the film, Kennedy (who had read the Richard Condon novel) responded enthusiastically: \"I love The Manchurian Candidate.", "Who's going to play the mother?", "\"When Frankenheimer began pre-production on his political thriller ''Seven Days in May'' (1964) in the summer of 1963, he approached Kennedy's press secretary, Pierre Salinger, to arrange to film a segment on location in vicinity of the White House.", "The story concerns a political coup organized by a fascistic Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (played by Burt Lancaster) to depose the liberal president (played by Fredric March) and install a military dictatorship.", "Kennedy approved the picture and accommodated Frankenheimer by withdrawing to his home in Hyannisport for the weekend during the White House shoot.", "As to whether Frankenheimer ever met Kennedy, the director offered contradictory versions.", "To biographer Gerald Pratley in 1968, Frankenheimer said, \"I never had the pleasure of meeting JFK personally\" but noted that Kennedy had fully supported the production of ''Seven Days in May''.", "In 1998, during an interview with film critic Alex Simon, Frankenheimer recalled that Kennedy purportedly said to Salinger, \"if it's John Frankenheimer directing ''Seven Days in May'' I want to meet him.\"", "Frankenheimer adds, “So I met him, went to a press conference with him.", "He was wonderful to me.”Frankenheimer regarded Kennedy's assassination as a profound calamity for America: “I think we lost our innocence as a country with John F. Kennedy's death.” Film critics Joanne Laurier and David Walsh observe that “The Kennedy assassination marked a historical turning point.", "One of its aims, in which it ultimately succeeded, was to shift US government policies to the right and intimidate political opposition.” Frankenheimer's most significant bond with the Kennedys was his political and personal relationship with Senator Robert F. Kennedy, to whom he quickly committed his services during the 1968 presidential campaign: “When Robert Kennedy declared his candidacy in '68, I immediately called campaign manager Pierre Salinger and said ‘Pierre, I want to be part of this.’\" Frankenheimer reports that he filmed Robert Kennedy's campaign appearances and coached the senator on improving his political persona, providing this support for Kennedy over three months in the spring of 1968.Frankenheimer was devastated by RFK's assassination in June 1968, due in part to his proximity to the event.", "Kennedy spent the height before the California primary in Frankenheimer’s Malibu home.", "He had first been scheduled to accompany Kennedy through the Ambassador Hotel after the candidate's victory speech in the California primaries.", "Early news reports listed Frankenheimer as one of the wounded in Kennedy's entourage.", "Frankenheimer and spouse Evans Evans were waiting at a side entrance of the Ambassador Hotel to pick up Kennedy when he emerged from the press conference and drive him to their home.", "According to Frankenheimer, they witnessed police removing Sirhan Sirhan, later convicted of the shooting, from the premises, then discovered Kennedy had been mortally wounded.", "Traumatized by the event, Frankenheimer withdrew from politics, and after completing ''The Gypsy Moths'' (1969) moved to France to study the culinary arts.", "He recalled in 1998: “Yeah.", "I managed to finish one film, ''The Gypsy Moths'', but I just felt like 'What's the point?", "What does any of this really matter?'", "I mean, when you're a part of something like that and then all of the sudden it's taken away with just one bullet snaps fingers.", "It really makes you take stock in what's important...That's when I went to France, and that's when I went to Le Cordon Bleu, because I just had to do something else with my life, and I really couldn't go near politics for a long time after that.” Walsh comments:" ], [ "Archive", "The moving image collection of John Frankenheimer is held at the Academy Film Archive." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Notes 1957''The Young Stranger''1961''The Young Savages''1962''All Fall Down''Nominated- Palme d'Or''Birdman of Alcatraz''Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film''The Manchurian Candidate''Also producerNominated- Golden Globe Award for Best DirectorNominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film1964''Seven Days in May''Nominated- Golden Globe Award for Best Director''The Train''Replaced Arthur Penn1966''Seconds''Nominated- Palme d'Or''Grand Prix''Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film1968''The Fixer''1969''The Extraordinary Seaman''''The Gypsy Moths''1970''I Walk the Line''1971''The Horsemen''1973''The Iceman Cometh''''Impossible Object''1974''99 and 44/100% Dead''1975''French Connection II''1977''Black Sunday''1979''Prophecy''1982''The Challenge''1985''The Holcroft Covenant''1986''52 Pick-Up''1989''Dead Bang''1990''The Fourth War''1991''Year of the Gun''Nominated- Deauville Critics Award for Best Feature Film1996''The Island of Dr. Moreau''Replaced Richard Stanley1998''Ronin''2000''Reindeer Games''2001''Ambush''Short film=== Television ==='''TV series''' Year Title Notes1954''You Are There''Episode: \"The Plot Against King Solomon\"1954-55''Danger''6 episodes1955-56''Climax!", "''26 episodes1956-60''Playhouse 90'' 27 episodes1958''Studio One in Hollywood'' Episode: \"The Last Summer\"1959''DuPont Show of the Month''Episode: \"The Browning Vision\"''Startime''Episode: \"The Turn of the Screw\"1959-60''NBC Sunday Showcase''2 episodes1960''Buick-Electra Playhouse''3 episodes1992''Tales from the Crypt''Episode: \"Maniac at Large\"'''TV movies''' Year Title Notes1956''The Ninth Day''1960''The Snows of Kilimanjaro''''The Fifth Column'' 1982''The Rainmaker''Nominated- CableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or Miniseries1994''Against the Wall''Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or MovieNominated- CableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or MiniseriesNominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film''The Burning Season''Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or MovieCableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or MiniseriesNominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television MovieNominated- CableACE Award for Best Movie or Miniseries1996''Andersonville''Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or MovieNominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television MovieNominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film1997''George Wallace''Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or MovieCableACE Award for Best MiniseriesCableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or MiniseriesNominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television MovieNominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film2002''Path to War''Nominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or MovieNominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television MovieNominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "'''British Academy Film Awards'''* 1964 ''Train'' nominated for Best Film - Any Source* 1962 ''Manchurian Candidate'' nominated for Best Film - Both Any Source and British'''Cannes Film Festival'''* 1966 ''Seconds'' nominated for Competing Film* 1962 ''All Fall Down'' nominated for Competing Film'''New York Film Critics Circle Award'''* 1968 ''Fixer'' nominated for Best Direction* 1968 ''Fixer'' nominated for Best Film'''Venice Film Festival'''* 1962 ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' nominated for Competing Film* 1962 ''Birdman of Alcatraz'' won for San Giorgio PrizeFrankenheimer is also a member of the Television Hall of Fame, and was inducted in 2002." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Sources", "Abele, Robert.", "2018.", "''The Cost of War: Guillermo del Toro revels in the proficiency and poignancy of John Frankenheimer's intimate WWII epic The Train''.", "Directors Guild of America.", "Winter, 2018.https://www.dga.org/Craft/DGAQ/All-Articles/1801-Winter-2018/Screening-Room-The-Train.asp Retrieved 26 July 2021.", "Adler, Renata.", "1968.", "''Screen: 'The Fixer' Put Through Hollywood Mill: Frankenheimer Directs From Malamud Novel, Alan Bates Plays Lead -- Bogarde in Cast''.", "The New York Times.", "https://www.nytimes.com/1968/12/09/archives/screen-the-fixer-put-through-hollywood-millfrankenheimer-directs.html Retrieved 15 August 2021American Film Institute.", "2021.", "''The Extraordinary Seaman.''", "AFI Catalog of Feature Films.", "American Film Institute (AFI).", "https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/MovieDetails/19644 Retrieved 31 July 2021.Axmaker.", "Sean.", "2010.", "''The Extraordinary Seaman.''", "Turner Movie Classics.", "https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/74365/the-extraordinary-seaman/#articles-reviews?articleId=353373 Retrieved 15 July 2021.", "Balio, Tino.", "''United Artists: The Company That Changed the Film Industry''.", "Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987..Barson, Michael.", "2021.", "''John Frankenheimer: American Director''.", "https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Frankenheimer Retrieved 4 July 2021.", "Baxter, John.", "1970.", "''Science Fiction in the Cinema''.", "Edited by Peter Cowie.", "Paperback Library.", "New York.", "Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 69-14896.", "Bowie, Stephen.", "2006.", "''John Frankenheimer''.", "Senses of Cinema Great Director Issue 41.https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2006/great-directors/frankenheimer/ Retrieved 1 July 2021.", "Buford, Kate.", "''Burt Lancaster: An American Life''.", "New York: Da Capo, 2000..Ebert, Roger.", "1968.T''he Fixer.", "Reviews, December 25, 1968''.", "https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-fixer-1968 Retrieved 15 August 2021.", "Evans, Alun.", "''Brassey's Guide to War Films.''", "Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books Inc., 2000..Baxter, Brian.", "2002.", "''John Frankenheimer: a director of classic 1960s films, he survived depression to enjoy a late creative renaissance.''", "The Guardian, 8 July 2002.https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/jul/08/guardianobituaries.booksobituaries Retrieved 5 July 2021.", "Georgaris, Bill.", "2021.", "''John Frankenheimer''.", "They Shoot Pictures Don't They (TSPDT).", "TSPDT quoting from The Film Encyclopedia (1912).", "https://www.theyshootpictures.com/frankenheimerjohn.htm Retrieved 10 July 2021.", "Gow, Gordon.", "1971.", "''Hollywood in the Fifties.", "The International Film Guide Series''.", "A. S. Barnes & Co. New York Pratley, Gerald.", "1968.", "''The Cinema of John Frankenheimer''.", "The International Film Guide Series.", "A. S. Barnes & Company, New York.", "Laurier, Joanne and Walsh, David.", "2020.", "''Seven Days in May (1964): When American filmmaking envisioned a military coup.''", "The World Socialist Web Site.", "https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2020/06/19/7day-j19.html Retrieved 3 July 2021.", "Palen, Tim.", "2010.", "''The Train: John Frankenheimer's Monumental Tribute to Wartime Railway Resistance.''", "https://cinephiliabeyond.org/train-john-frankenheimers-monumental-tribute-wartime-railway-resistance/ Retrieved 20 July 2021.", "Simon, Alex.", "1998.", "''JOHN FRANKENHEIMER: RENAISSANCE AUTEUR.", "The Hollywood Interview.''", "http://thehollywoodinterview.blogspot.com/2008/02/john-frankenheimer-hollywood-interview.html Retrieved 15 August 2021.", "Stafford, Jeff.", "2005.", "''The Young Savages.''", "Turner Classic Movies.", "https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/17857/the-young-savages/#articles-reviews?articleId=99308 Retrieved 1 July 2021.", "Stafford, Jeff.", "2003.", "''All Fall Down.''", "Turner Classic Movies.", "https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1974/all-fall-down#article Retrieved 1 July 2021Stafford, Jeff.", "2003.", "''Birdman of Alcatraz.''", "Turner Classic Movies.", "https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/68798/birdman-of-alcatraz#articles-reviews?articleId=21846 Retrieved 2 July 2021.", "Safford, Jeff.", "2007.", "''Seven Days in May.''", "Turner Classic Movies.", "https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/16136/seven-days-in-may#articles-reviews?articleId=160820 Retrieved 3 July 2021.", "Silver, Charles.", "2013.", "''John Frankenheimer's The Young Stranger.''", "Museum of Modern Art, Department Film.", "https://www.moma.org/explore/inside_out/2013/04/02/john-frankenheimers-the-young-stranger/ Retrieved 1 July 2021.", "Smith, Richard Harland.", "2010.''Seconds.''", "Turner Classic Movies.", "https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/4210/seconds#articles-reviews?articleId=276958 Retrieved 31 July 2021.", "Toole, Michael T.", "2003.", "''Sir Alan Bates (1934-2003).''", "Turner Classic Movies.", "https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1881/the-fixer/#articles-reviews?articleId=64876 Retrieved 15 August 2021.", "Walsh, David.", "2002.", "''Issues raised by the career of US filmmaker John Frankenheimer.''", "World Socialist Web Site.", "https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2002/07/fran-j19html Retrieved 5 July 2021.", "Walsh, David.", "2004.", "''An honorable effort, but it lacks fire: The Manchurian Candidate,'' directed by Jonathan Demme World Socialist Web Site.", "https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2004/08/manc-a05.html Retrieved 3 July 2021." ], [ "Further reading", "Mitchell, Lisa, Thiede, Karl, and Champlin, Charles (1995).", "''John Frankenheimer: A Conversation with Charles Champlin'' (Riverwood Press); .", "Armstrong, Stephen B.", "(2008).", "''Pictures About Extremes: The Films of John Frankenheimer'' (McFarland); ." ], [ "External links", " * John Frankenheimer ''OpsRoom.org''* John Frankenheimer, ''Senses of Cinema'', Issue 41 \"Great Directors Series\"* * Literature on John Frankenheimer* John Frankenheimer: The Hollywood Interview" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe" ], [ "Introduction", "Admiral of the Fleet '''John Rushworth Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe''', (5 December 1859 – 20 November 1935) was a Royal Navy officer.", "He fought in the Anglo-Egyptian War and the Boxer Rebellion and commanded the Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 during the First World War.", "His handling of the fleet at that battle was controversial.", "Jellicoe made no serious mistakes and the German High Seas Fleet retreated to port, at a time when defeat would have been catastrophic for Britain, but the public was disappointed that the Royal Navy had not won a more dramatic victory given that they outnumbered the enemy.", "Jellicoe later served as First Sea Lord, overseeing the expansion of the Naval Staff at the Admiralty and the introduction of convoys, but was relieved at the end of 1917.He also served as the governor-general of New Zealand in the early 1920s." ], [ "Early life", "Jellicoe was born on 5 December 1859 in Southampton, Hampshire.", "Jellicoe was the son of John Henry Jellicoe, a captain in the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and Lucy Henrietta Jellicoe (née Keele).", "He was educated at Field House School in Rottingdean and aboard the training ship , which he joined as a naval cadet in 1872.He was made a midshipman in the steam frigate in September 1874 before transferring to the ironclad in the Mediterranean Fleet in July 1877.Promoted to sub-lieutenant on 5 December 1878, he joined , flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet, as signal sub-lieutenant in 1880.Promoted to lieutenant on 23 September 1880, he returned to HMS ''Agincourt'' in February 1881 and commanded a rifle company of the Naval Brigade at Ismailia during the Egyptian war of 1882.===Early career ===Jellicoe qualified as a gunnery officer in 1883 and was appointed to the staff of the gunnery school in May 1884.He joined the turret ship as gunnery officer in September 1885 and was awarded the Board of Trade Silver Medal for rescuing the crew of a capsized steamer near Gibraltar in May 1886.He joined the battleship in April 1886 and was put in charge of the experimental department at HMS ''Excellent'' in December 1886 before being appointed an assistant to the Director of Naval Ordnance in September 1889.The battleship sinkingPromoted to commander on 30 June 1891, Jellicoe joined the battleship in the Mediterranean Fleet in March 1892.He transferred to the battleship in 1893 (the flagship of the Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, Vice Admiral Sir George Tryon) and was aboard when it collided with and sank off Tripoli in Lebanon on 22 June 1893.He was then appointed to the new flagship, , in October 1893.Promoted to captain on 1 January 1897, Jellicoe became a member of the Admiralty's Ordnance Committee.", "He served as Captain of the battleship and chief of staff to Vice Admiral Sir Edward Seymour during the Seymour Expedition to relieve the legations at Peking during the Boxer Rebellion in June 1900.He was badly wounded during the Battle of Beicang and told he would die but confounded the attending doctor and chaplain by living.", "He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath and given the German Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd class, with Crossed Swords for services rendered in China.", "''Centurion'' returned to the United Kingdom in August 1901, and was paid off the following month, when Captain Jellicoe and the crew went on leave.", "He became Naval Assistant to Third Naval Lord and Controller of the Navy in February 1902 and was given command of the armoured cruiser on the North America and West Indies Station in August 1903." ], [ "Naval career", "===High command===Jellicoe as captain, in command of , flagship on the China Station (his depiction on a contemporary cigarette card shows he was in the public eye long before becoming an admiral).Admiral, or as the French knew him: ''Amiralissime Jellicoe'', shown as a Captain earlier in his careerAs a protege of Admiral John Fisher, Jellicoe became Director of Naval Ordnance in 1905 and, having been appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order on the occasion of launching of on 10 February 1906, he was also made an Aide-de-Camp to the King on 8 March 1906.Promoted to rear admiral on 8 February 1907, he pushed hard for funds to modernise the navy, supporting the construction of new -type battleships and s. He supported F. C. Dreyer's improvements in gunnery fire-control systems, and favoured the adoption of Dreyer's \"Fire Control Table\", a form of mechanical computer for calculating firing solutions for warships.", "Jellicoe arranged for the output of naval ordnance to be transferred from the War Office to the Admiralty.Jellicoe was appointed second-in-command of the Atlantic Fleet in August 1907, hoisting his flag in the battleship .", "He was appointed Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order on the occasion of the King's Review of the Home Fleet in the Solent on 3 August 1907.He went on to be Third Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy in October 1908 and, having taken part in the funeral of King Edward VII in May 1910, he became Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet in December 1910, hoisting his flag in the battleship .", "He advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on the Coronation of King George V on 19 June 1911 and confirmed in the rank of vice admiral on 18 September 1911.He went on to be Second-in-Command of the Home Fleet, hoisting his flag in the battleship , in December 1911 and, having also been appointed commander of the 2nd Battle Squadron in May 1912, joined the Royal Commission on Fuel and Engines on 1 August 1912.He became Second Sea Lord in December 1912.===First World War===Admiral Jellicoe circa 1915At the start of the First World War, the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, removed Admiral George Callaghan, Commander-in-Chief of the Home Fleet (August 1914).", "Jellicoe was promoted to full admiral on 4 August 1914 and assigned command of the renamed Grand Fleet in Admiral Callaghan's place, though he was appalled by the treatment of his predecessor.", "He was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 8 February 1915.When Fisher (First Sea Lord) and Churchill (First Lord of the Admiralty) both had to leave office (May 1915) after their quarrel over the Dardanelles, Jellicoe wrote to Fisher: \"We owe you a debt of gratitude for having saved the Navy from a continuance in office of Mr Churchill, and I hope that never again will any politician be allowed to usurp the functions that he took upon himself to exercise\".Jellicoe commanded the British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland in May 1916, the largest (and only major) clash of dreadnoughts, albeit an indecisive one.", "His handling of the Grand Fleet during the battle remains controversial, with some historians characterising Jellicoe as too cautious and other historians faulting the battlecruiser commander, Admiral David Beatty, for making various tactical errors.", "Jellicoe certainly made no significant mistakes during the battle: based on limited intelligence, he correctly deployed the Grand Fleet with a turn to port so as to \"cross the T\" of the German High Seas Fleet as it appeared.", "After suffering heavy damage from shells, the German fleet turned 180 degrees and headed away from the battle.", "At the time the British public expressed disappointment that the Royal Navy had not won a victory on the scale of the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar.", "Churchill described Jellicoe later as \"the only man on either side who could lose the war in an afternoon\"—essentially hinting that Jellicoe's decision to prefer caution was strategically correct.", "He was appointed a member of the Order of Merit on 31 May 1916, advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order on 17 June 1916 and awarded the Grand Cross of the French Legion of Honour on 15 September 1916.===First Sea Lord===John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, 1918, by Glyn PhilpotJellicoe was appointed First Sea Lord in November 1916.His term of office saw Britain brought within danger of starvation by German unrestricted U-Boat warfare.At the War Committee (a Cabinet Committee which discussed strategy in 1915–16) in November 1916, the admirals present, including Jellicoe, told Lloyd George that convoys presented too large a target for enemy ships, and that merchant ship masters lacked the discipline to \"keep station\" in a convoy.", "In February 1917, Maurice Hankey wrote a memorandum for Lloyd George calling for the introduction of \"scientifically organised convoys\", almost certainly after being persuaded by Commander Henderson and the Shipping Ministry officials with whom he was in contact.", "After a breakfast meeting (13 February 1917) with Lloyd George, Carson (First Lord of the Admiralty) and Admirals Jellicoe and Duff agreed to \"conduct experiments\".", "However, convoys were not in general use until August 1917, by which time shipping losses to U-boats were already falling from their April peak.Jellicoe continued to take a pessimistic view, advising the War Policy Committee (a Cabinet Committee which discussed strategy in 1917) during planning meetings for the Third Ypres Offensive in June and July that nothing could be done to defeat the U-boats.", "However, removing Jellicoe in July, as Lloyd George wanted, would have been politically impossible given Conservative anger at the return of Churchill (still blamed for the Dardanelles) to office as Minister of Munitions.", "In August and September Lloyd George was preoccupied with Third Ypres and the possible transfer of resources to Italy, whilst the new First Lord of the Admiralty, Sir Eric Campbell Geddes, was reforming the Naval Staff (including creating a post for Wemyss as Deputy First Sea Lord).", "Geddes and Lloyd George met with Balfour and Carson (both former First Lords of the Admiralty) on 26 October to discuss sacking Jellicoe after he had failed to act on \"secret, but absolutely reliable\" information about a German attack on a Norwegian convoy, but again nothing came of this as Lloyd George was soon preoccupied by the Battle of Caporetto and the setting up of the Supreme War Council.", "Geddes wanted to return to his previous job in charge of military transportation in France, and by December it was clear that Lloyd George would have to sack Jellicoe or lose Geddes.Jellicoe was rather abruptly dismissed by Geddes in December 1917.Before he left for leave on Christmas Eve he received a letter from Geddes demanding his resignation.", "Geddes' letter stated that he was still in the building and available to talk, but after consulting Admiral Halsey Jellicoe replied in writing that he would \"do what was best for the service\".", "The move became public knowledge two days later.The Christmas holiday, when Parliament was not sitting, provided a good opportunity to remove Jellicoe with a minimum of fuss.", "Geddes squared matters with the King and with the Grand Fleet commander Admiral Beatty (who had initially written to Jellicoe of his \"dismay\" over his sacking and promised to speak to Geddes, but then did not write to him again for a month) over the holiday.", "The other Sea Lords talked of resigning (although Jellicoe advised them not to do so), especially when Geddes suggested in a meeting (31 December) that Balfour and Carson had specifically recommended Jellicoe's removal at the 26 October meeting; they had not done so, although Balfour's denial was less than emphatic.", "There was no trouble from the generals, who had a low opinion of Jellicoe.", "In the end the Sea Lords remained in place, whilst Carson remained a member of the War Cabinet, resigning in January over Irish Home Rule.Although it was pretended that the decision had been Geddes' alone, he let slip in the Naval Estimates debate (6 March 1918) that he had been conveying \"the decision of the Government\", i.e.", "of Lloyd George, who had never put the matter to the War Cabinet.", "MPs picked up on his slip immediately, and Bonar Law (Conservative Leader) admitted in the same debate that he too had had prior knowledge.As First Sea Lord Jellicoe was awarded the Grand Cordon of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 21 April 1917, the Russian Order of St. George, 3rd Class on 5 June 1917, the Grand Cross of the Italian Military Order of Savoy on 11 August 1917 and the Grand Cordon of the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun on 29 August 1917." ], [ "Later life", "=== After war ===A 1935 portrait of Jellicoe by Reginald Grenville Eves.Bust in Trafalgar Square.Jellicoe was created '''Viscount Jellicoe''' of Scapa Flow on 7 March 1918.At the Supreme War Council at the start of June 1918, amidst concerns that—following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk—the Germans were about to requisition the Russian Black Sea Fleet, Lloyd George proposed Jellicoe as Allied Supreme Naval Commander in the Mediterranean.", "The French were in favour of a combined Allied naval command, but the Italians were not, so nothing came of the suggestion.Lord and Lady Jellicoe, 1924Jellicoe was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 3 April 1919.He became Governor-General of New Zealand in September 1920 and while there also served as Grand Master of New Zealand's Masonic Grand Lodge.", "Following his return to England, he was created '''Earl Jellicoe''' and '''Viscount Brocas''' of Southampton in the County of Southampton on 1 July 1925.He also served as the Commissioner for London Boy Scouts from 1925 to 1928.He was made a Deputy Lieutenant of Hampshire in 1932.He died of pneumonia at his home in Kensington in London on 20 November 1935 and was buried in St Paul's Cathedral." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1919, \"Sleep, beneath the wave!", "a requiem\" with words by Rev.", "Alfred Hall and Music by Albert Ham was \"Dedicated to Admiral Viscount Jellicoe.", "\"The attempt of his official biographer, Admiral Reginald Bacon, to portray him as the conqueror of the U-boats is, in John Grigg's view, absurd, as the main decisions were taken by other men.", "Bacon also claimed that his elevation to a viscountcy on dismissal was a deliberate snub, but in fact Sir John French, the former Commander-in-Chief of the BEF, was only a viscount at the time (both he and Jellicoe became Earls subsequently), whilst Fisher was never more than a Baron.", "Bacon's neutrality may be questionable as he had himself been sacked by Geddes from command of the Dover Patrol, replaced by Roger Keyes, shortly after Jellicoe's removal." ], [ "Family", "Jellicoe married, at Holy Trinity Church, Sloane Street, on 1 July 1902, Florence Gwendoline Cayzer, daughter of the shipping magnate Sir Charles Cayzer.", "His brother, Rev.", "Frederick Jellicoe (1858–1927), conducted the service.", "Lord and Lady Jellicoe had a son and five daughters.", "His son George Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe had a military career during the Second World War, after which he was a parliamentarian and a businessman." ], [ "Honours", "Ribbon bar (incomplete)100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px95px===Peerages===* Viscount Jellicoe, of Scapa in the County of Orkney – 7 March 1918* Earl Jellicoe and Viscount Brocas, of Southampton in the County of Southampton – 1 July 1925===British orders===* Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) – 8 February 1915 (KCB: 19 June 1911; CB: 9 November 1900)* Order of Merit (OM) – 31 May 1916* Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) – 17 June 1916 (KCVO: 3 August 1907; CVO: 13 February 1906)===British decoration===* Sea Gallantry Medal (SGM) – 1886===British medals===* Egypt Medal* China War Medal (1900)* 1914-15 Star* British War Medal* World War I Victory Medal* King George V Coronation Medal* King George V Silver Jubilee Medal===International orders===* : Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd class with crossed swords – ''April 1902''* : Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour – ''15 September 1916''* : Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold – ''21 April 1917'' * : Order of St. George, 3rd Class – ''5 June 1917'' * : Grand Cross of the Military Order of Savoy – ''11 August 1917'' * : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers – ''29 August 1917''===International decorations===* Navy Distinguished Service Medal of the United States – 16 September 1919* Croix de Guerre of France – 21 February 1919* Belgian Croix de Guerre – 21 April 1917* Khedive's Star of Egypt – 1882" ], [ "Arms", "Blue plaque at 25 Draycott Place (Blacklands Terrace), Cadogan Gardens, London, SW3" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * , note the chapters to the right* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Sandy Woodward" ], [ "Introduction", "Admiral '''Sir John Forster''' \"'''Sandy'''\" '''Woodward''', (1 May 1932 – 4 August 2013) was a senior Royal Navy officer who commanded the Task Force of the Falklands War." ], [ "Early life", "Woodward was born on 1 May 1932 at Penzance, Cornwall, to a bank clerk.", "He was educated at Stubbington House School, preparatory school in Stubbington, Hampshire.", "He then continued his education at the Britannia Royal Naval College in Dartmouth, Devon." ], [ "Naval career", "On graduation from the Royal Naval College Dartmouth Woodward joined the Royal Navy in 1946.He became a submariner in 1954, and was promoted to lieutenant that May.", "In 1960 he passed the Royal Navy's rigorous Submarine Command Course known as ''The Perisher'', and received his first command, the T-class submarine HMS ''Tireless''.", "Promoted to lieutenant-commander in May 1962, he then commanded HMS ''Grampus'' before becoming the second in command of the nuclear fleet submarine HMS ''Valiant''.", "In 1967, he was promoted to commander and became the Instructor (known as ''Teacher'') of The Perisher Course.", "He took command of HMS ''Warspite'' in December 1969.He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1972.In 1974, he became Captain of Submarine Training and in 1976 he took command of HMS ''Sheffield''.He became Head of Naval Plans in the Ministry of Defence in 1978.In July 1981, he was promoted to rear admiral and appointed as Flag Officer First Flotilla.===Falklands War===In 1982, he commanded HMS ''Hermes'' aircraft carrier group, Task Group 317.8, in the Falklands War.", "The Commander-in-Chief Fleet Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse, served as the Task Force commander, CTF-317.The task group containing the amphibious ships which launched the invasion TG 317.0 was commanded by Commodore Michael Clapp, with Task Group 317.1 being the landing force itself.He worked out the timetable for the campaign, starting from the end and working to the start.", "Knowing that the Argentine forces had to be defeated before the Southern Hemisphere winter made conditions too bad, he set a latest date by which the land forces had to be ashore, that in turn set a latest date by which control of the air had to be achieved, and so on.Possibly the best known single incident was the sinking of the ARA ''General Belgrano''.", "He knew that ''General Belgrano'', and particularly her Exocet-armed escorts, were a threat to the task force and he ordered that she be sunk.", "Admiral Sir George Zambellas credited \"Woodward's inspirational leadership and tactical acumen ... as a major factor in shaping the success of the British forces in the South Atlantic\".Woodward was knighted for his services in the conflict.", "He wrote a book entitled ''One Hundred Days'', co-authored by Patrick Robinson, describing his Falklands experiences.===Later career===In 1983, Woodward was appointed Flag Officer Submarines and NATO Commander Submarines Eastern Atlantic.", "In 1984, he was promoted to vice admiral, and in 1985 he was Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (Commitments).", "In 1987, he was promoted to admiral.", "That year he also served, as Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command and Flag Aide-de-Camp to the Queen.", "Woodward retired in 1989." ], [ "Later life", "\"Admiral Woodward – Command Responsibilities\" by Elizabeth MasseyThe first edition of Woodward's memoirs was published in 1992.They were well received and were updated in 2003 and 2012 with updated recollections as well as responses to the memoirs and responses made by Commodore Michael Clapp.", "In his later life Woodward wrote various opinion pieces for British newspapers regarding defence matters, particularly the Strategic Defence and Security Review." ], [ "Death", "He died of heart failure in his 82nd year on 4 August 2013 at Bosham, West Sussex.", "A memorial service was held for him at Chichester Cathedral on 14 November 2013, with Admiral Sir George Zambellas representing the Queen." ], [ "Personal life", "Woodward married Charlotte McMurtrie in 1960, the marriage producing a son and a daughter.", "Lady Woodward died in 2022." ], [ "Honours and decorations", "100px100px100px100pxOn 11 October 1982, Woodward was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) 'in recognition of service within the operations in the South Atlantic'.", "In the 1989 Queen's Birthday Honours, he was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE).", "Ribbon Details Year awarded 50px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire 1989 50px Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath 1982 50px South Atlantic Medal (with rosette) 1982 50px Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal 1977" ], [ "Publications", "* * *" ], [ "Footnotes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Friedrich Endersch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Friedrich Endersch''' (25 October 1705 – 28 March 1769) was a German cartographer and mathematician.", "Endersch also held the title of Royal Mathematician to King Augustus III of Poland.", "Endersch' 1755 map of Warmia" ], [ "Life", "Endersch was born in Dörnfeld an der Heide, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, but lived most of his life in Elbing (Elbląg), Royal Prussia in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.In 1755 Endersch completed for Imperial Prince-Bishop Adam Stanisław Grabowski (''Celsissimo ac Reverendissimo S. Rom.", "Imp.", "Principi Domino Adam Stanislao in Grabowo Grabowski Episcopo Warmiensi et Sambiesi, Terrarum Prussiae Praesidis ...'') a map of Warmia titled ''Tabula Geographica Episcopatum Warmiensem in Prussia Exhibens''.", "The map, detailing the towns of Warmia (Ermland), was commissioned for the court of Holy Roman Emperor Francis I.Endersch also made a copper etching that depicted a galiot that had been built in Elbing in 1738 and was named ''D' Stadt Elbing'' (German for \"City of Elbląg\")." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Map of Warmia by Endersch" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Blaylock" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Paul Blaylock''' (born September 20, 1950) is an American fantasy author.", "He is noted for a distinctive, humorous style, as well as being one of the pioneers of the steampunk genre of science fiction.", "Blaylock has cited Jules Verne, H. G. Wells, Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle and Charles Dickens as his inspirations.He was born in Long Beach, California; studied English at California State University, Fullerton, receiving an M.A.", "in 1974; and lives in Orange, California, teaching creative writing at Chapman University.", "He taught at the Orange County School of the arts until 2013.Many of his books are set in Orange County, California, and can more specifically be termed \"fabulism\"that is, fantastic things happen in our present-day world, rather than in high fantasy, where the setting is often some other world.", "His works have also been categorized as magic realism.He and his friends Tim Powers and K. W. Jeter were mentored by Philip K. Dick.", "Along with Powers, Blaylock invented the poet William Ashbless.", "Blaylock and Powers have often collaborated with each other on writing stories, including \"The Better Boy\", \"On Pirates\", and \"The William Ashbless Memorial Cookbook\".Blaylock previously served as director of the Creative Writing Conservatory at the Orange County High School of the Arts until 2013, where Powers has also been Writer in Residence.He has been married to his wife, Viki Blaylock, for more than 40 years.", "They have two sons, John and Danny." ], [ "Awards", "Blaylock's short story \"Thirteen Phantasms\" won the 1997 World Fantasy Award for best Short Fiction.", "\"Paper Dragons\" won the award in 1986.", "''Homunculus'' won the Philip K. Dick award in 1987." ], [ "Bibliography", "===The \"Balumnia\" Trilogy===Whimsical fantasy inspired, according to the author, by ''The Wind in the Willows'' and ''The Hobbit''.", "* ''The Elfin Ship'' (1982)* ''The Disappearing Dwarf'' (1983)* ''The Stone Giant'' (1989)* ''The Man in the Moon'' (2002)The original manuscript, initially rejected, from which ''The Elfin Ship'' was reworked, with commentary and an additional short story.===The \"Narbondo\" Series=======Novels====Sharing the character of villain Ignacio Narbondo; ''The Digging Leviathan'' and its sequel ''Zeuglodon'' are contemporary fantasies set in 1960s California, while the remainder are steampunk novels set in Victorian England.", "* ''The Digging Leviathan'' (1984)* ''Homunculus'' (1986)* ''Lord Kelvin's Machine'' (1992) Expansion of the eponymous 1985 novelette.", "* ''Zeuglodon'' (2012; sequel to ''The Digging Leviathan'')* ''The Aylesford Skull'' (2013; a Langdon St. Ives novel)* ''Beneath London'' (2015; a Langdon St. Ives novel)====Short fiction and novellas====* \"The Ape-Box Affair\" (1978)* \"The Idol's Eye\" (1984)* \"Lord Kelvin's Machine\" (1985) Expanded into a novel in 1992.", "* \"Two Views of a Cave Painting\" (1987)* \"The Hole in Space\" (2002)* ''The Ebb Tide'' (2009; a Langdon St. Ives novella)* ''The Affair of the Chalk Cliffs'' (2011; a Langdon St. Ives novella)* ''The Adventure of the Ring of Stones'' (2014; a Langdon St. Ives novella)* \"The Here-and-Thereians\" (2016)* \"Earthbound Things\" (2016)* ''River's Edge'' (2017; a Langdon St. Ives novella)* ''The Gobblin’ Society'' (2020; a Langdon St. Ives novella) ()====Collections====All short fiction (except for the novelette ''Lord Kelvin's Machine'') and two novels have appeared in two collections by Subterranean Press:* ''The Adventures of Langdon St. Ives'' (2008) Omnibus of ''Homunculus'', ''Lord Kelvin's Machine'', and the stories \"The Ape-Box Affair\", \"The Idol's Eye\", \"Two Views of a Cave Painting\", \"The Hole in Space\".", "* ''The Further Adventures of Langdon St. Ives'' (2016) Omnibus of ''The Ebb Tide'', ''The Affair of the Chalk Cliffs'', ''The Adventure of the Ring of Stones'', and the new stories \"The Here-and Thereians'' and \"Earthbound Things\".===The \"Christian\" Trilogy===Present-day fantasy using Christian elements, such as the Holy Grail and the thirty pieces of silver paid to Judas.", "* ''The Last Coin'' (1988) * ''The Paper Grail'' (1991)* ''All the Bells on Earth'' (1995)===The \"Ghosts\" Trilogy===Present-day Californian ghost stories.", "* ''Night Relics'' (1994)* ''Winter Tides'' (1997)* ''The Rainy Season'' (1999)===Others===* ''The Complete Twelve Hours of the Night'' (1986)Joke pamphlet co-written by Tim Powers and published by Cheap Street Press.", "* ''Land of Dreams'' (1987)* ''The Magic Spectacles'' (1991)Young adult book.", "* ''13 Phantasms'' (2000)Short story collection.", "* ''On Pirates'' (2001)Short story collection with Tim Powers.", "* ''The Devils in the Details'' (2003)Short story collection with Tim Powers.", "* ''In for a Penny'' (2003)Short story collection.", "* ''The Knights of the Cornerstone'' (2008) * ''The Shadow on the Doorstep'' (2009)Short story collection.", "* ''Home Sweet Home'' and ''Postscript to Home Sweet Home'' (2012)Nonfiction essays included in ''A Comprehensive Dual Bibliography of James P. Blaylock & Tim Powers'' .===Critical studies and reviews of Blaylock's work===;''The adventure of the ring of stones''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " James P. Blaylock - Official website* Website and discussion forum about Blaylock's writing** Interview with Blaylock regarding his novel 'The Aylesford Skull' and a reading of his story \"The Pink of Fading Neon\"" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jerry Pournelle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerry Eugene Pournelle''' (; August 7, 1933 – September 8, 2017) was an American scientist in the area of operations research and human factors research, a science fiction writer, essayist, journalist, and one of the first bloggers.", "In the 1960s and early 1970s, he worked in the aerospace industry, but eventually focused on his writing career.", "In an obituary in ''Gizmodo'', he is described as \"a tireless ambassador for the future.", "\"Pournelle's hard science fiction writing received multiple awards.", "In addition to his solo writing, he wrote several novels with collaborators including Larry Niven.", "Pournelle served a term as President of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America.Pournelle's journalism focused primarily on the computer industry, astronomy, and space exploration.", "From the 1970s until the early 1990s, he contributed to the computer magazine ''Byte'', writing from the viewpoint of an intelligent user, with the oft-cited credo, \"We do this stuff so you won't have to.\"", "He created one of the first blogs, entitled \"Chaos Manor\", which included commentary about politics, computer technology, space technology, and science fiction.Pournelle held paleoconservative political views, which were sometimes expressed in his fiction.", "He was one of the founders of the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy, which developed some of the Reagan Administration's space initiatives, including the earliest versions of what would become the Strategic Defense Initiative." ], [ "Early years", "Pournelle was born in Shreveport, Louisiana, the seat of Caddo Parish in northwestern Louisiana, and later lived with his family in Capleville, Tennessee, an unincorporated area near Memphis.", "Percival Pournelle, his father, was a radio advertising executive and general manager of several radio stations.", "Ruth Pournelle, his mother, was a teacher, although during World War II, she worked in a munitions factory.He attended first grade at St. Anne's Elementary School, in Memphis, which had two grades to a classroom.", "Beginning with third grade, he attended Coleville Consolidated Elementary School, in Colevile, which had about 25 pupils per grade and four rooms and four teachers for 8 grades Pournelle attended high school at Christian Brothers College in Memphis, run by the De La Salle Christian Brothers; despite its name, it was a high school at the time.He served in the United States Army during the Korean War.", "In 1953–54, after his military service, Pournelle attended the University of Iowa in Iowa City.", "Subsequently, he studied at the University of Washington, where he received a B.S.", "in psychology on June 11, 1955; an M.S.", "in psychology (experimental statistics) on March 21, 1958; and a Ph.D. in political science in March 1964.His master's thesis is titled \"Behavioural observations of the effects of personality needs and leadership in small discussion groups\", and is dated 1957.Pournelle's Ph.D. dissertation is titled \"The American political continuum; an examination of the validity of the left-right model as an instrument for studying contemporary American political 'isms'\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Pournelle married Roberta Jane Isdell in 1959; the couple had five children.", "His wife, and son, naval officer Phillip, and daughter, archaeologist Jennifer, have also written science fiction in collaboration with their father.In 2008, Pournelle battled a brain tumor, which appeared to respond favorably to radiation treatment.", "An August 28, 2008 report on his weblog claimed he was now cancer-free.", "Pournelle suffered a stroke on December 16, 2014, for which he was hospitalized for a time.", "By June 2015, he was writing again, though impairment from the stroke had slowed his typing.", "Pournelle died in his sleep of heart failure at his home in Studio City, California, on September 8, 2017." ], [ "Faith and worldview", "Pournelle was raised a Unitarian.", "He converted to Roman Catholicism while attending Christian Brothers College.Pournelle was introduced to Malthusian principles upon reading the book ''Road to Survival'' by the ecologist (and ornithologist) William Vogt, who depicted an Earth denuded of species other than humans, all of them headed for squalor.", "Concerned about the Malthusian dangers of human overpopulation, and considering the Catholic Church's position on contraception to be untenable, he left the Catholic Church while an undergraduate at the University of Iowa.", "Pournelle eventually returned to religion, and for a number of years was a high church Anglican, in part because Anglican theology was virtually identical to Catholic theology, with the exception that the Anglicans accepted as moral the use of birth control.Pournelle eventually returned to the Catholic Church, as his other beliefs were consistent with the Catholic communion, although he did not agree with the Church's position on birth control.", "Despite his estrangement from the Catholic Church, he opposed having the government require that Catholic institutions provide access to birth control or abortion.", "He wrote that Sunday attendance at St. Francis de Sales Catholic Church, in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, was part of his family's routine.", "Upon his death, his family arranged a memorial mass at the church, on 16 September 2017." ], [ "Career", "Pournelle was an intellectual protégé of Russell Kirk and Stefan T. Possony.", "Pournelle wrote numerous publications with Possony, including ''The Strategy of Technology'' (1970).", "''The Strategy'' has been used as a textbook at the United States Military Academy (West Point), the United States Air Force Academy (Colorado Springs), the Air War College, and the National War College.In the late 1950s, while conducting operations research at Boeing, he envisioned a weapon consisting of massive tungsten rods dropped from high above the Earth.", "These super-dense, super-fast kinetic energy projectiles delivered enormous destructive force to the target without contaminating the environs with radioactive isotopes, as would occur with a nuclear bomb.", "Pournelle named his superweapon “Project Thor”.", "Others called it \"Rods from God\".", "Pournelle headed the Human Factors Laboratory at the Boeing Company, where his group did pioneering work on astronaut heat tolerance in extreme environments.", "His group also did experimental work that resulted in certification of the passenger oxygen system for the Boeing 707 airplane.", "He later worked as a Systems Analyst in a design and analysis group at Boeing, where he did strategic analysis of proposed new weapons systems.In 1964, Pournelle joined the Aerospace Corporation in San Bernardino, California where he was Editor of ''Project 75'', a major study of all ballistic missile technology for the purpose of making recommendations to the US Air Force on investment in technologies required to build the missile force to be deployed in 1975.After Project 75 was completed Pournelle became manager of several advanced concept studies.At North American Rockwell’s Space Division, Pournelle was associate director of operations research, where he took part in the Apollo program and general operations.He was founding President of the Pepperdine Research Institute.", "In 1989, Pournelle, Max Hunter, and retired Army Lieutenant General Daniel O. Graham made a presentation to then Vice President Dan Quayle promoting development of the DC-X rocket.Pournelle was among those who in 1968 signed a pro-Vietnam War advertisement in ''Galaxy Science Fiction''.", "During the 1970s and 1980s, he also published articles on military tactics and war gaming in the military simulations industry in Avalon Hill's magazine ''The General''.", "That led him into correspondences with some of the early figures in ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and other fantasy role-playing games.Two of his collaborations with Larry Niven reached the top rankings in the New York Times Best Seller List.", "In 1977, ''Lucifer's Hammer'' reached number two.", "''Footfall'' — wherein Robert A. Heinlein was a thinly veiled minor character — reached the number one spot in 1986.Pournelle served as President of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1973.In 1994, Pournelle's friendly relationship with Newt Gingrich led to Gingrich securing a government job for Pournelle's son, Richard.", "At the time, Pournelle and Gingrich were reported to be collaborating on \"a science fiction political thriller.\"", "Pournelle's relationship with Gingrich was long established even then, as Pournelle had written the preface to Gingrich's book, ''Window of Opportunity'' (1985).Years after ''Byte'' shuttered, Pournelle wrote his Chaos Manor column online.", "He reprised it at Byte.com, which he helped launch with journalist Gina Smith, John C. Dvorak, and others.", "However, after a shakeup, he announced that rather than stay at United Business Media, he would follow Smith, Dvorak, and 14 other news journalists to start an independent tech and politics site called anewdomain.net.", "As an active director of that site and others it launched, Pournelle wrote, edited, and worked with young writers and journalists on the craft of writing about science and tech." ], [ "Fiction", "Beginning during his tenure at Boeing Company, Pournelle submitted science fiction short stories to John W. Campbell, the editor of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' (later called ''Analog Science Fiction and Fact''), but Campbell did not accept any of Pournelle's submissions until shortly before Campbell's death in 1971, when he accepted for publication Pournelle's novelette \"Peace with Honor.\"", "From the beginning, Pournelle's work has engaged strong military themes.", "Several books are centered on a fictional mercenary infantry force known as ''Falkenberg's Legion''.", "There are strong parallels between these stories and the ''Childe Cycle'' mercenary stories by Gordon R. Dickson, as well as Heinlein's ''Starship Troopers'', although Pournelle's work takes far fewer technological leaps than either of these.Pournelle was one of the few close friends of H. Beam Piper and was granted by Piper the rights to produce stories set in Piper's Terro-Human Future History.", "This right has been recognized by the Piper estate.", "Pournelle worked for some years on a sequel to ''Space Viking'' but abandoned this in the early 1990s, however John F. Carr and Mike Robertson completed this sequel, entitled ''The Last Space Viking'', and it was published in 2011.In 2013, ''Variety'' reported that motion picture rights to Pournelle's novel ''Janissaries'' had been acquired by the newly formed Goddard Film Group, headed by Gary Goddard.", "The IMDb website reported that the film was in development, and that husband-and-wife writing team, Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens, had written the screenplay.===Pseudonyms and collaborations===Pournelle began fiction writing non-SF work under a pseudonym in 1965.His early SF was published under the name \"Wade Curtis\", in ''Analog'' and other magazines.", "Some works were also published under the name \"J.E.", "Pournelle\".In the mid-1970s, Pournelle began a fruitful collaboration with Larry Niven; he has also collaborated on novels with Roland J.", "Green, Michael F. Flynn, and Steven Barnes, and collaborated as an editor on an anthology series ''The Endless Frontier'' with John F. Carr.In 2010, his daughter Jennifer R. Pournelle (writing as J.R. Pournelle), an archaeology professor, e-published a novel ''Outies'', an authorized sequel to the ''Mote in God's Eye'' series." ], [ "Journalism and tech writing", "===Computing at Chaos Manor===Pournelle wrote the \"Computing at Chaos Manor\" column in ''Byte''.", "Pournelle described his experiences with computer hardware and software, some purchased and some sent by vendors for review, at his home office.", "Because Pournelle was then, according to the magazine, \"virtually ''Bytes'' only writer who was a mere user—he didn't create compilers and computers, he merely used them,\" it began as \"The User's Column\" in July 1980.Subtitled \"Omikron TRS-80 Boards, NEWDOS+, and Sundry Other Matters,\" an Editor's Note accompanied the article:Pournelle stated thatAmong recurring characters were Pournelle's family members, friends, and many computers.", "He introduced to readers \"my friend Ezekiel, who happens to be a Cromemco Z-2 with iCom 8-inch soft-sectored floppy disk drives\"; he also owned a TRS-80 Model I, and the first subject discussed in the column was an add-on that permitted it to use the same data and CP/M applications as the Cromemco.", "The next column appeared in December 1980 with the subtitle \"BASIC, Computer Languages, and Computer Adventures\"; Ezekiel II, a Compupro S-100 CP/M system, debuted in March 1983.Other computers received nicknames, such as Zorro, Pournelle's \"colorful\" Zenith Z-100, and Lucy Van Pelt, a \"fussbudget\" IBM PC; he referred to generic PC compatibles as \"PClones\".", "Pournelle often denounced companies that announced vaporware, sarcastically writing that they would arrive \"Real Soon Now\" (later abbreviated to just \"RSN\"), and those that used software copy protection.", "As part of a redesign in June 1984, the magazine renamed the popular column to \"Computing at Chaos Manor.\"", "and the accompanying letter column became \"Chaos Manor Mail.\"", "A memorable column written for Byte in August 1989 was User column 94, entitled, \"The Great Power Spike,\" which gives a digital necropsy of his electronic equipment after high voltage transmission wires dropped onto the power line for his neighborhood.After the print version of ''Byte'' ended publication in the United States, Pournelle continued publishing the column for the online version and international print editions of ''Byte''.", "In July 2006, Pournelle and ''Byte'' declined to renew their contract and Pournelle moved the column to his own web site, Chaos Manor Reviews.===Other technical writing===Pournelle claimed to be the first author to have written a published book contribution using a word processor on a personal computer, in 1977.In the 1980s, Pournelle was an editor and columnist for ''Survive'', a survivalist magazine.", "He wrote the monthly column \"The Micro Revolution\" for ''Popular Computing'' from April 1984 until the magazine's closure in December 1985.The column focused on the ways microcomputers were reshaping society.In 2011, Pournelle joined journalist Gina Smith, pundit John C. Dvorak, political cartoonist Ted Rall, and several other Byte.com staff reporters to launch an independent tech and political news site, aNewDomain.net Pournelle served as director of aNewDomain until his death.After 1998, Pournelle maintained a website with a daily online journal, \"View from Chaos Manor,\" a blog dating from before the use of that term.", "It is a collection of his \"Views\" and \"Mail\" from a large variety of readers.", "This is a continuation of his 1980s blog-like online journal on GEnie.", "He said he resists using the term \"blog\" because he considered the word ugly, and because he maintained that his \"View\" is primarily a vehicle for writing rather than a collection of links.", "In his book ''Dave Barry in Cyberspace'', humorist Dave Barry has fun with Pournelle's guru column in ''Byte'' magazine." ], [ "Software", "Pournelle, in collaboration with his wife, Roberta (who was an expert on reading education) wrote the commercial education software program called Reading: The Learning Connection." ], [ "Politics", "Pournelle served as campaign research director for the mayoral campaign of 1969 for Los Angeles Mayor Sam Yorty (Democrat), working under campaign director Henry Salvatori.", "The election took place on May 27, 1969.Pournelle was later named Executive Assistant to the Mayor in charge of research in September 1969, but resigned from the position after two weeks.", "After leaving Yorty's office, in 1970 he was a consultant to the Professional Educators of Los Angeles (PELA), a group opposed to the unionization of school teachers in LA.He is sometimes quoted as describing his politics as \"somewhere to the right of Genghis Khan.\"", "Pournelle resisted others classifying him into any particular political group, but acknowledged the approximate accuracy of the term paleoconservatism as applying to him.", "He distinguished his conservativism from the alternative neoconservatism, noting that he had been drummed out of the Conservative movement by \"the egregious Frum\", referring to prominent neoconservative, David Frum.", "Notably, Pournelle opposed the Gulf War and the Iraq War, maintaining that the money would be better spent developing energy technologies for the United States.", "According to a ''Wall Street Journal'' article, \"Pournelle estimates that for what the Iraq war has cost so far, the United States could have paid for a network of nuclear power stations sufficient to achieve energy independence, and bankrupt the Arabs for once and for all.", "\"===Pournelle chart===Pournelle created the Pournelle chart in his doctoral dissertation, a 2-dimensional coordinate system used to distinguish political ideologies.", "It is a cartesian diagram in which the X-axis gauges opinion toward state and centralized government (farthest right being state worship, farthest left being the idea of a state as the \"ultimate evil\"), and the Y-axis measures the belief that all problems in society have rational solutions (top being complete confidence in rational planning, bottom being complete lack of confidence in rational planning).===Strategic Defense Initiative===In a 1997 article, Norman Spinrad wrote that Pournelle had written the SDI portion of Ronald Reagan's State of the Union Address, as part of a plan to use SDI to get more money for space exploration using the larger defense budget.", "Pournelle wrote in response that while the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy \"wrote parts of Reagan's 1983 SDI speech, and provided much of the background for the policy, we certainly did not write the speech… We were not trying to boost space, we were trying to win the Cold War\".", "The Council's first report in 1980 became the transition team policy paper on space for the incoming Reagan administration.", "The third report was quoted in the Reagan \"Star Wars\" speech.===Politics in fiction===James Wheatfield wrote that \"Pournelle delights in setting up complex background situations and plots, leading the reader step by step towards a solution which is the very opposite of ''politically correct'' and… defying a dissenting reader to find where in this logical chain he or she would have acted differently.\"" ], [ "Pournelle's laws", "Pournelle suggested several \"laws\".", "He used the term \"Pournelle's law\" for the expression \"One user, one CPU\".", "He later amended this to \"One user, at least one CPU\" in a column in ''InfoWorld''.", "He also used the term \"Pournelle's law\" for \"Silicon is cheaper than iron.\"", "That is, a computer is cheaper to upgrade than replace.", "A second aspect of this law was Pournelle's prediction that hard disk drives would eventually be replaced by solid-state memory.", "He has also used \"Pournelle's law\" to apply to the importance of checking cable connections when diagnosing computer problems: \"You'll find by and large, the trouble is a cable.\"", "Another Pournelle's Law is \"If you don’t know what you’re doing, deal with those who do\".=== Pournelle's iron law of bureaucracy ===Another \"law\" of his is \"Pournelle's iron law of bureaucracy\":He eventually restated it as:This is related to the iron law of oligarchy and to the Self-licking ice cream cone.", "His blog, \"The View from Chaos Manor\", often references apparent examples of the law.", "Some of Pournelle's standard themes that recur in the stories are: welfare states become self-perpetuating, building a technological society requires a strong defense and the rule of law, and \"those who forget history are condemned to repeat it\"." ], [ "Awards", "Pournelle never won a Hugo Award.", "He said, \"Money will get you through times of no Hugos better than Hugos will get you through times of no money.\"", "The Mote in God's Eye was nominated for a Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1975 and Inferno was nominated for a Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1975.", "Bronze Medal, American Security Council, 1964Inkpot Award, 1979John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer of 1973 Prometheus Hall of Fame Jerry Pournelle / John F. Carr (editors), The Survival of Freedom 1991Prometheus Award for ''Fallen Angels'' 1992Seiun Award for Foreign Novel (in Japanese translation): 1998, ''Fallen Angels''Heinlein Society Award (with frequent co-author Larry Niven) 2005National Space Society Robert A. Heinlein Memorial Award \"for lifetime achievement in promoting the goal of a free, spacefaring civilization.\"" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Scholarly===The SSX concept (The SSX concept became the DCX, the first successful reusable vertical landing rocket craft.", ")===Non-fiction===Stability and National Security (Air Force Directorate of Doctrines, Concepts and Objectives) (1968)The Strategy of Technology with Stephan T. Possony, PhD and Francis X. Kane, PhD (1970)A Step Farther Out: The Velikovsky Affair.", "''Galaxy Science Fiction'', February 1975, pp. 74–84.", "A Step Farther Out (1981)The users guide to small computers (1984)Mutually Assured Survival (1984)Adventures in Microland (1985)Guide to Disc Operating System and Easy Computing (1989)Pournelle's PC Communications Bible: The Ultimate Guide to Productivity With a Modem with Michael Banks (1992)Jerry Pournelle's Guide to DOS and Easy Computing: DOS over Easy (1992)Jerry Pournelle's Windows With an Attitude (1995)PC Hardware: The Definitive Guide (2003) with Bob Thompson1001 Computer Words You Need to Know (2004)===Fiction===''Red Heroin'' (as Wade Curtis) (1969)''Red Dragon'' (as Wade Curtis) (1970)novelisation of the movie ''Escape from the Planet of the Apes'' (1973)''A Spaceship for the King'' (1973) expanded as ''King David's Spaceship'' (1981)''High Justice'' (1974)''Birth of Fire'' (1976)''West of Honor'' (1976) (later integrated into ''Falkenberg's Legion'', and as ''Arrarat'' incorporated into ''The Prince'')''The Mercenary'' (1977)''Exiles to Glory'' (1977)''Janissaries'' (1979)''Men of War'' (1993)''Starswarm'' (1998)''Prince of Mercenaries'' (2002)''Janissaries IV: Mamelukes'' (2020)''Starborn and Godsons (2020)===Collaborations=======With Larry Niven====''The Mote in God's Eye'' (1974) (with Larry Niven)''Inferno'' (1976) (with Larry Niven)''Lucifer's Hammer'' (1977) (with Larry Niven)''Oath of Fealty'' (1981) (with Larry Niven)''Footfall'' (1985) (with Larry Niven)''The Legacy of Heorot'' (1987) (with Larry Niven & Steven Barnes)''Fallen Angels'' (1991) (with Larry Niven & Michael Flynn) (Prometheus Award) .", "Electronic edition free at the Baen Free Library''The Gripping Hand'' (1993) (with Larry Niven) also known as ''The Moat Around Murcheson's Eye'' (UK edition)''Beowulf's Children'' (1995) (with Steven Barnes & Larry Niven) also known as ''The Dragons of Heorot'' (1995) (UK edition)''The Burning City'' (2000) (with Larry Niven)''Burning Tower'' (2005) (sequel to ''The Burning City'', with Larry Niven)''Escape from Hell'' (2009) (with Larry Niven)====With others====''The Houses of the Kzinti'' (with S. M. Stirling and Dean Ing)''The Children's Hour'' (with S. M. Stirling)''The Prince anthology'' (with S. M. Stirling)''Go Tell The Spartans'' (2002) (with S. M. Stirling)''Janissaries II: Clan and Crown'' (1982) (with Roland J.", "Green)''Janissaries III: Storms of Victory'' (1987) (with Roland J.", "Green)''Tran'' (with Roland J.", "Green, single-volume combination of the never completed second and third Janissaries novels)''Higher Education'' (with Charles Sheffield)===Series===HeorotCoDominiumJanissaries series===Other media=== Triangulation – Dr. Pournelle was interviewed by Leo Laporte for 2 episodes of Triangulation (Episodes 90 and 95) in 2013.", "* ''This Week in Tech'' – Dr. Pournelle has appeared a number of times as one of the panelists on the podcast This Week in Tech, including episode 427 on October 13, 2013; episode 463 on June 22, 2014; and with Larry Niven in episode 468 on July 27, 2014.", "* He also appeared in the science documentary film ''Target ...", "Earth?''", "(1980).===Anthology (as editor)===''20 20 Vision'' (1974)''The Endless Frontier'' (anthology series, Vols II-IV edited with John F. Carr), Vols I-IV (1979–92)''Black Holes'' (1981)''The Survival of Freedom'' (1981) with John F. Carr''Nebula Award Stories Sixteen'' (1982) with John F. Carr''The Endless Frontier, Vol.", "II'' (1985) with John F. Carr''Imperial Stars, vol 1, The Stars at War'' (1986)''Imperial Stars, vol 2, Republic and Empire'' (1987)''Imperial Stars, vol 3, The Crash of Empire'' (1989)''Far Frontiers'' (anthology series, Vols I-VII edited with Jim Baen), Vols I-VII (1985–86)''There Will be War'' (anthology series, Vols I-IX edited with John F. Carr), Vols I–X" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " ''Chaos Manor Musings'', a blog by Jerry Pournelle* * * Jerry Pournelle (archived) at 1999 NASFiC website where he was GoH* How Jerry Pournelle got kicked off the ARPANET* Jerry Pournelle Interview at AMCtv.com (archived) * (Part 1 of 2)* (Part 2 of 2)* * Jerry Pournelle at Find a Grave" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Barlaam and Josaphat" ], [ "Introduction", "A Christian depiction of Josaphat, 12th century manuscript'''Barlaam and Josaphat''', also known as '''Bilawhar and Budhasaf''', are Christian saints.", "Their life story was based on the life of the Gautama Buddha, and tells of the conversion of Josaphat to Christianity.", "According to the legend, an Indian king persecuted the Christian Church in his realm.", "After astrologers predicted that his own son would some day become a Christian, the king imprisoned the young prince Josaphat, who nevertheless met the hermit Saint Barlaam and converted to Christianity.", "After much tribulation the young prince's father accepted the Christian faith, turned over his throne to Josaphat, and retired to the desert to become a hermit.", "Josaphat himself later abdicated and went into seclusion with his old teacher Barlaam." ], [ "History", "Depiction of a parable from Barlaam and Josaphat at the Baptistery of Parma, ItalyThe story of '''Barlaam and Josaphat''' or '''Joasaph''' is a Christianized and later version of the story of Siddhartha Gautama, who became the Buddha.", "The tale derives from a second to fourth century Sanskrit Mahayana Buddhist text, via a Manichaean version, then the Arabic ''Kitāb Bilawhar wa-Būd̠āsaf'' (Book of Bilawhar and Budhasaf), current in Baghdad in the eighth century, from where it entered into Middle Eastern Christian circles before appearing in European versions.The first Christianized adaptation was the Georgian epic ''Balavariani'' dating back to the 10th century.", "A Georgian monk, Euthymius of Athos, translated the story into Greek, some time before he died in an accident while visiting Constantinople in 1028.There the Greek adaptation was translated into Latin in 1048 and soon became well known in Western Europe as ''Barlaam and Josaphat''.", "The Greek legend of \"Barlaam and Ioasaph\" is sometimes attributed to the 7th century John of Damascus, but F. C. Conybeare argued it was transcribed by Euthymius in the 11th century.The story of Barlaam and Josaphat was popular in the Middle Ages, appearing in such works as the ''Golden Legend'', and a scene there involving three caskets eventually appeared, via Caxton's English translation of a Latin version, in Shakespeare's \"The Merchant of Venice\".", "The poet Chardri produced an Anglo-Norman version, ''La vie de seint Josaphaz'', in the 13th century.", "The story of Josaphat and Barlaam also occupies a great part of book xv of the Speculum Historiale (Mirror of History) by the 13th century French encyclopedist Vincent of Beauvais.One of the Marco Polo manuscripts notes the remarkable similarity between the tale of \"Sakyamuni Burkham\" (the name that Polo uses for the Buddha) and St. Josaphat, apparently unaware of the origins of the Josaphat story.Two Middle High German versions were produced: one, the \"Laubacher ''Barlaam''\", by Bishop Otto II of Freising and another, ''Barlaam und Josaphat'', a romance in verse, by Rudolf von Ems.", "The latter was described as \"perhaps the flower of religious literary creativity in the German Middle Ages\" by Heinrich Heine.In the 16th century, the story of Josaphat was re-told as a defence of monastic life during the Protestant Reformation and of free will against Protestant doctrines regarding predestination." ], [ "Legend", "Prince Josaphat greets the leper and the crippled.", "Illustration from a 14th-century copy of Vincent de Beauvais' Speculum Historiale.According to the legend, King Abenner in India persecuted the Christian Church in his realm, founded by the Apostle Thomas.", "When astrologers predicted that his own son would some day become a Christian, Abenner had the young prince Josaphat isolated from external contact.", "Despite the imprisonment, Josaphat met the hermit Saint Barlaam and converted to Christianity.", "Josaphat kept his faith even in the face of his father's anger and persuasion.", "Eventually Abenner converted, turned over his throne to Josaphat, and retired to the desert to become a hermit.", "Josaphat himself later abdicated and went into seclusion with his old teacher Barlaam." ], [ "Names", "The name Josaphat is derived from the Sanskrit ''bodhisattva''.", "The Sanskrit word was changed to '''' in Middle Persian texts in the 6th or 7th century, then to '''' or '''' in an 8th-century Arabic document (Arabic initial \"b\" changed to \"y\" by duplication of a dot in handwriting).", "This became '''' in Georgian in the 10th century, and that name was adapted as ''Ioasaph'' () in Greece in the 11th century, and then was assimilated to ''Iosaphat/Josaphat'' in Latin.The name Barlaam derives from the Arabic name ''Bilawhar'' () borrowed through Georgian ( ) into Byzantine Greek ( ).", "The Arabic ''Bilawhar'' has historically been thought to derive from the Sanskrit ''bhagavan'', an epithet of the Buddha, but this derivation is unproven and others have been proposed.", "Almuth Degener suggests derivation from Sanskrit ''purohita'' through a hypothetical Middle Persian intermediate.The name of Josaphat's father, King Abenner, derives from the Greek name ''Abenner'' (), although another Greek version of the legend gives this name as ''Avenir'' ().", "These Greek names were adapted from the Georgian ''Abeneser'' (; later shortened to , ), which was itself derived from the Arabic version of the legend where he is named King ''Junaysar'' ().", "According to I.V.", "Abuladze, during borrowing from Arabic to Georgian, misplaced ''i'jām'' resulted in the misreading of ''Junaysar'' as ''Habeneser'', after which the initial ''H''- was omitted.", "The origin of the Arabic name is unclear." ], [ "Sainthood", "In the Middle Ages the two were identified as Christian saints, although they were never formally canonized.=== Feast days ===Barlaam and Josaphat were included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology with a joint feast day on 27 November, however, they were not included in the Roman Missal.Barlaam and Josaphat were entered into the Greek Orthodox liturgical calendar on 26 August ''Julian'' (8 September ''Gregorian''), and into liturgical calendar of the Slavic tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church, on 19 November ''Julian'' (2 December ''Gregorian'')." ], [ "Texts", "A page from the 1896 edition by Joseph Jacobs at the University of Toronto (Click on image to read the book)There are a large number of different books in various languages, all dealing with the lives of Saints Barlaam and Josaphat in India.", "In this hagiographic tradition, the life and teachings of Josaphat have many parallels with those of the Buddha.", "\"But not till the mid-nineteenth century was it recognised that, in Josaphat, the Buddha had been venerated as a Christian saint for about a thousand years.\"", "This was ascertained through the researches of Edouard de Laboulaye and Felix Liebrecht in 1859-1860.The authorship of the work is disputed.", "The origins of the story may be a Central Asian manuscript written in the Manichaean tradition.", "This book was translated into Georgian and Arabic.===Greek manuscripts===The best-known version in Europe comes from a separate, but not wholly independent, source, written in Greek, and, although anonymous, attributed to a monk named John.", "It was only considerably later that the tradition arose that this was John of Damascus, but most scholars no longer accept this attribution.", "Instead much evidence points to Euthymius of Athos, a Georgian who died in 1028.The modern edition of the Greek text, from the 160 surviving variant manuscripts (2006), with introduction (German, 2009) is published as Volume 6 of the works of John the Damascene by the monks of the Abbey of Scheyern, edited by Robert Volk.", "It was included in the edition due to the traditional ascription, but marked \"spuria\" as the translator is the Georgian monk Euthymius the Hagiorite (ca.", "955–1028) at Mount Athos and not John the Damascene of the monastery of Saint Sabas in the Judaean Desert.", "The 2009 introduction includes an overview.===English manuscripts===Among the manuscripts in English, two of the most important are the British Library MS Egerton 876 (the basis for Ikegami's book) and ''MS Peterhouse 257'' (the basis for Hirsh's book) at the University of Cambridge.The book contains a tale similar to The Three Caskets found in the ''Gesta Romanorum'' and later in Shakespeare's ''The Merchant of Venice''.===Editions=======Arabic====E. Rehatsek – ''The Book of the King's Son and the Ascetic'' – English translation (1888) based on the Halle Arabic manuscript Gimaret – ''Le livre de Bilawhar et Budasaf'' – French translation of Bombay Arabic manuscript====Georgian====David Marshall Lang: ''The Balavariani: A Tale from the Christian East'' California University Press: Los Angeles, 1966.Translation of the long version Georgian work that probably served as a basis for the Greek text.", "Jerusalem MS140David Marshall Lang: ''Wisdom of Balahvar'' – the short Georgian version Jerusalem MS36, 1960* The Balavariani (Georgian and Arabic ბალავარიანი, بلوریانی)====Greek====First page of the Barlam and Josephat manuscript at the Biblioteca Nacional de España, 14th or 15th centuryRobert Volk, Die Schriften des Johannes von Damaskos VI/1: Historia animae utilis de Barlaam et Ioasaph (spuria).", "Patristische Texte und Studien Bd.", "61.Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009.Pp.", "xlii, 596..Robert Volk, Die Schriften des Johannes von Damaskos VI/2: Historia animae utilis de Barlaam et Ioasaph (spuria).", "Text und zehn Appendices.", "Patristische Texte und Studien Bd.", "60.Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006.Pp.", "xiv, 512..Boissonade – older edition of the GreekG.R.", "Woodward and H. Mattingly – older English translation of the Greek Online Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1914* S. Ioannis Damasceni Iacobo Billio Prunæo, S. Michaëlis in eremo Cœnobiarcha interprete.", "Coloniae, In Officina Birckmannica, sumptibus Arnoldi Mylij.", "Anno M. D. XCIII.", "– Modern Latin translation of the Greek.", "* ''Vitæ et res gestæ SS.", "Barlaam eremitæ, et Iosaphat Indiæ regis.''", "S. Io.", "Damasceno avctores, Iac.", "Billio Prunæo interprete.", "Antverpiæ, Sumptibus Viduæ & hæredum Ioannis Belleri.", "1602.– Modern Latin translation of the Greek.", "* S. Ioannis Damasceni Iacobo Billio Prvnæo, S. Michaëlis in eremo Cœnobiarcha, interprete.", "Nune denuò accuratissimè à P. Societate Iesv revisa & correcta.", "Coloniæ Agrippinæ, Apud Iodocvm Kalcoven, M. DC.", "XLIII.", "– Modern Latin translation of the Greek.====Latin====* Codex VIII B10, Naples* ''Reading Medieval Latin with the Legend of Barlaam and Josaphat'', ed.", "by Donka D. Marcus (2018) (an edition of Jacobus de Voragine's shortened, Latin version)====Ethiopic====''Baralâm and Yĕwâsĕf''.", "Budge, E.A.", "Wallis.", "''Baralam and Yewasef : the Ethiopic version of a Christianized recension of the Buddhist legend of the Buddha and the Bodhisattva''.", "Published: London; New York: Kegan Paul; Biggleswade, UK: Distributed by Extenza-Turpin Distribution; New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 2004.====Old French==== Jean Sonet, ''Le roman de Barlaam et Josaphat'' (Namur, 1949–52) after Tours MS949* Leonard Mills, after Vatican MS660* Zotenberg and Meyer, after Gui de Cambrai MS1153====Catalan====* Gerhard Moldenhauer Vida de Barlan MS174====Provençal====* Ferdinand Heuckenkamp, version in langue d'Oc* Jeanroy, Provençal version, after Heuckenkamp* Nelli, Troubadours, after Heuckenkamp* Occitan, BN1049====Italian====* G.B.", "Bottari, edition of various old Italian MS.* Georg Maas, old Italian MS3383====Portuguese====Hilário da Lourinhã.", "''Vida do honorado Infante Josaphate, filho del Rey Avenir, versão de frei Hilário da Lourinhã: e a identificação, por Diogo do Couto (1542–1616), de Josaphate com o Buda''.", "Introduction and notes by Margarida Corrêa de Lacerda.", "Lisboa: Junta de Investigações do Ultramar, 1963.====Serbian==== \"Barlaam and Josaphat\" in the Eastern Orthodox version comes from John of Damascus, copied and translated into Old Church Slavonic by anonymous monk-scribes from the 9th-11th centuries, and in modern Serbian by Ava Justin Popović (\"Lives of the Saints\" for November, pp.", "563–590), an abridged version of which is given in the Ohrid Prologue of Bishop Nikolaj Velimirović.====Croatian====Three Croatian versions exist, all translations from Italian.", "The older Shtokavian untitled version originated in the Republic of Ragusa and was transcribed to a codex from an earlier source in the 17th century, while the younger Chakavian translations, one manuscript and one printed, originated in the beginning of the 18th century.", "The book was published by Petar Maçukat in Venice in 1708 and titled '''''Xivot Svetoga Giosafata obrachien od Barlaama''''' and is currently held in the National and University Library in Zagreb.", "Both manuscripts were published in 1913 by Czech slavist Josef Karásek and Croatian philologist Franjo Fancev and reprinted in 1996.The Chakavian translations had a common source while the older Shtokavian one used an earlier Italian version as well as the ''Golden Legend''.", "Petar Maçukat (translator).", "''Xivot Svetoga Giosafata obrachien od Barlaama s yednim verscem nadostavglien radi xena bitti osudyen''.", "Venice: Published by Domenico Lovisa, 1708.", "Josip Karásek and Franjo Fancev (editors).", "''Dubrovačke legende''.", "Prague: Published for Hohen Unterrichtsministeriums in Wien and the Hlávka family fond by Edvard Leschinger, 1913.", "Branimir Donat (editor).", "''Dubrovačke legende''.", "Zagreb: Published for Zorka Zane by Dora Krupićeva, 1996 (Reprint).", "Vesna Badurina Stipčević (editor).", "''Hrvatska srednjovjekovna proza''.", "Zagreb: Published for Igor Zidić by Matica hrvatska, 2013.", "'''Hungarian'''* Translation from the Golden Legend in the Kazincy-codex between 1526 and 1541.====English====Hirsh, John C. (editor).", "''Barlam and Iosaphat: a Middle English life of Buddha''.", "Edited from MS Peterhouse 257.London; New York: Published for the Early English Text Society by the Oxford University Press, 1986.", "Ikegami, Keiko.", "''Barlaam and Josaphat : a transcription of MS Egerton 876 with notes, glossary, and comparative study of the Middle English and Japanese versions'', New York: AMS Press, 1999.", "John Damascene, ''Barlaam and Ioasaph'' (Loeb Classical Library).", "David M. Lang (introduction), G. R. Woodward (translator), Harold Mattingly (translator)· Publisher: Loeb Classical Library, W. Heinemann; 1967, 1914.", "MacDonald, K.S.", "(editor).", "''The story of Barlaam and Joasaph : Buddhism & Christianity''.", "With philological introduction and notes to the Vernon, Harleian and Bodleian versions, by John Morrison.", "Calcutta: Thacker, Spink, 1895.====Old Norse===='''''Barlaams saga ok Jósafats''''' is an Old Norse (specifically Old Norwegian) rendering of the story of ''Barlaam and Josaphat''.", "This Old Norwegian version is based on a Latin translation from the 12th century; the saga of Guðmundur Arason records that it was translated by King Haakon III Sverresson (died 1204).", "There are several other Old Norse versions of the same story, translated independently from different sources.", "There are two Old Swedish versions, the older of which draws on the ''Golden Legend'', while the younger uses the ''Speculum historiale'' as its main source.", "The early sixteenth-century Icelandic legendary Reykjahólarbók includes a version translated from Low German.", "Magnus Rindal (editor).", "''Barlaams ok Josaphats saga''.", "Oslo: Published for Kjeldeskriftfondet by Norsk historisk kjeldeskrift-insitutt, 1981.", " ====Tibetan====* Rgya Tch'er Rol Pa – ou: Développement des jeux, Philippe Édouard Foucaux (1811–1894) 1847.Lalitavistara====Hebrew====* Avraham ben Shmuel ha-Levi Ibn Hasdai, ''Ben hammelekh vehannazir'' (13th century)* Habermann, Avraham Meir (ed.", "), Avraham ben Hasdai, Ben hammelekh vehannazir, Jerusalem: Mahberot lesifrut – Mossad haRav Kook 1950 (in Hebrew).", "* Abraham ben Shemuel Halevi ibn Hasdai, ''Ben hamelekh vehanazir'', Ed.", "by Ayelet Oettinger, Universitat Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv 2011 (in Hebrew)." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", " Barlaam and Ioasaph E-book in English The Project Gutenberg* Barlaam and Josaphat in Jewish Encyclopedia* Barlaam et Josaphat.", "Augsburg, Günther Zainer, ca.", "1476.From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress* Barlaam and Josaphat narrative in the Arabic, Georgian, Greek, Latin, and French at Medieval Literature Across Languages from the Centre for Medieval Literature" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jaggies" ], [ "Introduction", "This image was scaled up using nearest-neighbor interpolation.", "Thus, the \"jaggies\" on the edges of the symbols became more prominent.", "\"'''Jaggies'''\" is the informal name for artifacts in raster images, most frequently from aliasing, which in turn is often caused by non-linear mixing effects producing high-frequency components, or missing or poor anti-aliasing filtering prior to sampling.Jaggies are stair-like lines that appear where there should be \"smooth\" straight lines or curves.", "For example, when a nominally straight, un-aliased line steps across one pixel either horizontally or vertically, a \"dogleg\" occurs halfway through the line, where it crosses the threshold from one pixel to the other.Jaggies should not be confused with most compression artifacts, which are a different phenomenon." ], [ "Causes", "Jaggies occur due to the \"staircase effect\".", "This is because a line represented in raster mode is approximated by a sequence of pixels.", "Jaggies can occur for a variety of reasons, the most common being that the output device (display monitor or printer) does not have enough resolution to portray a smooth line.", "In addition, jaggies often occur when a bit-mapped image is converted to a different resolution.", "This is one of the advantages that vector graphics have over bitmapped graphics – the output looks the same regardless of the resolution of the output device." ], [ "Solutions", "The effect of jaggies can be reduced somewhat by a graphics technique known as spatial anti-aliasing.", "Anti-aliasing smooths out jagged lines by surrounding the jaggies with transparent pixels to simulate the appearance of fractionally-filled pixels.", "The downside of anti-aliasing is that it reduces contrast – rather than sharp black/white transitions, there are shades of gray – and the resulting image is fuzzy.", "This is an inescapable trade-off: if the resolution is insufficient to display the desired detail, the output will either be jagged or fuzzy, or some combination thereof.In addition, jaggies often occur when a bit mapped image is converted to a different resolution.", "They can occur for variety of reasons, the most common being that the output device (display monitor or printer) does not have enough resolution to portray a smooth line.In real-time computer graphics, especially gaming, anti-aliasing is used to remove jaggies created by the edges of polygons and other lines entirely.", "Some video game developers do not enable anti-aliasing by default for their games because the intended hardware is not powerful enough to run it at smooth frames per second if anti-aliasing is enabled.", "On eighth-generation video game consoles, such as the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, anti-aliasing and frame rate has been heavily improved.", "Jaggies in bitmaps, such as sprites and surface materials, are most often dealt with by separate texture filtering routines, which are far easier to perform than anti-aliasing filtering.", "Texture filtering became ubiquitous on PCs after the introduction of 3Dfx's Voodoo GPU." ], [ "Notable uses of the term", "In the Atari 8-bit game ''Rescue on Fractalus!", "'', developed by Lucasfilm Games and published in 1985, the graphics depicting the cockpit of the player's spacecraft contains two window struts, which are not anti-aliased and are therefore very \"jagged\".", "The developers made fun of this and named the in-game enemies \"Jaggi\", and also initially titled the game ''Behind Jaggi Lines!''.", "The latter idea was scrapped by the marketing department before release." ], [ "See also", "* Posterization" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judicial economy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Judicial economy''' or '''procedural economy''' is the principle that the limited resources of the legal system or a given court should be conserved by the refusal to decide one or more claims raised in a case.", "For example, the plaintiff may claim that the defendant's actions violated three distinct laws.", "Having found for the plaintiff for a violation of the first law, the court then has the discretion to exercise judicial economy and refuse to make a decision on the remaining two claims, on the grounds that the finding of one violation should be sufficient to satisfy the plaintiff." ], [ "Threshold issue in a given case", "In the presence of a threshold issue that will ultimately decide a case, a court may, depending on the degree of prejudice to the litigants rights, elect to hear that issue rather than proceeding with a full-blown trial." ], [ "Class action lawsuits", "Class action lawsuits are another example of judicial economy in action, as they are often tried as a single case, yet involve many cases with similar facts.", "Rather than trying each case individually, which would unduly burden the judicial system, the cases can be consolidated into a class action." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Judicial Economy Law and Legal Definition* Class Action Lawsuits: A Legal Overview for the 115th Congress Congressional Research Service" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jury instructions" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jury instructions''', also known as '''charges''' or '''directions''', are a set of legal guidelines given by a judge to a jury in a court of law.", "They are an important procedural step in a trial by jury, and as such are a cornerstone of criminal process in many common law countries.The purpose of instructions are to inform the jury about the legal principles and standards that they must apply in order to reach a verdict.", "This ensures that criminal trials are fair and lawful.", "They are typically delivered after closing arguments, but sometimes may be delivered mid-trial if necessary.In some cases, the instructions given by a judge to the jury are incorrect, which may (depending on the issue) result in a mistrial." ], [ "Content of jury instructions", "Jury instructions often cover the following issues:Introduction to the trial process: An overview of the trial process, the roles of the judge, jury, attorneys, and witnesses, and the importance of the jury's role in the legal system.Explanation of the burden of proof: a legal concept crucial to the trial system.", "This is especially important where different legal issues have a different standard of proof to be applied.", "(whether due to statute, or because of the civil versus criminal standard)Legal definitions: explanations of relevant legal terms and concepts, such as the elements of a crime or the elements of a civil claim, as well as any specific legal principles that apply to the case.Evidence: Instructions on how the jury should evaluate evidence, including the credibility of witnesses, the admissibility of certain types of evidence, and the weight to be given to each piece of evidence.Jury Deliberations: Guidelines for the jury's deliberation process, including instructions on reaching a unanimous verdict, the role of the foreperson, and procedures to follow in the event of a deadlock.=== Use of templates ===Jury instructions are typically drafted using standardized language and templates, which are formulated from various sources such as jury instruction manuals, legal treatises, and case law.", "However, judges often modify these standard instructions to fit the unique circumstances and legal issues present in each case.", "Attorneys from both sides may also request specific instructions or modifications and may object to proposed instructions, but the final decision on the content and wording of the instructions lies with the judge." ], [ "Issues", "=== Role in appeals ===Jury instructions play a significant role in the appellate process; errors or omissions in the instructions can provide grounds for an appeal.", "Appellate courts may review instructions given to the jury to determine if they were made in a legally permissible manner.", "If the appellate court finds an error in the instructions process, it may, if sufficiently problematic, reverse a decision or order a new trial.=== Comprehending jury instructions ===A significant issue with standard jury instructions is the language comprehension difficulties for the average juror.", "The purpose of jury instructions is to inform jurors of relevant laws and their application in the process of coming to a verdict.", "However, studies have shown that juries consistently run into problems understanding the instructions given to them.", "Poor comprehension is noted across juror demographics, as well as across legal contexts.", "Various linguistic features of legalese or legal English, such as complex sentence structures and technical jargon, have been pinpointed as major factors contributing to low comprehension.Simplifying jury instructions through the use of plain English has been shown to markedly increase juror comprehension.", "In one study of California’s jury instructions in cases involving the death penalty, approximately 200 university students participated in a research experiment.", "Half of the participants heard the original standard instructions written in legal English, and half heard revised instructions in plain English.", "Instructions were read twice to each group, and the participants then answered questions for researchers to gauge their understanding.", "The results showed a notable disparity in comprehension between the two groups.", "The group that received revised instructions demonstrated stronger understanding of relevant points such as key concepts, and the ability to differentiate between legal terms.In another California study, jury instructions were again simplified to make them easier for jurors to understand.", "The courts moved cautiously because, although verdicts are rarely overturned due to jury instructions in civil court, this is not the case in criminal court.", "For example, the old instructions on burden of proof in civil cases read:The new instructions read:Resistance to the movement towards the revision of standard jury instructions exists as well.", "This is due to the concern that moving away from legal English will result in jury instructions becoming imprecise.", "There is also the belief that jurors prefer judges to speak in legal language so that they come across as educated and respectable.=== Jury nullification instructions ===There is also debate, particularly active in the USA, over whether juries that are to judge a criminal case should be informed of the possibility of jury nullification during jury instructions.", "One argument states that if juries have the power of jury nullification, then they should be informed of it and that neglecting to do so is an act of intervention.", "Another argument states that defendants should be judged according to the law, and that jury nullification interferes with this process.", "It is also debated that instructions permitting jury nullification is to be criticized as promoting chaos, as it brings the decision between having a structured set of rules and having less of said rules for a more free set of choices that could also promote the likes of anarchy and tyranny.Studies have indicated that being informed of jury nullification is likely to affect the judgement of juries when they decide on verdicts.", "One study that looked into 144 juries showed that they were less harsh on sympathetic defendants and harsher on unsympathetic defendants when they had been briefed on jury nullification.", "Another study that looked into 45 juries showed that they were likelier to reach a guilty verdict in drunk driving cases and less likely in euthanasia cases, with no reported difference in likelihood in murder cases, with the inclusion of explicit jury nullification details in jury instructions." ], [ "Specific jurisdictional issues", "===United States===Under the American judicial system, juries are often the trier of fact when they serve in a trial.", "In other words, it is their job to sort through disputed accounts presented in evidence.", "The judge decides questions of law, meaning he or she decides how the law applies to a given set of facts.", "Jury instructions are given to the jury by the judge, who usually reads them aloud to the jury.", "The judge issues a judge's charge to inform the jury how to act in deciding a case.", "The jury instructions provide something of a flowchart on what verdict jurors should deliver based on what they determine to be true.", "Put another way, \"If you believe A (set of facts), you must find X (verdict).", "If you believe B (set of facts), you must find Y (verdict).\"", "Jury instructions can also serve an important role in guiding the jury how to consider certain evidence.All 50 states have a model set of instructions, usually called \"pattern jury instructions\", which provide the framework for the charge to the jury; sometimes, only names and circumstances have to be filled in for a particular case.", "Often they are much more complex, although certain elements frequently recur.", "For instance, if a criminal defendant chooses not to testify, the jury will often be instructed not to draw any negative conclusions from that decision.", "Many jurisdictions are now instructing jurors not to communicate about the case through social networking services like Facebook and Twitter.=== United Kingdom ===The judge presents directions to the jury court, after overlapping instructions have been provided by a DVD and a jury manager.=== Australia ===In Australia, as in other common law jurisdictions, jury instructions serve as essential guidelines for jurors in both criminal and civil trials, although trial by jury for civil matters is now rare.", "Each state and territory has its own legislation and rules governing jury instructions; although commonalities exist across the jurisdictions.", "These commonalities are due to harmonious legislation, and a nationally unified common law.To promote consistency and clarity in jury instructions, Australian jurisdictions have developed standard jury directions or \"Bench Books\" that provide judges with templates and guidance on instructing jurors.", "The Bench Books are regularly updated to reflect changes in legislation and case law.", "Examples include the Victorian Criminal Charge Book, the New South Wales Criminal Trial Bench Book, and the Queensland Supreme and District Courts Benchbook." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Federal Jury Instruction Resource Page Collecting model or pattern federal civil and criminal jury instructions for trial courts by jurisdiction (where available) and subject matter.", "* Jury Instructions in Insurance-Coverage and Insurance Bad-Faith Cases* Sample Eighth Circuit Civil Jury Instructions* Criminal Pattern Jury Instructions, 10th Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jurisprudence" ], [ "Introduction", "Philosophers of law ask \"what is law, and what should it be?", "\"'''Jurisprudence''' is the philosophy and theory of law.", "It is concerned primarily with what the law is and what it ought to be.", "That includes questions of how persons and social relations are understood in legal terms, and of the values in and of law.", "Work that is counted as jurisprudence is mostly philosophical, but it includes work that also belongs to other disciplines, such as sociology, history, politics and economics.Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations.", "General jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered.", "Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists.", "Ancient natural law is the idea that there are rational objective limits to the power of legislative rulers.", "The foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain whatever force they have.", "Analytic jurisprudence rejects natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be.", "It espouses the use of a neutral point of view and descriptive language when referring to aspects of legal systems.", "It encompasses such theories of jurisprudence as legal positivism, holds that there is no necessary connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from basic social facts; and \"legal realism\", which argues that the real-world practice of law determines what law is, the law having the force that it does because of what legislators, lawyers, and judges do with it.", "Unlike experimental jurisprudence, which seeks to investigate the content of folk legal concepts using the methods of social science, the traditional method of both natural law and analytic jurisprudence is philosophical analysis.", "Normative jurisprudence is concerned with \"evaluative\" theories of law.", "It deals with what the goal or purpose of law is, or what moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law.", "It not only addresses the question \"What is law?", "\", but also tries to determine what the proper function of law should be, or what sorts of acts should be subject to legal sanctions, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word is derived from the Latin, ''iurisprudentia''.", "''Iuris'' is the genitive form of ''ius'' meaning law, and ''prudentia'' meaning prudence (also: discretion, foresight, forethought, circumspection).", "It refers to the exercise of good judgment, common sense, and caution, especially in the conduct of practical matters.", "The word first appeared in written English in 1628, at a time when the word ''prudence'' meant knowledge of, or skill in, a matter.", "It may have entered English via the French ''jurisprudence'', which appeared earlier." ], [ "History", "Ancient Indian jurisprudence is mentioned in various Dharmaśāstra texts, starting with the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana.", "In Ancient China, the Daoists, Confucians, and Legalists all had competing theories of jurisprudence.Jurisprudence in ancient Rome had its origins with the ''periti''—experts in the ''jus'' ''mos maiorum'' (traditional law), a body of oral laws and customs.", "Praetors established a working body of laws by judging whether or not singular cases were capable of being prosecuted either by the ''edicta'', the annual pronunciation of prosecutable offences, or in extraordinary situations, additions made to the ''edicta''.", "A ''iudex'' (originally a magistrate, later a private individual appointed to judge a specific case) would then prescribe a remedy according to the facts of the case.The sentences of the ''iudex'' were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but—apart from considering what traditional customs applied in each case—soon developed a more equitable interpretation, coherently adapting the law to newer social exigencies.", "The law was then adjusted with evolving ''institutiones'' (legal concepts), while remaining in the traditional mode.", "Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a laical body of ''prudentes''.", "Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience.", "Under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and practice of the law became more academic.", "From the early Roman Empire to the 3rd century, a relevant body of literature was produced by groups of scholars, including the Proculians and Sabinians.", "The scientific nature of the studies was unprecedented in ancient times.", "After the 3rd century, ''juris prudentia'' became a more bureaucratic activity, with few notable authors.", "It was during the Eastern Roman Empire (5th century) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and it is from this cultural movement that Justinian's was born." ], [ "{{Anchor\|Natural law}}Natural law", "In its general sense, natural law theory may be compared to both state-of-nature law and general law understood on the basis of being analogous to the laws of physical science.", "Natural law is often contrasted to positive law which asserts law as the product of human activity and human volition.", "Another approach to natural-law jurisprudence generally asserts that human law must be in response to compelling reasons for action.", "There are two readings of the natural-law jurisprudential stance.", "''The strong natural law thesis'' holds that if a human law fails to be in response to compelling reasons, then it is not properly a \"law\" at all.", "This is captured, imperfectly, in the famous maxim: ''lex iniusta non est lex'' (an unjust law is no law at all).", "''The weak natural law thesis'' holds that if a human law fails to be in response to compelling reasons, then it can still be called a \"law\", but it must be recognised as a defective law.Notions of an objective moral order, external to human legal systems, underlie natural law.", "What is right or wrong can vary according to the interests one is focused on.", "John Finnis, one of the most important of modern natural lawyers, has argued that the maxim \"an unjust law is no law at all\" is a poor guide to the classical Thomist position.===Aristotle===Aristotle, by Francesco HayezAristotle is often said to be the father of natural law.", "Like his philosophical forefathers Socrates and Plato, Aristotle posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (''dikaion physikon'', ''δικαίον φυσικόν'', Latin ''ius naturale'').", "His association with natural law is largely due to how he was interpreted by Thomas Aquinas.", "This was based on Aquinas' conflation of natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' (Book IV of the ''Eudemian Ethics'').", "Aquinas's influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages, though more recent translations render them more literally.Aristotle's theory of justice is bound up in his idea of the golden mean.", "Indeed, his treatment of what he calls \"political justice\" derives from his discussion of \"the just\" as a moral virtue derived as the mean between opposing vices, just like every other virtue he describes.", "His longest discussion of his theory of justice occurs in ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and begins by asking what sort of mean a just act is.", "He argues that the term \"justice\" actually refers to two different but related ideas: general justice and particular justice.", "When a person's actions toward others are completely virtuous in all matters, Aristotle calls them \"just\" in the sense of \"general justice\"; as such, this idea of justice is more or less coextensive with virtue.", "\"Particular\" or \"partial justice\", by contrast, is the part of \"general justice\" or the individual virtue that is concerned with treating others equitably.Aristotle moves from this unqualified discussion of justice to a qualified view of political justice, by which he means something close to the subject of modern jurisprudence.", "Of political justice, Aristotle argues that it is partly derived from nature and partly a matter of convention.", "This can be taken as a statement that is similar to the views of modern natural law theorists.", "But it must also be remembered that Aristotle is describing a view of morality, not a system of law, and therefore his remarks as to nature are about the grounding of the morality enacted as law, not the laws themselves.The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the ''Rhetoric'', where Aristotle notes that, aside from the \"particular\" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a \"common\" law that is according to nature.", "The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle thought that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the \"particular\" law of one's own city was adverse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law.", "Aristotle, moreover, considered certain candidates for a universally valid, natural law to be wrong.", "Aristotle's theoretical paternity of the natural law tradition is consequently disputed.===Thomas Aquinas===Thomas Aquinas was the most influential Western medieval legal scholar.Thomas Aquinas is the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of the Thomistic school of philosophy, for a long time the primary philosophical approach of the Roman Catholic Church.", "The work for which he is best known is the ''Summa Theologiae''.", "One of the thirty-five Doctors of the Church, he is considered by many Catholics to be the Church's greatest theologian.", "Consequently, many institutions of learning have been named after him.Aquinas distinguished four kinds of law: eternal, natural, divine, and human:* Eternal law refers to divine reason, known only to God.", "It is God's plan for the universe.", "Man needs this plan, for without it he would totally lack direction.", "Natural law is the \"participation\" in the eternal law by rational human creatures, and is discovered by reason Divine law is revealed in the scriptures and is God's positive law for mankind* Human law is supported by reason and enacted for the common good.Natural law is based on \"first principles\":''... this is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided.", "All other precepts of the natural law are based on this ...''The desires to live and to procreate are counted by Aquinas among those basic (natural) human values on which all other human values are based.===School of Salamanca===Francisco de Vitoria was perhaps the first to develop a theory of ''ius gentium'' (the rights of peoples), and thus is an important figure in the transition to modernity.", "He extrapolated his ideas of legitimate sovereign power to international affairs, concluding that such affairs ought to be determined by forms respecting of the rights of all and that the common good of the world should take precedence before the good of any single state.", "This meant that relations between states ought to pass from being justified by force to being justified by law and justice.", "Some scholars have upset the standard account of the origins of International law, which emphasises the seminal text ''De iure belli ac pacis'' by Hugo Grotius, and argued for Vitoria and, later, Suárez's importance as forerunners and, potentially, founders of the field.", "Others, such as Koskenniemi, have argued that none of these humanist and scholastic thinkers can be understood to have founded international law in the modern sense, instead placing its origins in the post-1870 period.Francisco Suárez, regarded as among the greatest scholastics after Aquinas, subdivided the concept of ''ius gentium''.", "Working with already well-formed categories, he carefully distinguished ''ius inter gentes'' from ''ius intra gentes''.", "''Ius inter gentes'' (which corresponds to modern international law) was something common to the majority of countries, although, being positive law, not natural law, it was not necessarily universal.", "On the other hand, ''ius intra gentes'', or civil law, is specific to each nation.===Lon Fuller===Writing after World War II, Lon L. Fuller defended a secular and procedural form of natural law.", "He emphasised that the (natural) law must meet certain formal requirements (such as being impartial and publicly knowable).", "To the extent that an institutional system of social control falls short of these requirements, Fuller argued, we are less inclined to recognise it as a system of law, or to give it our respect.", "Thus, the law must have a morality that goes beyond the societal rules under which laws are made.===John Finnis===Sophisticated positivist and natural law theories sometimes resemble each other and may have certain points in common.", "Identifying a particular theorist as a positivist or a natural law theorist sometimes involves matters of emphasis and degree, and the particular influences on the theorist's work.", "The natural law theorists of the distant past, such as Aquinas and John Locke made no distinction between analytic and normative jurisprudence, while modern natural law theorists, such as John Finnis, who claim to be positivists, still argue that law is moral by nature.", "In his book ''Natural Law and Natural Rights'' (1980, 2011), John Finnis provides a restatement of natural law doctrine." ], [ "{{Anchor\|Analytic jurisprudence}}Analytic jurisprudence", "Analytic, or \"clarificatory\", jurisprudence means taking a neutral point of view and using descriptive language when referring to various aspects of legal systems.", "This was a philosophical development that rejected natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be.", "David Hume argued, in ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', that people invariably slip from describing what the world ''is'' to asserting that we therefore ''ought'' to follow a particular course of action.", "But as a matter of pure logic, one cannot conclude that we ''ought'' to do something merely because something ''is'' the case.", "So analysing and clarifying the way the world ''is'' must be treated as a strictly separate question from normative and evaluative questions of what ''ought'' to be done.The most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are: \"What are laws?", "\"; \"What is ''the'' law?", "\"; \"What is the relationship between law and power/sociology?", "\"; and \"What is the relationship between law and morality?\"", "Legal positivism is the dominant theory, although there is a growing number of critics who offer their own interpretations.===Historical school===Historical jurisprudence came to prominence during the debate on the proposed codification of German law.", "In his book ''On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence'', Friedrich Carl von Savigny argued that Germany did not have a legal language that would support codification because the traditions, customs, and beliefs of the German people did not include a belief in a code.", "Historicists believe that law originates with society.===Sociological jurisprudence===An effort to systematically inform jurisprudence from sociological insights developed from the beginning of the twentieth century, as sociology began to establish itself as a distinct social science, especially in the United States and in continental Europe.", "In Germany, Austria and France, the work of the \"free law\" theorists (e.g.", "Ernst Fuchs, Hermann Kantorowicz, Eugen Ehrlich and François Gény) encouraged the use of sociological insights in the development of legal and juristic theory.", "The most internationally influential advocacy for a \"sociological jurisprudence\" occurred in the United States, where, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, Roscoe Pound, for many years the Dean of Harvard Law School, used this term to characterise his legal philosophy.", "In the United States, many later writers followed Pound's lead or developed distinctive approaches to sociological jurisprudence.", "In Australia, Julius Stone strongly defended and developed Pound's ideas.", "In the 1930s, a significant split between the sociological jurists and the American legal realists emerged.", "In the second half of the twentieth century, sociological jurisprudence as a distinct movement declined as jurisprudence came more strongly under the influence of analytical legal philosophy; but with increasing criticism of dominant orientations of legal philosophy in English-speaking countries in the present century, it has attracted renewed interest.", "Increasingly, its contemporary focus is on providing theoretical resources for jurists to aid their understanding of new types of regulation (for example, the diverse kinds of developing transnational law) and the increasingly important interrelations of law and culture, especially in multicultural Western societies.===Legal positivism===Legal positivism is the view that the content of law is dependent on social facts and that a legal system's existence is not constrained by morality.", "Within legal positivism, theorists agree that law's content is a product of social facts, but theorists disagree whether law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values.", "Legal positivists who argue against the incorporation of moral values to explain law's validity are labeled exclusive (or hard) legal positivists.", "Joseph Raz's legal positivism is an example of exclusive legal positivism.", "Legal positivists who argue that law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values are labeled inclusive (or soft) legal positivists.", "The legal positivist theories of H. L. A. Hart and Jules Coleman are examples of inclusive legal positivism.====Thomas Hobbes====Hobbes was a social contractarian and believed that the law had peoples' tacit consent.", "He believed that society was formed from a state of nature to protect people from the state of war that would exist otherwise.", "In ''Leviathan'', Hobbes argues that without an ordered society life would be \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.\"", "It is commonly said that Hobbes's views on human nature were influenced by his times.", "The English Civil War and the Cromwellian dictatorship had taken place; and, in reacting to that, Hobbes felt that absolute authority vested in a monarch, whose subjects obeyed the law, was the basis of a civilized society.====Bentham and Austin====Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the twentieth century.John Austin and Jeremy Bentham were early legal positivists who sought to provide a descriptive account of law that describes the law as it is.", "Austin explained the descriptive focus for legal positivism by saying, \"The existence of law is one thing; its merit and demerit another.", "Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry.\"", "For Austin and Bentham, a society is governed by a sovereign who has de facto authority.", "Through the sovereign's authority come laws, which for Austin and Bentham are commands backed by sanctions for non-compliance.", "Along with Hume, Bentham was an early and staunch supporter of the utilitarian concept, and was an avid prison reformer, advocate for democracy, and firm atheist.", "Bentham's views about law and jurisprudence were popularized by his student John Austin.", "Austin was the first chair of law at the new University of London, from 1829.Austin's utilitarian answer to \"what is law?\"", "was that law is \"commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience\".", "H. L. A. Hart criticized Austin and Bentham's early legal positivism because the command theory failed to account for individual's compliance with the law.====Hans Kelsen====Hans Kelsen is considered one of the preeminent jurists of the 20th century and has been highly influential in Europe and Latin America, although less so in common law countries.", "His Pure Theory of Law describes law as \"binding norms\", while at the same time refusing to evaluate those norms.", "That is, \"legal science\" is to be separated from \"legal politics\".", "Central to the Pure Theory of Law is the notion of a ()—a hypothetical norm, presupposed by the jurist, from which all \"lower\" norms in the hierarchy of a legal system, beginning with constitutional law, are understood to derive their authority or the extent to which they are binding.", "Kelsen contends that the extent to which legal norms are binding, their specifically \"legal\" character, can be understood without tracing it ultimately to some suprahuman source such as God, personified Nature or—of great importance in his time—a personified State or Nation.====H. L. A.", "Hart====In the English-speaking world, the most influential legal positivist of the twentieth century was H. L. A. Hart, professor of jurisprudence at Oxford University.", "Hart argued that the law should be understood as a system of social rules.", "In ''The Concept of Law'', Hart rejected Kelsen's views that sanctions were essential to law and that a normative social phenomenon, like law, cannot be grounded in non-normative social facts.Hart claimed that law is the union primary rules and secondary rules.", "Primary rules require individuals to act or not act in certain ways and create duties for the governed to obey.Secondary rules are rules that confer authority to create new primary rules or modify existing ones.", "Secondary rules are divided into rules of adjudication (how to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (how laws are amended), and the rule of recognition (how laws are identified as valid).", "The validity of a legal system comes from the \"rule of recognition\", which is a customary practice of officials (especially barristers and judges) who identify certain acts and decisions as sources of law.", "In 1981, Neil MacCormick wrote a pivotal book on Hart (second edition published in 2008), which further refined and offered some important criticisms that led MacCormick to develop his own theory (the best example of which is his ''Institutions of Law'', 2007).", "Other important critiques include those of Ronald Dworkin, John Finnis, and Joseph Raz.In recent years, debates on the nature of law have become increasingly fine-grained.", "One important debate is within legal positivism.", "One school is sometimes called \"exclusive legal positivism\" and is associated with the view that the legal validity of a norm can never depend on its moral correctness.", "A second school is labeled \"inclusive legal positivism\", a major proponent of which is Wil Waluchow, and is associated with the view that moral considerations , but do not necessarily, determine the legal validity of a norm.====Joseph Raz====Joseph Raz's theory of legal positivism argues against the incorporation of moral values to explain law's validity.", "In Raz's 1979 book ''The Authority of Law'', he criticised what he called the \"weak social thesis\" to explain law.", "He formulates the weak social thesis as \"(a) Sometimes the identification of some laws turn on moral arguments, but also with, (b) In all legal systems the identification of some law turns on moral argument.\"", "Raz argues that law's authority is identifiable purely through social sources, without reference to moral reasoning.", "This view he calls \"the sources thesis\".", "Raz suggests that any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authority is better left to sociology than to jurisprudence.", "Some philosophers used to contend that positivism was the theory that held that there was \"no necessary connection\" between law and morality; but influential contemporary positivists—including Joseph Raz, John Gardner, and Leslie Green—reject that view.", "Raz claims it is a necessary truth that there are vices that a legal system cannot possibly have (for example, it cannot commit rape or murder).===Legal realism===Oliver Wendell Holmes was a self-styled legal realist.Legal realism is the view that a theory of law should be descriptive and account for the reasons why judges decide cases as they do.", "Legal realism had some affinities with the sociology of law and sociological jurisprudence.", "The essential tenet of legal realism is that all law is made by humans and thus should account for reasons besides legal rules that led to a legal decision.There are two separate schools of legal realism: American legal realism and Scandinavian legal realism.", "American legal realism grew out of the writings of Oliver Wendell Holmes.", "At the start of Holmes's ''The Common Law'', he claims that \"the life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience\".", "This view was a reaction to legal formalism that was popular the time due to the Christopher Columbus Langdell.", "Holmes's writings on jurisprudence also laid the foundations for the predictive theory of law.", "In his article \"The Path of the Law\", Holmes argues that \"the object of legal study...is prediction, the prediction of the incidence of the public force through the instrumentality of the courts.", "\"For the American legal realists of the early twentieth century, legal realism sought to describe the way judges decide cases.", "For legal realists such as Jerome Frank, judges start with the facts before them and then move to legal principles.", "Before legal realism, theories of jurisprudence turned this method around where judges were thought to begin with legal principles and then look to facts.It has become common today to identify Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., as the main precursor of American Legal Realism (other influences include Roscoe Pound, Karl Llewellyn, and Justice Benjamin Cardozo).", "Karl Llewellyn, another founder of the U.S. legal realism movement, similarly believed that the law is little more than putty in the hands of judges who are able to shape the outcome of cases based on their personal values or policy choices.The Scandinavian school of legal realism argued that law can be explained through the empirical methods used by social scientists.", "Prominent Scandinavian legal realists are Alf Ross, Axel Hägerström, and Karl Olivecrona.", "Scandinavian legal realists also took a naturalist approach to law.Despite its decline in popularity, legal realism continues to influence a wide spectrum of jurisprudential schools today, including critical legal studies, feminist legal theory, critical race theory, sociology of law, and law and economics.", "===Critical legal studies===Critical legal studies are a new theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s.", "The theory can generally be traced to American legal realism and is considered \"the first movement in legal theory and legal scholarship in the United States to have espoused a committed Left political stance and perspective\".", "It holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group.===Legal interpretivism===American legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin's legal theory attacks legal positivists that separate law's content from morality.", "In his book ''Law's Empire'', Dworkin argued that law is an \"interpretive\" concept that requires barristers to find the best-fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their constitutional traditions.", "According to him, law is not entirely based on social facts, but includes the best moral justification for the institutional facts and practices that form a society's legal tradition.", "It follows from Dworkin's view that one cannot know whether a society has a legal system in force, or what any of its laws are, until one knows some truths about the moral justifications of the social and political practices of that society.", "It is consistent with Dworkin's view—in contrast with the views of legal positivists or legal realists—that in a society may know what its laws are, because no-one may know the best moral justification for its practices.Interpretation, according to Dworkin's \"integrity theory of law\", has two dimensions.", "To count as an interpretation, the reading of a text must meet the criterion of \"fit\".", "Of those interpretations that fit, however, Dworkin maintains that the correct interpretation is the one that portrays the practices of the community in their best light, or makes them \"the best that they can be\".", "But many writers have doubted whether there a single best moral justification for the complex practices of any given community, and others have doubted whether, even if there is, it should be counted as part of the law of that community.===Therapeutic jurisprudence===Consequences of the operation of legal rules or legal procedures—or of the behavior of legal actors (such as lawyers and judges)—may be either beneficial (therapeutic) or harmful (anti-therapeutic) to people.", "Therapeutic jurisprudence (\"TJ\") studies law as a social force (or agent) and uses social science methods and data to study the extent to which a legal rule or practice affects the psychological well-being of the people it impacts." ], [ "{{Anchor\|Normative jurisprudence}}Normative jurisprudence", "In addition to the question, \"What is law?", "\", legal philosophy is also concerned with normative, or \"evaluative\" theories of law.", "What is the goal or purpose of law?", "What moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law?", "What is the proper function of law?", "What sorts of acts should be subject to punishment, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted?", "What is justice?", "What rights do we have?", "Is there a duty to obey the law?", "What value has the rule of law?", "Some of the different schools and leading thinkers are discussed below.===Virtue jurisprudence===Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''The School of Athens''Aretaic moral theories, such as contemporary virtue ethics, emphasize the role of character in morality.", "Virtue jurisprudence is the view that the laws should promote the development of virtuous character in citizens.", "Historically, this approach has been mainly associated with Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas.", "Contemporary virtue jurisprudence is inspired by philosophical work on virtue ethics.===Deontology===Deontology is the \"theory of duty or moral obligation\".", "The philosopher Immanuel Kant formulated one influential deontological theory of law.", "He argued that any rule we follow must be able to be universally applied, i.e.", "we must be willing for everyone to follow that rule.", "A contemporary deontological approach can be found in the work of the legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin.===Utilitarianism===Mill believed law should create happiness.Utilitarianism is the view that the laws should be crafted so as to produce the best consequences for the greatest number of people.", "Historically, utilitarian thinking about law has been associated with the philosopher Jeremy Bentham.", "John Stuart Mill was a pupil of Bentham's and was the torch bearer for utilitarian philosophy throughout the late nineteenth century.", "In contemporary legal theory, the utilitarian approach is frequently championed by scholars who work in the law and economics tradition.===John Rawls===John Rawls was an American philosopher; a professor of political philosophy at Harvard University; and author of ''A Theory of Justice'' (1971), ''Political Liberalism'', ''Justice as Fairness: A Restatement'', and ''The Law of Peoples''.", "He is widely considered one of the most important English-language political philosophers of the 20th century.", "His theory of justice uses a method called \"original position\" to ask us which principles of justice we would choose to regulate the basic institutions of our society if we were behind a \"veil of ignorance\".", "Imagine we do not know who we are—our race, sex, wealth, status, class, or any distinguishing feature—so that we would not be biased in our own favour.", "Rawls argued from this \"original position\" that we would choose exactly the same political liberties for everyone, like freedom of speech, the right to vote, and so on.", "Also, we would choose a system where there is only inequality because that produces incentives enough for the economic well-being of all society, especially the poorest.", "This is Rawls's famous \"difference principle\".", "Justice is fairness, in the sense that the fairness of the original position of choice guarantees the fairness of the principles chosen in that position.There are many other normative approaches to the philosophy of law, including critical legal studies and libertarian theories of law." ], [ "See also", "* Analytical jurisprudence* Artificial intelligence and law* Brocard (law)* Cautelary jurisprudence* Comparative law* Constitution* Constitutional law* Constitutionalism* Constitutional economics* Critical legal studies* Critical race theory* Critical rationalism* Defeasible reasoning* Divine law* Feminist jurisprudence * Feminist legal theory* Fiqh* International legal theory* Judicial activism* Justice* Law and economics* Law and literature* Legal formalism* Legal history* Legalism* Legal pluralism* Legal positivism* Legal realism* Legal science* Libertarian theories of law* Living Constitution* Originalism* Natural law* New legal realism* Political jurisprudence* Postmodernist jurisprudence* Publius Juventius Celsus* Philosophy of law* Rule of law* Rule according to higher law* Sociological jurisprudence * Sociology of law* Strict interpretation* Virtue jurisprudence" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Notes ===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * Hartzler, H. Richard (1976).", "''Justice, Legal Systems, and Social Structure''.", "Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press.", "** Hutchinson, Allan C., ed.", "(1989).", "''Critical Legal Studies''.", "Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield.", "* Kempin Jr., Frederick G. (1963).", "''Legal History: Law and Social Change''.", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.", "* Llewellyn, Karl N. (1986).", "''Karl N. Llewellyn on Legal Realism''.", "Birmingham, AL: Legal Classics Library.", "(Contains penetrating classic \"The Bramble Bush\" on nature of law).", "* Murphy, Cornelius F. (1977).", "''Introduction to Law, Legal Process, and Procedure''.", "St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.", "* Rawls, John (1999).", "''A Theory of Justice'', revised ed.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "(Philosophical treatment of justice).", "* Wacks, Raymond (2009).", "''Understanding Jurisprudence: An Introduction to Legal Theory'' Oxford University Press.", "* Washington, Ellis (2002).", "''The Inseparability of Law and Morality: Essays on Law, Race, Politics and Religion'' University Press of America.", "* Washington, Ellis (2013).", "''The Progressive Revolution, 2007–08 Writings-Vol.", "1; 2009 Writings-Vol.", "2, Liberal Fascism through the Ages'' University Press of America.", "* Zinn, Howard (1990).", "''Declarations of Independence: Cross-Examining American Ideology.''", "New York: Harper Collins Publishers.", "* Zippelius, Reinhold (2011).", "''Rechtsphilosophie'', 6th ed.", "Munich: C.H.", "Beck.", "* Zippelius, Reinhold (2012).", "''Das Wesen des Rechts'' (The Concept of Law), an introduction to Legal Theory, 6th ed., Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer.", "* Zippelius, Reinhold (2008).", "''Introduction to German Legal Methods'' (Juristische Methodenlehre), translated from the tenth German Edition by Kirk W. Junker, P. Matthew Roy.", "Durham: Carolina Academic Press.", "* Heinze, Eric, ''The Concept of Injustice'' (Routledge, 2013)* Pillai, P. S. A.", "(2016).", "''Jurisprudence and Legal Theory'', 3rd Edition, Reprinted 2016: Eastern Book Company." ], [ "External links", "* John Witte Jr.: A Brief Biography of Dooyeweerd, based on Hendrik van Eikema Hommes, Inleiding tot de Wijsbegeerte van Herman Dooyeweerd (The Hague, 1982; pp.", "1–4, 132).", "Redeemer University College* LII Law about ...", "Jurisprudence.", "* Lircocervo.it \"L'Ircocervo.", "Rivista elettronica italiana di metodologia giuridica, teoria generale del diritto e dottrina dello stato\"* '' The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: Nine New Opinions'', by Peter Suber (Routledge, 1998.)", "Lon Fuller's classic of jurisprudence brought up to date 50 years later.", "* The Roman Law Library, incl.", "''Responsa prudentium'' by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.", "* Evgeny Pashukanis - General Theory of Law and Marxism.", "* Internet Encyclopedia: Philosophy of Law.", "* The Opticon: Online Repository of Materials covering Spectrum of U.S.", "Jurisprudence.", "* Foundation for Law, Justice and Society * Bibliography on the Philosophy of Law.", "Peace Palace Library* Norwegian Association for Legal Philosophy" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jury trial" ], [ "Introduction", "John Morgan, Buckinghamshire County MuseumA '''jury trial''', or '''trial by jury''', is a legal proceeding in which a jury makes a decision or findings of fact.", "It is distinguished from a bench trial in which a judge or panel of judges makes all decisions.Jury trials are used in a significant share of serious criminal cases in many but not all common law judicial systems.", "The majority of common law jurisdictions in Asia (such as Singapore, India, Pakistan and Malaysia) have abolished jury trials on the grounds that juries are susceptible to bias.", "Juries or lay judges have also been incorporated into the legal systems of many civil law countries for criminal cases.", "Only the United States makes routine use of jury trials in a wide variety of non-criminal cases.", "Other common law legal jurisdictions use jury trials only in a very select class of cases that make up a tiny share of the overall civil docket (like malicious prosecution and false imprisonment suits in England and Wales), but true civil jury trials are almost entirely absent elsewhere in the world.", "Some civil law jurisdictions, however, have arbitration panels where non-legally trained members decide cases in select subject-matter areas relevant to the arbitration panel members' areas of expertise.The use of jury trials, which evolved within common law systems rather than civil law systems, has had a profound impact on the nature of American civil procedure and criminal procedure rules, even if a bench trial is actually contemplated in a particular case.", "In general, the availability of a jury trial if properly demanded has given rise to a system in which fact finding is concentrated in a single trial rather than multiple hearings, and appellate review of trial court decisions is greatly limited.", "Jury trials are of far less importance (or of no importance) in countries that do not have a common law system." ], [ "History", "===Greece===Ancient Athens had a mechanism, called ''dikastaí'', to assure that no one could select jurors for their own trial.", "For normal cases, the courts were made up of ''dikastai'' of up to 500 citizens.", "For capital cases—those that involved death, loss of liberty, exile, loss of civil rights, or seizure of property—the trial was before a jury of 1,001 to 1,501 ''dikastai''.", "In such large juries, they rule by majority.", "Juries were appointed by lot.", "Jurists cast a ceramic disk with an axle in its middle: the axle was either hollow or solid.", "Thus the way they voted was kept secret because the jurists would hold their disk by the axle by thumb and forefinger, thus hiding whether its axle was hollow or solid.", "Since Periclean times, jurists were compensated for their sitting in court, with the amount of one day's wages.The institution of trial by jury was ritually depicted by Aeschylus in ''The Eumenides'', the third and final play of his ''Oresteia'' trilogy.", "In the play, the innovation is brought about by the goddess Athena, who summons twelve citizens to sit as jury.", "The god Apollo takes part in the trial as the advocate for the defendant Orestes and the Furies as prosecutors for the slain Clytemnestra.", "In the event the jury is split six to six, Athena dictates that the verdict should henceforth be for acquittal.===Roman Republic and Empire===From the beginning of the republic and in the majority of civil cases towards the end of the empire, there were tribunals with the characteristics of the jury in the sense that Roman judges were civilian, lay and not professionals.", "Capital trials were held in front of hundreds or thousands of 'juries' in the commitias or centuries, the same as in Athenian trials.", "Roman law provided for the yearly selection of judices, who would be responsible for resolving disputes by acting as jurors, with a praetor performing many of the duties of a judge.", "High government officials and their relatives were barred from acting as judices, due to conflicts of interest.", "Those previously found guilty of serious crimes (felonies) were also barred as were gladiators for hire, who likely were hired to resolve disputes through trial by combat.", "The law was as follows:===Islamic law===In classical Islamic jurisprudence, litigants in court may obtain notarized statements from between three and twelve witnesses.", "When the statements of all witnesses are consistent, the notaries will certify their unanimous testimony in a legal document, which may be used to support the litigant's claim.", "The notaries serve to free the judge from the time-consuming task of hearing the testimony of each eyewitness himself, and their documents serve to legally authenticate each oral testimony.", "The Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence requires two notaries to collect a minimum of twelve eyewitness statements in certain legal cases, including those involving unregistered marriages and land disputes.", "John Makdisi has compared this to English Common Law jury trials under King Henry II, surmising a link between the king’s reforms and the legal system of the Kingdom of Sicily.=== Holy Roman Empire and modern Germany ===A Swabian ordinance of 1562 called for the summons of jurymen (''''), and various methods were in use in Emmendingen, Oppenau, and Oberkirch.", "Hauenstein's charter of 1442 secured the right to be tried in all cases by 24 fellow equals, and in Freiburg the jury was composed of 30 citizens and councilors.", "The modern jury trial was first introduced in the Rhenish provinces in 1798, with a court consisting most commonly of 12 citizens ('''').The system whereby citizens were tried by their peers chosen from the entire community in open court was gradually superseded by a system of professional judges in Germany, in which the process of investigation was more or less confidential and judgements were issued by judges appointed by the state.", "In Constance the jury trial was suppressed by decree of the Habsburg monarchy in 1786.The Frankfurt Constitution of the failed Revolutions of 1848 called for jury trials for \"the more serious crimes and all political offenses\", but was never implemented after the Frankfurt Parliament was dissolved by Württemberg dragoons.", "An 1873 draft on criminal procedure produced by the Prussian Ministry of Justice proposed to abolish the jury and replace it with the mixed system, causing a significant political debate.", "In the Weimar Republic the jury was abolished by the Emminger Reform of 4 January 1924.Between 1948 and 1950 in American-occupied Germany and the Federal Republic of Germany, Bavaria returned to the jury trial as it had existed before the 1933 emergency decrees, but they were again abolished by the 1950 Unification Act ('''') for the Federal Republic.", "In 1979, the United States tried the East German LOT Flight 165 hijacking suspects in the United States Court for Berlin in West Berlin, which declared the defendants had the right to a jury trial under the United States Constitution, and hence were tried by a West German jury.===England and Wales===W.", "S. Gilbert's ''Bab Ballads'' (1920)According to George Macaulay Trevelyan in ''A Shortened History of England'', during the Viking occupation: \"The Scandinavians, when not on the Viking warpath, were a litigious people and loved to get together in the ''thing'' governing assembly to hear legal argument.", "They had no professional lawyers, but many of their farmer-warriors, like Njáll Þorgeirsson, the truth-teller, were learned in folk custom and in its intricate judicial procedure.", "A Danish town in England often had, as its main officers, twelve hereditary 'law men.'", "The Danes introduced the habit of making committees among the free men in court, which perhaps made England favorable ground for the future growth of the jury system out of a Frankish custom later introduced by the Normans.", "\"The English king Æthelred the Unready set up an early legal system through the Wantage Code of Ethelred, one provision of which stated that the twelve leading thegns (minor nobles) of each wapentake (a small district) were required to swear that they would investigate crimes without a bias.", "These juries differed from the modern sort by being self-informing; instead of getting information through a trial, the jurors were required to investigate the case themselves.In the 12th century, Henry II took a major step in developing the jury system.", "Henry II set up a system to resolve land disputes using juries.", "A jury of twelve free men were assigned to arbitrate in these disputes.", "As with the Saxon system, these men were charged with uncovering the facts of the case on their own rather than listening to arguments in court.", "Henry II also introduced what is now known as the \"grand jury\" through his Assize of Clarendon.", "Under the assize, a jury of free men was charged with reporting any crimes that they knew of in their hundred to a \"justice in eyre\", a judge who moved between hundreds on a circuit.", "A criminal accused by this jury was given a trial by ordeal.The Church banned participation of clergy in trial by ordeal in 1215.Without the legitimacy of religion, trial by ordeal collapsed.", "The juries under the assizes began deciding guilt as well as providing accusations.", "The same year, trial by jury became an explicit right in one of the most influential clauses of Magna Carta.", "Article 39 of Magna Carta read:It is translated thus by Lysander Spooner in his ''Essay on the Trial by Jury'':Although it says \"and or by the law of the land\", this in no manner can be interpreted as if it were enough to have a positive law, made by the king, to be able to proceed legally against a citizen.", "The law of the land was the consuetudinary law, based on the customs and consent of John's subjects, and since they did not have Parliament in those times, this meant that neither the king nor the barons could make a law without the consent of the people.According to some sources, in the time of Edward III, \"by the law of the land\" had been substituted \"by due process of law\", which in those times was a trial by twelve peers.In 1215, Magna Carta further secured trial by jury by stating thatDuring the mid-14th century, persons who had sat on the Presenting Jury (i.e., in modern parlance, the grand jury) were forbidden to sit on the trial jury for that crime.", "25 Edward III stat 5., c3 (1353).", "Medieval juries were self-informing, in that individuals were chosen as jurors because they either knew the parties and the facts, or they had the duty to discover them.", "This spared the government the cost of fact-finding.", "Over time, English juries became less self-informing and relied more on the trial itself for information on the case.", "Jurors remained free to investigate cases on their own until the 17th century.", "Magna Carta being forgotten after a succession of benevolent reigns (or, more probably, reigns limited by the jury and the barons, and only under the rule of laws that the juries and barons found acceptable), the kings, through the royal judges, began to extend their control over the jury and the kingdom.", "In David Hume's ''History of England'', he tells something of the powers that the kings had accumulated in the times after Magna Carta, the prerogatives of the crown and the sources of great power with which these monarchs counted:The first paragraph of the Act that abolished the Star Chamber repeats the clause on the right of a citizen to be judged by his peers:In 1670 two Quakers charged with unlawful assembly, William Penn and William Mead, were found not guilty by a jury.", "The judge then fined the jury for contempt of court for returning a verdict contrary to their own findings of fact and removed them to prison until the fine was paid.", "Edward Bushel, a member of the jury, nonetheless refused to pay the fine.Bushel petitioned the Court of Common Pleas for a writ of ''habeas corpus''.", "The ruling in the ''Bushel's Case'' was that a jury could not be punished simply on account of the verdict it returned.Many British colonies, including the United States, adopted the English common law system in which trial by jury is an important part.", "Jury trials in criminal cases were a protected right in the original United States Constitution and the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Amendments of the U.S. Constitution extend the rights to trial by jury to include the right to jury trial for both criminal and civil matters and a grand jury for serious cases." ], [ "Role", "In most common law jurisdictions, the jury is responsible for finding the facts of the case, while the judge determines the law.", "These \"peers of the accused\" are responsible for listening to a dispute, evaluating the evidence presented, deciding on the facts, and making a decision in accordance with the rules of law and their jury instructions.", "Typically, the jury only judges a verdict of guilty or not guilty, but the actual penalty is set by the judge.", "===Various verdicts=======Russia====Following the judicial reform of Alexander II in Russia, unlike in modern jury trials, jurors decided not only whether the defendant was guilty or not guilty, but they had a third choice: \"Guilty, but not to be punished\", since Alexander II believed that justice without morality was wrong.====France====In France and some countries organized in the same fashion, the jury and several professional judges sit together to determine guilt first.", "Then, if guilt is determined, they decide the appropriate penalty.===Bench trials===Some jurisdictions with jury trials allow the defendant to waive their right to a jury trial, thus leading to a bench trial.", "Jury trials tend to occur only when a crime is considered serious.", "In some jurisdictions, such as France and Brazil, jury trials are reserved, and compulsory, for the most severe crimes and are not available for civil cases.", "In Brazil, trials by jury are applied in cases of voluntary crimes against life, such as first and second degree murder, forced abortion and instigation of suicide, even if only attempted.", "In others, jury trials are only available for criminal cases and very specific civil cases (malicious prosecution, civil fraud and false imprisonment).", "====North America====In the United States, jury trials are available in both civil and criminal cases.", "In Canada, an individual charged with an indictable offence may elect to be tried by a judge alone in a provincial court, by judge alone in a superior court, or by judge and jury in a superior court; summary offences cannot be tried by jury.", "In England and Wales, offences are classified as summary, indictable, or either way; jury trials are not available for summary offences (using instead a summary proceeding with a panel of three lay magistrates or a district judge sitting alone), unless they are tried alongside indictable or either way offences that are themselves tried by jury, but the defendant has a right to demand trial by jury for either way offences.", "The situation is similar in Scotland; whereas in Northern Ireland even summary offences carry a right to jury trial, with some exceptions.In the United States, because jury trials tend to be high profile, the general public tends to overestimate the frequency of jury trials.", "Approximately 150,000 jury trials are conducted in state courts annually, and an additional 5,000 jury trials are conducted in federal courts.", "Two-thirds of jury trials are criminal trials, while one-third are civil and \"other\" (e.g., family, municipal ordinance, traffic).", "Nevertheless, the vast majority of criminal cases are settled by plea bargain, which bypasses the jury trial.Some commentators contend that the guilty-plea system unfairly coerces defendants into relinquishing their right to a jury trial.", "Others contend that there never was a golden age of jury trials, but rather that juries in the early nineteenth century (before the rise of plea bargaining) were \"unwitting and reflexive, generally wasteful of public resources and, because of the absence of trained professionals, little more than slow guilty pleas themselves\", and that the guilty-plea system that emerged in the latter half of the nineteenth century was a superior, more cost-effective method of achieving fair outcomes." ], [ "In various countries", "===Argentina===Argentina is one of the first countries in Latin America that has implemented trial by jury.", "Although it has a civil law process, since November 2015, it has a jury system for serious criminal cases.===Australia===Section 80 of the Australian Constitution provides that: \"The trial on indictment of any offence against any law of the Commonwealth shall be by jury, and every such trial shall be held in the State where the offence was committed, and if the offence was not committed within any State the trial shall be held at such place or places as the Parliament prescribes.The first trials by civilian juries of 12 in the colony of New South Wales were held in 1824, following a decision of the NSW Supreme Court on 14 October 1824.The NSW Constitution Act of 1828 effectively terminated trial by jury for criminal matters.", "Jury trials for criminal matters revived with the passing of the Jury Trials Amending Act of 1833 (NSW) (2 William IV No 12).====Challenging potential jurors====The ''voir dire'' system of examining the jury pool before selection is not permitted in Australia as it violates the privacy of jurors.", "Therefore, though it exists, the right to challenge for cause during jury selection cannot be employed much.", "Peremptory challenges are usually based on the hunches of counsel and no reason is needed to use them.", "All Australian states allow for peremptory challenges in jury selection; however, the number of challenges granted to the counsels in each state are not all the same.", "Until 1987 New South Wales had twenty peremptory challenges for each side where the offence was murder, and eight for all other cases.", "In 1987 this was lowered to three peremptory challenges per side, the same amount allowed in South Australia.", "Eight peremptory challenges are allowed for both counsels for all offences in Queensland.", "Victoria, Tasmania and the Northern Territory allow for six.", "Western Australia allows three peremptory challenges per side unless there is more than one accused in which case the prosecution can peremptorily challenge 3 times the number of accused and each accused has 3 peremptory challenges.====Majority and unanimous verdicts in criminal trials====In Australia, majority verdicts are allowed in South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania, the Northern Territory, New South Wales and Queensland, while the ACT requires unanimous verdicts.", "Since 1927 South Australia has permitted majority verdicts of 11-1 (or 10-1 or 9-1 in cases where the jury has been reduced) in criminal trials if a unanimous verdict cannot be reached in four hours.", "These are accepted in all cases except for guilty verdicts if the defendant is on trial for murder or treason.Victoria has accepted majority verdicts with the same conditions since 1994, though deliberations must have gone for at least six hours before a majority verdict can be made.Western Australia accepted majority verdicts in 1957 for all trials except where the crime is murder or has a maximum penalty of life imprisonment: a 10-2 verdict is accepted.", "Majority verdicts of 10-2 have been allowed in Tasmania since 1936 for all cases, except murder and treason, if a unanimous decision has not been made within two hours.", "Since 1943, verdicts of not guilty for murder and treason have also been included, but must be deliberated for six hours.", "The Northern Territory has allowed majority verdicts of 10-2, 10-1 and 9-1 since 1963 for all charges.", "Deliberation must go for at least six hours before delivering a majority verdict.", "The Queensland ''Jury Act 1995'' (s 59F) allows majority verdicts for all crimes except for murder and other offences that carry a life sentence, although only 11-1 or 10-1 majorities are allowed.Majority verdicts were introduced in New South Wales in 2006.In New South Wales, a majority verdict can only be returned if the jury consists of at least 11 jurors, and the deliberation has occurred for at least eight hours or for a period that the court considers reasonable having regard to the nature and complexity of the case.", "Additionally, the court must be satisfied through examination of one or more of the jurors on oath that a unanimous verdict will not be reached if further deliberation were to occur.===Austria===Austria, in common with a number of European civil law jurisdictions, retains elements of trial by jury in serious criminal cases.===Belgium===Belgium, in common with a number of European civil law jurisdictions, retains the trial by jury through the Court of Assize for serious criminal cases and for political crimes and for press delicts (except those based on racism or xenophobia), and for crimes of international law, such as genocide and crime against humanity.===Brazil===Brazil instated jury trial since 1822, surviving seven constitutions.", "It is limited to criminal law, specifically to intentional crimes against life.===Canada===Under Canadian law, a person has the constitutional right to a jury trial for all crimes punishable by five years of imprisonment or more.", "The Criminal Code also provides for the right to a jury trial for most indictable offences, including those punishable by less than five years' imprisonment, though the right is only constitutionally enshrined for those offences punishable by five years' imprisonment or more.", "Generally, it is the accused person who is entitled to elect whether their trial will proceed by judge alone or by judge and jury; however, for the most severe criminal offences—murder, treason, intimidating Parliament, inciting to mutiny, sedition, and piracy—trial by jury is mandatory unless the prosecution consents to trial by judge alone.====Jury panel exhaustion====Criminal Code Section 642(1): If a full jury and alternate jurors cannot be provided, the court may order the sheriff or other proper officer, at the request of the prosecutor, to summon without delay as many people as the court directs for the purpose of providing a full jury and alternate jurors.Section 642(2): Jurors may be summoned under subsection (1) by word of mouth, if necessary.Section 642(3): The names of the people who are summoned under this Section shall be added to the general panel for the purposes of the trial, and the same proceedings with respect to calling, challenging, excusing and directing them shall apply to them.", "According to the case of ''R v Mid-Valley Tractor Sales Limited'' (1995 CarswellNB 313), there are limitations on the powers granted by Section 642.These powers are conferred specifically upon the judge, and the section does not confer a further discretion to delegate that power to others, such as the sheriff's officer, even with the consent of counsel.", "The Court said that to hold otherwise would nullify the rights of the accused and the prosecution to object to a person being excused inappropriately, and may also interfere with the rights of the parties to challenge for cause.", "The selection of an impartial jury is the basis of a fair trial.The Supreme Court of Canada also held in ''Basarabas and Spek v The Queen'' (1982 SCR 730) that the right of an accused to be present in court during the whole of his trial includes the jury selection process.In ''Tran v The Queen'' (1994 2 SCR 951), it was held that an accused only has to show that they were excluded from a part of the trial that affected their vital interests, they do not have to demonstrate actual prejudice, just the potential for prejudice.", "As well, a valid waiver of such a right must be clear, unequivocal and done with full knowledge of the rights that the procedure was enacted to protect, as well as the effect that the waiver will have on those rights.===China=======Hong Kong====Hong Kong, as a former British colony has a common law legal system.", "Article 86 of Hong Kong's Basic Law, which came into force on 1 July 1997 following the handover of Hong Kong from Britain to China provides: \"The principle of trial by jury previously practised in Hong Kong shall be maintained.", "\"Criminal trials in the High Court are by jury.", "The juries are generally made of seven members, who can return a verdict based on a majority of five.There are no jury trials in the District Court, which can impose a sentence of up to seven years' imprisonment.", "This is despite the fact that all court rooms in the District Court have jury boxes.", "The lack of juries in the District Court has been severely criticized.", "Clive Grossman SC in a commentary in 2009 said conviction rates were \"approaching those of North Korea\".Many complex commercial cases are prosecuted in the District Court rather than before a jury in the High Court.", "In 2009, Lily Chiang, former chairwoman of the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce, lost an application to have her case transferred from the District Court to the High Court for a jury trial.", "Justice Wright in the Court of First Instance held that there was no absolute right to a trial by jury and that the \"decision as to whether an indictable offence be tried in the Court of First Instance by a judge and jury or in the District Court by a judge alone is the prerogative of the Secretary for Justice.\"", "Chiang issued a statement at the time saying \"she was disappointed with the judgment because she has been deprived of a jury trial, an opportunity to be judged by her fellow citizens and the constitutional benefit protected by the Basic Law\".In civil cases in the Court of First Instance jury trials are available for defamation, false imprisonment, malicious prosecution or seduction unless the court orders otherwise.", "A jury can return a majority verdict in a civil case.The government can issue a judge-only trial order, for example, in cases which contain \"involvement of foreign elements\", \"personal safety of jurors and their family members\" or \"risk of perverting the course of justice if the trial is conducted with a jury\".===Democratic Republic of the Congo=======Kuba Kingdom====The Kuba Kingdom, in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, developed trial by jury independently prior to the arrival of Europeans in 1884.===France===In France, a defendant is entitled to a jury trial only when prosecuted for a felony (''crime'' in French).", "Crimes encompass all offenses that carry a penalty of at least 10 years' imprisonment (for natural persons) or a fine of €75,000 (for legal persons).", "The only court that tries by jury is the ''cour d'assises,'' in which three professional judges sit together with six or nine jurors (on appeal).", "Conviction requires a two-thirds majority (four or six votes).===Greece===The country that originated the concept of the jury trial retains it in an unusual form.", "The Constitution of Greece and Code of criminal procedure provide that felonies (Greek: Κακουργήματα) are tried by a \"mixed court\" composed of three professional judges, including the President of the Court, and four lay judges who decide the facts, and the appropriate penalty if they convict.", "Certain felonies, such as terrorism, are exempt, due to their nature, from the jurisdiction of the \"mixed courts\" and are tried instead by the Court of Appeals both in first and second instance.===Hungary===Hungary used a jury system from 1897 to 1919.Since 1949, Hungary uses the mixed court system.", "According to the Fundamental Law of Hungary, \"non-professional judges shall also participate in the administration of justice in the cases and ways specified in an Act.\"", "In these cases, the court adjudicates in a panel which is composed of 1 professional judge as chair of the panel and 2 lay judges or 2 professional judges and 3 lay judges.", "Lay judges are elected by city councils and can be Hungarian citizens between the age of 30 and 70 years who have not been convicted.", "Non-professional judges have the same rights and responsibilities as professional judges, meaning that if they vote against the professional judge(s), their vote will decide the verdict.", "According to procedural laws, the youngest judge votes first and the chair of the panel votes last in case they reach a verdict through a vote.===India===The history of jury trials in India dates back to the period of European colonization.", "In 1665, a petit jury in Madras composed of twelve English and Portuguese jurors acquitted a Mrs. Ascentia Dawes, who was on trial for the murder of her enslaved servant.", "During the period of Company rule in India, jury trials within a dual-court system territories were implemented in Indian territories under East India Company (EIC) control.", "In Presidency towns (such as Calcutta, Bombai and Madras), Crown Courts employed juries to judge European and Indian defendants in criminal cases.", "Outside of Presidency towns, Company Courts staffed by EIC officials judged both criminal and civil cases without the use of a jury.In 1860, after the British Crown assumed control over the EIC's possessions in India, the Indian Penal Code was adopted.", "A year later, the Code of Criminal Procedure was adopted in 1861.These new regulations stipulated that criminal juries were only mandatory in the High courts of Presidency towns; in all other parts of British India, they were optional and rarely utilized.", "In cases where the defendants were either European or American, at least half of the jury was required to be European or American men, with the justification given that juries in these cases had to be \"acquainted with the defendant's feelings and dispositions.", "\"During the 20th century, the jury system in British India came under criticism from both colonial officials and independence activists.", "The system received no mentions in the 1950 Indian Constitution and frequently went unimplemented in many Indian legal jurisdictions after independence in 1947.In 1958, the Law Commission of India recommended its abolition in the fourteenth report that the commission submitted to the Indian government.", "Jury trials in India were gradually abolished during the 1960's, culminating in the 1973 Criminal Procedure Code, which remains in effect into the 21st century.Parsis in India are legally permitted to use jury trials to decide divorces wherein randomly selected jurors (referred to in the Indian legal system as \"delegates\") from the local Parsi community are used to decide the outcome of the matrimonial disputes in question during civil trials.", "This jury system consists of a mixture of common law juries and the Panchayati raj form of local government, and was first implemented during the period of British rule, with the colonial administration passing the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act in 1936.Post-independence, it was amended by the Indian government in 1988.=== Ireland ===In the Republic of Ireland, a common law jurisdiction, jury trials are available for criminal cases before the Circuit Court, Central Criminal Court and defamation cases, consisting of twelve jurors.Juries only decide questions of fact; they have no role in criminal sentencing in criminal cases or awarding damages in libel cases.", "It is not necessary that a jury be unanimous in its verdict.", "In civil cases, a verdict may be reached by a majority of nine of the twelve members.", "In a criminal case, a verdict need not be unanimous where there are not fewer than eleven jurors if ten of them agree on a verdict after considering the case for a reasonable time.Juries are selected from a jury panel, which is picked at random by the county registrar from the electoral register.", "The principal statute regulating the selection, obligations and conduct of juries is the Juries Act 1976 as amended by the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2008, which scrapped the upper age limit of 70.Juries are not paid, nor do they receive travel expenses.", "They do receive lunch for the days that they are serving; however, for jurors in employment, their employer is required to pay them as if they were present at work.For certain terrorist and organised crime offences the Director of Public Prosecutions may issue a certificate that the accused be tried by the Special Criminal Court composed of three judges instead of a jury, one from the District Court, Circuit Court and High Court.===Italy===The Corte d'Assise is composed of 2 judges and 6 laypersons chosen at random among Italian citizens 30 to 65 years old.", "Only serious crimes like murder can be tried by the Corte d'Assise.=== Japan ===On May 28, 2004, the Diet of Japan enacted a law requiring selected citizens to take part in criminal court trials of certain severe crimes to make decisions together with professional judges, both on guilt and on the sentence.", "These citizens are called ''saiban-in'' (裁判員 \"lay judge\").", "The ''saiban-in'' system was implemented in May 2009.=== Malaysia ===Malaysia abolished trials by jury on 1 January 1995.The impartiality of jury trials had been brought into question for several years prior, but their abolition was expedited by the notorious Mona Fandey case in 1993.The sensational nature of the crime heightened concerns that jury verdicts could be coloured by emotions and media bias.=== New Zealand ===The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 provides a defendant with the right to a jury trial if they are charged with a criminal offence punishable by two years' imprisonment or more.", "For most offences, the defendant can choose to forego a jury trial in favour of a judge-alone (bench) trial.", "Serious \"category 4\" offences such as murder, manslaughter and treason are always tried by jury, with some exceptions.", "Civil jury trials are restricted to cases involving defamation, false imprisonment or malicious prosecution.New Zealand previously required jury verdicts to be passed unanimously, but since the passing of the Criminal Procedure Bill in 2009 the Juries Act 1981 has permitted verdicts to be passed by a majority of one less than the full jury (that is an 11–1 or a 10–1 majority) under certain circumstances.=== Norway ===Norway has a system where the lower courts (''tingrett'') is set with a judge and two lay judges, or in bigger cases two judges and three lay judges.All of these judges convict or acquit, and set sentences.", "Simple majority is required in all cases, which means that the lay-judges are always in control.In the higher court/appellate court (''lagmannsrett'') there is a jury (''lagrette'') of 10 members, which need a minimum of seven votes to be able to convict.", "The judges have no say in the jury deliberations, but jury instructions are given by the chief judge (''lagmann'') in each case to the jury before deliberations.", "The ''voir-dire'' is usually set with 16 prospective jurors, which the prosecution and defence may dismiss the six persons they do not desire to serve on the jury.This court (''lagmannsretten'') is administered by a three-judge panel (usually one ''lagmann'' and two ''lagdommere''), and if seven or more jury members want to convict, the sentence is set in a separate proceeding, consisting of the three judges and the jury foreman (''lagrettens ordfører'') and three other members of the jury chosen by ballot.", "This way the laymen are in control of both the conviction and sentencing, as simple majority is required in sentencing.The three-judge panel can set aside a jury conviction or acquittal if there has been an obvious miscarriage of justice.", "In that event, the case is settled by three judges and four lay-judges.In May 2015, the Norwegian Parliament asked the government to bring an end to jury trials, replacing them with a bench trial (''meddomsrett'') consisting of two law-trained judges and five lay judges (''lekdommere'').", "This has now been fully implemented as of March 2021.=== Russia ===In the judiciary of Russia, for serious crimes the accused has the option of a jury trial consisting of 12 jurors.", "The number of jury trials remains small, at about 600 per year, out of about 1 million trials.", "A juror must be at least 25 years old, legally competent, and without a criminal record.", "The 12 jurors are selected by the prosecution and defense from a list of 30–40 eligible candidates.", "The Constitution of Russia stipulates that, until the abolition of the death penalty, all defendants in a case that may result in a death sentence are entitled to a jury trial.", "Lawmakers are continuously chipping away at what types of criminal offenses merit a jury trial.They are similar to common law juries, and unlike lay judges, in that they sit separately from the judges and decide questions of fact alone while the judge determines questions of law.", "They must return unanimous verdicts during the first 3 hours of deliberation, but may return majority verdicts after that, with 6 jurors being enough to acquit.", "They may also request that the judge show leniency in sentencing.Juries have granted acquittals in 15–20% of cases, compared with less than 1% in cases decided by judges.", "Juries may be dismissed and skeptical juries have been dismissed on the verge of verdicts, and acquittals are frequently overturned by higher courts.Trial by jury was first introduced in the Russian Empire as a result of the Judicial reform of Alexander II in 1864, and abolished after the October Revolution in 1917.They were reintroduced in the Russian Federation in 1993, and extended to another 69 regions in 2003.Its reintroduction was opposed by the Prosecutor General.===Singapore===Singapore fully abolished the jury system in 1969, though jury trials for non-capital offenses had already been abolished a decade earlier.", "Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, a former trial lawyer, explained why he supported the policy to the BBC and in his memoirs, saying, \"I had no faith in a system that allowed the superstition, ignorance, biases, and prejudices of seven jurymen to determine guilt or innocence.", "\"===South Africa===The jury system was abolished in South Africa in 1969 by the Abolition of Juries Act, 1969.The last jury trial to be heard was in the District of Kimberley.", "Some judicial experts had argued that a system of whites-only juries (as was the system at that time) was inherently prejudicial to 'non-white' defendants (the introduction of nonracial juries would have been a political impossibility at that time).", "More recently it has been argued that, apart from being a racially divided country, South African society was, and still is, characterised by significant class differences and disparities of income and wealth that could make re-introducing the jury system problematic.", "Arguments for and against the re-introduction of a jury system have been discussed by South African constitutional expert Professor Pierre de Vos in the article \"Do we need a jury system?\"", "On 28 March 2014, the Oscar Pistorius trial was adjourned due to the illness of one of the two assessors that assist the judge on questions of fact (rather than law), in place of the jury, to reach a verdict.", "The legal system in the UK sees no reason to block extradition on this, as witnessed in the Shrien Dewani case.===Sweden===In Sweden, juries are uncommon; the public is represented in the courts by means of lay judges (nämndemän).", "However, the defendant has the right to a jury trial in the lower court (tingsrätt) when accused of an offence against the fundamental laws on freedom of expression and freedom of the press.", "If a person is accused of e.g.", "libel or incitement to ethnic or racial hatred, in a medium covered by the fundamental laws (e.g.", "a printed paper or a radio programme), she has the right to have the accusation tried by a jury of nine jurors.", "This applies also in civil (tort) cases under the fundamental laws.", "A majority of at least six jurors must find that the defendant has committed the alleged crime.", "If it does not, the defendant is acquitted or, in a civil case, held not liable.", "If such a majority of the jurors hold that said crime has in fact been committed, this finding is not legally binding for the court; thus, the court (three judges) can still acquit the defendant or find him/her not liable.", "A jury acquittal may not be overruled after appeal.", "In Swedish civil process, the \"English rule\" applies to court costs.", "Earlier, a court disagreeing with a jury acquittal could, when deciding on the matter of such costs, set aside the English rule, and instead use the ''American rule'', that each party bears its own expense of litigation.", "This practice was declared to violate the rule of presumption of innocence according to article 6.2.of the European Convention on Human Rights, by the Supreme Court of Sweden, in 2012.===Switzerland===As of 2008, only the code of criminal procedure of the Canton of Geneva provides for genuine jury trials.", "Several other cantons—Vaud, Neuchâtel, Zürich and Ticino—provide for courts composed of both professional judges and laymen (''Schöffengerichte'' / ''tribunaux d'échevins'').", "Because the unified Swiss Code of Criminal Procedure (set to enter into force in 2011) does not provide for jury trials or lay judges, however, they are likely to be abolished in the near future.===Taiwan===The Citizen Judges Act (國民法官法) was passed by the Legislative Yuan on July 22nd, 2022, promulgated by the president on Aug.12th and was implemented on Jan.1st of 2023.Under the act, '''Lay judges in Taiwan''' are to be randomly selected as citizen judges who would participate in trial proceedings and adjudicate cases alongside professional judges in certain felony cases.", "The citizen judge system is based on Japan’s saiban-in system, which also resembles a lay judge system.===Ukraine===The judiciary of Ukraine allows jury trials for criminal cases where the sentence can reach life imprisonment if the accused so wishes.", "But this seldom happens.", "A jury is not formed from random citizens, but only from those who have previously applied for this role who do meet certain criteria.===United Kingdom===The United Kingdom consists of three separate legal jurisdictions, but there are some features common to all of them.", "In particular there is seldom anything like the U.S. voir dire system; jurors are usually just accepted without question.", "Controversially, in England there has been some screening in sensitive security cases, but the Scottish courts have firmly set themselves against any form of jury vetting.====England and Wales====In England and Wales (which have the same legal system), everyone accused of an offence which carries more than six months' imprisonment has a right to trial by jury.", "Minor (\"summary\") criminal cases are heard without a jury in the Magistrates' Courts.", "Middle-ranking (\"triable either way\") offences may be tried by magistrates or the defendant may elect trial by jury in the Crown Court.", "Serious (\"indictable-only\") offences, however, must be tried before a jury in the Crown Court.", "Juries sit in few civil cases, being restricted to false imprisonment, malicious prosecution, and civil fraud (unless ordered otherwise by a judge).", "Juries also sit in coroner's courts for more contentious inquests.", "All criminal juries consist of 12 jurors, those in a County Court having 8 jurors and Coroner's Court juries having between 7 and 11 members.", "Jurors must be between 18 and 75 years of age, and are selected at random from the register of voters.", "In the past a unanimous verdict was required.", "This has been changed so that, if the jury fails to agree after a given period, at the discretion of the judge they may reach a verdict by a 10–2 majority.", "This was designed to make it more difficult for jury tampering to succeed.In 1999 the Home Secretary Jack Straw introduced a controversial bill to limit the right to trial by jury.", "This became the Criminal Justice Act 2003, which sought to remove the right to trial by jury for cases involving jury tampering or complex fraud.", "The provision for trial without jury to circumvent jury tampering succeeded and came into force in 2007; the provision for complex fraud cases was defeated.", "Lord Goldsmith, the then Attorney General, then pressed forward with the Fraud (Trials Without a Jury) Bill in Parliament, which sought to abolish jury trials in major criminal fraud trials.", "The Bill was subject to sharp criticism from both sides of the House of Commons before passing its second Commons reading in November 2006 but was defeated in the Lords in March 2007.The trial for the first serious offence to be tried without a jury for 350 years was allowed to go ahead in 2009.Three previous trials of the defendants had been halted because of jury tampering and the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Judge, cited cost and the additional burden on the jurors as reasons to proceed without a jury.", "Previously in cases where jury tampering was a concern the jurors were sometimes closeted in a hotel for the duration of the trial.", "Liberty director of policy Isabella Sankey said that \"This is a dangerous precedent.", "The right to jury trial isn't just a hallowed principle but a practice that ensures that one class of people don't sit in judgement over another and the public have confidence in an open and representative justice system.", "\"The trial started in 2010, with the four defendants convicted on the 31 March 2010 by Mr Justice Treacy at the Old Bailey.====Gibraltar====Being a Common Law jurisdiction, Gibraltar retains jury trial in a similar manner to that found in England and Wales, the exception being that juries consist of nine lay people, rather than twelve.====Scotland====In Scots law the jury system has some similarities with England but some important differences; in particular, there are juries of 15 in criminal trials, with verdicts by simple majority.====Northern Ireland====In Northern Ireland, the role of the jury trial is roughly similar to England and Wales, except that jury trials have been replaced in cases of alleged terrorist offences by courts where the judge sits alone, known as ''Diplock courts''.", "Diplock courts are common in Northern Ireland for crimes connected to terrorism.Diplock courts were created in the 1970s during The Troubles, to phase out Operation Demetrius internments, and because of the argument that juries were intimidated, though this is disputed.", "The Diplock courts were shut in 2007, but between 1 August 2008 and 31 July 2009, 13 non-jury trials were held, down from 29 in the previous year, and 300 trials per year at their peak.===United States===The availability of a trial by jury in U.S. jurisdictions varies.", "Because the United States legal system separated from that of the English one at the time of the American Revolution, the types of proceedings that use juries depends on whether such cases were tried by jury under English common law at that time rather than the methods used in English courts now.", "For example, at the time, English \"courts of law\" tried cases of torts or private law for monetary damages using juries, but \"courts of equity\" that tried civil cases seeking an injunction or another form of non-monetary relief did not.", "As a result, this practice continues in American civil laws, but in modern English law, only criminal proceedings and some inquests are likely to be heard by a jury.A distinctive feature of jury trials in the United States is that verdicts in criminal cases must be unanimous.Every person accused of a crime punishable by incarceration for more than six months has a constitutionally protected right to a trial by jury, which arises from Article Three of the United States Constitution, which states in part, \"The Trial of all Crimes...shall be by Jury\".", "The right was expanded with the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states in part, \"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury\".", "Due to the Fourteenth Amendment, these rights also apply to the states through incorporation.", "Most states' constitutions also grant the right of trial by jury in lesser criminal matters, though most have abrogated that right in offenses punishable by fine only.", "The Supreme Court has ruled that if imprisonment is for six months or less, trial by jury is not required, meaning a state may choose whether or not to permit trial by jury in such cases.", "Under the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, if the defendant is entitled to a jury trial, they may waive their right to have a jury, but both the government (prosecution) and court must consent to the waiver.", "Several states require jury trials for all crimes, \"petty\" or not.In the cases ''Apprendi v. New Jersey'', , and ''Blakely v. Washington'', , the Supreme Court of the United States held that a criminal defendant has a right to a jury trial not only on the question of guilt or innocence, but on any fact used to increase the defendant's sentence beyond the maximum otherwise allowed by statutes or sentencing guidelines.", "This invalidated the procedure in many states and the federal courts that allowed sentencing enhancement based on \"a preponderance of evidence\", where enhancement could be based on the judge's findings alone.", "A jury must be unanimous for either a guilty or not guilty decision.", "A hung jury results in the defendants release; however, charges against the defendant are not dropped and can be reinstated if the government so chooses.Jurors in some states are selected through voter registration and drivers' license lists.", "A form is sent to prospective jurors to pre-qualify them by asking the recipient to answer questions about citizenship, disabilities, ability to understand the English language, and whether they have any conditions that would excuse them from being a juror.", "If they are deemed qualified, a summons is issued.English common law and the United States Constitution recognize the right to a jury trial to be a fundamental civil liberty or civil right that allows the accused to choose whether to be judged by judges or a jury.In the United States, it is understood that juries usually weigh the evidence and testimony to determine questions of fact, while judges usually rule on questions of law, although the dissenting justices in the Supreme Court case ''Sparf et al.", "v. U.S. 156 U.S. 51 (1895)'', generally considered the pivotal case concerning the rights and powers of the jury, declared: \"It is our deep and settled conviction, confirmed by a re-examination of the authorities that the jury, upon the general issue of guilty or not guilty in a criminal case, have the right, as well as the power, to decide, according to their own judgment and consciences, all questions, whether of law or of fact, involved in that issue.\"", "Jury determination of questions of law, sometimes called jury nullification, cannot be overturned by a judge if doing so would violate legal protections against double jeopardy.", "Although a judge can throw out a guilty verdict if it was not supported by the evidence, a jurist has no authority to override a verdict that favors a defendant.It was established in Bushel's Case that a judge cannot order the jury to convict, no matter how strong the evidence is.", "In civil cases a special verdict can be given, but in criminal cases a general verdict is rendered, because requiring a special verdict could apply pressure to the jury, and because of the jury's historic function of tempering rules of law by common sense brought to bear upon the facts of a specific case.", "For this reason, Justice Black and Justice Douglas indicated their disapproval of special interrogatories even in civil cases.There has been much debate about the advantages and disadvantages of the jury system, the competence or lack thereof of jurors as fact-finders, and the uniformity or capriciousness of the justice they administer.", "The jury has been described by one author as \"an exciting and gallant experiment in the conduct of serious human affairs\".", "Because they are fact-finders, juries are sometimes expected to perform a role similar to a lie detector, especially when presented with testimony from witnesses.A civil jury is typically made up of 6 to 12 persons.", "In a civil case, the role of the jury is to listen to the evidence presented at a trial, to decide whether the defendant injured the plaintiff or otherwise failed to fulfill a legal duty to the plaintiff, and to determine what the compensation or penalty should be.A criminal jury is usually made up of 12 members, though fewer may sit on cases involving lesser offenses.", "Criminal juries decide whether the defendant committed the crime as charged.", "In several southern states, the jury sets punishment, while in most states and at the federal level, it is set by the judge.Prior to 2020, under most states' laws, verdicts in criminal cases had to be unanimous, with the exception of Oregon and Louisiana.", "In Oregon, a 10–2 majority was enough to reach a verdict, except for guilty verdicts for capital crimes, which required unanimity.", "Louisiana also did not require unanimous juries in serious felony cases until passage of a state constitutional amendment that required unanimity for crimes committed after 2018.However, in ''Ramos v. Louisiana'', decided in April 2020, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that convictions for serious offenses require unanimity, overturning Oregon's and Louisiana's prior allowances for split decisions.In civil cases, the law (or the agreement of the parties) may permit a non-unanimous verdict.A jury's deliberations are conducted in private, out of sight and hearing of the judge, litigants, witnesses, and others in the courtroom.Not every case is eligible for a jury trial.", "For example, in the majority of U.S. states there is no right to a jury trial in family law actions not involving a termination of parental rights, such as divorce and custody modifications.", "As of 1978, eleven U.S. states allow juries in any aspect of divorce litigation, Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Maine, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Wisconsin.", "Most of these limit the right to a jury to try issues regarding grounds or entitlement for divorce only.", "Texas provides jury trial rights most broadly, including even the right to a jury trial on questions regarding child custody.", "However, anyone who is charged with a criminal offense, breach of contract or federal offence has a Constitutional right to a trial by jury.====Civil trial procedure====The right to trial by jury in a civil case in federal court is addressed by the Seventh Amendment.", "Importantly, however, the Seventh Amendment does not guarantee a right to a civil jury trial in state courts (although most state constitutions guarantee such a right).", "The Seventh Amendment provides: \"In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.\"", "In Joseph Story's 1833 treatise ''Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States'', he wrote, \"It is a most important and valuable amendment; and places upon the high ground of constitutional right the inestimable privilege of a trial by jury in civil cases, a privilege scarcely inferior to that in criminal cases, which is conceded by all to be essential to political and civil liberty.", "\"The Seventh Amendment does not guarantee or create any right to a jury trial; rather, it preserves the right to jury trial in the federal courts that existed in 1791 at common law.", "In this context, common law means the legal environment the United States inherited from England.", "In England in 1791, civil actions were divided into actions at law and actions in equity.", "Actions at law had a right to a jury, actions in equity did not.", "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 2 says \"there is one form of action—the civil action\", which abolishes the legal/equity distinction.", "Today, in actions that would have been \"at law\" in 1791, there is a right to a jury; in actions that would have been \"in equity\" in 1791, there is no right to a jury.", "However, Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 39(c) allows a court to use one at its discretion.", "To determine whether the action would have been legal or equitable in 1791, one must first look at the type of action and whether such an action was considered \"legal\" or \"equitable\" at that time.", "Next, the relief being sought must be examined.", "Monetary damages alone were purely a legal remedy, and thus entitled to a jury.", "Non-monetary remedies such as injunctions, rescission, and specific performance were all equitable remedies, and thus up to the judge's discretion, not a jury.", "In ''Beacon Theaters, Inc. v. Westover'', , the US Supreme Court discussed the right to a jury, holding that when both equitable and legal claims are brought, the right to a jury trial still exists for the legal claim, which would be decided by a jury before the judge ruled on the equitable claim.There is not a United States constitutional right under the Seventh Amendment to a jury trial in state courts, but in practice, almost every state except Louisiana, which has a civil law legal tradition, permits jury trials in civil cases in state courts on substantially the same basis that they are allowed under the Seventh Amendment in federal court.", "The right to a jury trial in civil cases does not extend to the states, except when a state court is enforcing a federally created right, of which the right to trial by jury is a substantial part.The court determines the right to jury based on all claims by all parties involved.", "If the plaintiff brings only equitable claims but the defendant asserts counterclaims of law, the court grants a jury trial.", "In accordance with Beacon Theaters, the jury first determines the facts, then the judge enter judgment on the equitable claims.Following the English tradition, U.S. juries have usually been composed of 12 jurors, and the jury's verdict has usually been required to be unanimous.", "However, in many jurisdictions, the number of jurors is often reduced to a lesser number (such as five or six) by legislative enactment, or by agreement of both sides.", "Some jurisdictions also permit a verdict to be returned despite the dissent of one, two, or three jurors.====Waiver of jury trial====The vast majority of U.S. criminal cases are not concluded with a jury verdict, but rather by plea bargain.", "Both prosecutors and defendants often have a strong interest in resolving the criminal case by negotiation resulting in a plea bargain.", "If the defendant waives a jury trial, a bench trial is held.For civil cases, a jury trial must be demanded within a certain period of time per Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 38.In United States Federal courts, there is no absolute right to waive a jury trial.", "Per Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 23(a), only if the prosecution and the court consent may a defendant waive a jury trial for criminal cases.", "However, most states give the defendant the absolute right to waive a jury trial, and it has become commonplace to find such a waiver in routine contracts as a 2004 ''Wall Street Journal'' article states:The article goes on to claim:In the years since this 2004 article, this practice has become pervasive in the US and, especially in online agreements, it has become commonplace to include such waivers to trial by jury in everything from user agreements attached to software downloads to merely browsing a website.", "This practice, however, means that while such waivers may have legal force in one jurisdiction—in this case the United States—in the jurisdiction where a verdict is sought in the absence of jury trial (or indeed the presence of a defendant, or any legal representation ''in absentia'') may well run directly counter to law in the jurisdiction—such as the United Kingdom—where the defendant resides, thus:The judgment on ''R v Jones'' 2002 UKHL 5 issued by the United Kingdom's House of Lords states (in part, in Item 55) \"the issue has to be determined by looking at the way in which the courts handled the problem under English criminal procedure and by deciding whether, in the result, the appellant can be said to have had a fair hearing.", "\"==== Jury trials: terminating parental rights ====Only five of the 50 states require or permit jury trials for cases where the state is seeking to legally sever a parent-child relationship.", "Oklahoma, Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.", "In Virginia, the jury is called an \"advisory jury\".", "The remaining 46 jurisdictions have case law or statutes or local court rules or common practice that specifically prohibits a jury trial in termination of parental rights cases.", "The fate of a family is exclusively placed in the hands of a single judge when there is no jury trial." ], [ "See also", "Bench trialHistory of trial by jury in EnglandRights of EnglishmenSeventh Amendment to the United States Constitution''Sparf v. United States''Summary jury trialTrial by combatTrial by ordealTrial by peers" ], [ "References", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "Brill, Steven.", "''Trial by Jury.''", "(New York: American Lawyer Books/TOUCHSTONE, 1989).", "Burns, Robert.", "''The Death of the American Trial''.", "University of Chicago Press, 2009.", " (cloth); (paper)Lehman, Godfrey D. ''We the jury…'' (New York: Prometheus Books, 1997).", "Sadakat Kadri, ''The Trial: A History from Socrates to O.J.", "Simpson''.", "HarperCollins, 2005.", "* American Bar Association's History of the Jury* Aristotle's ''Athenian Constitution''" ], [ "External links", "* Canadian Criminal Procedure Information Pages" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Justice" ], [ "Introduction", "Evidence about the Nazi Ernst Kaltenbrunner's war crimes is presented at the Nuremberg trials.", "'''Justice''', in its broadest sense, is the concept that individuals are to be treated in a manner that is equitable and fair.A society in which justice has been achieved would be one in which individuals receive what they \"deserve\".", "The interpretation of what \"deserve\" means draws on a variety of fields and philosophies, like ethics, rationality, law, religion, equity and fairness.", "The state may be said to pursue justice by operating courts and enforcing their rulings." ], [ "History", "A variety of philosophical and moral theories have been advanced to inform understanding of justice.Early theories of justice were set out by the Ancient Greek philosophers Plato, in his work ''The Republic'', and Aristotle, in his ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics''.Religious explanations of the justice can be grouped under divine command theory, which holds that justice issues from God.Western thinkers later advanced different theories of where foundations of justice lie.", "In the 17th century, philosophers such as John Locke said justice derives from natural law.", "Social contract theory, advocated by thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau said that justice derives from the mutual agreement of members of society to be governed in a political order.", "In the 19th century, utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill said that justice is served by what creates the best outcomes for the greatest number of people.Modern frameworks include concepts such as distributive justice, egalitarianism, retributive justice, and restorative justice.", "Distributive justice considers what is fair based on what goods are to be distributed, between whom they are to be distributed, and what is the ''proper'' distribution.", "Egalitarians suggest justice can only exist within the coordinates of equality.", "Theories of retributive justice say justice is served by punishing wrongdoers, whereas restorative justice (also sometimes called \"reparative justice\") is an approach to justice that focuses on the needs of victims and offenders." ], [ "Harmony and the early Greeks", "Justice, according to Plato, is about balance and harmony.", "It represents the right relationship between conflicting aspects within an individual or a community.", "He defines justice as everyone having and doing what they are responsible for or what belongs to them.", "In other words, a just person is someone who contributes to society according to their unique abilities and receives what is proportionate to their contribution.", "They are in the right place, always striving to do their best, and reciprocating what they receive in a fair and equitable manner.", "This applies both at the individual level and at the organizational and societal levels.", "An example of a Justice according to Plato's character \"Socrates\" would be a person is born to be a cobbler (their nature), who has the virtue (temperance) of the economic class (social position), employed as a cobbler (occupation), and doing their work well (expertise) - thus benefitting the state's economy for all others' happiness which is has the Form of \"Good\".", "Contrariwise, an example of Injustice would be a person whose nature is that of a cobbler (their nature), who lacks the virtue (wisdom) needed from the ruling class (social position), and is employed as head of state (occupation), doing that work poorly (expertise) - thus ruining the government, military, and economy which provide for the happiness of all citizens which fits within the Form of \"Bad\"To illustrate these ideas, Plato describes a person's as having three parts: reason, spirit, and desire.", "These parallel the three parts of a city in his philosophy, which he describes through the metaphor of a chariot: it functions effectively when the charioteer, representative of reason, successfully controls the two horses, symbolizing spirit and desire.", "Continuing on these themes, Plato theorizes that those who love wisdom, or philosophers, are the most ideal to govern because only they truly comprehend the nature of the good.", "Just like one would seek a doctor's expertise in matters of health rather than a farmer's, so should the city entrust its governance to someone knowledgeable about the good, rather than to politicians who might prioritize power over people's genuine needs.", "Socrates later used the parable of the ship to illustrate this point: the unjust city is like a ship in open ocean, crewed by a powerful but drunken captain (the common people), a group of untrustworthy advisors who try to manipulate the captain into giving them power over the ship's course (the politicians), and a navigator (the philosopher), the latter of whom being the only one who knows how to get the ship to port." ], [ "Divine command and Religious Theories of Justice", "Advocates of divine command theory say justice, and indeed the whole of morality, is the authoritative command of God.", "Murder is wrong and must be punished, for instance, because God says it so.", "Some versions of the theory assert that God must be obeyed because of the nature of God's relationship with humanity, others assert that God must be obeyed because God is goodness itself, and thus doing God's command would be best for everyone.An early meditation on the divine command theory by Plato can be found in his dialogue, Euthyphro.", "Called the Euthyphro dilemma, it goes as follows: \"Is what is morally good commanded by the gods because it is morally good, or is it morally good because it is commanded by the gods?\"", "The implication is that if the latter is true, then justice is beyond mortal understanding; if the former is true, then morality exists independently from the gods, and is therefore subject to the judgment of mortals.", "A response, popularized in two contexts by Immanuel Kant and C. S. Lewis, is that it is deductively valid to say that the existence of an objective morality implies the existence of God and vice versa.Jews, Christians, and Muslims traditionally believe that justice is a present, real, right, and, specifically, governing concept along with mercy, and that justice is ultimately derived from and held by God.", "According to the Bible, such institutions as the Mosaic Law were created by God to require the Israelites to live by and apply God's standards of justice.The Hebrew Bible describes God as saying about the Judeo-Christian patriarch Abraham: \"No, for I have chosen him, that he may charge his children and his household after him to keep the way of the Lord by doing righteousness and justice;....\" (Genesis 18:19, NRSV).", "The Psalmist describes God as having \"Righteousness and justice as the foundation of His throne;....\" (Psalms 89:14, NRSV).The New Testament also describes God and Jesus Christ as having and displaying justice, often in comparison with God displaying and supporting mercy (Matthew 5:7)." ], [ "Natural law", "''Justitia'' by Maarten van Heemskerk, 1556.Justitia carries symbolic items such as: a sword, scales and a blindfoldFor advocates of the theory that justice is part of natural law (e.g., John Locke), justice inheres in the nature of man.===Despotism and skepticism===In ''Republic'' by Plato, the character Thrasymachus argues that justice is the interest of the strong – merely a name for what the powerful or cunning ruler has imposed on the people.===Mutual agreement===Advocates of the social contract say that justice is derived from the mutual agreement of everyone; or, in many versions, from what they would agree to under ''hypothetical'' conditions including equality and absence of bias.", "This account is considered further below, under 'Justice as Fairness'.", "The absence of bias refers to an equal ground for all people involved in a disagreement (or trial in some cases).===Subordinate value===According to utilitarian thinkers including John Stuart Mill, justice is not as fundamental as we often think.", "Rather, it is derived from the more basic standard of rightness, consequentialism: what is right is what has the best consequences (usually measured by the total or average welfare caused).", "So, the proper principles of justice are those that tend to have the best consequences.", "These rules may turn out to be familiar ones such as keeping contracts; but equally, they may not, depending on the facts about real consequences.", "Either way, what is important is those consequences, and justice is important, if at all, only as derived from that fundamental standard.", "Mill tries to explain our mistaken belief that justice is overwhelmingly important by arguing that it derives from two natural human tendencies: our desire to retaliate against those who hurt us, or the feeling of self-defense and our ability to put ourselves imaginatively in another's place, sympathy.", "So, when we see someone harmed, we project ourselves into their situation and feel a desire to retaliate on their behalf.", "If this process is the source of our feelings about justice, that ought to undermine our confidence in them." ], [ "Instrumental theories of justice", "Walter Seymour Allward's ''Justitia'' (Justice), outside Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario CanadaInstrumental theories of justice look at the consequences of punishment for wrongdoing, looking at questions such as:# ''why'' punish?# ''who'' should be punished?# ''what'' punishment should they receive?In broad terms, ''utilitarian'' theories look forward to the future consequences of punishment, ''retributive'' theories look back to particular acts of wrongdoing and attempt to match them with appropriate punishment, and ''restorative'' theories look at the needs of victims and society and seek to repair the harms from wrongdoing.===Utilitarianism===According to the utilitarian, justice requires the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals.", "Punishment fights crime in three ways:# ''Deterrence''.", "The credible threat of punishment might lead people to make different choices; well-designed threats might lead people to make choices that maximize welfare.", "This matches some strong intuitions about just punishment: that it should generally be proportional to the crime.# ''Rehabilitation''.", "Punishment might make \"bad people\" into \"better\" ones.", "For the utilitarian, all that \"bad person\" can mean is \"person who's likely to cause unwanted things (like suffering)\".", "So, utilitarianism could recommend punishment that changes someone such that they are less likely to cause bad things.# ''Security/Incapacitation''.", "Perhaps there are people who are irredeemable causers of bad things.", "If so, imprisoning them might maximize welfare by limiting their opportunities to cause harm and therefore the benefit lies within protecting society.So, the reason for punishment is the maximization of welfare, and punishment should be of whomever, and of whatever form and severity, are needed to meet that goal.", "This may sometimes justify punishing the innocent, or inflicting disproportionately severe punishments, when that will have the best consequences overall (perhaps executing a few suspected shoplifters live on television would be an effective deterrent to shoplifting, for instance).", "It also suggests that punishment might turn out ''never'' to be right, depending on the facts about what actual consequences it has.===Retributivism===The retributivist argues that consequentialism is wrong, as it argues that all guilty individuals deserve appropriate punishment, based on the conviction that punishment should be proportional to the crime and for all the guilty.", "However, it is sometimes said that retributivism is merely revenge in disguise.", "However, there are differences between retribution and revenge: the former is impartial and has a scale of appropriateness, whereas the latter is personal and potentially unlimited in scale.===Restorative justice===Restorative justice is a justice approach that prioritizes the needs of victims and offenders, focusing on their needs rather than abstract legal principles.", "It encourages active participation from victims and encourages offenders to take responsibility for their actions, leading to higher satisfaction rates.Restorative justice fosters dialogue between victim and offender shows the highest rates of victim satisfaction and offender accountability.===Mixed theories===Some modern philosophers have said that Utilitarian and Retributive theories are not mutually exclusive.", "For example, Andrew von Hirsch, in his 1976 book ''Doing Justice'', suggested that we have a moral obligation to punish greater crimes more than lesser ones.", "However, so long as we adhere to that constraint then utilitarian ideals would play a significant secondary role." ], [ "Theories", "===Introduction===Bonino da Campione, ''Justice'', , National Gallery of ArtIt has been said that 'systematic' or 'programmatic' political and moral philosophy in the West begins, in Plato's Republic, with the question, 'What is Justice?'", "According to most contemporary theories of justice, justice is overwhelmingly important: John Rawls claims that \"Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought.\"", "In classical approaches, evident from Plato through to Rawls, the concept of 'justice' is always construed in logical or 'etymological' opposition to the concept of injustice.", "Such approaches cite various examples of injustice, as problems which a theory of justice must overcome.", "A number of post-World War II approaches do, however, challenge that seemingly obvious dualism between those two concepts.", "Justice can be thought of as distinct from benevolence, charity, prudence, mercy, generosity, or compassion, although these dimensions are regularly understood to also be interlinked.", "Justice is the concept of cardinal virtues, of which it is one.", "Metaphysical justice has often been associated with concepts of fate, reincarnation or Divine Providence, i.e., with a life in accordance with a cosmic plan.The equivalence of justice and fairness has been historically and culturally established.===Equality before the law===Law raises important and complex issues about equality, fairness, and justice.", "There is an old saying that 'All are equal before the law'.", "The belief in equality before the law is called legal egalitarianism.", "In criticism of this belief, the author Anatole France said in 1894, \"In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread.\"", "With this saying, France illustrated the fundamental shortcoming of a theory of legal equality that remains blind to social inequality; the same law applied to all may have disproportionately harmful effects on the least powerful.===Relational justice===Relational justice examines individual connections and societal relationships, focusing on normative and political aspects.", "Rawls' theory of justice aims to distribute social goods to benefit the poor, but does not consider power relations, political structures, or social meanings.", "Even Rawls' self-respect is not compatible with distribution.", "Iris Marion Young charges that distributive accounts of justice fail to provide an adequate way of conceptualizing political justice in that they fail to take into account many of the demands of ordinary life and that a relational view of justice grounded upon understanding the differences among social groups offers a better approach, one which acknowledges unjust power relations among individuals, groups, and institutional structures.", "Young Kim also takes a relational approach to the question of justice, but departs from Iris Marion Young's political advocacy of group rights and instead, he emphasizes the individual and moral aspects of justice.", "As to its moral aspects, he said that justice includes responsible actions based on rational and autonomous moral agency, with the individual as the proper bearer of rights and responsibilities.", "Politically, he maintains that the proper context for justice is a form of liberalism with the traditional elements of liberty and equality, together with the concepts of diversity and tolerance.===Classical liberalism===Equality before the law is one of the basic principles of classical liberalism.", "Classical liberalism calls for equality before the law, not for equality of outcome.", "Classical liberalism opposes pursuing group rights at the expense of individual rights.", "In addition to equality, individual liberty serves as a core notion of classical liberalism.", "As to the liberty component, British social and political theorist, philosopher, and historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin identifies positive and negative liberty in \"Two Concepts of Liberty\", subscribing to a view of negative liberty, in the form of freedom from governmental interference.", "He further extends the concept of negative liberty in endorsing John Stuart Mills' harm principle: \"the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually and collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection\", which represents a classical liberal view of liberty.===Equality===In political theory, liberalism includes two traditional elements: liberty and equality.", "Most contemporary theories of justice emphasize the concept of equality, including Rawls' theory of justice as fairness.", "For Ronald Dworkin, a complex notion of equality is the sovereign political virtue.", "Dworkin raises the question of whether society is under a duty of justice to help those responsible for the fact that they need help.", "Complications arise in distinguishing matters of choice and matters of chance, as well as justice for future generations in the redistribution of resources that he advocates.===Equity===In legal theory, equity is seen as the concept connecting law to justice, since law cannot be applied without reference to justice.", "In that context, justice is seen as 'the rationale and the ethical foundation of equity'.===Theories of sentencing===In criminal law, a sentence forms the final explicit act of a judge-ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function.", "The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment, a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime.", "Laws may specify the range of penalties that can be imposed for various offenses, and sentencing guidelines sometimes regulate what punishment within those ranges can be imposed given a certain set of offense and offender characteristics.", "The most common purposes of sentencing in legal theory are: Theory Aim of theory Suitable punishmentRetribution Punishment imposed for no reason other than an offense being committed, on the basis that if proportionate, punishment is morally acceptable as a response that satisfies the aggrieved party, their intimates and society.", "* Tariff sentences* Sentence must be proportionate to the crimeDeterrence* To the individual – the individual is deterred through fear of further punishment.", "* To the general public – Potential offenders warned as to likely punishment* Prison Sentence* Heavy Fine* Long sentence as an example to othersRehabilitationTo reform the offender's behavior* Individualized sentences* Community service orders* moral education* vocational educationIncapacitationOffender is made incapable of committing further crime to protect society at large from crime* Long prison sentence* Electronic tagging* Banning ordersReparationRepayment to victim(s) or to community* Compensation* Unpaid work* Reparation SchemesDenunciationSociety expressing its disapproval reinforcing moral boundaries* Reflects blameworthiness of offense* punishment in public* punishment reported to publicIn civil cases the decision is usually known as a verdict, or judgment, rather than a sentence.", "Civil cases are settled primarily by means of monetary compensation for harm done (\"damages\") and orders intended to prevent future harm (for example injunctions).", "Under some legal systems an award of damages involves some scope for retribution, denunciation and deterrence, by means of additional categories of damages beyond simple compensation, covering a punitive effect, social disapprobation, and potentially, deterrence, and occasionally disgorgement (forfeit of any gain, even if no loss was caused to the other party).===Evolutionary perspectives===Evolutionary ethics and evolution of morality suggest evolutionary bases for the concept of justice.", "Biosocial criminology research says that human perceptions of what is appropriate criminal justice are based on how to respond to crimes in the ancestral small-group environment and that these responses may not always be appropriate for today's societies.===Reactions to fairness===Studies at UCLA in 2008 have indicated that reactions to fairness are \"wired\" into the brain and that, \"Fairness is activating the same part of the brain that responds to food in rats...", "This is consistent with the notion that being treated fairly satisfies a basic need\".", "Research conducted in 2003 at Emory University involving capuchin monkeys demonstrated that other cooperative animals also possess such a sense and that \"inequity aversion may not be uniquely human\".===Institutions and justice===In a world where people are interconnected but they disagree, institutions are required to instantiate ideals of justice.", "These institutions may be justified by their approximate instantiation of justice, or they may be deeply unjust when compared with ideal standards – consider the institution of slavery.", "Justice is an ideal the world fails to live up to, sometimes due to deliberate opposition to justice despite understanding, which could be disastrous.", "The question of institutive justice raises issues of legitimacy, procedure, codification and interpretation, which are considered by legal theorists and by philosophers of law.", "The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 emphasizes the need for strong institutions in order to uphold justice." ], [ "Psychology", "There has been research into victim's perspective of justice following crimes.", "Victims find respectful treatment, information and having a voice important for a sense of justice as well as the perception of a fair procedure.Pemberton et al propose a \"Big 2\" model of justice in terms agency and communion, membership in a society.", "Victims experience a loss of perception of agency due to a loss of control as well as a loss of communion if the offender is a member of their social group, but may also lose trust in others or institutions.", "It can shatter an individual's trust that they live in a just and moral world.", "This suggests that a sense of justice can be restored by increasing a sense of communion and agency rather than through retribution or restoration." ], [ "Theories of distributive justice", "''Lex, justitia, pax'' (Latin for \"Law, justice, peace\") on the pediment of the Supreme Court of SwitzerlandTheories of distributive justice need to answer three questions:# ''What goods'' are to be distributed?", "Is it to be wealth, power, respect, opportunities or some combination of these things?# ''Between what entities'' are they to be distributed?", "Humans (dead, living, future), sentient beings, the members of a single society, nations?# What is the ''proper'' distribution?", "Equal, meritocratic, according to social status, according to need, based on property rights and non-aggression?Distributive justice theorists generally do not answer questions of ''who has the right'' to enforce a particular favored distribution, while property rights theorists say that there is no \"favored distribution\".", "Rather, distribution should be based simply on whatever distribution results from lawful interactions or transactions (that is, transactions which are not illicit).===Social justice===Social justice encompasses the just relationship between individuals and their society, often considering how privileges, opportunities, and wealth ought to be distributed among individuals.", "Social justice is also associated with social mobility, especially the ease with which individuals and families may move between social strata.", "Social justice is distinct from cosmopolitanism, which is the idea that all people belong to a single global community with a shared morality.", "Social justice is also distinct from egalitarianism, which is the idea that all people are equal in terms of status, value, or rights, as social justice theories do not all require equality.", "For example, sociologist George C. Homans suggested that the root of the concept of justice is that each person should receive rewards that are proportional to their contributions.Economist Friedrich Hayek said that the concept of social justice was meaningless, saying that justice is a result of individual behavior and unpredictable market forces.", "Social justice is closely related to the concept of relational justice, which is about the just relationship with individuals who possess features in common such as nationality, or who are engaged in cooperation or negotiation.===Fairness===J.", "L. Urban, statue of Lady Justice at court building in Olomouc, Czech RepublicIn his ''A Theory of Justice'', John Rawls used a social contract argument to show that justice, and especially distributive justice, is a form of fairness: an impartial distribution of goods.", "Rawls asks us to imagine ourselves behind a veil of ignorance that denies us all knowledge of our personalities, social statuses, moral characters, wealth, talents and life plans, and then asks what theory of justice we would choose to govern our society when the veil is lifted, if we wanted to do the best that we could for ourselves.", "We do not know who in particular we are, and therefore can not bias the decision in our own favor.", "So, the decision-in-ignorance models fairness, because it excludes selfish bias.", "Rawls said that each of us would reject the utilitarian theory of justice that we should maximize welfare (see below) because of the risk that we might turn out to be someone whose own good is sacrificed for greater benefits for others.", "Instead, we would endorse Rawls's ''two principles of justice'':* Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.", "* Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle, and attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.This imagined choice justifies these principles as the principles of justice for us, because we would agree to them in a fair decision procedure.", "Rawls's theory distinguishes two kinds of goods – (1) the good of liberty rights and (2) social and economic goods, i.e.", "wealth, income and power – and applies different distributions to them – equality between citizens for (1), equality unless inequality improves the position of the worst off for (2).In one sense, theories of distributive justice may assert that everyone should get what they deserve.", "Theories vary on the meaning of what is \"deserved\".", "The main distinction is between theories that say the basis of just deserts ought to be held equally by everyone, and therefore derive egalitarian accounts of distributive justice – and theories that say the basis of just deserts is unequally distributed on the basis of, for instance, hard work, and therefore derive accounts of distributive justice by which some should have more than others.According to ''meritocratic'' theories, goods, especially wealth and social status, should be distributed to match individual ''merit'', which is usually understood as some combination of talent and hard work.", "According to ''needs''-based theories, goods, especially such basic goods as food, shelter and medical care, should be distributed to meet individuals' basic needs for them.", "Marxism is a needs-based theory, expressed succinctly in Marx's slogan \"from each according to his ability, to each according to his need\".", "According to ''contribution''-based theories, goods should be distributed to match an individual's contribution to the overall social good.===Property rights===In ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'', Robert Nozick said that distributive justice is not a matter of the whole distribution matching an ideal ''pattern'', but of each individual entitlement having the right kind of ''history''.", "It is just that a person has some good (especially, some property right) if and only if they came to have it by a history made up entirely of events of two kinds:* Just ''acquisition'', especially by working on unowned things; and* Just ''transfer'', that is free gift, sale or other agreement, but not theft (i.e.", "by force or fraud).If the chain of events leading up to the person having something meets this criterion, they are entitled to it: that they possess it is just, and what anyone else does or does not have or need is irrelevant.On the basis of this theory of distributive justice, Nozick said that all attempts to redistribute goods according to an ideal pattern, without the consent of their owners, are theft.", "In particular, redistributive taxation is theft.Some property rights theorists (such as Nozick) also take a consequentialist view of distributive justice and say that property rights based justice also has the effect of maximizing the overall wealth of an economic system.", "They explain that voluntary (non-coerced) transactions always have a property called Pareto efficiency.", "The result is that the world is better off in an absolute sense and no one is worse off.", "They say that respecting property rights maximizes the number of Pareto efficient transactions in the world and minimized the number of non-Pareto efficient transactions in the world (i.e.", "transactions where someone is made worse off).", "The result is that the world will have generated the greatest total benefit from the limited, scarce resources available in the world.", "Further, this will have been accomplished without taking anything away from anyone unlawfully.===Welfare-maximization===According to the utilitarian, justice requires the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals.", "This may require sacrifice of some for the good of others, so long as everyone's good is taken impartially into account.", "Utilitarianism, in general, says that the standard of justification for actions, institutions, or the whole world, is ''impartial welfare consequentialism'', and only indirectly, if at all, to do with rights, property, need, or any other non-utilitarian criterion.", "These other criteria might be indirectly important, to the extent that human welfare involves them.", "But even then, such demands as human rights would only be elements in the calculation of overall welfare, not uncrossable barriers to action." ], [ "See also", "===Other pages===* Adl (Arabic for Justice in Islam)* Criminal justice* Ethics* Global justice* International Court of Justice* International Criminal Court* Just war theory* Just-world hypothesis* Justice (economics)* Morality* Napoleonic Code* Rationality* Rule according to higher law* Sociology of law===Types of justice===* Design justice* Distributive justice* Environmental justice* Injustice* Occupational injustice* Open justice* Organizational justice* Poetic justice* Retributive justice* Social justice* Spatial justice* Transformative justice" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Clive Barnett, ''The Priority of Injustice: Locating Democracy in Critical Theory'' (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2017), * Brian Barry, ''Theories of Justice'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989)* Gad Barzilai, ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003)* Harry Brighouse, ''Justice'' (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004)* Anthony Duff & David Garland eds, ''A Reader on Punishment'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994)* Colin Farrelly, ''An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory'' (London: Sage, 2004)* David Gauthier, ''Morals By Agreement'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986)* Robert E. Goodin & Philip Pettit eds, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An anthology'' (2nd edition, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006), Part III* Serge Guinchard, ''La justice et ses institutions'' (Judicial institutions), Dalloz editor, 12 edition, 2013* Eric Heinze, ''The Concept of Injustice'' (Routledge, 2013)* Ted Honderich, ''Punishment: The supposed justifications'' (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1969)* James Konow (2003) \"Which Is the Fairest One of All?", "A Positive Analysis of Justice Theories\", ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 41(4) pp.", "1188–1239* Will Kymlicka, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An introduction'' (2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)* Nicola Lacey, ''State Punishment'' (London: Routledge, 1988)* John Stuart Mill, ''Utilitarianism'' in ''On Liberty and Other Essays'' ed.", "John Gray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991)* Robert Nozick, ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974)* * Marek Piechowiak, ''Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity'' (2nd edition, revised and extended, Berlin: Peter Lang Academic Publishers, 2021), ISBN 978-3-631-84524-0.", "* C.L.", "Ten, ''Crime, Guilt, and Punishment: A philosophical introduction'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987)* Plato, ''Republic'' trans.", "Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994)* John Rawls, ''A Theory of Justice'' (revised edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)* David Schmidtz, ''Elements of Justice'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006)* Peter Singer ed., ''A Companion to Ethics'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), Part IV* Telford Taylor, Constance Baker Motley, and James Feibleman (1975) ''Perspectives on Justice'', Northwestern University Press * Catharine Titi, ''The Function of Equity in International Law'' (Oxford University Press, 2021), * Reinhold Zippelius, ''Rechtsphilosophie, §§ 11–22'' (6th edition, Munich: C.H.", "Beck, 2011)," ], [ "External links", "* Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entries: Distributive Justice, by Michael Allingham Punishment, by Kevin Murtagh** Western Theories of Justice, by Wayne P. Pomerleau* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entries: \"Justice\" by David Miller \"Distributive Justice\" by Julian Lamont \"Justice as a Virtue\" by Michael Slote \"Punishment\" by Hugo Adam Bedau and Erin Kelly* United Nations Rule of Law: Informal Justice, on the relationship between informal/community justice, the rule of law and the United Nations* Justice: What's The Right Thing To Do?", ", a series of 12 videos on the subject of justice by Harvard University's Michael Sandel, with reading materials and comments from participants." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacob Abbott" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacob Abbott''' (November 14, 1803 – October 31, 1879) was an American writer of children's books." ], [ "Early life", "On November 14, 1803, Abbott was born in Hallowell, Maine to Jacob Abbott II and Betsey Chandler.", "He attended the Hallowell Academy." ], [ "Education", "Abbott graduated from Bowdoin College in 1820.At some point during his years there, he supposedly added the second \"t\" to his surname, to avoid being \"Jacob Abbot the 3rd\" (although one source notes he did not actually begin signing his name with two t's until several years later).Abbott studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 1824.He taught at Portland Academy and was a tutor in Amherst College during the next year." ], [ "Career", "From 1825 to 1829 Abbott was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Amherst College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for Young Ladies in Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829–1833; was pastor of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1834–1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and in 1843–1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 1845–1848 of the Mount Vernon School for Boys, in New York City.He was a prolific author, writing juvenile fiction, brief histories, biographies, religious books for the general reader, and a few works in popular science.", "He wrote 180 books and was a coauthor or editor of 31 more.", "He died in Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time after 1839, and where his brother, Samuel Phillips Abbott, founded the Abbott School.His ''Rollo Books'', such as ''Rollo at Play'' and ''Rollo in Europe'', are the best known of his writings, having as their chief characters a representative boy and his associates.", "In them Abbott did for one or two generations of young American readers a service not unlike that performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of ''Evenings at Home'', ''The History of Sandford and Merton'', and ''The Parent's Assistant''.", "To follow up his Rollo books, he wrote of ''Uncle George'', using him to teach the young readers about ethics, geography, history, and science.", "He also wrote 22 volumes of biographical histories and a 10 volume set titled the ''Franconia Stories''.His intention was to both amuse and educate, shown by this quotation from the Preface of ''Bruno'': The books, though called story books, are not intended to be works of amusement merely to those who may receive them, but of substantial instruction.", "The successive volumes will comprise a great variety, both in respect to the subjects which they treat, and to the form and manner in which the subjects will be presented; but the end and aim of all will be to impart useful knowledge, to develop the thinking and reasoning powers, to teach a correct and discriminating use of language, to present models of good conduct for imitation, and bad examples to be shunned, to explain and enforce the highest principles of moral duty, and, above all, to awaken and cherish the spirit of humble and unobtrusive, but heartfelt piety.", "''Fewacres'' in 1906, Abbott's residence at Farmington, MaineHis brothers, John Stevens Cabot Abbott and Gorham Dummer Abbott, were also authors.", "His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott, Austin Abbott, both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott, and Edward Abbott, a clergyman, were also well-known authors.See his ''Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the Author'' by Edward Abbott with a bibliography of his works.Other works of note: ''Lucy Books'', ''Jonas Books'', ''Harper's Story Books'', ''Marco Paul'', ''Gay Family'', and ''Juno Books''." ], [ "Personal life", "On May 18, 1829, Abbott married Harriet Vaughan.", "He had four sons; Benjamin Vaughan Abbott, Edward Abbott, Austin Abbott and Lyman Abbott." ], [ "Select Bibliography", "=== Biographies ===* Alexander the Great (1878)* Alfred the Great* King Charles I* King Charles II* Cleopatra* Cyrus the Great (1878)* Darius* Queen Elizabeth* Genghis Khan* Hannibal* Hortense* Josephine* Julius Caesar* Margaret of Anjou* Mary, Queen of Scots* Nero* Peter the Great* Pyrrhus* Richard I* Richard II* Richard III* Romulus* William the Conqueror* Xerxes=== American History Series ===* Aboriginal America (1860)* Discovery of America (1860)* Southern Colonies (1860)* Northern Colonies (1862)* Wars of the Colonies (1863)* Revolt of the Colonies (1864)* War of the Revolution (1864)* Washington (1865)===Educational fiction===''Rollo's Experiments'' (1839)''Rollo Learning to Read'' (1847)''Rollo at Work or, The Way to Be Industrious'' (1848)''Rollo at Play or, Safe Amusements'' (1850)''Rollo in London'' (1854)''Bruno or, Lessons of Fidelity, Patience, and Self-Denial Taught by a Dog'' (1854)''Cousin Lucy's Conversations'' (1854)''Rollo in the Woods'' (1857)''Georgie'' (1857)Note: dates may be revised editions" ], [ "References" ], [ "Additional sources", "" ], [ "External links", "* * Portrait clipping of Jacob Abbott from The New York Public Library Digital Collections* Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, John Fiske and Stanley L. Klos.", "Six volumes, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1887–1889* * * * Works by Jacob Abbott at Online Books" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Stevens Cabot Abbott" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Stevens Cabot Abbott''' (September 19, 1805June 17, 1877), an American historian, pastor, and pedagogical writer, was born in Brunswick, Maine to Jacob and Betsey Abbott." ], [ "Early life", "He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated with him in the management of Abbott's Institute in New York City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical biographies.", "Abbott graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, prepared for the ministry at Andover Theological Seminary, and between 1830 and 1844, when he retired from the ministry in the Congregational Church, preached successively at Worcester, Roxbury, and Nantucket, all in Massachusetts." ], [ "Literary career", "Owing to the success of his work, ''The Mother at Home'', he devoted himself from 1844 onwards, to literature.", "He was a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of popular histories, which were credited with cultivating a popular interest in history.", "He is best known as the author of the widely popular ''History of Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1855), in which the various elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are described.", "Abbott takes a very favourable view towards his subject throughout.", "Also among his principal works are: ''History of the Civil War in America'' (1863–1866),''History of Napoleon III Emperor of the French'' (1868), and ''The History of Frederick II, Called Frederick the Great'' (New York, 1871).", "He also did a foreword to a book called Life of Boone by W.M.", "Bogart, about Daniel Boone in 1876.His biography in ''The Biographical Dictionary of America'' (1906) states that Abbot's mind was extremely clear and active, and he could leave the subject in hand for something entirely different, and then resume his former work without the slightest inconvenience, also he had a singularly even temperament; by his personal goodness, as well as by his books, he had a great influence on the world, he continued active in work nearly to the time of his death, to which he looked forward with joy rather than resignation.", "The anonymous author of his biography in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.)''", "stated \"He was a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of histories, which now seem unscholarly and untrustworthy, but were valuable in their time in cultivating a popular interest in history\"; and that in general, except that he did not write juvenile fiction, his work in subject and style closely resembles that of his brother, Jacob Abbott." ], [ "Marriage and children", "On August 17, 1830, he married Jane Williams Bourne, daughter of Abner Bourne and Abagail Williams.", "Together they raised eight children: #John Brown Abbott (November 29, 1832 – May 24, 1842)#Jane Maria Abbott (born November 25, 1833)#Waldo Abbott (September 8, 1836 – July 7, 1864)#Harriet Vaughan Abbott (born February 18, 1838)#Ellen Williams Abbott(born January 11, 1840)#Laura Sallucia Abbott (born October 30, 1843)#Elizabeth Ballister Abbott (March 15, 1847 – February 23, 1864)#Emma Susan Abbott (born July 12, 1849)As a part of the 1872 Iwakura Mission Abbott was given guardianship of Shige Nagai, a Japanese girl sent to the United States to be educated.", "She became one of the first piano teachers in Japan, and one of the first two Japanese women to attend a college.Abbott died at Fair Haven, Connecticut on 17 June 1877.In 1910, a series of twenty short biographies of historical characters by J. S. C. and Jacob Abbott, was published.", "His brother, Gorham Dummer Abbott, was a pioneer in women’s education in the United States, as well as an author.", "Abbott's grandson, Willis Abbott, was a journalist and author and an editor of ''The Christian Science Monitor''." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "===Inspirational/religious===''The Mother At Home'' (c. 1830)''The Path of Peace'' (1836)''The Child At Home'' (1834)''The School-Boy'' (1839)''The History of Christianity: consisting of the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the adventures of Paul and the apostles and the most interesting events in the progress of Christianity from the earliest period to the present time'' (1872)===Historical===''The History of the Civil War in America, (two volumes)''''The History of Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1855) (two volumes)''Napoleon At St. Helena'' (1855)''Kings And Queens'' (1855)''Confidential Correspondence Of The Emperor Napoleon'' (1856)* ''The French Revolution of 1789'' (1900) 1859''The Empire Of Russia: Its Rise And Present Power''''Austria: Its Rise And Present Power''''History of the Habsburg Empire''''Italy''''The History of Napoleon III, Emperor of the French'' (1868)''The Romance Of Spanish History'' (1869)''Prussia and the Franco-Prussian War'' (1871)''The History Of Frederick II, Called Frederick The Great'' (1871)''The History of The State of Ohio'' (1875)''Lives Of The Presidents Of The United States'' (1876)===Biographies===Published after 1850 in the series ''Illustrated History'', with other titles by his brother Jacob Abbott.", "Later reissued in the ''Famous Characters of History'' series, and in the 1904 series ''Makers of History'':''Cortez''''Henry IV''''Louis XIV''''King Philip (Metacomet)'', war chief of the Wampanoag people''Madame Roland''''Marie Antoinette: Makers of History (1901)''''Joseph Bonaparte'', elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte''Josephine'', wife of Napoleon Bonaparte''Hortense'', daughter of Josephine''Louis Philippe'', the last king to rule France, although Emperor Napoleon III would serve as its last monarch.The American Pioneers And Patriots set:''Daniel Boone'' ''Miles Standish'' ''De Soto''''Peter Stuyvesant''''Kit Carson''''David Crockett''''Captain Kidd''''John Paul Jones''''La Salle''''Christopher Columbus''''George Washington''''Benjamin Franklin''===Juvenile===''The Child At Home'' (1834)''The School Boy'' (1839)''The School Girl'' (1840)''A Visit To The Mountains'' (1844)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*****'''Attribution'''" ], [ "External links", " * * * * John Stevens Cabot Abbott Autograph Book at the William L. Clements Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Janus (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Janus''' is the two-faced Roman god of gates, doors, doorways, beginnings, and endings.", "'''Janus''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Computing", "* Janus (concurrent constraint programming language)* Janus (DRM), a Microsoft Digital Rights Management platform* Janus (protocol), a file transfer protocol for use on bulletin board systems* Janus (time-reversible computing programming language)* JANUS clinical trial data repository, a standard supported by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration* Janus Recognition Toolkit (JRTk), a general purpose speech recognition toolkit* Janus, a codename used for Windows 2000 (DEC Alpha and Itanium 64-bit editions)* Janus attack, an alternative name of a Man-in-the-middle attack" ], [ "People", "* Janus (given name)* Janus (surname)* Janus Prospero from the ''Resident Evil'' film series* Janus of Cyprus (1375–1432), king of Cyprus from 1398 to 1432* Janus I, Duke of Masovia* J'anus, the claimed stage name of Janis McGavin, a performer on ''Balls of Steel Australia''" ], [ "Performing arts", "=== Music ===* Janus Records, a record label* Janvs, a black metal band from Liguria, Italy* Janus (musical project), a German darkwave musical project established 1995* Janus (American band), hard rock band, established in the mid-1990s in Chicago, Illinois* ''Janus'' (album), the first full-length album released by Boyfriend=== Film ===* Janus Films, an American film distribution company* Janus, the criminal organization in the James Bond movie ''GoldenEye''* The Janus Project, a taboo cloning project in the movie ''Judge Dredd (film)''=== Other performing arts ===* ''Janus'' (play), a 1955 Broadway romantic comedy* ''Janus'' (TV series), an Australian drama television series" ], [ "Printed media", "===Comics===* Janus (comics), a list of characters* Janus (Marvel Comics), Marvel Comics character* Janus, DC Comics character known as Two-Face* Janus, character in the novel ''Angels & Demons''===Other printed media===* ''Janus'' (journal) (1896–1990), an academic journal on history of science and medicine published in Amsterdam* ''Janus'' (science fiction magazine), a feminist science fiction magazine published from 1975-1980* ''Janus: A Summing Up'', a 1978 book by Arthur Koestler* The Janus branch of the Cahill family in ''The 39 Clues''* Janus word or auto-antonym, a word with multiple meanings in which one is the reverse of another* ''Janus'', a French poetry magazine published in Paris by Elliott Stein from 1950 to 1961* ''Janus'' (1971-2007), a British fetish magazine of erotic spanking and caning imagery." ], [ "Games and gaming", "* Janus Chess, a chess variant* Janus Zeal, a character in the game ''Chrono Trigger''" ], [ "Places", "* Janus Island, an island of the Palmer Archipelago, Antarctica* Mont Janus, a mountain near Mont Chaberton, France* , a shallow volcanic crater on Io, a moon of Jupiter* Janus (moon), a moon of Saturn" ], [ "Science", "* Janus (moon), a moon of Saturn* ''Janus'' (genus), a genus of stem sawflies in the family Cephidae* Janus-faced molecule, used to describe a molecule whose effects on organisms can vary between beneficial and toxic* Janus Experiments, a series of experiments on radio-sensitivity in mice and dogs* Janus kinase, an intracellular signalling molecule; component of the JAK-STAT signal system** Janus kinase inhibitor, a medication that inhibits the activity of the Janus kinase enzymes* Janus particle, an amphiphilic particle with a surface that is half hydrophilic half hydrophobic* Janus TMD monolayers, a type of asymmetric transition-metal dichalcogenide monolayers* Janus (spacecraft), a NASA mission to binary asteroids* Janus (star), the name given to the Hydrogen-Helium faced white dwarf star ZTF J203349.8+322901.1" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Janus'' (1810 ship) (1810–1832), built in New York, U.S.* HMS ''Janus'', a name used by British naval ships* Janus Capital Group, an investment company based in Denver, Colorado* ''Janus v. AFSCME'', U.S. Supreme Court case (2018)* Society of Janus, a San Francisco-based BDSM education and support group* Schempp-Hirth Janus, a German two-seater glider* Yorkshire Engine Company Janus, a British diesel shunting locomotive* Zündapp Janus, a bubble car model by Zündapp* Janus, catalogue database of Cambridge University Library* Janus Motorcycles, a motorcycle manufacturer based in Goshen, Indiana" ], [ "See also", "Janis (disambiguation)Janice (disambiguation)Janusz*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Brown" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Brown''' most often refers to:John Brown (abolitionist) (1800–1859), American who led an anti-slavery raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1859'''John Brown''' or '''Johnny Brown''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Academia", "John Brown (educator) (1763–1842), Irish educator; third president of the University of GeorgiaJohn Carter Brown (1797–1874), American book collector and antiquarianJohn Macmillan Brown (1845–1935), Scottish-New Zealand academic, administrator and promoter of education for womenJohn Nicholas Brown I (1861–1900), American book collector and antiquarianJohn Lott Brown (1924–2011), American university administrator and professorJohn H. Brown (scholar) (born 1948), American scholar of public diplomacy" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Literature===John Brown (historian) (died ), English miscellaneous writerJohn Mason Brown (1900–1969), American literary criticSir John Gilbert Newton Brown (1916–2003), English book publisher John Gregory Brown (born 1960), American novelistJohn Brown (American author) (born 1966), American novelist and short story writer===Performing arts===John Browne (composer), (1453–c.", "1500), composerJohn Brown (actor) (1904–1957), English radio and film actorJohnny Mack Brown (1904–1974), American film actor and college football playerJohnny Brown (actor) (1937–2022), American actor and singerJohn Moulder-Brown (born 1953), English actorJohn W. Brown (set decorator) (fl.", "1960s–1970s)===Visual arts===John Brown (artist) (1752–1787), Scottish artistJohn Crawford Brown (1805–1867), Scottish landscape painterJohn Lewis Brown (1829–1892), French battle, animal, and genre painterJohn George Brown (1831–1913), English-born American painterJohn William Brown (artist) (1842–1928), English painter and stained-glass designerJohn Appleton Brown (1844–1902), American painterJohn Arnesby Brown (1866–1955), English landscape artist" ], [ "Business and industry", "John Brown (1723–1808), Scottish-Danish merchant and shipownerJohn Brown (brewer) (1795–1890), English brewerJohn Brown (builder) (1809–1876), Canadian builderJohn Brown (coalmine owner) (1850–1930), coal baron and shipowner in New South Wales, AustraliaSir John Brown (industrialist) (1816–1896), British industrialist; founder of the Atlas steelworksJohn Crosby Brown (1838–1909), American banker; partner in Brown Bros. & Co.John W. Brown (labor leader) (1867–1941), Canadian-born labor leader in the United StatesJohn Brown (trade unionist) (1880/81–1961), British trade union leader and local councilorJohn W. Brown (British trade unionist) (1886–?", "), British activist, general secretary of the International Federation of Trade UnionsJohn Seely Brown (born 1940), American researcher in organizational studiesJohn W. Brown (corporate executive) (fl.", "1980s–2010s), American executive; president of Stryker Corporation" ], [ "Military", "John Brown (British Army officer) (died 1762), British Army generalJohn Brown (British Army soldier) (1908–1965), Royal Artillery quartermaster sergeant and espionage agentJohn Brown of Pittsfield (1744–1780), American Revolutionary War officerJohn Brown (sailor) (1826–1883), American sailor and Civil War Medal of Honor recipientJohn Harties Brown (1834–1905), Canadian soldier who fought in the American Civil WarJohn Brown (Medal of Honor) (1838–?", "), American sailor and peacetime Medal of Honor recipientJohn H. Brown (Medal of Honor) (1842–1898), American soldier and Civil War Medal of Honor recipientJohn H. Brown Jr. (1891–1963), United States Navy admiral and American football playerJohn Nicholas Brown II (1900–1979), U.S. Assistant Secretary of the NavyJohn Brown Jr. (Navajo code talker) (1921–2009), American Navajo code talker during World War IIJohn M. Brown III (fl.", "1960s–2000s), United States Army generalJohn S. Brown (general) (fl.", "1970s–2000s), United States Army brigadier general; Chief Historian of the United States Army Center of Military HistoryJohn Marshall Brown (1838–1907), American commissioned officer during the American Civil War" ], [ "Politics and law", "===Australia===John Brown (New South Wales politician) (1821–1896), member of the New South Wales Legislative AssemblyJohn Alexander Voules Brown (1852–1945), member of the South Australian House of AssemblyJohn Brown (Queensland politician) (1881–1949), blacksmith and member of the Queensland Legislative AssemblyJohn Brown (Tasmanian politician) (1886–1974), member of the Tasmanian House of AssemblyJohn Brown (Australian politician) (born 1931), member of the Australian House of Representatives===Canada===John Brown (Upper Canada politician) (1791–1842), Irish-born Canadian politicianJohn Lothrop Brown (1815–1887), Canadian political figure in Nova ScotiaJohn Brown (Richmond Hill politician) (fl.", "1870s–1880s), Canadian politicianJohn Brown (Canadian politician) (1841–1905), member of ParliamentJohn Cameron Brown (1843–?", "), Canadian political figure in New BrunswickJohn Cunningham Brown (1844–1929), Irish-born political figure in British ColumbiaJohn Brown (Ontario MPP) (1849–1924), member of Ontario assembly and mayor of Stratford, OntarioJohn Robert Brown (British Columbia politician) (1862–1947), Canadian politicianJohn Livingstone Brown (1867–1953), Canadian politicianJohn G. Brown (1900–1958), Ontario politicianJohn L. Brown (Ontario politician) (1921–2004), Canadian politician===United Kingdom===John Brown (Wales MP) (died c. 1654)Sir John McLeavy Brown (1835–1926), British lawyer and diplomatJohn Wesley Brown (1873–1944), British MP for Middlesbrough East===United States=======Kentucky====John Brown (Kentucky politician, born 1757) (1757–1837), U.S. representative and U.S. senator; member of Continental Congress from VirginiaJohn Y.", "Brown (politician, born 1835) (1835–1904), Kentucky governor, U.S. representative for KentuckyJohn Y.", "Brown Sr. (1900–1985), U.S. representative for KentuckyJohn Y.", "Brown Jr. (1933–2022), Kentucky governorJohn Young Brown III (born 1963), Kentucky Secretary of State====Other U.S. states====John Brown I (1736–1803), U.S. representative, co-founder of Brown UniversityJohn Brown (North Carolina politician) (1738–1812), pioneer and statesmanJohn Brown (Maryland politician) (1760–1815), U.S. representativeJohn Brown (Pennsylvania politician) (1772–1845), U.S. representativeJohn Brown (Texas politician) (1786–1852), speaker of the Texas state House of RepresentativesJohn W. Brown (New York politician) (1796–1875), U.S. representativeJohn Brown (Cherokee chief) (fl.", "1830s)John S. Brown (Michigan politician) (born 1810), Michigan state representativeJohn Brown (mountain man) (1817–1889), fur trapper and trader around Pueblo, Colorado from 1841 to 1849John Henry Brown (1820–1895), Texas politician, chaired Texas articles of SecessionJohn C. Brown (1827–1889), Confederate general, Tennessee governorJohn S. Brown (Maryland politician), American politicianJohn Brewer Brown (1836–1898), U.S. representative for MarylandJohn Robert Brown (Virginia politician) (1842–1927), U.S. representativeJohn Brown (Seminole chief) (1842–1919), Seminole chief and Confederate States Army officerJohn C. Brown (Ohio politician) (1844–1900), American politicianJohn T. Brown (1876–1951), Ohio lieutenant governorJohn Robert Brown (judge) (1909–1993), member of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth CircuitJohn William Brown (1913–1993), Ohio governorJohn Brown Junior (1821–1895), American abolitionist===Other countries===John Evans Brown (1827–1895), American-born member of New Zealand parliament" ], [ "Religion", "John Brown of Priesthill (1627–1685), Scottish Protestant martyrJohn Brown (essayist) (1715–1766), English clergymanJohn Brown of Haddington (1722–1787), Scottish clergyman and Biblical commentatorJohn Brown (Vicar of St Mary's, Leicester) (c. 1792–1845), British evangelical preacherJohn Brown (minister) (1784–1858), Scottish clergyman and writerJohn Newton Brown (1803–1868), Baptist teacher, minister and publisherJohn Croumbie Brown (1808–1895), Scottish missionary and forestry pioneer in South AfricaJohn M. Brown (1817–1852), American bishop in the African Methodist Episcopal churchJohn Brown (Mormon pioneer) (1820–1897), American Mormon leaderJohn Brown (writer) (1830–1922), British theologian, historian, and pastorJohn Henry Hobart Brown (1831–1888), American Episcopal bishop of Fond du Lac, WisconsinJohn Brown (moderator) (1850–1919), Scottish ministerJohn E. Brown (evangelist) (1879–1957), American evangelist, founder of John Brown UniversityJohn J.", "Brown (fl.", "1915), American Roman Catholic priest and educatorJohn Brown (bishop) (1931–2011), English Anglican bishopJohn Brown of Wamphray (1610–1679), Scottish church leaderJohn Pierce Brown (1843–1925), Irish Anglican priest" ], [ "Science and medicine", "John Brown (physician, born 1735) (1735–1788), Scottish physicianJohn Brown (geographer) (1797–1861), English geographerJohn Brown (physician, born 1810) (1810–1882), Scottish physician and essayistJohn Ronald Brown (1922–2010), unlicensed United States sex-change operation surgeonJohn Campbell Brown (1947–2019), Scottish astronomer" ], [ "Sports", "===American football===John Brown (center) (1922–2009), American football center and linebackerJohn Brown (offensive tackle) (born 1939), American NFL football offensive tackleJohn Brown (offensive lineman) (born 1988), American football offensive linemanJohn Brown (wide receiver) (born 1990), American NFL football wide receiverJon Brown (American football) (born 1992), American NFL football placekicker===Association football===John Arnesby Brown (1866–1955), English footballer for Notts CountyJohn Brown (footballer, born 1876) (1876–?", "), Scottish footballer for SunderlandJohn Brown (footballer, born 1887) (1887–1943), footballer for Celtic and ChelseaJohn Brown (footballer, born 1888) (1888–?", "), footballer for Manchester City and StokeJonathan Brown (English footballer) (1893–1918), English footballerJohn Brown (footballer, born 1890s), Scottish professional footballerJohn Brown (footballer, born 1901) (1901–1977), English footballer for Leicester City and WrexhamJohn Brown (1920s footballer), English footballer John Brown (footballer, born 1915) (1915–2005), Scottish football playerJohn Brown (footballer, born 1921) (1921–1989), English professional footballer for York CityJohn Brown (footballer, born 1935) (1935–2000), Scottish football playerJohn Brown (footballer, born March 1940), Scottish footballerJohn Brown (footballer, born July 1940), English footballerJohn Brown (footballer, born 1947), English football goalkeeperJohn Brown (footballer, born 1962), Scottish football player and manager===Australian rules football===John Brown (Australian footballer, born 1923) (1923–2007), Australian rules footballer for CarltonJohn Brown (Australian footballer, born 1937) (1937–2001), Australian rules footballer for GeelongJohn Brown (Australian footballer, born 1944) (1944–2001), Australian rules footballer for Geelong===Basketball===John Brown (basketball, born 1951), American former basketball player in the NBAJohn Brown (basketball, born 1992), American basketball playerJohn Y.", "Brown Jr. (1933–2022), American basketball owner===Cricket===John Brown (Nottinghamshire cricketer) (1807–1883), English cricketerJohn Brown (cricketer, born 1820) (1820–?", "), English cricketerJohn Brown (cricketer, born 1862) (1862–?", "), English cricketerJack Brown (cricketer) (1869–1904), English cricketerJohn Brown (cricketer, born 1874) (1874–1950), English cricketerJohn Brown (cricketer, born 1890) (1890–1968), English cricketerJohn Brown (umpire) (1928–2005), New Zealand Test match umpire===Rugby football===John Blair Brown (1856–1904), Scottish rugby union playerJohn Alf Brown (1881–1936), Welsh international rugby union playerJohnny Brown (rugby league) (born 1943), Australian rugby league footballerJohn Brown (rugby league), New Zealand rugby league player===Other sports===John Brown (1890s pitcher) (1876–1908), American baseball playerJohn Brown (1940s pitcher) (1918–1999), American baseball playerJackie Brown (English boxer) or John Brown (1909–1971), English boxerJohn Brown (cyclist) (1916–1990), New Zealand cyclistJohn Brown (bobsleigh) (1935–2019), British Olympic bobsledderJohn Brown (bodybuilder) (fl.", "1980s), American bodybuilderJohn Brown (runner) (fl.", "2000s–2010s), British competitor in the 2010 World Long Distance Mountain Running ChallengeJohn Brown (tennis), Australian sports promoter and tennis playerJonny Brown (cyclist) (born 1997), American cyclist" ], [ "Others", "John Brown (architect) (1805–1876), British architectJohn Brown (fugitive slave) (c. 1810–1876), American author of ''Slave Life in Georgia: A Narrative of the Life, Sufferings and Escape of John Brown''John Brown (servant) (1826–1883), Scottish servant and close friend of Queen VictoriaJohn Ednie Brown (1848–1899), Scottish author on sylviculture and state conservator of forestsJohn Brown (colonist) (died 1879), English colonist in South AustraliaJohn Brown (bridge) (1887–?", "), English contract-bridge player and authorJohn A.", "Brown Jr. (died 1997), American murderer executed in Louisiana for the murder of Omer Laughlin" ], [ "Other uses", "===Artistic uses===\"John Brown's Body\", Union marching song of the American Civil WarJohn Brown (The Shop Girl), fictional millionaire in ''The Shop Girl'' (1894)''John Brown'' (biography), 1909 biography of the abolitionist by W.E.B.", "Du Bois\"John Brown\" (Bob Dylan song) (1962)John Brown, fictional sheriff in \"I Shot the Sheriff\" by Bob Marley (1973)\"John Brown\", a song by the Masters of Reality from ''Masters of Reality'' (1989)John Brown, fictional character in ''Ghost Hunt'' (1989–1992)John Brown, fictional physician in ''Like Water for Chocolate'' (1992)John Brown, fictional protagonist of ''Inspector Gadget'' (1999)John Brown's Body (band), an American reggae band===Business and legal uses===''Virginia v. John Brown'', 1859 trial of the abolitionistJohn Brown & Company, shipbuilding company in Clydebank, ScotlandJohn Brown Media, British magazine publisherJohn A.", "Brown (department store), Oklahoma-based department store chainJohn Brown University, college in Siloam Springs, Arkansas===Military uses===John Brown Battery, American volunteer artillery unit in the Lincoln Battalion during the Spanish Civil WarSS ''John W. Brown'', American Liberty shipSS ''John W. Brown II'', American Victory ship" ], [ "See also", "John Young Brown (disambiguation)Jonathan Brown (disambiguation)John Browne (disambiguation)Jack Brown (disambiguation)Jackie Brown (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "J. E. B. Stuart" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Ewell Brown''' \"'''Jeb'''\" '''Stuart''' (February 6, 1833May 12, 1864) was a Confederate States Army general during the American Civil War.", "He was known to his friends as \"Jeb,” from the initials of his given names.", "Stuart was a cavalry commander known for his mastery of reconnaissance and the use of cavalry in support of offensive operations.", "While he cultivated a cavalier image (red-lined gray cape, the yellow waist sash of a regular cavalry officer, hat cocked to the side with an ostrich plume, red flower in his lapel, often sporting cologne), his serious work made him the trusted eyes and ears of Robert E. Lee's army and inspired Southern morale.Stuart graduated from West Point in 1854 and served in Texas and Kansas with the U.S. Army.", "Stuart was a veteran of the frontier conflicts with Native Americans and the violence of Bleeding Kansas, and he participated in the capture of John Brown at Harpers Ferry.", "He resigned his commission when his home state of Virginia seceded, to serve in the Confederate Army, first under Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, but then in increasingly important cavalry commands of the Army of Northern Virginia, playing a role in all of that army's campaigns until his death.He established a reputation as an audacious cavalry commander and on two occasions (during the Peninsula Campaign and the Maryland Campaign) circumnavigated the Union Army of the Potomac, bringing fame to himself and embarrassment to the North.", "At the Battle of Chancellorsville, he distinguished himself as a temporary commander of the wounded Stonewall Jackson's infantry corps.Stuart's most famous campaign, the Gettysburg Campaign, was flawed when his long separation from Lee's army left Lee unaware of Union troop movements so that Lee was surprised and almost trapped at the Battle of Gettysburg.", "Stuart received criticism from the Southern press as well as the proponents of the Lost Cause movement after the war.", "During the 1864 Overland Campaign, Union Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan's cavalry launched an offensive to defeat Stuart, who was mortally wounded at the Battle of Yellow Tavern." ], [ "Early life and background", "Laurel Hill Farm overview, 2017Stuart was born at Laurel Hill Farm, a plantation in Patrick County, Virginia, near the border with North Carolina.", "He was the eighth of eleven children and the youngest of the five sons to survive past early age.", "His father, Archibald Stuart, was a War of 1812 veteran, slaveholder, attorney, and Democratic politician who represented Patrick County in both houses of the Virginia General Assembly, and also served one term in the United States House of Representatives.", "His mother Elizabeth Letcher Pannill Stuart ran the family farm, and was known as a strict religious woman with a good sense for business.He was of Scottish descent (including some Scots-Irish).", "His great-grandfather, Major Alexander Stuart, commanded a regiment at the Battle of Guilford Court House during the Revolutionary War.", "His father Archibald was a cousin of attorney Alexander Hugh Holmes Stuart.===Education===Stuart was educated at home by his mother and tutors until the age of twelve, when he left Laurel Hill to be educated by various teachers in Wytheville, Virginia, and at the home of his aunt Anne (Archibald's sister) and her husband Judge James Ewell Brown (Stuart's namesake) at Danville.", "He entered Emory and Henry College when he was fifteen, and attended from 1848 to 1850.During the summer of 1848, Stuart attempted to enlist in the U.S. Army, but was rejected as underaged.", "He obtained an appointment in 1850 to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, from Representative Thomas Hamlet Averett, the man who had defeated his father in the 1848 election.", "Stuart was a popular student and was happy at the Academy.", "Although he was not handsome in his teen years, his classmates called him by the nickname \"Beauty\", which they described as his \"personal comeliness in inverse ratio to the term employed.\"", "He quickly grew a beard after graduation and a fellow officer remarked that he was \"the only man he ever saw that a beard improved.", "\"Robert E. Lee was appointed superintendent of the academy in 1852, and Stuart became a friend of the family, seeing them socially on frequent occasions.", "Lee's nephew, Fitzhugh Lee, also arrived at the academy in 1852.In Stuart's final year, in addition to achieving the cadet rank of second captain of the corps, he was one of eight cadets designated as honorary \"cavalry officers\" for his skills in horsemanship.", "Stuart graduated 13th in his class of 46 in 1854.He ranked tenth in his class in cavalry tactics.", "Although he enjoyed the civil engineering curriculum at the academy and did well in mathematics, his poor drawing skills hampered his engineering studies, and he finished 29th in that discipline." ], [ "United States Army", "Stuart was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant and assigned to the U.S. Regiment of Mounted Riflemen in Texas.", "After an arduous journey, he reached Fort Davis on January 29, 1855, and was a leader for three months on scouting missions over the San Antonio to El Paso Road.", "He was soon transferred to the newly formed 1st Cavalry Regiment (1855) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas Territory, where he became regimental quartermaster and commissary officer under the command of Col. Edwin V. Sumner.", "He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1855.===Marriage===A young StuartAlso in 1855, Stuart met Flora Cooke, the daughter of the 2nd U.S. Dragoon Regiment's commander, Lieutenant Colonel Philip St. George Cooke.", "Burke Davis described Flora as \"an accomplished horsewoman, and though not pretty, an effective charmer,\" to whom \"Stuart succumbed with hardly a struggle.\"", "They became engaged in September, less than two months after meeting.", "Stuart humorously wrote of his rapid courtship in Latin, \"''Veni, Vidi, Victus sum''\" (I came, I saw, I was conquered).", "Although a gala wedding had been planned for Fort Riley, Kansas, the death of Stuart's father on September 20 caused a change of plans and the marriage on November 14 was small and limited to family witnesses.", "Their first child, a girl, was born in 1856 but died the same day.", "On November 14, 1857, Flora gave birth to another daughter, whom the parents named Flora after her mother.", "The family relocated in early 1858 to Fort Riley, where they remained for three years.", "The couple owned two slaves until 1859, one inherited from his father's estate, the other purchased.===Bleeding Kansas===Stuart's leadership capabilities were soon recognized.", "He was a veteran of the frontier conflicts with Native Americans and the antebellum violence of Bleeding Kansas.", "He was wounded on July 29, 1857, while fighting at Solomon River, Kansas, against the Cheyenne.", "Col. Sumner ordered a charge with drawn sabers against a wave of Native American arrows.", "Scattering the under-armed warriors, Stuart and three other lieutenants chased one down, whom Stuart wounded in the thigh with his pistol.", "The Cheyenne turned and fired at Stuart with a .36 caliber Allen & Thurber pepperbox pistol, striking him in the chest with a bullet, which did little more damage than to pierce the skin.", "Stuart returned in September to Fort Leavenworth and was reunited with his wife.===John Brown===In 1859, Stuart developed a new piece of cavalry equipment, for which he received patent number 25,684 on October 4—a saber hook, or an \"improved method of attaching sabers to belts.\"", "The U.S. government paid Stuart $5,000 for a \"right to use\" license and Stuart contracted with Knorr, Nece and Co. of Philadelphia to manufacture his hook.", "While in Washington, D.C., to discuss government contracts, and in conjunction with his application for an appointment into the quartermaster department, Stuart heard about John Brown's raid on the U.S. Arsenal at Harpers Ferry.", "Stuart volunteered to be aide-de-camp to Col. Robert E. Lee and accompanied Lee with a company of U.S. Marines from the Marine Barracks, 8th & I, Washington, DC and four companies of Maryland militia.", "While delivering Lee's written surrender ultimatum to the leader of the group, who had been calling himself Isaac Smith, Stuart recognized \"Old Osawatomie Brown\" from his days in Kansas.===Resignation===Stuart was promoted to captain on April 22, 1861, but resigned from the U.S. Army on May 3, 1861, to join the Confederate States Army, following the secession of Virginia.", "On June 26, 1860, Flora gave birth to a son, Philip St. George Cooke Stuart, but Stuart changed the name to James Ewell Brown Stuart Jr. (\"Jimmie\"), in late 1861 out of disgust with his father-in-law.", "Upon learning that his father-in-law, Col. Cooke, would remain in the U.S. Army during the coming war, Stuart wrote to his brother-in-law (future Confederate Brig.", "Gen. John Rogers Cooke), \"He will regret it but once, and that will be continuously.\"", "When he learned that George H. Thomas, a fellow Virginian, had also decided to stay with the Union, Stuart wrote \"I would like to hang, hang Thomas as a traitor to his native state.\"" ], [ "Confederate Army", "===Early service===Stuart was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel of Virginia Infantry in the Confederate Army on May 10, 1861.Maj.", "Gen. Robert E. Lee, now commanding the armed forces of Virginia, ordered him to report to Colonel Thomas J. Jackson at Harper's Ferry.", "Jackson chose to ignore Stuart's infantry designation and assigned him on July 4 to command all the cavalry companies of the Army of the Shenandoah, organized as the 1st Virginia Cavalry Regiment.", "He was promoted to colonel on July 16.Stonewall Jackson assigned Stuart to cavalry.After early service in the Shenandoah Valley, Stuart led his regiment in the First Battle of Bull Run (where Jackson got his nickname, \"Stonewall\"), and participated in the pursuit of the retreating Federals, leading to sensationalist reports in the Northern press about the dreaded Confederate \"black horse\" cavalry.", "He then commanded the Army's outposts along the upper Potomac River until given command of the cavalry brigade for the army then known as the Army of the Potomac (later named the Army of Northern Virginia).", "He was promoted to brigadier general on September 24, 1861.===Peninsula===In 1862, the Union Army of the Potomac began its Peninsula Campaign against Richmond, Virginia, and Stuart's cavalry brigade assisted Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's army as it withdrew up the Virginia Peninsula in the face of superior numbers.", "Stuart fought at the Battle of Williamsburg, but in general the terrain and weather on the Peninsula did not lend themselves to cavalry operations.", "However, when Gen. Robert E. Lee became commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, he requested that Stuart perform reconnaissance to determine whether the right flank of the Union army was vulnerable.", "Stuart set out with 1,200 troopers on the morning of June 12 and, having determined that the flank was indeed vulnerable, took his men on a complete circumnavigation of the Union army, returning after 150 miles on June 15 with 165 captured Union soldiers, 260 horses and mules, and various quartermaster and ordnance supplies.", "His men met no serious opposition from the more decentralized Union cavalry, coincidentally commanded by his father-in-law, Col. Cooke, and their total casualties amounted to one man killed.", "The maneuver was a public relations sensation and Stuart was greeted with flower petals thrown in his path at Richmond.", "He had become as famous as Stonewall Jackson in the eyes of the Confederacy.===Northern Virginia===CSA Cavalry General J. E. B. StuartEarly in the Northern Virginia Campaign, Stuart was promoted to major general on July 25, 1862, and his command was upgraded to the Cavalry Division—the fact that the Army of Northern Virginia's cavalry had been brigaded and were now a full division made for an important organizational advantage over the Army of the Potomac's mounted arm, which was ineffectually organized as regiments attached to infantry brigades and treated as an extension of the army signal corps.", "He was nearly captured and lost his signature plumed hat and cloak to pursuing Federals during a raid in August, but in a retaliatory raid at Catlett's Station the following day, managed to overrun Union army commander Maj. Gen. John Pope's headquarters, and not only captured Pope's full uniform, but also intercepted orders that provided Lee with valuable intelligence concerning reinforcements for Pope's army.At the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas), Stuart's cavalry followed the massive assault by Longstreet's infantry against Pope's army, protecting its flank with artillery batteries.", "Stuart ordered Brig.", "Gen. Beverly Robertson's brigade to pursue the Federals and in a sharp fight against Brig.", "Gen. John Buford's brigade, Col. Thomas T. Munford's 2nd Virginia Cavalry was overwhelmed until Stuart sent in two more regiments as reinforcements.", "Buford's men, many of whom were new to combat, retreated across Lewis's Ford and Stuart's troopers captured over 300 of them.", "Stuart's men harassed the retreating Union columns until the campaign ended at the Battle of Chantilly.===Maryland===During the Maryland Campaign in September 1862, Stuart's cavalry screened the army's movement north.", "He bears some responsibility for Robert E. Lee's lack of knowledge of the position and celerity of the pursuing Army of the Potomac under George B. McClellan.", "For a five-day period, Stuart rested his men and entertained local civilians at a gala ball at Urbana, Maryland.", "His reports make no reference to intelligence gathering by his scouts or patrols.", "As the Union Army drew near to Lee's divided army, Stuart's men skirmished at various points on the approach to Frederick and Stuart was not able to keep his brigades concentrated enough to resist the oncoming tide.", "He misjudged the Union routes of advance, ignorant of the Union force threatening Turner's Gap, and required assistance from the infantry of Maj. Gen. D.H. Hill to defend the South Mountain passes in the Battle of South Mountain.", "His horse artillery bombarded the flank of the Union army as it opened its attack in the Battle of Antietam.", "By mid-afternoon, Stonewall Jackson ordered Stuart to command a turning movement with his cavalry against the Union right flank and rear, which if successful would be followed up by an infantry attack from the West Woods.", "Stuart began probing the Union lines with more artillery barrages, which were answered with \"murderous\" counterbattery fire and the cavalry movement intended by Jackson was never launched.Three weeks after Lee's army had withdrawn back to Virginia, on October 10–12, 1862, Stuart performed another of his audacious circumnavigations of the Army of the Potomac, his Chambersburg Raid—126 miles in under 60 hours, from Darkesville, West Virginia to as far north as Mercersburg, Pennsylvania and Chambersburg and around to the east through Emmitsburg, Maryland and south through Hyattstown, Maryland and White's Ford to Leesburg, Virginia—once again embarrassing his Union opponents and seizing horses and supplies, but at the expense of exhausted men and animals, without gaining much military advantage.", "Jubal Early referred to it as \"the greatest horse stealing expedition\" that only \"annoyed\" the enemy.", "Stuart gave his friend Jackson a fine, new officer's tunic, trimmed with gold lace, commissioned from a Richmond tailor, which he thought would give Jackson more of the appearance of a proper general (something to which Jackson was notoriously indifferent).McClellan pushed his army slowly south, urged by President Lincoln to pursue Lee, crossing the Potomac starting on October 26.As Lee began moving to counter this, Stuart screened Longstreet's corps and skirmished numerous times in early November against Union cavalry and infantry around Mountville, Aldie, and Upperville.", "On November 6, Stuart received sad news by telegram that his daughter Flora had died just before her fifth birthday of typhoid fever on November 3.===Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville===Stuart's hat, sword and LeMat Revolver (Museum of the Confederacy, Richmond, VA)In the December 1862 Battle of Fredericksburg, Stuart and his cavalry—most notably his horse artillery under Major John Pelham—protected Stonewall Jackson's flank at Hamilton's Crossing.", "General Lee commended his cavalry, which \"effectually guarded our right, annoying the enemy and embarrassing his movements by hanging on his flank, and attacking when the opportunity occurred.\"", "Stuart reported to Flora the next day that he had been shot through his fur collar but was unhurt.After Christmas, Lee ordered Stuart to conduct a raid north of the Rappahannock River to \"penetrate the enemy's rear, ascertain if possible his position & movements, & inflict upon him such damage as circumstances will permit.\"", "With 1,800 troopers and a horse artillery battery assigned to the operation, Stuart's raid reached as far north as four miles south of Fairfax Court House, seizing 250 prisoners, horses, mules, and supplies.", "Tapping telegraph lines, his signalmen intercepted messages between Union commanders, and Stuart sent a personal telegram to Union Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs, \"General Meigs will in the future please furnish better mules; those you have furnished recently are very inferior.", "\"On March 17, 1863, Stuart's cavalry clashed with a Union raiding party at Kelly's Ford.", "The minor victory was marred by the death of Major Pelham, which caused Stuart profound grief, as he thought of him as close as a younger brother.", "He wrote to a Confederate Congressman, \"The noble, the chivalric, the gallant Pelham is no more.", "... Let the tears of agony we have shed, and the gloom of mourning throughout my command bear witness.\"", "Flora was pregnant at the time and Stuart told her that if it were a boy, he wanted him to be named John Pelham Stuart.", "(Virginia Pelham Stuart was born October 9.", ")Chancellorsville, May 3, 1863 At the Battle of Chancellorsville, Stuart accompanied Stonewall Jackson on his famous flanking march of May 2, 1863, and started to pursue the retreating soldiers of the Union XI Corps when he received word that both Jackson and his senior division commander, Maj. Gen. A.P.", "Hill, had been wounded.", "Hill, bypassing the next most senior infantry general in the corps, Brig.", "Gen. Robert E. Rodes, sent a message ordering Stuart to take command of the Second Corps.", "Although the delays associated with this change of command effectively ended the flanking attack the night of May 2, Stuart, who had no prior experience leading infantry, performed creditably as an infantry corps commander the following day, launching a strong and well-coordinated attack against the Union right flank at Chancellorsville.", "When Union troops abandoned Hazel Grove, Stuart had the presence of mind to quickly occupy it and bombard the Union positions with artillery.", "Stuart relinquished his infantry command on May 6 when Hill returned to duty.", "Stephen W. Sears wrote:Stonewall Jackson died on May 10 and Stuart was once again devastated by the loss of a close friend, telling his staff that the death was a \"national calamity.\"", "Jackson's wife, Mary Anna, wrote to Stuart on August 1, thanking him for a note of sympathy: \"I need not assure you of which you already know, that your friendship & admiration were cordially reciprocated by him.", "I have frequently heard him speak of Gen'l Stuart as one of his warm personal friends, & also express admiration for your Soldierly qualities.", "\"===Brandy Station===Returning to the cavalry for the Gettysburg Campaign, Stuart endured the two low points in his career, starting with the Battle of Brandy Station, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war.", "By June 5, two of Lee's infantry corps were camped in and around Culpeper.", "Six miles northeast, holding the line of the Rappahannock River, Stuart bivouacked his cavalry troopers, mostly near Brandy Station, screening the Confederate Army against surprise by the enemy.", "Stuart requested a full field review of his troops by Gen. Lee.", "This grand review on June 5 included nearly 9,000 mounted troopers and four batteries of horse artillery, charging in simulated battle at Inlet Station, about two miles (three km) southwest of Brandy Station.Battle of Brandy Station, June 9, 1863Lee was not able to attend the review, however, so it was repeated in his presence on June 8, although the repeated performance was limited to a simple parade without battle simulations.", "Despite the lower level of activity, some of the cavalrymen and the newspaper reporters at the scene complained that all Stuart was doing was feeding his ego and exhausting the horses.", "Lee ordered Stuart to cross the Rappahannock the next day and raid Union forward positions, screening the Confederate Army from observation or interference as it moved north.", "Anticipating this imminent offensive action, Stuart ordered his tired troopers back into bivouac around Brandy Station.Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker interpreted Stuart's presence around Culpeper to be indicative of preparations for a raid on his army's supply lines.", "In reaction, he ordered his cavalry commander, Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, to take a combined arms force of 8,000 cavalrymen and 3,000 infantry on a \"spoiling raid\" to \"disperse and destroy\" the 9,500 Confederates.", "Pleasonton's force crossed the Rappahannock in two columns on June 9, 1863, the first crossing at Beverly's Ford (Brig.", "Gen. John Buford's division) catching Stuart by surprise, waking him and his staff to the sound of gunfire.", "The second crossing, at Kelly's Ford, surprised Stuart again, and the Confederates found themselves assaulted from front and rear in a spirited melee of mounted combat.", "A series of confusing charges and countercharges swept back and forth across Fleetwood Hill, which had been Stuart's headquarters the previous night.", "After ten hours of fighting, Pleasonton ordered his men to withdraw across the Rappahannock.Although Stuart claimed a victory because the Confederates held the field, Brandy Station is considered a tactical draw, and both sides came up short.", "Pleasonton was not able to disable Stuart's force at the start of an important campaign and he withdrew before finding the location of Lee's infantry nearby.", "However, the fact that the Southern cavalry had not detected the movement of two large columns of Union cavalry, and that they fell victim to a surprise attack, was an embarrassment that prompted serious criticism from fellow generals and the Southern press.", "The fight also revealed the increased competency of the Union cavalry, and foreshadowed the decline of the formerly invincible Southern mounted arm.===Stuart's ride in the Gettysburg Campaign===Stuart's ride (shown with a red dotted line) during the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3 – July 3, 1863Following a series of small cavalry battles in June as Lee's army began marching north through the Shenandoah Valley, Stuart may have had in mind the glory of circumnavigating the enemy army once again, desiring to erase the stain on his reputation of the surprise at Brandy Station.", "General Lee gave orders to Stuart on June 22 on how he was to participate in the march north.", "The exact nature of those orders has been argued by the participants and historians ever since, but the essence was that Stuart was instructed to guard the mountain passes with part of his force while the Army of Northern Virginia was still south of the Potomac, and that he was to cross the river with the remainder of the army and screen the right flank of Ewell's Second Corps.", "Instead of taking a direct route north near the Blue Ridge Mountains, however, Stuart chose to reach Ewell's flank by taking his three best brigades (those of Brig.", "Gen. Wade Hampton, Brig.", "Gen. Fitzhugh Lee, and Col. John R. Chambliss, the latter replacing the wounded Brig.", "Gen. W.H.F.", "\"Rooney\" Lee) between the Union army and Washington, moving north through Rockville to Westminster and on into Pennsylvania, hoping to capture supplies along the way and cause havoc near the enemy capital.", "Stuart and his three brigades departed Salem Depot at 1 a.m. on June 25.Unfortunately for Stuart's plan, the Union army's movement was underway and his proposed route was blocked by columns of Federal infantry, forcing him to veer farther to the east than either he or General Lee had anticipated.", "This prevented Stuart from linking up with Ewell as ordered and deprived Lee of the use of his prime cavalry force, the \"eyes and ears\" of the army, while advancing into unfamiliar enemy territory.Stuart's command crossed the Potomac River at 3 a.m. on June 28.At Rockville they captured a wagon train of 140 brand-new, fully loaded wagons and mule teams.", "This wagon train would prove to be a logistical hindrance to Stuart's advance, but he interpreted Lee's orders as placing importance on gathering supplies.", "The proximity of the Confederate raiders provoked some consternation in the national capital and two Union cavalry brigades and an artillery battery were sent to pursue the Confederates.", "Stuart supposedly said that were it not for his fatigued horses \"he would have marched down the 7th Street Road and took Abe & Cabinet prisoners.", "\"In Westminster on June 29, his men clashed briefly with and overwhelmed two companies of Union cavalry, chasing them a long distance on the Baltimore road, which Stuart claimed caused a \"great panic\" in the city of Baltimore.", "The head of Stuart's column encountered Brig.", "Gen. Judson Kilpatrick's cavalry as it passed through Hanover and scattered it on June 30; the Battle of Hanover ended after Kilpatrick's men regrouped and drove the Confederates out of town.", "Stuart's brigades had been better positioned to guard their captured wagon train than to take advantage of the encounter with Kilpatrick.", "After a 20-mile trek in the dark, his exhausted men reached Dover on the morning of July 1, as the Battle of Gettysburg was commencing without them.Stuart headed next for Carlisle, hoping to find Ewell.", "He lobbed a few shells into town during the early evening of July 1 and burned the Carlisle Barracks before withdrawing to the south towards Gettysburg.", "He and the bulk of his command reached Lee at Gettysburg the afternoon of July 2.He ordered Wade Hampton to cover the left rear of the Confederate battle lines, and Hampton fought with Brig.", "Gen. George Armstrong Custer at the Battle of Hunterstown before joining Stuart at Gettysburg.===Gettysburg and its aftermath ===When Stuart arrived at Gettysburg on the afternoon of July 2—bringing with him the caravan of captured Union supply wagons—he received a rare rebuke from Lee.", "No one witnessed the private meeting between Lee and Stuart, but reports circulated at headquarters that Lee's greeting was \"abrupt and frosty.\"", "Colonel Edward Porter Alexander wrote, \"Although Lee said only, 'Well, General, you are here at last,' his manner implied rebuke, and it was so understood by Stuart.\"", "On the final day of the battle, Stuart was ordered to move into the enemy's rear and disrupt its line of communications at the same time Pickett's Charge was sent against the Union positions on Cemetery Ridge, but his attack on East Cavalry Field was repelled by Union cavalry under Brig.", "Gens.", "David Gregg and George Custer.During the retreat from Gettysburg, Stuart devoted his full attention to supporting the army's movement, successfully screening against aggressive Union cavalry pursuit and escorting thousands of wagons with wounded men and captured supplies over difficult roads and through inclement weather.", "Numerous skirmishes and minor battles occurred during the screening and delaying actions of the retreat.", "Stuart's men were the final units to cross the Potomac River, returning to Virginia in \"wretched condition—completely worn out and broken down.", "\"The Gettysburg Campaign was the most controversial of Stuart's career.", "He became one of the scapegoats (along with James Longstreet) blamed for Lee's loss at Gettysburg by proponents of the postbellum Lost Cause movement, such as Jubal Early.", "This was fueled in part by opinions of less partisan writers, such as Stuart's subordinate, Thomas L. Rosser, who stated after the war that Stuart did, \"on this campaign, ''undoubtedly'', make the fatal blunder which lost us the battle of Gettysburg.\"", "In General Lee's report on the campaign, he wrote:One of the most forceful postbellum defenses of Stuart was by Col. John S. Mosby, who had served under him during the campaign and was fiercely loyal to the late general, writing, \"He made me all that I was in the war.", "...", "But for his friendship I would never have been heard of.\"", "He wrote numerous articles for popular publications and published a book length treatise in 1908, a work that relied on his skills as a lawyer to refute categorically all of the claims laid against Stuart.Historians remain divided on how much the defeat at Gettysburg was due to Stuart's failure to keep Lee informed.", "Edward G. Longacre argues that Lee deliberately gave Stuart wide discretion in his orders.", "Edwin B. Coddington refers to the \"tragedy\" of Stuart in the Gettysburg Campaign and judges that when Fitzhugh Lee raised the question of \"whether Stuart exercised the discretion ''undoubtedly given to him, judiciously'',\" the answer is no.", "Agreeing that Stuart's absence permitted Lee to be surprised at Gettysburg, Coddington points out that the Union commander was just as surprised.", "Eric J. Wittenberg and J. David Petruzzi have concluded that there was \"plenty of blame to go around\" and the fault should be divided between Stuart, the lack of specificity in Lee's orders, and Richard S. Ewell, who might have tried harder to link up with Stuart northeast of Gettysburg.", "Jeffry D. Wert acknowledges that Lee, his officers, and fighting by the Army of the Potomac bear the responsibility for the Confederate loss at Gettysburg, but states that \"Stuart failed Lee and the army in the reckoning at Gettysburg.", "... Lee trusted him and gave him discretion, but Stuart acted injudiciously.", "\"Although Stuart was not rebuked or disciplined in any official way for his role in the Gettysburg campaign, it is noteworthy that his appointment to corps command on September 9, 1863, did not carry with it a promotion to lieutenant general.", "Edward Bonekemper wrote that since all other corps commanders in the Army of Northern Virginia carried this rank, Lee's decision to keep Stuart at major general rank, while at the same time promoting Stuart's subordinates Wade Hampton and Fitzhugh Lee to major generals, could be considered an implied rebuke.", "Wert wrote that there is no evidence Lee considered Stuart's performance during the Gettysburg Campaign and that it is \"more likely that Lee thought the responsibilities in command of a cavalry corps did not equal those of an infantry corps.", "\"left===Fall 1863 and the 1864 Overland Campaign===Lee reorganized his cavalry on September 9, creating a Cavalry Corps for Stuart with two divisions of three brigades each.", "In the Bristoe Campaign, Stuart was assigned to lead a broad turning movement in an attempt to get into the enemy's rear, but General Meade skillfully withdrew his army without leaving Stuart any opportunities to take advantage of.", "On October 13, Stuart blundered into the rear guard of the Union III Corps near Warrenton, resulting in the First Battle of Auburn.", "Ewell's corps was sent to rescue him, but Stuart hid his troopers in a wooded ravine until the unsuspecting III Corps moved on, and the assistance was not necessary.", "As Meade withdrew towards Manassas Junction, brigades from the Union II Corps fought a rearguard action against Stuart's cavalry and the infantry of Brig.", "Gen. Harry Hays's division near Auburn on October 14.Stuart's cavalry boldly bluffed Warren's infantry and escaped disaster.", "After the Confederate repulse at Bristoe Station and an aborted advance on Centreville, Stuart's cavalry shielded the withdrawal of Lee's army from the vicinity of Manassas Junction.", "Judson Kilpatrick's Union cavalry pursued Stuart's cavalry along the Warrenton Turnpike, but were lured into an ambush near Chestnut Hill and routed.", "The Federal troopers were scattered and chased five miles (eight km) in an affair that came to be known as the \"Buckland Races\".", "The Southern press began to mute its criticism of Stuart following his successful performance during the fall campaign.The 1864 Overland Campaign, including the Battle of Yellow TavernThe Overland Campaign, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's offensive against Lee in the spring of 1864, began at the Battle of the Wilderness, where Stuart aggressively pushed Thomas L. Rosser's Laurel Brigade into a fight against George Custer's better-armed Michigan Brigade, resulting in significant losses.", "General Lee sent a message to Stuart: \"It is very important to save your Cavalry & not wear it out.", "... You must use your good judgment to make any attack which may offer advantages.\"", "As the armies maneuvered toward their next confrontation at Spotsylvania Court House, Stuart's cavalry fought delaying actions against the Union cavalry.", "His defense at Laurel Hill, also directing the infantry of Brig.", "Gen. Joseph B. Kershaw, skillfully delayed the advance of the Federal army for nearly 5 critical hours.===Yellow Tavern and death===The commander of the Army of the Potomac, Maj. Gen. George Meade, and his cavalry commander, Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, quarreled about the Union cavalry's performance in the first two engagements of the Overland Campaign.", "Sheridan heatedly asserted that he wanted to \"concentrate all of cavalry, move out in force against Stuart's command, and whip it.\"", "Meade reported the comments to Grant, who replied, \"Did Sheridan say that?", "Well, he generally knows what he is talking about.", "Let him start right out and do it.\"", "Sheridan immediately organized a raid against Confederate supply and railroad lines close to Richmond, which he knew would bring Stuart to battle.Sheridan moved aggressively to the southeast, crossing the North Anna River and seizing Beaver Dam Station on the Virginia Central Railroad, where his men captured a train, liberating 3,000 Union prisoners and destroying more than one million rations and medical supplies destined for Lee's army.", "Stuart dispatched a force of about 3,000 cavalrymen to intercept Sheridan's cavalry, which was more than three times their numbers.", "As he rode in pursuit, accompanied by his aide, Maj. Andrew R. Venable, they were able to stop briefly along the way to be greeted by Stuart's wife, Flora, and his children, Jimmie and Virginia.", "Venable wrote of Stuart, \"He told me he never expected to live through the war, and that if we were conquered, that he did not want to live.", "\"The Battle of Yellow Tavern occurred May 11, at an abandoned inn located north of Richmond.", "The Confederate troops resisted from the low ridgeline bordering the road to Richmond, fighting for over three hours.", "After receiving a scouting report from Texas Jack Omohundro, Stuart led a countercharge and pushed the advancing Union troopers back from the hilltop.", "Stuart, on horseback, shouted encouragement from in front of Company K of the 1st Virginia Cavalry while firing his revolver at the Union troopers.Lieutenant Colonel Gus W. DorseyAs the 5th Michigan Cavalry streamed in retreat past Stuart, a dismounted Union private, 44-year-old John A. Huff, turned and shot Stuart with his .44-caliber revolver from a distance of 10–30 yards.", "The large caliber round cut through Stuart's abdomen and exited an inch to the right of his spine.", "Stuart fell into the arms of Company K's commander Gus W. Dorsey.", "Dorsey caught him and took him from his horse.", "Stuart told him: \"Dorsey...save your men.\"", "Dorsey refused to leave him and brought Stuart to the rear.", "rightStuart suffered great pain as an ambulance took him to Richmond to await his wife's arrival at the home of Dr. Charles Brewer, his brother-in-law.", "As he was being driven from the field in an ambulance wagon, Stuart noticed disorganized ranks of retreating men and called out to them his last words on the battlefield: \"Go back, go back, and do your duty, as I have done mine, and our country will be safe.", "Go back, go back!", "I had rather die than be whipped.", "\"Stuart ordered his sword and spurs be given to his son.", "As his aide Major McClellan left his side, Confederate President Jefferson Davis came in, took General Stuart's hand, and asked, \"General, how do you feel?\"", "Stuart answered \"Easy, but willing to die, if God and my country think I have fulfilled my destiny and done my duty.\"", "His last whispered words were: \"I am resigned; God's will be done.\"", "He died at 7:38 p.m. on May 12, the following day, before Flora Stuart reached his side.", "He was 31 years old.", "Stuart was buried in Richmond's Hollywood Cemetery.", "Upon learning of Stuart's death, General Lee is reported to have said that he could hardly keep from weeping at the mere mention of Stuart's name and that Stuart had never given him a bad piece of information.", "John Huff, the private who had fatally wounded Stuart, was killed in action just a few weeks later at the Battle of Haw's Shop.Flora wore the black of mourning for the remainder of her life, and never remarried.", "She lived in Saltville, Virginia, for 15 years after the war, where she opened and taught at a school in a log cabin.", "She worked from 1880 to 1898 as principal of the Virginia Female Institute in Staunton, Virginia, a position for which Robert E. Lee had recommended her before his death ten years earlier.", "In 1907, the institute was renamed Stuart Hall School in her honor.", "Upon the death of her daughter Virginia, from complications in childbirth in 1898, Flora resigned from the institute and moved to Norfolk, Virginia, where she helped Virginia's widower, Robert Page Waller, in raising her grandchildren.", "She died in Norfolk on May 10, 1923, after striking her head in a fall on a city sidewalk.", "She is buried alongside her husband and their daughter, Little Flora, in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond." ], [ "Legacy and memorials", "Hollywood CemeteryLike his intimate friend, Stonewall Jackson, General J.E.B.", "Stuart was a legendary figure and is considered one of the greatest cavalry commanders in American history.", "His friend from his federal army days, Union Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, said that Stuart was \"the greatest cavalry officer ever foaled in America.\"", "Jackson and Stuart, both of whom were killed in battle, had colorful public images, although the latter's seems to have been more deliberately crafted.", "Wert wrote about Stuart:Stuart's birthplace, Laurel Hill, located in Patrick County, Virginia, was purchased by the J.E.B.", "Stuart Birthplace Preservation Trust, Inc., in 1992 to preserve and interpret it.", "In December 2006, a personal Confederate battle flag, sewn by Flora Stuart, was sold in a Heritage Auction for a world-record price for any Confederate flag, for $956,000 (including buyer's premium).", "The 34-inch by 34-inch flag was hand-sewn for Stuart by Flora in 1862, and Stuart carried it into some of his most famous battles.A statue of Stuart, by sculptor Frederick Moynihan, used to occupy a space on Richmond's Monument Avenue at Stuart Circle.", "Originally dedicated in 1907, the statue was removed on July 7, 2020.M3A1 Stuart tank\|alt==== Named after Stuart ===U.S.", "Route 58, in Virginia, is named the \"J.E.B.", "Stuart Highway\".", "In 1884 the town of Taylorsville, Virginia, was renamed Stuart.", "The British Army named two models of American-made World War II tanks, the M3 and M5, the Stuart tank in General Stuart's honor.==== Schools ====A middle school in Jacksonville, Florida is named for him.", "A high school named after him on Munson's Hill in Falls Church, Virginia, opened in 1959.In early 2017, Fairfax County Public Schools established an Ad Hoc Working Committee to assist the Fairfax County School Board in determining whether to rename the Stuart High School in Virginia, in response to suggestions from students and local community members that FCPS should not continue to honor a Confederate general who fought in support of a cause dedicated to maintaining the institution of slavery in Virginia and other states.", "The creation of the committee followed the circulation of a petition started by actress Julianne Moore and Bruce Cohen in 2016, which garnered over 35,000 signatures in support of changing the school's name to one honoring the late United States Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall.On July 27, 2017, the Fairfax County School Board approved a measure to change the school name no later than the start of the 2019 school year.", "The measure asked that \"Stuart High School\" be considered as a possibility for the new name.", "On October 27, 2017, the Fairfax County School Board voted to change the name of J.E.B.", "Stuart High School to \"Justice High School.\"", "Board member Sandy Evans from the Mason District said that the name will honor Justice Thurgood Marshall, civil rights leader Barbara Rose Johns, U.S. Army officer Louis Gonzaga Mendez Jr., and all those who have fought for justice and equality.On June 18, 2018, the school board for Richmond Public Schools in Richmond, Virginia voted 6–1 to rename J. E. B. Stuart Elementary School to Barack Obama Elementary School.", "On June 12, 2018, students of the school were given the opportunity to narrow down the choices for renaming the school from seven to three.", "Northside Elementary received 190 votes, Barack Obama Elementary earned 166 votes, and Wishtree Elementary received 127 votes.", "From there, the administration of Richmond Public Schools recommended to the school board that it rename the school after Barack Obama.", "Superintendent Jason Kamras said, \"It's incredibly powerful that in the capital of the Confederacy, where we had a school named for an individual who fought to maintain slavery, that now we're renaming that school after the first black president.", "A lot of our kids, and our kids at J. E. B. Stuart, see themselves in Barack Obama.\"", "The student population of the newly named Barack Obama Elementary School is made up of more than 90 percent African-American children.Stuart Hall School is a Staunton, Virginia, co-educational school for students from pre-kindergarten to Grade 12, and it offers a boarding program from Grades 8 to 12.It was renamed in 1907 in honor of its most famous headmistress, Mrs. Flora Cooke Stuart, the widow of Confederate cavalry leader Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart.===In art and popular culture=======Films====Joseph Fuqua played Stuart in the films ''Gettysburg'' and ''Gods and Generals''.", "Errol Flynn played Stuart in the movie ''Santa Fe Trail'', depicting his antebellum life, confronting John Brown in Kansas and at Harper's Ferry.====Television====* A limited television series based on the novel ''The Good Lord Bird'' was released, with Wyatt Russell as Stuart.", "* In the second season of Twin Peaks, Ben Horne retreats into a fantasy of being Robert E. Lee after a mental breakdown and believes his brother Jerry Horne to be Stuart.====Literature====''Southern Troopers Song, Dedicated to Gen'l.", "J. E. B. Stuart and his gallant Soldiers'', Sheet music, Danville, Virginia, c. 1864Stuart, along with his warhorse Skylark, is featured prominently in the novel ''Traveller'' by Richard Adams.", "In the alternate history novel ''Gray Victory'' (1988), author Robert Skimin depicts Stuart surviving his wound from the battle of Yellow Tavern.", "After the war, in which the Confederacy emerges victorious, he faces a court of inquiry over his actions at the Battle of Gettysburg.", "In Harry Turtledove's 1992 alternate-history novel ''The Guns of the South'', Stuart features as one of Lee's generals as the AWB bring back AK-47 rifles from 2014 to 1864.Men under Stuart's command are the first Confederate troops to use the AK-47 in battle.", "Stuart is so impressed with the new rifle that he sells his personal LeMat Revolver and replaces it with an AK-47.", "In Harry Turtledove's alternate-history novel ''How Few Remain'', Stuart is the commanding Confederate general in charge of the occupation and defense of the recently purchased Mexican provinces of Sonora and Chihuahua in 1881.This is the first volume of the Southern Victory series, where the US and CSA fight each other repeatedly in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "Stuart's son and grandson also appear in these novels.", "Several short stories in Barry Hannah's collection ''Airships'' feature Stuart as a character.", "Stuart's route to Gettysburg is the impetus for the sci-fi-ish book ''An End to Bugling'' by Edmund G.", "Love.", "Stuart is also a character in L. M. Elliott's ''Annie, Between the States''.J.", "E. B. Stuart is a character in the historical adventure novel ''Flashman and the Angel of the Lord'' by George MacDonald Fraser featuring Stuart's early-career role in the US Army at John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry.", "In the long-running comic book ''G.I.", "Combat'', featuring \"The Haunted Tank\", published by DC Comics from the 1960s through the late 1980s, the ghost of General Stuart guided a tank crew (the tank being, at first, a Stuart, later a Sherman) commanded by his namesake, Lt. Jeb Stuart.====Music====''Southern Troopers Song, Dedicated to Gen'l.", "J. E. B. Stuart and his gallant Soldiers''\"When I Was On Horseback,\" a song on the folk group Arborea's album ''Fortress of the Sun'' (2013), features lyrics that refer to Stuart's death near Richmond, Virginia." ], [ "See also", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Books", "* Bonekemper, Edward H., III.", "''How Robert E. Lee Lost the Civil War''.", "Fredericksburg, VA: Sergeant Kirkland's Press, 1998..* Coddington, Edwin B.", "''The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command''.", "New York: Scribner's, 1968..* Davis, Burke.", "''Jeb Stuart: The Last Cavalier''.", "New York: Random House, 1957..* Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher.", "''Civil War High Commands''.", "Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001..* Longacre, Edward G. ''The Cavalry at Gettysburg: A Tactical Study of Mounted Operations during the Civil War's Pivotal Campaign, 9 June–14 July 1863''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986..* Longacre, Edward G. ''Lee's Cavalrymen: A History of the Mounted Forces of the Army of Northern Virginia''.", "Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002..* Perry, Thomas D. ''J.", "E. B. Stuart's Birthplace: The History of the Laurel Hill Farm''.", "Ararat, VA: Laurel Hill Publishing, 2008..* Peterson, Alexander Duncan Campbell.", "''Schools Across Frontiers: The Story of the International Baccalaureate and the United World Colleges''.", "La Salle, IL: Open Court Publishing, 2003..* Rhea, Gordon C. ''The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House and the Road to Yellow Tavern, May 7–12, 1864''.", "Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997..* Robertson, James I. Jr. ''Stonewall Jackson: The Man, The Soldier, The Legend''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1997..* Salmon, John S. ''The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide''.", "Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001..* Sears, Stephen W. ''Chancellorsville''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996..* Sears, Stephen W. ''Gettysburg''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003..* Sifakis, Stewart.", "''Who Was Who in the Civil War.''", "New York: Facts On File, 1988..* Smith, Derek.", "''The Gallant Dead: Union & Confederate Generals Killed in the Civil War''.", "Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2005..* Starr, Steven.", "''The Union Cavalry in the Civil War: The War in the East from Gettysburg to Appomattox, 1863–1865''.", "Volume 2.Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007.Originally published 1981..* Thomas, Emory M. ''Bold Dragoon: The Life of J.E.B.", "Stuart''.", "Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986..* Warner, Ezra J.", "''Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders.''", "Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959..* Wert, Jeffry D. ''Cavalryman of the Lost Cause: A Biography of J.E.B.", "Stuart''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008..* Wittenberg, Eric J., and J. David Petruzzi.", "''Plenty of Blame to Go Around: Jeb Stuart's Controversial Ride to Gettysburg''.", "New York: Savas Beatie, 2006.." ], [ "Further reading", "* Brown, Kent Masterson.", "''Retreat from Gettysburg: Lee, Logistics, & the Pennsylvania Campaign''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005..* Laino, Philip, ''Gettysburg Campaign Atlas''.", "2nd ed.", "Dayton, OH: Gatehouse Press 2009..* McClellan, H B.", "''The Life and Campaigns of Major-General J.E.B.", "Stuart: Commander of the Cavalry of the Army of Northern Virginia.''", "Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1885.", "* McClellan, Henry B.", "''I Rode with Jeb Stuart: The Life and Campaigns of Maj. Gen. Jeb Stuart''.", "Edited by Burke Davis.", "New York: Da Capo Press, 1994.. First published 1958 by Indiana University Press.", "* Mosby, John Singleton.", "''Mosby's Reminiscences and Stuart's Cavalry Campaigns''.", "New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1887..* Perry, Thomas D. ''Laurel Hill Teachers' Guide'', 2005.", "* Petruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley.", "''The Complete Gettysburg Guide''.", "New York: Savas Beatie, 2009..* Wittenberg, Eric J., J. David Petruzzi, and Michael F. Nugent.", "''One Continuous Fight: The Retreat from Gettysburg and the Pursuit of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, July 4–14, 1863''.", "New York: Savas Beatie, 2008.." ], [ "External links", "* Flora Stuart, Wife Of Confederate General J.E.B.", "Stuart * Laurel Hill – Stuart's Birthplace* J. E. B. Stuart in ''Encyclopedia Virginia''* Stuart A.", "Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library: Jeb Stuart letters, 1861" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Hanson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Hanson''' ( – November 15, 1783) was an American Founding Father, merchant, and politician from Maryland during the Revolutionary Era.", "In 1779, Hanson was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress after serving in a variety of roles for the Patriot cause in Maryland.", "He signed the Articles of Confederation in 1781 after Maryland joined the other states in ratifying them.", "In November 1781, he was elected as the first President of the Confederation Congress (sometimes styled ''President of the United States in Congress assembled''), following ratification of the articles.", "For this reason, some of Hanson's biographers have argued that he was actually the first holder of the office of President of the United States." ], [ "Early life", "Hanson was born in Port Tobacco Parish in Charles County in the Province of Maryland on April 14, 1721.Sources published prior to a 1940 genealogical study sometimes listed his birth date as April 13 or his year of birth as 1715.Hanson was born on a plantation called \"Mulberry Grove\" into a wealthy and prominent family.", "His parents were Samuel (c. 1685–1740) and Elizabeth (Storey) Hanson (c. 1688–1764).", "Samuel Hanson was a planter who owned more than , and held a variety of political offices, including serving two terms in the Maryland General Assembly.Hanson's grandfather, also named John, came to Charles County, Maryland, as an indentured servant around 1661.In 1876, a writer named George Hanson placed Hanson in his family tree of Swedish-Americans descended from four Swedish brothers who emigrated to New Sweden in 1642.This story was often repeated over the next century, but scholarly research in the late 20th century showed that Hanson was not related to those Swedish-American Hansons.Little is known about Hanson's early life; he was presumably privately tutored as was customary among the wealthy of his time and place.", "He followed his father's path as a planter, slave owner, and public official.", "He was often referred to as ''John Hanson, Jr.'', to distinguish him from an older man of the same name." ], [ "Political career", "Hanson's career in public service began in 1750, when he was appointed sheriff of Charles County.", "In 1757, he was elected to represent Charles County in the lower house of the Maryland General Assembly, where he served for twelve years, sitting on many important committees.", "Maryland was a proprietary colony, and Hanson aligned himself with the \"popular\" or \"country\" party, which opposed any expansion of the power of the proprietary governors at the expense of the popularly elected lower house.", "He was a leading opponent of the 1765 Stamp Act, chairing the committee that drafted the instructions for Maryland's delegates to the Stamp Act Congress.", "In protest of the Townshend Acts, in 1769 Hanson was one of the signers of a non-importation resolution that boycotted British imports until the acts were repealed.Etching of Hanson based on a portrait by Charles Willson Peale that was painted from life in 1781–1782Hanson changed course in 1769, apparently to better pursue his business interests.", "He resigned from the General Assembly, sold his land in Charles County, and moved to Frederick County in western Maryland.", "There he held a variety of offices, including deputy surveyor, sheriff, and county treasurer.", "When relations between Great Britain and the colonies became a crisis in 1774, Hanson became one of Frederick County's leading Patriots.", "He chaired a town meeting that passed a resolution opposing the Boston Port Act.", "In 1775, he was a delegate to the Maryland Convention, an extralegal body convened after the colonial assembly had been prorogued.", "With the other delegates, he signed the Association of Freemen on July 26, 1775, which expressed hope for reconciliation with Great Britain but also called for military resistance to the enforcement of the Coercive Acts.With hostilities underway, Hanson chaired the Frederick County Committee of Observation, part of the Patriot organization that assumed control of local governance.", "Responsible for recruiting and arming soldiers, Hanson proved to be an excellent organizer, and Frederick County sent the first southern troops to join George Washington's army.", "Because funds were scarce, Hanson frequently paid soldiers and others with his own money.", "In June 1776, Hanson chaired the Frederick County meeting that urged provincial leaders in Annapolis to instruct Maryland's delegates in the Continental Congress to declare independence from Great Britain.", "While Congress worked on the Declaration of Independence, Hanson was in Frederick County \"making gunlocks, storing powder, guarding prisoners, raising money and troops, dealing with Tories, and doing the myriad other tasks which went with being chairman of the committee of observation\".Hanson was elected to the newly reformed Maryland House of Delegates in 1777, the first of five annual terms.", "In December 1779, the House of Delegates named Hanson as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress; he began serving in Congress in Philadelphia in June 1780.", "\"Hanson came to Philadelphia with the reputation of having been the leading financier of the revolution in western Maryland, and soon he was a member of several committees dealing with finance.", "\"When Hanson was elected to Congress, Maryland was holding up the ratification of the Articles of Confederation.", "The state, which did not have any claims on western land, refused to ratify the Articles until the other states had ceded their western land claims.", "When the other states finally did so, the Maryland legislature decided in January 1781 to ratify the Articles.", "When Congress received notice of this, Hanson joined Daniel Carroll in signing the Articles of Confederation on behalf of Maryland on March 1, 1781.With Maryland's endorsement, the Articles officially went into effect.", "Many years later, some Hanson biographers claimed that Hanson had been instrumental in arranging the compromise and thus securing ratification of the Articles, but according to historian Ralph Levering, there is no documentary evidence of Hanson's opinions or actions in resolving the controversy.In 1782, Hanson proclaimed on behalf of the Continental Congress for a day of \"Solemn Thanksgiving\".===President of Congress===John Hanson, portrait from life painted by Charles Wilson Peale in 1781–1782On November 5, 1781, Congress elected Hanson as its president.", "Under the Articles of Confederation, both legislative and executive government were vested in the Congress (as it was and still is in Britain); the presidency of Congress was a mostly ceremonial position, but the office did require Hanson to serve as neutral discussion moderator, handle official correspondence, and sign documents.", "Hanson found the work tedious and considered resigning after just one week, citing his poor health and family responsibilities.", "Colleagues urged him to remain because Congress at that moment lacked a quorum to choose a successor.", "Out of a sense of duty, Hanson remained in office, although his term as a delegate to Congress was nearly expired.", "The Maryland Assembly re-elected him as a delegate on November 28, 1781, and so Hanson continued to serve as president until November 4, 1782.The Articles of Confederation stipulated that presidents of Congress serve one-year terms, and Hanson became the first to do so.", "Contrary to the claims of some of his later advocates, however, he was not the first president to serve under the Articles nor the first to be elected under the Articles.", "When the Articles went into effect in March 1781, Congress did not bother to elect a new president; instead, Samuel Huntington continued serving a term that had already exceeded a year.", "On July 9, 1781, Samuel Johnston became the first man to be elected as president of Congress after the ratification of the Articles.", "He declined the office, however, perhaps to make himself available for North Carolina's gubernatorial election.", "After Johnston turned down the office, Thomas McKean was elected.", "McKean served just a few months, resigning in October 1781 after hearing news of the British surrender at Yorktown.", "Congress asked him to remain in office until November, when a new session of Congress was scheduled to begin.", "It was in that session that Hanson began to serve his one-year term.", "A highlight of Hanson's term was when George Washington presented Cornwallis's sword to Congress." ], [ "Later life", "Hanson retired from public office after his one-year term as president of Congress.", "In poor health, he died on November 15, 1783, while visiting Oxon Hill Manor in Prince George's County, Maryland, the plantation of his nephew Thomas Hawkins Hanson.", "He was buried there.", "Hanson owned at least 223 acres of land and 11 slaves at the time of his death." ], [ "Personal life", "About 1744, he married Jane Contee (1728–1812), daughter of Alexander Contee (1692–1740).", "They had eight children, including:* Jane Contee Hanson (1747–1781), who married Philip Thomas (1747–1815)* Peter Contee Hanson (1748–1776), who died in the battle of Fort Washington during the American Revolutionary War.", "* Alexander Contee Hanson Sr. (1749–1806), who was a notable essayist.", "Alexander Hanson is sometimes confused with his son, Alexander Contee Hanson, Jr. (1786–1819), who became a newspaper editor and U.S.", "Senator." ], [ "Legacy", "bronze statue of Hanson in the National Statuary Hall CollectionIn 1898, Douglas H. Thomas, a descendant of Hanson, wrote a biography promoting Hanson as the first true President of the United States.", "Thomas became the \"driving force\" behind the selection of Hanson as one of the two people who would represent Maryland in the National Statuary Hall Collection in Washington, D.C. Hanson was not initially on the shortlist for consideration, but he was chosen after lobbying by the Maryland Historical Society.", "In 1903, bronze statues of Hanson and Charles Carroll by sculptor Richard E. Brooks were added to Statuary Hall; Hanson's is currently located on the 2nd floor of the Senate connecting corridor.", "Small versions of these two statues (maquettes) sit on the president's desk in the Senate Chamber of the Maryland State House.Some historians have questioned the appropriateness of Hanson's selection for the honor of representing Maryland in Statuary Hall.", "According to historian Gregory Stiverson, Hanson was not one of Maryland's foremost leaders of the Revolutionary era.", "In 1975, historian Ralph Levering said that \"Hanson shouldn't have been one of the two Marylanders\" chosen, but he wrote that Hanson \"probably contributed as much as any other Marylander to the success of the American Revolution\".", "In the 21st century, Maryland lawmakers have considered replacing Hanson's statue in Statuary Hall with one of Harriet Tubman.John Hanson National Memorial, located in front of the Frederick County Courthouse in Frederick, MarylandThe idea that Hanson was the forgotten first president of the United States was further promoted in a 1932 biography of Hanson by journalist Seymour Wemyss Smith.", "Smith's book asserts that the American Revolution had two primary leaders: George Washington on the battlefield and John Hanson in politics.", "Smith's book, like Douglas H. Thomas's 1898 book, was one of a number of biographies written seeking to promote Hanson as the \"first President of the United States\".", "Regarding the opinion, historian Ralph Levering stated: \"They're not biographies by professional historians; they aren't based on research into primary sources.\"", "According to historian Richard B. Morris, if a president of Congress were to be called the ''first'' president of the United States, \"a stronger case could be made for Peyton Randolph of Virginia, the first president of the first and second Continental Congresses, or for John Hancock, the president of Congress when that body declared its independence.\"", "The claim that Hanson was a forgotten president of the United States was revived on the Internet, sometimes with a new assertion that he was actually a black man; an anachronistic photograph of Senator John Hanson of Liberia has been used to support this claim.In 1972, Hanson was depicted on a 6-cent U.S. postal card, which featured his name and portrait next to the word \"Patriot\".", "Historian Irving Brant criticized the selection of Hanson for the card, arguing that it was a result of the \"old hoax\" promoting Hanson as the first president of the United States.", "In 1981, Hanson was featured on a 20-cent U.S. postage stamp.", "U.S. Route 50 between Washington, D.C., and Annapolis is named the John Hanson Highway in his honor.", "There are also middle schools located in Oxon Hill, Maryland, and Waldorf, Maryland, named after him.", "A former savings bank named for him was merged in the 1990s with Industrial Bank of Washington, D.C.In the 1970s, a descendant of Hanson, John Hanson Briscoe, served as Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates, which passed \"a measure establishing April 14 as John Hanson Day.\"", "In 2009, the John Hanson Memorial Association was incorporated in Frederick, Maryland, to create the John Hanson National Memorial and to educate Americans about Hanson as well as to educate people about the many myths written about him." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Books, journals, and encyclopedias'''********* Cited in '''Newspapers and online sources'''******" ], [ "Further reading", "Kremer, J. Bruce.", "''John Hanson of Mulberry Grove''.", "New York: A.", "& C. Boni, 1938.", "Nelson, Jacob A.", "''John Hanson and the inseparable union: an authentic biography of a revolutionary leader, patriot and statesman''.", "Boston: Meador Publishing Company, 1939.", "Smith, Seymour Wemyss.", "''John Hanson, our first president''.", "New York: Brewer, Warren & Putnam, 1932.", "Thomas, Douglas H. ''John Hanson, President of the United States in Congress Assembled, 1781–1782''.", "1898.According to the ''American National Biography'', the biographies of Hanson are not \"adequate\", though this one, written by Hanson's grandson, is \"perhaps the most satisfactory\" of the lot." ], [ "External links", "* John Hanson at the Maryland State Archives* John Hanson at Snopes.com** The American Revolution Institute" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jedi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jedi''' (), '''Jedi Knights''', or collectively the '''Jedi Order''' are fictional characters, and often protagonists, featured in many works within the ''Star Wars'' franchise.", "Working symbiotically alongside the Old Galactic Republic, the Jedi Order is depicted as a religious, academic, meritocratic, and military (peacekeeping) organization whose origin dates back thousands of years before the events of the first film released in the franchise.", "The fictional organization has inspired a real-world new religious movement and parody religion: Jediism.Within the ''Star Wars'' galaxy, the Jedi are powerful guardians of order and justice, who, through intuition, rigorous training, and intensive self-discipline, are able to wield a supernatural power known as the Force, thus achieving, for example, the ability to move objects with the mind, perform incredible feats of strength, and connect to certain people's thoughts.", "As ''Star Wars'' creator George Lucas explains, the Jedi are \"warrior-monks who keep peace in the universe\", avoiding the use of violence except as a last resort, with a mission to \"use their power to keep the governments of all the planets in line, so that they don't do terrible things\".", "The Jedi have the \"moral authority to do that\" since they are \"the most moral of anybody in the galaxy\".", "Throughout the franchise, Jedi are often recognizable by their robes and tunics in various shades of brown and their use of lightsabers: sword-like weapons with a colorful blade made of plasma.Along with New Age elements, Lucas developed the Jedi creed by adopting certain elements from Eastern religions—namely Buddhism and potentially Taoism.", "In that same vein, the creed focuses on compassion for others, mindfulness, non-attachment, and meditation, which are all characteristics of what Jedi characters call the \"light side\" of the Force.", "Furthermore, the Jedi view fear to be the root of suffering: fear leading to anger, anger leading to hate, and hate leading to suffering.", "The Jedi warn that an excess of these negative emotions can turn practitioners away from the light side of the Force towards the dark side, which embraces passions, aggression, hate, rage, fear, and bitterness as a way of life.", "The Sith are followers of the dark side and the traditional enemies of the Jedi.", "While the Sith ultimately seek violent and absolute rule over the galaxy, the Jedi work to protect democracy, harmony, and justice.The Jedi are depicted, in the franchise's Old Republic era, as a monastic and martial organization that cooperates intimately with the galactic government, bringing \"peace into the galaxy by being ambassadors and troubleshooters\", according to Lucas.", "It is also the duty of Jedi to investigate certain crimes ranging from high-profile murder to political corruption, act as diplomats between powerful interplanetary groups, protect the highest government officials of the Republic, track down fugitives, and serve as leaders in the Republic's army during the Clone Wars.", "Still, their creed demands that they defend and protect all life and use their power only for knowledge and defense.", "With the rise of the Sith Lord Darth Sidious and the Galactic Empire, the Jedi Order is outlawed and most of its members killed in the ensuing political purge.", "Later efforts are made to revive the organization." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''Jedi'' is said to have been adapted by George Lucas from Japanese 時代劇 (jidaigeki) (meaning 'period drama' motion pictures about samurai), or perhaps inspired by the words ''Jed'' (Leader) and ''Jeddak'' (King) in the Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs, a series that Lucas considered adapting to film.However, the origin of the word \"Jedi\" may be in the Arabic \"Al-Jeddi\", meaning \"master of the mystic-warrior way\".According to the ''Star Wars: Rogue One – The Ultimate Visual Guide'', \"Jedi\" in-universe is derived from \"Jedha,\" a planet that was once home to a Jedi temple and was a source of kyber crystals.", "Kyber crystals are used to power lightsabers and were considered sacred by the Jedi Order.In his book ''The Making of Star Wars: The Definitive Story Behind the Original Film'', J.W.", "Rinzler notes that Lucas originally considered using the term \"Jedidiah\" for his knights, but ultimately settled on \"jedi.\"", "Rinzler also suggests that the word may have been influenced by the term \"bodhisattva,\" which refers to a Buddhist concept of an enlightened being who chooses to remain in the world to help others.Another potential influence on the word \"jedi\" is the Hebrew term \"yedid,\" which means \"beloved.\"", "In his book ''The Secret History of Star Wars'', Michael Kaminski suggests that Lucas may have been influenced by this term when creating the name for his knights.", "Kaminski notes that Lucas has cited Jewish mysticism as an inspiration for his work, and that he may have been drawn to the idea of his heroes being beloved protectors.===Influences===George Lucas acknowledged that the Jedi, Sith, and other Force concepts have been inspired by many sources.", "These include: knighthood, chivalry, paladinism, samurai bushido, Shaolin Monastery, Feudalism, Hinduism, Qigong, Greek philosophy and mythology, Roman history and mythology, Sufism, Confucianism, Shintō, Buddhism and Taoism, and numerous cinematic precursors.", "The works of philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and mythologist Joseph Campbell, especially his book ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949), directly influenced Lucas, and was what drove him to create the 'modern myth' of ''Star Wars''.Lucas explained that the Jedi are trained, allowed and expected to love people (even their enemies, the Sith), but they are not to form attachments because attachment leads to the dark side of the Force.", "When one has, gets or wants a person or experience and attaches to them, one becomes afraid to lose them.", "The fear of loss feeds into greed, wanting to keep things, thus, an attached person is selfish and unable to let go.", "The fear of loss turns into anger, which will lead to hate, and hate will lead into suffering, mostly on the part of the one who is selfish, because then one will spend their lives being afraid rather than actually living.", "The light side is focused on compassion and giving; thus it is love, and the opposite of attachment – it is everlasting joy, devoid of fear of loss and the pain of loss.", "\"As long as you love other people and treat them kindly, you won't be afraid\".Lucas, identifying himself as \"Buddhist Methodist\" or \"Methodist Buddhist\" stated that his philosophy of non-attachment, depicted in his movies was influenced by the fact that he was from San Francisco, the \"Zen Buddhism capital of the United States\".", "In 2020, he indicated that the Jedi were \"designed to be a Buddhist monk who happened to be very good at fighting\"." ], [ "Depiction", "Jedi characters Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson, right) and Obi-Wan Kenobi (Ewan McGregor, left) in the 1999 film ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace''As depicted in the canon, the Jedi study and utilize the Force in order to help and protect those in need.", "The Jedi members, known as Jedi Knights, respect all life by defending and protecting those who cannot do it for themselves, striving for peaceful and non-combative solutions to any altercations they encounter and fighting only in self-defense and for the defense of those they protect.", "By training the mind and the body, the Jedi seek to improve themselves by gaining unfettered access to the Force while also seeking to improve those individuals and groups they come in contact with.", "Like their evil counterparts, the Sith, the main weapon of the Jedi is the lightsaber.", "However, according to Lucas, \"The Force really doesn't have anything to do with the lightsaber.", "Anybody can have a lightsaber.", "It's just a weapon like a pistol\".Qui-Gon Jinn gives an insight into the Force in ''The Phantom Menace'' when he tells Anakin: \"Your focus determines your reality\".", "And later, he explains: \"Midi-chlorians are microscopic lifeforms that reside within all of your cells.", "And we are symbionts with them.", "Lifeforms living together for mutual advantage.", "Without the midi-chlorians, life could not exist and we would have no knowledge of The Force.", "They continually speak to us, telling us the will of The Force.", "When you learn to quiet your mind you'll hear them speaking to you\".", "In ''A New Hope'', Obi-Wan Kenobi tells Luke Skywalker: \"The force is what gives a Jedi his power.", "It's an energy field created by all living things.", "It surrounds us, penetrates us, it binds the galaxy together.\"", "\".", ".", ".", "a Jedi can feel the Force flowing through him.", "It partially controls your actions, but it also obeys your commands\".===The Skywalker Saga=======Original trilogy====The Jedi are first introduced in the 1977 motion picture ''Star Wars'' as an order of warrior monks who serve as \"the guardians of peace and justice in the galaxy\" and embrace the mystical Force.", "Obi-Wan Kenobi (Alec Guinness) explains that the Galactic Empire has all but exterminated the Jedi, and seeks to train Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) to be the Jedi Order's last hope.", "Darth Vader (David Prowse/James Earl Jones) is also established as the Jedi's main enemy.", "By the end of the film, which depicts the battle of Yavin, Luke is on the path to becoming a Jedi.", "In the sequel, ''The Empire Strikes Back'', Luke receives Jedi training from the elderly (and only surviving) Jedi Master Yoda (Frank Oz), even as he learns that Vader is, in fact, his father, former Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker.", "The third film in the original trilogy, ''Return of the Jedi'', ends with Luke redeeming Vader and helping to destroy the Empire, thus fulfilling his destiny as a Jedi.The two last Jedi Masters die during the events of the films, after which they return as Force spirits to help Luke.====Prequel trilogy====The prequel trilogy depicts the Jedi in their prime, headquartered at the Jedi Temple on Coruscant, and dealing with the rising presence of the dark side of the Force and the return of the Sith.", "In ''Episode I: The Phantom Menace'' (1999), Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson) discovers nine-year-old Anakin Skywalker (Jake Lloyd), whom he believes to be the \"'''Chosen One'''\" of a Jedi prophecy, destined to bring balance to the Force.", "At the end of ''The Phantom Menace'', following Qui-Gon's death at the hands of Darth Maul, Anakin is paired with his apprentice, the young Obi-Wan Kenobi (Ewan McGregor), who promises to train him.The sequel, ''Episode II: Attack of the Clones'', establishes that the Jedi forswear attachments, being in the same category of possession and striving to cultivate compassion, unconditional love instead.", "As revealed in the ''Clone Wars'' series, the Jedi believed romantic feelings are natural and as such, they did not prohibit them, but for a Jedi Knight, it was essential to make the right choice for the Order and not neglect their Jedi duties in the favor of their beloved, even if that would mean the end of the relationship.", "This proves problematic when Anakin, now a young adult (Hayden Christensen), falls in love with Padmé Amidala (Natalie Portman).", "The Clone Wars, first spoken of in the original 1977 film, begin with hundreds of Jedi participating in the battle of Geonosis.In ''Episode III: Revenge of the Sith'', Yoda confides to Mace Windu (Samuel L. Jackson) that the prophecy of the Chosen One could have been misread.", "Palpatine (Ian McDiarmid), who is revealed to be Darth Sidious, manipulates Anakin's attachment for Padmé and distrust and resentment of the Jedi in order to turn him to the dark side and become his Sith apprentice, Darth Vader.", "The latter begins helping Sidious hunt down and destroy the Jedi, who are nearly exterminated during the events of ''Revenge of the Sith''; Obi-Wan Kenobi, Yoda, and Ahsoka Tano are among a handful of Jedi that avoided the initial purge.As revealed in the ''Clone Wars'' series, each of the clones were implanted with chips that Palpatine would activate with the command '''Order 66: ''Operation Knightfall''''', a law that states:This resulted in the clone troopers becoming brainwashed into turning against their generals and killing them, and in Darth Vader/Anakin Skywalker leading the 501st Legion to carry out \"Operation Knightfall\" against the Jedi Temple, burning and slaughtering all Jedi within, including Temple-Defender Shaak Ti.", "Sidious convinced the people of the Republic that the Jedi were corrupted warmongers responsible for prolonging the Clone Wars, labeling them criminals with bounties placed on them.", "Darth Vader continued to hunt and kill nearly every surviving Jedi during the early years of the Empire, in what became known as the '''Great Jedi Purge'''.====Sequel trilogy====In ''The Force Awakens'', the first film in the sequel trilogy, it is revealed that Luke had attempted to rebuild the Jedi Order, but failed when his nephew Ben Solo (Adam Driver) fell to the dark side, lured by the mysterious Snoke (Andy Serkis).", "Ben is renamed Kylo Ren and destroys all that Luke built.", "After Kylo's fall and the destruction of the New Jedi Order, Luke goes into a self-imposed exile on Ahch-To, believing himself and the Jedi to be a negative influence on the galaxy.In the sequel ''The Last Jedi'', the scavenger Rey (Daisy Ridley) discovers Luke on Ahch-To and convinces him to train her in the ways of the Force.", "During her training, Luke describes the hubris of the past Jedi that allowed Darth Sidious to rise to power, further claiming that a Jedi Master had trained (and created) Darth Vader.", "She also discovers several ancient Jedi texts hidden away in a tree.", "Rey learns the truth about Ben's fall to the dark side and believes herself to be his only chance of redemption.", "Luke decides to stay on Ahch-To and attempts to burn down the tree with the texts, but cannot bring himself to do so.", "However, Yoda appears as a Force spirit and burns the tree, teaching him that failure is just as important as success, and those masters are defined by those who surpass them.", "Near the end of the film, Luke confronts Kylo on the planet Crait.", "It is subsequently revealed that Luke had been projecting himself from Ahch-To; he dies from the effort and becomes one with the Force.", "Rey is shown to have taken the sacred Jedi texts before she left Ahch-To, in order to continue her training.In ''The Rise of Skywalker'', the final film of the sequel trilogy, it is discovered that Darth Sidious created Snoke and has returned from death and has been secretly manipulating events from the Sith world Exegol.", "In his last attempt to reclaim the galaxy, Sidious unveils the Final Order, a massive fleet of ''Xyston''-class Star Destroyers built by the Sith Eternal.", "The Emperor offers the Sith fleet to Kylo Ren in exchange for killing the last remaining Jedi, Rey, who is revealed to be his granddaughter.", "After the death of Kylo's mother, Leia Organa (Carrie Fisher), Kylo returns to the light and reclaims his identity as Ben Solo.", "At the end of the film, Ben joins Rey as she confronts Sidious.", "Rey channels the power of the past Jedi to destroy Sidious and the Sith, before dying herself.", "Ben sacrifices his life to revive Rey and becomes one with the Force.", "With peace and justice restored to the galaxy, Rey lives on to start the Jedi Order again.===Anthologies and derivative works===In a deleted scene from ''Attack of the Clones'', the \"Lost Twenty\" is the name given to a group of Jedi Masters—numbering twenty in total—who left the Jedi Order throughout its history.", "The first 12 of this Lost Twenty became \"Dark Jedi\" who eventually founded the first Sith Empire.", "In the years preceding the Clone Wars, Jedi Master Dooku left the Jedi Order as a result of differences with his fellow Jedi, becoming the 20th Jedi Master in the history of the Order to do so.", "To showcase the failures of the Jedi they created statues of the fallen Jedi and placed them in the Jedi Temple Archives.The animated television series ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars'' depicts the battles of the Clone Wars, focusing on the Jedi and clone troopers they lead against the Separatists and its Sith leaders.", "The feature-film pilot reveals that Anakin trained an apprentice, Ahsoka Tano, between ''Attack of the Clones'' and ''Revenge of the Sith''.", "Later arcs explore the foundations of Order 66 and Darth Sidious' manipulation of the Jedi Order.The animated television series ''Star Wars Rebels'' reveals that Ahsoka and a Jedi named Kanan Jarrus survived the purge; the latter trains a new apprentice, Ezra Bridger.", "The series also reveals that, following the start of the purge with Order 66, Sidious commissioned the Inquisitorius, a group of former Jedi who had turned to the dark side for various reasons, to aid Darth Vader in hunting down the remaining Jedi.The ''Clone Wars'' spinoff series ''Star Wars: The Bad Batch'' follows the titular group of enhanced clones, who disobey Order 66 and instead choose to save a younger Kanan after his master is killed by the other clones.The canon video game ''Star Wars Jedi: Fallen Order'' introduces Cal Kestis, a former Padawan hiding from the Empire who accidentally exposes his Force abilities to aid someone, putting him on the Inquisitors' radar.", "Kestis gets aid from Cere Junda, another Jedi Knight in hiding.In the limited series ''Obi-Wan Kenobi'', the Great Jedi Purge is depicted in a flashback in which Reva Sevander, future Inquisitor called Third Sister, escapes from the clones during the night of Order 66.===Members===The exact size of the pre-purge Jedi's membership and operations are never specified.", "However, in the ''Star Wars Rebels'' episode \"Path of the Jedi\", Kanan Jarrus stated: ==== Yoda ====Yoda was a wise, experienced, and powerful Grand Master of the Jedi of an unknown species and the oldest known prophet in existence (having lived at least 900 years), considered the wisest and most powerful Jedi Master within the ''Star Wars'' universe.==== Mace Windu ====Mace Windu was a human Jedi Master of the Order and one of the last members of the Order's upper echelons before the fall of the Galactic Republic.==== Plo Koon ====Plo Koon was a Kel Dor Jedi Master who served as a General during the Clone Wars and a member of the Jedi Council.", "Koon led the 442nd Siege Battalion in the Battle of Cato Neimoidia, in which he was shot down by his own troops upon the occurrence of Order 66.==== Kit Fisto ====Kit Fisto was a Nautolan Jedi Master, who served as a member of the Jedi Order during the Clone Wars.", "During the attempted arrest of Chancellor Palpatine, Fisto was killed by the Sith Lord in a duel, leaving Mace Windu to face the Chancellor alone.==== Count Dooku ====Count Dooku was a human Jedi Master who was trained by Yoda and mentored Qui-Gon Jinn, and one of the main antagonists of the prequel trilogy.", "He led the war against the Jedi and the Republic until his demise aboard General Grievous' ship in the Battle of Corscant at the hands of Anakin Skywalker.==== Qui-Gon Jinn ====Qui-Gon Jinn was a wise and powerful human Jedi Master, who was trained by Count Dooku and mentored Obi-Wan Kenobi.", "Unlike other, more conservative Jedi, he valued living in the moment as the best way to embrace the Force.", "While other Jedi respected him highly, they were frequently puzzled by his beliefs and ultimately denied him a seat on the Jedi Council, despite him being among the wisest and most powerful of the Jedi.", "Jinn was both the Jedi to discover the Sith's return after more than a millennium, upon being attacked by Darth Maul during a mission to protect Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo, and the one to find the ability to become a Force spirit after death, though he wasn't capable of having a physical body.", "Following his death at Darth Maul's hands, Jinn guided both Yoda and Obi-Wan to the ability to become a physical Force spirit after death.", "Within the Disney+ TV series, ''Obi-Wan Kenobi'', Qui-Gon Jinn appears as a force spirit following Darth Vader's defeat to Obi-Wan Kenobi in a duel.", "He communes with Kenobi before returning to the Force.", "In ''Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker'', he appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious.==== Obi-Wan Kenobi ====Obi-Wan Kenobi was a human Jedi Master who trained Anakin Skywalker, at the behest of his deceased master Qui-Gon Jinn, and later Anakin's son Luke Skywalker, making him one of the main characters in the ''Star Wars'' franchise.", "Having fought in the Clone Wars, Obi-Wan proved himself an adept strategist, duelist, and spy, as his leadership style heavily favours subterfuge and misdirection while commanding clone troopers, or wielding the Force.", "Due to his charisma and persuasion skills, he became known as 'The Negotiator' during the Clone Wars.", "Obi-Wan best exemplifies the Jedi Code: in spite of Darth Vader's betrayal and his master (Qui-Gon Jinn) being killed by his nemesis, Darth Maul, he never fell into darkness.", "As one of the few survivors of Order 66 following the Galactic Republic's transformation into the Galactic Empire, Obi-Wan hid on the desert planet Tatooine, watching over Anakin's son Luke, knowing that he would one day grow to become a Jedi and defeat Vader.", "In ''Obi-Wan Kenobi'', while Obi-Wan hid on Tatooine, Senator Bail Organa's daughter, Leia Organa, was captured upon the request of the Third Sister.", "Obi-Wan was sent to rescue the ten-year old Princess, and, after retrieving Leia on the planet Daiyu, was forced to duel his former apprentice Darth Vader on the planet Mapuzo, before escaping.", "Leia Organa, who was imprisoned by the Third Sister on the planet Nur, is saved by Obi-Wan Kenobi a second time before the two escape to the planet Jabiim with aid from the Path.", "Vader and Kenobi duel once more following Obi-Wan's attempted escape from the planet and Kenobi defeats his former apprentice, allowing Leia to return to her parents.", "Following this event, Qui-Gon Jinn appears before Kenobi as a force spirit, after years of failed attempts by Obi-Wan to communicate with the deceased Jedi Master.", "Obi-Wan mentored Luke Skywalker in the Jedi arts, before meeting his demise at the hands of his former apprentice aboard the Death Star, though he continued guiding Luke as a Force spirit.", "In ''Star Wars: The Force Awakens'', Obi-Wan's voice can briefly be heard just after Rey's force vision when she came into contact with Anakin's lightsaber.", "In ''Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker'', Obi-Wan appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious.==== Anakin Skywalker ====Anakin Skywalker was a human Jedi Knight, one of the main protagonists of the prequel trilogy, and the central antagonist of the original trilogy.", "He is the Chosen One, being born of the Force.", "He was apprenticed to Obi-Wan Kenobi and proved to be a very gifted duelist and Force user, being appointed to the Jedi High Council at the age of 22.He secretly married Padmé Amidala at the onset of the Clone Wars and has two children, Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa.", "He was eventually seduced to the dark side by the Sith Lord, Darth Sidious, and became the Sith Lord Darth Vader, serving the Galactic Empire.", "While he was a member of the Jedi Council, he trained a Padawan of his own, Ahsoka Tano during the Clone Wars.", "Vader was eventually redeemed by his son in ''Return of the Jedi'' and gave his own life to save Luke, killing Sidious and fulfilling the prophecy of the Chosen One.", "In ''Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker'', Anakin appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Sidious.====Ahsoka Tano====Ahsoka Tano is a Togruta Jedi Padawan discovered on her homeworld of Shili by Jedi Master Plo Koon.", "Plo brought her to Coruscant to train as a Jedi.", "She eventually became the Padawan learner of Anakin Skywalker during the Clone Wars.", "Among many campaigns, Ahsoka found herself advising rebels on the planet Onderon, including Steela and Saw Gerrera, in their fight against the Confederacy.", "These rebels would eventually form part of the basis of the Alliance for the Restoration of the Republic, a relationship that would later prove beneficial to her.", "She was accused of bombing the hangar at the Jedi Temple on Coruscant before clearing her name with Anakin's help.", "However, the Jedi Council's response during the ordeal soured her faith in the Order, and she left the Order to forge her own path in the galaxy.", "She briefly returned in the service of the Republic during the final days of the Clone Wars, when she led part of the 501st Clone Legion in the siege of Mandalore to capture the Sith Lord Darth Maul, who attempted to warn her that Anakin would soon fall to the dark side.", "Shortly after capturing Maul, Ahsoka was betrayed by her clone troopers as part of Order 66, but she managed to escape alongside Clone Captain Rex (whose control chip she removed).", "Years later, Ahsoka served the nascent Rebel Alliance as the spymaster and head of its intelligence network, directing operations behind the codename Fulcrum.", "After the Galactic Civil War, she began searching for Ezra Bridger and Grand Admiral Thrawn, who had gone missing in the Unknown Regions.", "Ahsoka is one of the few Jedi to survive past the Imperial era and into the New Republic era.", "After the fall of the Empire, Ahsoka took on Sabine Wren as her apprentice.", "In ''Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker'', Ahsoka appears as only a voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious.====Cal Kestis====Cal Kestis was a human Jedi Padawan and the main protagonist of ''Star Wars Jedi: Fallen Order''.", "Trained by Jaro Tapal, Cal witnessed his master's death during Order 66, which he himself barely managed to survive.", "During the Imperial era, he lived on Bracca, working as a scrapyard rigger and hiding his Force powers.", "While scrapping a freighter, an accident forced Cal to reveal his Force abilities to save a co-worker, exposing him to the Empire, who dispatched two Inquisitors to hunt him down.", "On the run, Cal was rescued by Cere Junda, a Jedi Knight also in hiding, and worked with her and other allies to find a Jedi Holocron containing a list of Force-sensitive children, which could be used to rebuild the Jedi Order.", "Once their mission was completed, Cal decided to destroy the Holocron, believing it to be better for those children to discover their own destinies.====Kanan Jarrus====Kanan Jarrus (born Caleb Dume) was a human Jedi Padawan who fought for the Rebellion during its formation.", "First introduced as a main character of the animated television series ''Star Wars Rebels'', Jarrus was known to be the leader of a small rebel cell called the Spectres, operating on the planet Lothal.", "As a survivor of Order 66, Jarrus was forced to break certain Jedi traditions to avoid being detected by Imperial forces that continued their mission to eliminate any Jedi on sight, such as eschewing traditional Jedi robes or occasionally using a blaster, a weapon typically shunned by Jedi.", "Although he lost his master Depa Billaba to Order 66 before he could ascend the ranks of the Jedi Order, he was tasked with training the young Force-sensitive Ezra Bridger throughout his eventual service to the larger Rebellion.", "Ultimately, Jarrus died to save his friends, in particular Hera Syndulla, who would later give birth to her and Jarrus' son, Jacen Syndulla.", "In ''Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker'', he appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious.====Ezra Bridger====Ezra Bridger is a human Jedi Padawan who was born on the planet Lothal on the same day the Galactic Empire was established.", "He witnessed many injustices of the Imperial occupation of his homeworld for much of his childhood and was separated from his parents from a very early age.", "He was able to survive alone using street smarts and skills but was discovered by Kanan Jarrus to have potential Force sensitivity after he encounters the Spectres for the first time.", "After discovering how much of a team player he could be during a rescue operation, they recruited Bridger, who began training him in the ways of the Jedi under Jarrus, himself still a Jedi Padawan.", "Bridger took a long time learning how to wield a lightsaber and use it to deflect blaster bolts, modifying his first one to fire stun blasts in the interim.", "He was not well skilled in lightsaber duels against Inquisitors and Darth Vader, but later discovered his unique ability to use the Force to control and command animals, a skill that proved more useful several times during his service in the Rebellion.", "Bridger later went missing in action during the battle to liberate Lothal from Imperial occupation, where he successfully defeated Grand Admiral Thrawn, regarded by many as the Empire's best tactician.==== Luke Skywalker ====Luke Skywalker was a human Jedi Knight (later Master) and the protagonist of the original trilogy.", "As the last Padawan of Obi-Wan Kenobi, he became an important figure in the Rebel Alliance's struggle against the Galactic Empire.", "Luke was heir to a family deeply rooted in the Force, being the twin brother of Rebellion leader Princess Leia Organa of the planet Alderaan, the son of former Queen of Naboo and Republic Senator Padmé Amidala and Jedi turned Sith Lord Darth Vader (Anakin Skywalker), and the maternal uncle of Ben Solo.", "After redeeming his father from the dark side of the Force, who died killing his master and the last Sith, Darth Sidious, in order to save Luke, he set out to train a new generation of Jedi to rebuild the Order, only to have them wiped out by Supreme Leader Snoke, a puppet created by a revived Sidious, who also turned Ben to the dark side, adopting the Kylo Ren persona.", "Skywalker then spent the rest of his life in exile on Ahch-To, the original headquarters of the Jedi Order, blaming himself for Ben's turn and the destruction of his Order, until he was found by Rey, the Last Jedi and the secret granddaughter of Sidious, whom he reluctantly trained in the Jedi arts.", "Shortly after, he gave his life to distract Kylo Ren, now Supreme Leader of the First Order, on the planet Crait via a Force Projection, allowing the Resistance to escape.", "When Rey learned of her lineage and exiled herself on Ahch-To out of fear of turning to the dark side, Luke appeared before her as a Force spirit and encouraged her to face the Emperor.", "Along with the spirits of other past Jedi, he then empowered Rey during her final confrontation with Sidious, which marked the definitive defeat of the Sith.", "Later, he and Leia gave Rey their blessings to adopt the Skywalker surname and continue their family's legacy.==== Leia Organa ====Leia Organa was the daughter of Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala, the twin sister of Luke Skywalker, and one of the main characters of the original and sequel trilogies.", "While Force-sensitive, she didn't become aware of her connection to the Force or her lineage until much later in life, instead focusing on a career as a senator and, secretly, a leader of the Rebel Alliance.", "As seen in ''The Rise of Skywalker'', Leia began training as a Jedi under her brother shortly after ''Return of the Jedi'', but quit her training when she had a vision that it would result in the death of her yet to be born son.", "Decades later, while leading the Resistance against the First Order, Leia also briefly mentored Rey in the ways of the Force, despite her limited knowledge about it.", "Ultimately, Leia gave her life to redeem her son, Ben Solo, who had turned to the dark side, and became one with the Force.", "Later, she and Luke gave Rey their blessings to adopt the Skywalker surname and continue their family's legacy.==== Grogu ====Grogu was a Jedi Initiate of the same species as Yoda who first appeared in ''The Mandalorian''.", "Raised at the Jedi Temple on Coruscant during the Clone Wars, he was rescued by Jedi Master Kelleran Beq during the Great Jedi Purge and hidden for his own safety.", "Decades later, the 50-year-old but still toddler Grogu was sought by a remnant of the Galactic Empire due to his connection to the Force, but was found and adopted by the Mandalorian bounty hunter Din Djarin, who sought to reunite him with the Jedi.", "When Grogu was eventually captured by Moff Gideon's Imperial remnant, Djarin mounted a rescue, which would have been unsuccessful if not for the arrival of Luke Skywalker (whom Grogu had previously contacted through the Force).", "With Djarin's approval, Luke took Grogu with him so that the child could be trained as a Jedi.", "Though Grogu briefly trained with Luke, he showed signs of not being fully committed to the Jedi path and wishing to be with Djarin instead, causing Luke to doubt his abilities as a teacher, as seen in ''The Book of Boba Fett''.", "After speaking with Ahsoka Tano, Luke decided to let Grogu choose his own destiny, and the youngling ultimately returned to Djarin as his Mandalorian foundling.==== Ben Solo ====Ben Solo was a human Jedi Padawan and the central antagonist of the sequel trilogy.", "He was the son of smuggler and Rebel Alliance General Han Solo and Rebellion leader Princess Leia Organa, and the nephew of Jedi Master Luke Skywalker, having been born shortly after the Galactic Empire's defeat.", "As part of his uncle's new generation of Jedi, Ben trained under him, but was eventually seduced to the dark side by Supreme Leader Snoke, a puppet created by a revived Darth Sidious, the last Sith, and sought to become a Sith Lord, as powerful as his late maternal grandfather, Darth Vader (Anakin Skywalker).", "Following the destruction of Luke's New Jedi Order, Ben adopted the Kylo Ren persona and became a warlord of the First Order, as well as the leader of the Knights of Ren, an organization of fellow Force-wielders.", "He later killed his father when he unsuccessfully tried to redeem him and formed a unique connection with Rey, the last Jedi and Sidious' secret granddaughter, called a \"dyad in the Force\".", "After killing Snoke, Kylo took over as Supreme Leader of the First Order, until ultimately being redeemed by his mother and Rey, and helping Rey face Sidious, giving his own life to save hers.==== Rey Skywalker ====Rey was a human Jedi Padawan and the protagonist of the sequel trilogy.", "She is the paternal granddaughter of Sheev Palpatine(Darth Sidious), the last surviving Sith Lord, and was born in the years following the Galactic Empire's defeat.", "Abandoned on the desert planet of Jakku at a young age by her parents in order to keep her safe, she became involved in the conflict between the Resistance and the First Order, and formed a unique connection with Kylo Ren, called a \"dyad in the Force\".", "She was briefly trained by Luke Skywalker and, following his death, continued her Jedi training under the guidance of his sister and Resistance leader Leia Organa, as well as the ancient Jedi texts.", "Rey eventually learned of her lineage and, with the help of a redeemed Kylo Ren and the spirits of past Jedi, faced a revived Sidious, finally killing him and ending the Sith once and for all.===Force-sensitive organizations===Not every \"dark side\"-user is a Sith; nor is every \"light side\"-user a Jedi.", "Within the ''Star Wars'' Expanded Universe, people of all species have demonstrated varying \"force-sensitive\" powers and abilities.", "These \"force-wielders\" are often depicted with little to no formal Jedi training in the Force, originating from primitive planets.====The Sith Organization=========Dark side adept=====A dark side adept is someone with the power to use the dark side of the Force outside of the traditions of the Jedi or the Sith.", "They were often steeped in the lore of the dark side and opposed to those who used the light side, such as Jedi.", "While all Sith were technically dark side adepts, non-Sith individuals such as Asajj Ventress, Kylo Ren, and the Grand Inquisitor were also considered dark side adepts.", "Dark side adepts were referenced in passing in James Luceno's canon novel ''Tarkin''.====Force-wielders without affiliation====The Bendu, introduced in the ''Star Wars Rebels'' Season 3 episode \"Steps into Shadow\", is a Force-sensitive individual who resided on the remote planet of Atollon and represents the \"center\" of the Force, between the light side and the dark side.", "When he is first met by Kanan Jarrus, he states that \"Jedi and Sith wield the ''Ashla'' and ''Bogan''.", "The light and the dark.", "I'm the one in the middle.", "The Bendu...\".", "He is depicted as one who seeks balance, and has been likened to Tom Bombadil of ''The Lord of the Rings.''", "The term \"Bendu\" first appeared in the original script for ''Star Wars'' as the name of the Jedi Knights, the \"Jedi-Bendu\"." ], [ "Description", "===The Jedi Code===The Jedi Code was a set of rules that governed the behavior of the Jedi Order.", "It taught its followers to not give in to feelings of anger toward other lifeforms, which would help them resist fear and prevent them from falling to the dark side of the Force.===The Four Councils===The Four Branches of the Jedi Council are fictional institutions from the ''Star Wars'' universe.", "They serve the Jedi Order as an organized administrative body that provides the necessary auxiliary and support services that sustain and governed the Order's academies, temples, interests and organizations.====Jedi High Council====The Jedi High Council is the main ecclesiastical leadership of the Jedi Order with both legislative and executive powers.", "The Jedi High Council is made up of some of the strongest, wisest and most experienced members of the Jedi Order.", "They are elected to lead the Jedi.", "The Jedi High Council has twelve members at any given time: five members who serve for life, four members who serve long-term, and three limited-term members.", "Sifo-Dyas had a seat on the council until his extremist views on a war that he foresaw caused his removal.", "Other older members include Jor Aerith, Tera Sinuba, and Yula Braylon.In ''Jedi: Fallen Order - Dark Temple'' (which is set an unknown amount of time before ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace''), the Jedi Council includes Yoda, Mace Windu, Eeth Koth, Yarael Poof, Poli Dapatian, and Jocasta Nu.", "In ''Master & Apprentice'', set seven years before ''The Phantom Menace'', the council includes Yoda, Mace Windu, Depa Billaba, Poli Dapatian (who is in the process of retiring), Eeth Koth, and Saesee Tiin.In the final days before the end of the Clone Wars and the extermination of the Jedi Order, the Council consisted of the following members:YodaMace WinduPlo KoonStass AllieShaak TiKit FistoSaesee TiinColeman KcajAnakin SkywalkerAgen KolarObi-Wan KenobiKi-Adi-Mundi====Council of First Knowledge====The Council of First Knowledge administered the Temple-based academy and its curriculum and funded scholars' scientific research.", "To this end, the Council guarded and maintained the Temple Archives and its Holocron vaults, as well as the \"Shadow program\" at the Jedi Temple: Jedi Sentinels tasked with hunting down Sith artifacts.====Council of Reconciliation====The Council of Reconciliation dealt with the Galactic Senate and the Republic Diplomatic Corps in order to help bring diplomatic resolutions to conflicts and end political standoffs.", "The \"first face\" of the Republic presented to worlds interested in joining the Republic, this council would dispatch Jedi diplomats and ambassadors to moderate debate and hammer out treaties====Council of Reassignment====The Council of Reassignment administered the Jedi Service Corps and each of its branch councils.", "Organizing work for those Initiates who failed out of the academy and Knights with special talents, the Reassignment Council oversaw this branch's missions and assignments.===Ranks of authority and educational progress===Every Jedi, regardless of species or world, is trained for their career at Jedi Academy.", "Entrance is determined by rigorous examination and psychological tests.", "When Jedi Sentinels discover or test a suitable \"force-sensitive\" candidate, they are taken to the Jedi Academy at the age of 5 (depending on the species and arbitrary years) with the parent's permission.", "Jedi scholarship educations are considered prestigious, as most parents are portrayed as either happy or proud of the opportunity presented to their child, who could never afford an education.", "However, parents also are generally sad since they know they are unlikely to see their child again before adulthood.", "Members of the Order progress through four educational stages, at times referred to as levels:====Initiate====Initiation is the first part of Jedi training; they are mentored by Jedi Masters in rudimentary control over the Force and basic self-defense techniques.Most Initiates were typically Younglings (a child Jedi-in-training), receiving an early and first-class education.", "The first ten years of a youngling's training demands segregation from outside distractions and is deliberately designed to reinforce detachment from earthly emotions, including loyalty or love for their parents.", "Initiates are taught to abandon ego, and that discipline, selflessness and truthfulness will lead to harmony with The Force.", "This is why Yoda initially denied both Anakin and Luke Skywalker for being \"too old for training\".Younglings were portrayed training under Jedi Master Yoda in a scene on ''Attack of the Clones'' and hiding during the assault on the Jedi Temple in ''Revenge of the Sith''.The \"Young Jedi\" story arc and the episode \"Path of the Jedi\" explored the Jedi tradition called \"The Gathering,\" where initiates traveled to the \"Crystal Caves\" of Ilum to harvest kyber crystals, which they would use to build their first lightsabers.", "Crystals were attuned to individual Jedi and lacked color.", "The Force spoke to each of the younglings through their crystals.", "To find their crystal, each initiate had to learn a lesson: courage, hope, patience, trust, confidence, and selflessness.====Padawan====An Initiate who successfully completes \"fundamental training\" is given a second-class education and then undergoes Padawan training under the tutelage of a Mentor (usually a Jedi Knight or Jedi Master).", "They are also called \"Apprentices\" and \"Padawan learners\".", "In the Old Republic, Padawans usually wore a hair braid or a bead string (for species without hair) on the right side of their head which was severed with a lightsaber by the Jedi Grand Master upon attaining knighthood.", "They also served as Commanders in the Clone Wars.====Knight====Disciplined and experienced, Jedi Knights become so only when they have completed \"the trials\" (final tests), they officially graduate, being eligible for specialized advance courses, and may continue to pursue a third-class education (see below) to obtain the equivalent of a habilitation or post-doctoral degree.", "As the most common and numerous rank, Knights are youthful journeyman eager to travel the galaxy, obtain new experiences and serve the Republic; thus Knignts are frequently \"the face\" of the Order, with all Jedi erroneously referred to by the general public as Knights, and the rank is interchangeably referred to as \"Jedi\", \"Jedi Knight\" and \"Master Jedi\" (although the latter are honorifics used only by Younglings and Padawans when addressing Jedi Knights or above).", "The five tests are usually known as ''Trial of Skill'', the ''Trial of Courage'', the ''Trial of the Flesh'', the ''Trial of Spirit'', and the ''Trial of Insight (or Knowledge)''.", "In ''Return of the Jedi'', Master Yoda gives his apprentice, Luke Skywalker, the trial of confronting Darth Vader for a second time so he might become a full-fledged Knight.", "Occasionally, performing an extraordinary (usually heroic) act can earn a Padawan learner Jedi status, such as when Obi-Wan Kenobi defeats the Sith Lord, Darth Maul.", "By the time of the Skywalker Saga films, distinct \"battle classes\" were not necessary as the Republic had not seen war in over a thousand years, and the title of Knight was simply a rank once again.====Master====Jedi Master is a term of respect used by beings who respect the Jedi.", "Masters are regarded as among the most accomplished and recognized polymaths in the ''Star Wars'' galaxy; generally, they have resigned from wanderlust ways of knighthood and instead apply their acquired years of wisdom and experience to meditative, administrative and educational pursuits.", "Upon completion of vocational or postgraduate education, a Jedi Knight becomes a Jedi Master after successfully training several Padawan learners to Knight status, such as when Obi-Wan Kenobi became a Jedi Master after he successfully trained Anakin Skywalker to the point where he was able to complete the trials and become a Jedi Knight.", "Though this is the most common manner, there are other ways of attaining the rank.", "Some Jedi masters include Obi-Wan Kenobi, Qui-Gon Jinn, and Yoda.===Specializations and occupations===Various careers, occupations, ranks and titles were available to all Jedi.", "Upon a Padawan's ascension to \"''Knighthood''-status\", a Jedi pursued higher education or vocational education and training in a field of expertise; choose a career based on preference, personal talents and skills.", "Before the Great Jedi Purge, numerous divisions existed across the whole of the order, but most personnel are represented within the three order divisions: the '''''Order of the Guardian''''', the '''''Order of the Consular''''', or '''''Order of the Sentinel'''''.", "In addition to their specialization, in times of war, the High Council could demand that the members of the Order assume military ranks in order to defend the Republic.====Hierarchy====* Grand Master of the Jedi Order: The Grand Master is the oldest, the most experienced, the most accomplished and the best trained of all Jedi.", "A Grand Master is voted unanimously by the Jedi High Council.", "The Grand Master serves as the organization's figurehead in charge of ceremonial duties and dictates the organization's general policies while providing direction and guidance to the entire Jedi Order.", "Yoda and Luke Skywalker were Jedi Grandmasters.", "* Chief Librarian of the Jedi Archives: The overseer of the ''Jedi Archives'', ''Holocron Vault'', ''Librarian's Assembly'' and the ''Educational Corps''.", "Second only to the Grand Master in administrative importance, the Chief Librarian worked closely with the ''Council of First Knowledge''.", "Around the time of the Clone Wars, the Chief Librarian was the elderly Jedi Master Jocasta Nu.", "* Chief Master of the Jedi High Council (or 'Master of the Order'): The Chief Master of the High Council is elected by the Jedi High Council, which effectively acts as chairman, Chief of staff and chief operating officer.", "Its chief responsibilities include; presiding over High Council meetings of the assembled group, conducting Jedi businesses in an orderly fashion, managing the executive particulars of the day-to-day administration of the Jedi Order, acting as representative or spokesperson to the Galactic Senate, and serving as the Grand Master's junior partner.", "Jedi Master Mace Windu filled this position at the time of the Clone Wars.", "* Jedi General: A title given to those given commanding roles in the Grand Army of the Republic during the Clone Wars.", "* Jedi Commander: This title was given to Jedi Padawans under the leadership of Jedi Knights and Jedi Masters with their roles as Jedi Generals in the Grand Army of the Republic during the Clone Wars.====Divisions====* Jedi Guardian: Jedi Guardians are the vigilant warrior-class, being the original, most common and numerous among the Jedi, easily identified by their blue lightsabers; they focused all aspects of combat as an extension of their being, and trained on combining and perfecting their athletic, aviation and martial art skills with mastery of the Force.", "The Force skills studied by the Guardians were typically those used for quickly disabling an opponent and aiding in agility and stamina.", "Many were stationed within Republic planetary or sectoral government's security agencies where they worked as special peacekeepers and law enforcement agents, helping to quell riots and capture terrorists.", "The highest-ranking Jedi Guardians were stationed at the Jedi academies as instructors tasked with passing down their experience to the young students of the Order.", "Those Jedi who mastered lightsaber-combat techniques (such as Mace Windu) were dubbed Weapon Masters and were among the greatest warriors of the Order.", "* Jedi Consular: Jedi Consulars are the contemplative scholar-class, being easily identified by their green lightsabers; they were deep thinkers and philosophers devoted to the mental aspects of the force, studied the greater inner workings of the force behind the scenes, focused on further mastery of the Force, the sharpening of mental faculties, and wielded a lightsaber only for self-defense.", "Overseen by the Council of Reconciliation, Jedi Consulars were often called upon to act as impartial advisers, diplomats, and arbiters.", "Most Consulars specialized as historians, archivists, librarians, archaeologists, geologists, biologists, mathematicians, and astronomers; they contributed to the growth and preservation of the Jedi Archives as \"Lore Keepers\" directed by the ''Librarian's Assembly''.", "Some Consulars worked closely with the Republic bureaucrats to assist in greeting unaligned governments and helping them join the Republic and given the authority to hammer out a compromise or treaty during tense negotiations, backed by the full support of the Senate and Jedi Order.", "Some Consulars joined the Circle of Jedi Healers (headquartered out of the Coruscant Temple's ''Halls of Healing'') and focused on the medical and humanitarian aspects of the Force, manipulating the Living Force to perform the art of healing.", "Those Jedi specifically predisposed to receive visions through the Force were known as \"Seers\", maintaining and updating the Order's holocrons; the most perceptive of these Jedi (such as Yoda) were known as Prophets and foretold the future of the galaxy.", "* Jedi Sentinel: Jedi Sentinels are the pragmatic tech-class, being easily identified by their yellow lightsabers; they blended multiple schools of teaching, amplified them with a series of non-force skills, and focused on diverse inter-disciplinary talents that were not often associated with the Jedi.", "Sentinels applied their Force abilities as engineers, technicians, intelligence and security experts.", "Interestingly they stayed away from the Jedi Temple preferring to conduct their affairs within communities throughout the Galaxy.", "Most Sentinels tended to take a middle road approach to problems, being stationed at numerous locations for decades, to serve as liaison officers between the system or sector and the Republic.", "The most loyal Sentinel join the anonymous \"Jedi Temple Guard\" charged with guarding the Jedi Temple; such dedication demanded no emotional relationship or identity.", "Some Sentinels aided police as detectives through the use of the Force.", "Since Republic law required all newborns to undergo \"Force-sensitivity\" testing, Sentinels who worked as members of the ''Acquisition Division of the Order'' routinely tracked down and identified Force-sensitive children to assess whether they met the qualifications to receive training in the Jedi Order.", "The most elite Sentinels became \"Shadows\" or \"Watchmen\": the Jedi-secret police who worked under the supervision of the ''First Knowledge Council'' to destroy all remnants of the Sith.===Resources and technology===Within the ''Star Wars'' universe, the Jedi are usually portrayed wearing simple robes and carrying specialized field gear for their missions.", "Their philosophical lifestyles mirror those of real-world religious vows and evangelical counsels, as their personal possessions are provided exclusively by the Jedi Order, and are only meant to allow self-sufficiency.====Weapons====The most notable instrument wielded by a Jedi is the lightsaber.", "Both Jedi and Sith use lightsabers, though the former regard them as a tool, the latter, a weapon.", "The Jedi's lightsabers emit cool colors, usually blue or green blades (sometimes yellow, or purple, as seen in the case of Mace Windu), while the Sith emit warm colors (red).", "Lightsabers can be of many different colors depending on the crystal fixture and reflective of the wielders' psychological profile.", "Most Jedi use naturally formed crystals, frequently ranging between blue, green and yellow; whereas Sith tend to use corrupted or synthetic crystals, which are usually red in color.Although rare, spear-like, whip-like amd multi-bladed lightsabers can exist, especially among Sith such as Darth Maul's double-bladed lightsaber, the Inqusitors' double-bladed/rotating ones, or Kylo Ren's crossguard-bladed one (due to a cracked kyber crystal).====Vehicles====Eta-2 Actis Jedi interceptors first appeared in ''Revenge of the Sith''.", "Delta-7B Aethersprite Jedi starfighters appear in ''Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones'' and ''Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith''.", "In ''Attack of the Clones'', Obi-Wan Kenobi travels via Jedi starfighter to Kamino to investigate the attempted assassination of Padmé Amidala; he also flies a Jedi starfighter to Geonosis in an attempt to track down the bounty hunter Jango Fett.", "Lacking a hyperdrive, the starfighter relies on an external sled to propel it through hyperspace.", "Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker (Hayden Christensen) fly updated Jedi starfighters (called Jedi interceptors) in the opening sequence of ''Revenge of the Sith''.", "Later, Plo Koon (Matt Sloan) flies a ''Revenge of the Sith''-era starfighter when he is shot down by clone troopers carrying out Darth Sidious' (Ian McDiarmid) Order 66.The Jedi starfighter's triangular shape in ''Attack of the Clones'' stems from the shape of Imperial Star Destroyers in the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy.", "Industrial Light & Magic designer Doug Chiang identified the Jedi starfighter as one of the first designs that bridges the aesthetic between the prequel and original trilogies.", "Chiang noted that viewers' familiarity with the Star Destroyer's appearance and Imperial affiliation gives added symbolism to the Jedi craft's appearance and foreshadows the Empire's rise to power.", "The starfighter seen in ''Revenge of the Sith'' is a cross between the previous film's vessel and the Empire's TIE fighters from the original trilogy.", "Hasbro's expanding wings in the ''Attack of the Clones'' Jedi starfighter toy inspired the opening wings in the ''Revenge of the Sith'' vessel.", "The starfighter in the ''Revenge of the Sith'' is called a Jedi interceptor.====Jedi Archives====The Jedi Archives, known as The Great Library of Ossus or The Great Library of the Jedi, contained the galaxy's most priceless and ancient of texts sacred to Jedi scholars and archaeologists.", "Among these were Sith artifacts, considered by the Jedi Order to be the most dangerous artifacts in the galaxy, that were accessible only to those able to control the Dark Side of the Force.The Jedi archives of the Jedi Temple in the movie ''Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones'' bear a startling resemblance to the Long Room of the Trinity College Library in Dublin.", "This resemblance resulted in controversy as permission had not been sought to use the building's likeness in the film.", "However, Lucasfilm denied that the Long Room was the basis for the Jedi archives, and officials from Trinity College Library decided not to take any legal action.====Jedi Academy====The Jedi academies were established to train Force-sensitive beings accepted into the Jedi Order in the ways of the Force.", "Overseen by the Council of First Knowledge, each academy was governed by an advisory Council appointed by their superiors on Coruscant.", "Mainstreaming the majority of teachings at the Temple, certain practices were permitted to vary from world to world.", "However, at all sanctioned academies, a group of Jedi Masters would instruct Initiates to the Order in the ways of the Force.", "The size of the school varied from world to world; the smallest consisted of a single clan of younglings, and the largest was the main academy housed within the Jedi Temple of Coruscant.", "Most academies had been established during the Old Sith Wars and were located in the Galactic Rim.", "Some were located on or near Force-wellsprings or places significant to the Order like crystal caves or nexuses of dark side energies that needed constant monitoring.In addition to the traditional academies established by the Order, the Exploration Corps maintained several spacefaring mobile academies such as the ''Chu'unthor'' so that roaming the galaxy and exploring new worlds could be achieved while still teaching traditional doctrine.By the fall of the Galactic Republic in 19 BBY, many of the ancient academies had been shut down for decades, with the Council of First Knowledge preferring the central teachings of the Coruscant Temple.", "After the dissolution of the Order during the Great Jedi Purge, all orthodox Temples and academies were routed and burned in order to prevent any more Jedi from learning the secrets of the Force.", "However, the Galactic Empire's chokehold on Force-education did not last and the Order was reformed following the conclusion of the Galactic Civil War.", "After Grand Master Luke Skywalker's New Order became a single class of twelve students including his nephew Ben Solo, it was reduced to only himself when his nephew turned to the dark side and became Kylo Ren.====Jedi Temple====In the prequel trilogy, the primary Jedi Temple is located on the Republic's capital planet of Coruscant.", "As the chief administrative headquarters, the Temple served the Order in three capacities: a monastery and library for the Jedi seeking enlightenment and to reflect on the will of the Force; an academy and training center for Jedi younglings and Padawans who endeavored to join the ranks of the Jedi Knights; and government, in which the Masters of the Jedi High Council guided the Order's direction.", "It was originally built atop an old \"dark-side nexus\" shrine during the birth of the Republic, so as to be symbolic to the Coruscant people that the tyrannical rule of the Sith was over.In ''Revenge of the Sith'', the Jedi Temple is attacked by clone troopers of the 501st Legion, led by the newly christened Darth Vader, who butchered the Jedi within and set the Temple alight.", "After the fall of the Jedi Order and the Galactic Republic, the Temple became the '''Palace of the Emperor''' and a location for his dark side artifacts.", "It would serve as Sidious' residence for over two decades until his death at the battle of Endor.", "The Temple is visible in the celebrations on Coruscant at the end of ''Return of the Jedi''.", "After the destruction of the Sith, Luke Skywalker—the last of the Jedi—recovered fragments of a Force-sensitive tree that was once located at the heart of the Jedi Temple.", "''Architects' Journal'' rated the temple third on its top-ten architecture of ''Star Wars'' list behind the second Death Star and Jabba the Hutt’s palace on Tatooine, and ahead of Coruscant, the capital city of the Old Republic.", "The temple is described in the article as adapting \"the robust typology of Mayan temples, with durasteel cladding specified for the external stone walls for improved defensive strength\" and said to be a ziggurat that \"is built above a Force-nexus and has ample room for training facilities, accommodation and the Jedi Archive\".", "The temple has five towers, the tallest being Tranquility Spire, that are stylistically similar to the minarets surrounding the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.", "''Star Wars Insider'' listed it as the one hundredth greatest thing about ''Star Wars'' in its one hundredth issue special." ], [ "''Legends'' depiction of the Jedi", "With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed ''Star Wars'' novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film ''Star Wars'' were rebranded as ''Star Wars Legends'' and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.In novels and reference books now considered Legends the interpretation of the Jedi teaching on not forming attachments was alternating between being in line with George Lucas' vision and using \"attachment\" in the sense of affection, fondness and loving commitment, stating that the Jedi Code prohibited these emotional bonds.", "Furthermore, the Jedi were depicted as a quasi-militaristic organization with strict political alignment to the Galactic Republic.===Je'daii===The Je'daii Order, precursors to the modern Jedi, studied and used both the light and dark sides of the Force equally.", "The preview issue of ''Dawn of the Jedi'' states that the Je'daii originated ten thousand years before the saga takes place (approximately 36,453 years BBY).", "They were more monk than warrior, and their capital was Tython in the Deep Core.===The New Jedi Order===In novels set after the events of the film series, Luke Skywalker re-established the Jedi High Council as part of his New Jedi Order.", "The most notable difference between the format of the new council and the old is that only half of the council are made up of Jedi, while the other half consisted of politicians.", "Following the war with the Yuuzhan Vong, the Jedi withdrew their support from anyone political entity and relocated to Ossus, where Luke had a full Jedi Council re-established.The New Jedi Order was the restored and reformed Jedi organization, in the wake of the Great Jedi Purge and the subsequent fall of the Galactic Empire.", "The Jedi Knights, reduced in number to only a handful, were slowly restored, primarily under the leadership of Grandmaster Luke Skywalker.", "Skywalker abolished the traditional Master/Padawan system.", "He believed all Jedi should be both teachers and students; that they should both learn from and mentor each other, and not just from one Master.Within the Expanded Universe, ''The New Jedi Order'' indicates that the Jedi Temple on Coruscant is no longer standing but it is rebuilt as a gift to Jedi for their services and achievements during the Yuuzhan Vong invasion.", "The new temple is in the form of a massive pyramid made from stone and transparisteel that is designed to fit into the new look of Coruscant, though internally it is identical to the design seen in ''Revenge of the Sith''." ], [ "Cultural impact and critical response", "The United States Army had a group of officers in the early 1980s who promoted maneuver warfare tactics, and who were derisively referred to as Jedi by more conventional officers who were satisfied with attrition warfare tactics and methods.=== Analysis ===In ''Star Wars and Philosophy'', William Stephens compares the Jedi to Stoicism:Functionally, the Jedi order resembles a Praetorian Guard.===Media===Jedi have made their way into certain areas of pop culture, such as \"Weird Al\" Yankovic's song \"The Saga Begins\", a parody of \"American Pie\".", "In the film ''The Men Who Stare at Goats'' (2009), a reporter follows a former soldier who claimed to be a \"Jedi warrior\", a nickname for psychic spies in the US military.===Religion===One of the enduring influences the ''Star Wars'' saga has had in popular culture is the idea of the fictional Jedi values being interpreted as a modern philosophical path or religion, spawning various movements such as the Jediism (religious) and the Jedi census phenomenon." ], [ "See also", "* Sith* Jediism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* 50px Text was copied from Jedi Code at Wookieepedia, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC-BY-SA 3.0) license.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " ''Sword Fighting in the Star Wars Universe: Historical Origins, Style and Philosophy'' by Nick Jamilla (McFarland & Company, 2008)* ''Star Wars and History'' by Nancy Reagin & Janice Liedl (John Wiley & Sons, 2012)* ''The Science Fiction Reboot: Canon, Innovation and Fandom in Refashioned Franchises'' by Heather Urbanski (McFarland & Company, 2013)* ''Star wars: the essential chronology'' by Kevin J. Anderson & Daniel Wallace (Ballantine Books, 2000)* ''Culture, identities, and technology in the Star wars films: essays on the two trilogies'' by Carl Silvio & Tony M. Vinci (McFarland & Company, 2007)* ''The Star Wars Heresies'' by Paul F. McDonald (McFarland & Company, 2013)" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Tobin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Tobin''' (March 5, 1918 – March 11, 2002) was an American economist who served on the Council of Economic Advisers and consulted with the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, and taught at Harvard and Yale Universities.", "He contributed to the development of key ideas in the Keynesian economics of his generation and advocated government intervention in particular to stabilize output and avoid recessions.", "His academic work included pioneering contributions to the study of investment, monetary and fiscal policy and financial markets.", "He also proposed an econometric model for censored dependent variables, the well-known tobit model.Along with fellow neo-Keynesian economist James Meade in 1977, Tobin proposed nominal GDP targeting as a monetary policy rule in 1980.Tobin received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1981 for \"creative and extensive work on the analysis of financial markets and their relations to expenditure decisions, employment, production and prices.", "\"Outside academia, Tobin was widely known for his suggestion of a tax on foreign exchange transactions, now known as the \"Tobin tax.\"", "This was designed to reduce speculation in the international currency markets, which he saw as dangerous and unproductive." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life===Tobin was born on March 5, 1918, in Champaign, Illinois.", "His father was Louis Michael Tobin (b.", "1879), a journalist working at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.", "His father had fought in World War I, was a member of the first Greek organization at Illinois (Delta Tau Delta fraternity Beta Upsilon chapter), and was credited as the inventor of \"Homecoming.\"", "His mother, Margaret Edgerton Tobin (b.", "1893), was a social worker.", "Tobin attended the University Laboratory High School of Urbana, Illinois, a laboratory school in the University's campus.In 1935, on his father's advice, Tobin took the entrance exams for Harvard University.", "Despite no special preparation for the exams, he passed and was admitted with a national scholarship from the university.", "During his studies he first read Keynes' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money'', published in 1936.Tobin graduated ''summa cum laude'' in 1939 with a thesis centered on a critical analysis of Keynes' mechanism for introducing equilibrium involuntary unemployment.", "His first published article, in 1941, was based on this senior thesis.Tobin immediately started graduate studies, also at Harvard, earning his AM degree in 1940.In 1941, he interrupted graduate studies to work for the Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply and the War Production Board in Washington, D.C.", "The next year, after the United States entered World War II, he enlisted in the US Navy, spending the war as an officer on destroyers including (among possibly others) the .", "At the end of the war he returned to Harvard and resumed studies, receiving his Ph.D. in 1947 with a thesis on the consumption function written under the supervision of Joseph Schumpeter.", "In 1947 Tobin was elected a Junior Fellow of Harvard's Society of Fellows, which allowed him the freedom and funding to spend the next three years studying and doing research.===Academic activity and consultancy===In 1950 Tobin moved to Yale University, where he remained for the rest of his career.", "He joined the Cowles Foundation, which moved to Yale in 1955, also serving as its president between 1955–1961 and 1964–1965.His main research interest was to provide microfoundations to Keynesian economics, with a special focus on monetary economics.", "One of his frequent collaborators was his Yale colleague William Brainard.", "In 1957 Tobin was appointed Sterling Professor of Economics at Yale.Besides teaching and research, Tobin was also strongly involved in the public life, writing on current economic issues and serving as an economic expert and policy consultant.", "During 1961–62, he served as a member of John F. Kennedy's Council of Economic Advisers, under the chairman Walter Heller, then acted as a consultant between 1962 and 1968.Here, in close collaboration with Arthur Okun, Robert Solow and Kenneth Arrow, he helped design the Keynesian economic policy implemented by the Kennedy administration.", "Tobin also served for several terms as a member of the Board of Governors of Federal Reserve System Academic Consultants and as a consultant of the US Treasury Department.Tobin was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal in 1955 and, in 1981, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.", "He was a fellow of several professional associations, holding the position of president of the American Economic Association in 1971.He was an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the United States National Academy of Sciences.In 1972 Tobin, along with fellow Yale economics professor William Nordhaus, published ''Is Growth Obsolete?", "'', an article that introduced the Measure of Economic Welfare as the first model for economic sustainability assessment, and economic sustainability measurement.In 1982–1983, Tobin was Ford Visiting Research Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley.", "In 1988 he formally retired from Yale, but continued to deliver some lectures as Professor Emeritus and continued to write.", "He died on March 11, 2002, in New Haven, Connecticut.Tobin was a trustee of Economists for Peace and Security.===Personal life===James Tobin married Elizabeth Fay Ringo, a former M.I.T.", "student of Paul Samuelson, on September 14, 1946.They had four children: Margaret Ringo (born in 1948), Louis Michael (born in 1951), Hugh Ringo (born in 1953) and Roger Gill (born in 1956).", "In late June, 2009, the family announced via a private email that Tobin's wife had died at the age of 90.===Legacy===In August 2009 in a roundtable interview in Prospect ''magazine'', Adair Turner supported the idea of new global taxes on financial transactions, warning that the \"swollen\" financial sector paying excessive salaries had grown too big for society.", "Lord Turner's suggestion that a \"Tobin tax\" – named after James Tobin – should be considered for financial transactions made headlines around the world.Tobin's Tobit model of regression with censored endogenous variables (Tobin 1958a) is a standard econometric technique.", "His \"q\" theory of investment (Tobin 1969), the Baumol–Tobin model of the transactions demand for money (Tobin 1956), and his model of liquidity preference as behavior toward risk (the asset demand for money) (Tobin 1958b) are all staples of economics textbooks.In his 1958 article Tobin also led the way in showing how to deal with utility maximization under uncertainty with an infinite number of possible states.", "As Palda explains \"One way to get out of the mess of figuring out asset prices using a model of maximizing the expected utility of investing in stocks is to make assumptions about either preferences or the probabilities of the different possible states of the world.", "Nobellist James Tobin (1958) took this line and discovered that in some cases you do not need to worry about the utility of income in thousands of states, and the attached probabilities, to solve the consumer's choice on how to spread income among states.", "When preferences contain only a linear and a squared term (a case of diminishing returns) or the probabilities of different stock returns follow a normal distribution (an equation that contains a linear and squared terms as parameters), a simple formulation of a person's investment choices becomes possible.", "Under Tobin's assumptions we can reformulate the person's decision problem as being one of trading off risk and expected return.", "Risk, or more precisely the variance of your investment portfolio creates spread in the returns you expect.", "People are willing to assume more risk only if compensated by a higher level of expected return.", "One can thus think of a tradeoff people are willing to make between risk and expected return.", "They invest in risky assets to the point at which their willingness to trade off risk and return is equal to the rate at which they able to trade them off.", "It is difficult to exaggerate how brilliant is the simplification of the investment problem that flows from these assumptions.", "Instead of worrying about the investor's optimization problem in potentially millions of possible states of the world, one need only worry about how the investor can trade off risk and return in the stock market.\"" ], [ "Publications", "* * * also: Google Scholar* * * Tobin, James (1961).", "\"Money, Capital, and Other Stores of Value,\" ''American Economic Review'', 51(2), pp.", "26–37.Reprinted in Tobin, 1987, ''Essays in Economics'', v. 1, pp.", "217– 27.MIT Press.", "* * Tobin, James (1970).", "\"Money and Income: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc?\"", "''Quarterly Journal of Economics'', 84(2), pp.", "301–17.", "* Tobin, James and William C. Brainard (1977a).", "\"Asset Markets and the Cost of Capital\".", "In Richard Nelson and Bela Balassa, eds., ''Economic Progress: Private Values and Public Policy (Essays in Honor of William Fellner)'', Amsterdam: North-Holland, 235–62.", "* * Tobin, James (1992).", "\"money\", ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Finance and Money'', v. 2, pp.", "770–79 & in ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics''.", "2008, 2nd Edition.", "Reprinted in Tobin (1996), ''Essays in Economics'', v. 4, pp.", "139– 163.MIT Press.", "* Tobin, James, ''Essays in Economics'', MIT Press:v. 1 (1987), ''Macroeconomics''.", "Scroll to chapter-preview links.v.", "2 ''Consumption and Economics''.", "Description.v.", "3 (1987).", "''Theory and Policy'' (in 1989 paperback as ''Policies for Prosperity: Essays in a Keynesian Mode'').", "Description and links.v.", "4 (1996).", "''National and International''.", "Links.", "* Tobin, James, with Stephen S. Golub (1998).", "''Money, Credit, and Capital''.", "Irwin/McGraw-Hill.", "TOC.", "" ], [ "See also", " Basic income* Guaranteed minimum income* Q Ratio (Tobin's Q ratio)* Tobit model (Tobin's model for censored endogenous variables)* Tobin tax" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* James Tobin at the Cowles Foundation site* Short biography at nobel-winners.com* IDEAS/RePEc* John Mihaljevic's Equities and Tobin's Q Report* The Q Ratio Sends a Modestly Bearish Long-Term Signal (July 2009) * Tobin's Q Moderately Bullish on U.S. Equities (as of March 2009)* The Manual of Ideas Launches Tobin's Q Research Service Based on James Tobin's Q Indicator* Robert Huebscher on \"The Market Valuation Q-uestion\"* *** James Tobin Papers.", "Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Julian Lennon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Julian Charles John Lennon''' (born '''John Charles Julian Lennon'''; 8 April 1963) is an English musician, photographer, author, and philanthropist.", "He is the son of Beatles member John Lennon and his first wife, Cynthia, and he is named after his paternal grandmother, Julia Lennon.", "Julian inspired three Beatles songs: \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" (1967), \"Hey Jude\" (1968), and \"Good Night\" (1968).", "His parents divorced in 1968 after his father had an affair with Yoko Ono.", "Around the world he has had eight hit singles.Lennon started a music career in 1984 with the album ''Valotte'', best known for its lead single \"Too Late for Goodbyes\", and has since released six more albums.", "He has held exhibitions of his fine-art photography and has written several children's books.", "In 2006, Lennon produced the environmental documentary film ''Whaledreamers'', which won eight international awards.", "In 2007, he founded The White Feather Foundation (TWFF), whose stated mission goal is to address \"environmental and humanitarian issues\".In 2020, Lennon was executive producer of the Netflix documentary ''Kiss the Ground'' about regenerative agriculture.", "In 2022, Lennon was executive producer of the documentary film ''Women of the White Buffalo'', which chronicles the lives of women living on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation." ], [ "Early life", "Julian Lennon was born John Charles Julian Lennon on 8 April 1963 at Sefton General Hospital in Liverpool, to John Lennon and Cynthia Powell.", "He was named after his paternal grandmother, Julia Lennon, who died five years before his birth.", "The Beatles' manager, Brian Epstein, was his godfather.", "Lennon was educated at Ruthin School, a boarding private school in the town of Ruthin, Denbighshire in North Wales.Lennon inspired one of his father's most famous songs, \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", whose lyrics describe a picture the boy had drawn, a watercolour painting of his friend, Lucy O'Donnell, from nursery school, surrounded by stars.", "Another composition of his father inspired by him was the lullaby \"Good Night\", the closing song of ''The Beatles'' (also known as The White Album).", "In 1967, at the age of four, he attended the set of the Beatles' film ''Magical Mystery Tour''.When Julian was five years old, in 1968, his parents divorced, following his father's infidelity with Japanese multimedia artist Yoko Ono.", "John Lennon married Ono on 20 March 1969.Julian would later have a younger half-brother, Sean Lennon.Paul McCartney wrote \"Hey Jude\" to console him over the divorce; originally called \"Hey Jules\", McCartney changed the name because he thought that \"Jude\" was an easier name to sing.", "After his parents' divorce, Julian had almost no contact with his father until the early 1970s when, at the request of his father's then-girlfriend, May Pang (Yoko Ono and Lennon had temporarily separated), he began to visit his father regularly.", "John Lennon bought Julian a Gibson Les Paul guitar and a drum machine for Christmas 1973 and encouraged his interest in music by showing him some chords." ], [ "Relationship with his father", "Following his father's murder on 8 December 1980, Julian Lennon voiced anger and resentment towards him, saying, \"I've never really wanted to know the truth about how dad was with me.", "There was some very negative stuff talked about me ... like when he said I'd come out of a whiskey bottle on a Saturday night.", "Stuff like that.", "You think, where's the love in that?", "Paul and I used to hang about quite a bit ... more than Dad and I did.", "We had a great friendship going and there seems to be far more pictures of me and Paul playing together at that age than there are pictures of me and my dad\".Julian chafed at hearing his father's peace and love stance perpetually celebrated.", "He told ''The Daily Telegraph'', \"I have to say that, from my point of view, I felt he was a hypocrite.", "Dad could talk about peace and love out loud to the world but he could never show it to the people who supposedly meant the most to him: his wife and son.", "How can you talk about peace and love and have a family in bits and pieces—no communication, adultery, divorce?", "You can't do it, not if you're being true and honest with yourself.\"", "Julian added, \"Mum was more about love than Dad.", "He sang about it, he spoke about, but he never really gave it, at least not to me as his son.", "The darker side definitely comes from Dad.", "Whenever I get too aggressive, which comes from Dad's side, I try to calm myself down, be more positive.", "\"Recalling his renewed contact with his father in the mid-1970s, Julian said in 2009, \"Dad and I got on a great deal better then.", "We had a lot of fun, laughed a lot and had a great time in general when he was with May Pang.", "My memories of that time with Dad and May are very clear—they were the happiest time I can remember with him\".Julian was excluded from his father's will.", "However, a trust of £100,000 was created by his father to be shared between Julian and his half-brother Sean.", "Julian sued his father's estate and in 1996 reached a settlement agreement, authorised by Lennon's widow Yoko Ono, reportedly worth £20 million.In an interview with CBS News in 2009, Julian stated, \"I realized if I continued to feel that anger and bitterness towards my dad, I would have a constant cloud hanging over my head my whole life.", "After recording the song 'Lucy,' almost by nature, it felt right to fulfill the circle, forgive dad, put the pain, anger and bitterness in the past, and focus and appreciate the good things.", "Writing is therapy for me and, for the first time in my life, I'm actually feeling it and believing it.", "It also has allowed me to actually embrace Dad and the Beatles.\"" ], [ "Career", "=== Music career ===Aside from The Beatles, Lennon was influenced by David Bowie, Keith Jarrett, Steely Dan, and AC/DC.Lennon made his musical debut at age 11 on his father's album ''Walls and Bridges'' playing drums on \"Ya-Ya\", later saying, \"Dad, had I known you were going to put it on the album, I would've played much better!\"", "In the sleeve notes in the album the song is credited to Julian Lennon \"starring on drums\" with \"dad on piano\".Lennon enjoyed immediate success with his debut album, ''Valotte'', released in 1984.Produced by Phil Ramone, it spawned two top 10 hits, (the title track and \"Too Late for Goodbyes\") and earned Lennon a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best New Artist in 1985.Music videos for the two hits were made by film director Sam Peckinpah and producer Martin Lewis.", "After the album's release, Paul McCartney sent Lennon a telegram wishing him good luck.His second album, 1986's ''The Secret Value of Daydreaming'', was panned by critics.", "However, it reached number 32 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart and produced the single \"Stick Around\", which was Lennon's first number-one single on the US Album Rock Tracks chart.", "He recorded the song \"Because\", previously recorded by The Dave Clark Five, in the UK for Clark's 1986 musical ''Time''.On 1 April 1987, Julian Lennon appeared as the Baker in Mike Batt's musical ''The Hunting of the Snark'' (based on Lewis Carroll's poem).", "The all-star lineup included Roger Daltrey, Justin Hayward and Billy Connolly, with John Hurt as the narrator.", "The performance, a musical benefit at London's Royal Albert Hall in aid of the deaf, was attended by the Duchess of York.", "In October the same year he performed with Chuck Berry.", "Although Lennon never achieved the same level of success in the US as he had enjoyed with ''Valotte'', his 1989 single \"Now You're in Heaven\" peaked at number 5 in Australia and gave him his second number 1 hit on the Album Rock Tracks chart in the US.In 1991, George Harrison sent some ideas for Lennon's album ''Help Yourself'', although he did not play or receive any credits.", "The single \"Saltwater\" reached number 6 in the UK and topped the Australian singles charts for four weeks.", "During this time, Lennon contributed a cover of the Rolling Stones' \"Ruby Tuesday\" to the soundtrack of the television series ''The Wonder Years''.Lennon left the music business for several years in the 1990s to focus on philanthropy after his encounter with elders from the Mirning people of Australia.", "After he began his performing career, there was occasionally unfounded media speculation that Lennon would undertake performances with McCartney, Harrison and Ringo Starr.", "In the ''Beatles Anthology'' series in 1995, the three surviving Beatles confirmed there was never an idea of having Julian sit in for his father as part of a Beatles reunion, with McCartney saying, \"Why would we want to subject him to all of this?", "\"In May 1998, Lennon released the album ''Photograph Smile'' on his own record label.", "Music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the album as \"well-crafted and melodic\", and concluded by saying that it was \"the kind of music that would receive greater praise if it weren't made by the son of a Beatle\".", "In 2002, he recorded a version of \"When I'm Sixty-Four\", from the Beatles' ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' album, for an Allstate Insurance commercial.In 2006, he ventured into Internet businesses, including MyStore.com with Todd Meagher and Bebo founder Michael Birch.", "In 2009, Lennon created a new partnership with Meagher and Birch called theRevolution, LLC.", "Through this company, Lennon released a tribute song and EP, \"Lucy\", honouring the memory of Lucy Vodden (née O'Donnell), the little girl who inspired the song \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", with 50 per cent of the proceeds going to fund Lupus research.In October 2011, Lennon released the album ''Everything Changes''.", "In 2012 he worked with music film director Dick Carruthers on the feature-length video documentary ''Through the Picture Window'', which followed Lennon's journey in the making of ''Everything Changes'' and includes interviews with Steven Tyler, Bono, Gregory Darling, Mark Spiro and Paul Buchanan from The Blue Nile.", "''Through the Picture Window'' was also released as an app in all formats with bespoke videos for all 14 tracks from the album.On September 9, 2022, Lennon's album ''Jude'' was released on BMG.", "It included the singles \"Freedom\" and \"Every Little Moment\".", "''Goldmine'' wrote about the release, \"With his new album, the first in 11 years, Julian advances his body of work that has always simultaneously explored personal and global themes, but for the first time in his life, he's embracing his inner status as someone's son...an introspective masterwork from a diversely talented artist.\"", "The title is a reference to the Beatles song \"Hey Jude\", which Paul McCartney wrote in 1968 to give Julian Lennon hope for the future.", "Lennon said about his album title, \"Calling it ''Jude'' was very coming of age for me in that regard because it was very much facing up to who I am...The content came from over three decades of songwriting.", "The themes and issues mostly being the same, generally about the wars within and the wars without.", "\"=== Film ===Lennon's first tour as a solo musician, in early 1985, was documented as part of the film ''Stand by Me: A Portrait of Julian Lennon'' – a film profile started by Sam Peckinpah, but completed by Martin Lewis after Peckinpah's death.", "Lennon has appeared in several other films including ''The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus'' (released 1996, originally filmed in 1968), ''Cannes Man'' (1996), ''Imagine: John Lennon'' (1988), ''Chuck Berry: Hail!", "Hail!", "Rock 'n' Roll'' (1987) and a cameo in ''Leaving Las Vegas'' (1995) as a bartender.", "Julian provided the voice for the title role in the animated film ''David Copperfield'' (1993).", "He was also the voice of the main character Toby the Teapot in the animated special ''The Real Story of I'm a Little Teapot'' (1990).Lennon is also the producer of the documentary, ''Whaledreamers'', about an Indigenous Australian tribe and the peoples' special connection with whales.", "It also touches on many environmental issues.", "This film received several awards and was shown at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival.In 2018, Lennon was an executive producer of ''Women of the White Buffalo'', a documentary film released in 2022 that focused on several Lakota women from Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, and their work to preserve their way of life in the face of colonialism.In 2020, Lennon was an executive producer of ''Kiss the Ground'', an award-winning documentary film about regenerative agriculture, narrated by Woody Harrelson.=== Photography ===After photographing his half-brother Sean's music tour in 2007, Lennon took up a serious interest in photography.On 17 September 2010, Lennon opened an exhibition of 35 photographs called \"Timeless: The Photography of Julian Lennon\" with help from long-time friend and fellow photographer Timothy White.", "Originally scheduled to run from 17 September to 10 October, the Morrison Hotel Gallery extended it a week to end 17 October.", "The photographs include shots of his brother Sean and U2 frontman Bono.Lennon's \"Alone\" collection was featured at the Art Basel Miami Beach Show from 6–9 December 2012, to raise money for The White Feather Foundation.Lennon's \"Horizon\" series was featured at the Emmanuel Fremin Gallery, NYC, 12 March 2015, to 2 May 2015.Lennon's \"Cycle\" exhibit was featured at the Leica Gallery in Los Angeles, in the fall of 2016.Lennon is a prolific user of the photography app Instagram.In 2021, Lennon became the first fine-arts photographer featured at the new gallery in Aston Martin Residences Miami.In 2023, Lennon showed a series of photographs in an exhibition titled ''ATMOSPHERIA'' at William Turner Gallery in Santa Monica, California.=== Books ===Shortly after the death of his father, Lennon began collecting Beatles memorabilia.", "In 2010, he published a book describing his collection, entitled: ''Beatles Memorabilia: The Julian Lennon Collection''.In 2017, Lennon began a ''New York Times'' Bestselling trilogy, ''Touch the Earth'', ''Heal the Earth'' and ''Love the Earth'', which he completed in 2019.On 9 November 2021, Lennon published a graphic novel for middle-grade children, ''The Morning Tribe'', with co-author Bart Davis." ], [ "Philanthropy", "A conversation Lennon once had with his father went as follows: \"Dad once said to me that should he pass away, if there was some way of letting me know he was going to be OK – that we were all going to be OK – the message would come to me in the form of a white feather.", "... the white feather has always represented peace to me\".", "Then Julian, while on a tour in Australia, received a white feather from two Indigenous elders of the Mirning tribe in Adelaide, Australia, asking for him to help give them a voice.", "In response, he produced the documentary ''Whaledreamers'' about their tribe, and in 2007 he founded The White Feather Foundation (TWFF), whose mission \"embraces environmental and humanitarian issues and in conjunction with partners from around the world helps to raise funds for the betterment of all life, and to honor those who have truly made a difference.", "\"TWFF partners with philanthropists and charities around the world to raise funds for various humanitarian projects in four major areas of giving: clean water, the preservation of Indigenous cultures, the environment and education and health.", "In 2008, the Prince of Monaco Albert II presented TWFF with the Better World Environmental Award.In 2015, after the Nepal earthquake, TWFF contributed $106,347.52 to the Music for Relief's Nepal aid fund to support the victims of the earthquake.Lennon visited Kenya, Ethiopia and Colombia in 2014 to witness the education and environmental initiatives by TWFF.", "After his mother's death the following year, Lennon announced that he would be naming TWFF's scholarship program after her: \"The Cynthia Lennon Scholarship for Girls\".", "Since then, the Foundation has awarded over 50 scholarships to girls across Africa, the U.K and the U.S.In 2019, Lennon contributed his voice and music to the soundtrack of narrative feature film \"One Little Finger\", which has the initiative to spread awareness about 'ability in disability'.", "It shows how important and powerful music is to support societal and cognitive development of people with disabilities.In September 2020, Lennon was honoured with the CC Forum Philanthropy Award in Monaco.", "That same month, he was named a UNESCO Center for Peace 2020 Cross-Cultural and Peace Crafter Award Laureate.In 2022, Lennon recorded his version of his father's 1971 song \"Imagine\" with all proceeds going to support Ukraine." ], [ "Personal life", "Lennon on 9 October 2010After living with his parents at Kenwood in Weybridge outside London from 1964 to 1968, Lennon moved with his mother to a number of British locales, eventually settling in The Wirral near Liverpool and then to a farm in North Wales.", "Lennon's first step-father, Roberto Bassanini, whom his mother married in 1970, was Italian.", "Lennon moved to the United States in the early 1980s where he resided in New York City and then Los Angeles.", "In 1991, Lennon moved to Europe, and resided mainly in Italy where Bassanini had lived (Lennon dedicated ''Photograph Smile'' to Bassanini in 1998).", "Lennon then moved to Monaco where he currently resides, and he is a friend to Albert II, Prince of Monaco.", "Lennon has been quoted as having a reasonably \"cordial\" relationship with Ono, following the financial settlement against his late father's estate.", "He remains close to her son, Sean, his half-brother.", "Julian saw Sean perform live for the first time in Paris on 12 November 2006 at La Boule Noire, and he and Sean spent time together on Sean's tour in 2007.Lennon has never had children, revealing in 2011 that his difficult relationship with his father had discouraged him from doing so.In commemoration of John Lennon's 70th birthday and as a statement for peace, Lennon and his mother, Cynthia, unveiled the John Lennon Peace Monument in his home town of Liverpool, on 9 October 2010.Lennon remains friends with his father's former bandmate Paul McCartney, though they experienced a brief public falling out in 2011 when Lennon was not invited to McCartney's wedding to Nancy Shevell.", "According to Lennon, McCartney later assured him that \"someone obviously made a huge mistake\" and the snub had not been intentional.", "McCartney provided the handwritten \"''Jude''\" motif for Lennon's 2022 album.", "He also remains friends with May Pang who provided the cover photo for \"''Jude.''\"", "He shared his memories of her and his father in Pang's 2022 documentary ''The Lost Weekend: A Love Story.", "''In 2020, he legally changed his name from John Charles Julian Lennon to Julian Charles John Lennon to reflect the name by which he has always been known." ], [ "Discography", "* ''Valotte'' (1984)* ''The Secret Value of Daydreaming'' (1986)* ''Mr.", "Jordan'' (1989)* ''Help Yourself'' (1991)* ''Photograph Smile'' (1998)* ''Everything Changes'' (2011)* ''Jude'' (2022)" ], [ "Filmography", "=== Films ===; As producer* ''WhaleDreamers'' (2008)* ''Kiss the Ground'' (2020)* ''Women of the White Buffalo'' (2021); As actor* ''Leaving Las Vegas'' (1995); As himself* ''Above Us Only Sky'' (2018)* ''The Lost Weekend: A Love Story'' (2023)=== Television appearances ===* ''Top of the Pops'' (18 October 1984)* ''American Bandstand'' (29 December 1984)* ''Solid Gold (TV series)'' (2 February 1985)* ''Live at Five (WNBC TV series)'' (18 February 1985)* ''Late Night with David Letterman'' (10 April 1985)* ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' (12 June 1985)* ''American Bandstand'' (26 April 1986)* ''Top 20 Countdown'' (3 May 1986)* ''Solid Gold'' (13 September 1986)* ''The Arsenio Hall Show'' (15 June 1989)* ''Today (American TV program)'' (19 June 1989)* ''Late Night with David Letterman'' (28 July 1989)* ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' (16 August 1989)* ''Top of the Pops'' (3 October 1991)* ''Late Night with David Letterman'' (18 October 1991)* ''Late Show with David Letterman'' (17 February 1999)* ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' (9 March 1999)* ''The Howard Stern Show'' (1 May 1999)* ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' (11 August 1999)* ''Daybreak'' (19 September 2011)* ''Larry King Now'' (16 July 2013)* ''Chelsea Lately'' (28 October 2013)* ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' (21 November 2013)* ''The View'' (19 April 2017)* '' Access Hollywood'' (25 April 2017)* '' The Chew'' (6 April 2018)* ''Home and Family'' (16 April 2018)* '' American Chopper'' (28 March 2019)* ''The View (talk show)'' (24 April 2019)* ''Home and Family'' (30 April 2019)* '' Ways to Change the World'' (18 November 2022)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Julian Lennon's official website* Julian Lennon Photography* The White Feather Foundation* * Timeless : Julian Lennon photo exhibition at the Morrison Gallery Hotel (17 September – 17 October 2010)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "FIFA World Cup Trophy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''FIFA World Cup''' is a solid gold trophy that is awarded to the winners of the FIFA World Cup association football tournament.", "Since the advent of the World Cup in 1930, two different trophies have been used: the '''Jules Rimet Trophy''' from 1930 to 1970 and thereafter the '''FIFA World Cup Trophy''' from 1974 to the present day.", "The production cost of the current trophy is estimated at $242,700.The first trophy, originally named ''Victory'', but later renamed in honour of FIFA president Jules Rimet, was made of gold plated sterling silver and a lapis lazuli base.", "It depicted Nike, the Greek goddess of victory.", "Brazil was awarded the trophy in perpetuity following their third title in 1970, prompting the commissioning of a replacement.", "The original Jules Rimet Trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered.The subsequent trophy, called the \"FIFA World Cup Trophy\", was introduced in 1974.Made of 18 karat gold with bands of malachite on its base, it stands 36.8 centimetres high and weighs .", "The trophy was made by the Stabilimento Artistico Bertoni company in Italy.", "It depicts two human figures holding up the Earth.", "The current holders of the trophy are Argentina, winners of the 2022 World Cup.Only a selected few are officially allowed to touch the trophy with bare hands, including players and managers who have won the competition, heads of state, and FIFA officials." ], [ "Jules Rimet Trophy", "Jules Rimet Trophy replica on display in the English National Football Museum.", "The original was stolen from Brazil in 1983 and has never been recoveredThe Jules Rimet Cup was the original trophy of the FIFA World Cup.", "Originally called \"Victory\", but generally known simply as the ''World Cup'' or ''Coupe du Monde'', it was renamed in 1946 to honour the FIFA President Jules Rimet, who in 1929 passed a vote to initiate the competition.", "It was designed by French sculptor Abel Lafleur and made of gold-plated sterling silver on a lapis lazuli base.", "In 1954 the base was replaced with a taller version to accommodate more winners' details.", "It stood 35 centimetres (14 in) high and weighed 3.8 kilograms (8.4 lb).It comprised a decagonal cup, supported by a winged figure representing Nike, the ancient Greek goddess of victory.", "The Jules Rimet Trophy was taken to Uruguay for the first FIFA World Cup aboard the ''Conte Verde'', which set sail from Villefranche-sur-Mer, just southeast of Nice, in June 1930.This was the same ship that carried Jules Rimet and the footballers representing France, Romania, and Belgium who were participating in the tournament that year.", "The first team to be awarded the trophy was Uruguay, the winners of the 1930 World Cup.Jules Rimet presents the World Cup trophy to Raúl Jude, president of the Uruguayan Football Association, winners of the inaugural 1930 World Cup.", "This trophy was renamed for Rimet in 1946During World War II, the trophy was held by 1938 champion Italy.", "Ottorino Barassi, the Italian vice-president of FIFA and president of FIGC, secretly transported the trophy from a bank in Rome and hid it in a shoe-box under his bed to prevent the Nazis from taking it.", "The 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden marked the beginning of a tradition regarding the trophy.", "As Brazilian captain Hilderaldo Bellini heard photographers' requests for a better view of the Jules Rimet Trophy, he lifted it up in the air.", "Every Cup-winning captain ever since has repeated the gesture.On 20 March 1966, four months before the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England, the trophy was stolen during a public exhibition at Westminster Central Hall.", "It was found seven days later wrapped in newspaper at the bottom of a suburban garden hedge in Beulah Hill, Upper Norwood, South London, by a black and white mongrel dog named Pickles.Queen Elizabeth II presenting the Jules Rimet trophy to 1966 World Cup winning England captain Bobby MooreAs a security measure, The Football Association secretly manufactured a replica of the trophy for use in exhibitions rather than the original.", "This replica was used on occasions up until 1970 when the original trophy had to be handed back to FIFA for the next competition.", "Since FIFA had explicitly denied the FA permission to create a replica, the replica also had to disappear from public view and was for many years kept under its creator's bed.", "This replica was sold at an auction in 1997 for £254,500, when it was purchased by FIFA.", "The high auction price, ten times the reserve price of £20,000–£30,000, was led by speculation that the auctioned trophy was not the replica trophy but the original itself.", "Testing by FIFA confirmed the auctioned trophy was a replica.", "Soon afterwards FIFA arranged for the replica to be lent for display at the English National Football Museum, which was then based in Preston but is now in Manchester.The Brazilian team won the tournament for the third time in 1970, allowing them to keep the real trophy in perpetuity, as had been stipulated by Jules Rimet in 1930.It was put on display at the Brazilian Football Confederation headquarters in Rio de Janeiro, in a cabinet with a front of bullet-proof glass.On 19 December 1983, the trophy was stolen again.", "The wooden rear of the cabinet was forced open with a crowbar and the cup taken.", "Four men were tried and convicted in absentia for the crime.", "The trophy has never been recovered, and it is widely believed to have been melted down and sold.", "Only one piece of the Jules Rimet Trophy has been found, the original base, which FIFA had kept in a basement of the federation's Zürich headquarters prior to 2015.The Confederation commissioned a replica of their own, made by Eastman Kodak, using of gold.", "This replica was presented to Brazilian military president João Figueiredo in 1984." ], [ "New trophy", "A replacement trophy was commissioned by FIFA for the 1974 World Cup.", "Fifty-three submissions were received from sculptors in seven countries.", "Italian artist Silvio Gazzaniga was awarded the commission.", "The trophy stands tall and is made of of 18 karat (75%) gold, worth approximately US$161,000 in 2018.Its base is in diameter containing two layers of malachite.", "Chemist Sir Martyn Poliakoff claims that the trophy is hollow, because if it were solid gold, the trophy would weigh and would be too heavy to lift; the trophy's original manufacturer also confirmed its hollowness.Produced by ''Bertoni, Milano'' in Paderno Dugnano, it depicts two human figures holding up the Earth.", "Gazzaniga described the trophy thus, \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world.", "From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory\".The trophy has the engraving \"FIFA World Cup\" on its base.", "After the 1994 FIFA World Cup, a plate was added to the bottom side of the trophy where the names of winning countries are engraved, names therefore not visible when the trophy is standing upright.", "The original trophy is now permanently kept at the FIFA World Football Museum in Zurich, Switzerland.", "It only leaves there when it goes on its FIFA World Cup Trophy Tour.", "It is present at the Final draw for the next World Cup, and on the pitch at the World Cup opening game and Final.", "The FIFA World Cup Trophy Tour was inaugurated for the 2006 FIFA World Cup competition.The Cup used to be kept by the winning team until the final draw of the next tournament, however, that is no longer the case.", "Instead the winners of the tournament receive a bronze replica which is gold-plated rather than solid gold.", "Likewise, three-time winners keep the replica instead of the original cup.", "Germany became the first nation to win the new trophy for the third time when they won the 2014 FIFA World Cup.", "Argentina became the second nation to achieve this feat following their win in Qatar at the 2022 FIFA World Cup.The inscriptions state the year in figures and the name of the winning nation in its national language.", "For example, \"1974 \" or \"1994 \".", "In 2010, the name of the winning nation was engraved as \"2010 Spain\", in English, not in Spanish.", "This was corrected in the new plate made after the 2018 World Cup.As of 2022, twelve winners have been engraved on the base.", "The plate is replaced each World Cup cycle and the names of the trophy winners are rearranged into a spiral to accommodate future winners.=== Eventual replacement ===Since the base of the trophy only has space for new engravings to be made up until the 2038 World Cup, a new trophy will eventually be made for the 2042 World Cup." ], [ "Winners", "Historic list of all ''holders of the trophy'' (winners of the FIFA World Cup).", "'''Jules Rimet Trophy'''* – 1958, 1962, 1970* – 1930, 1950* – 1934, 1938* – 1954* – 1966'''FIFA World Cup Trophy'''* / – 1974, 1990, 2014* – 1978, 1986, 2022* – 1982, 2006* – 1994, 2002* – 1998, 2018* – 2010" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The story of the 1966 theft ''The Observer''* FIFA Trophies (PDF) (archived, 24 Feb 2020)* Official website of Silvio Gazzaniga, the sculptor of the trophy* * FIFA World Cup 2022 All Matches Time* FIFA Women's World Cup 2023 News" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Belushi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Adam Belushi''' (; January 24, 1949 – March 5, 1982) was an American comedian, actor, and musician.", "He was one of the seven original cast members of the NBC sketch comedy show ''Saturday Night Live'' (''SNL'').", "Throughout his career, Belushi had a personal and artistic partnership with his fellow ''SNL'' star Dan Aykroyd, whom he met while they were both working at Chicago's Second City comedy club.Born in Chicago to Albanian-American parents, Belushi started his own comedy troupe with Tino Insana and Steve Beshekas, called \"The West Compass Trio\".", "After being discovered by Bernard Sahlins, he performed with The Second City and met Dan Aykroyd, Brian Doyle-Murray, and Harold Ramis.", "In 1975, Chevy Chase and Michael O'Donoghue recommended Belushi to ''SNL'' creator and showrunner Lorne Michaels, who accepted him as a new cast member of the show after an audition.", "Belushi developed a series of characters on the show that reached great success, including his performances as Henry Kissinger and Ludwig van Beethoven.", "Belushi appeared in the films ''National Lampoon's Animal House'', ''1941'', ''The Blues Brothers'', and ''Neighbors''.", "He also pursued interests in music: with Aykroyd, Lou Marini, Tom Malone, Steve Cropper, Donald \"Duck\" Dunn, and Paul Shaffer, he founded The Blues Brothers, which led to the film of the same name.Belushi struggled with heavy drug abuse that threatened his comedy career; more than once, he was dismissed from ''SNL'' due to his behavior (and then rehired).", "In 1982, he died from combined drug intoxication at the age of 33, after a drug dealer, Cathy Smith, injected him with a mixture of heroin and cocaine (known as a speedball) at the Chateau Marmont.", "He was posthumously honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2004." ], [ "Early life", "Belushi as a senior at Wheaton Central High School (1967)John Adam Belushi was born to Agnes Demetri ('''' Samaras) Belushi and Adam Anastos Belushi in Humboldt Park, a neighborhood on the West Side of Chicago, Illinois.", "Agnes, a pharmacy worker, was born in Ohio to Albanian immigrants from Korçë, while Adam was an Albanian immigrant from Qytezë, who owned the Fair Oaks restaurant on North Avenue in Chicago, and later established a restaurant in the Chicago suburb of Wheaton, Illinois.Belushi was raised in Wheaton along with his three siblingsyounger brothers Billy and Jim, and sister Marian.", "He was Eastern Orthodox Christian, attending the Albanian Orthodox Church.", "He was educated at Wheaton Central High School, where he met his future wife, Judith Jacklin.In 1965, Belushi formed a band, the Ravens, together with four fellow high-school students (Dick Blasucci, Michael Blasucci, Tony Pavilonis, and Phil Special).", "They recorded one single, \"Listen to Me Now/Jolly Green Giant\".", "Belushi played drums and sang vocals.", "The record was not successful, and the band broke up when he enrolled at the College of DuPage.", "He also attended the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater for a year, which inspired the ''Animal House'' scene of D-Day driving a motorcycle up the stairs.", "Belushi acquired the iconic \"College\" crewneck, worn by his character in ''Animal House'', at a print shop when visiting his brother Jim, who attended Southern Illinois University." ], [ "Career", "===The Second City and National Lampoon===Belushi started his own comedy troupe in Chicago, the West Compass Trio (named after the improvisational cabaret revue Compass Players active from 1955 to 1958 in Chicago), with Tino Insana and Steve Beshekas.", "Their success piqued the interest of Bernard Sahlins, the founder of The Second City improvised comedy enterprise, who went to see them performing in 1971, and asked Belushi to join the cast.", "At Second City, Belushi met and began working with Harold Ramis, Joe Flaherty, and Brian Doyle-Murray.In 1972, Belushi was offered a role, together with Chevy Chase and Christopher Guest, in ''National Lampoon Lemmings'', a parody of Woodstock, which played off-Broadway in 1972.Belushi and Jacklin moved to New York City.", "There, Belushi started working as a writer, director, and actor for ''The National Lampoon Radio Hour'', a comedy radio show that was created, produced, and written by staff from ''National Lampoon'' magazine.", "Cast members on the shows produced by Belushi included Ramis, Flaherty, Guest, Brian Doyle Murray, his brother Bill Murray, Gilda Radner, and Richard Belzer.", "In 1974, Belushi and Chevy Chase voice acted on a Lampoon LP record, the Official National Lampoon Stereo Test and Demonstration Record.", "And, during a trip to Toronto in 1974, to check out the local Second City cast, Belushi met Dan Aykroyd.", "Jacklin became an associate producer for the show, and she and Belushi were married on December 31, 1976.", "\"The National Lampoon Show\" toured the country in 1974; it was produced by Ivan Reitman.", "''Lampoon'' owner Matty Simmons was offered a TV show on NBC at this time, but declined the offer.===''Saturday Night Live''===In 1975, Chase and writer Michael O'Donoghue recommended Belushi to Lorne Michaels as a potential member for a television show Michaels was about to produce for NBC called ''NBC's Saturday Night'', later ''Saturday Night Live'' (''SNL'').", "Michaels was initially undecided, as he was not sure if Belushi's physical humor would fit with what he was envisioning, but he changed his mind after giving Belushi an audition.Over his four-year tenure at ''SNL'' Belushi developed a series of successful characters, including the belligerent Samurai Futaba; Henry Kissinger; Ludwig van Beethoven; the Greek owner (Pete Dionisopoulos) of the Olympia Café; Captain James T. Kirk; and a contributor of furious opinion pieces on ''Weekend Update'', during which he coined his catchphrase, \"But N-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-O!\"", "With Aykroyd, Belushi created Jake and Elwood, the Blues Brothers.", "Originally intended to warm up the studio audience before broadcasts of ''SNL'', the Blues Brothers were eventually featured as musical guests.", "Belushi also reprised his Lemmings imitation of Joe Cocker.", "Cocker himself joined Belushi in 1976 to sing \"Feelin' Alright?\"", "together.Like many other ''SNL'' cast members and writers, Belushi began using drugs heavily and attended concerts with many of the popular artists of the era including Fleetwood Mac, Meat Loaf, Kiss, The Dead Boys, Warren Zevon, The Grateful Dead, and The Allman Brothers.", "In 1990 Michaels remembered him as loyal to the writers and a team player, but he was fired and rehired at ''SNL'' more than once owing to behavior stemming from his drug abuse.In ''Rolling Stone''s February 2015 appraisal of all 141 ''SNL'' cast members to that time, Belushi received the top ranking.", "\"Belushi was the 'live' in ''Saturday Night Live''\", they wrote, \"the one who made the show happen on the edge... Nobody embodied the highs and lows of ''SNL'' like Belushi.", "\"===Cinema===In 1978, Belushi performed in the films ''Old Boyfriends'' (directed by Joan Tewkesbury), ''Goin' South'' (directed by Jack Nicholson), and ''National Lampoon's Animal House'' (directed by John Landis).", "Upon its initial release, ''Animal House'' received generally mixed reviews from critics, but ''Time'' magazine and Roger Ebert proclaimed it one of the year's best movies.", "Filmed at a cost of $2.8million, it is one of the most profitable movies of all time, garnering an estimated gross of more than $141million in the form of theatrical rentals and home video, not including merchandising.", "''Animal House'' was written by Doug Kenney, Harold Ramis, and Chris Miller, and followed in the tradition of the Marx Brothers films that featured subversive and satirical plots that took on traditional institutions.", "Hollywood studios tried to copy the film's success without the satire, resulting in a string of \"nerds vs. jocks\" films in the 1980s with cheap sight gags involving nudity and gross-out humor.", "''Meatballs'' and ''Stripes'', both starring Bill Murray, followed this formula and even included motivational speeches in their last acts, much like the one given by Belushi's character Bluto.", "Both films were directed and produced by Ivan Reitman, who had served as a producer for ''Animal House''.Following the success of the Blues Brothers on ''SNL'', Belushi and Aykroyd, with the help of pianist-arranger Paul Shaffer, started assembling studio talents to form a proper band.", "These included ''SNL'' saxophonist \"Blue\" Lou Marini and trombonist-saxophonist Tom Malone, who had previously played in Blood, Sweat & Tears.", "At Shaffer's suggestion, guitarist Steve Cropper and bassist Donald \"Duck\" Dunn, the powerhouse combo from Booker T and the M.G.", "'s, who played on dozens of hits from Memphis's Stax Records during the 1960s, were signed as well.", "In 1978 the Blues Brothers released their debut album, ''Briefcase Full of Blues'', with Atlantic Records.", "The album reached number 1 on the Billboard 200 and went double platinum.", "Two singles were released: \"Rubber Biscuit\", which reached number 37 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and \"Soul Man\", which reached number 14.In 1979, Belushi left ''SNL'' with Aykroyd to film ''The Blues Brothers'', which conflicted with the shooting schedule of the show.", "Michaels also decided to leave at the end of his contract.", "NBC's pressure to use recurring characters was also a factor in their decision.", "Belushi and Aykroyd made two movies together after leaving: ''Neighbors'' (directed by John Avildsen), and most notably ''The Blues Brothers'' (directed by John Landis).", "Released in the U.S. on June 20, 1980, ''The Blues Brothers'' received generally positive reviews.", "It earned just under $5million in its opening weekend, and went on to gross $115.2million in theaters worldwide before its release on home video.", "The Blues Brothers band toured to promote the film, which led to a third album (and second live album), ''Made in America'', recorded at the Universal Amphitheatre in 1980.The track \"Who's Making Love\" peaked at number 39.The only film Belushi made without Aykroyd following his departure from ''SNL'' was the romantic comedy ''Continental Divide'' (directed by Michael Apted).", "Released in September 1981, it starred Belushi as Chicago hometown hero writer Ernie Souchack (loosely based on newspaper columnist and long-time family friend Mike Royko), who gets an assignment researching a scientist (played by Blair Brown) who studies birds of prey in the remote Rocky Mountains.By 1981, Belushi had become a fan and advocate of the punk rock band Fear after seeing them perform in several after-hours New York City bars, and brought them to Cherokee Studios to record songs for the soundtrack of ''Neighbors''.", "Blues Brothers band member Tom Scott, along with producing partner and Cherokee owner Bruce Robb, initially helped with the session, but later pulled out due to conflicts with Belushi.", "The session was eventually produced by Cropper.", "The producers of ''Neighbors'' refused to use the song in the movie.", "Belushi, along with O'Donoghue and ''SNL'' writer Nelson Lyon, booked Fear to play ''SNL''s Halloween broadcast on October 31, 1981; the telecast of the performance featured then-novel moshing and stage diving, and was cut short by NBC due to the band's profanity.", "The ''New York Post'' published an account of these and other sensationalistic details of the event the following day.At the time of his death, Belushi was pursuing several movie projects, including an ABSCAM-related caper called ''Moon Over Miami'', to be directed by Louis Malle; and a diamond-smuggling caper called ''Noble Rot'' with Jay Sandrich, based on a script he adapted and rewrote with former ''SNL'' writer Don Novello.", "However, Paramount Studios offered to produce ''Noble Rot'' only if Belushi starred in ''The Joy of Sex'', which would have featured him in a diaper.", "Aykroyd advised him to turn down ''The Joy of Sex'' and return to the East Coast, where Aykroyd was writing ''Ghostbusters''.", "Belushi also talked about producing a drug trafficking film in a ''High Times'' tribute article from 1982: \"Belushi wanted to give these daring captains courageous of consciousness the credit they deserved, he told me.", "He wanted to star in a major marijuana movie to be called ''Kingpin''.", "He wanted to play the title role.", "\"Belushi made a \"guest-star appearance\" on an episode of the television series ''Police Squad!''", "(1982) by the creators of ''Airplane!''.", "The opening of the show featured a running joke that featured a sight gag with the guest star dying right away.", "Belushi died shortly before the episode was to air, so the scene was cut and replaced by a segment with William Conrad." ], [ "Death", "Belushi struggled with drug addiction during most of his adult life.", "He began using cocaine (both snorting and freebasing) in the early to mid 1970s.", "He had managed to refrain from drug use for a brief period during the production of ''Continental Divide'', but severely relapsed during the production of ''Neighbors''.", "Less than four months after the filming on ''Neighbors'' ended, on the evening of February 28, 1982, Belushi moved out of his house and checked in to a bungalow at the Chateau Marmont in Los Angeles.", "For several days, he did drugs in his bungalow and wandered from nightclub to nightclub on the Sunset Strip and on Santa Monica Blvd.On March 4, 1982, Belushi visited the Los Angeles office of his long-time manager Bernie Brillstein and asked him for money.", "Brillstein declined, suspecting that Belushi wanted money for drugs.", "Later that day, Belushi returned and again asked for money while Brillstein was in a meeting with someone.", "Brillstein was reluctant to rebuke Belushi in front of the other person and gave him the money.", "In the early morning hours of March 5, Belushi, while in his Chateau Marmont bungalow, was visited separately by friends Robin Williams and Robert De Niro, as well as drug dealer Cathy Smith.Around 12:00 pm PST on Friday, March 5, 1982, Belushi's fitness trainer and occasional bodyguard Bill Wallace arrived at Belushi's bungalow at the Chateau Marmont to deliver a typewriter and audio cassette recorder because Belushi had requested them the previous day.", "Wallace found Belushi dead, with no one else present in the bungalow.", "Neither law enforcement nor a representative of the coroner's office revealed any details for almost six days.", "On the morning of March 11, Los Angeles County coroner Thomas Noguchi announced that the cause of death was combined drug intoxication involving cocaine and heroin, a drug combination known as a speedball.Belushi's death was eventually investigated by forensic pathologist Michael Baden who determined his death was caused by heroin.Cathy Smith was arrested by the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) on March 5, 1982, because she was under suspicion for possession of narcotics, not because of Belushi's death.", "Later in 1982, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine described the circumstances of her arrest as follows: \"On the afternoon of March 5th, Cathy Evelyn Smith had appeared driving the wrong way into the one-way exit of the Chateau Marmont Hotel on Sunset Strip behind the wheel of John Belushi's rented red Mercedes... At that moment, a hundred feet away, Belushi lay naked and dead on the floor of his $200-a-day bungalow.", "The police who had cordoned off the area were reflexively insisting it had been 'death from natural causes'.\"", "The LAPD released Smith after questioning.In an interview with the ''National Enquirer'' in May 1982, Smith admitted that she had been with Belushi at the Chateau Marmont on the night of his death and had given him the fatal speedball shot.", "After the appearance of the ''Enquirer'' article, the case was reopened.", "Smith was arrested, extradited from Canada, and charged with first-degree murder.", "Her case was delayed by lawyers' negotiations for four years while she remained free, then she was convicted and incarcerated.", "A plea bargain reduced the charge to involuntary manslaughter, and she served fifteen months in prison.Smith, 39, pleaded no contest June 11, 1986, to involuntary manslaughter and three counts of furnishing and administering controlled substances to Belushi, 33, in the hours before he was found dead on March 5, 1982, in a bungalow at the Chateau Marmont hotel in West Hollywood.In 1982, Belushi's widow Judith arranged for a traditional Orthodox Christian funeral that was conducted by an Albanian Orthodox priest.===Burial===Belushi was interred at Abel's Hill Cemetery in Chilmark, Massachusetts, on Martha's Vineyard.", "Belushi's tombstone has a skull and crossbones with the inscription, \"I may be gone but Rock and Roll lives on.", "\"After the success of \"The Blues Brothers\", Belushi had seen his fame elevate to rock star status, which further escalated after his death.", "Members of his family, along with Chilmark officials, gradually became more concerned over his gravesite becoming a tourist attraction like that of Jim Morrison.", "Reports increased of excess noise, damaging grass and disturbing the peace of others buried there, along with fans paying bizarre tributes by littering his gravesite with liquor bottles, beer cans, and even drugs and drug paraphernalia.", "On May 27, 1983, more than a year after his initial burial, three cemetery workers exhumed Belushi's wooden casket, discovering that moisture had entered the grave, further compounded by heavy rainfall that day.", "Upon raising the casket, the bottom began to splinter until it separated completely from the upper portion.", "The bottom then fell back into the grave along with Belushi's corpse.", "His remains, which were still intact despite the incident, were placed in a bronze casket and reinterred in an unmarked grave near the original site.", "The tombstone of Belushi's mother at Elmwood Cemetery in River Grove, Illinois, has Belushi's name inscribed on it and thus serves as a cenotaph.Belushi was scheduled to present the first Best Visual Effects Oscar at the 1982 Academy Awards with Dan Aykroyd.", "Aykroyd presented the award alone, and stated from the lectern: \"My partner, he would have loved to have been here tonight to present this award, since he was somewhat of a visual effect himself.", "\"When Elizabeth Taylor learned that drug use had led to Belushi's death, she remembered his comedic impersonation of her on ''Saturday Night Live'' in 1978 when she had been overweight.", "She felt sad that he had gone \"to such great lengths to satirize my excesses and then died of his own.\"" ], [ "Tributes, legacy, and popular culture", "A 2008 stamp from AlbaniaDuring the first live ''SNL'' episode following Belushi's death with host Robert Urich and musical guest Mink DeVille, airing live on March 20, 1982, cast member Brian Doyle-Murray gave a tribute to him.", "During the preproduction of ''Ghostbusters'', Reitman remarked that Slimer bore a resemblance to Belushi's character Bluto from ''Animal House''.", "Since then, Slimer has been described as \"the ghost of John Belushi\" by Aykroyd in many interviews.Belushi's life was detailed in two books: the 1984 biography ''Wired: The Short Life and Fast Times of John Belushi'' by Bob Woodward, the accuracy of which has been questioned by journalists and by people close to Belushi, and the 1990 memoir ''Samurai Widow'' by his widow Judith.", "Woodward's book was adapted into a film of the same name in 1989, which was denounced by Aykroyd and Judith, and was given poor reviews by critics.", "Belushi's career and death were prominently featured in the 1999 memoir of his manager Bernie Brillstein, who wrote that he was haunted by the comedian's overdose and had since learned how to better deal with clients who abuse drugs or alcohol.Eddie Money wrote \"Passing by the Graveyard (Song for John B.", ")\", from his 1982 album ''No Control'', in tribute to Belushi.", "The two became friends after Money was a musical guest on ''SNL'' during the show's third season.", "The thrash metal group Anthrax penned a song about Belushi on their 1987 album ''Among the Living'', titled \"Efilnikufesin (N.F.L.).\"", "Polish rock band Lady Pank recorded a song \"John Belushi\" for their 1988 album ''Tacy sami'', with references to his Albanian ancestry.Belushi has been portrayed by actors Eric Siegel in ''Gilda Radner: It's Always Something'', Tyler Labine in ''Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Mork & Mindy'' (which also features his friendship with Robin Williams), Michael Chiklis in ''Wired'', and John Gemberling in ''A Futile and Stupid Gesture''.", "Chris Farley, who was heavily influenced by Belushi, died in 1997 at age 33 due to a drug overdose, which has fueled many comparisons between Belushi and Farley.Belushi's star on the Hollywood Walk of FameIn 2004, Belushi was posthumously inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame with a motion pictures star located at 6355 Hollywood Boulevard.", "In 2006 Biography Channel aired an episode of ''Final 24'', a documentary following Belushi during the last 24 hours leading to his death.", "Four years later, Biography aired a full biography documentation of Belushi's life.", "In 2015 Belushi was ranked by ''Rolling Stone'' as the greatest ''SNL'' cast member of all time.Belushi's widow later remarried and is now Judith Jacklin Belushi Pisano.", "Co-biographer Tanner Colby and she produced ''Belushi: A Biography'', a collection of first-person interviews and photographs of Belushi's life that was published in 2005.According to ''SNL'' castmate Jane Curtin, who appeared on ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'' in 2011, Belushi was a misogynist who would deliberately sabotage the work of female writers and comics while working on the show: \"So you'd go to a table read, and if a woman writer had written a piece for John, he would not read it in his full voice.", "He felt as though it was his duty to sabotage pieces written by women.\"", "''SNL'' writer Anne Beatts suggested that because she was writing a book with his wife at the time, Belushi was frustrated with them spending more time on the book than with him.", "He complained to Michaels about Beatts and Rosie Shuster.", "Judith said that Belushi was a \"Women's Libber\" and did not hate women." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1975 ''Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle'' Craig Baker English version, Voice 1978 ''Animal House'' John Blutarsky ''Goin' South'' Deputy Hector 1979 ''Old Boyfriends'' Eric Katz ''1941'' Captain Bill \"Wild Bill\" Kelso 1980 ''The Blues Brothers'' Jake \"Joliet Jake\" Blues 1981 ''Continental Divide'' Ernie Souchak ''Neighbors'' Earl Keese (final film role)===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1975–1980 ''Saturday Night Live'' Various Roles 79 episodes; also writer 1976 ''The Beach Boys: It's OK'' Cop #2 TV movie; also writer 1978 ''The Rutles: All You Need Is Cash'' Ron Decline TV movie===Others=== Year Title Notes 1973 ''National Lampoon Lemmings'' Stage 1973–1974 ''The National Lampoon Radio Hour'' Radio, also Creative Director 1975 ''The National Lampoon Show'' Stage" ], [ "Discography", "''Listen to Me Now/Jolly Green Giant'' (Alonas Dream Records, 1965) (with the Ravens)''National Lampoon's Lemmings'' (Blue Thumb Records, 1973) (bass guitar, lead vocals on ''Lonely At The Bottom'')''Old Boyfriends: Original Soundtrack'' (Columbia, 1978) (lead vocals on ''Jailhouse Rock'', ''You Belong to Me'', ''Get Up and Down'' and ''Tush'')''National Lampoon's Animal House: Original Soundtrack'' (Universal, 1978) (lead vocals on ''Money (That's What I Want)'' and ''Louie Louie'')''Briefcase Full of Blues'' (Atlantic, 1978) US #1 (with the Blues Brothers)''The Blues Brothers: Music from the Soundtrack'' (Atlantic, 1980) US #13 (with the Blues Brothers)''Made in America'' (Atlantic, 1980) US #49 (with the Blues Brothers)''Best of The Blues Brothers'' (Atlantic, 1981) US #143 (with the Blues Brothers)''Dancin' wid da Blues Brothers'' (Atlantic, 1983) (with the Blues Brothers)''Everybody Needs the Blues Brothers'' (Atlantic, 1988) (with the Blues Brothers)''The Definitive Collection'' (Atlantic, 1992) (with the Blues Brothers)''The Very Best of The Blues Brothers'' (Atlantic, 1995) (with the Blues Brothers)''The Blues Brothers Complete'' (Atlantic, 2000) (with the Blues Brothers)''The Essentials'' (Atlantic, 2003) (with the Blues Brothers)''Neighbors'' (Fear Records, 2015) (with Fear)===Comedy albums===''Official National Lampoon Stereo Test and Demonstration Record'' (National Lampoon, 1974)''The Missing White House Tapes'' (National Lampoon, 1974)''National Lampoon Gold Turkey'' (National Lampoon, 1975)''NBC's Saturday Night Live'' (Arista, 1976)''National Lampoon That's Not Funny, That's Sick'' (National Lampoon, 1977)''Greatest Hits of the National Lampoon'' (National Lampoon, 1978)''National Lampoon White Album'' (National Lampoon, 1979)" ], [ "See also", "The Last Voyage of the Starship EnterpriseOlympia CaféList of deaths from drug overdose and intoxication''Belushi'', a 2020 documentary about him" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Philipp Abelin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Philipp Abelin''' was a German chronicler whose career straddled the 16th and 17th centuries.", "He was born, probably, at Strasbourg, and died there between 1634 and 1637.He wrote numerous histories under the pseudonyms of '''Abeleus''', '''Philipp Arlanibäus''', '''Johann Ludwig Gottfried''' and '''Gotofredus'''." ], [ "Publications", "He worked mainly as a translator for the publishing house of Lucas Jennisius, Matthäus Merian and Friedrich Hulsius in Frankfurt.", "Some of his works, such as a history of India, proved later to be translations of other works.", "His own works consisted mainly of compilations of historical records.===Own works===Abelin produced compilations of contemporary records and letters about the events of the wars of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden without further historical commentary:''Arma Suecica'', 1631–1634, in 12 parts''Inventarium Sueciae'', 1632In the same style, his best known work was ''Theatrum Europaeum'', a series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the world down to 1619, reedited, updated and republished several times, including a translation into Dutch.", "Its coincidence with the needs and tastes of the time, made it a very popular work.", "Abelin was responsible for the first two volumes.", "It was continued by various writers and grew to 21 volumes (1633–1738).", "However, the main interest of the volumes are the beautiful copperplate engraved illustrations of Matthäus Merian (1593–1650).===Derivative works===''Historia Antipodum'', 1655, a translation of a history of the West Indies''Archontologia Cosmicum'', translation and revision of Petrus d'Avirth's ''Monde''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacob Abendana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacob Abendana''' (1630 – 12 September 1685) was ''hakham'' of London from 1680 until his death." ], [ "Biography", "Abendana was the eldest son of Joseph Abendana and brother to Isaac Abendana.", "Though his family originally lived in Hamburg, Jacob and his brother were both born in Spain.", "At some point in time, his family moved to Amsterdam where he studied at the ''De los Pintos'' rabbinical academy in Rotterdam.", "In 1655, he was appointed ''hakham'' of that city.", "On 3 May 1655 Abendana delivered a famous memorial sermon on the Cordovan martyrs Marranos Nunez and Almeyda Bernal who had been burned at the stake.Several years later, with his brother, Isaac, Jacob published the Bible commentary ''Miklal Yofi'' by Solomon ben Melekh which included his own commentary, ''Lekket Shikchah'' (Gleanings), on the Pentateuch, the Book of Joshua, and part of the Book of Judges.", "This was published by subscription in Amsterdam in 1660 with a second edition in 1685.Having gone to Leiden seeking subscribers, Jacob met Antonius Hulsius whom he helped in his studies.", "Hulsius tried to convert Abendana to Christianity which began a lifelong correspondence between the two.", "The Abendana brothers similarly impressed other Christian scholars, such as Johannes Buxtorf (Basel), Johann Coccejus (Leyden), and Jacob Golius (Leyden).With Hulsius, Abendana entered into a polemical discussion of Biblical verse Haggai 2:9, which Hulsius attempted to prove was a reference to the Church.", "The debate lasted via correspondence from 24 September 1659 to 16 June 1660.Abendana responded with a Spanish translation of Rabbi Judah Halevi's ''Kuzari'' in 1663.Hulsius eventually published the correspondence between the two in 1669.In 1675, Abendana addressed the community at the dedication of the new synagogue in Amsterdam.", "Five years later, in 1680, he was brought to London to succeed Joshua da Silva as ''hakham'' of London where he served for 15 years as the hakham of the Bevis Marks Synagogue in London.", "Over the following years, he completed a Spanish-language translation of the Mishnah, along with the commentaries of Maimonides and Obadiah of Bertinoro.", "The work was frequently cited by Christian theologians, though it was never published.", "Jacob Abendana died in London in 1685 and was buried in the Portuguese cemetery at Mile End." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* ''Abendana, Jacob'' in ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'', New York ; London : Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1901–06, volume 1, p 53." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Abercorn" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Abercorn''' PC (S) (1575–1618) was a Scottish diplomat for James VI and an undertaker (a term for an English colonist) in the Plantation of Ulster, Ireland." ], [ "Birth and origins", "James was born on 12 August 1575, probably at Paisley, Scotland, the eldest son of Claud Hamilton and his wife Margaret Seton.", "At that time his father was only a younger brother of James Hamilton, 3rd Earl of Arran, but he would on 24 July 1587 be created Lord Paisley.", "His paternal grandfather was James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran in Scotland and Duke of Châtellerault in France.", "His father's family descended from Walter FitzGilbert, the founder of the House of Hamilton, who had received the barony of Cadzow from Robert the Bruce.James's mother was a daughter of George Seton, 7th Lord Seton.", "His parents had married in 1574 at Niddry Castle, West Lothian, Scotland.", "Both sides of the family were Scottish, Catholic, and supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots.", "His father and his father-in-law had both fought for her at Langside in 1568.As eldest son he was given the courtesy title of Master of Paisley after the Scottish habit.", "George had four brothers and one sister, who are listed in his father's article." ], [ "Marriage and children", "Shortly before or in 1592, Master Paisley married Marion, daughter of Thomas Boyd, 6th Lord Boyd.", "Marion was a prominent Roman Catholic and would in 1628 be excommunicated by the synod of the Church of Scotland in Glasgow after his death.", "James and Marion had nine children, five boys:# James (c. 1603 – c. 1670), succeeded as the 2nd Earl of Abercorn# Claud (died 1638), established himself in Ireland# William (died 1681), was created Baronet Hamilton of Westport and represented Henrietta Maria, Charles I's widow, at the pope# George (c. 1608 – 1679), was created Baronet Hamilton of Donalong# Alexander (died before 4 May 1669), founded the German branch of the family—and four girls:# Anne (1592–1620), married Hugh Sempill, 5th Lord Sempill in 1611# Margaret (died 1642), married Sir William Cunninghame of Caprington# Isobel (1600–1620)# Lucy (born before 1618), for whom a marriage was arranged with Randal MacDonnell, 1st Marquess of Antrim, but the wedding never took place" ], [ "Life in Scotland", "In 1597, Master Paisley sat for Linlithgow in the Parliament of Scotland.", "He was also made a Gentleman of the Bedchamber and a member of the Privy Council to James VI of Scotland.", "In 1600, the King created him hereditary Sheriff of Linlithgow.On 24 March 1603 James VI also became King of England as James I and from there on reigned both kingdoms in personal union.On 5 April 1603, Master Paisley was created Lord Abercorn, of Linlithgowshire.", "This made him the first of the long line of earls, then marquesses, and finally dukes of Abercorn.His wife was a close friend of Anne of Denmark.", "In May 1603 Anne of Denmark came to Stirling Castle hoping to collect her son Prince Henry, who was in the keeping of the Earl of Mar.", "Anne fainted at dinner and when Jean Drummond and Marion Boyd, Mistress of Paisley, carried her to bed she had a miscarriage.", "The lawyer Thomas Haddington wrote an account of these events, and said the queen had told her physician Martin Schöner and the Mistress of Paisley that she had taken \"some balm water that hastened her abort\".In 1604, Lord Abercorn, as he was now, served on a royal commission established to consider the union of the crowns of England and Scotland.", "Though the project failed, the king was content with his services.", "He received large grants of lands in Scotland.On 10 July 1606 he was further honoured by being created Earl of Abercorn, Baron Paisley, Baron Hamilton, Baron Mountcastell, and Baron Kilpatrick.", "The family tree shows how the Abercorn title was inherited moving at the death of the 3rd Earl to the descendants of the 2nd son, Claud, and then at the death of the 5th Earl to the descendants of his 4th son, George." ], [ "Plantation of Ulster", "Lord Abercorn, as he was now, and his brothers Claud and George were undertakers in James I's Plantation of Ulster.", "He does not appear on the list of undertaker of 1609, but on the list of 1611 he is granted the great proportion of Donalong (2000 acres) and the small proportion of Strabane (1000 acres).", "He acquired the middle (medium-sized) proportion of Shean from Boyd at a later time.", "He was given pieces of land called Strabane, Donnalonge and Shean in County Tyrone that had been confiscated from the O'Neill clan.", "He built a castle at Strabane.", "His brother Claude, called \"of Shawfield\", was given land in County Cavan.On 11 March 1613/4, he was summoned to attend the Parliament of Ireland and was granted the precedence of an earl in Ireland (confirmed by royal warrant on 31 March), although he had never been created a peer in that realm.", "He was appointed to the Council of Munster on 20 May 1615." ], [ "Death, succession, and timeline", "Lord Abercorn died on 23 March 1618, at Monkton, Ayrshire, Scotland, predeceasing his father and was buried on 29 April 1618 in Paisley Abbey church.He predeceased his father by three years and therefore never became Lord Paisley, but, having been created Earl of Abercorn, he did not miss this title.", "His eldest son, James, aged 14, succeeded him as the 2nd Earl of Abercorn.", "His widow died in Edinburgh in 1632.His brother, Sir George Hamilton of Greenlaw and Roscrea, helped to bring up the children and to convert them to the Catholic religion.TimelineAgeDateEvent01575, 12 AugBorn, probably at Paisley1592, aboutMarried Marion Boyd''1603, 24 Mar''''Accession of King James I, succeeding Queen Elizabeth I''1603, 5 AprCreated Lord Abercorn, of Linlithgowshire1606, 10 JulCreated Earl of Abercorn1611Undertaker in James's Plantation of Ulster1618, 23 MarDied in Monkton, Ayrshire, Scotland predeceasing his father" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* – 1574 to 1581* * * * * * – Ab-Adam to Basing* * – (for timeline)* – Viscounts* * – 1610 to 1613* * * * – Abercorn to Balmerino (for Abercorn)* – Fife to Hyndford (for Walter FitzGilbert)* – Panmure to Sinclair (for Sempill)* – Sumerville to Winton* <!--" ], [ "External links", "Deprecated, see list at WP:RSPSS.", "Preserved here for cross-checking.", "* Genealogy of James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Abercorn on The Peerage website-->" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Java virtual machine" ], [ "Introduction", "Overview of a Java virtual machine (JVM) architecture based on The Java Virtual Machine Specification Java SE 7 EditionA '''Java virtual machine''' ('''JVM''') is a virtual machine that enables a computer to run Java programs as well as programs written in other languages that are also compiled to Java bytecode.", "The JVM is detailed by a specification that formally describes what is required in a JVM implementation.", "Having a specification ensures interoperability of Java programs across different implementations so that program authors using the Java Development Kit (JDK) need not worry about idiosyncrasies of the underlying hardware platform.The JVM reference implementation is developed by the OpenJDK project as open source code and includes a JIT compiler called HotSpot.", "The commercially supported Java releases available from Oracle are based on the OpenJDK runtime.", "Eclipse OpenJ9 is another open source JVM for OpenJDK." ], [ "JVM specification", "The Java virtual machine is an abstract (virtual) computer defined by a specification.", "It is a part of the Java runtime environment.", "The garbage collection algorithm used and any internal optimization of the Java virtual machine instructions (their translation into machine code) are not specified.", "The main reason for this omission is to not unnecessarily constrain implementers.", "Any Java application can be run only inside some concrete implementation of the abstract specification of the Java virtual machine.Starting with Java Platform, Standard Edition (J2SE) 5.0, changes to the JVM specification have been developed under the Java Community Process as JSR 924., changes to the specification to support changes proposed to the class file format (JSR 202) are being done as a maintenance release of JSR 924.The specification for the JVM was published as the ''blue book'', whose preface states:One of Oracle's JVMs is named HotSpot; the other, inherited from BEA Systems, is JRockit.", "Oracle owns the Java trademark and may allow its use to certify implementation suites as fully compatible with Oracle's specification.===Class loader===One of the organizational units of JVM byte code is a class.", "A class loader implementation must be able to recognize and load anything that conforms to the Java class file format.", "Any implementation is free to recognize other binary forms besides ''class'' files, but it must recognize ''class'' files.The class loader performs three basic activities in this strict order:#Loading: finds and imports the binary data for a type#Linking: performs verification, preparation, and (optionally) resolution#Verification: ensures the correctness of the imported type#Preparation: allocates memory for class variables and initializing the memory to default values#Resolution: transforms symbolic references from the type into direct references.", "#Initialization: invokes Java code that initializes class variables to their proper starting values.In general, there are three types of class loader: bootstrap class loader, extension class loader and System / Application class loader.Every Java virtual machine implementation must have a bootstrap class loader that is capable of loading trusted classes, as well as an extension class loader or application class loader.", "The Java virtual machine specification does not specify how a class loader should locate classes.===Virtual machine architecture===The JVM operates on specific types of data as specified in Java Virtual Machine specifications.", "The data types can be divided into primitive types (integers, Floating-point, long etc.)", "and Reference types.", "The earlier JVM were only 32-bit machines.", "long and double types, which are 64-bits, are supported natively, but consume two units of storage in a frame's local variables or operand stack, since each unit is 32 bits.", "boolean, byte, short, and char types are all sign-extended (except char which is zero-extended) and operated on as 32-bit integers, the same as int types.", "The smaller types only have a few type-specific instructions for loading, storing, and type conversion.", "boolean is operated on as 8-bit byte values, with 0 representing false and 1 representing true.", "(Although boolean has been treated as a type since ''The Java Virtual Machine Specification, Second Edition'' clarified this issue, in compiled and executed code there is little difference between a boolean and a byte except for name mangling in method signatures and the type of boolean arrays.", "booleans in method signatures are mangled as Z while bytes are mangled as B. Boolean arrays carry the type boolean but use 8 bits per element, and the JVM has no built-in capability to pack booleans into a bit array, so except for the type they perform and behave the same as byte arrays.", "In all other uses, the boolean type is effectively unknown to the JVM as all instructions to operate on booleans are also used to operate on bytes.)", "However the newer JVM releases (OpenJDK HotSpot JVM) support 64-bit, so you can either have 32-bit/64-bit JVM on a 64-bit OS.", "The primary advantage of running Java in a 64-bit environment is the larger address space.", "This allows for a much larger Java heap size and an increased maximum number of Java Threads, which is needed for certain kinds of large applications; however there is a performance hit in using 64-bit JVM compared to 32-bit JVM.The JVM has a garbage-collected heap for storing objects and arrays.", "Code, constants, and other class data are stored in the \"method area\".", "The method area is logically part of the heap, but implementations may treat the method area separately from the heap, and for example might not garbage collect it.", "Each JVM thread also has its own call stack (called a \"Java Virtual Machine stack\" for clarity), which stores frames.", "A new frame is created each time a method is called, and the frame is destroyed when that method exits.Each frame provides an \"operand stack\" and an array of \"local variables\".", "The operand stack is used for operands to run computations and for receiving the return value of a called method, while local variables serve the same purpose as registers and are also used to pass method arguments.", "Thus, the JVM is both a stack machine and a register machine.", "In practice, HotSpot entirely eliminates every stack besides the native thread/call stack even when running in Interpreted mode, as its Templating Interpreter technically functions as a compiler.===Bytecode instructions===The JVM has instructions for the following groups of tasks:The aim is binary compatibility.", "Each particular host operating system needs its own implementation of the JVM and runtime.", "These JVMs interpret the bytecode semantically the same way, but the actual implementation may be different.", "More complex than just emulating bytecode is compatibly and efficiently implementing the Java core API that must be mapped to each host operating system.These instructions operate on a set of common rather the native data types of any specific instruction set architecture.===JVM languages===A JVM language is any language with functionality that can be expressed in terms of a valid class file which can be hosted by the Java Virtual Machine.", "A class file contains Java Virtual Machine instructions (Java byte code) and a symbol table, as well as other ancillary information.", "The class file format is the hardware- and operating system-independent binary format used to represent compiled classes and interfaces.There are several JVM languages, both old languages ported to JVM and completely new languages.", "JRuby and Jython are perhaps the most well-known ports of existing languages, i.e.", "Ruby and Python respectively.", "Of the new languages that have been created from scratch to compile to Java bytecode, Clojure, Groovy, Scala and Kotlin may be the most popular ones.", "A notable feature with the JVM languages is that they are compatible with each other, so that, for example, Scala libraries can be used with Java programs and vice versa.Java 7 JVM implements ''JSR 292: Supporting Dynamically Typed Languages'' on the Java Platform, a new feature which supports dynamically typed languages in the JVM.", "This feature is developed within the Da Vinci Machine project whose mission is to extend the JVM so that it supports languages other than Java.===Bytecode verifier===A basic philosophy of Java is that it is inherently safe from the standpoint that no user program can crash the host machine or otherwise interfere inappropriately with other operations on the host machine, and that it is possible to protect certain methods and data structures belonging to trusted code from access or corruption by untrusted code executing within the same JVM.", "Furthermore, common programmer errors that often led to data corruption or unpredictable behavior such as accessing off the end of an array or using an uninitialized pointer are not allowed to occur.", "Several features of Java combine to provide this safety, including the class model, the garbage-collected heap, and the verifier.The JVM verifies all bytecode before it is executed.", "This verification consists primarily of three types of checks: Branches are always to valid locations* Data is always initialized and references are always type-safe* Access to private or package private data and methods is rigidly controlledThe first two of these checks take place primarily during the verification step that occurs when a class is loaded and made eligible for use.", "The third is primarily performed dynamically, when data items or methods of a class are first accessed by another class.The verifier permits only some bytecode sequences in valid programs, e.g.", "a jump (branch) instruction can only target an instruction within the same method.", "Furthermore, the verifier ensures that any given instruction operates on a fixed stack location, allowing the JIT compiler to transform stack accesses into fixed register accesses.", "Because of this, that the JVM is a stack architecture does not imply a speed penalty for emulation on register-based architectures when using a JIT compiler.", "In the face of the code-verified JVM architecture, it makes no difference to a JIT compiler whether it gets named imaginary registers or imaginary stack positions that must be allocated to the target architecture's registers.", "In fact, code verification makes the JVM different from a classic stack architecture, of which efficient emulation with a JIT compiler is more complicated and typically carried out by a slower interpreter.", "Additionally, the Interpreter used by the default JVM is a special type known as a Template Interpreter, which translates bytecode directly to native, register based machine language rather than emulate a stack like a typical interpreter.", "In many aspects the HotSpot Interpreter can be considered a JIT compiler rather than a true interpreter, meaning the stack architecture that the bytecode targets is not actually used in the implementation, but merely a specification for the intermediate representation that can well be implemented in a register based architecture.", "Another instance of a stack architecture being merely a specification and implemented in a register based virtual machine is the Common Language Runtime.The original specification for the bytecode verifier used natural language that was incomplete or incorrect in some respects.", "A number of attempts have been made to specify the JVM as a formal system.", "By doing this, the security of current JVM implementations can more thoroughly be analyzed, and potential security exploits prevented.", "It will also be possible to optimize the JVM by skipping unnecessary safety checks, if the application being run is proven to be safe.====Secure execution of remote code====A virtual machine architecture allows very fine-grained control over the actions that code within the machine is permitted to take.", "It assumes the code is \"semantically\" correct, that is, it successfully passed the (formal) bytecode verifier process, materialized by a tool, possibly off-board the virtual machine.", "This is designed to allow safe execution of untrusted code from remote sources, a model used by Java applets, and other secure code downloads.", "Once bytecode-verified, the downloaded code runs in a restricted \"sandbox\", which is designed to protect the user from misbehaving or malicious code.", "As an addition to the bytecode verification process, publishers can purchase a certificate with which to digitally sign applets as safe, giving them permission to ask the user to break out of the sandbox and access the local file system, clipboard, execute external pieces of software, or network.Formal proof of bytecode verifiers have been done by the Javacard industry (Formal Development of an Embedded Verifier for Java Card Byte Code)===Bytecode interpreter and just-in-time compiler===For each hardware architecture a different Java bytecode interpreter is needed.", "When a computer has a Java bytecode interpreter, it can run any Java bytecode program, and the same program can be run on any computer that has such an interpreter.When Java bytecode is executed by an interpreter, the execution will always be slower than the execution of the same program compiled into native machine language.", "This problem is mitigated by just-in-time (JIT) compilers for executing Java bytecode.", "A JIT compiler may translate Java bytecode into native machine language while executing the program.", "The translated parts of the program can then be executed much more quickly than they could be interpreted.", "This technique gets applied to those parts of a program frequently executed.", "This way a JIT compiler can significantly speed up the overall execution time.There is no necessary connection between the Java programming language and Java bytecode.", "A program written in Java can be compiled directly into the machine language of a real computer and programs written in other languages than Java can be compiled into Java bytecode.Java bytecode is intended to be platform-independent and secure.", "Some JVM implementations do not include an interpreter, but consist only of a just-in-time compiler." ], [ "JVM in the web browser", "At the start of the Java platform's lifetime, the JVM was marketed as a web technology for creating Rich Web Applications.", ", most web browsers and operating systems bundling web browsers do not ship with a Java plug-in, nor do they permit side-loading any non-Flash plug-in.", "The Java browser plugin was deprecated in JDK 9.The NPAPI Java browser plug-in was designed to allow the JVM to execute so-called Java applets embedded into HTML pages.", "For browsers with the plug-in installed, the applet is allowed to draw into a rectangular region on the page assigned to it.", "Because the plug-in includes a JVM, Java applets are not restricted to the Java programming language; any language targeting the JVM may run in the plug-in.", "A restricted set of APIs allow applets access to the user's microphone or 3D acceleration, although applets are not able to modify the page outside its rectangular region.", "Adobe Flash Player, the main competing technology, works in the same way in this respect.", "according to W3Techs, Java applet and Silverlight use had fallen to 0.1% each for all web sites, while Flash had fallen to 10.8%.===JavaScript JVMs and interpreters===Since May 2016, JavaPoly allows users to import unmodified Java libraries, and invoke them directly from JavaScript.", "JavaPoly allows websites to use unmodified Java libraries, even if the user does not have Java installed on their computer.===Transpilation to JavaScript===With the continuing improvements in JavaScript execution speed, combined with the increased use of mobile devices whose web browsers do not implement support for plugins, there are efforts to target those users through transpilation to JavaScript.", "It is possible to either transpile the source code or JVM bytecode to JavaScript.Compiling the JVM bytecode, which is universal across JVM languages, allows building upon the language's existing compiler to bytecode.", "The main JVM bytecode to JavaScript transpilers are TeaVM, the compiler contained in Dragome Web SDK, Bck2Brwsr, and j2js-compiler.Leading transpilers from JVM languages to JavaScript include the Java-to-JavaScript transpiler contained in Google Web Toolkit, Clojurescript (Clojure), GrooScript (Apache Groovy), Scala.js (Scala) and others." ], [ "See also", "* Common Language Runtime* List of Java virtual machines* List of JVM languages* Comparison of Java virtual machines* Comparison of application virtualization software* Automated exception handling* Java performance* Java processor* K virtual machine (KVM)" ], [ "References", "* '' Clarifications and Amendments to the Java Virtual Machine Specification, Second Edition '' includes list of changes to be made to support J2SE 5.0 and JSR 45* JSR 45 , specifies changes to the class file format to support source-level debugging of languages such as JavaServer Pages (JSP) and SQLJ that are translated to Java" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Abercrombie (physician)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Abercrombie''' (10 October 1780 – 14 November 1844) was a Scottish physician, author, philosopher and philanthropist.", "His Edinburgh practice became one of the most successful medical practices in Scotland.", "The ''Chambers Biographical Dictionary'' says of him that after James Gregory's death, he was \"recognized as the first consulting physician in Scotland\".", "As surgeon to The Royal Public Dispensary and the New Town Dispensary he provided free medical care for the poor of the town and taught medical students and apprentices.", "He published extensively on medical topics and latterly on metaphysics morality and religion.", "A devout Christian, he gave financial support to missionary work.", "Abercrombie was awarded the honorary degree of MD from the University of Oxford, was elected Rector of Marischal College and University, Aberdeen and appointed Physician to the King in Scotland." ], [ "Early life", "He was born in Aberdeen the eldest son of Rev George Abercrombie (1713-1790), the minister of East Church, Aberdeen, and his second wife Barbara Morice (d.1824).", "His father was to have a profound influence on his character and beliefs.", "After schooling at Aberdeen Grammar School he studied at Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where he graduated Master of Arts (MA) at the age of 15.He went on to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh obtaining his doctorate MD in 1803." ], [ "Medical career", "After graduating he went for further study at St George's Hospital in London and, returning to Edinburgh, set up in practice at 8 Nicolson Street, next to the Edinburgh Riding School, which in 1832 was to become the site of the Playfair building of the present Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (RCSEd).", "In 1804 he became a Fellow of the RCSEd.", "His general practice rapidly became popular and in 1805 he became surgeon to the Royal.", "Public Dispensary in nearby Richmond Street.", "Here he provided free medical care for the poor of the locality and gave instruction to medical student and apprentices.", "By dividing the city into geographical sectors and assigning his trainees to different sectors he began a systematic training system for these trainees.", "In 1816 he was appointed surgeon to the newly established New Town Dispensary.", "From the outset he kept detailed notes on all of his patients, an unusual practice at that time.", "These were to form the basis for his many clinical publications, which further enhanced his reputation.", "From 1816 he published various papers in the ''Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal'', which formed the basis of his more extensive works: ''Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord'', regarded as the first textbook in neuropathology, and ''Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and other Viscera of the Abdomen'', both published in 1828.In the latter book described for the first time the symptoms and signs of perforated duodenal ulcer.", "This was at a time when, it was difficult for physicians to correlate clinical features with pathology.", "Abercrombie’s gave the first ever description of the clinical features of perforated duodenal ulcer confirmed by the post-mortem.", "The specimen showing the perforated ulcer was placed in Surgeons’ Hall Museum where it is on display to this dayIn 1821 he was unsuccessful in his application for the Chair of the Practice of Physic at the University of Edinburgh.", "Thereafter he devoted himself to consulting medical practice.", "He became a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1823 and a Fellow of the College the following year.In later years he wrote a series of philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he published his ''Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth'', which was followed in 1833 by a sequel, ''The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings''.", "Both works achieved wide popularity at the time of their publication.", "The Inquiries (1830) has been widely cited in treatises on the law of evidence, due to its discussion of probability, (the sources of) certainty, and (doubts regarding) testimony.An elder of the Church of Scotland, he also wrote ''The man of faith: or the harmony of Christian faith and Christian character'' (1835), which he distributed freely.", "19 York Place, EdinburghAbercrombie was a founder member in 1841of the Edinburgh Association for sending Medical Aid for Foreign Countries, which became the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society, and he gave financial support to its work.The year after his death his ''Essays'' (1845) on Christian ethics were published." ], [ "Honours and awards", "He was President of the Edinburgh Medico-Chirurgical Society for four years from 1829.In 1831 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, his proposer being Thomas Charles Hope, and served as Vice-President of the Society from 1835 to 1844.The University of Oxford awarded him the honorary degree of MD (Oxon).", "This was a rare honour as the only other recipient in the previous 50 years was Edward Jenner.", "He was elected Lord Rector of Marischal College and University, Aberdeen.", "He became a member of the French Académie Nationale de Médecine." ], [ "Personal life", "The grave of John Abercrombie, St Cuthberts, EdinburghIn 1810 he was living at 43 York Place, Edinburgh.", "In 1831, while treating his colleague James Crawford Gregory, he contracted and recovered from typhus.", "In 1841, he was partially paralysed, but was nevertheless able to return to his medical practice.He died suddenly while entering his carriage at the front of his home, 19 York Place, Edinburgh, 14 November 1844.An autopsy showed that the cause of death was ruptured coronary artery.", "The pathologist, Adam Hunter, speculated that his death had been brought about by excessive bloodletting.", "He is buried against the east wall of St Cuthberts Churchyard adjacent to the gateway into Princes Street Gardens.Upon his death, his daughters donated his Abercrombie's library of circa 1000 volumes to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh." ], [ "Artistic recognition", "A bust of Abercrombie by John Steell is held at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.", "A portrait by Benjamin Walsh, painted in 1819, hangs in the RCSEd." ], [ "See also", "* Pathology* List of pathologists" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * whonamedit.com* ''Des maladies de l'encéphale et de la moelle épinière'', John Abercrombie 1835* Significant Scots * * * * John Abercrombie at Book Owner's Online" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judgement of Paris" ], [ "Introduction", "Judgement of Paris, fresco from PompeiiThe '''Judgement of Paris''' is a story from Greek mythology, which was one of the events that led up to the Trojan War and in later versions of the story to the foundation of Rome.Eris, the goddess of discord, was not invited to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.", "In revenge, Eris brought a golden apple, inscribed, \"To the fairest one,\" which she threw into the wedding.", "Three goddesses, Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, agreed to have Paris of Troy choose the fairest one.", "Paris chose Aphrodite, because she bribed him by giving him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta, wife of Menelaus.", "Paris carried Helen off to Troy, and the Greeks invaded Troy for Helen's return.", "This was the cause of the Trojan War.", "Figuratively, the phrase \"The Judgement of Paris\" can mean the ultimate origin of a war or other event." ], [ "Sources of the episode", "Paris receives Hermes who leads Athena, Hera and Aphrodite, four women facing to the right.", "Painting on terracotta panels, 560–550 BCAttic black-figure neck amphora by Swing Painter (c. 540–530 BC), now in the Metropolitan Museum of ArtAs with many mythological tales, details vary depending on the source.", "The brief allusion to the Judgement in the ''Iliad'' (24.25–30) shows that the episode initiating all the subsequent action was already familiar to its audience; a fuller version was told in the ''Cypria'', a lost work of the Epic Cycle, of which only fragments (and a reliable summary) remain.", "The later writers Ovid (''Heroides'' 16.71ff, 149–152 and 5.35f), Lucian (''Dialogues of the Gods'' 20), Pseudo-Apollodorus (''Bibliotheca'', E.3.2) and Hyginus (''Fabulae'' 92), retell the story with skeptical, ironic or popularizing agendas.", "It appeared wordlessly on the ivory and gold votive chest of the 7th-century BC tyrant Cypselus at Olympia, which was described by Pausanias as showing:The subject was favoured by ancient Greek vase painters as early as the sixth century BC, and remained popular in Greek and Roman art, before enjoying a significant revival as an opportunity to show three female nudes, in the Renaissance." ], [ "Mythic narrative", "''Golden Apple of Discord'' by Jacob JordaensIt is recounted that Zeus held a banquet in celebration of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (parents of Achilles).", "However, Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited, for it was believed she would have made the party unpleasant for everyone.", "Angered by this snub, Eris arrived at the celebration with a golden apple from the Garden of the Hesperides, which she threw into the proceedings as a prize of beauty.", "According to some later versions, upon the apple was the inscription ''καλλίστῃ'' (''kallistēi'', \"To/for the fairest one\").Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena and Aphrodite.", "They asked Zeus to judge which of them was fairest, and eventually he, reluctant to favor any claim himself, declared that Paris, a Trojan mortal, would judge their cases, for he had recently shown his exemplary fairness in a contest in which Ares in bull form had bested Paris's own prize bull, and the shepherd-prince had unhesitatingly awarded the prize to the god.", "''The Judgement of Paris'' (1599) by Hendrick van Balen the Elder.", "Gemäldegalerie, BerlinWith Hermes as their guide, the three candidates bathed in the spring of Ida, then met Paris on Mount Ida.", "While Paris inspected them, each attempted with her powers to bribe him; Hera offered to make him king of Europe and Asia, Athena offered wisdom and skill in war, and Aphrodite, who had the Charites and the Horai to enhance her charms with flowers and song (according to a fragment of the ''Cypria'' quoted by Athenagoras of Athens), offered the world's most beautiful woman (Euripides, ''Andromache'', l.284, ''Helena'' l. 676).", "This was Helen of Sparta, wife of the Greek king Menelaus.", "Paris accepted Aphrodite's gift and awarded the apple to her, receiving Helen as well as the enmity of the Greeks and especially of Hera.", "The Greeks' expedition to retrieve Helen from Paris in Troy is the mythological basis of the Trojan War.", "According to some stories Helen of Troy was kidnapped by Paris and group of Trojans, in others she simply followed Paris willingly because, she too, felt affection for him.The story of the Judgement of Paris naturally offered artists the opportunity to depict a sort of beauty contest between three beautiful female nudes, but the myth, at least since Euripides, rather concerns a choice among the gifts that each goddess embodies.", "The bribery involved is ironic and a late ingredient.Joachim Wtewael, c. 1615, with the wedding feast of the gods in the backgroundAccording to a tradition suggested by Alfred J.", "Van Windekens, \"cow-eyed\" Hera was indeed the most beautiful, not Aphrodite.", "However, Hera was the goddess of the marital order and of cuckolded wives, amongst other things.", "She was often portrayed as the shrewish, jealous wife of Zeus, who himself often escaped from her controlling ways by cheating on her with other women, mortal and immortal.", "She had fidelity and chastity in mind and was careful to be modest when Paris was inspecting her.", "Aphrodite, though not as beautiful as Hera, was the goddess of sexuality, and was effortlessly more sexual and charming before him.", "Thus, she was able to sway Paris into judging her as the fairest.", "Athena's beauty is rarely commented on in the myths, perhaps because Greeks held her up as an asexual being, able to \"overcome\" her \"womanly weaknesses\" to become both wise and talented in war (both considered male domains by the Greeks).", "Her rage at losing makes her join the Greeks in the battle against Paris's Trojans, a key event in the turning point of the war." ], [ "In art", "''The Judgement of Paris'' (1530) by Lucas Cranach the Elder in the Saint Louis Art MuseumThe subject became popular in art from the late Middle Ages onwards.", "All three goddesses were usually shown nude, though in ancient art only Aphrodite is ever unclothed, and not always.", "The opportunity for three female nudes was a large part of the attraction of the subject.", "It appeared in illuminated manuscripts and was popular in decorative art, including 15th-century Italian inkstands and other works in maiolica, and ''cassoni''.", "As a subject for easel paintings, it was more common in Northern Europe, although Marcantonio Raimondi's engraving of c. 1515, probably based on a drawing by Raphael, and using a composition derived from a Roman sarcophagus, was a highly influential treatment, which made Paris's Phrygian cap an attribute in most later versions.The subject was painted many (supposedly 23) times by Lucas Cranach the Elder, and was especially attractive to Northern Mannerist painters.", "Rubens painted several compositions of the subject at different points in his career.", "Watteau and Angelica Kauffman were among the artists who painted the subject in the 18th century.", "The Judgement of Paris was painted frequently by academic artists of the 19th century, and less often by their more progressive contemporaries such as Renoir and Cézanne.", "Later artists who have painted the subject include André Lhote, Enrique Simonet (''El Juicio de Paris'' 1904), and Salvador Dalí.Ivo Saliger (1939), Adolf Ziegler (1939), and Joseph Thorak (1941) also used the classic myth to propagate German renewal during the Nazi period." ], [ "In other media", "Three goddesses at the Judgement of Paris painted by Simon VouetThe story is the basis of an opera, ''The Judgement of Paris'', with a libretto by William Congreve, that was set to music by four composers in London, 1700–1701.Thomas Arne composed a highly successful score to the same libretto in 1742.The opera ''Le Cinesi'' (''The Chinese Women'') by Christoph Willibald Gluck (1754) concludes with a ballet, ''The Judgement of Paris'', sung as a vocal quartet.", "Francesco Cilea's 1902 opera ''Adriana Lecouvreur'' also includes a ''Judgement of Paris'' ballet sequence.The story is the basis of an earlier opera, ''Il pomo d'oro'', in a prologue and five acts by the Italian composer Antonio Cesti, with a libretto by Francesco Sbarra (1611–1668).", "It was first performed before the imperial court in a specially constructed open-air theatre Vienna in 1668.The work was so long it had to be staged over the course of two days: the Prologue, Acts One and Two were given on July 12; Acts Three, Four and Five on July 14.The staging was unprecedented for its magnificence (and expense).", "The designer Ludovico Ottavio Burnacini provided no fewer than 24 sets and there were plenty of opportunities for spectacular stage machinery, including shipwrecks and collapsing towers.Achilleion, Corfu.Novelist Gore Vidal named his 1952 book, ''The Judgment of Paris'', after this story.The Judgement of Paris was burlesqued in the 1954 musical ''The Golden Apple''.", "In it, the three goddesses have been reduced to three town biddies in smalltown Washington state.", "They ask Paris, a traveling salesman, to judge the cakes they have made for the church social.", "Each woman (the mayor's wife, the schoolmarm, and the matchmaker) makes appeals to Paris, who chooses the matchmaker.", "The matchmaker, in turn, sets him up with Helen, the town floozy, who runs off with him.The Judgement of Paris is featured in the 2003 TV miniseries ''Helen of Troy''.", "The event is brief, and only Hera and Aphrodite offer bribes.", "All three goddesses remain fully clothed.", "Aphrodite gives Paris a vision of Helen, while Helen has a reciprocal vision of Paris.In the ''Hercules: The Legendary Journeys'' series, the contest is altered somewhat with Aphrodite and Athena entering but Artemis is the third goddess contestant instead of Hera (offering the one who chooses her the chance to be renowned as a great warrior).", "The Golden Apple appears as a gift from Aphrodite with the ability to make any mortal woman fall in love with the man holding it and to make a mortal man and woman soul mates if they simultaneously touch it.", "The other major differences beside the presence of Artemis and the role of the apple are the fact that it is Ëlaus who is the judge and the goddesses appear in swimsuits and not nude.In \"Casebook of the Black Widowers\", a collection of short mystery stories by Isaac Asimov published in 1980, the last story in the volume is \"To the Barest\" The plot of the story is that one of the founding members of the Black Widowers, Ralph Ottur, dies and leaves a will requiring the group to solve a pun riddle.", "The lawyer reading the will at the meeting is one Matthew Parris.", "The pun on the name of the attorney, who has to select which of the current members of the group is \"the barest\" leads to the decision made as to which member of the group gets the inheritance, as \"the Judgement of Parris\" and the tale of the Apple of Eris is told in the course of the story." ], [ "In Discordianism", "''Kallistēi'' is the word of the ancient Greek language inscribed on Eris' Apple of Discord.", "In Greek, the word is ''καλλίστῃ'' (the dative singular of the feminine superlative of καλος, beautiful).", "Its meaning can be rendered \"to the fairest one\".", "''Calliste'' (Καλλίστη; Mod.", "Gk.", "''Kallisti'') is also an ancient name for the isle of Thera.The word ''Kallisti'' (Modern Greek) written on a golden apple, has become a principal symbol of Discordianism, a post-modernist religion.", "In non-philological texts (such as Discordian ones) the word is usually spelled as ''καλλιστι''.", "Most versions of ''Principia Discordia'' actually spell it as καλλιχτι, but this is definitely incorrect; in the afterword of the 1979 Loompanics edition of ''Principia'', Gregory Hill says that was because on the IBM typewriter he used, not all Greek letters coincided with Latin ones, and he didn't know enough of the letters to spot the mistake.", "Zeus' failure to invite Eris is referred to as ''The Original Snub'' in Discordian mythology." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Getty Villa - Collection (5305374810).jpg\|Storage Jar with the Judgement of Paris (Athens, c. 360 BC)File:The Master of the Judgement of Paris (Burrell Collection).jpg\|The Judgement of Paris in the Burrell Collection, Glasgow, ScotlandFile:The Judgement of Paris (Larger version) by William Etty.jpg\|''Judgement of Paris'' (1826) by William EttyFile:Wine Cooler with Judgment of Paris LACMA 50.42.2 (1 of 2).jpg\|Tin-glazed maiolica wine cooler; Italy, circa 1565–1571.Los Angeles County Museum of ArtFile:James Thornhill - The Judgement of Paris.jpg\|''Judgement of Paris'' by James Thornhill.", "Government Art CollectionImage:Rubens - Judgement of Paris.jpg\|''The Judgement of Paris'', Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1636.National Gallery, LondonFile:Botticelli-Juicio-de-Paris.jpg\|Sandro Botticelli, c. 1485–1488.This is one of the very few versions in which all three goddesses are fully clothed." ], [ "Classical literature sources", "Chronological listing of classical literature sources for The Judgement of Paris, including the Apple of Discord:* Homer, ''Iliad'' 24.25 ff (trans.", "Murray) (Greek epic C8th BC)* Euripides, ''Iphigenia in Aulis'' 1290 ff (trans.", "Coleridge) (Greek tragedy C5th BC)* Euripides, ''Hecuba'' 629 ff (trans.", "Coleridge)* Euripides, ''Hecuba'' 669 ff* Euripides, ''The Trojan Women'' 924 ff (trans.", "Coleridge)* Euripides, ''Helen'' 20 ff (trans Coleridge)* Euripides, ''Helen'' 675 ff* Euripides, ''Andromache'' 274 ff (trans.", "Coleridge)* Gorgias, ''The Encomium on Helen'' 5 (''The Classical Weekly'' Feb. 15, 1913 trans.", "Van Hook p. 123) (Greek philosophy C5th BC)* P. Oxy.", "663, Cratinus, ''Argument of Cratinus' Dionysalexandrus'' 2.12-9 (trans.", "Grenfell & Hunt) (Greek poetry C5th BC)* Scholiast on P. Oxy.", "663, ''Argument of Cratinus' Dionysalexandrus'' 2.12-9 (''The Oxyrhynchus Papyr''i trans.", "Grenfell & Hunt 1904 Vol 4 p. 70)* Isocrates, ''Helen'' 41–52 (trans.", "Norlin) (Greek philosophy C4th BC)* Plato, ''Republic'' 2.379e ff (trans.", "Shorey) (Greek philosophy C4th BC)* Scholiast on Plato, ''Republic'' 2.379e ff (''Plato The Republic'' Books I-V trans.", "Shorey Vol 5 1937 1930 p. 186)* Aristotle, ''Rhetorica'' 1.6.20 ff (trans.", "Rhys Roberts) (Greek philosophy C4th BC)* Aristotle, ''Rhetorica'' 2.23.12 ff* Xenophon, ''Banquet'' (or ''Symposium'') 4.19.20 ff (trans.", "Brownson) (Greek philosophy C4th BC)* Lycophron, ''Alexandria'' 93 ff, (trans.", "A. Mair) (Greek epic C3rd BC)* Scholiast on ''Alexandria'' 93 ff (''Callimachus and Lycophron'' trans.", "A. Mair ''Aratus'' trans.", "G. Mair 1921 p. 501)* Callimachus, ''Hymn'' 5.17 ff (trans.", "Mair) (Greek poet C3rd BC)* Herodas, ''Mime'' 1.35 (trans.", "Headlam ed.", "Knox) (Greek poetry C3rd BC)* Catullus, ''The Poems of Catullus'' 61.17 (trans.", "Cornish) (Latin poetry C1st BC)* Diodorus Siculus, ''Library of History'' 17.7.4 ff (trans.", "Oldfather) (Greek history C1st BC)* Scholiast on Diodorus Siculus, ''Library of History'' 17.7.4 ff (Diodorus of Sicily trans.", "Oldfather 1963 Vol 8 pp.", "135)* Horace, ''Carminum'' 3.3.19 (trans.", "Bennett) (Roman lyric poetry C1st BC)* Scholiast on Horace, ''Carminum'' 3.3.19 (''Horace Odes and Erodes'' trans.", "Bennett 1901 p. 312)* Cicero, ''The Letters to his Friends'' 1.9.13 ff (trans.", "Williams) (Roman epigram C1st BC)* Ovid, ''Heroides'' 16.137 (trans.", "Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st BC to C1st AD)* Ovid, ''Heroides'' 17.115 ff* Ovid, ''Fasti'' 4.120 ff (trans.", "Frazer) (Roman epic C1st BC to C1st AD)* Ovid, ''Fasti'' 6.44 ff* Strabo, ''Geography'' 13.1.51 (trans.", "Jones) (Greek geography C1st BC to C1st AD)* Lucan, ''Pharsalia'' 9.971 ff (trans.", "Riley) (Roman poetry C1st AD)* Scholiast on Lucan, ''Pharsalia'' 9.971 (''The Pharsalia of Lucan'' Riley 1853 p. 378)* Petronius, ''Satyricon'' 138 ff (trans.", "Heseltine) (Roman satire C1st AD)* Scholiast on Petronius, ''Satyricon'' 138 ff (''Petronius and Seneca Apocolocyntosis'' trans.", "Heseltine & Rouse 1925 p. 318)* Pliny, ''Natural History'' 34.19.77 ff (trans.", "Rackham) (Roman history C1st AD)* Lucian, ''The Carousal, or The Lapiths'' 35 ff (trans.", "Harmon) (Assyrian satire C2nd AD)* Lucian, ''The Judgement of the Goddesses'' 1–16 (end) (trans.", "Harmon) (Assyrian satire C2nd AD)* Lucian, ''The Dance'' 45 ff (trans.", "Harmon)* Lucian, ''Dialogues of the Sea-Gods'' 301 ff (trans.", "Harmon)* Pseudo-Lucian, ''Charidemus'' 10 ff (trans.", "Macleod)* Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.3 (trans.", "Frazer) (Greek mythography C2nd AD)* Scholiast on Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.3 (''Apollodorus The Library'' trans.", "Frazer 1921 Vol 2 pp.", "172–73)* Pseudo-Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 92 (trans.", "Grant) (Roman mythography C2nd AD)* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 3.18.12 ff (trans.", "Frazer) (Greek travelogue C2nd AD)* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 5.19.5 ff* Apuleius, ''The Golden Ass'' 4.30 ff (trans.", "Adlington & Gaselee) (Latin prose C2nd AD)* Apuleius, ''The Golden Ass'' 10.30–33 (trans.", "Adlington & Gaselee)* Longus, ''Daphnis and Chloe'' Book 3 (The Athenian Society's Publications IV: ''Longus'' 1896 p. 108) (Greek romance C2nd AD)* P. Oxy.", "1231, Sappho, Book 1 Fragment 1.13 ff (''The Oxyrhynchus Papyri'' trans.", "Grenfell & Hunt 1914 Vol 10 p. 40) (Greek poetry C2nd AD)* Clement of Alexandria, ''Exhortation to the Greeks'' 2.29 P. ff (trans.", "Butterworth) (Christian philosophy C2nd to C3rd AD)* Tertullian, ''Apologeticus'' 15.15 ff (trans.", "Souter & Mayor) (Christian philosophy C2nd to C3rd AD)* Athenaeus, ''Banquet of the Learned'' 12.2 (trans.", "Yonge) (Greek rhetoric C2nd to C3rd AD)* Psudeo-Proclus, ''Cypria'' (''Hesiod the Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' trans.", "Evelyn-White pp.", "488–91) (C2nd to C5th AD)* Colluthus, ''The Rape of Helen'' 59–210 (trans.", "Mair) (Greek epic C5th to C6th AD)* Scholiast on Colluthus, ''The Rape of Helen'' 59 ff (''Oppian Colluthus Tryphiodorus'' trans.", "Mair 1928 pp.", "546–47)* Servius, ''Servius In Vergilii Aeneidos'' 1.27 ff (trans.", "Thilo) (Greek commentary C4th to 11th AD)* First Vatican Mythographer, ''Scriptores rerum mythicarum'' 208 (ed.", "Bode) (Greek and Roman mythography C9th AD to C11th AD)* Second Vatican Mythographer, ''Scriptores rerum mythicarum'' 205 (ed.", "Bode) (Greek and Roman mythography C11th AD)* Tzetzes, ''Scholia on Lycophron'' ''Cassandra'' (or ''Alexandria'') 93 (''Scholia on Lycophron'' ed.", "Müller 1811 p. 93) (Byzantine commentary C12th AD)" ], [ "See also", "Feast of the Gods (art)Trojan War" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Bull, Malcolm, ''The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods'', Oxford UP, 2005, .", "* Kerényi, Carl, ''The Heroes of the Greeks'', Thames and Hudson, London, 1959.", "* Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library." ], [ "External links", "* The Judgment of Paris* Full-text of Bulfinch's Mythology" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jurisdiction" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jurisdiction''' (from Latin 'law' + 'speech' or 'declaration') is the legal term for the legal authority granted to a legal entity to enact justice.", "In federations like the United States, the concept of jurisdiction applies at multiple levels (e.g., local, state, and federal).Jurisdiction draws its substance from international law, conflict of laws, constitutional law, and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to allocate resources to best serve the needs of society." ], [ "International dimension", "Generally, international laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to.", "Such agreements are not always established or maintained.", "Extraterritorial jurisdiction is exercised through three principles outlined in the UN charter.", "These are equality of states, territorial sovereignty and non-intervention.", "This raises questions of when can many states prescribe or enforce jurisdiction.", "The ''Lotus'' case establishes two key rules to the prescription and enforcement of jurisdiction.", "The case outlines that jurisdiction is territorial and that a state may not exercise its jurisdiction in the territory of another state unless there is a rule that permits this.", "On that same note, states enjoy a wide measure of discretion to prescribe jurisdiction over persons, property and acts within their own territory unless there was a rule that prohibits this.===Political issue===Supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation.", "When a country is recognized as , it is an acknowledgment by the other '''' nations that the country has sovereignty and the right to exist.However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate.", "If a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies.Insofar as these bodies or nominated individuals may resolve disputes through judicial or quasi-judicial means, or promote treaty obligations in the nature of laws, the power ceded to these bodies cumulatively represents its own jurisdiction.", "But no matter how powerful each body may appear to be, the extent to which any of their judgments may be enforced, or proposed treaties and conventions may become, or remain, effective within the territorial boundaries of each nation is a political matter under the sovereign control each nation.===International and municipal===The fact that international organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts.", "If the two sets of bodies do not have ''concurrent'' jurisdiction but, as in the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), the relationship is expressly based on the principle of ''complementarity'', i.e., the international court is subsidiary or complementary to national courts, the difficulty is avoided.", "But if the jurisdiction claimed is concurrent or, as in the case of International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the international tribunal is to prevail over national courts, the problems are more difficult to resolve politically.The idea of universal jurisdiction is fundamental to the operation of global organizations such as the United Nations and the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which jointly assert the benefit of maintaining legal entities with jurisdiction over a wide range of matters of significance to nations (the ICJ should not be confused with the ICC and this version of \"universal jurisdiction\" is not the same as that enacted in the War Crimes Law (Belgium), which is an assertion of extraterritorial jurisdiction that will fail to gain implementation in any other state under the standard provisions of public policy).", "Under Article 34 Statute of the ICJ only nations may be parties in cases before the Court and, under Article 36, the jurisdiction comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force.", "But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any given case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding.", "This reduces the risk of wasting the Court's time.Despite the safeguards built into the constitutions of most of these organizations, courts and tribunals, the concept of universal jurisdiction is controversial among those nations which prefer unilateral to multilateral solutions through the use of executive or military authority, sometimes described as ''realpolitik''-based diplomacy.Within other international contexts, there are intergovernmental organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) that have socially and economically significant dispute resolution functions but, again, even though their jurisdiction may be invoked to hear the cases, the power to enforce their decisions is at the will of the nations affected, save that the WTO is permitted to allow retaliatory action by successful nations against those nations found to be in breach of international trade law.", "At a regional level, groups of nations can create political and legal bodies with sometimes complicated patchworks of overlapping provisions detailing the jurisdictional relationships between the member states and providing for some degree of harmonization between their national legislative and judicial functions, for example, the European Union and African Union both have the potential to become federated nations although the political barriers to such unification in the face of entrenched nationalism will be very difficult to overcome.", "Each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers.", "For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the ultimate appellate court to the member states on issues of European law.", "This jurisdiction is entrenched, and its authority could only be denied by a member nation if that member nation asserts its sovereignty and withdraws from the union.====Law====The standard treaties and conventions leave the issue of implementation to each nation, i.e.", "there is no general rule in international law that treaties have direct effect in municipal law, but some nations, by virtue of their membership of supranational bodies, allow the direct incorporation of rights or enact legislation to honor their international commitments.", "Hence, citizens in those nations can invoke the jurisdiction of local courts to enforce rights granted under international law wherever there is incorporation.", "If there is no direct effect or legislation, there are two theories to justify the courts incorporating international into municipal law:* Monism:This theory characterizes international and municipal law as a single legal system with municipal law subordinate to international law.", "Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law.", "This has an interesting consequence because treaties that limit or extend the powers of the Dutch government are automatically considered a part of their constitutional law, for example, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "In nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles.", "* Dualism:This theory regards international and municipal law as separate systems so that the municipal courts can only apply international law either when it has been incorporated into municipal law or when the courts incorporate international law on their own motion.", "In the United Kingdom, for example, a treaty is not effective until it has been incorporated, at which time it becomes enforceable in the courts by any private citizen, where appropriate, even against the UK Government.", "Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law.", "The constitutional principle of parliamentary supremacy permits the legislature to enact any law inconsistent with any international treaty obligations even though the government is a signatory to those treaties.In the United States, the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution makes all treaties that have been ratified under the authority of the United States and customary international law to be a part of the \"Supreme Law of the Land\" (along with the Constitution itself and acts of Congress passed pursuant to it) (U.S. Const.art.", "VI Cl.", "2) As such, the law of the land is binding on the federal government as well as on state and local governments.", "According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and Proper Clause in areas beyond those specifically conferred on Congress (''Missouri v. Holland'', 252 U.S. 416 (1920)).===International===This concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction.", "The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed .To deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws.", "The Hague Conference and other international bodies have made recommendations on jurisdictional matters, but litigants with the encouragement of lawyers on a contingent fee continue to shop for forums.====Jurisdictional principles====Under international law there are different principles that are recognized to establish a state's ability to exercise criminal jurisdiction when it comes to a person.", "There is no hierarchy when it comes to any of the principles.", "States must therefore work together to solve issues of who may exercise their jurisdiction when it comes to issues of multiple principles being allowed.", "The principles are Territorial Principle, Nationality Principle, Passive Personality Principle, Protective Principle, Universality PrincipleTerritorial principle: This principle states that the State where the crime has been committed may exercise jurisdiction.", "This is one of the most straightforward and least controversial of the principles.", "This is also the only principle that is territorial in nature; all other forms are extraterritorial.Nationality principle (also known as the Active Personality Principle): This principle is based around a person's nationality and allows States to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to their nationality, both within and outside the State's territory.", "Seeing as the territoriality principle already gives the State the right to exercise jurisdiction, this principle is primarily used as a justification for prosecuting crimes committed abroad by a States nationals.", "There is a growing trend to allow States to also apply this principle to permanent residents abroad as well (for example: Denmark Criminal Code (2005), sec 7; Finland Criminal Code (2015), sec 6; Iceland Criminal Code (2014), art 5; Latvia Criminal Code (2013), sec 4; Netherlands Criminal Code (2019), art 7; Norway Criminal Code (2005), sec 12; Swedish Criminal Code (1999), sec 2; Lithuania Criminal Code (2015), art 5).Passive Personality Principle: This principle is similar to the Nationality Principle, except you are exercising jurisdiction against a foreign national that has committed a criminal act against its own national.", "The idea is that a State has a duty to protect its nationals and therefore if someone harms their nationals that State has the right to prosecute the accused.Protective principle: This principle allows States to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to foreign nationals for acts committed outside their territory that have or are intended to have a prejudicial impact upon the State.", "It is especially used when it comes to matters of national security.Universality principle: This is the broadest of all the principles.", "The basis is that a State has the right, sometimes even the obligation, to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to the most serious violations of international criminal law; for example genocide, crimes against humanity, extrajudicial executions, war crimes, torture, and forced disappearances.", "This principle also goes further than the other principles as there is attached to it the obligation to either prosecute the accused or extradite them to a State that will, known as .===Supranational===At a supranational level, countries have adopted a range of treaty and convention obligations to relate the right of individual litigants to invoke the jurisdiction of national courts and to enforce the judgments obtained.", "For example, the member nations of the EEC signed the Brussels Convention in 1968 and, subject to amendments as new nations joined, it represents the default law for all twenty-seven Member States of what is now termed the European Union on the relationships between the courts in the different countries.", "In addition, the Lugano Convention (1988) binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association.In effect from 1 March 2002, all the European Union member states except Denmark accepted Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001, which makes major changes to the Brussels Convention and is directly effective in the member nations.", "Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark.", "In some legal areas, at least, the reciprocal enforcement of foreign judgments is now more straightforward.", "At a national level, the traditional rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area.===National===Many nations are subdivided into states or provinces (i.e.", "a subnational \"state\").", "In a federation—as can be found in Australia, Brazil, India, Mexico, and the United States—such subunits will exercise ''jurisdiction'' through the court systems as defined by the executives and legislatures.When the jurisdictions of government entities overlap one another—for example between a state and the federation to which it belongs—their jurisdiction is a ''shared'' or ''concurrent'' jurisdiction.", "Otherwise, one government entity will have exclusive jurisdiction over the shared area.", "When jurisdiction is concurrent, one government entity may have supreme jurisdiction over the other entity if their laws conflict.", "If the executive or legislative powers within the jurisdiction are not restricted, or have only limited restrictions, these government branches have plenary power such as a national policing power.", "Otherwise, an enabling act grants only limited or enumerated powers.Child custody cases in the U.S. are a prime example of jurisdictional dilemmas caused by different states under a federal alignment.", "When parents and children are in different states, there is the possibility of different state court orders over-ruling each other.", "The U.S. solved this problem by adopting the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act.", "The act established criteria for determining which state has primary jurisdiction, which allows courts to defer the hearing of a case if an appropriate administrative agency determines so." ], [ "United States", "The primary distinctions between areas of jurisdiction are codified at the federal level.", "In the United States' common law system, jurisdiction is conceptually divided between jurisdiction over the ''subject matter'' of a case and personal jurisdiction over the parties to the case.", "A court whose subject matter jurisdiction is limited to certain types of controversies (for example, suits in admiralty or suits where the monetary amount sought is less than a specified sum) is sometimes referred to as a ''court of special jurisdiction'' or ''court of limited jurisdiction''.In U.S. federal courts, courts must consider subject matter jurisdiction sua sponte and therefore recognize their own lack of jurisdiction even if neither party has raised the matter.=== General and limited jurisdiction ===A court whose subject matter is not limited to certain types of controversy is referred to as a ''court of general jurisdiction''.", "In the U.S. states, each state has courts of general jurisdiction; most states also have some courts of limited jurisdiction.", "Federal courts (those operated by the federal government) are all courts of limited jurisdiction.", "Federal jurisdiction is divided into federal question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction.", "The United States district courts may hear only cases arising under federal law and treaties, cases involving ambassadors, admiralty cases, controversies between states or between a state and citizens of another state, lawsuits involving citizens of different states, and against foreign states and citizens.Certain courts, particularly the United States Supreme Court and most state supreme courts, have discretionary jurisdiction, meaning that they can choose which cases to hear from among all the cases presented on appeal.", "Such courts generally only choose to hear cases that would settle important and controversial points of law.", "Though these courts have discretion to deny cases they otherwise could adjudicate, no court has the discretion to hear a case that falls outside of its subject matter jurisdiction.=== Original and appellate jurisdiction ===It is also necessary to distinguish between original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction.", "A court of original jurisdiction has the power to hear cases as they are first initiated by a plaintiff, while a court of appellate jurisdiction may only hear an action after the court of original jurisdiction (or a lower appellate court) has heard the matter.", "For example, in United States federal courts, the United States district courts have original jurisdiction over a number of different matters (as mentioned above), and the United States court of appeals have appellate jurisdiction over matters appealed from the district courts.", "The U.S. Supreme Court, in turn, has appellate jurisdiction (of a discretionary nature) over the Courts of Appeals, as well as the state supreme courts, by means of writ of certiorari.However, in a special class of cases, the U.S. Supreme Court has the power to exercise original jurisdiction.", "Under , the Supreme court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over controversies between two or more states, and original (but non-exclusive) jurisdiction over cases involving officials of foreign states, controversies between the federal government and a state, actions by a state against the citizens of another state or foreign country.=== Example of jurisdiction ===As a practical example of court jurisdiction, as of 2013 Utah has five types of courts, each for different legal matters and different physical territories.", "One-hundred-and-eight judges oversee Justice Courts, which handle traffic and parking citations, misdemeanor crimes, and most small claims cases.", "Seventy-one judges preside over District Courts, which deal with civil cases exceeding small claims limits, probate law, felony criminal cases, divorce and child custody cases, some small claims, and appeals from Justice Courts.", "Twenty-eight judges handle Juvenile Court, which oversees most people under 18 years old who are accused of a crime, as well as cases of alleged child abuse or neglect; serious crimes committed by 16 or 17 year old persons may be referred to the District Courts.", "Seven judges in the Appeals Court hear most criminal appeals from District Courts, all appeals from juvenile court and all domestic/divorce cases from District Court, as well as some cases transferred to them by the Supreme Court.", "The Supreme Court seats five judges who hear appeals on first-degree felonies (the most serious) including capital crimes, as well as all civil cases from District Court (excepting divorce/domestic cases).", "The Supreme Court also oversees cases involving interpretation of the state Constitution, election matters, judicial conduct, and alleged misconduct by lawyers.", "This example shows how matters arising in the same physical territory might be seen in different courts.", "A minor traffic infraction originating in Orem, Utah is handled by the Orem Justice Court.", "However, a second-degree felony arrest and a first-degree felony arrest in Orem would be under the jurisdiction of the District Court in Provo, Utah.", "If both the minor traffic offense and the felony arrests resulted in guilty verdicts, the traffic conviction could be appealed to the District Court in Provo, while the second-degree felony appeal would be heard by the Appeals Court in Salt Lake City and the first-degree felony appeal would be heard by the Supreme Court.", "Similarly for civil matters, a small claims case arising in Orem would probably be heard in the Orem Justice Court, while a divorce filed by an Orem resident would be heard by the District Court in Provo.", "The above examples apply only to cases of Utah state law; any case under Federal jurisdiction would be handled by a different court system.", "All Federal cases arising in Utah are under the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the District of Utah, headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and would be heard in one of three Federal courthouses." ], [ "Territorial meaning", "The word \"jurisdiction\" is also used, especially in informal writing, to refer to a state or political subdivision generally, or to its government, rather than to its legal authority." ], [ "Franchise jurisdiction", "In the history of English common law, a jurisdiction could be held as a form of property (or more precisely an incorporeal hereditament) called a franchise.", "Traditional franchise jurisdictions of various powers were held by municipal corporations, religious houses, guilds, early universities, the Welsh Marches, and counties palatine.", "Types of franchise courts included courts baron, courts leet, merchant courts, and the stannary courts that dealt with disputes involving the tin miners of Cornwall.", "The original royal charters of the American colonies included broad grants of franchise jurisdiction along with other governmental powers to corporations or individuals, as did the charters for many other colonial companies such as the British East India Company and British South Africa Company.", "Analogous jurisdiction existed in medieval times on the European Continent.", "Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, franchise jurisdictions were largely eliminated.", "Several formerly important franchise courts were not officially abolished until Courts Act of 1971.==See also==* Jurisdiction (area)* Guantánamo Bay Naval Base* Immunity from prosecution (international law)* Labor unions in the United States – a different use of the word jurisdiction* Law enforcement agency – a different use of the word jurisdiction* Lawsuits against God* Private jurisdiction* ''Rasul v. Bush''* State immunity* Universal jurisdiction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Jurisdiction\" at Cornell.edu* Supreme Court Decision on the Guantánamo Bay jurisdiction* Jurisdiction As Property – franchise jurisdiction" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Abernethy (surgeon)" ], [ "Introduction", "John AbernethyJohn Abernethy'''John Abernethy''' FRS (3 April 1764 – 20 April 1831) was an English surgeon.", "He is popularly remembered today for having given his name to the Abernethy biscuit, a coarse-meal baked good meant to aid digestion." ], [ "Life", "He was a grandson of John Abernethy.", "He was born in Coleman Street in the City of London on 3 April 1764, where his father was a merchant.", "Educated at Wolverhampton Grammar School, he was apprenticed in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745–1815), a surgeon at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London.", "He attended the anatomical lectures of Sir William Blizard (1743–1835) at the London Hospital, and was employed to assist as ''demonstrator''; he also attended Percivall Pott's surgical lectures at St Bartholomew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter.", "On Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's, Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-surgeon, succeeded him, and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787.In this capacity he began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the hospital built a theatre (1790–1791), and Abernethy thus became the founder of the medical school of St Bartholomew's.", "He held the office of assistant-surgeon for twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was elected principal surgeon.", "He had before that time been appointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons (1814).", "Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is associated with the treatment of aneurysm by ligature of the external iliac artery.Abernethy was an anti-vivisectionist.", "Although he carried out experiments on animals, he killed them first, for he abhorred vivisection.His ''Surgical Observations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases'' (1809) – known as \"My Book\", from the great frequency with which he referred his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that name – was one of the earliest popular works on medical science.", "So great was his zeal in encouraging patients to read the book that he earned the nickname ''\"Doctor My-Book\"''.", "He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated by purging and attention to diet.", "As a lecturer he was exceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated his views.", "It has been said however, that the influence he exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically, and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry.", "The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his great professional skill, but also in part to his eccentricity.", "He was very blunt with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes even rudely.", "He resigned his position at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on 20 April 1831." ], [ "Abernethy biscuit", "Abernethy believed that a variety of diseases originated in a disordered state of the digestive organs, and that treating underlying maldigestion and dyspepsia was essential to restoring health.", "He invented, or at least gave his name to, a digestive biscuit called the Abernethy biscuit that he promoted from about 1829 until his death." ], [ "Works", "He contributed articles to ''Rees's Cyclopædia'' on Anatomy and Physiology, but the topics are not known.", "A collected edition of his works was published in 1830.A biography, ''Memoirs of John Abernethy'', by George Macilwain (1797–1882), appeared in 1853." ], [ "In literature", "John Abernethy is mentioned in Edgar Allan Poe's ''The Purloined Letter'' (1844).His debate with Sir William Lawrence is believed by Marilyn Butler to have influenced Mary Shelley's Frankenstein." ], [ "Notes", "===Attribution===" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judeo-Christian" ], [ "Introduction", "The term '''Judeo-Christian''' is used to group Christianity and Judaism together, either in reference to Christianity's derivation from Judaism, Christianity's recognition of Jewish scripture to constitute the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, or values supposed to be shared by the two religions.", "The term 'Judæo Christian' first appeared in the 19th century as a word for Jewish converts to Christianity.", "The term has received much criticism, largely from Jewish thinkers, as relying on and perpetuating inherently antisemitic notions of supersessionism, as well as glossing over fundamental differences between Jewish and Christian thought, theology, culture and practice.In the United States, the term was widely used during the Cold War in an attempt to suggest that the U.S. had a unified American identity which was opposed to communism.The use of the term \"Abrahamic religions\" to refer to the common grouping of faiths which are attributed to Abraham (Islam, the Baháʼí Faith, Samaritanism, Druzism, and other faiths in addition to Judaism and Christianity) is also sometimes seen as problematic." ], [ "History", "The term \"Judæo Christian\" first appears in a letter by Alexander McCaul which is dated October 17, 1821.The term in this case referred to Jewish converts to Christianity.", "The term was similarly used by Joseph Wolff in 1829, in reference to a type of church that would observe some Jewish traditions in order to convert Jews.", "Mark Silk states in the early 19th century the term was \"most widely used (in French as well as English) to refer to the early followers of Jesus who opposed\" the wishes of Paul the Apostle and wanted \"to restrict the message of Jesus to Jews and who insisted on maintaining Jewish law and ritual\".Friedrich Nietzsche used the German term (\"Jewish-Christian\") to describe and emphasize what he believed were neglected aspects of the continuity which exists between the Jewish and Christian worldviews.", "The expression appears in ''The Antichrist'', published in 1895 but written several years earlier; a fuller development of Nietzsche's argument can be found in the prior work, ''On the Genealogy of Morality''.The concept of Judeo-Christian ethics or Judeo-Christian values in an ethical (rather than a theological or liturgical) sense was used by George Orwell in 1939, along with the phrase \"the Judaeo-Christian scheme of morals\".", "According to theologian Richard L. Rubenstein, the \"normative Judaeo-Christian interpretation of history\" is to treat human suffering, such as a plague, as punishment for human guilt.According to historian K. Healan Gaston, the term became a descriptor of the U.S. in the 1930s, when the country sought to forge a unified cultural identity in an attempt to distinguish itself from fascism and communism in Europe.", "Becoming part of the American civil religion by the 1940s, the term rose to greater prominence during the Cold War, especially when it was used to express opposition to communist atheism.", "In the 1970s, the term became particularly associated with the American Christian right, and it is often employed in political attempts to restrict immigration and LGBT rights." ], [ "Inter-group relations", "===In the United States===The rise of antisemitism in the 1930s led concerned Protestants, Catholics, and Jews to take steps to increase mutual understanding and lessen the level of antisemitism in the United States.", "In this effort, precursors of the National Conference of Christians and Jews created teams consisting of a priest, a rabbi, and a minister, to run programs across the country, and fashion a more pluralistic America, no longer defined as a Christian land, but \"one nurtured by three ennobling traditions: Protestantism, Catholicism and Judaism....The phrase 'Judeo-Christian' entered the contemporary lexicon as the standard liberal term for the idea that Western values rest on a religious consensus that included Jews.", "\"In the aftermath of World War 2 and the Holocaust, \"there was a revolution in Christian theology in America.", "… The greatest shift in Christian attitudes towards the Jewish people since Constantine converted the Roman Empire.\"", "The rise of Christian Zionism, religiously motivated Christian interest, and support for the state of Israel increased interest in Judaism among American evangelicals.", "This interest is especially focused on areas of commonality between the teachings of Judaism and their own beliefs.", "During the late 1940s, evangelical proponents of the new Judeo-Christian approach lobbied Washington for diplomatic support of the new state of Israel.", "From the 1990s, continuing through the first two decades of the 21st century, interest in and a positive attitude towards America's Judeo-Christian tradition has become mainstream among evangelicals and (to some extent) the political conservative movement in the United States.", "In contrast, by the 1970s, mainline Protestant denominations and the National Council of Churches were more supportive of Palestinians than Israel.", "Natan Sharansky observed in 2019, that for the first time, he was encountering the situation of nations with ample governmental support for Israel but disinterest and even overt hostility by the Jewish populace.The scriptural basis for this new positive attitude towards Jews among evangelicals is found in Genesis 12:3, in which God promises that he will bless those who bless Abraham and his descendants, and curse those who curse them.", "Other factors in the new philo-Semitism include gratitude to the Jews for contributing to the theological foundations of Christianity and being the source of the prophets and Jesus; remorse for the Church's history of antisemitism; and fear that God will judge the nations at the end of time based on how they treated the Jewish people.", "Moreover, for many evangelicals Israel is seen as the instrument through which prophecies of the end times are fulfilled.The use of the term \"Judeo-Christian\" in 21st century discourse has been criticized for equating two different faiths and being a vector for Islamophobia by exclusion.===In Europe===" ], [ "Jewish responses", "The Jewish community's attitude towards the concept has been mixed.", "In the 1930s, \"In the face of worldwide anti-semitic efforts to stigmatize and destroy Judaism, influential Christians and Jews in America labored to uphold it, pushing Judaism from the margins of American religious life towards its very center.\"", "During World War II, Jewish chaplains worked with Catholic priests and Protestant ministers in order to promote goodwill, addressing servicemen who, \"in many cases had never seen, much less heard a Rabbi speak before.\"", "At funerals for the unknown soldier, rabbis stood alongside the other chaplains and recited prayers in Hebrew.", "In a much-publicized wartime tragedy, the sinking of the , the ship's multi-faith chaplains gave up their lifebelts to evacuate seamen and stood together \"arm in arm in prayer\" as the ship sank.", "A 1948 postage stamp commemorated their heroism with the words: \"interfaith in action.", "\"In the 1950s, \"a spiritual and cultural revival washed over American Jewry\" in response to the trauma of the Holocaust.", "American Jews became more confident in their desire to be identified as different.Two notable books addressed the relationship between contemporary Judaism and Christianity, Abba Hillel Silver's ''Where Judaism Differs'' and Leo Baeck's ''Judaism and Christianity'', both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness \"in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths.\"", "Reacting against the blurring of theological distinctions, Rabbi Eliezer Berkovits wrote that \"Judaism is Judaism because it rejects Christianity, and Christianity is Christianity because it rejects Judaism.\"", "Theologian and author Arthur A. Cohen, in ''The Myth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition'', questioned the theological validity of the Judeo-Christian concept and suggested that it was essentially an invention of American politics, while Jacob Neusner, in ''Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition'', writes, \"The two faiths stand for different people talking about different things to different people.", "\"Law professor Stephen M. Feldman looking at the period before 1950, chiefly in Europe, sees invocation of a \"Judeo-Christian tradition\" as supersessionism:" ], [ "See also", "* Mandaeans* Messianic Judaism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bobrick, Benson.", "''Wide as the Waters : The Story of the English Bible and the Revolution It Inspired''.", "Simon & Schuster 2001.", "* Paula Fredriksen.", "From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ, Yale University Press, * Hexter, J. H. ''The Judaeo-Christian Tradition'' (Second Edition).", "Yale University Press, 1995; * McGrath, Alister.", "''In the Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language, and a Culture''.", "Anchor Books, 2002..*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacques Maroger" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacques Maroger''' (; 1884–1962) was a painter and the technical director of the Louvre Museum's laboratory in Paris.", "He devoted his life to understanding the oil-based media of the Old Masters.", "He emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became an influential teacher.", "His book, ''The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters'', has been criticized by some modern writers on painting who say that the painting medium Maroger promoted is unsound." ], [ "Training and early career", "In 1907, Maroger began to study with Louis Anquetin and worked under his direction until Anquetin's death in 1932.Anquetin worked closely and exhibited with the artists Vincent van Gogh, Charles Angrand, Émile Bernard, Paul Gauguin, Camille Pissarro, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.", "He was very active in the Impressionist movement of the time.", "In his later years, Anquetin became very interested in the works of the Flemish masters.", "As Maroger's teacher, Anquetin provided guidance in the study of drawing, anatomy and master painting techniques.", "Maroger began to become famous around 1931, when the National Academy of Design in New York City reported Maroger's painting discoveries.From 1930 to 1939, Maroger started to work at the Louvre Museum in Paris as Technical Director of the Louvre Laboratory.", "He served as a professor at the Louvre School, a Member of the Conservation Committee, General Secretary of the International Experts, and President of the Restorers of France.", "In 1937, he received the Légion d'honneur, and his pride at the honor is reflected in his self-portrait of the time, in which one can see his Legion pin on his lapel.He emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became a lecturer at the Parsons School of Design in New York.", "His New York students, Reginald Marsh, John Koch, Fairfield Porter and Frank Mason adopted his Old Master painting techniques, and taught it in turn to their own students.In 1942, Maroger became a Professor at the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore and established a school of painting.", "At the Maryland Institute he led a group of painters who came to be known as the Baltimore Realists, including the painters Earl Hofmann, Thomas Rowe, Joseph Sheppard, Ann Didusch Schuler, Frank Redelius, John Bannon, Evan Keehn, and Melvin Miller.Maroger published ''The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters'' in 1948.When Maroger's book became available, Reginald Marsh drew on Maroger's book-jacket an airplane dropping an atomic bomb on the Maryland Art Institute, a reference to the controversy Maroger was causing in the local press over the abstract art versus realism debate.Maroger's formula and techniques have been studied by many modern painters who wish to obtain the paint quality of the Old Masters.", "The \"secret formula\" that Maroger devised during his lifetime included the main ingredient white lead.", "White lead when cooked into linseed oil acts as a drying agent, accelerating the polymerization of the oil film.Maroger claimed to have introduced to the modern day artist what the masters achieved centuries before in their paintings, a way to ensure permanence and color quality in oils without sacrificing fluid and subtle paint handling.", "Equipped with these formulas, the artist could once again blend his paint easily without losing control of his brush.", "The paint stays where it is applied and does not run off the panel.", "It dries very fast so that he can paint on the same areas the very next day, which speeds up painting.Frank Redelius, one of Maroger's protégés from the Baltimore Realists group, wrote a book that updates, builds upon and revises Jacques Maroger's research of the painting techniques and formulas of the Old Masters.", "Redelius was assisting Maroger with a revision of ''The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters'' before Maroger's death in 1962.Frank Redelius' book, published in 2009, is titled ''The Master Keys: A Painter's Treatise On The Pictorial Technique Of Oil Painting''." ], [ "Critics of Maroger", "Maroger has been criticized by some modern writers on painting because of his bold claims about having found the secret formulas of the Masters.", "The current proprietary Maroger's Medium is in fact the jelly-like medium also known as Megilp (Macgilp, McGuilp, etc.).", "This material, made by mixing heavy mastic varnish with a linseed oil that has been cooked to blackness with litharge or white lead, was introduced in the late 18th century and employed extensively during the 19th and therefore is not, as claimed by some, of centuries old pedigree.The archival quality of the medium itself is controversial in art circles, in part because its documented use dates back less than a century.", "This is from Michael Skalka, Conservation Administrator, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.", ":See the work of Lance Mayer and Gay Myers for more information on Curry and Maroger.This criticism can be misleading, however.", "Many of the media involved in Curry's work (and other followers of Maroger) bear no resemblance whatsoever to the modern mastic varnish/black oil recipe.", "Maroger medium which is not made properly may contain a large amount of dirt and impurities from improperly filtered mastic varnish, or the black oil may be overcooked, both of which would contribute to darkening and weakening of the work.", "In addition the overuse of megilp media (or any medium for that matter) tends to create weak paint films.", "Conservation science has shown that the presence of natural resins like mastic in the paint film causes embrittlement, darkening, and continued solubility.", "See the work of Leslie Carlyle or Joyce Townsend for problems related to 18th-century painting that contain megilp." ], [ "Lost old master formulas by Maroger", "===Six formulas of Maroger taken from his book on painting formulas===# Lead Medium – attributed to Antonello da Messina – One part litharge (yellow lead oxide) or lead white, combined by cooking with three to four parts linseed.# Lead Medium – attributed to Leonardo da Vinci – One part litharge or lead white, combined by cooking with three to four parts raw linseed oil, and three to four parts water.# Lead Medium – attributed to the Venetian painters – Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto – One or two parts litharge or lead white, combined by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed or walnut oil.# Lead Medium – attributed to Peter Paul Rubens -This medium was allegedly based on the black oil of Giorgione with an addition of mastic resin, Venice turpentine and beeswax.", "One or two parts litharge or lead white, combines by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed.", "A little more than one spoonful of \"black oil\" combined with even one spoonful of mastic varnish resulted in the \"jelly\" medium thought to be Megilp (another name of Maroger media).# Lead Medium – (attributed to the \"Little Dutch Masters\") This medium was the same as the one used by Rubens, but did not include beeswax.# Lead Medium – attributed to Velázquez – One part verdigris (derived from copper – this material is substituted for the lead-based metallic driers), combined by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed or walnut oil.The majority of these recipes are not employed today, as there are few companies that produce them.", "The primary form of \"Maroger medium\" known today is black oil (\"Giorgione's\" medium) and mastic varnish combined in approximately equal parts to form a gel.While Maroger medium is usually mixed directly with oil paints, its proportion should be kept to no more than 20% of the mixture.", "A useful technique is to rub a very thin film of Maroger medium over the area to be painted and paint into that—known as \"painting into the couch.\"", "This lubricates the brush stroke.", "Maroger medium (or any other painting medium, for that matter) should never be used as a final picture varnish, as Maroger requires reaction by admixture with oil paint in order to dry.The reduced availability of lead, combined with injunctions against lead use in household products and other factors has caused most major paint makers to discontinue the production of Maroger's medium.", "Many paint makers now offer faux-maroger's media or faux-megilps, generally made by substituting different materials, such as lime, for genuine lead, or (as in the case of Gamblin's Neo-Megilp) by creating a similar product out of specially thickened alkyd medium.", "These products produce effects similar to, but not the same as those of real Maroger medium, which depends on specific chemical reactions between leaded oil, mastic resin, and turpentine (the mastic varnish vehicle)." ], [ "Home and Studio", "The white gingerbread cottage that was Maroger's home in Baltimore is found on the east campus of Loyola College in Maryland and is used for drawing and painting courses.", "The building, created in the style of a Parisian studio, is aptly called the Maroger Art Studio." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters'' by Jacques Maroger * ''How to Paint Like the Old Masters'' by Joseph Sheppard * ''The Master Keys: A Painter's Treatise on the Pictorial Technique of Oil Painting'' by Franklin H. Redelius * The Schuler School of Fine Arts, Baltimore, MD, USA http://www.schulerschool.com/* Joan Brady Studios, Annapolis, MD, USA Source for authentic Maroger Medium, Black Oil, and Mastic Varnish https://web.archive.org/web/20140320024810/http://bradystudios.net/" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Greenberg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Harold Greenberg''' (May 28, 1915 – May 7, 2001) was an American linguist, known mainly for his work concerning linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages." ], [ "Life", "===Early life and education===Joseph Greenberg was born on May 28, 1915, to Jewish parents in Brooklyn, New York.", "His first great interest was music.", "At the age of 14, he gave a piano concert in Steinway Hall.", "He continued to play the piano frequently throughout his life.After graduating from James Madison High School, he decided to pursue a scholarly career rather than a musical one.", "He enrolled at Columbia College in New York in 1932.During his senior year, he attended a class taught by Franz Boas concerning American Indian languages.", "He graduated in 1936 with a bachelor's degree.", "With references from Boas and Ruth Benedict, he was accepted as a graduate student by Melville J. Herskovits at Northwestern University in Chicago and graduated in 1940 with a doctorate degree.", "During the course of his graduate studies, Greenberg did fieldwork among the Hausa people of Nigeria, where he learned the Hausa language.", "The subject of his doctoral dissertation was the influence of Islam on a Hausa group that, unlike most others, had not converted to it.During 1940, he began postdoctoral studies at Yale University.", "These were interrupted by service in the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War II, for which he worked as a codebreaker in North Africa and participated with the landing at Casablanca.", "He then served in Italy until the end of the war.Before leaving for Europe during 1943, Greenberg married Selma Berkowitz, whom he had met during his first year at Columbia University.===Career===After the war, Greenberg taught at the University of Minnesota before returning to Columbia University in 1948 as a teacher of anthropology.", "While in New York, he became acquainted with Roman Jakobson and André Martinet.", "They introduced him to the Prague school of structuralism, which influenced his work.In 1962, Greenberg relocated to the anthropology department at Stanford University in California, where he continued working for the rest of his life.", "In 1965 Greenberg served as president of the African Studies Association.", "That same year, he was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences.", "He was later elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1973) and the American Philosophical Society (1975).", "In 1996 he received the highest award for a scholar in Linguistics, the Gold Medal of Philology." ], [ "Contributions to linguistics", "=== Linguistic typology===Greenberg is considered the founder of modern linguistic typology, a field that he has revitalized with his publications in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Greenberg's reputation rests partly on his contributions to synchronic linguistics and the quest to identify linguistic universals.", "During the late 1950s, Greenberg began to examine languages covering a wide geographic and genetic distribution.", "He located a number of interesting potential universals as well as many strong cross-linguistic tendencies.In particular, Greenberg conceptualized the idea of \"implicational universal\", which has the form, \"if a language has structure X, then it must also have structure Y.\"", "For example, X might be \"mid front rounded vowels\" and Y \"high front rounded vowels\" (for terminology see phonetics).", "Many scholars adopted this kind of research following Greenberg's example and it remains important in synchronic linguistics.Like Noam Chomsky, Greenberg sought to discover the universal structures on which human language is based.", "Unlike Chomsky, Greenberg's method was functionalist, rather than formalist.", "An argument to reconcile the Greenbergian and Chomskyan methods can be found in ''Linguistic Universals'' (2006), edited by Ricardo Mairal and Juana Gil.Many who are strongly opposed to Greenberg's methods of language classification (see below) acknowledge the importance of his typological work.", "In 1963 he published an article : \"Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements\".===Mass comparison===Greenberg rejected the opinion, prevalent among linguists since the mid-20th century, that comparative reconstruction was the only method to discover relationships between languages.", "He argued that genetic classification is methodologically prior to comparative reconstruction, or the first stage of it: one cannot engage in the comparative reconstruction of languages until one knows which languages to compare (1957:44).He also criticized the prevalent opinion that comprehensive comparisons of two languages at a time (which commonly take years to perform) could establish language families of any size.", "He argued that, even for 8 languages, there are already 4,140 ways to classify them into distinct families, while for 25 languages there are 4,638,590,332,229,999,353 ways (1957:44).", "For comparison, the Niger–Congo family is said to have some 1,500 languages.", "He thought language families of any size needed to be established by some scholastic means other than bilateral comparison.", "The theory of mass comparison is an attempt to demonstrate such means.Greenberg argued for the virtues of breadth over depth.", "He advocated restricting the amount of material to be compared (to basic vocabulary, morphology, and known paths of sound change) and increasing the number of languages to be compared to all the languages in a given area.", "This would make it possible to compare numerous languages reliably.", "At the same time, the process would provide a check on accidental resemblances through the sheer number of languages under review.", "The mathematical probability that resemblances are accidental decreases strongly with the number of languages concerned (1957:39).Greenberg used the premise that mass \"borrowing\" of basic vocabulary is unknown.", "He argued that borrowing, when it occurs, is concentrated in cultural vocabulary and clusters \"in certain semantic areas\", making it easy to detect (1957:39).", "With the goal of determining broad patterns of relationship, the idea was not to get every word right but to detect patterns.", "From the beginning with his theory of mass comparison, Greenberg addressed why chance resemblance and borrowing were not obstacles to its being useful.", "Despite that, critics consider those phenomena caused difficulties for his theory.Greenberg first termed his method \"mass comparison\" in an article of 1954 (reprinted in Greenberg 1955).", "As of 1987, he replaced the term \"mass comparison\" with \"multilateral comparison\", to emphasize its contrast with the bilateral comparisons recommended by linguistics textbooks.", "He believed that multilateral comparison was not in any way opposed to the comparative method, but is, on the contrary, its necessary first step (Greenberg, 1957:44).", "According to him, comparative reconstruction should have the status of an explanatory theory for facts already established by language classification (Greenberg, 1957:45).Most historical linguists (Campbell 2001:45) reject the use of mass comparison as a method for establishing genealogical relationships between languages.", "Among the most outspoken critics of mass comparison have been Lyle Campbell, Donald Ringe, William Poser, and the late R. Larry Trask.===Genetic classification of languages=======Languages of Africa====Greenberg is known widely for his development of a classification system for the languages of Africa, which he published as a series of articles in the ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' from 1949 to 1954 (reprinted together as a book, ''The Languages of Africa'', in 1955).", "He revised the book and published it again during 1963, followed by a nearly identical edition of 1966 (reprinted without change during 1970).", "A few more changes of the classification were made by Greenberg in an article during 1981.Greenberg grouped the hundreds of African languages into four families, which he dubbed Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger–Congo, and Khoisan.", "During the course of his work, Greenberg invented the term \"Afroasiatic\" to replace the earlier term \"Hamito-Semitic\", after showing that the Hamitic group, accepted widely since the 19th century, is not a valid language family.", "Another major feature of his work was to establish the classification of the Bantu languages, which occupy much of Central and Southern Africa, as a part of the Niger–Congo family, rather than as an independent family as many Bantuists had maintained.Greenberg's classification rested largely in evaluating competing earlier classifications.", "For a time, his classification was considered bold and speculative, especially the proposal of a Nilo-Saharan language family.", "Now, apart from Khoisan, it is generally accepted by African specialists and has been used as a basis for further work by other scholars.Greenberg's work on African languages has been criticised by Lyle Campbell and Donald Ringe, who do not believe that his classification is justified by his data and request a re-examination of his macro-phyla by \"reliable methods\" (Ringe 1993:104).", "Harold Fleming and Lionel Bender, who were sympathetic to Greenberg's classification, acknowledged that at least some of his macrofamilies (particularly the Nilo-Saharan and the Khoisan macrofamilies) are not accepted completely by most linguists and may need to be divided (Campbell 1997).", "Their objection was methodological: if mass comparison is not a valid method, it cannot be expected to have brought order successfully out of the confusion of African languages.By contrast, some linguists have sought to combine Greenberg's four African families into larger units.", "In particular, Edgar Gregersen (1972) proposed joining Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan into a larger family, which he termed Kongo-Saharan.", "Roger Blench (1995) suggests Niger–Congo is a subfamily of Nilo-Saharan.====The languages of New Guinea, Tasmania, and the Andaman Islands====During 1971 Greenberg proposed the Indo-Pacific macrofamily, which groups together the Papuan languages (a large number of language families of New Guinea and nearby islands) with the native languages of the Andaman Islands and Tasmania but excludes the Australian Aboriginal languages.", "Its principal feature was to reduce the manifold language families of New Guinea to a single genetic unit.", "This excludes the Austronesian languages, which have been established as associated with a more recent migration of people.Greenberg's subgrouping of these languages has not been accepted by the few specialists who have worked on the classification of these languages.", "However, the work of Stephen Wurm (1982) and Malcolm Ross (2005) has provided considerable evidence for his once-radical idea that these languages form a single genetic unit.", "Wurm stated that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese and the West Papuan and Timor–Alor families \"are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity ... in a number of instances.\"", "He believes this to be due to a linguistic substratum.====The languages of the Americas====Most linguists concerned with the native languages of the Americas classify them into 150 to 180 independent language families.", "Some believe that two language families, Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dené, were distinct, perhaps the results of later migrations into the New World.Early on, Greenberg (1957:41, 1960) became convinced that many of the language groups considered unrelated could be classified into larger groupings.", "In his 1987 book ''Language in the Americas'', while agreeing that the Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dené groupings as distinct, he proposed that all the other Native American languages belong to a single language macro-family, which he termed Amerind.", "''Language in the Americas'' has generated lively debate, but has been criticized strongly; it is rejected by most specialists of indigenous languages of the Americas and also by most historical linguists.", "Specialists of the individual language families have found extensive inaccuracies and errors in Greenberg's data, such as including data from non-existent languages, erroneous transcriptions of the forms compared, misinterpretations of the meanings of words used for comparison, and entirely spurious forms.Historical linguists also reject the validity of the method of multilateral (or mass) comparison upon which the classification is based.", "They argue that he has not provided a convincing case that the similarities presented as evidence are due to inheritance from an earlier common ancestor rather than being explained by a combination of errors, accidental similarity, excessive semantic latitude in comparisons, borrowings, onomatopoeia, etc.However, Harvard geneticist David Reich notes that recent genetic studies have identified patterns that support Greenberg's Amerind classification: the \"First American” category.", "\"The cluster of populations that he predicted to be most closely related based on language were in fact verified by the genetic patterns in populations for which data are available.” Nevertheless, this category of \"First American\" people also interbred with and contributed a significant amount of genes to the ancestors of both Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dené populations, with 60% and 90% \"First American\" DNA respectively constituting the genetic makeup of the two groups.==== The languages of northern Eurasia ====Later in his life, Greenberg proposed that nearly all of the language families of northern Eurasia belong to a single higher-order family, which he termed Eurasiatic.", "The only exception was Yeniseian, which has been related to a wider Dené–Caucasian grouping, also including Sino-Tibetan.", "During 2008 Edward Vajda related Yeniseian to the Na-Dené languages of North America as a Dené–Yeniseian family.The Eurasiatic grouping resembles the older Nostratic groupings of Holger Pedersen and Vladislav Illich-Svitych by including Indo-European, Uralic, and Altaic.", "It differs by including Nivkh, Japonic, Korean, and Ainu (which the Nostraticists had excluded from comparison because they are single languages rather than language families) and in excluding Afroasiatic.", "At about this time, Russian Nostraticists, notably Sergei Starostin, constructed a revised version of Nostratic.", "It was slightly larger than Greenberg's grouping but it also excluded Afroasiatic.Recently, a consensus has been emerging among proponents of the Nostratic hypothesis.", "Greenberg basically agreed with the Nostratic concept, though he stressed a deep internal division between its northern 'tier' (his Eurasiatic) and a southern 'tier' (principally Afroasiatic and Dravidian).The American Nostraticist Allan Bomhard considers Eurasiatic a branch of Nostratic, alongside other branches: Afroasiatic, Elamo-Dravidian, and Kartvelian.", "Similarly, Georgiy Starostin (2002) arrives at a tripartite overall grouping: he considers Afroasiatic, Nostratic and Elamite to be roughly equidistant and more closely related to each other than to any other language family.", "Sergei Starostin's school has now included Afroasiatic in a broadly defined Nostratic.", "They reserve the term Eurasiatic to designate the narrower subgrouping, which comprises the rest of the macrofamily.", "Recent proposals thus differ mainly on the precise inclusion of Dravidian and Kartvelian.Greenberg continued to work on this project after he was diagnosed with incurable pancreatic cancer and until he died during May 2001.His colleague and former student Merritt Ruhlen ensured the publication of the final volume of his Eurasiatic work (2002) after his death." ], [ "Selected works by Joseph H. Greenberg", "===Books===* (Photo-offset reprint of the ''SJA'' articles with minor corrections.", ")** (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.From the same publisher: second, revised edition, 1966; third edition, 1970.All three editions simultaneously published at The Hague by Mouton & Co.)* (Reprinted 1980 and, with a foreword by Martin Haspelmath, 2005.", ")****===Books (editor)=== (Second edition 1966.", ")===Articles, reviews, etc.===*********** (Reprinted in ''Genetic Linguistics'', 2005.", ") (In second edition of ''Universals of Language'', 1966: pp. 73–113.", ")* (Reprinted in ''Genetic Linguistics'', 2005.", ")******* " ], [ "Bibliography", "Blench, Roger.", "1995.", "\"Is Niger–Congo simply a branch of Nilo-Saharan?\"", "In ''Fifth Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium, Nice, 24–29 August 1992: Proceedings'', edited by Robert Nicolaï and Franz Rottland.", "Cologne: Köppe Verlag, pp. 36–49.", "*Campbell, Lyle.", "1997.", "''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America.''", "New York: Oxford University Press.", ".", "Campbell, Lyle.", "2001.", "\"Beyond the comparative method.\"", "In ''Historical Linguistics 2001: Selected Papers from the 15th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Melbourne, 13–17 August 2001'', edited by Barry J. Blake, Kate Burridge, and Jo Taylor.", "Diamond, Jared.", "1997.", "''Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies.''", "New York: Norton.", ".", "Mairal, Ricardo and Juana Gil.", "2006.", "''Linguistic Universals.''", "Cambridge–NY: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "Ross, Malcolm.", "2005.", "\"Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages.\"", "In ''Papuan Pasts: Cultural, Linguistic and Biological Histories of Papuan-speaking Peoples'', edited by Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide, and Jack Golson.", "Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, pp. 15–66.", "Wurm, Stephen A.", "1982.", "''The Papuan Languages of Oceania.''", "Tübingen: Gunter Narr." ], [ "See also", "Linguistic universalMoscow School of Comparative LinguisticsMonogenesis (linguistics)Nostratic languages" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Joseph Greenberg at work; a portrait of himself* \"What we all spoke when the world was young\" by Nicholas Wade, ''New York Times'' (February 1, 2000)* Memorial Resolution* \"Complete bibliography of the publications of Joseph H. Greenberg\" by William Croft (2003)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jan van Goyen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jan Josephszoon van Goyen''' (; 13 January 1596 – 27 April 1656) was a Dutch landscape painter.", "The scope of his landscape subjects was very broad as he painted forest landscapes, marine paintings, river landscapes, beach scenes, winter landscapes, cityscapes, architectural views and landscapes with peasants.", "The list of painters he influenced is much longer.", "He was an extremely prolific artist who left approximately twelve hundred paintings and more than one thousand drawings." ], [ "Biography", "Jan van Goyen was the son of a shoemaker and started as an apprentice in Leiden, the town of his birth.", "Like many Dutch painters of his time, he studied art in the town of Haarlem with Esaias van de Velde.", "At age 35, he established a permanent studio at The Hague (Den Haag).", "Crenshaw tells (and mentions the sources) that van Goyen's landscape paintings rarely fetched high prices, but he made up for the modest value of individual pieces by increasing his production, painting thinly and quickly with a limited palette of inexpensive pigments.", "Despite his market innovations, he always sought more income, not only through related work as an art dealer and auctioneer but also by speculating in tulips (he was the last known victim of the tulip mania of the 1630s) and real estate.", "Although the latter was usually a safe avenue of investing money, in van Goyen's experience it led to enormous debts.", "Paulus Potter rented one of his houses.", "Though he seems to have kept a workshop, his only registered pupils were Nicolaes van Berchem, Jan Steen, and Adriaen van der Kabel.", "The list of painters he influenced is much longer.In 1652 and 1654, he was forced to sell his collection of paintings and graphic art, and he subsequently moved to a smaller house.", "He died in 1656 in The Hague, still unbelievably 18,000 guilders in debt, forcing his widow to sell their remaining furniture and paintings.", "Van Goyen's troubles also may have affected the early business prospects of his student and son-in-law Jan Steen, who left The Hague in 1654." ], [ "Dutch painting", "''An Evening River Landscape with a Ferry'' (1643)Typically, a Dutch painter of the 17th century will fall into one of four categories: a painter of portraits, landscapes, still-lifes, or genre painting.", "Dutch painting was highly specialized and rarely could an artist hope to achieve greatness in more than one area in a lifetime of painting.", "Jan van Goyen would be classified primarily as a landscape artist with an eye for the genre subjects of everyday life.", "He painted many of the canals in and around The Hague as well as the villages surrounding the countryside of Delft, Rotterdam, Leiden, and Gouda.", "Other popular Dutch landscape painters of the sixteenth and seventeenth century wereJacob van Ruisdael, Aelbert Cuyp, Hendrick Avercamp, Ludolf Backhuysen, Meindert Hobbema, Aert van der Neer." ], [ "Van Goyen's technique", "''Wageningen'' (1650), oil on paper, 24.6 x 39.9 cm., Museum der bildenden KünsteJan van Goyen would begin a painting using a support primarily of thin oak wood.", "To this panel, he would scrub on several layers of a thin animal hide glue.", "With a blade, he would then scrape over the entire surface a thin layer of tinted white lead to act as a ground and to fill the low areas of the panel.", "The ground was tinted light brown, sometimes reddish, or ochre in colour.Next, van Goyen would loosely and very rapidly sketch out the scene to be painted with pen and ink without going into the small details of his subject.", "This walnut ink drawing can be clearly seen in some of the thinly painted areas of his work.", "For a guide, he would have turned to a detailed drawing.", "The scene would have been drawn from life outdoors and then kept in the studio as reference material.", "Drawings by artists of the time were rarely works of art in their own right as they are viewed today.On his palette he would grind out a colour collection of neutral grays, umbers, ochre and earthen greens that looked like they were pulled from the very soil he painted.", "A varnish oil medium was used as vehicle to grind his powdered pigments into paint and then used to help apply thin layers of paint which he could easily blend.", "''River Landscape with Windmill and Ruined Castle'' (1644), oil on canvas, 97 x 133.5 cm., LouvreThe dark areas of the painting were kept very thin and transparent with generous amounts of the oil medium.", "The light striking the painting in these sections would be lost and absorbed into the painting ground.", "The lighter areas of the picture were treated heavier and opaque with a generous amount of white lead mixed into the paint.", "Light falling on the painting in a light section is reflected back at the viewer.", "The effect is a startling realism and three-dimensional quality.", "The surface of a finished painting resembles a fluid supple mousse, masterfully whipped and modeled with the brush.According to the art historian H. U. Beck, \"In his freely composed seascapes of the 1650s he reached the apex of his creative work, producing paintings of striking perfection.", "\"Some of Van Goyen's Works can be seen at the Thyssen Bornemisza Museum in Madrid, one from the public collection (''Winter landscape with figures on ice'', 1643) and others from the Carmen Thyssen Collection also shown there (''River Landscape with Ferry boat and Cottages'', 1634)." ], [ "Legacy", "Jan van Goyen was famously influential on the landscape painters of his century.", "His tonal quality was a feature that many imitated.", "According to the Netherlands Institute for Art History, he influenced Cornelis de Bie, Jan Coelenbier, Cornelis van Noorde, Abraham Susenier, Herman Saftleven, Pieter Jansz van Asch, and Abraham van Beijeren.Van Goyen is mentioned by his fellow countryman Vincent van Gogh in Vincent's second letter from the asylum: \"Through the iron-barred window I can make out a square of wheat in an enclosure, a perspective in the manner of Van Goyen, above which in the morning I see the sun rise in its glory.\"" ], [ "Gallery", ">File:Leipzig, Museum der bildenden Künste, Jan van Goyen, Bauerngehöft.JPG\|''Farmhouse'' (1628), oil on panel, 27.5 x 37.5 cm., Museum der bildenden KünsteFile:Goyen 1633 Peasant Huts with a Sweep Well.jpg\|''Peasant Huts with a Sweep Well'' (1633), oil on panel, 55 x 80 cm., Gemäldegalerie Alte MeisterFile:Goyen 1636 Village at the River.jpg\|''Village at the River'' (1636), oil on panel, 39,5 x 60 cm., Alte PinakothekFile:Zeil- en roeiboten in een riviermonding Rijksmuseum Amsterdam SK-C-1780.png\|''Sailing and Row boats in an Estuary'' (1640), oil on panel, 77 x 116 cm., Museum De LakenhalFile:Landskapsmålning, 1600-tal, van Goyen - Hallwylska museet - 21748 (cropped).tif\|''Landscape with a Rainbow'' (no date), oil on canvas, 124.5 x 154.5 cm., Hallwyl MuseumFile:Jan van Goyen - Landscape with Two Oaks - WGA10186.jpg\|''Landscape with Two Oaks'' (1641), oil on canvas, 88.5 x 110.5 cm., RijksmuseumFile:Goyen 1641 The Thunderstorm.jpg\|''The Thunderstorm'' (1641), oil on canvas, 137.8 x 183.2 cm., Fine Arts Museums of San FranciscoFile:Goyen 1642 A Windmill by a River.jpg\|''A Windmill by a River'' (1642), oil on panel, 29,4 x 36,3 cm., National GalleryFile:Jan van Goyen (1596-1656) - A River Scene - NG 1013 - National Galleries of Scotland.jpg\|''A River Scene'' (1646), oil on panel, 42.6 x 56.5 cm., National Galleries of ScotlandFile:Ice Scene near a Wooden Observation Tower A25869.jpg\|''Ice Scene near a Wooden Observation Tower'' (1646), oil on panel, 36.5 × 34.3 cm., National Gallery of ArtFile:Jan Josephsz.", "van Goyen - Panorama Landscape with a View of Arnheim - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Panorama Landscape with a View of Arnhem'' (1646), oil on canvas, 98.5 x 135 cm., Museum KunstpalastFile:A View of The Hague from the Northwest MET DP147601.jpg\|''View of The Hague from the Northwest'' (1647), oil on panel, 66 x 96.2 cm., Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Jan van Goyen - River Landscape with Peasants in a Ferryboat, 1648 SC232133.jpg\|''River Landscape with Boats and Cottages on the Bank'' (1648), oil on panel, 54 x 73.7 cm., Museum of Fine Arts, BostonFile:River Scene by Jan van Goyen.jpeg\|''River Landscape'' (1652), oil on panel, 66.7 x 98 cm., Wallraf–Richartz MuseumFile:An van Goyen (1596–1656)- A Stormy Seascape - Myrskyinen merimaisema - Stormigt hav (29178839560).jpg\|''A Stormy Seascape'' (1655), oil on canvas, 110 × 159 cm., Sinebrychoff Art MuseumFile:Jan Josephsz.", "van Goyen - River Landscape with a Ferry and a Church - 07.502 - Museum of Fine Arts.jpg\|''River Landscape with a Ferry and a Church'' (ca.", "1656), oil on panel, 47.3 x 66.7 cm., Museum of Fine Arts, Boston" ], [ "Sources" ], [ "External links", "** View of Dordrecht 1644* Vermeer and The Delft School, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which has material on Jan van Goyen* Five artworks by Jan van Goyen, at the online collection of Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen.", "* Dutch and Flemish paintings from the Hermitage, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Jan van Goyen (cat.", "no.", "10)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Justin Martyr" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Justin Martyr''' (; ), also known as '''Justin the Philosopher''', was an early Christian apologist and philosopher.Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and a dialogue did survive.", "The ''First Apology'', his most well-known text, passionately defends the morality of the Christian life, and provides various ethical and philosophical arguments to convince the Roman emperor, Antoninus, to abandon the persecution of the Church.", "Further, he also indicates, as St. Augustine would later, regarding the \"true religion\" that predated Christianity, that the \"seeds of Christianity\" (manifestations of the Logos acting in history) actually predated Christ's incarnation.", "This notion allows him to claim many historical Greek philosophers (including Socrates and Plato), in whose works he was well studied, as unknowing Christians.Justin was martyred, along with some of his students, and is venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, Lutheran Churches, and in Anglicanism." ], [ "Life", "A bearded Justin Martyr presenting an open book to a Roman emperor.", "Engraving by Jacques Callot.Justin Martyr was born around AD 90-100, into a Greek family, at Flavia Neapolis (today Nablus) near the ancient biblical city of Shechem, in Samaria, Palestine.", "He knew little or no Hebrew and Aramaic, and had only a passing acquaintance with Judaism.", "His family may have been pagan, since he was uncircumcised, and defined himself as a Gentile.", "His grandfather, Bacchius, had a Greek name, while his father, Priscus, bore a Latin name, which has led to speculations that his ancestors may have settled in Neapolis soon after its establishment or that they were descended from a Roman \"diplomatic\" community that had been sent there.In the opening of the ''Dialogue'', Justin describes his early education, stating that his initial studies left him unsatisfied due to their failure to provide a belief system that would afford theological and metaphysical inspiration to their young pupil.", "He says he tried first the school of a Stoic philosopher, who was unable to explain God's being to him.", "He then attended a Peripatetic philosopher but was put off because the philosopher was too eager for his fee.", "Then he went to hear a Pythagorean philosopher who demanded that he first learn music, astronomy, and geometry, which he did not wish to do.", "Subsequently, he adopted Platonism after encountering a Platonist thinker who had recently settled in his city.", "Some time afterwards, he chanced upon an old man, possibly a Syrian Christian, in the vicinity of the seashore, who engaged him in a dialogue about God and spoke of the testimony of the prophets as being more reliable than the reasoning of philosophers.Moved by the aged man's argument, Justin renounced both his former religious faith and his philosophical background, choosing instead to re-dedicate his life to the service of the Divine.", "His newfound convictions were only bolstered by the ascetic lives of the early Christians and the heroic example of the martyrs, whose piety convinced him of the moral and spiritual superiority of Christian doctrine.", "As a result, he thenceforth decided that the only option for him was to travel throughout the land, spreading the knowledge of Christianity as the \"true philosophy.\"", "His conversion is commonly assumed to have taken place at Ephesus though it may have occurred anywhere on the road from Syria Palestina to Rome.Mosaic of the beheading of Justin MartyrHe then adopted the dress of a philosopher himself and traveled about teaching.", "During the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161), he arrived in Rome and started his own school.", "Tatian was one of his pupils.", "In the reign of Marcus Aurelius, after disputing with the cynic philosopher Crescens, he was denounced by the latter to the authorities, according to Tatian (Address to the Greeks 19) and Eusebius (HE IV 16.7–8).", "Justin was tried, together with six friends (two of them slaves educated by him; Euelpistus and Hierax), by the urban prefect Junius Rusticus, and was beheaded.", "Though the precise year of his death is uncertain, it can reasonably be dated by the prefectoral term of Rusticus (who governed from 162 and 168).", "The martyrdom of Justin preserves the court record of the trial." ], [ "Relics", "The church of St. John the Baptist in Sacrofano, a few miles north of Rome, claims to have his relics.The Church of the Jesuits in Valletta, Malta, founded by papal decree in 1592 also boasts relics of this second century Saint.A case is also made that the relics of St. Justin are buried in Annapolis, Maryland.", "During a period of unrest in Italy, a noble family in possession of his remains sent them in 1873 to a priest in Baltimore for safekeeping.", "They were displayed in St. Mary's Church for a period of time before they were again locked away for safekeeping.", "The remains were rediscovered and given a proper burial at St. Mary's, with Vatican approval, in 1989.It is now asserted that the bones were of St. Justin of the third century who was martyred during the persecution of Maximus.Relics of St. Justin and other early Church martyrs can be found in the lateral altar dedicated to St. Anne and St. Joachim at the Jesuit's Church in Valletta, Malta." ], [ "Veneration", "In 1882 Pope Leo XIII had a Mass and an Office composed for his feast day, which he set at 14 April, one day after the date of his death as indicated in the Martyrology of Florus; but since this date quite often falls within the main Paschal celebrations, the feast was moved in 1968 to 1 June, the date on which he has been celebrated in the Byzantine Rite since at least the 9th century.Justin is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 1 June." ], [ "Writings", "''Iustini Philosophi et martyris Opera'' (1636)The earliest mention of Justin is found in the ''Oratio ad Graecos'' by his student Tatian who, after calling him \"the most admirable Justin\", quotes a saying of his and says that the Cynic Crescens laid snares for him.", "Irenaeus speaks of Justin's martyrdom and of Tatian as his disciple.", "Irenaeus quotes Justin twice and shows his influence in other places.", "Tertullian, in his ''Adversus Valentinianos'', calls Justin a philosopher and a martyr and the earliest antagonist of heretics.", "Hippolytus and Methodius of Olympus also mention or quote him.", "Eusebius of Caesarea deals with him at some length, and names the following works:# The ''First Apology'' addressed to Antoninus Pius, his sons, and the Roman Senate;# A ''Second Apology of Justin Martyr'' addressed to the Roman Senate;# The ''Discourse to the Greeks'', a discussion with Greek philosophers on the character of their gods;# An ''Hortatory Address to the Greeks'' (known now not to have been written by Justin);# A treatise ''On the Sovereignty of God'', in which he makes use of pagan authorities as well as Christian;# A work entitled ''The Psalmist'';# A treatise in scholastic form ''On the Soul''; and# The ''Dialogue with Trypho''.Eusebius implies that other works were in circulation; from St Irenaeus he knows of the apology \"Against Marcion,\" and from Justin's \"Apology\" of a \"Refutation of all Heresies\".", "St Epiphanius and St Jerome mention Justin.Rufinus borrows from his Latin original of Hadrian's letter.===Spurious medieval works===After Rufinus, Justin was known mainly from St Irenaeus and Eusebius or from spurious works.", "A considerable number of other works are given as Justin's by Arethas of Caesarea, Photius of Constantinople, and other writers, but this attribution is now generally admitted to be spurious.", "The ''Expositio rectae fidei'' was assigned by Johann Dräseke to Apollinaris of Laodicea, but it is probably a work of as late as the 6th century.", "The ''Cohortatio ad Graecos'' has been attributed to Apollinaris of Laodicea, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, as well as others.", "The ''Epistola ad Zenam et Serenum'', an exhortation to Christian living, is dependent upon Clement of Alexandria, and was assigned by Pierre Batiffol to the Novatian Bishop Sisinnius (c. 400).", "The extant work under the title \"On the Sovereignty of God\" does not correspond with Eusebius' description of it, though Adolf von Harnack regarded it as still possibly Justin's, and at least of the 2nd century.", "The author of the smaller treatise ''To the Greeks'' cannot be Justin, because he is dependent on Tatian; Von Harnack placed it between 180 and 240.===''Parisinus graecus'' 450===After this medieval period in which no authentic works of Justin Martyr were in widespread circulation, a single codex containing the complete works of Justin Martyr was discovered and purchased by Guillaume Pellicier, around 1540 in Venice.", "Pellicier sent it to the Bibliothèque nationale de France where it remains today under the catalog number ''Parisinus graecus'' 450.This codex was completed on 11 September 1364 somewhere in the Byzantine Empire.", "The name of the scribe is unknown, although Manuel Kantakouzenos has been suggested as patron.", "Internal textual evidence shows that multiple older manuscripts were used to create this one, which strongly suggests that it must have originated in a major population center like Mistra, since libraries holding Justin Martyr were already rare by 1364.Other partial medieval manuscripts have been shown to be copies of this one.", "The ''editio princeps'' was published by Robert Estienne in 1551.===''Dialogue with Trypho''===The ''Dialogue'' is a later work than the ''First Apology''; the date of composition of the latter, judging from the fact that it was addressed to Antoninus Pius and his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, must fall between 147 and 161.In the ''Dialogue with Trypho'', after an introductory section, Justin undertakes to show that Christianity is the new law for all men.Justin's dialogue with Trypho is unique in that he provides information on tensions between Jewish and Gentile believers in Jesus of the second century (Dial.", "47:2–3) and in acknowledging the existence of a range, and a variety, of attitudes toward the beliefs and traditions of the Jewish believers in Jesus.===''On the Resurrection''===The treatise ''On the Resurrection'' exists in extensive fragments that are preserved in the ''Sacra parallela''.", "The fragments begin with the assertion that the truth, and God the author of truth, need no witness, but that as a concession to the weakness of men it is necessary to give arguments to convince those who gainsay it.", "It is then shown, after a denial of unfounded deductions, that the resurrection of the body is neither impossible nor unworthy of God, and that the evidence of prophecy is not lacking for it.", "Another fragment takes up the positive proof of the resurrection, adducing that of Christ and of those whom he recalled to life.", "In yet another fragment the resurrection is shown to be that of what has gone down, i.e., the body; the knowledge concerning it is the new doctrine, in contrast to that of the old philosophers.", "The doctrine follows from the command to keep the body in moral purity.The authenticity of the treatise is not so generally accepted as are Justin's other works.", "Even so, earlier than the ''Sacra parallela'', it is referred to by Procopius of Gaza (c. 465–528).", "Methodius appeals to Justin in support of his interpretation of 1 Corinthians 15:50 in a way that makes it natural to assume the existence of a treatise on the subject, to say nothing of other traces of a connection in thought both here in Irenaeus (V., ii.-xiii.", "5) and in Tertullian, where it is too close to be anything but a conscious following of the Greek.", "The ''Against Marcion'' is lost, as is the ''Refutation of all Heresies'' to which Justin himself refers in ''Apology'', i.", "26; Hegesippus, besides perhaps Irenaeus and Tertullian, seems to have used it." ], [ "Role within the Church", "Flacius discovered \"blemishes\" in Justin's theology, which he attributed to the influence of pagan philosophers; and in modern times Semler and S.G. Lange have made him out a thorough Hellene, while Semisch and Otto defend him from this charge.In opposition to the school of Ferdinand Christian Baur, who considered him a Jewish Christian, Albrecht Ritschl has argued that it was precisely because he was a Gentile Christian that he did not fully understand the Old Testament foundation of Paul's teaching, and explained in this way the modified character of his Paulinism and his legal mode of thought.Engelhardt has attempted to extend this line of treatment to Justin's entire theology, and to show that his conceptions of God, of free will and righteousness, of redemption, grace, and merit prove the influence of the cultivated Greek pagan world of the 2nd century, dominated by the Platonic and Stoic philosophy.", "But he admits that Justin is a Christian in his unquestioning adherence to the Church and its faith, his unqualified recognition of the Old Testament, and his faith in Christ as the Son of God the Creator, made manifest in the flesh, crucified, and risen, through which belief he succeeds in getting away from the dualism of both pagan and Gnostic philosophy.Justin was confident that his teaching was that of the Church at large.", "He knows of a division among the orthodox only on the question of the millennium and on the attitude toward the milder Jewish Christianity, which he personally is willing to tolerate as long as its professors in their turn do not interfere with the liberty of the Gentile converts; his millenarianism seems to have no connection with Judaism, but he believes firmly in a millennium, and generally in the Christian eschatology.Opposition to Judaism was common among church leaders in his day; however, Justin Martyr was hostile towards Jewry and regarded Jews as an accursed people.", "His anti-Judaic polemics have been cited as an origin of Christian antisemitism.", "However his views elaborated in the ''Dialogue with Trypho'' were tame compared to those of John Chrysostom and others." ], [ "Christology", "Justin, like others, thought that the Greek philosophers had derived, if not borrowed, the most essential elements of truth found in their teaching from the Old Testament.", "But at the same time he adopted the Stoic doctrine of the \"seminal word,\" and so philosophy was to him an operation of the Word—in fact, through his identification of the Word with Christ, it was brought into immediate connection with him.Thus he does not hesitate to declare that Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians (''Apol.", "'', i.", "46, ii.", "10).", "His aim was to emphasize the absolute significance of Christ, so that all that ever existed of virtue and truth may be referred to him.", "The old philosophers and law-givers had only a part of the Logos, while the whole appears in Christ.While the gentile peoples, seduced by devils, had deserted the true God for idols, the Jews and Samaritans possessed the revelation given through the prophets and awaited the Messiah.", "However, the law, while containing commandments intended to promote the true fear of God, had other prescriptions of a purely pedagogic nature, which necessarily ceased when Christ, their end, appeared; of such temporary and merely relative regulations were circumcision, animal sacrifices, the Sabbath, and the laws as to food.", "Through Christ, the abiding law of God has been fully proclaimed.", "In his character, as the teacher of the new doctrine and promulgator of the new law, lies the essential nature of his redeeming work.The idea of an economy of grace, of a restoration of the union with God which had been destroyed by sin, is not foreign to him.", "It is noteworthy that in the \"Dialogue\" he no longer speaks of a \"seed of the Word\" in every man, and in his non-apologetic works the emphasis is laid upon the redeeming acts of the life of Christ rather than upon the demonstration of the reasonableness and moral value of Christianity, though the fragmentary character of the latter works makes it difficult to determine exactly to what extent this is true and how far the teaching of Irenaeus on redemption is derived from him.The 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' notes that scholars have differed on whether Justin's writings on the nature of God were meant to express his firm opinion on points of doctrine, or to speculate on these matters.", "Specific points Justin addressed include that the Logos is \"numerically distinct from the Father\" though \"born of the very substance of the Father,\" and that \"through the Word, God has made everything.\"", "Justin used the metaphor of fire to describe the Logos as spreading like a flame, rather than \"dividing\" the substance of the Father.", "He also defended the Holy Spirit as a member of the Trinity, as well as the virginal birth of Jesus Christ.", "The Encyclopedia states that Justin places the genesis of the Logos as a voluntary act of the Father at the beginning of creation, noting that this is an \"unfortunate\" conflict with later Christian teachings." ], [ "Memoirs of the apostles", "Justin Martyr, in his ''First Apology'' (c. 155) and ''Dialogue with Trypho'' (c. 160), sometimes refers to written sources consisting of narratives of the life of Jesus and quotations of the sayings of Jesus as \"memoirs of the apostles\" (Greek: ἀπομνημονεύματα τῶν ἀποστόλων; transliteration: ''apomnêmoneúmata tôn apostólôn'') and less frequently as gospels (Greek: εὐαγγέλιον; transliteration: ''euangélion'') which, Justin says, were read every Sunday in the church at Rome (''1 Apol''.", "67.3 – \"and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are being read as long as it is allowable\").The designation \"memoirs of the apostles\" occurs twice in Justin's ''First Apology'' (66.3, 67.3–4) and thirteen times in the ''Dialogue'', mostly in his interpretation of Psalm 22, whereas the term \"gospel\" is used only three times, once in ''1 Apol.''", "66.3 and twice in the ''Dialogue''.", "The single passage where Justin uses both terms (''1 Apol.''", "66.3) makes it clear that \"memoirs of the apostles\" and \"gospels\" are equivalent, and the use of the plural indicates Justin's awareness of more than one written gospel.", "(\"The apostles in the memoirs which have come from them, which are also called gospels, have transmitted that the Lord had commanded...\").", "Justin may have preferred the designation \"memoirs of the apostles\" as a contrast to the \"gospel\" of his contemporary Marcion to emphasize the connections between the historical testimony of the gospels and the Old Testament prophecies which Marcion rejected.The origin of Justin's use of the name \"memoirs of the apostles\" as a synonym for the gospels is uncertain.", "Scholar David E. Aune has argued that the gospels were modeled after classical Greco-Roman biographies, and Justin's use of the term ''apomnemoneumata'' to mean all the Synoptic Gospels should be understood as referring to a written biography such as the ''Memorabilia of Xenophon'' because they preserve the authentic teachings of Jesus.", "However, scholar Helmut Koester has pointed out the Latin title \"Memorabilia\" was not applied to Xenophon's work until the Middle Ages, and it is more likely ''apomnemoneumata'' was used to describe the oral transmission of the sayings of Jesus in early Christianity.", "Papias uses a similar term meaning \"remembered\" (''apomnemoneusen'') when describing how Mark accurately recorded the \"recollections of Peter\", and Justin also uses it in reference to Peter in ''Dial.''", "106.3, followed by a quotation found only in the Gospel of Mark (Mk 3:16–17).", "Therefore, according to Koester, it is likely that Justin applied the name \"memoirs of the apostles\" analogously to indicate the trustworthy recollections of the apostles found in the written record of the gospels.Justin expounded on the gospel texts as an accurate recording of the fulfillment of prophecy, which he combined with quotations of the prophets of Israel from the LXX to demonstrate a proof from prophecy of the Christian kerygma.", "The importance which Justin attaches to the words of the prophets, which he regularly quotes with the formula \"it is written\", shows his estimate of the Old Testament Scriptures.", "However, the scriptural authority he attributes to the \"memoirs of the apostles\" is less certain.", "Koester articulates a majority view among scholars that Justin considered the \"memoirs of the apostles\" to be accurate historical records but not inspired writings, whereas scholar Charles E. Hill, though acknowledging the position of mainstream scholarship, contends that Justin regarded the fulfillment quotations of the gospels to be equal in authority." ], [ "Composition", "=== Scriptural sources ======= Gospels ====Justin uses material from the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) in the composition of the ''First Apology'' and the ''Dialogue'', either directly, as in the case of Matthew, or indirectly through the use of a gospel harmony, which may have been composed by Justin or his school.", "However, his use, or even knowledge, of the Gospel of John is uncertain.", "One possible reference to John is a saying that is quoted in the context of a description of Christian baptism (''1 Apol''.", "61.4 – \"Unless you are reborn, you cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven.\").", "However, Koester contends that Justin obtained this saying from a baptismal liturgy rather than a written gospel.", "Justin's possible knowledge of John's gospel may be suggested by verbal similarities to John 3:4 directly after the discussion about the new birth (\"Now, that it is impossible for those who have once been born to enter their mother's womb is manifest to all\").", "Justin also uses language very similar to that of John 1:20 and 1:28.Furthermore, by employing the term \"memoirs of the apostles\" and distinguishing them from the writings of their \"followers\", Justin must have been of the belief that at least two gospels were written by actual apostles.==== Apocalypse ====Justin does not quote from the Book of Revelation directly, yet he clearly refers to it, naming John as its author (''Dial''.", "81.4 \"Moreover also among us a man named John, one of the apostles of Christ, prophesied in a revelation made to him that those who have believed on our Christ will spend a thousand years in Jerusalem; and that hereafter the general and, in short, the eternal resurrection and judgment of all will likewise take place\").", "Scholar Brooke Foss Westcott notes that this reference to the author of the single prophetic book of the New Testament illustrates the distinction Justin made between the role of prophecy and fulfillment quotations from the gospels, as Justin does not mention any of the individual canonical gospels by name.==== Letters ====The apologetic character of Justin's habit of thought appears again in the Acts of his martyrdom, the genuineness of which is attested by internal evidence.=== Testimony sources ===According to scholar Oskar Skarsaune, Justin relies on two main sources for his proofs from prophecy that probably circulated as collections of scriptural testimonies within his Christian school.", "He refers to Justin's primary source for demonstrating scriptural proofs in the ''First Apology'' and parallel passages in the ''Dialogue'' as a \"kerygma source\".", "A second source, which was used only in the ''Dialogue'', may be identical to a lost dialogue attributed to Aristo of Pella on the divine nature of the Messiah, the ''Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus'' (c. 140).", "Justin brings in biblical quotes verbatim from these sources, and he often appears to be paraphrasing his sources very closely, even in his interpretive remarks.Justin occasionally uses the Gospel of Matthew directly as a source for Old Testament prophecies to supplement his testimony sources.", "However, the fulfillment quotations from these sources most often appear to be harmonizations of the gospels of Matthew and Luke.", "Koester suggests that Justin had composed an early harmony along the lines of his pupil Tatian's ''Diatesseron''.", "However, the existence of a harmony independent of a collection of sayings for exposition purposes has been disputed by scholar Arthur Bellinzoni.", "The question of whether the harmonized gospel materials found in Justin's writings came from a preexisting gospel harmony or were assembled as part of an integral process of creating scriptural prooftexts is an ongoing subject of scholarly investigation.==== \"Kerygma source\" ====The following excerpt from ''1 Apol''.", "33:1,4–5 (partial parallel in ''Dial''.", "84) on the annunciation and virgin birth of Jesus shows how Justin used harmonized gospel verses from Matthew and Luke to provide a scriptural proof of the messiahship of Jesus based on fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14.According to Skarsaune, the harmonized gospel narratives of Matthew and Luke were part of a tradition already circulating within Justin's school that expounded on the life and work of Jesus as the Messiah and the apostolic mission.", "Justin then rearranged and expanded these testimonia to create his ''First Apology''.", "The \"kerygma source\" of prooftexts (contained within ''1 Apol''.", "31–53) is believed to have had a Two Parousias Christology, characterized by the belief that Jesus first came in humility, in fulfillment of prophecy, and will return in glory as the Messiah to the Gentiles.", "There are close literary parallels between the Christology of Justin's source and the ''Apocalypse of Peter''.==== ''Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus'' ====The following excerpts from the ''Dialogue with Trypho'' of the baptism (''Dial''.", "88:3,8) and temptation (''Dial''.", "103:5–6) of Jesus, which are believed to have originated from the ''Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus'', illustrate the use of gospel narratives and sayings of Jesus in a testimony source and how Justin has adopted these \"memoirs of the apostles\" for his own purposes.The quotations refer to the fulfillment of a prophecy of Psalm 2:7 found in the Western text-type of Luke 3:22.Justin's mention of the fire on the Jordan without comment suggests that he was relying on an intermediate source for these gospel quotations, and his literal interpretation of a pseudo-etymology of the Hebrew word Satan indicates a dependence on a testimony source with a knowledge of Hebrew, which was probably the ''Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus''.The ''Dialogue'' attributed to Aristo of Pella is believed to have furnished Justin with scriptural prooftexts on the divinity of the Messiah by combining a Wisdom Christology – Christ as the incarnation of preexistent Wisdom – with a Second Adam Christology – the first Adam was conquered by Satan, but this Fall of Man is reversed by Christ as the Second Adam who conquers Satan.", "This is implied in the pseudo-etymology in ''Dial''.", "103:5–6 linking the name of Satan to the \"apostate-serpent\".", "The Christology of the source is close to that of the ''Ascension of Isaiah''.=== Catechetical sources ===Justin quotes many sayings of Jesus in ''1 Apol''.", "15–17 and smaller sayings clusters in ''Dial''.", "17:3–4; 35:3; 51:2–3; and 76:4–7.The sayings are most often harmonizations of Matthew and Luke that appear to be grouped together topically and organized into sayings collections, including material that probably originated from an early Christian catechism.The following example of an ethical teaching On Swearing Oaths in ''1 Apol''.", "16:5 shows a combination of sayings material found in Matthew and the Epistle of James:Do not swear at all (Mt 5:34).", "Let your Yes be Yes and your No be No (Jas 5:12).", "Everything beyond these is from evil (Mt 5:37).The saying \"Let your Yes be Yes and your No be No\" from James 5:12 is interpolated into a sayings complex from Matthew 5:34,37.The text appears in a large number of Patristic quotations and twice in the Clementine Homilies (''Hom''.", "3:55, 19:2).", "Thus, it is likely that Justin was quoting this harmonized text from a catechism.The harmonization of Matthew and Luke is evident in the following quotations of Mt 7:22–23 and Lk 13:26–27, which are used by Justin twice, in ''1 Apol''.", "16:11 and ''Dial''.", "76:5:Many will say to me, 'Lord, Lord, did we not in your name eat and drink and do powerful deeds?'", "And then I shall say to them, 'go away from me, workers of lawlessness'.Many will say to me on that day, 'Lord, Lord, did we not in your name eat and drink and prophecy and drive out demons?'", "And I shall say to them, 'go away from me'.In both cases, Justin is using the same harmonized text of Matthew and Luke, although neither of the quotations includes the entire text of those gospel passages.", "The last phrase, \"workers of lawlessness\", has an exact parallel with 2 Clement 4:5.This harmonized text also appears in a large number of quotations by the Church Fathers.", "''1 Apol''.", "16:11 is part of a larger unit of sayings material in ''1 Apol'' 16:9–13 which combines a warning against being unprepared with a warning against false prophets.", "The entire unit is a carefully composed harmony of parallel texts from Matthew and Luke.", "This unit is part of a larger collection of sayings found in ''1 Apol''.", "15–17 that appear to have originated from a catechism used by Justin's school in Rome, which may have had a wide circulation.", "Justin excerpted and rearranged the catechetical sayings material to create ''Apol''.", "15–17 and parallel passages in the ''Dialogue''.=== Other sources ===Justin includes a tract on Greek mythology in ''1 Apol''.", "54 and ''Dial''.", "69 which asserts that myths about various pagan deities are imitations of the prophecies about Christ in the Old Testament.", "There is also a small tract in ''1 Apol''.", "59–60 on borrowings of the philosophers from Moses, particularly Plato.", "These two tracts may be from the same source, which may have been an early Christian ''Apology''." ], [ "Prophetic exegesis", "Justin's writings constitute a storehouse of early interpretation of the prophetic Scriptures.===Belief in prophecy===The truth of the prophets, he declares, compels assent.", "He considered the Old Testament an inspired guide and counselor.", "He was converted by a Christian philosopher whom he paraphrased as saying::\"There existed, long before this time, certain men more ancient than all those who are esteemed philosophers, both righteous and beloved by God, who spoke by the Divine Spirit, and foretold events which would take place, and which are now taking place.", "They are called prophets.", "These alone both saw and announced the truth to men, neither reverencing nor fearing any man, not influenced by a desire for glory, but speaking those things alone which they saw and which they heard, being filled with the Holy Spirit.", "Their writings are still extant, and he who has read them is very much helped in his knowledge of the beginning and end of things.", ".", ".", "And those events which have happened, and those which are happening, compel you to assent to the utterances made by them.", "\"Then Justin told his own experience::\"Straightway a flame was kindled in my soul; and a love of the prophets, and of those men who are friends of Christ, possessed me; and whilst revolving his words in my mind, I found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable.", "\"===Fulfillment===Justin listed the following events as fulfillments of Bible prophecy:* The prophecies concerning the Messiah, and the particulars of His life.", "* The destruction of Jerusalem.", "* The Gentiles accepting Christianity.", "* Isaiah predicted that Jesus would be born of a virgin.", "* Micah mentions Bethlehem as the place of His birth.", "* Zechariah forecasts His entry into Jerusalem on the foal of an ass (a donkey).===Second Advent and Daniel 7===Justin connected the Second Advent with the climax of the prophecy of Daniel 7.:\"But if so great a power is shown to have followed and to be still following the dispensation of His suffering, how great shall that be which shall follow His glorious advent!", "For He shall come on the clouds as the Son of man, so Daniel foretold, and His angels shall come with Him.", "Then follows Dan.", "7:9–28.", "\"===Antichrist===The second advent Justin placed close upon the heels of the appearance of the \"man of apostasy\", i.e., the Antichrist.===Time, times, and a half===Daniel's \"time, times, and a half\", Justin believed, was nearing its consummation, when the Antichrist would speak his blasphemies against the Most High.===Eucharist===Justin's statements are some of the earliest Christian expressions on the Eucharist.", ":\"And this food is called among us Εὐχαριστία the Eucharist ... For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.\"" ], [ "Editions", "'''Greek texts''':* P.Oxy.5129 (Egyptian Exploration Society, 4th century)Thirlby, S., London, 1722.", " Maran, P., Paris, 1742 (the Benedictine edition, reprinted in Migne, ''Patrologia Graeca'', Vol.", "VI.", "Paris, 1857).", "* Otto, J. C., Jena, 1842 (3d ed., 1876–1881).", "* Krüger, G., Leipzig, 1896 (3d ed., Tübingen, 1915).", "* In ''Die ältesten Apologeten'', ed.", "G.J.", "Goodspeed, (Göttingen, 1914; reprint 1984).", "* ''Iustini Martyris Dialogus cum Tryphone'', ed Miroslav Marcovich (Patristische Texte und Studien 47, Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1997).", "* Minns, Denis, and Paul Parvis.", "''Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies''.", "Edited by Henry Chadwick, Oxford Early Christian Texts.", "Oxford: OUP, 2009.", "(In addition to translating into English has a critical Greek text).", "* Philippe Bobichon (ed.", "), ''Justin Martyr, Dialogue avec Tryphon'', édition critique, introduction, texte grec, traduction, commentaires, appendices, indices, (Coll.", "Paradosis nos.", "47, vol.", "I-II.)", "Editions Universitaires de Fribourg Suisse, (1125 pp.", "), 2003 online'''English translations:'''* Halton, TP and M Slusser, eds, ''Dialogue with Trypho'', trans TB Falls, Selections from the Fathers of the Church, 3, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press)* Minns, Denis, & Paul Parvis.", "''Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies''.", "Edited by Henry Chadwick, Oxford Early Christian Texts.", "Oxford: OUP, 2009.", "'''Georgian translation:'''* \"Sulieri Venakhi\", I, The First and Second Apology of Saint Justin Philosopher and Martyr, translated from Old Greek into Georgian, submitted with preface and comments by a monk Ekvtime Krupitski, Tbilisi Theological Academy, Tsalka, Sameba village, Cross Monastery, \"Sulieri venakhi\" Publishers, Tbilisi, 2022, ISBN 978-9941-9676-1-0* \"Sulieri Venakhi\", II, Saint Justin Martyr's dialogue with Trypho the Jew, translated from Old Greek into Georgian, submitted with preface and comments by a monk Ekvtime Krupitski, Tbilisi Theological Academy, Tsalka, Sameba village, Cross Monastery, \"Sulieri venakhi\" Publishers, Tbilisi, 2019, ISBN 978-9941-8-1570-6" ], [ "Literary references", "''The Rector of Justin'' (1964), perhaps Louis Auchincloss's best-regarded novel, is the tale of a renowned headmaster of a New England prep school—similar to Groton—and how he came to found his institution.", "He chooses the name Justin Martyr for his Episcopal school.", "(\"The school was named for the early martyr and scholar who tried to reconcile the thinking of the Greek philosophers with the doctrines of Christ.", "Not for Prescott the headmaster were the humble fishermen who had their faith and faith alone.\")" ], [ "See also", "Descriptions in antiquity of the execution crossEpistle to DiognetusList of early Christian saintsSaint Justin Martyr, patron saint archive" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Literature", "** Philippe Bobichon, « Comment Justin a-t-il acquis sa connaissance exceptionnelle des exégèses juives (contenus et méthodes) ?", "», ''Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie'', 139, 2007, pp.", "101-126 1* Philippe Bobichon, « Persécutions, calomnies, ‘birkat ha-Minim’, et émissaires juifs de propagande antichrétienne dans le Dialogue avec Tryphon de Justin Martyr », ''Revue des Études Juives'' 162 /3-4 (juillet-décembre 2003), pp.", "403-419.article online* Philippe Bobichon, « Composite Citations and Textual Composition in Justin Martyr » in S. A. Adams and S. M. Ehorn (dir.", "), ''Composite Citations in Antiquity: Volume 1: Jewish, Graeco-Roman, and Early Christian Uses'', Bloomsbury, 2015, pp.", "158-181.text* Philippe Bobichon, \"Justin Martyr : étude stylistique du Dialogue avec Tryphon suivie d’une comparaison avec l’Apologie et le De resurrectione\", ''Recherches augustiniennes et patristiques'' 34 (2005), pp.", "1-61 online********* (a text that has entered the public domain and is available online at New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge).", "Velikov, Yuliyan.", "Knowledge, Reciprocity and Philosophy in the Early Church Fathers.", "Aristides, St. Justin Martyr (and Philosopher) and Athenagoras.", "(2019); ISBN 978-954-337-377-2 (in Bulgarian)" ], [ "External links", " Philippe Bobichon's Greek edition with a French translation and notes.", "Volume I online Volume II online* * * Opera Omnia ex Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes* EarlyChurch.org.uk* Martyr Justin the Philosopher and those with him at Rome Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion for 1 June" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Tetzel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Tetzel''' (c. 1465 – 11 August 1519) was a German Dominican friar and preacher.", "He was appointed Inquisitor for Poland and Saxony, later becoming the Grand Commissioner for indulgences in Germany.", "Tetzel was known for granting indulgences on behalf of the Catholic Church in exchange for money.", "Indulgences grant a remission of temporal punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has been forgiven.", "This largely contributed to Martin Luther writing his Ninety-five Theses.", "The main usage of the indulgences sold by Tetzel was to help fund and build the new St. Peter's Basilica in Rome." ], [ "Life", "Tetzel was born in Pirna, Saxony, and studied theology and philosophy at Leipzig University.", "He entered the Dominican order in 1489, achieved some success as a preacher, and was in 1502 commissioned by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, later Pope Leo X, to preach the Jubilee indulgence, which he did throughout his life.", "In 1509 he was made an inquisitor of Poland and, in January 1517 was made commissioner of indulgences for Archbishop Albrecht von Brandenburg in the dioceses of Magdeburg and Halberstadt.He acquired the degree of Licentiate of Sacred Theology in the University of Frankfurt an der Oder in 1517, and then of Doctor of Sacred Theology in 1518, by defending in two disputations, the doctrine of indulgences against Martin Luther.", "The accusation that he had sold full forgiveness for sins not yet committed caused a great scandal.", "It was believed that all of the money that Tetzel raised was for the ongoing reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica, although half the money went to the Archbishop of Mainz, Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (under whose authority Tetzel was operating), to pay off the debts incurred in securing Albert's appointment to the archbishopric.", "Luther began to preach openly against him and was inspired to write his famous ''Ninety-five Theses'' in part due to Tetzel's actions, in which he states,Tetzel was also condemned (though later pardoned) for immorality.", "When he discovered that Karl von Miltitz had accused him of perpetrating numerous frauds and embezzlements, he withdrew, broken in spirit, wrecked in health, into the Dominican monastery in Leipzig.", "Miltitz was later discredited to the point where his claims carry no historical weight.Tetzel died in Leipzig in 1519.At the time of his death, Tetzel had fallen into disrepute and was shunned by the public.When Luther heard that Tetzel was mortally ill and on his deathbed, he wrote to comfort him and bade him \"not to be troubled, for the matter did not begin on his account, but the child had quite a different father.", "\"After his death, he was given an honorable burial and interred before the high altar of the Dominican Church in Leipzig." ], [ "Doctrinal positions", "St. Nikolai church in JüterbogTetzel overstated Catholic doctrine in regard to indulgences for the dead.", "He became known for a couplet attributed to him: As soon as the gold in the casket ringsThe rescued soul to heaven springsThis oft-quoted saying was by no means representative of the official Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather, more a reflection of Tetzel's capacity to exaggerate.", "Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was pure Catholic teaching.", "The German Catholic historian Ludwig von Pastor explains:Above all, a most clear distinction must be made between indulgences for the living and those for the dead.As regards indulgences for the living, Tetzel always taught pure (Catholic) doctrine.", "The assertion that he put forward indulgences as being not only a remission of the temporal punishment of sin but as a remission of its guilt, is as unfounded as is that other accusation against him, that he sold the forgiveness of sin for money, without even any mention of contrition and confession, or that, for payment, he absolved from sins which might be committed in the future.", "His teaching was, in fact, very definite, and quite in harmony with the theology of the (Catholic) Church, as it was then and as it is now, i.e., that indulgences \"apply only to the temporal punishment due to sins which have been already repented of and confessed\"...The case was very different from indulgences for the dead.", "As regards these there is no doubt that Tetzel did, according to what he considered his authoritative instructions, proclaim as Christian doctrine that nothing but an offering of money was required to gain the indulgence for the dead, without there being any question of contrition or confession.", "He also taught, in accordance with the opinion then held, that an indulgence could be applied to any given soul with unfailing effect.", "Starting from this assumption, there is no doubt that his doctrine was virtually that of the well known drastic proverb.The Papal Bull of indulgence gave no sanction whatever to this proposition.", "It was a vague scholastic opinion, rejected by the Sorbonne in 1482, and again in 1518, and certainly not a doctrine of the Church, which was thus improperly put forward as dogmatic truth.", "The first among the theologians of the Roman court, Cardinal Cajetan, was the enemy of all such extravagances and declared emphatically that, even if theologians and preachers taught such opinions, no faith need be given them.", "\"Preachers\", he said, \"speak in the name of the Church only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of Christ and His Church; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own imagination, they must not be accepted as mouthpieces of the Church.", "No one must be surprised if such as these fall into error.", "\"Johann Tetzel Taking an Oath (1717)" ], [ "Luther's impression", "Luther claimed that Tetzel had received a substantial amount of money at Leipzig from a nobleman, who asked him for a letter of indulgence for a future sin.", "Supposedly Tetzel answered in the affirmative, insisting that the payment had to be made at once.", "The nobleman did so and received a letter and seal from Tetzel.However, when Tetzel left Leipzig, the nobleman attacked him along the way and gave him a thorough beating, sending him back empty-handed to Leipzig, with the comment that it was the future sin which he had in mind.", "Duke George at first was quite furious about the incident, but when he heard the whole story, he let it go without punishing the nobleman.Luther also claimed that at Halle, Tetzel said that an indulgence could wipe away the sin of a man guilty of raping Mary, Mother of God.", "However, Tetzel obtained affidavits from authorities at Halle, both civil and ecclesiastical, who swore that Tetzel never made any such claim." ], [ "In popular culture", "Tetzel has been portrayed on stage and screen by the following:Jakob Tiedtke in the 1928 German film ''Luther''.", "Alexander Gauge in the 1953 film ''Martin Luther''.", "In John Osborne's 1961 play ''Luther'', Tetzel was played by Peter Bull in the original London and Broadway productions, Hugh Griffith in the 1973 film of the play, and Richard Griffiths in a 2001 National Theatre revival.", "Clive Swift in the 1983 film ''Martin Luther, Heretic''.", "Alfred Molina in the 2003 film ''Luther''." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography=== * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Tiptree Jr." ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alice Bradley Sheldon''' (born '''Alice Hastings Bradley'''; August 24, 1915 – May 19, 1987) was an American science fiction and fantasy author better known as '''James Tiptree Jr.''', a pen name she used from 1967 until her death.", "It was not publicly known until 1977 that James Tiptree Jr. was a woman.", "From 1974 to 1985 she also occasionally used the pen name '''Raccoona Sheldon'''.", "Tiptree was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame in 2012.Tiptree's debut story collection, ''Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home'', was published in 1973 and her first novel, ''Up the Walls of the World'', was published in 1978.Her other works include the 1973 novelette \"The Women Men Don't See\", the 1974 novella \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\", the 1976 novella \"Houston, Houston, Do You Read?", "\", the 1985 novel ''Brightness Falls from the Air'', and the 1974 short story \"Her Smoke Rose Up Forever\"''.''" ], [ "Early life, family and education", "Alice Hastings Bradley came from a family in the intellectual enclave of Hyde Park, a university neighborhood in Chicago.", "Her father was Herbert Edwin Bradley, a lawyer and naturalist, and her mother was Mary Hastings Bradley, a prolific writer of fiction and travel books.", "From an early age she traveled with her parents, and in 1921–22, the family made their first trip to central Africa.", "During these trips, she played the role of the \"perfect daughter, willing to be carried across Africa like a parcel, always neatly dressed and well behaved, a credit to her mother.\"", "This later contributed to her short story, \"The Women Men Don't See.", "\"Alice Sheldon with the Kikuyu people, 1920sShe is the title character in two non-fiction accounts by her mother of their travels: ''Alice in Jungleland'' (1927) and ''Alice in Elephantland'' (1929).", "These were both travel books for children which included photos of young Alice visiting parts of Africa not yet fully discovered by Westerners.", "The illustrated cover of ''Alice in Jungleland'' is credited to Alice Hastings Bradley.Between trips to Africa, Bradley attended school in Chicago.", "At the age of ten, she went to the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, which was an experimental teaching workshop with small classes and loose structure.", "When she was fourteen, she was sent to finishing school in Lausanne in Switzerland, before returning to the US to attend boarding school in Tarrytown in New York." ], [ "Adulthood and early career: 1934–1967", "Bradley was encouraged by her mother to seek a career, but her mother also hoped that she would get married and settle down.", "In 1934, at age 19, she met William (Bill) Davey and eloped to marry him.", "She dropped out of Sarah Lawrence College, which did not allow married students to attend.", "They moved to Berkeley, California, where they took classes and Davey encouraged her to pursue art.", "The marriage was not a success; he was an alcoholic and irresponsible with money and she disliked keeping house.", "The couple divorced in 1940.Later on, she became a graphic artist, a painter, and—still under the name \"Alice Bradley Davey\"—an art critic for the ''Chicago Sun'' between 1941 and 1942.After the divorce, Bradley joined the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps where she became a supply officer.", "In 1942 she joined the United States Army Air Forces and worked in the Army Air Forces photo-intelligence group.", "She later was promoted to major, a high rank for women at the time.", "In the army, she \"felt she was among free women for the first time.\"", "As an intelligence officer, she became an expert in reading aerial intelligence photographs.In 1945, at the close of the war, while she was on assignment in Paris, she married her second husband, Huntington D. Sheldon, known as \"Ting.\"", "She was discharged from the military in 1946, at which time she set up a small business in partnership with her husband.", "The same year, a non-fiction piece about Polish refugees working in Germany (entitled \"The Lucky Ones\") was published in the November 16, 1946 issue of ''The New Yorker'', and credited to \"Alice Bradley\" in the magazine.", "In 1952 she and her husband were invited to join the CIA, which she accepted.", "At the CIA, she worked as an intelligence officer, but she did not enjoy the work.", "She resigned her position in 1955 and returned to college.She studied for her bachelor of arts degree at American University (1957–1959).", "She received a doctorate from George Washington University in Experimental Psychology in 1967.She wrote her doctoral dissertation on the responses of animals to novel stimuli in differing environments.", "During this time, she wrote and submitted a few science fiction stories under the name James Tiptree Jr., in order to protect her academic reputation.=== Art career ===Bradley began illustrating when she was nine years old, contributing to her mother's book, ''Alice in Elephantland'', a children's book about the family's second trip to Africa, appearing in it as herself.", "She later had an exhibit of her drawings of Africa at the Chicago Gallery, arranged by her parents.", "Although she illustrated several of her mother's books, she only sold one illustration during her lifetime, in 1931, to ''The New Yorker'', with help from Harold Ober, a New York agent who worked with her mother.", "The illustration, of a horse rearing and throwing off its rider, sold for ten dollars.In 1936, Bradley participated in a group show at the Art Institute of Chicago, to which she had connections through her family, featuring new American work.", "This was an important step forward for her painting career.", "During this time she also took private art lessons from John Sloan.", "Bradley disliked prudery in painting.", "While examining an anatomy book for an art class, she noticed that the genitals were blurred, so she restored the genitals of the figures with a pencil.In 1939, her nude self-portrait titled ''Portrait in the Country'' was accepted for the \"All-American\" biennial show at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington D.C., where it was displayed for six weeks.", "While these two shows were considered big breaks, she disparaged these accomplishments, saying that \"only second rate painters sold\" and she preferred to keep her works at home.By 1940, Bradley felt she had mastered all the techniques she needed and was ready to choose her subject matter.", "However, she began to doubt whether she should paint.", "She kept working at her painting techniques, fascinated with the questions of form, and read books on aesthetics in order to know what scientifically made a painting \"good.\"", "She stopped painting in 1941.As she was in need of a way to support herself, her parents helped her find a job as an art critic for the ''Chicago Sun''." ], [ "Science fiction career: 1967–1987", "Bradley discovered science fiction in 1924, when she read her first issue of ''Weird Tales,'' but she didn't write any herself until years later.", "Unsure what to do with her new degrees and her new/old careers, she began to write science fiction.", "She adopted the pseudonym of James Tiptree Jr. in 1967.The name \"Tiptree\" came from a branded jar of marmalade, and the \"Jr.\" was her husband's idea.", "In an interview, she said: \"A male name seemed like good camouflage.", "I had the feeling that a man would slip by less observed.", "I've had too many experiences in my life of being the first woman in some damned occupation.\"", "She also made the choice to start writing science fiction she, herself, was interested in and \"was surprised to find that her stories were immediately accepted for publication and quickly became popular.", "\"Her first published short story was \"Birth of a Salesman\" in the March 1968 issue of ''Analog Science Fact & Fiction'', edited by John W. Campbell.", "Three more followed that year in ''If'' and ''Fantastic''.", "Other pen names that she used included \"Alice Hastings Bradley\", \"Major Alice Davey\", \"Alli B. Sheldon\", \"Dr. Alice B. Sheldon\", and \"Raccoona Sheldon\".Writing under the pseudonym Raccoona, she was not very successful getting published until her other alter ego, Tiptree, wrote to publishers to intervene.The pseudonym was successfully maintained until late 1977, partly because, although \"Tiptree\" was widely known to be a pseudonym, it was generally understood that its use was intended to protect the professional reputation of an intelligence community official.", "Readers, editors and correspondents were permitted to assume gender, and generally, but not invariably, they assumed \"male\".", "There was speculation, based partially on the themes in her stories, that Tiptree might be female.", "In 1975, in the introduction to ''Warm Worlds and Otherwise,'' a collection of Tiptree's short stories, Robert Silverberg wrote: \"it has been suggested that Tiptree is female, a theory that I find absurd, for there is to me something ineluctably masculine about Tiptree's writing.\"", "Silverberg also likened Tiptree's writing to Ernest Hemingway's, arguing there was a \"prevailing masculinity about both of them—that preoccupation with questions of courage, with absolute values, with the mysteries and passions of life and death as revealed by extreme physical tests, by pain and suffering and loss.", "\"\"Tiptree\" never made any public appearances, but she did correspond regularly with fans and other science fiction authors through the mail.", "When asked for biographical details, Tiptree/Sheldon was forthcoming in everything but her gender.", "According to her biographer, Julie Phillips, \"No one had ever seen or spoken to the owner of this voice.", "He wrote letters, warm, frank, funny letters, to other writers, editors, and science fiction fans\".", "In her letters to fellow writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin and Joanna Russ, she would present herself as a feminist man; however, Sheldon did not present herself as male in person.", "Writing was a way to escape a male-dominated society, themes Tiptree explored in the short stories later collected in ''Her Smoke Rose Up Forever''.", "One story in particular offers an excellent illustration of these themes.", "\"Houston, Houston, Do You Read?\"", "follows a group of astronauts who discover a future Earth whose male population has been wiped out; the remaining females have learned to get along just fine in their absence.In 1976, \"Tiptree\" mentioned in a letter that \"his\" mother, also a writer, had died in Chicago—details that led inquiring fans to find the obituary, with its reference to Alice Sheldon; soon all was revealed.", "Once the initial shock was over, Sheldon wrote to Le Guin, one of her closest friends, confessing her identity.", "She wrote, \"I never wrote you anything but the exact truth, there was no calculation or intent to deceive, other than the signature which over 8 years became just another nickname; everything else is just plain me.", "The thing is, I am a 61-year-old woman named Alice Sheldon—nickname Alli—solitary by nature but married for 37 years to a very nice man considerably older Huntington was 12 years her senior, who doesn't read my stuff but is glad I like writing\".After Sheldon's identity was revealed, several prominent science fiction writers suffered some embarrassment.", "Robert Silverberg, who had argued that Tiptree could not be a woman from the evidence of her stories, added a postscript to his introduction to the second edition of Tiptree's ''Warm Worlds and Otherwise'', published in 1979.Harlan Ellison had introduced Tiptree's story in the anthology ''Again, Dangerous Visions'' with the opinion that \"Kate Wilhelm is the woman to beat this year, but Tiptree is the man\".Only then did she complete her first full-length novel, ''Up the Walls of the World'', which was a Doubleday Science Fiction Book Club selection.", "Before that she had worked on and built a reputation only in the field of short stories.=== Themes ===A constant theme in Sheldon's work is gender; she was influenced by the rise of second-wave feminism.", "A strong example is \"The Women Men Don't See\" (1973), where Sheldon, as in most of her stories, devises a convincing male point of view.", "We see the two women in the story (Ruth Parsons and her daughter) through the eyes of Don Fenton, who assesses them critically as possible sexual partners and is also concerned to protect them.", "He is confused when Ruth shows courage and common sense, failing to \"fulfill stereotypical female roles,\" according to Anne Cranny-Francis.", "Ruth tries to explain the alienation of women in general and herself in particular, but to Fenton it seems nonsense.", "The Parsons' decision to leave Earth on an alien spaceship jars him into, if not understanding, at least remembering Ruth's words.", "The title of the short story itself reflects the idea that women are invisible during Sheldon's time.", "As Cranny-Francis states, \"'The Women Men Don't See' is an outstanding example … of the subversive use of genre fiction to produce an unconventional discursive position, the feminist subject.\"" ], [ "Death and legacy", "Sheldon continued writing under the Tiptree pen name for another decade.", "In the last years of her life, she suffered from depression and heart trouble, while her husband began to lose his eyesight, becoming almost completely blind in 1986.In 1976, then 61-year-old Sheldon wrote to Silverberg expressing her desire to end her own life while she was still able-bodied and active; she said that she was reluctant to act upon this intention, as she did not want to leave her husband behind and could not bring herself to kill him.", "Later, she suggested to her husband that they make a suicide pact when their health began to fail.", "On July 21, 1977, she wrote in her diary: \"Ting agreed to consider suicide in 4–5 years\".Ten years later, on May 19, 1987, Sheldon shot her husband and then herself; she telephoned her attorney after the first shooting to announce her actions.", "They were found dead, hand-in-hand in bed, in their Virginia home.", "According to biographer Julie Phillips, the suicide note Sheldon left was written in September 1979 and saved until needed.", "Although the circumstances surrounding the Sheldons' deaths are not clear enough to rule out murder–suicide, testimony of those closest to them suggests a suicide pact." ], [ "Sexual orientation", "Sheldon was attracted to women throughout her life and described herself as a lesbian in the years before her death.", "In 1980 she wrote to Joanna Russ and stated \"I am a Lesbian ...", "I some men a lot, but from the start, before I knew anything it was always girls and women who lit me up\".", "Sheldon had affairs with men and \"passionate crushes\" on women during her first marriage, and later remarked \"the 2 or 3 great loves of my life were girls\"." ], [ "James Tiptree Jr. Award", "The James Tiptree Jr. Award, honoring works of science fiction or fantasy that expand or explore our understanding of gender, was named in her honor.", "The award-winning science fiction authors Karen Joy Fowler and Pat Murphy created the award in February 1991.Works of fiction such as ''Half Life'' by Shelley Jackson and ''Light'' by M. John Harrison have received the award.", "Due to controversy over the circumstances of her and her husband's deaths, the name of the award was changed to the Otherwise Award in 2019." ], [ "Works", "=== Short story collections ===* ''Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home'' (1973)* ''Warm Worlds and Otherwise'' (1975)* ''Star Songs of an Old Primate'' (1978)* ''Out of the Everywhere and Other Extraordinary Visions'' (1981)* ''Byte Beautiful: Eight Science Fiction Stories'' (1985)* ''The Starry Rift'' (1986) (linked stories)* ''Tales of the Quintana Roo'' (1986) (linked stories)* ''Crown of Stars'' (1988)* ''Her Smoke Rose Up Forever'' (omnibus collection) (1990)* ''The Voice That Murmurs in the Darkness'' (omnibus collection) (2023)The abbreviation(s) after each title indicate its appearance in one or more of the following collections: Collection title Year of publication Abbreviation ''Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home'' 1973 ''LYFH'' ''Warm Worlds and Otherwise'' 1975 ''WWO'' ''Star Songs of an Old Primate'' 1978 ''SSOP'' ''Out of the Everywhere and Other Extraordinary Visions'' 1981 ''OE'' ''Byte Beautiful: Eight Science Fiction Stories'' 1985 ''BB'' ''Tales of the Quintana Roo'' (linked stories) 1986 ''QR'' ''The Starry Rift'' (linked stories) 1986 ''SR'' ''Crown of Stars'' 1988 ''CS'' ''Her Smoke Rose Up Forever'' (omnibus collection) 1990 ''SRU'' ''Meet Me at Infinity'' (fiction, essays & other non-fiction) 2000 ''MM'' ''The Voice That Murmurs in the Darkness'' (omnibus collection) (2023) ''VNM''* 1968 \"The Mother Ship\" (later retitled \"Mamma Come Home\") (novelette): ''LYFH'' \"Pupa Knows Best\" (later retitled \"Help\"; novelette): ''LYFH'' \"Birth of a Salesman\" (short story): ''LYFH'' \"Fault\" (short story): ''WWO, VNM'' \"Happiness Is a Warm Spaceship\" (short story): ''MM'' \"Please Don't Play With the Time Machine\" (very short story): ''MM''** \"A Day Like Any Other' (very short story): ''MM''* 1969 \"Beam Us Home\" (short story): ''LYFH, BB, VNM'' \"The Last Flight of Doctor Ain\" (short story): ''WWO, SRU'' \"Your Haploid Heart\" (novelette): ''SSOP'' \"The Snows Are Melted, The Snows Are Gone\" (novelette): ''LYFH, VNM''** \"Parimutuel Planet\" (later retitled \"Faithful to Thee, Terra, in Our Fashion\") (novelette): ''LYFH''* 1970 \"The Man Doors Said Hello To\" (short story): ''LYFH, VNM'' \"I'm Too Big But I Love to Play\" (novelette): ''LYFH'' \"The Nightblooming Saurian\" (short story): ''WWO'' \"Last Night and Every Night\" (short story): ''CS''* 1971 \"The Peacefulness of Vivyan\" (short story): ''LYFH, BB'' \"I'll Be Waiting for You When the Swimming Pool Is Empty\" (short story): ''LYFH, BB'' \"And So On, and So On\" (short story): ''SSOP, SRU'' \"Mother in the Sky with Diamonds\" (novelette): ''LYFH''* 1972 \"The Man Who Walked Home\" (short story): ''LYFH, BB, SRU'' \"And I Have Come Upon This Place by Lost Ways\" (novelette): ''WWO, SRU'' \"And I Awoke and Found Me Here on the Cold Hill's Side\" (short story): ''LYFH, SRU'' ''On the Last Afternoon'' (novella): ''WWO, SRU'' \"Painwise\" (novelette): ''LYFH'' \"Forever to a Hudson Bay Blanket\" (short story): ''LYFH'' \"Filomena & Greg & Rikki-Tikki & Barlow & the Alien\" (later retitled \"All the Kinds of Yes\") (novelette): ''WWO, VNM'' \"The Milk of Paradise\" (short story): ''WWO'' \"Amberjack\" (short story): ''WWO'' \"Through a Lass Darkly\" (short story): ''WWO'' \"The Trouble Is Not in Your Set\" (short story): ''MM'' (previously unpublished) \"Press Until the Bleeding Stops\" (short story): ''MM''* 1973 \"Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death\" (short story): ''WWO, BB, SRU'' \"The Women Men Don't See\" (novelette): ''WWO, SRU''** \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\" (novelette): ''WWO, SRU''* 1974 \"Her Smoke Rose Up Forever\" (novelette): ''SSOP, SRU'' \"Angel Fix\" (novelette, under the name \"Raccoona Sheldon\"): ''OE''* 1975** ''A Momentary Taste of Being'' (novella): ''SSOP, SRU''* 1976 \"Your Faces, O My Sisters!", "Your Faces Filled of Light!\"", "(short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): ''OE, BB, SRU'' \"Beaver Tears\" (short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): ''OE'' \"She Waits for All Men Born\" (short story): ''SSOP, SRU'' ''Houston, Houston, Do You Read?''", "(novella): ''SSOP, SRU'' (Hugo award winner; Nebula award winner)** \"The Psychologist Who Wouldn't Do Awful Things to Rats\" (novelette): ''SSOP, VNM''* 1977 \"The Screwfly Solution\" (novelette, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): ''OE, SRU'' \"Time-Sharing Angel\" (short story): ''OE, VNM''* 1978** \"We Who Stole the Dream\" (novelette): ''OE, SRU''* 1980 ''Slow Music'' (novella): ''OE, SRU'' \"A Source of Innocent Merriment\" (short story): ''OE''* 1981 \"Excursion Fare\" (novelette): ''BB, VNM'' \"Lirios: A Tale of the Quintana Roo\" (later retitled \"What Came Ashore at Lirios\") (novelette): ''QR, VNM'' \"Out of the Everywhere\" (novelette): ''OE, VNM'' ''With Delicate Mad Hands'' (novella): ''OE, BB, SRU''* 1982** \"The Boy Who Waterskied to Forever\" (short story): ''QR''* 1983** \"Beyond the Dead Reef\" (novelette): ''QR''* 1985 \"Morality Meat\" (novelette, under the name Racoona Sheldon): ''CS'' ''The Only Neat Thing to Do'' (novella): ''SR, VNM'' \"All This and Heaven Too\" (novelette): ''CS'' \"Trey of Hearts\" (short story): ''MM'' (previously unpublished)* 1986 \"Our Resident Djinn\" (short story): ''CS'' \"In the Great Central Library of Deneb University\" (short story): ''SR'' ''Good Night, Sweethearts'' (novella): ''SR'' ''Collision'' (novella): ''SR''** ''The Color of Neanderthal Eyes'' (novella): ''MM''* 1987 \"Second Going\" (novelette): ''CS'' \"Yanqui Doodle\" (novelette): ''CS, VNM''** \"In Midst of Life\" (novelette): ''CS, VNM''* 1988 \"Come Live with Me\" (novelette): ''CS'' ''Backward, Turn Backward'' (novella): ''CS''** \"The Earth Doth Like a Snake Renew\" (novellette): ''CS'' written in 1973===Novels===* ''Up the Walls of the World'' (1978)* ''Brightness Falls from the Air'' (1985)===Other collections===* ''Neat Sheets: The Poetry of James Tiptree Jr.'' (Tachyon Publications, 1996)* ''Meet Me at Infinity'' (a collection of previously uncollected and unpublished fiction, essays and other non-fiction, with much biographical information, edited by Tiptree's friend Jeffrey D. Smith) (2000)===Adaptations===* \"The Man Who Walked Home\" (1977): comic book adaptation in Canadian underground comic '' Andromeda'' Vol.", "2, No.", "1; September; Silver Snail Comics, Ltd.; Toronto; pp.", "6–28.Pencils by John Allison, inks by Tony Meers.", "* \"Houston, Houston, Do You Read?\"", "(1990): radio drama for the National Public Radio series ''Sci-Fi Radio''.", "Originally aired as two half-hour shows, February 4 and 11.", "* \"Yanqui Doodle\" (1990): half-hour radio drama for the National Public Radio series ''Sci-Fi Radio''.", "Aired March 18.", "* ''Weird Romance'' (1992): Off-Broadway musical by Alan Menken.", "Act 1 is based on \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\".", "* \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\" (1998): television film: episode 5 of the series ''Welcome to Paradox''* ''The Screwfly Solution'' (2006): television film: season 2, episode 7 of the series ''Masters of Horror''* ''Xenophilia'' (2011): based on the lives and works of Tiptree and Connie Converse; arranged and choreographed by Maia Ramnath; produced by the aerial dance and theater troupe Constellation Moving Company, performed at the Theater for the New City, presented November 10–13, 2011.Reviewer Jen Gunnels writes, \"The performance juxtaposed some of Tiptree's short stories with Converse's songs, mixing in biographical elements of both women while kinesthetically exploring both through dance and aerial work on trapeze, lyra (an aerial ring), and silks (two lengths of fabric which the artist manipulates to perform aerial acrobatics).", "The result was elegant, eerie, and deeply moving.\"" ], [ "Awards and honors", "The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Tiptree in 2012.She also won several annual awards for particular works of fiction (typically the preceding calendar year's best):* Hugo Awards: 1974 novella, ''The Girl Who Was Plugged In''; 1977 novella, ''Houston, Houston, Do You Read?", "''* Nebula Awards: 1973 short story, \"Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death\"; 1976 novella, ''Houston, Houston, Do You Read?", "''; 1977 novelette, \"The Screwfly Solution\" (published as by Raccoona Sheldon)* World Fantasy Award: 1987 collection, ''Tales of the Quintana Roo''* Locus Award: 1984 short story, \"Beyond the Dead Reef\"; 1986 novella, ''The Only Neat Thing to Do''* ''Science Fiction Chronicle'' Award: 1986 novella, ''The Only Neat Thing to Do''* Jupiter Award: 1977 novella, ''Houston, Houston, Do You Read?", "''Japanese-language translations of her fiction also won two Hayakawa Awards and three Seiun Awards as the year's best under changing designations (foreign, overseas, translated).", "The awards are voted by magazine readers and annual convention participants respectively:* ''Hayakawa's S-F Magazine'' Reader's Award, short fiction: 1993, \"With Delicate Mad Hands\" (1981); 1997, \"Come Live with Me\" (1988)* Seiun Award, short and long fiction: 1988, \"The Only Neat Thing to Do\" (1985); 2000, \"Out of the Everywhere\" (1981); 2008, ''Brightness Falls from the Air'' (1985)" ], [ "See also", "Akeley-Derscheid Expedition" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited bibliography === Cranny-Francis, Anne.", "''Feminist Fiction''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.", "* Elms, A.C. \"Painwise in space: The psychology of isolation in Cordwainer Smith and James Tiptree Jr.\" in G. Westfahl (Ed.", "), ''Space and Beyond: The Frontier Theme in Science Fiction''.", "Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000..* Fowler, Karen Joy with Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin and Jeffrey D. Smith (eds.).", "''The James Tiptree Award Anthology 1: Sex, the Future, and Chocolate Chip Cookies''.", "San Francisco, CA: Tachyon Publications, 2004..* Fowler, Karen Joy with Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin and Jeffrey D. Smith (eds.).", "''The James Tiptree Award Anthology 2''.", "San Francisco, CA: Tachyon Publications, 2005..* Fowler, Karen Joy with Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin and Jeffrey D. Smith (eds.).", "''The James Tiptree Award Anthology 3: Subversive Stories about Sex and Gender''.", "San Francisco, CA: Tachyon Publications, 2007..* * Notkin, Debbie and The Secret Feminist Cabal (eds.).", "''Flying Cups and Saucers: Gender Explorations in Science Fiction and Fantasy''.", "Covina, CA: Edgewood Press, 1998 (2nd edition Lulu.com, 2008).", ".", "* Phillips, Julie.", "\"Dear Starbear: Letters Between Ursula K. Le Guin and James Tiptree Jr.\" ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'', September 2006.", "* A thorough biography, with insight into Sheldon's life and work.", "Extensive quotation from her correspondence, journals, and other papers.", "Times Literary Supplement review The Times & The Sunday Times* Phillips, Julie.", "\"James Tiptree Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon\" (jamestiptreejr.com).", ": the biographer's website dedicated to Tiptree/Sheldon" ], [ "External links", "; References* * James Tiptree Jr. World Wide Website (unofficial, archived March 3, 2016)* Overview of Alice B. Sheldon, pen name James Tiptree, Jr., papers at the University of Oregon* ''New York Times'' review of ''James Tiptree Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon'' by Julie Phillips* Website for Julie Phillips's biography of Tiptree; Online fiction* Text of the short story* Text of the short story* Text of the short story* Text of the short story* Text of the short story* \"Two Stories by James Tiptree, Jr.: The Last Flight of Doctor Ain and The Screwfly Solution\" PDF file containing both short stories* ; Online radio* \" Houston, Houston, Do You Read?\"", "(Selection 17) from the NPR series ''Sci-Fi Radio'' (20 & 21), February 4 & 11, 1990 (55:32)* \" Yanqui Doodle\" (Selection 21) from the NPR series ''Sci-Fi Radio'' (26), March 18, 1990 (27:49)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Otherwise Award" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Otherwise Award''', originally known as the '''James Tiptree Jr. Award''', is an American annual literary prize for works of science fiction or fantasy that expand or explore one's understanding of gender.", "It was initiated in February 1991 by science fiction authors Pat Murphy and Karen Joy Fowler, subsequent to a discussion at WisCon.In addition to the award itself, the judges publish an Honor List, which they describe as \"a strong part of the award's identity and ... used by many readers as a recommended reading list.", "\"The award was originally named for Alice B. Sheldon, who wrote under the pseudonym James Tiptree Jr. Due to controversy over the appropriateness of naming an award after Tiptree, the committee administering the award announced on October 13, 2019, that the award would be renamed the Otherwise Award." ], [ "Background", "===Choice of the Tiptree name===By choosing a masculine ''nom de plume'', having her stories accepted under that name and winning awards with them, Alice Sheldon helped demonstrate that the division between male and female science fiction writing was illusory.", "Years after \"Tiptree\" first published science fiction, Sheldon wrote some work under the female pen name \"Raccoona Sheldon\"; later, the science fiction world discovered that \"Tiptree\" had been female all along.", "This discovery led to widespread discussion over which aspects of writing, if any, have an intrinsic gender.", "To remind audiences of the role gender plays in both reading and writing, the award was named in Sheldon's honor at the suggestion of Karen Joy Fowler.===Controversy and name change===In 2019, controversy arose over the appropriateness of naming an award after Tiptree.", "In 1987, Alice Sheldon shot and killed her ailing husband Huntington Sheldon before killing herself in the same manner.", "Although some have called the killing a \"suicide pact\" based on Sheldon's personal writings, others characterize the act as \"caregiver murder\"—i.e., the murder of a disabled person by the person responsible for caring for them.", "In light of these allegations, the Tiptree Motherboard received requests to change the name of the award.", "On September 2, 2019, in response to these requests, the Motherboard made a statement that \"a change to the name of the Tiptree Award is not warranted now\"; but nine days later, on September 11, they announced that the award \"can't go on under its existing name\".On October 13, 2019, the Tiptree Motherboard released an announcement stating that the Tiptree Award would become the Otherwise Award.", "The name refers to \"the act of imagining gender otherwise\" at the core of what the award has always honored, as well as being \"wise to the experience of being the other\".", "The title also draws from the Black queer scholarship of Ashon Crawley around what is termed \"otherwise politics\".", "According to the statement, \"''Otherwise'' means finding different directions to move in—toward newly possible places, by means of emergent and multiple pathways and methods.\"" ], [ "Administration", "Fundraising efforts for the Tiptree include publications (two cookbooks), \"feminist bake sales\", and auctions.", "The Tiptree cookbook ''The Bakery Men Don't See'', edited by WisCon co-founder Jeanne Gomoll, was nominated for a 1992 Hugo Award.", "Tiptree Award juries traditionally consist of four female jurors and one male juror (the \"token man\").", "The funds are administered by the \"Tiptree Motherboard\" (currently consisting of Murphy, Alexis Lothian, Gretchen Treu, and Sumana Harihareswara, with Fowler remaining closely involved)." ], [ "Award to the Tiptree Motherboard", "In 2011, the Science Fiction Research Association gave its 2011 \"Thomas D. Clareson Award for Distinguished Service\" to the Tiptree Motherboard.", "The Clareson Award was presented to the Tiptree Motherboard for \"outstanding service activities – promotion of SF teaching and study, editing, reviewing, editorial writing, publishing, organizing meetings, mentoring, and leadership in SF/fantasy organizations\"." ], [ "Anthologies", "Selections of the winners, various short-listed fiction, and essays have appeared in four Tiptree-related collections, ''Flying Cups and Saucers'' (1999) and a series of annual anthologies published by Tachyon Publications of San Francisco.", "These include:* ''Flying Cups and Saucers: Gender Explorations in Science Fiction and Fantasy'' edited by The Secret Feminist Cabal and Debbie Notkin (1999)* ''The James Tiptree Award Anthology 1'' edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2005)* ''The James Tiptree Award Anthology 2'' edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2006)* ''The James Tiptree Award Anthology 3'' edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2007)" ], [ "Winners", "+ YearAuthor(s)WorkPublisherRef.1991William Morrow''White Queen''Victor Gollancz Ltd1992''China Mountain Zhang''Tor1993''Ammonite''Del Ray1994Broken Mirrors Press''Larque on the Wing''AvoNova1995''Waking the Moon''HarperPrismRandom House''Motherlines''Berkeley-Putnam''Walk to the End of the World''BallantineWalker & Co.Bantam BooksDoubleday1996Random House1997''Black Wine''TorSmall Beer Press1998Tor1999Tor2000''Wild Life''Simon & Schuster2001Red Deer Press2002''Light''Victor Gollancz Ltd2003''Set This House in Order: A Romance of Souls''HarperCollins2004''Camouflage''Ace''Not Before Sundown (Ennen päivänlaskua ei voi)'' Published in the United States as ''Troll – a love story''Peter Owen Publishers2005''Air''St.", "Martin's Griffin2006''Half Life''HarperCollinsSpectra Books''James Tiptree, Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon''St.", "Martin's Press2007Faber and Faber (UK 2007); HarperCollins (US 2008)2008Walker & Co. (UK); Candlewick Press (US)''Filter House''Aqueduct Press2009''Cloud and Ashes: Three Winter's Tales''Small Beer PressHakusensha (Japan); VIZ Media (English-speaking world)2010''Baba Yaga Laid an Egg''Canongate Books2011''Redwood and Wildfire''Aqueduct Press2012Roc Books''Ancient, Ancient''Aqueduct Press2013''Rupetta''Tartarus Press2014Penguin Random House''My Real Children''Tor2015Dell Magazines''Lizard Radio''Candlewick Press2016''When the Moon Was Ours''Thomas Dunne Books / St. Martin's Griffin2017''Who Runs the World?", "''Macmillan2018''Latin American Literature Today''2019''Freshwater''Grove Press2020''Ife-Iyoku, the Tale of Imadeyunuagbon''Aurelia Leo2021''Light From Uncommon Stars''Tor Books''Sorrowland''MCD Books" ], [ "See also", "* Gender in speculative fiction* Sense of Gender Awards* Sex and sexuality in speculative fiction* Women in speculative fiction* Women science fiction authors" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Juventus FC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Juventus Football Club''' (from , 'youth'; ), colloquially known as '''Juve''' (), is an Italian professional football club based in Turin, Piedmont, that competes in the Serie A, the top tier of the Italian football league system.", "Founded in 1897 by a group of Torinese students, the club has worn a black and white striped home kit since 1903 and has played home matches in different grounds around its city, the latest being the 41,507-capacity Juventus Stadium.", "Nicknamed (\"the Old Lady\"), the club has won 36 official league title, 14 Coppa Italia titles and nine Supercoppa Italiana title, being the records holder for all these competitions; two Intercontinental Cup, two European Cup / UEFA Champions League, one European Cup Winners' Cup, a joint national record of three UEFA Cup, two UEFA Super Cup and a joint national records of one UEFA Intertoto Cup.", "Consequently, the side leads the historical Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio (FIGC) classification, whilst on the international stage the club occupies the sixth position in Europe and the twelfth in the world for most confederation title won with eleven trophies, as well as the fourth in the all-time Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) competitions ranking, having obtained the highest coefficient score during seven seasons since its introduction in 1979, the most for an Italian team in both cases and joint second overall in the last cited.Founded with the name of Sport-Club Juventus, initially as an athletics club, it is the second oldest of its kind still active in the country after Genoa's football section (1893) and has competed every season of the premier club division (reformulated in different formats until the Serie A inception in 1929) since its debut in 1900 with the exception of the 2006–07 season, being managed by the industrial Agnelli family almost continuously since 1923.The relationship between the club and that dynasty is the oldest and longest in national sports, making Juventus one of the first professional sporting clubs ''ante litteram'' in the country, having established itself as a major force in the national stage since the 1930s and at confederation level since the mid-1970s, and becoming, in a nearly stable basis, one of the top-ten wealthiest in world football in terms of value, revenue and profit since the mid-1990s, being listed on the Borsa Italiana since 2001.Under the management of Giovanni Trapattoni, the club won 13 trophies in the ten years before 1986, including six league title and five international title, and became the first to win all three seasonal competitions organised by the Union of European Football Associations: the 1976–77 UEFA Cup (first Southern European side to do so), the 1983–84 Cup Winners' Cup and the 1984–85 European Champions' Cup.", "With successive triumphs in the 1984 European Super Cup and 1985 Intercontinental Cup, it became the first and thus far only in the world to complete a clean sweep of all five historical confederation trophies; an achievement that they revalidated with the title won in the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup after another successful era led by Marcello Lippi, becoming in addition, until 2022, the only professional Italian club to have won every ongoing honour available to the first team and organised by a national or international football association.", "In December 2000, Juventus was placed seventh in the FIFA's historic ranking of the best clubs in the world, and nine years later was ranked second best club in Europe during the 20th century based on a statistical study series by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS), the highest for an Italian club in both.The club's fan base is the largest at national level and one of the largest worldwide.", "Unlike most European sporting supporters' groups, which are often concentrated around their own club's city of origin, it is widespread throughout the whole country and the Italian diaspora, making Juventus a symbol of ''anticampanilismo'' (\"anti-parochialism\") and (\"Italianness\").", "Juventus players have won eight Ballon d'Or awards, four of these in consecutive years (1982–1985, an overall joint record), among these Michel Platini as well as three of the five recipients with Italian nationality as the first player representing Serie A, Omar Sívori, and the former member of the youth sector Paolo Rossi; they have also won four FIFA World Player of the Year awards, with winners as Roberto Baggio and Zinedine Zidane, a national record and third and joint second highest overall, respectively, in the cited prizes.", "Finally, the club has also provided the most players to the Italy national team—mostly in official competitions in almost uninterrupted way since 1924—who often formed the group that led the ''Azzurri'' squad to international success, most importantly in the 1934, 1982 and 2006 FIFA World Cup." ], [ "History", "=== Early years (1897–1918) ===One of the first Juventus club shot, 1899Juventus was founded as Sport-Club Juventus in late 1897 by pupils from the Massimo d'Azeglio Lyceum school in Turin, among them Eugenio Canfari and Enrico Canfari.", "It was renamed as Foot-Ball Club Juventus two years later.", "The club joined the 1900 Italian Football Championship.", "Juventus played their first Italian Football Championship match on 11 March 1900, against Torinese, which finished in a 1–0 defeat.The Juventus team during the 1905 season in which they won their first league titleIn 1904, businessman Marco Ajmone-Marsan revived the finances of Juventus, making it possible to transfer the training field from piazza d'armi to the more appropriate Velodrome Umberto I.", "During this period, the team wore a pink and black kit.", "Juventus first won the 1905 Italian Football Championship while playing at their Velodrome Umberto I ground.", "By this time, the club colours had changed to black and white stripes, inspired by English side Notts County.There was a split at the club in 1906 after some of the staff considered moving Juve out of Turin.", "Alfred Dick, the club's president, was unhappy with this, and left with some prominent players to found FBC Torino, which in turn spawned the ''Derby della Mole''.", "Juventus spent much of this period steadily rebuilding after the split, surviving the First World War.=== League dominance (1923–1980) ===The \"Magical Trio\" (''Trio Magico'') of Omar Sívori, John Charles, and Giampiero Boniperti in 1957 In 1922, a new stadium was inaugurated and, a year later, FIAT vice president Edoardo Agnelli was elected club's president.", "These two events helped the club to its second league championship in the 1925–26 Prima Divisione, after beating Alba Roma in a two-legged final with an aggregate score of 12–1.The club established itself as a major force in Italian football in the 1930s, becoming the country's first professional club and the first with a decentralised fan base.", "This led Juventus to win a record of five consecutive Italian football championships and form the core of the Italy national football team during the Vittorio Pozzo era, including the 1934 FIFA World Cup winning squad, with star players like Raimundo Orsi, Luigi Bertolini, Giovanni Ferrari, and Luis Monti, among others.", "As of 2022, with 27 players, it is the club with the most FIFA World Cup champions.Juventus moved to the Stadio Comunale, but for the rest of the 1930s and the majority of the 1940s, they were unable to recapture championship dominance.", "After the Second World War, Gianni Agnelli was appointed president.", "In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the club added two more league championships to its name, winning the 1949–50 Serie A under the management of Englishman Jesse Carver, and then repeating in the 1951–52 Serie A.", "For the 1957–58 Serie A, two new strikers, Welshman John Charles and Italian Argentine Omar Sívori, were signed to play alongside longtime member Giampiero Boniperti.", "In the 1959–60 Juventus F.C.", "season, they beat Fiorentina to complete their first league and cup double, winning the 1959–60 Serie A and the 1960 Coppa Italia final.", "Boniperti retired in 1961 as the all-time top scorer at the club, with 182 goals in all competitions, a club record that stood for 45 years.During the rest of the decade, the club only won the 1966–67 Serie A.", "The 1970s saw Juventus further solidify their strong position in Italian football, and under former player Čestmír Vycpálek they won the ''scudetto'' in the 1971–72 Serie A, and followed through in the 1972–73 Serie A, with players like as Roberto Bettega, Franco Causio, and José Altafini breaking through.", "During the rest of the decade, they won the league thrice more, with defender Gaetano Scirea contributing significantly.", "The latter two success in Serie A was under Giovanni Trapattoni, who also led the club to their first ever major European title, the 1976–77 UEFA Cup, and helped the club's domination continue into the early part of the 1980s.=== European stage (1980–1993) ===The Trapattoni era was highly successful in the 1980s, and the club started the decade off well, winning the league title three more times by 1984.This meant Juventus had won 20 Italian league titles, and were allowed to add a second golden star to their shirt, becoming the only Italian club to achieve this.", "Around this time, the club's players were attracting considerable attention, and Paolo Rossi was named European Footballer of the Year following his contribution to Italy's victory in the 1982 FIFA World Cup, where he was named Player of the Tournament.Frenchman Michel Platini was awarded the European Footballer of the Year title for three years in a row in 1983, 1984 and 1985, which is a record.", "Juventus are the first (and one of only two clubs) to have players from their club win the award in four consecutive years.", "It was Platini who scored the winning goal in the 1985 European Cup final against Liverpool; this was marred by the Heysel Stadium disaster, which changed European football.", "That year, Juventus became the first club in the history of European football to have won all three major UEFA competitions; after their triumph in the 1985 Intercontinental Cup, the club also became the first (and thus far only) in association football history to have won all five possible confederation competitions, an achievement that it revalidated with a sixth title won in the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup.With the exception of winning the closely contested 1985–86 Serie A, the rest of the 1980s were not very successful for the club.", "As well as having to contend with Diego Maradona's Napoli, both of the Milanese clubs, A.C. Milan and Inter Milan, won Italian championships; Juventus achieved a double by winning the 1989–90 Coppa Italia and the 1990 UEFA Cup final under the guidance of former club legend Dino Zoff.", "In 1990, Juventus also moved into their new home, the Stadio delle Alpi, which was built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup.", "Despite the arrival of Italian star Roberto Baggio later that year for a world football transfer record fee, the early 1990s under Luigi Maifredi and subsequently Trapattoni once again also saw little success for Juventus, as they only managed to win the 1993 UEFA Cup final.=== Renewed international success (1994–2004) ===Marcello Lippi took over as Juventus manager at the start of the 1994–95 Serie A.", "His first season at the helm of the club was a successful one, as Juventus recorded their first Serie A championship title since the mid-1980s, as well as the 1995 Coppa Italia final.", "The crop of players during this period featured Ciro Ferrara, Roberto Baggio, Gianluca Vialli, and a young Alessandro Del Piero.", "Lippi led Juventus to the 1995 Supercoppa Italiana and the 1995–96 UEFA Champions League, beating Ajax on penalties after a 1–1 draw in which Fabrizio Ravanelli scored for Juventus.The club did not rest long after winning the European Cup, as more highly regarded players were brought into the fold, namely Zinedine Zidane, Filippo Inzaghi, and Edgar Davids.", "At home, Juventus won the 1996–97 Serie A, successfully defended their title in the 1997–98 Serie A, won the 1996 UEFA Super Cup, and followed through with the 1996 Intercontinental Cup.", "Juventus reached two consecutive Champions League finals during this period, but lost both games to Borussia Dortmund and Real Modris, respectively in 1997 and 1998.After a two-and-a-half-season absence, Lippi returned to the club in 2001, following his replacement Carlo Ancelotti's dismissal, signing big name players like Gianluigi Buffon, David Trezeguet, Pavel Nedvěd, and Lilian Thuram, helping the team to win the 2001–02 Serie A, which was their first since 1998, and confirmed themselves in the 2002–03 Serie A. Juventus were also part of an all-Italian 2003 UEFA Champions League final, but lost that game to Milan on penalties, held after a 0–0 draw.", "At the conclusion of the following season, Lippi was appointed as the Italy national team's head coach, bringing an end to one of the most fruitful managerial spells in Juventus's history.=== ''Calciopoli'' scandal (2004–2007) ===Fabio Capello was appointed as Juventus's coach in 2004, and led the club to two more consecutive Serie A first places.", "In May 2006, Juventus emerged as one of the five clubs linked to the ''Calciopoli'' scandal.", "In July, Juventus was placed at the bottom of the league table and relegated to Serie B for the first time in its history.", "The club was also stripped of the 2004–05 Serie A title, while the 2005–06 Serie A winner, after a period ''sub judice'', was declared to be third-placed Inter Milan.", "This remains a much debated and controversial issue, particularly due to Inter Milan's later revealed involvement, the 2004 championship (the sole being investigated) deemed regular and not fixed, Juventus being absolved as club in the ordinary justice proceedings, their renounce to the Italian civil courts appeal, which could have cleared the club's name and avoid relegation, after FIFA threatened to suspend the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) and barring all Italian clubs from international play, and the motivations, such as ''sentimento popolare'' (people's feelings), and the newly created ''ad-hoc'' rule used to relegate the club.Star goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon was among a group of players who remained with the club following their demotion to Serie B in 2006.Many key players left following their relegation to Serie B, including Thuram, star striker Zlatan Ibrahimović, midfielders Emerson and Patrick Vieira, and defensive stalwarts Fabio Cannavaro and Gianluca Zambrotta; other big name players, such as Del Piero, Buffon, Trezeguet, and Nedvěd, as well as the club's future defense core Giorgio Chiellini, remained to help the club return to Serie A, while youngsters from the Campionato Nazionale Primavera (youth team), such as Sebastian Giovinco and Claudio Marchisio, were integrated into the first team.", "Juventus won the ''Cadetti'' title (Serie B championship), despite starting with a points deduction and gained promotion straight back to the top division, with Del Piero claiming the top scorer award with 21 goals, as league winners after the 2006–07 Serie B season.As early as 2010, when many other clubs were implicated and Inter Milan, Livorno, and Milan liable of direct Article 6 violations in the 2011 Palazzi Report, Juventus considered challenging the stripping of their ''scudetto'' from 2006 and the non-assignment of the 2005 title, dependent on the results of Calciopoli trials connected to the 2006 scandal.", "When former general manager Luciano Moggi's conviction in criminal court in connection with the scandal was partially written off by the Supreme Court in March 2015, the club sued the FIGC for €443 million for damages caused by their 2006 relegation.", "Then-FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio offered to discuss reinstatement of the lost ''scudetti'' in exchange for Juventus dropping the lawsuit.In September 2015, the Supreme Court released a 150-page document that explained its final ruling of the case, based on the controversial 2006 sports ruling, which did not take in consideration the other clubs involved because they could not be put on trial due to the statute of limitations, and it would be necessary to request and open a revocation of judgment pursuant to Article 39 of the Code of Sports Justice.", "Despite his remaining charges being cancelled without a new trial due to statute of limitations, the court confirmed that Moggi was actively involved in the sporting fraud, which was intended to favour Juventus and increase his own personal benefits, according to ''La Gazzetta dello Sport''.", "As did the Naples court in 2012, the court commented that the developments and behaviour of other clubs and executives were not investigated in depth.", "Once they exhausted their appeals in Italy's courts, both Moggi and Giraudo appealed to the European Court of Human Rights in March 2020; Giraudo's was accepted in September 2021.Juventus continued to present new appeals, which were declared inadmissible.=== Return to Serie A (2007–2011) ===After making their comeback for the 2007–08 Serie A, Juventus appointed Claudio Ranieri as manager.", "They finished in third place in their first season back in the top flight, and qualified for the 2008–09 UEFA Champions League's third qualifying round in the preliminary stages.", "Juventus reached the group stages, where they beat Real Madrid in both home and away legs, before losing in the knockout round to Chelsea.", "Ranieri was sacked following a string of unsuccessful results, and Ciro Ferrara was appointed as manager on a temporary basis for the last two games of the 2008–09 Serie A, before being subsequently appointed as manager for the 2009–10 Serie A.Ferrara's stint as Juventus manager proved to be unsuccessful, with Juventus knocked out of 2009–10 UEFA Champions League, and also of the 2009–10 Coppa Italia, as well as just lying on the sixth place in the league table at the end of January 2010, leading to the dismissal of Ferrara and the naming of Alberto Zaccheroni as caretaker manager.", "Zaccheroni could not help the side improve, as Juventus finished the season in seventh place in Serie A.", "For the 2010–11 Serie A, Jean-Claude Blanc was replaced by Andrea Agnelli as the club's president.", "Agnelli's first action was to replace Zaccheroni and director of sport Alessio Secco with Sampdoria manager Luigi Delneri and director of sport Giuseppe Marotta.", "Delneri failed to improve their fortunes and was dismissed, and former player and fan favourite Antonio Conte, fresh after winning promotion with Siena, was named as Delneri's replacement.", "In September 2011, Juventus relocated to the new Juventus Stadium, known as the Allianz Stadium since 2017.=== Nine consecutive ''scudetti'' (2011–2020) ===Playmaker Andrea Pirlo playing for Juventus in 2012With Conte as manager, Juventus were unbeaten for the entire 2011–12 Serie A season.", "Towards the second half of the season, the team was mostly competing with northern rivals Milan for first place in a tight contest.", "Juventus won the title on the 37th matchday, after beating Cagliari 2–0 and Milan losing to Inter 4–2.After a 3–1 win in the final matchday against Atalanta, Juventus became the first team to go the season unbeaten in the 38-game format.", "In 2013–14 Serie A, Juventus won a third consecutive ''scudetto'' with a record 102 points and 33 wins.", "The title was the 30th official league championship in the club's history.", "They also achieved the semi-finals of 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, where they were eliminated at home against ten-man Benfica's ''catenaccio'', missing the 2014 UEFA Europa League final at the Juventus Stadium.Juventus captain Giorgio Chiellini receiving the 2016–17 Coppa Italia from Sergio Mattarella, the president of ItalyIn the 2014–15 Serie A, Massimiliano Allegri was appointed as manager, with whom Juventus won their 31st official title, their fourth-straight, as well as won their tenth Coppa Italia, after beating Lazio 2–1 in the 2015 Coppa Italia final, for the domestic double.", "The club also beat Real Madrid 3–2 on aggregate in the semi-finals of the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League, to face Barcelona in the 2015 UEFA Champions League final in Berlin, their first Champions League final since the 2002–03 season.", "Juventus lost the final against Barcelona 3–1.In the 2016 Coppa Italia final, the club won the title for the 11th time (and second consecutively), to become the first team in Italy's history to win the national league and the national cup doubles in back-to-back seasons.In the 2017 Coppa Italia final, Juventus won their 12th Coppa Italia title in a 2–0 win over Lazio, becoming the first team to win three consecutive titles.", "Four days later on 21 May, Juventus became the first team to win six consecutive Serie A titles.", "In the 2017 UEFA Champions League final, their second Champions League final in three years, Juventus were defeated 1–4 by defending champions Real Madrid.", "In the 2018 Coppa Italia final, Juventus won their fourth consecutive title (and 13th overall), in a 4–0 win over Milan, extending the all-time record of successive Coppa Italia titles.", "Juventus then secured their seventh consecutive Serie A title, extending the all-time record of successive triumphs in the competition.", "In the 2018 Supercoppa Italiana, which was held in January 2019, Juventus and Milan, who were tied for Supercoppa Italiana wins with seven each, played against each other; Juventus won their eighth title after beating Milan 1–0.In April 2019, Juventus secured their eighth consecutive Serie A title, further extending the all-time record of successive triumphs in the competition.", "After winning five consecutive ''scudetti'', Allegri left Juventus, and Maurizio Sarri was appointed manager of the club ahead of the 2019–20 Juventus F.C.", "season.", "Juventus were confirmed 2019–20 Serie A champions, reaching an unprecedented milestone of nine consecutive league titles.=== Recent history (2020–present) ===On 8 August 2020, Sarri was sacked from his managerial position, one day after Lyon eliminated Juventus from the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League.", "On the same day, former player Andrea Pirlo was announced as the new coach, signing a two-year contract.", "In the 2020 Supercoppa Italiana, which was held in January 2021, Juventus won their ninth title after a 2–0 victory against Napoli.", "With Inter Milan's win of the 2020–21 Serie A, Juventus's run of nine consecutive titles came to an end; the club secured a fourth-place finish on the final day of the league, granting Juventus qualification to the following season's Champions League.", "In the 2021 Coppa Italia final, Juventus won their 14th title.", "On 28 May, Juventus sacked Pirlo from his managerial position, and announced Allegri's return to the club as manager after two years away from management and signed four-year contract.", "Although Allegri had considered the victory of the ''scudetto'' as a seasonal goal, Juventus reached another fourth place in the league.", "After losing 4–2 after extra time to Inter Milan in the 2022 Coppa Italia final, the 2021–22 Juventus F.C.", "season marked the first season since 2010–11 in which the club had not won a trophy.In the 2022–23 season, Juventus had one victory and five defeats in their Champions League group, achieving their worst-ever score (3 points) and their greatest-ever number of losses in the competition's group stage.", "Through their better goal difference over fourth-placed Maccabi Haifa, the team finished third and dropped down into the Europa League, in which they were defeated 2–1 by Sevilla after extra time at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium in the semi-final.", "On 28 November 2022, the entire board of directors resigned from their respective positions, Andrea Agnelli as president, Pavel Nedvěd as vice president, and Maurizio Arrivabene as CEO.", "Agnelli's presidency was the one with the most trophies won, 19.Exor, the club's controlling shareholder, appointed Gianluca Ferrero as its new chairman ahead of the shareholders' meeting on 18 January 2023.Two days later, after being acquitted by the FIGC's Court of Appeal in April–May 2022, Juventus were deducted 15 points as punishment for capital gain violations, as part of an investigation (started November 2021) related to the 2019–2021 budgets during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "This was harsher than the point deduction recommended by the FIGC prosecutor, who said that in the standings Juventus \"must now finish behind Roma, outside the European Cup area\".", "The penalty caused an uproar and protests among Juventus supporters, who cancelled, or threatened to do so, their Sky Sport and DAZN subscriptions.", "Following Juventus's appeal, the decision had initially been reversed on 20 April 2023, but the club were given a new penalty, this time of ten points, on 22 May.", "Within the aforementioned FIGC's inquiry, on 29 May, Juventus proposed a plea bargain for their false accounting on staff salaries; the request was accepted one day later, and Juventus received a fine of €718,240, without any further penalty.", "Juventus finished the 2022–23 Serie A in seventh place with 62 points, and qualified to the UEFA Europa Conference League.", "On 28 July, UEFA, however, ejected Juventus from its competitions for one year, as the club had violated a settlement agreement with UEFA, signed in August 2022.The 2023–24 season was the first since 2011–12 in which Juventus did not participate in UEFA competitions." ], [ "Crest and colours", "Juventus have played in black and white striped shirts, with white shorts, sometimes black shorts since 1903.Originally, they played in pink shirts with a black tie.", "The father of one of the players made the earliest shirts, but continual washing faded the colour so much that in 1903 the club sought to replace them.", "Juventus asked one of their team members, Englishman John Savage, if he had any contacts in England who could supply new shirts in a colour that would better withstand the elements.", "He had a friend who lived in Nottingham, who being a Notts County supporter, shipped out the black and white striped shirts to Turin.", "Juventus have worn the shirts ever since, considering the colours to be aggressive and powerful.Juventus's official emblem has undergone different and small modifications since the 1920s.", "The previous modification of the Juventus badge took place in 2004, when the emblem of the team changed to a black-and-white oval shield of a type used by Italian ecclesiastics.", "It is divided in five vertical stripes: two white stripes and three black stripes, inside which are the following elements, while in its upper section the name of the society superimposed on a white convex section, over golden curvature (gold for honour).", "The white silhouette of a charging bull is in the lower section of the oval shield, superimposed on a black old French shield and the charging bull is a symbol of the ''comune'' of Turin.", "There is also a black silhouette of a mural crown above the black spherical triangle's base.", "This is a reminiscence to Augusta Tourinorum, the old city of the Roman era which the present capital of Piedmont region is its cultural heiress.In January 2017, president Andrea Agnelli announced the change to the Juventus badge for a logotype.", "More specifically, it is a pictogram composed by a stylized Black and White \"J\" which Agnelli said reflects \"the Juventus way of living.\"", "Juventus was the first team in sports history to adopt a star as a symbol associated with any competition's triumph, who added one above their badge in 1958 to represent their tenth Italian Football Championship and Serie A title, and has since become popularized with other clubs as well.In the past, the convex section of the emblem had a blue colour (another symbol of Turin) and it was concave in shape.", "The old French shield and the mural crown, also in the lower section of the emblem, had a considerably greater size.", "The two \"Golden Stars for Sport Excellence\" were located above the convex and concave section of Juventus's emblem.", "During the 1980s, the club emblem was the blurred silhouette of a zebra, alongside the two golden stars with the club's name forming an arc above.Juventus unofficially won their 30th league title in 2011–12, but a dispute with the FIGC, which stripped Juventus of their 2004–05 title and did not assign them the 2005–06 title due to their involvement in the ''Calciopoli'' scandal, left their official total at 28; the club elected to wear no stars at all the following season.", "Juventus won their 30th title in 2013–14, and thus earned the right to wear their third star, but Agnelli stated that the club suspended the use of the stars until another team wins their 20th championship, having the right to wear two stars \"to emphasise the difference\".", "For the 2015–16 season, Juventus reintroduced the stars and added the third star to their jersey as well with new kit manufacturers Adidas, in addition to the Coppa Italia badge for winning their tenth Coppa Italia the previous season.", "For the 2016–17 season, Juventus re-designed their kit with a different take on the trademark black and white stripes.", "For the 2017–18 season, Juventus introduced the ''J'' shaped logo onto the kits.In September 2015, Juventus officially announced a new project called JKids for its junior supporters on its website.", "Along with this project, Juventus also introduced a new mascot to all its fans which is called J. J is a cartoon-designed zebra, black and white stripes with golden edge piping on its body, golden shining eyes, and three golden stars on the front of its neck.", "J made its debut at Juventus Stadium on 12 September 2015.During its history, the club has acquired a number of nicknames, ''la Vecchia Signora'' (the Old Lady) being the best example.", "The \"old\" part of the nickname is a pun on Juventus, which means \"youth\" in Latin.", "It was derived from the age of the Juventus star players towards the middle of the 1930s.", "The \"lady\" part of the nickname is how fans of the club affectionately referred to it before the 1930s.", "The club is also nicknamed ''la Fidanzata d'Italia'' (the Girlfriend of Italy), because over the years it has received a high level of support from Southern Italian immigrant workers (particularly from Naples and Palermo), who arrived in Turin to work for FIAT since the 1930s.", "Other nicknames include ''la Madama'' (Piedmontese for Madam), ''i bianconeri'' (the black-and-whites), ''le zebre'' (the zebras) in reference to Juventus's colours.", "''I gobbi'' (the hunchbacks) is the nickname that is used to define Juventus supporters, but is also used sometimes for the team's players.", "The most widely accepted origin of ''gobbi'' dates to the fifties, when the ''bianconeri'' wore a large jersey.", "When players ran on the field, the jersey, which had a laced opening at the chest, generated a bulge over the back (a sort of parachute effect), making the players look hunchbacked.The official anthem of Juventus is ''Juve (storia di un grande amore)'', or ''Juve (story of a great love)'' in English, written by Alessandra Torre and Claudio Guidetti, in the version of the singer and musician Paolo Belli composed in 2007.In 2016, a documentary film called ''Black and White Stripes: The Juventus Story'' was produced by the La Villa brothers about Juventus.", "On 16 February 2018, the first three episodes of a docu-series called ''First Team: Juventus'', which followed the club throughout the season, by spending time with the players behind the scenes both on and off the field, was released on Netflix; the other three episodes were released on 6 July 2018.On 25 November 2021, an eight-episode docu-series called ''All or Nothing: Juventus'', which followed the club throughout the season, by spending time with the players behind the scenes both on and off the field, was released on Amazon Prime." ], [ "Stadiums", "After the first two years (1897 and 1898), during which Juventus played in the Parco del Valentino and Parco Cittadella, their matches were held in the Piazza d'Armi Stadium until 1908, except in 1905 (the first year of the ''scudetto'') and in 1906, years in which they played at the Corso Re Umberto.From 1909 to 1922, Juventus played their internal competitions at Corso Sebastopoli Camp before moving the following year to Corso Marsiglia Camp, where they remained until 1933, winning four league titles.", "At the end of 1933, they began to play at the new Stadio Benito Mussolini inaugurated for the 1934 World Championships.", "After the Second World War, the stadium was renamed as Stadio Comunale Vittorio Pozzo.", "Juventus played home matches at the ground for 57 years, a total of 890 league matches.", "The team continued to host training sessions at the stadium until July 2003.From 1990 until the 2005–06 season, the Torinese side contested their home matches at Stadio delle Alpi, built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, although in very rare circumstances the club played some home games in other stadia, such as Renzo Barbera at Palermo, Dino Manuzzi in Cesena and the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza in Milan.In August 2006, Juventus returned to play in the Stadio Comunale, then known as Stadio Olimpico, after the restructuring of the stadium for the 2006 Winter Olympics onward.", "In November 2008, Juventus announced that they would invest around €120 million to build a new ground, the Juventus Stadium, on the site of delle Alpi.", "Unlike the old ground, there is not a running track, and, instead, the pitch is only 7.5 metres away from the stands.", "The capacity is 41,507.Work began during spring 2009, and the stadium was opened on 8 September 2011, ahead of the start of the 2011–12 season.", "From 1 July 2017, the Juventus Stadium became known commercially as the Allianz Stadium of Turin, and this was expected to last until 30 June 2030." ], [ "Supporters", "Juventus is the most-supported football club in Italy, with over 12 million fans or ''tifosi'', which represent approximately 34% of the total Italian football fans, according to a research published in September 2016 by Italian research agency Demos & Pi, as well as one of the most supported football clubs in the world, with over 300 million supporters (41 million in Europe alone), particularly in the Mediterranean countries to which a large number of Italian diaspora have emigrated.", "The Torinese side has fan clubs branches across the globe.Demand for Juventus tickets in occasional home games held away from Turin is high, suggesting that Juventus have stronger support in other parts of the country.", "Juventus is widely and especially popular throughout mainland Southern Italy, Sicily and Malta, leading the team to have one of the largest followings in its away matches, more than in Turin itself." ], [ "Club rivalries", "Scene from the ''Derby d'Italia'' in 1930Juventus have significant rivalries with two main clubs.Juventus's traditional rivals are fellow Turin club Torino; matches between the two sides are known as the ''Derby della Mole'' (Turin Derby).", "The rivalry dates back to 1906, as Torino was founded by break-away Juventus players and staff.Their most high-profile rivalry is with Inter, another big Serie A club located in Milan, the capital of the neighbouring region of Lombardy.", "Matches between these two clubs are referred to as the ''Derby d'Italia'' (Derby of Italy) and the two regularly challenge each other at the top of the league table, hence the intense rivalry.", "Until the Calciopoli scandal which saw Juventus forcibly relegated, the two were the only Italian clubs to have never played below Serie A.", "Notably, the two sides are the first and the third most supported clubs in Italy, and the rivalry has intensified since the later part of the 1990s; reaching its highest levels ever post-''Calciopoli'', with the return of Juventus to Serie A.The rivalry with AC Milan is a rivalry between the two most titled and supported teams in Italy.", "The challenge confronts also two of the clubs with greater basin of supporters, as well as those with the greatest turnover and stock market value in the country.", "The match-ups between Milan and Juventus, is regarded as the championship of Serie A, and both teams were often fighting for the top positions of the standings, sometimes even decisive for the award of the title.", "They also have rivalries with Roma, Fiorentina and Napoli." ], [ "Youth programme", "The Juventus youth set-up has been recognised as one of the best in Italy for producing young talents.", "While not all graduates made it to the first team, many have enjoyed successful careers in the Italian top flight.", "Under long-time coach Vincenzo Chiarenza, the ''Primavera'' (under-19) squad enjoyed one of its successful periods, winning all age-group competitions from 2004 to 2006.Like Dutch club Ajax and many Premier League clubs, Juventus operates several satellite clubs and football schools outside of the country (i.e.", "United States, Canada, Greece, Saudi Arabia, Australia and Switzerland), and numerous camps in the local region to expand talent scouting.", "On 3 August 2018, Juventus founded their professional reserve team, called Juventus U23 (renamed to Juventus Next Gen in August 2022), playing in Serie C, who won the Coppa Italia Serie C in 2020.In the 2021–22 UEFA Youth League, the U19 squad reached the semi-finals, equalling the best-ever placing in the competition for a Serie A team.The youth system is also notable for its contribution to the Italian national senior and youth teams.", "1934 World Cup winner Gianpiero Combi, 1936 Gold Medal and 1938 World Cup winner Pietro Rava, Giampiero Boniperti, Roberto Bettega, 1982 World Cup hero Paolo Rossi and, more recently, Claudio Marchisio and Sebastian Giovinco, are a number of former graduates who have gone on to make the first team and full Italy squad." ], [ "Players", "=== First-team squad ====== Juventus Next Gen and Youth Sector ====== Other players under contract ====== Out on loan ===" ], [ "Coaching staff", "Massimiliano Allegri returned as head coach of the club in 2021.=== Chairmen history ===Juventus have had overall 24 presidents ( or ) and two administrative committees, some of which have been members of the club's main stakeholder group and elected since the club's foundation by the then ''assemblea di soci'' (membership assembly) through an annual meeting.", "Since 1949, they have been often corporate managers that were nominated in charge by the ''assemblea degli azionisti'' (stakeholders assembly).", "On top of chairmen, there were several living former presidents, that were nominated as the honorary chairmen ().NameYearsEugenio Canfari1897–1898Enrico Canfari1898–1901Carlo Favale1901–1902Giacomo Parvopassu1903–1904Alfred Dick1905–1906Carlo Vittorio Varetti1907–1910Attilio Ubertalli1911–1912Giuseppe Hess1913–1915Gioacchino Armano, Fernando Nizza, Sandro Zambelli1915–1918Corrado Corradini1919–1920Gino Olivetti1920–1923Edoardo Agnelli1923–1935Giovanni Mazzonis1935–1936NameYearsEmilio de la Forest de Divonne1936–1941Pietro Dusio1941–1947Gianni Agnelli1947–1954Enrico Craveri, Nino Cravetto, Marcello Giustiniani1954–1955Umberto Agnelli1955–1962Vittore Catella1962–1971 Giampiero Boniperti1971–1990Vittorio Caissotti di Chiusano1990–2003Franzo Grande Stevens2003–2006Giovanni Cobolli Gigli2006–2009Jean-Claude Blanc2009–2010Andrea Agnelli2010–2023Gianluca Ferrero2023–=== Managerial history ===Giovanni Trapattoni, the longest serving and most successful manager in the history of Juventus, with 14 trophiesBelow is a list of Juventus managers from 1923, when the Agnelli family took over and the club became more structured and organised, until the present day.", "NameNationalityYearsJenő Károly1923–1926''József Viola''1926József Viola1926–1928William Aitken1928–1930Carlo Carcano1930–1934''Carlo Bigatto Iº''''Benedetto Gola''1934–1935Virginio Rosetta1935–1939Umberto Caligaris1939–1941''Federico Munerati''1941Giovanni Ferrari1941–1942''Luis Monti'' 1942Felice Placido Borel IIº1942–1946Renato Cesarini1946–1948William Chalmers1948–1949Jesse Carver1949–1951''Luigi Bertolini''1951György Sárosi1951–1953Aldo Olivieri1953–1955Sandro Puppo1955–1957Teobaldo Depetrini1957Ljubiša Broćić1957–1958''Teobaldo Depetrini''1958–1959Renato Cesarini1959–1961''Carlo Parola''1961''Gunnar GrenJúlius Korostelev''1961Carlo Parola1961–1962Paulo Lima Amaral1962– NameNationalityYears''Eraldo Monzeglio''1964Heriberto Herrera1964–1969Luis Carniglia1969–1970''Ercole Rabitti''1970Armando Picchi1970–1971Čestmír Vycpálek1971–1974Carlo Parola1974–1976Giovanni Trapattoni1976–1986Rino Marchesi1986–1988Dino Zoff1988–1990Luigi Maifredi1990–1991Giovanni Trapattoni1991–1994Marcello Lippi1994–1999Carlo Ancelotti1999–2001Marcello Lippi2001–2004Fabio Capello2004–2006Didier Deschamps2006–2007''Giancarlo Corradini''2007Claudio Ranieri2007–2009Ciro Ferrara2009–2010Alberto Zaccheroni2010Luigi Delneri2010–2011Antonio Conte2011–2014Massimiliano Allegri2014–2019Maurizio Sarri2019–2020Andrea Pirlo2020–2021Massimiliano Allegri2021–" ], [ "Honours", "A partial view of the club's trophy room with the titles won between 1905 and 2013 at J-MuseumItaly's most successful club of the 20th century and the most winning in the history of Italian football, Juventus have won the Italian League Championship, the country's premier football club competitions and organised by Lega Nazionale Professionisti Serie A (LNPA), a record 36 times and have the records of consecutive triumphs in that tournament (nine, between 2011–12 and 2019–20).", "They have also won the Coppa Italia, the country's primary single-elimination competitions, a records 14 times, becoming the first team to retain the trophy successfully with their triumph in the 1959–60 season, and the first to win it in three consecutive seasons from the 2014–15 season to the 2016–17 season, going on to win a fourth consecutive title in 2017–18 (also a record).", "In addition, the club holds the record for Supercoppa Italiana wins with nine, the most recent coming in 2020.Overall, Juventus have won 70 official competitions, more than any other club in the country: 59 at national level (which is also a record) and 11 at international stage, making them, in the latter case, the second most successful Italian team.", "The club is sixth in Europe and twelfth in the world with the most international title won officially recognised by their respective association football confederation and Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA).", "In 1977, the Torinese side become the first in Southern Europe to win the UEFA Cup and the first—and only to date—in Italian football history to achieve an international title with a squad composed by national footballers.", "In 1993, the club won its third competition's trophy, an unprecedented feat in the continent until then, a confederation record for the next 22 years and the most for an Italian team.", "Juventus was also the first club in the country to achieve the title in the European Super Cup, having won the competitions in 1984, and the first European side to win the Intercontinental Cup in 1985, since it was restructured by Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL)'s organizing committee five years beforehand.The club has earned the distinction of being allowed to wear three golden stars () on its shirts representing its league victories, the tenth of which was achieved during the 1957–58 season, the 20th in the 1981–82 season and the 30th in the 2013–14 season.", "Juventus were the first Italian team to have achieved the national double four times (winning the Italian top tier division and the national cup competitions in the same season), in the 1959–60, 1994–95, 2014–15 and 2015–16 season.", "In the 2015–16 season, Juventus won the Coppa Italia for the 11th time and their second-straight title, becoming the first team in Italy's history to complete Serie A and Coppa Italia doubles in back-to-back season; Juventus would go on to win another two consecutive doubles in 2016–17 and 2017–18.Until the first Europa Conference League final in 2022, the club was unique in the world in having won all official confederation competitions and they have received, in recognition to winning the three major UEFA competitions—first case in the history of the European football and the only one to be reached with the same coach spell— The UEFA Plaque by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) on 12 July 1988.The Torinese side was placed seventh in the FIFA's century ranking of the best clubs in the world on 23 December 2000, and nine years later was ranked second best club in Europe during the 20th Century based on a statistical study series by International Federation of Football History & Statistics, the highest for an Italian club in both.Juventus have been proclaimed World's Club Team of the Year twice (1993 and 1996) and was ranked in 3rd place—the highest ranking of any Italian club—in the All-Time Club World Ranking (1991–2009 period) by the IFFHS.+Juventus FC honoursTypeCompetitionsTitlesSeasons'''Domestic'''Serie A'''36''' 1905, 1925–26, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1957–58, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1966–67, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1994–95, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20Serie B1 2006–07Coppa Italia'''14''' 1937–38, 1941–42, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1964–65, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1989–90, 1994–95, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2020–21Supercoppa Italiana'''9''' 1995, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2020'''Continental'''European Cup / UEFA Champions League2 1984–85, 1995–96UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1 1983–84UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League 3 1976–77, 1989–90, 1992–93 European Super Cup / UEFA Super Cup 2 1984, 1996 UEFA Intertoto Cup 1 1999'''Worldwide'''Intercontinental Cup2 1985, 1996" ], [ "Club statistics and records", "Alessandro Del Piero made a record 705 appearances for Juventus, including 478 in Serie A and is the all-time leading goalscorer for the club, with 290 goals.Alessandro Del Piero holds Juventus's official appearance record of 705 appearances.", "He took over from Gaetano Scirea on 6 April 2008 against Palermo.", "He also holds the record for Serie A appearances, with 478.Including all official competitions, Del Piero is the all-time leading goalscorer for Juventus (with 290), since joining the club in 1993.Giampiero Boniperti, who was the all-time topscorer since 1961, comes second in all competitions with 182.In the 1933–34 season, Felice Borel scored 31 goals in 34 appearances, setting the club record for Serie A goals in a single season.", "Ferenc Hirzer is the club's highest scorer in a single season with 35 goals in 24 appearances in the 1925–26 season.", "The most goals scored by a player in a single match is 6, which is also an Italian record.", "This was achieved by Omar Sívori in a game against Inter in the 1960–61 season.The first ever official game participated in by Juventus was in the Third Federal Football Championship, the predecessor of Serie A, against Torinese in a Juventus loss 0–1.The biggest victory recorded by Juventus was 15–0 against Cento, in the second round of the 1926–27 Coppa Italia.", "In the league, Fiorentina and Fiumana were famously on the end of Juventus's biggest championship wins, with both beaten 11–0 in the 1928–29 season.", "Juventus's heaviest championship defeats came during the 1911–12 and 1912–13 seasons: they were against Milan in 1912 (1–8) and Torino in 1913 (0–8).The signing of Gianluigi Buffon in 2001 from Parma cost Juventus €52 million (100 billion lire), making it the then-most expensive transfer for a goalkeeper of all-time until 2018.On 20 March 2016, during the 2015–16 season, Buffon set a new Serie A record in the ''Derby della Mole'', for the longest period without conceding a goal (974 minutes).", "On 26 July 2016, Argentine forward Gonzalo Higuaín became the third highest football transfer of all-time, and highest transfer for an Italian club, at the time, when he was signed by Juventus for €90 million from Napoli.", "On 8 August 2016, Paul Pogba returned to his first club, Manchester United, for an all-time record for highest football transfer fee of €105 million, surpassing the former record holder Gareth Bale.", "The sale of Zinedine Zidane from Juventus to Real Madrid of Spain in 2001 was the world football transfer record at the time, costing the Spanish club around €77.5 million (150 billion lire).", "On 10 July 2018, Cristiano Ronaldo became the highest ever transfer for an Italian club with his €100 million transfer from Real Madrid.", "A transfer that turned out to be the worst big-money signing in Juventus history.=== UEFA club coefficient ranking === Rank Team Points1 Bayern Munich134.0002 Real Madrid126.0003 Barcelona122.0004 '''Juventus'''120.0005 Manchester City120.0006 Atletico Madrid115.0007 Paris Saint-Germain113.000" ], [ "Contribution to the Italy national team", "Overall, Juventus are the club that has contributed the most players to the Italy national team in history, being the only Italian club that has contributed players to every Italy national team since the 2nd FIFA World Cup.", "Juventus have contributed numerous players to Italy's World Cup campaigns, these successful periods principally have coincided with two golden ages of the Turin club's history, referred as ''Quinquennio d'Oro'' (The Golden Quinquennium), from 1931 until 1935, and ''Ciclo Leggendario'' (The Legendary Cycle), from 1972 to 1986.Below are a list of Juventus players who represented the Italy national team during World Cup winning tournaments.", "* 1934 FIFA World Cup (9): Gianpiero Combi, Virginio Rosetta, Luigi Bertolini, Felice Borel IIº, Umberto Caligaris, Giovanni Ferrari, Luis Monti, Raimundo Orsi and Mario Varglien Iº* 1938 FIFA World Cup (2): Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava* 1982 FIFA World Cup (6): Dino Zoff, Antonio Cabrini, Claudio Gentile, Paolo Rossi, Gaetano Scirea and Marco Tardelli* 2006 FIFA World Cup (5): Fabio Cannavaro, Gianluigi Buffon, Mauro Camoranesi, Alessandro Del Piero and Gianluca ZambrottaTwo Juventus players have won the golden boot award at the World Cup with Italy, Paolo Rossi in 1982 and Salvatore Schillaci in 1990.As well as contributing to Italy's World Cup winning sides, two Juventus players Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava, represented Italy in the gold medal-winning squad at the 1936 Summer Olympics.Seven Juventus players represented their nation during the 1968 European Championship win for Italy: Sandro Salvadore, Ernesto Càstano and Giancarlo Bercellino.", "and four in the UEFA Euro 2020: Giorgio Chiellini, Leonardo Bonucci, Federico Bernardeschi and Federico Chiesa; a national record.The Torinese club has also contributed to a lesser degree to the national sides of other nations due to the limitations pre-Bosman rule (1995).Zinedine Zidane and captain Didier Deschamps were Juventus players when they won the 1998 World Cup with France, as well as Blaise Matuidi in the 2018 World Cup, and the Argentines Ángel Di María and Leandro Paredes in 2022, making Juventus the association football club to have supplied the most FIFA World Cup winners globally (27).", "Three Juventus players have also won the European Championship with a nation other than Italy, Luis del Sol won it in 1964 with Spain, while the Frenchmen Michel Platini and Zidane won the competition in 1984 and 2000 respectively." ], [ "Financial information", "Founded as an association, in 1923, during the Edoardo Agnelli presidency, the club, at the time ruled by an ''assemblea di soci'' (membership assembly), became one of the first in the country to acquire professional status ''ante litteram'', starting also the longest and most uninterrupted society in Italian sports history between a club and a private investor.", "Juventus was restructured as the football section of multisports parent company Juventus – Organizzazione Sportiva S.A. since the constitution of the later in that year to 1943, when it was merged with another three Torinese enterprises for founding the Compagnia Industriale Sportiva Italia (CISITALIA).", "In that twenty years Juventus progressive competed in different disciplines such as tennis, swimming, ice hockey, and bocce, gaining success in the first cited.", "After a long liquidation process of the automotive corporation started after the Italian Civil War (1945), all Juventus O.S.A.", "sections were closed with the exception of football and tennis, which were demerged.", "The football section, then called Juventus Cisitalia for sponsorship reasons, was renamed Juventus Football Club and the Agnelli family, which some members have held different executive charges inside the club for the past six years, obtained the club's majority shares after industrialist Piero Dusio, Cisitalia owner, transferred his capital shares in the ending of the decade.", "Juventus has been constituted as an independent ''società a responsabilità limitata'' (S.r.l.", "), a type of private limited company, in August 1949 and supervised by a ''consiglio d'amministrazione'' (board of directors) since then.On 27 June 1967, the Torinese club changed its legal corporate status to ''società per azioni'' (S.p.A.) and, on 3 December 2001, it became the third in the country to has been listed on the Borsa Italiana after Lazio and Roma; since that date until 19 September 2011, Juventus's stock took part of the Segmento Titoli con Alti Requisiti (STAR), one of the main market segment in the world.", "From October 2016 to December 2018, and again since March 2020, The club's stock is iscrited in the FTSE Italia Mid Cap stock market index of the Mercato Telematico Azionario (MTA); previously, between December 2018 and March 2020, it was listed in the FTSE MIB index.", "The club has also a secondary listing on Borsa's sister stock exchange, based in London.As of 29 October 2021, Juventus's shares are distributed between 63.8% to the Agnelli family through EXOR N.V., a holding part of the Giovanni Agnelli and C.S.a.p.a Group, 11.9% to Lindsell Train Investment Trust Ltd. and 24.3% distributed to other stakeholders (announcement Contractduration Value Notes 2015–present 2015–2019 (4 years) €23.25 million per year Original contract terms: Total €139.5 million / 2015–2021 (6 years)The contract was prematurely extended under improved terms at the end of the 2018–2019 season 2019–2027 (8 years) Total €408 million(€51 million per year)" ], [ "Multisport activities", "The club was involved in various sports activities at different times until the late 1970s.", "Initially, from its foundation until 1899, it had sections for cycling, athletics, wrestling, and running, with running being the most successful sport.In the early 1920s, Juventus expanded its sports involvement, led by President Edoardo Agnelli.", "This led to the creation of Juventus Organizzazione Sportiva Anonima, which participated in various national championships, in disciplines such as bowls, swimming, ice hockey, and tennis, until its dissolution after World War II, with tennis being the most successful.", "Juventus achieved its greatest successes with the tennis section.", "In the late 1960s, a skiing section named Sporting Club ''Juventus'' was established, based in Castagneto Po and active throughout the following decade.In the 2017–2018 season, Juventus established a women's football section, with a team in the Serie A women's championship.", "The Women's team won the league in their debut season, mirroring the achievement of the men's team, and becoming the first Italian club to hold both major national football championships, male and female, simultaneously.", "This success continued for the next two seasons.Since 2019, the club has had an eSports section.", "In 2021, the team won the eFootball.Pro, a prominent eSports competition for club teams worldwide.", "In the same year, they also claimed the TIMVISION Cup \| eSports Edition, the first digital edition of the Italian Cup organized by the Lega Serie A.", "In 2023, under the name Juventus Dsyre – in collaboration with the eSports team of the same name – they secured their first Italian championship title in the eSerie A TIM, the virtual version of Serie A organized by the Lega Serie A." ], [ "See also", "* Dynasties in Italian football* List of football clubs in Italy by major honours won* List of sports clubs inspired by others* List of world champion football clubs" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Books ===* * *** * * * * * * * * * * * === Other publications ===* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Juventus F.C.", "at Serie A * Juventus F.C.", "at UEFA" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jan Długosz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jan Długosz''' (; 1 December 1415 – 19 May 1480), also known in Latin as '''Johannes Longinus''', was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków.", "He is considered Poland's first historian." ], [ "Life", "Jan Długosz by Antoni GramatykaJan Długosz is best known for his (''Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae'') in 12 volumes and originally written in Latin, covering events in southeastern Europe, but also in Western Europe, from 965 to 1480, the year he died.", "Długosz combined features of Medieval chronicles with elements of humanistic historiography.", "For writing the history of the Kingdom of Poland, Długosz also used Ruthenian (Russian) chronicles including those that did not survive to our times (among which there could have been used the Kyiv collection of chronicles of the 11th century in the Przemysl's edition around 1100 and the Przemysl episcopal collections of 1225–40).His work was first printed in 1701–1703.It was originally printed at the Jan Szeliga printing house in Dobromyl financed by Jan Szczęsny Herburt.", "Whenever Jan Długosz bothers to mention himself in the book, he writes of himself in the third person.", "He belonged to the Wieniawa coat-of-arms.Długosz was a canon at Kraków, educated at the University of Krakow.", "He was sent by King Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland on diplomatic missions to the Papal and Imperial courts, and was involved in the King's negotiations with the Teutonic Knights during the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66) and at the peace negotiations.In 1434, Długosz's uncle, the first pastor at Kłobuck, appointed him to take over his position as canon of St. Martin church there.", "The town was in the Opole territory of Silesia, but had recently been conquered by Władysław II Jagiełło.", "Długosz stayed until 1452 and while there, founded the canonical monastery.In 1450, Długosz was sent by Queen Sophia of Halshany and King Casimir to conduct peace negotiations between John Hunyadi and the Bohemian noble Jan Jiskra of Brandýs, and after six days' of talks convinced them to sign a truce.In 1455 in Kraków, a fire spread which destroyed much of the city and the castle, but which spared .In 1461 a Polish delegation which included Długosz met with emissaries of George of Podebrady in Bytom, Silesia.", "After six days of talks, they concluded an alliance between the two factions.", "In 1466 Długosz was sent to the legate of Wrocław, in order to attempt to obtain assurance that the legate was not biased in favor of the Teutonic Knights.", "He was successful, and was in 1467 entrusted with tutoring the king's son.Długosz declined the offer of the Archbishopric of Prague, but shortly before his death was nominated Archbishop of Lwów.", "This nomination was only confirmed by Pope Sixtus IV on 2 June 1480, two weeks after his death.His work ''Banderia Prutenorum'' of 1448 is his description of the 1410 Battle of Grunwald, which took place between villages of Grunwald and Stębark.At some point in his life Długosz loosely translated Wigand of Marburg's ''Chronica nova Prutenica'' from Middle High German into Latin, however with many mistakes and mixup of names and places." ], [ "Works", "* ''Liber beneficiorum dioecesis Cracoviensis''''Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae'' (Annals or Chronicles of the Famous Kingdom of Poland):''Roczniki, czyli kroniki sławnego Królestwa Polskiego'' (new Polish translation of the ''Annals'', 1961–2006):''The Annals of Jan Dlugosz'' (English translation of key sections of the work, )''Historiae Polonicae libri xii'' (Polish Histories, in Twelve Books; written 1455–80; first published 1711–12, in 2 volumes)''Banderia Prutenorum'', flag book, completed in or shortly after 1448, when painted the illuminations." ], [ "See also", "Jan Długosz AwardHistory of Poland" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * '' Liber beneficiorum ecclesiae Cracoviensis'' (\"Book of the Benefices of the Bishopric of Krakow\") At the National Digital Library of Poland" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jadwiga of Poland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jadwiga''' (; 1373 or 137417 July 1399), also known as '''Hedwig''' (), was the first woman to be crowned as monarch of the Kingdom of Poland.", "She reigned from 16 October 1384 until her death.", "She was the youngest daughter of Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, and his wife, Elizabeth of Bosnia.", "Jadwiga was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou, but she had more close forebears among the Polish Piasts than among the Angevins.In 1375, it was planned that when becoming old enough, she would marry William of Austria and she lived in Vienna from 1378 to 1380.Jadwiga's father is often thought to have regarded her and William as his favoured successors in Hungary after the 1378 death of her eldest sister, Catherine, since the following year the Polish nobility had pledged their homage to Louis' second daughter, Mary, and Mary's fiancé, Sigismund of Luxembourg.", "However, Louis died, and in 1382, at her mother's insistence, Mary was crowned \"King of Hungary\".", "Sigismund of Luxembourg tried to take control of Poland, but the Polish nobility countered that they would be obedient to a daughter of King Louis only if she settled in Poland.Queen Elizabeth then chose Jadwiga to reign in Poland, but did not send her to Kraków to be crowned.", "During the interregnum, Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia, became a candidate for the Polish throne.", "The nobility of Greater Poland favored him and proposed that he marry Jadwiga.", "However, Lesser Poland's nobility opposed him, and they persuaded Queen Elizabeth to send Jadwiga to Poland.Jadwiga was crowned \"king\" in Poland's capital, Kraków, on 16 October 1384.Her coronation either reflected the Polish nobility's opposition to her intended husband, William, becoming king without further negotiation, or simply, emphasized her status as queen regnant.", "With her mother's consent, Jadwiga's advisors opened negotiations with Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who was still a pagan, concerning his potential marriage to Jadwiga.", "Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo, pledging to convert to Catholicism and to promote conversion of his pagan subjects.", "Meanwhile, William hastened to Kraków, hoping to marry his childhood fiancé, Jadwiga, but in late August 1385 the Polish nobles expelled him.Jogaila, who took the Catholic baptismal name Władysław, married Jadwiga on 15 February 1386.Legend says that she had agreed to marry him only after lengthy prayer, seeking divine inspiration.", "Jogaila, now styled in Polish as, Władysław Jagiełło, was crowned King of Poland on 4 March 1386 as Jadwiga's co-ruler.", "Jogaila worked closely with his wife in that role.", "In any case, her real political power was limited.She remained passive when the rebellious nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia murdered her mother in early 1387.After that, Jadwiga marched into the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, which had been under Hungarian rule, and persuaded most of the inhabitants to become subjects of the Polish Crown.", "She mediated between her husband's quarreling kin and between Poland and the Teutonic Order.After her sister Mary died in 1395, Jadwiga and Jogaila laid claim to Hungary against the widowed Sigismund of Luxembourg, but the Hungarian lords did not support their claim and Sigismund easily retained his Hungarian throne.", "Jadwiga died four years later due to postpartum complications.In 1997, Jadwiga was canonized by the Catholic Church." ], [ "Childhood (1373 or 1374 – 1382)", "Jadwiga with her mother and sisters, as depicted on Saint Simeon's casket in ZadarJadwiga was born in Buda, the capital of the Kingdom of Hungary.", "She was the third and youngest daughter of Louis I, King of Hungary and Poland, and his second wife, Elizabeth of Bosnia.", "Both her grandmothers were Polish princesses, connecting her to the native Piast dynasty of Poland.", "Historian Oscar Halecki concluded that Jadwiga's \"genealogical tree clearly shows that she had more Polish blood than any other\".", "She was probably born between 3 October 1373 and 18 February 1374.She was named after her distant ancestor, Saint Hedwig of Silesia, who was especially venerated in the Hungarian royal court at the time of her birth.King Louis, who had not fathered any sons, wanted to ensure the right of his daughters to inherit his realms.", "Therefore, European royals regarded his three daughters as especially attractive brides.", "Leopold III, Duke of Austria, proposed his eldest son, William, to Jadwiga already on 18 August 1374.The envoys of the Polish nobles acknowledged that one of Louis's daughters would succeed him in Poland after he confirmed and extended their liberties in the Privilege of Koszyce on 17 September 1374.They took an oath of loyalty to Catherine on Louis's demand.Louis agreed to give Jadwiga in marriage to William of Austria on 4 March 1375.The children's ''sponsalia de futuro'', or \"provisional marriage\", was celebrated at Hainburg on 15 June 1378.The ceremony established the legal framework for the consummation of the marriage without any further ecclesiastical act as soon as they both reached the age of maturity.", "Duke Leopold agreed that Jadwiga would only receive Treviso, a town that was to be conquered from the Republic of Venice, as dowry from her father.", "After the ceremony, Jadwiga stayed in Austria for almost two years; she mainly lived in Vienna.Catherine died in late 1378.Louis persuaded the most influential Polish lords to swear an oath of loyalty to her younger sister, Mary, in September 1379.She was betrothed to Sigismund of Luxemburg, a great-grandson of Casimir the Great, who had been Louis's predecessor on the Polish throne.", "The \"promised marriage\" of Jadwiga and William was confirmed at their fathers' meeting in Zólyom (now Zvolen in Slovakia) on 12 February 1380.Hungarian lords also approved the document, implying that Jadwiga and William were regarded as her father's successors in Hungary.A delegation of the Polish lords and clergy paid formal homage to Sigismund of Luxemburg as their future king on 25 July 1382.The Poles believed that Louis planned also to persuade the Hungarian lords and prelates to accept Jadwiga and William of Austria as his heirs in Hungary.", "However, he died on 10 September 1382.Jadwiga was present at her father's death bed." ], [ "Accession negotiations (1382–84)", "Lands ruled or claimed around 1370 by Jadwiga's father, Louis the Great (or the Hungarian): Hungary and Poland are colored red, the vassal states and the Kingdom of Naples are coloured light redJadwiga's sister, Mary, was crowned king of Hungary five days after their father's death.", "With the ceremony, their ambitious mother secured the right to govern Hungary on her twelve-year-old daughter's behalf instead of Mary's fiancé, Sigismund.", "Sigismund could not be present at Mary's coronation, because Louis had sent him to Poland to crush a rebellion.", "After he learnt of Louis's death, he adopted the title \"Lord of the Kingdom of Poland\", demanding oaths of loyalty from the towns in Lesser Poland.", "On 25 November, the nobles of Greater Poland assembled at Radomsko and decided to obey nobody but the daughter of the late king as she would settle in Poland.", "On their initiative, the noblemen of Lesser Poland passed a similar agreement in Wiślica on 12 December.", "Queen Elizabeth sent her envoys to the assembled lords and forbade them to swear an oath of loyalty to anyone other than one of her daughters, thus invalidating the oath of loyalty that the Polish noblemen had sworn to Sigismund on the late King Louis's demand.Both Elizabeth's daughters had been engaged to foreign princes (Sigismund and William, respectively) unpopular in Poland.", "Polish lords who were opposed to a foreign monarch regarded the members of the Piast dynasty as possible candidates to the Polish throne.", "Queen Elizabeth's uncle Władysław the White had already attempted to seize Poland during Louis's reign.", "However, he had taken monastic vows and settled in a Benedictine abbey in Dijon in Burgundy.", "Antipope Clement VII, whom King Louis had refused to recognize against Pope Urban VI, released Władysław from his vows, but he did not leave his monastery.", "Meanwhile, Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia, appeared as a more ambitious candidate.", "He was especially popular among the nobility and townspeople of Greater Poland.Queen Elizabeth's representatives released the Poles from their oath of fidelity that their representatives had sworn to Mary at an assembly in Sieradz in February 1383.The envoys also announced that she was willing to send Jadwiga to be crowned instead, on condition that she return to Buda after her coronation to live there until her twelfth birthday.", "The Polish lords accepted the proposal, but they soon realized that thereby the interregnum would be extended by a further three years.", "At a new meeting in Sieradz, most noblemen were ready to elect Siemowit of Masovia king on 28 March.", "They proposed that Siemowit should marry Jadwiga.", "A member of the influential Tęczyński family, Jan, convinced them to postpone Siemowit's election.", "The noblemen agreed to wait for Jadwiga until 10 May, stipulating that she was to live in Poland after her coronation.", "They also demanded that Dobrzyń and Gniewków (two fiefdoms which her father had granted to Vladislaus II of Opole), and \"Ruthenia\" (that had passed to Hungary in accordance with a previous treaty) be restored to the Polish Crown.Meanwhile, Jan Tęczyński and his allies, including , seem to have started negotiations with Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania.", "Siemowit's supporters however, tried to enter Kraków in the retinue of Bodzanta, Archbishop of Gniezno, in May, but the townspeople closed the gates of the city before their arrival.", "Jadwiga had not arrived in Poland by the stipulated date (10 May).", "Her mother's envoys stated that the spring floods had hindered Jadwiga's progress over the Carpathian Mountains.Siemowit of Mazovia took up arms and advanced as far as Kalisz.", "His supporters assembled in Sieradz in August in order to elect him king, but Archbishop Bodzanta refused to perform his coronation.", "In a meeting in Kassa, Queen Elizabeth promised the delegates of the Polish provinces to send Jadwiga to Poland before November.", "The queen mother and the Poles also agreed that if either Jadwiga or Mary died childless, her kingdom would pass to her surviving sister.", "Siemowit having laid siege to Kalisz, Queen Elizabeth sent Sigismund of Luxemburg at the head of an \"improvised army\" to Lesser Poland.", "Siemowit failed to take Kalisz, but news about the appalling behaviour of Sigismund's soldiers increased Sigismund's unpopularity in Poland.", "Sędziwój Pałuka, who was the castellan of Kalisz and ''starosta'' of Kraków, led a delegation to Zadar in Dalmatia to negotiate with Queen Elizabeth, but she had him imprisoned instead.", "She sent Hungarian soldiers to Poland to garrison them in Wawel Castle in Kraków, but Pałuka escaped and successfully obstructed her soldiers entering the castle.At a general assembly in Radomsko in early March, the delegates of all the Polish provinces and towns decided to elect Siemowit king, if Jadwiga did not come to Poland within two months.", "They set up a provisional government, stipulating that only the \"community of lords and citizens\" had the authority to administer Poland during the interregnum.", "Queen Elizabeth, who was only informed of the decision by an informal message, realized that she could not any longer postpone Jadwiga's coronation and so sent her to Poland.", "The exact date of Jadwiga's arrival is unknown, because the main source for the history of Poland during this periodJan of Czarnków's chronicle ended prior to this event." ], [ "Reign", "=== Coronation (1384) ===The interregnum that followed Louis's death and caused such internal strife came to an end with Jadwiga's arrival in Poland.", "A large crowd of clerics, noblemen and burghers gathered at Kraków \"to greet her with a display of affection\", according to the 15th-century Polish historian, Jan Długosz.", "Nobody protested when Archbishop Bodzanta crowned her on 16 October 1384.According to traditional scholarly consensus, Jadwiga was crowned king.", "Thereby, as Robert W. Knoll proposes, the Polish lords prevented her eventual spouse from adopting the same title without their consent.", "Stephen C. Rowell, who says that sources that contradict the traditional view outnumber those verifying it, suggests that sporadic contemporaneous references to Jadwiga as king only reflect that she was not a queen consort, but a queen regnant.Bodzanta, Archbishop of Gniezno, Jan Radlica, Bishop of Kraków, Dobrogost of Nowy Dwór, Bishop of Poznań, and Duke Vladislaus II of Opole were Jadwiga's most trusted advisers during the first years of her reign.", "According to a widely accepted scholarly theory, Jadwiga, who was still a minor, was \"a mere tool\" to her advisers.", "However, Halecki refutes this view, contending that Jadwiga matured quickly and her personality, especially her charm and kindness, only served to strengthen her position.", "Already in late 1384 she intervened on Duke Vladislaus's behalf to reconcile him with her mother's favourite, Nicholas I Garai.=== Refusal of William (1385) ===The Polish lords did not want to accept Jadwiga's fourteen-year-old fiancé, William of Habsburg, as their sovereign.", "They thought that the inexperienced William and his Austrian kinsmen could not safeguard Poland's interests against its powerful neighbours, especially the Luxemburgs which controlled Bohemia and Brandenburg, and had a strong claim on Hungary.", "According to Halecki, the lords of Lesser Poland were the first to suggest that Jadwiga should marry the pagan duke Jogaila of Lithuania.Jogaila sent his envoysincluding his brother, Skirgaila, and a German burgher from Riga, Hanul to Kraków to request Jadwiga's hand in January 1385.Jadwiga refused to answer, stating only that her mother would decide.", "Jogaila's two envoys left for Hungary and met Queen Elizabeth.", "She informed them that \"she would allow whatever was advantageous to Poland and insisted that her daughter and the prelates and nobles of the Kingdom had to do what they considered would benefit Christianity and their kingdom\", according to Jan Długosz's chronicle.", "The nobles from Kraków, Sandomierz and Greater Poland assembled in Kraków in June or July and the \"majority of the more sensible\" voted for the acceptance of Jogaila's marriage proposal.", "''Dymitr of Goraj'' by Jan Matejko depicts Jadwiga trying to break the castle gate to join WilliamIn the meantime, William's father, Leopold III hurried to Buda in late July 1385, demanding the consummation of the marriage between William and Jadwiga before 16 August.", "Queen Elizabeth confirmed the previous agreements about the marriage, ordering Vladislaus II of Opole to make preparations for the ceremony.", "According to canon law, Jadwiga's marriage sacrament could only be completed before her twelfth birthday if the competent prelate testified her precocious maturity.", "Demetrius, Archbishop of Esztergom, issued the necessary document.", "William went to Kraków in the first half of August, but his entry to Wawel Castle was barred.", "Długosz states that Jadwiga and William would only be able to meet in the nearby Franciscan convent.Contemporary or nearly contemporaneous records of the completion of the marriage between William and Jadwiga are contradictory and unclear.", "The official accounts of the municipal authorities of Kraków record that on 23 August 1385 an amnesty was granted to the prisoners in the city jail on the occasion of the celebration of the Queen's marriage.", "On the other hand, a contemporary Austrian chronicle, the ''Continuatio Claustroneubuzgis'' states that the Poles had tried to murder William before he consummated the marriage.", "In the next century, Długosz states that William was \"removed in a shameful and offensive manner and driven from the castle\" after he entered \"the Queen's bedchamber\"; but the same chronicler also mentions that Jadwiga was well aware that \"many people knew she had for a fortnight shared her bed with Duke William and that there had been physical consummation\".On the night when William entered the queen's bedchamber, a group of Polish noblemen broke into the castle, forcing William to flee, according to Długosz.", "After this humiliation, Długosz continues, Jadwiga decided to leave Wawel and join William, but the gate of the castle was locked.", "She called for \"an axe and tried to break it open\", but Dymitr of Goraj convinced her to return to the castle.", "Oscar Halecki says that Długosz's narrative \"cannot be dismissed as a romantic legend\"; Robert I.", "Frost writes that it is a \"tale, almost certainly apocryphal\".", "There is no doubt, however, that William of Austria was forced to leave Poland.=== Marriage to Jogaila (1385–92) ===Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo in August 1385, promising Queen Elizabeth's representatives and the Polish lords' envoys that he would convert to Catholicism, together with his pagan kinsmen and subjects, if Jadwiga married him.", "He also pledged to pay 200,000 florins to William of Habsburg in compensation.", "William never accepted it.", "Two days after the Union of Krewo, the Teutonic Knights invaded Lithuania.The ''Aeltere Hochmeisterchronik'' and other chronicles written in the Knights' territory accused the Polish prelates and lords of forcing Jadwiga to accept Jogaila's offer.", "According to a Polish legend, Jadwiga agreed to marry Jogaila due to divine inspiration during her long prayers before a crucifix in Wawel Cathedral.", "Siemowit IV of Mazovia resigned his claim to Poland in December.The Polish lords' envoys informed Jogaila that they would obey him if he married Jadwiga on 11 January 1386.Jogaila went to Lublin where a general assembly unanimously declared him \"king and lord of Poland\" in early February.", "Jogaila went on to Kraków where he was baptized, receiving the Christian name, Władysław, in Wawel Cathedral on 15 February.", "Three days later, 35-year-old Władysław-Jogaila married 12-year-old Jadwiga.", "Władysław-Jogaila styled himself as ''dominus et tutor regni Poloniae'' (\"lord and guardian of the Kingdom of Poland\") in his first charter issued after the marriage.Archbishop Bodzanta crowned Władysław-Jogaila king on 4 March 1386.Poland was transformed into a diarchya kingdom ruled over by two sovereigns.", "Jadwiga and her husband did not speak a common language, but they cooperated closely in their marriage.", "She accompanied him to Greater Poland to appease the local lords who were still hostile to him.", "The royal visit caused damage to the peasants who lived in the local prelates' domains, but Jadwiga persuaded her husband to compensate them, saying: \"We have, indeed, returned the peasants' cattle, but who can repair their tears?", "\", according to Długosz's chronicle.", "A court record of her order to the judges in favour of a peasant also shows that she protected the poor.Pope Urban VI sent his legate, Maffiolus de Lampugnano, to Kraków to enquire about the marriage of the royal couple.", "Lampugnano did not voice any objections, but the Teutonic Knights started a propaganda campaign in favour of William of Habsburg.", "Queen Elizabeth pledged to assist Władysław-Jogaila against his enemies on 9 June 1386, but Hungary had sunken into anarchy.", "A group of Slavonian lords captured and imprisoned Jadwiga's mother and sister on 25 July.", "The rebels murdered Queen Elizabeth in January 1387.A month later, Jadwiga marched at the head of Polish troops to Ruthenia where all but one of the governors submitted to her without opposition.", "''Queen Jadwiga's Oath'', by Józef Simmler, 1867Duke Vladislaus of Opole also had a claim on Ruthenia but could not convince King Wenceslaus of Germany to intervene on his behalf.", "Jadwiga confirmed the privileges of the local inhabitants and promised that Ruthenia would never again be separated from the Polish Crown.", "After the reinforcements that Władysław-Jogaila sent from Lithuania arrived in August, Halych, the only fortress to resist, also surrendered.", "Władysław-Jogaila also came to Ruthenia in September.", "Voivode Petru II of Moldavia visited the royal couple and paid homage to them in Lviv on 26 September.", "Władysław-Jogaila confirmed the privileges that Jadwiga had granted the Ruthenians in October.", "She also instructed her subjects to show the same respect for her husband as for herself: in a letter addressed to the burghers of Kraków in late 1387, she stated that her husband was their \"natural lord\".On William's demand, Pope Urban VI initiated a new investigation about the marriage of Jadwiga and Władysław-Jogaila.", "They sent Bishop Dobrogost of Poznań to Rome to inform the pope of the Christianization of Lithuania.", "In his letter to Bishop Dobrogost, Pope Urban jointly mentioned the royal couple in March 1388, which implied that he had already acknowledged the legality of their marriage.", "However, Gniewosz of Dalewice, who had been William of Habsburg's supporter, spread rumours about secret meetings between William and Jadwiga in the royal castle.", "Jadwiga took a solemn oath before Jan Tęczyński, stating that she had only had marital relations with Władysław-Jogaila.", "After all witnesses confirmed her oath, Gniewosz of Dalewice confessed that he had lied.", "She did not take vengeance on him.=== Strife with Sigismund (1392–95) ===Jadwiga's brother-in-law, Sigismund, who had been crowned King of Hungary, started negotiations with the Teutonic Knights about partitioning Poland in early 1392.Jadwiga met Mary in Stará Ľubovňa in May and returned to Kraków only in early July.", "She most probably accompanied her husband to Lithuania, according to Oscar Halecki, because she was far from Kraków till the end of August.", "On 4 August, Władysław-Jogaila's cousin, Vytautas, who had earlier fled from Lithuania to the Teutonic Knights, paid homage to Władysław-Jogaila near Lida in Lithuania on 4 August.Negotiations between Sigismund and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Konrad von Wallenrode, continued with the mediation of Vladislaus of Opole.", "However, Hungary's southern border was exposed to Ottoman incursions, preventing Sigismund from taking military measures against Poland.", "Wallenrode died on 25 July 1393.His successor, Konrad von Jungingen, opened negotiations with the Poles.", "During the discussions, Pope Boniface IX's legate, John of Messina, supported the Poles.Stephen I of Moldavia's promise of loyalty to Jadwiga and Jogaila against SigismundJadwiga was a skilful mediator, famed for her impartiality and intelligence.", "She went to Lithuania to reconcile her brother-in-law, Skirgaila, with Vytautas in October 1393.Relations between Poland and Hungary remained tense.", "Sigismund invaded Moldavia, forcing Stephen I of Moldavia to accept his suzerainty in 1394.Soon after the Hungarian troops left Moldavia, Stephen sent his envoys to Jadwiga and Jogaila, promising to assist Poland against Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and the Teutonic Knights.On 17 May 1395, Mary died after a riding accident.", "According to the 1383 agreement between their mother and the Polish lords, Jadwiga was her childless sister's heir in Hungary.", "Vlad I of Wallachia, a Hungarian vassal, issued an act of submission on 28 May, acknowledging Jadwiga and her husband as Mary's legitimate successors.", "The widowed king's close supporter, Stibor of Stiboricz, expelled Vlad from Wallachia.", "Władysław-Jogaila gathered his troops on the Polish-Hungarian border, but , Palatine of Hungary, and , Archbishop of Esztergom, stopped his invasion of Hungary.", "In September, Konrad von Jungingen told the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire that the union of Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary under Władysław-Jogaila's rule would endanger Christendom.", "However, most of Sigismund's opponents, who were especially numerous in Croatia, supported the claim of Ladislaus of Naples, the last male member of the Capetian House of Anjou.", "On 8 September, the most influential Hungarian lords declared that they would not support any change in government while Sigismund was far from Hungary fighting against the Ottoman Turks.", "Before the end of the year, peace negotiations between the representatives of Hungary and Poland ended with an agreement.", "Jadwiga adopted the title \"heir to Hungary\", but she and her husband took no further action against Sigismund.=== Conflict with the Teutonic Knights (1395–99) ===The relationship between Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights remained tense.", "Jadwiga and her Polish advisers invited the Grand Master, Konrad von Jungingen, to Poland to open new negotiations in June 1396.Conflicts with Vladislaus of Opole and Siemowit of Masovia, who had not given up their claims to parts of Ruthenia and Cuyavia, also intensified.", "To demonstrate that the territories were under Jadwiga's direct control, Władysław-Jogaila granted the Duchy of Belz (in Ruthenia) and Cuyavia to her in early 1397.However, Jadwiga and her Polish advisers wanted to avoid a war with the Teutonic Order.", "In response, Władysław-Jogaila replaced most Polish \"starostas\" (aldermen) in Ruthenia with local Orthodox noblemen.", "According to German sources, Władysław-Jogaila and Vytautas jointly asked Pope Boniface IX to sanction Vytautas' coronation as king of Lithuania and Ruthenia.Jadwiga and Jungingen met in Włocławek in the middle of June, but they did not reach a compromise.", "The Teutonic Order entrusted Vladislaus of Opole with the task of representing their claims to Dobrzyń against Jadwiga.", "Jadwiga and her husband met Sigismund of Hungary, who had returned there after his catastrophic defeat in the Battle of Nicopolis, on 14 July.", "They seem to have reached a compromise, because Sigismund offered to mediate between Poland, Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights.", "On Jadwiga's request, Wenceslaus of Bohemia granted permission for the establishment of a college for Lithuanian students in Prague on 20 July 1397.Jadwiga, who had spent \"many sleepless nights\" thinking of this project, according to herself, issued a charter of establishment for the college on 10 November.She opened new negotiations with the Teutonic Knights, but Konrad von Jungingen dispatched a simple knight to meet her in May 1398.Władysław-Jogaila's cousin Vytautas also entered into negotiations with the Teutonic Knights because he wanted to unite Lithuania and Ruthenia under his rule and to receive a royal crown from the Holy See.", "According to the chronicle of John of Posilge, who was an official of the Teutonic Order, Jadwiga sent a letter to Vytautas, reminding him to pay the annual tribute that Władysław-Jogaila had granted her as dower.", "Offended by Jadwiga's demand, Vytautas sought the opinion of the Lithuanian and Ruthenian lords who refused Jadwiga's claim to a tribute.", "On 12 October 1398, he signed a peace treaty with the Teutonic Knights, without referring to Władysław-Jogaila's right to confirm it.", "Oscar Halecki says that Posilge's \"sensational story\" is either an invention based on gossip or a guess by the chronicler.=== Pregnancy and death (1399) ===Jadwiga's sarcophagus, Wawel Cathedral, KrakówJadwiga was childless for over a decade, which, according to chronicles written in the Teutonic lands, caused conflicts between her and her husband.", "She became pregnant in late 1398 or early 1399.Sigismund, King of Hungary, came to Kraków in early March to negotiate for a campaign to defend Wallachia against the Ottoman Turks.", "Vytautas, in order to bolster his authority over the Rus' principalities, decided to launch an expedition against Timur, who had subdued the Golden Horde.", "According to Jan Długosz's chronicle, Jadwiga warned the Polish noblemen not to join Vytautas' campaign because it would end in failure.", "Halecki says that the great number of Polish knights who joined Vytautas's expedition proves that Długosz's report is not reliable.On the occasion of the expected birth to the royal couple, Jogaila's cousin Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, sent expensive gifts, including a silver cradle, to the royal court on behalf of himself and his wife, Anna.", "The first horoscopes written for Jadwiga's and Jogaila's child predicted a son in mid-September 1398.However, a girl was delivered on 22 June 1399 at Wawel Castle.", "Reports of the time stated that the child was born prematurely.", "According to the horoscope, she was actually born slightly late.", "However, a due date of 18 June would rule out the suspicion of pregnancy as early as mid-September.The newborn princess was named Elizabeth Bonifacia (, ), after Jadwiga's mother and Pope Boniface IX who, in a letter of 5 May 1399, had agreed to be godfather under the condition that the infant be called Boniface or Bonifacia.", "She was baptised by Piotr Wysz Radoliński, Bishop of Kraków.", "However, the infant died after only three weeks, on 13 July 1399.Jadwiga, too, was on her deathbed.", "Stanisław of Skarbimierz expressed hope that she would survive, describing her as the spiritual mother of the poor, weak, and ill of Poland.", "She advised her husband to marry Anna of Cilli, Casimir the Great's granddaughter— which he did — and died on 17 July 1399, four days after her newborn daughter.Jadwiga and her daughter were buried together in Wawel Cathedral, on 24 August 1399, as stipulated in the Queen's last will.", "On 12 July 1949, 550 years later, their tomb was opened; nothing remained of the child's soft cartilage." ], [ "Family", "The following family tree illustrates Jadwiga's connection to her notable relatives.", "Kings of Poland are colored blue." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Achievements ===Jadwiga as imagined by Marcello BacciarelliTwo leading historians, Oscar Halecki and S. Harrison Thomson, agree that Jadwiga was one of the greatest rulers of Poland, comparable to Bolesław the Brave and Casimir the Great.", "Her marriage to Władysław-Jogaila enabled the union of Poland and Lithuania, establishing a large state in East Central Europe.", "Jadwiga's decision to marry the 'elderly' Władysław-Jogaila instead of her beloved fiancé, William of Habsburg, has often been described as a sacrifice for her country in Polish historiography.", "Her biographers emphasize Jadwiga's efforts to preserve the peace with the Teutonic Order, which enabled Poland to make preparations for a decisive war against the Knights.", "Jadwiga's childless death weakened Władysław-Jogaila's position, because his claim to Poland was based on their marriage.", "Six days after her funeral, Władysław-Jogaila left Poland for Ruthenia, stating that he was to return to Lithuania after his wife's death.", "The Polish lords sent their envoys to Lviv to open negotiations with him.", "The delegates took new oaths of loyalty to him, confirming his position as king.", "On the lords' demand, he agreed to marry Anna of Cilli.", "Their wedding was celebrated on 29 January 1402.Jadwiga's cultural and charitable activities were of exceptional value.", "She established new hospitals, schools and churches, and restored older ones.", "Jadwiga promoted the use of vernacular in church services, especially the singing of hymns in Polish.", "The Scriptures were translated into Polish on her order.Jadwiga depicted with her husband as the founders of the Jagiellonian University, early 16th centuryCasimir the Great had already in 1364 established the University of Kraków, but it did not survive his death.", "Władysław-Jogaila and Jadwiga jointly asked Pope Boniface IX to sanction the establishment of a faculty of theology in Kraków.", "The pope granted their request on 11 January 1397.Jadwiga bought houses along a central street of Kraków for the university.", "However, the faculty was only set up a year after Jadwiga's death: Władysław-Jogaila issued the charter for the reestablished university on 26 July 1400.In accordance with Jadwiga's last will, the restoration of the university was partially financed through the sale of her jewellery.=== Holiness ===Oscar Halecki writes that Jadwiga transmitted to the nations of East Central Europe the \"universal heritage of the ''respublica Christiana'', which in the West was then waning, but in East Central Europe started flourishing and blending with the pre-Renaissance world\".", "She was closely related to the saintly 13th-century princesses, venerated in Hungary and Poland, including Elizabeth of Hungary and her nieces, Kinga and Yolanda, and Salomea of Poland.", "She was born to a family famed for its religious zeal.", "She attended Mass every day.", "In accordance with her family's tradition, Jadwiga was especially devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "An inscription engraved on her request on a precious chalice, which was placed in the Wawel Cathedral, asked Our Lady to place Poland under her protection.Jadwiga was venerated in Poland soon after her death.", "Stanisław of Skarbimierz states that she had been \"the most Christian queen\" in his sermon composed for her funeral.", "Paul of Zator referred to the wax figures placed by her grave.", "Sermons written in the early 15th century emphasized that Jadwiga had been a representative of the traditional virtues of holy women, such as mercy and benevolence.", "Jadwiga's contribution to the restoration of the University of Kraków was also mentioned by early 15th-century scholars.Numerous legends about miracles were recounted to justify her sainthood.", "The two best-known are those of \"Jadwiga's cross\" and \"Jadwiga's foot\":Jadwiga often prayed before a large black crucifix hanging in the north aisle of Wawel Cathedral.", "During one of these prayers, the Christ on the cross is said to have spoken to her.", "The crucifix, \"Saint Jadwiga's cross\", is still there, with her relics beneath it.", "Because of this event, she is considered a medieval mystic.", "According to another legend, Jadwiga took a piece of jewellery from her foot and gave it to a poor stonemason who had begged for her help.", "When the queen left, he noticed her footprint in the plaster floor of his workplace, even though the plaster had already hardened before her visit.", "The supposed footprint, known as \"Jadwiga's foot\", can still be seen in one of Kraków's churches.In yet another legend, Jadwiga was taking part in a Corpus Christi Day procession when a coppersmith's son drowned by falling into a river.", "Jadwiga threw her mantle over the boy's body, and he regained life.On 8 June 1979 Pope John Paul II prayed at her sarcophagus; and the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments officially affirmed her beatification on 8 August 1986.The Pope went on to canonize Jadwiga in Kraków on 8 June 1997." ], [ "Popular culture", "''Hedvigis.", "Dziedziczka królestwa'' (2021), a Polish historical novel about the early life and reign of Jadwiga by Krzysztof Konopka, follows the story of Jadwiga, her sister Mary, and their mother.Queen Jadwiga is the main character of the third season of Polish historical TV series ''Korona królów'' (The Crown of the Kings).", "She is played by Dagmara Bryzek.", "Child Jadwiga is played by Natalia Wolska and Amelia Zawadzka.Jadwiga appears as the leader of the Polish civilization in the turn-based strategy game ''Civilization VI'', specializing in religion and territorial expansion.", "She also features in Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition - Dawn of the Dukes in a campaign of her own.Jadwiga is a playable character in the Mobile/PC Game ''Rise of Kingdoms''." ], [ "See also", "History of Poland during the Piast dynastyHistory of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynastySaint Hedwig of Poland, patron saint archive" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "=== Primary sources === ''The Annals of Jan Długosz'' (An English abridgement by Maurice Michael, with commentary by Paul Smith) (1997).", "IM Publications.", ".=== Secondary sources ===* * * ** * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * " ], [ "External links", " St Jadwiga, Wawel Cathedral official page* Queen Jadwiga Foundation Activities of QJF are inspired by life and achievements of St. Jadwiga Queen" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Kennedy Space Center" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''John F. Kennedy Space Center''' ('''KSC''', originally known as the NASA '''Launch Operations Center'''), located on Merritt Island, Florida, is one of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) ten field centers.", "Since December 1968, KSC has been NASA's primary launch center of human spaceflight, research, and technology.", "Launch operations for the Apollo, Skylab and Space Shuttle programs were carried out from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 and managed by KSC.", "Located on the east coast of Florida, KSC is adjacent to Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS).", "The management of the two entities work very closely together, share resources and operate facilities on each other's property.Though the first Apollo flights and all Project Mercury and Project Gemini flights took off from the then-Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, the launches were managed by KSC and its previous organization, the Launch Operations Directorate.", "Starting with the fourth Gemini mission, the NASA launch control center in Florida (Mercury Control Center, later the Launch Control Center) began handing off control of the vehicle to the Mission Control Center in Houston, shortly after liftoff; in prior missions it held control throughout the entire mission.Additionally, the center manages launch of robotic and commercial crew missions and researches food production and in-situ resource utilization for off-Earth exploration.", "Since 2010, the center has worked to become a multi-user spaceport through industry partnerships, even adding a new launch pad (LC-39C) in 2015.There are about 700 facilities and buildings grouped throughout the center's .", "Among the unique facilities at KSC are the tall Vehicle Assembly Building for stacking NASA's largest rockets, the Launch Control Center, which conducts space launches at KSC, the Operations and Checkout Building, which houses the astronauts dormitories and suit-up area, a Space Station factory, and a long Shuttle Landing Facility.", "There is also a Visitor Complex on site that is open to the public." ], [ "Formation", "Since 1949, the military had been performing launch operations at what would become Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.", "In December 1959, the Department of Defense transferred 5,000 personnel and the Missile Firing Laboratory to NASA to become the Launch Operations Directorate under NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center.President John F. Kennedy's 1961 goal of a crewed lunar landing by 1970 required an expansion of launch operations.", "On July 1, 1962, the Launch Operations Directorate was separated from MSFC to become the '''Launch Operations Center (LOC).'''", "Also, Cape Canaveral was inadequate to host the new launch facility design required for the mammoth tall, thrust Saturn V rocket, which would be assembled vertically in a large hangar and transported on a mobile platform to one of several launch pads.", "Therefore, the decision was made to build a new LOC site located adjacent to Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island.NASA began land acquisition in 1962, buying title to and negotiating with the state of Florida for an additional .", "The major buildings in KSC's Industrial Area were designed by architect Charles Luckman.", "Construction began in November 1962, and Kennedy visited the site twice in 1962, and again just a week before his assassination on November 22, 1963.On November 29, 1963, the facility was named by President Lyndon B. Johnson under Executive Order 11129.Johnson's order joined both the civilian LOC and the military Cape Canaveral station (\"the facilities of Station No.", "1 of the Atlantic Missile Range\") under the designation \"John F. Kennedy Space Center\", spawning some confusion joining the two in the public mind.", "NASA Administrator James E. Webb clarified this by issuing a directive stating the ''Kennedy Space Center'' name applied only to the LOC, while the Air Force issued a general order renaming the military launch site ''Cape Kennedy Air Force Station''." ], [ "Location", "Located on Merritt Island, Florida, the center is north-northwest of Cape Canaveral on the Atlantic Ocean, midway between Miami and Jacksonville on Florida's Space Coast, due east of Orlando.", "It is long and roughly wide, covering .", "KSC is a major central Florida tourist destination and is approximately one hour's drive from the Orlando area.", "The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex offers public tours of the center and Cape Canaveral Space Force Station." ], [ "Historical programs", "=== Apollo program ===A Saturn V carrying Apollo 15 rolls out to Pad 39A in 1971 on Mobile Launch Platform 1.From 1967 through 1973, there were 13 Saturn V launches, including the ten remaining Apollo missions after Apollo 7.The first of two uncrewed flights, Apollo 4 (Apollo-Saturn 501) on November 9, 1967, was also the first rocket launch from KSC.", "The Saturn V's first crewed launch on December 21, 1968, was Apollo 8's lunar orbiting mission.", "The next two missions tested the Lunar Module: Apollo 9 (Earth orbit) and Apollo 10 (lunar orbit).", "Apollo 11, launched from Pad A on July 16, 1969, made the first Moon landing on July 20.The Apollo 11 launch included crewmembers Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin, and attracted a record-breaking 650 million television viewers.", "Apollo 12 followed four months later.", "From 1970 to 1972, the Apollo program concluded at KSC with the launches of missions 13 through 17.=== Skylab ===On May 14, 1973, the last Saturn V launch put the Skylab space station in orbit from Pad 39A.", "By this time, the Cape Kennedy pads 34 and 37 used for the Saturn IB were decommissioned, so Pad 39B was modified to accommodate the Saturn IB, and used to launch three crewed missions to Skylab that year, as well as the final Apollo spacecraft for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project in 1975.=== Space Shuttle ===Shuttle ''Discovery'' launching from Pad 39A on STS-60, February 3, 1994Shuttle ''Atlantis'' is moved to Pad 39A for the 1990 launch of STS-36.The Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' (STS-129) is seen on launch pad 39A at the NASA Kennedy Space Center shortly after the rotating service structure was rolled back on November 15, 2009.As the Space Shuttle was being designed, NASA received proposals for building alternative launch-and-landing sites at locations other than KSC, which demanded study.", "KSC had important advantages, including its existing facilities; location on the Intracoastal Waterway; and its southern latitude, which gives a velocity advantage to missions launched in easterly near-equatorial orbits.", "Disadvantages included: its inability to safely launch military missions into polar orbit, since spent boosters would be likely to fall on the Carolinas or Cuba; corrosion from the salt air; and frequent cloudy or stormy weather.", "Although building a new site at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico was seriously considered, NASA announced its decision in April 1972 to use KSC for the shuttle.", "Since the Shuttle could not be landed automatically or by remote control, the launch of ''Columbia'' on April 12, 1981 for its first orbital mission STS-1, was NASA's first crewed launch of a vehicle that had not been tested in prior uncrewed launches.In 1976, the VAB's south parking area was the site of Third Century America, a science and technology display commemorating the U.S.", "Bicentennial.", "Concurrent with this event, the U.S. flag was painted on the south side of the VAB.", "During the late 1970s, LC-39 was reconfigured to support the Space Shuttle.", "Two Orbiter Processing Facilities were built near the VAB as hangars with a third added in the 1980s.KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) was the orbiters' primary end-of-mission landing site, although the first KSC landing did not take place until the tenth flight, when ''Challenger'' completed STS-41-B on February 11, 1984; the primary landing site until then was Edwards Air Force Base in California, subsequently used as a backup landing site.", "The SLF also provided a return-to-launch-site (RTLS) abort option, which was not utilized.", "The SLF is among the longest runways in the world.===Constellation===On October 28, 2009, the Ares I-X launch from Pad 39B was the first uncrewed launch from KSC since the Skylab workshop in 1973.=== Expendable launch vehicles (ELVs) ===Beginning in 1958, NASA and military worked side by side on robotic mission launches (previously referred to as unmanned), cooperating as they broke ground in the field.", "In the early 1960s, NASA had as many as two robotic mission launches a month.", "The frequent number of flights allowed for quick evolution of the vehicles, as engineers gathered data, learned from anomalies and implemented upgrades.", "In 1963, with the intent of KSC ELV work focusing on the ground support equipment and facilities, a separate Atlas/Centaur organization was formed under NASA's Lewis Center (now Glenn Research Center (GRC)), taking that responsibility from the Launch Operations Center (aka KSC).Though almost all robotics missions launched from the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS), KSC \"oversaw the final assembly and testing of rockets as they arrived at the Cape.\"", "In 1965, KSC's Unmanned Launch Operations directorate became responsible for all NASA uncrewed launch operations, including those at Vandenberg Space Force Base.", "From the 1950s to 1978, KSC chose the rocket and payload processing facilities for all robotic missions launching in the U.S., overseeing their near launch processing and checkout.", "In addition to government missions, KSC performed this service for commercial and foreign missions also, though non-U.S. government entities provided reimbursement.", "NASA also funded Cape Canaveral Space Force Station launch pad maintenance and launch vehicle improvements.All this changed with the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984, after which NASA only coordinated its own and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ELV launches.", "Companies were able to \"operate their own launch vehicles\" and utilize NASA's launch facilities.", "Payload processing handled by private firms also started to occur outside of KSC.", "Reagan's 1988 space policy furthered the movement of this work from KSC to commercial companies.", "That same year, launch complexes on Cape Canaveral Air Force Force Station started transferring from NASA to Air Force Space Command management.In the 1990s, though KSC was not performing the hands-on ELV work, engineers still maintained an understanding of ELVs and had contracts allowing them insight into the vehicles so they could provide knowledgeable oversight.", "KSC also worked on ELV research and analysis and the contractors were able to utilize KSC personnel as a resource for technical issues.", "KSC, with the payload and launch vehicle industries, developed advances in automation of the ELV launch and ground operations to enable competitiveness of U.S. rockets against the global market.In 1998, the Launch Services Program (LSP) formed at KSC, pulling together programs (and personnel) that already existed at KSC, GRC, Goddard Space Flight Center, and more to manage the launch of NASA and NOAA robotic missions.", "Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and VAFB are the primary launch sites for LSP missions, though other sites are occasionally used.", "LSP payloads such as the Mars Science Laboratory have been processed at KSC before being transferred to a launch pad on Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.=== Artemis program ===Artemis 1 LaunchOn 16 November 2022, at 06:47:44 UTC the Space Launch System (SLS) was launched from Complex 39B as part of the Artemis 1 mission.=== Space station processing ===Node 2 being hoisted by overhead cranes in the Space Station Processing FacilityAs the International Space Station modules design began in the early 1990s, KSC began to work with other NASA centers and international partners to prepare for processing before launch onboard the Space Shuttles.", "KSC utilized its hands-on experience processing the 22 Spacelab missions in the Operations and Checkout Building to gather expectations of ISS processing.", "These experiences were incorporated into the design of the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF), which began construction in 1991.The Space Station Directorate formed in 1996.KSC personnel were embedded at station module factories for insight into their processes.From 1997 to 2007, KSC planned and performed on the ground integration tests and checkouts of station modules: three Multi-Element Integration Testing (MEIT) sessions and the Integration Systems Test (IST).", "Numerous issues were found and corrected that would have been difficult to nearly impossible to do on-orbit.Today KSC continues to process ISS payloads from across the world before launch along with developing its experiments for on orbit.", "The proposed Lunar Gateway would be manufactured and processed at the Space Station Processing Facility." ], [ "Current programs and initiatives", "Artemis I ICPS at Kennedy Space CenterSAGE III at Space Station Processing FacilityNASA scientist, observe ground control experiments in the Veggie Lab at NASA's Kennedy Space CenterThe following are current programs and initiatives at Kennedy Space Center:* Commercial Crew Program* Exploration Ground Systems Program NASA is currently designing the next heavy launch vehicle known as the Space Launch System (SLS) for continuation of human spaceflight.", " On December 5, 2014, NASA launched the first uncrewed flight test of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV), currently under development to facilitate human exploration of the Moon and Mars.", "* Launch Services Program* Educational Launch of Nanosatellites (ELaNa)* Research and Technology* Artemis program* Lunar Gateway* International Space Station Payloads* Camp KSC: educational camps for schoolchildren in spring and summer, with a focus on space, aviation and robotics." ], [ "Facilities", "KSC industrial areaThe KSC Industrial Area, where many of the center's support facilities are located, is south of LC-39.It includes the Headquarters Building, the Operations and Checkout Building and the Central Instrumentation Facility.", "The astronaut crew quarters are in the O&C; before it was completed, the astronaut crew quarters were located in Hangar S at the Cape Canaveral Missile Test Annex (now Cape Canaveral Space Force Station).", "Located at KSC was the Merritt Island Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network station (MILA), a key radio communications and spacecraft tracking complex.Facilities at the Kennedy Space Center are directly related to its mission to launch and recover missions.", "Facilities are available to prepare and maintain spacecraft and payloads for flight.", "The Headquarters (HQ) Building houses offices for the Center Director, library, film and photo archives, a print shop and security.", "When the KSC Library first opened, it was part of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency.", "However, in 1965, the library moved into three separate sections in the newly opened NASA headquarters before eventually becoming a single unit in 1970.The library contains over four million items related to the history and the work at Kennedy.", "As one of ten NASA center libraries in the country, their collection focuses on engineering, science, and technology.", "The archives contain planning documents, film reels, and original photographs covering the history of KSC.", "The library is not open to the public but is available for KSC, Space Force, and Navy employees who work on site.", "Many of the media items from the collection are digitized and available through NASA's KSC Media Gallery or through their more up-to-date Flickr gallery.A new Headquarters Building was completed in 2019 as part of the Central Campus consolidation.", "Groundbreaking began in 2014.The center operated its own short-line railroad.", "This operation was discontinued in 2015, with the sale of its final two locomotives.", "A third had already been donated to a museum.", "The line was costing $1.3 million annually to maintain.=== Payload manufacture and processing ===Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout BuildingPre-made ISS modules in the Space Station Processing FacilityBlue Origin's manufacturing facility near KSC visitor complex* The Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building (O&C) (previously known as the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building) is a historic site on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places dating back to the 1960s and was used to receive, process, and integrate payloads for the Gemini and Apollo programs, the Skylab program in the 1970s, and for initial segments of the International Space Station through the 1990s.", "The Apollo and Space Shuttle astronauts would board the astronaut transfer van to launch complex 39 from the O&C building.", "* The three-story, Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) consists of two enormous processing bays, an airlock, operational control rooms, laboratories, logistics areas and office space for support of non-hazardous Space Station and Shuttle payloads to ISO 14644-1 class 5 standards.", "Opened in 1994, it is the largest factory building in the KSC industrial area.", "The Vertical Processing Facility (VPF) features a door where payloads that are processed in the vertical position are brought in and manipulated with two overhead cranes and a hoist capable of lifting up to .", " The Hypergolic Maintenance and Checkout Area (HMCA) comprises three buildings that are isolated from the rest of the industrial area because of the hazardous materials handled there.", "Hypergolic-fueled modules that made up the Space Shuttle Orbiter's reaction control system, orbital maneuvering system and auxiliary power units were stored and serviced in the HMCF.", "* The Multi-Payload Processing Facility is a building used for Orion spacecraft and payload processing.", "The '''Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility''' ('''PHSF''') contains a service bay, with a , hook height.", "It also contains a payload airlock.", "Its temperature is maintained at .", "The '''Blue Origin''' rocket manufacturing facility is located immediately south of the KSC visitor complex.", "Completed in 2019, it serves as the company's factory for the manufacture of New Glenn orbital rockets.=== Launch Complex 39 ===The Vehicle Assembly Building (center) in 1999, with the Launch Control Center jutting out from its right, and Pads A and B in the distanceCloseup photo of the VABLaunch Complex 39 (LC-39) was originally built for the Saturn V, the largest and most powerful operational launch vehicle until the Space Launch System, for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program.", "Since the end of the Apollo program in 1972, LC-39 has been used to launch every NASA human space flight, including Skylab (1973), the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1975), and the Space Shuttle program (1981–2011).Since December 1968, all launch operations have been conducted from launch pads A and B at LC-39.Both pads are on the ocean, east of the VAB.", "From 1969 to 1972, LC-39 was the \"Moonport\" for all six Apollo crewed Moon landing missions using the Saturn V, and was used from 1981 to 2011 for all Space Shuttle launches.Human missions to the Moon required the large three-stage Saturn V rocket, which was tall and in diameter.", "At KSC, Launch Complex 39 was built on Merritt Island to accommodate the new rocket.", "Construction of the $800 million project began in November 1962.LC-39 pads A and B were completed by October 1965 (planned Pads C, D and E were canceled), the VAB was completed in June 1965, and the infrastructure by late 1966.The complex includes:* the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), a hangar capable of holding four Saturn Vs.", "The VAB was the largest structure in the world by volume when completed in 1965.", "* a transporter capable of carrying 5,440 tons along a crawlerway to either of two launch pads;* a mobile service structure, with three Mobile Launcher Platforms, each containing a fixed launch umbilical tower;* the Launch Control Center; and* a news media facility.=== Launch Complex 48 ===A rendering of Boeing's XS-1 Phantom Express launch vehicle on LC-48Launch Complex 48 (LC-48) is a multi-user launch site under construction for small launchers and spacecraft.", "It will be located between Launch Complex 39A and Space Launch Complex 41, with LC-39A to the north and SLC-41 to the south.", "LC-48 will be constructed as a \"clean pad\" to support multiple launch systems with differing propellant needs.", "While initially only planned to have a single pad, the complex is capable of being expanded to two at a later date.=== Commercial leasing ===As a part of promoting commercial space industry growth in the area and the overall center as a multi-user spaceport, KSC leases some of its properties.", "Here are some major examples:* Exploration Park to multiple users (partnership with Space Florida)* Shuttle Landing Facility to Space Florida (who contracts use to private companies)* Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF)-3 to Boeing (for CST-100 Starliner)* Launch Complex 39A, Launch Control Center Firing Room 4 and land for SpaceX's Roberts Road facility (Hanger X) to SpaceX* O&C High Bay to Lockheed Martin (for Orion processing)* Land for FPL's Space Coast Next Generation Solar Energy Center to Florida Power and Light (FPL)* Hypergolic Maintenance Facility (HMF) to United Paradyne Corporation (UPC)=== Visitor complex ===''Explorer'', a Space Shuttle mock-up, is in the backgroundThe Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, operated by Delaware North since 1995, has a variety of exhibits, artifacts, displays and attractions on the history and future of human and robotic spaceflight.", "Bus tours of KSC originate from here.", "The complex also includes the separate Apollo/Saturn V Center, north of the VAB and the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, six miles west near Titusville.", "There were 1.5 million visitors in 2009.It had some 700 employees.It was announced on May 29, 2015, that the Astronaut Hall of Fame exhibit would be moved from its current location to another location within the Visitor Complex to make room for an upcoming high-tech attraction entitled \"Heroes and Legends\".", "The attraction, designed by Orlando-based design firm Falcon's Treehouse, opened November 11, 2016.In March 2016, the visitor center unveiled the new location of the iconic countdown clock at the complex's entrance; previously, the clock was located with a flagpole at the press site.", "The clock was originally built and installed in 1969 and listed with the flagpole in the National Register of Historic Places in January 2000.In 2019, NASA celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Apollo program, and the launch of Apollo 10 on May 18.In summer of 2019, Lunar Module 9 (LM-9) was relocated to the Apollo/Saturn V Center as part of an initiative to rededicate the center and celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Apollo Program.===Historic locations===NASA lists the following Historic Districts at KSC; each district has multiple associated facilities:Launch Complex 39: Pad A Historic DistrictLaunch Complex 39: Pad B Historic DistrictShuttle Landing Facility (SLF) Area Historic DistrictOrbiter Processing Historic DistrictSolid Rocket Booster (SRB) Disassembly and Refurbishment Complex Historic DistrictNASA KSC Railroad System Historic DistrictNASA-owned Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Industrial Area Historic DistrictThere are 24 historic properties outside of these historic districts, including the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Vehicle Assembly Building, Crawlerway, and Operations and Checkout Building.", "KSC has one National Historic Landmark, 78 National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) listed or eligible sites, and 100 Archaeological Sites.=== Other facilities === The '''Rotation, Processing and Surge Facility''' ('''RPSF''') is responsible for the preparation of solid rocket booster segments for transportation to the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB).", "The RPSF was built in 1984 to perform SRB operations that had previously been conducted in high bays 2 and 4 of the VAB at the beginning of the Space Shuttle program.", "It was used until the Space Shuttle's retirement, and will be used in the future by the Space Launch System (SLS) and OmegA rockets." ], [ "Weather", "A Mercury Redstone rocket on display at Gate 3 was toppled by Hurricane Frances on September 7, 2004.Florida's peninsular shape and temperature contrasts between land and ocean provide ideal conditions for electrical storms, earning Central Florida the reputation as \"lightning capital of the United States\".", "This makes extensive lightning protection and detection systems necessary to protect employees, structures and spacecraft on launch pads.", "On November 14, 1969, Apollo 12 was struck by lightning just after lift-off from Pad 39A, but the flight continued safely.", "The most powerful lightning strike recorded at KSC occurred at LC-39B on August 25, 2006, while shuttle ''Atlantis'' was being prepared for STS-115.NASA managers were initially concerned that the lightning strike caused damage to ''Atlantis'', but none was found.On September 7, 2004, Hurricane Frances directly hit the area with sustained winds of and gusts up to , the most damaging storm to date.", "The Vehicle Assembly Building lost 1,000 exterior panels, each x in size.", "This exposed of the building to the elements.", "Damage occurred to the south and east sides of the VAB.", "The shuttle's Thermal Protection System Facility suffered extensive damage.", "The roof was partially torn off and the interior suffered water damage.", "Several rockets on display in the center were toppled.", "Further damage to KSC was caused by Hurricane Wilma in October 2005.The conservative estimate by NASA is that the Space Center will experience 5 to 8 inches of sea level rise by the 2050s.", "Launch Complex 39A, the site of the Apollo 11 launch, is the most vulnerable to flooding, and has a 14% annual risk of flooding beginning in 2020." ], [ "KSC directors", "Dr. Kurt Debus, first director of KSCSince KSC's formation, ten NASA officials have served as directors, including three former astronauts (Crippen, Bridges and Cabana): Name Start End Reference Dr. Kurt H. Debus July 1962 November 1974 Lee R. Scherer January 19, 1975 September 2, 1979 Richard G. Smith September 26, 1979 August 2, 1986 Forrest S. McCartney August 31, 1987 December 31, 1991 Robert L. Crippen January 1992 January 1995 Jay F. Honeycutt January 1995 March 2, 1997 Roy D. Bridges, Jr. March 2, 1997 August 9, 2003 James W. Kennedy August 9, 2003 January 2007 William W. Parsons January 2007 October 2008 Robert D. Cabana October 2008 May 2021 Janet E. PetroJune 2021 Present" ], [ "In popular culture", "In addition to being frequently featured in documentaries, Kennedy Space Center has been portrayed on film many times.", "Some studio movies have even gained access and filmed scenes within the gates of the space center.", "If extras are needed in those scenes, space center employees are recruited (employees use personal time during filming).", "Films with scenes at KSC include:''Moonraker''''SpaceCamp''''Apollo 13''''Contact''''Armageddon''''Space Cowboys''''Swades''''Transformers 3: Dark of the Moon''''Tomorrowland''''Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!", "''''First Man''''Geostorm''''Men in Black 3''The location appears as a major plot point in the finale of ''Stone Ocean'', Part 6 of the ''JoJo's Bizarre Adventure'' manga where it is used by the main antagonist Father Enrico Pucci to achieve heaven.", "It also appears in the fifth season of the respective anime adaptation ''JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Stone Ocean''.KSC is also one of the two primary settings of the 1965–1970 television series ''I Dream Of Jeannie'' (along with a home in nearby Cocoa Beach), though it was filmed entirely in Los Angeles." ], [ "See also", " Air Force Space and Missile Museum* Astronaut beach house* Launch Complex 34 – used for the smaller Apollo Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets* Launch Complex 37 – used for the smaller Apollo Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets* List of memorials to John F. Kennedy* List of tallest buildings and structures in the world* Mobile launcher platform* NASA Causeway* Solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 (Kennedy Space Center will be in the path of totality)* Swamp Works* Crawler-transporter" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* .", "* Middleton, Sallie.", "\"Space Rush: Local Impact of Federal Aerospace Programs on Brevard and Surrounding Counties,\" ''Florida Historical Quarterly,'' Fall 2008, Vol.", "87 Issue 2, pp. 258–289.", "* " ], [ "External links", " * KSC Visitor Complex Web site* Streaming audio of KSC radio communications* Astronauts Memorial Foundation Web site* \"America's Space Program: Exploring a New Frontier\", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places lesson plan* \"Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms\", a National Park Service ''Discover Our Shared Heritage'' travel itinerary* A Field Guide to American Spacecraft* Documentary of the U.S. Space Program in Florida" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joni Mitchell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Roberta Joan''' \"'''Joni'''\" '''Mitchell''' (née '''Anderson'''; born November 7, 1943) is a Canadian-American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and painter.", "As one of the most influential singer-songwriters to emerge from the 1960s folk music circuit, Mitchell became known for her personal lyrics and unconventional compositions which grew to incorporate pop and jazz elements.", "She has received many accolades, including eleven Grammy Awards and induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997.", "''Rolling Stone'' called her \"one of the greatest songwriters ever\", and AllMusic has stated, \"Joni Mitchell may stand as the most important and influential female recording artist of the late 20th century.", "\"Mitchell began singing in small nightclubs in Saskatoon and throughout western Canada, before moving on to the nightclubs of Toronto.", "She moved to the United States and began touring in 1965.Some of her original songs (\"Urge for Going\", \"Chelsea Morning\", \"Both Sides, Now\", \"The Circle Game\") were recorded by other folk singers, allowing her to sign with Reprise Records and record her debut album, ''Song to a Seagull'', in 1968.Settling in Southern California, Mitchell helped define an era and a generation with popular songs like \"Big Yellow Taxi\" and \"Woodstock\".", "Her 1971 album ''Blue'' is often cited as one of the greatest albums of all time; it was rated the 30th best album ever made in ''Rolling Stone''s 2003 list of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\", rising to number 3 in the 2020 edition.", "In 2000, ''The New York Times'' chose ''Blue'' as one of the 25 albums that represented \"turning points and pinnacles in 20th-century popular music\".", "NPR ranked ''Blue'' number 1 on a 2017 list of Greatest Albums Made By Women.Mitchell began exploring more jazz-influenced ideas on 1974's ''Court and Spark'', which featured the radio hits \"Help Me\" and \"Free Man in Paris\" and became her best-selling album.", "Mitchell's vocal range began to shift from mezzo-soprano to that of a wide-ranging contralto around 1975.Her distinctive piano and open-tuned guitar compositions also grew more harmonically and rhythmically complex as she melded jazz with rock and roll, R&B, classical music and non-Western beats.", "Starting in the mid-1970s, she began working with noted jazz musicians including Jaco Pastorius, Tom Scott, Wayne Shorter, Herbie Hancock, and Pat Metheny as well as Charles Mingus, who asked her to collaborate on his final recordings.", "She later turned to pop and electronic music and engaged in political protest.", "She was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002.Mitchell produced or co-produced most of her albums and designed most of her own album covers, describing herself as a \"painter derailed by circumstance\".", "A critic of the music industry, she quit touring and released her 19th and last album of original songs in 2007.She would give occasional interviews and make appearances to speak on various causes over the next two decades, though the rupture of a brain aneurysm in 2015 led to a long period of recovery and therapy.", "A series of retrospective compilations were released over the time period, culminating in the Joni Mitchell Archives, a project to publish much of the unreleased material from her long career.", "She returned to public appearances in 2021, accepting several awards in person, including a Kennedy Center Honor.", "Mitchell returned to live performance with an unannounced show at the June 2022 Newport Folk Festival and has made several other appearances since, including a headlining show in 2023." ], [ "Life and career", "===1943–1963: Early life and education===Mitchell was born Roberta Joan Anderson on November 7, 1943, in Fort Macleod, Alberta, the daughter of Myrtle Marguerite (née McKee) and William Andrew Anderson.", "Her mother's ancestors were Scottish and Irish; her father was from a Norwegian family that may have had some Sámi ancestry.", "Her mother was a teacher, while her father was a Royal Canadian Air Force flight lieutenant who instructed new pilots at RCAF Station Fort Macleod.", "She later moved with her parents to various bases in western Canada.", "After World War II ended, her father worked as a grocer and her family moved to Saskatchewan, living in Maidstone and North Battleford.", "She later sang about her small-town upbringing in several of her songs, including \"Song for Sharon\".Mitchell contracted polio at age nine and was hospitalized for weeks.", "She also started smoking that year, but denies that smoking has affected her voice.She moved with her family to Saskatoon, which she considers her hometown, at age 11.Mitchell struggled at school; her main interest was painting.", "During this time she briefly studied classical piano.", "She focused on her creative talent and considered a singing or dancing career for the first time.", "One unconventional teacher, Arthur Kratzmann, made an impact on her, stimulating her to write poetry; her first album includes a dedication to him.", "She dropped out of school in grade 12 (resuming her studies later) and hung out downtown with a rowdy set until she decided that she was getting too close to the criminal world.Mitchell wanted to play the guitar, but as her mother associated the instrument with country music and disapproved of its hillbilly associations, she initially settled for the ukulele.", "Eventually she taught herself guitar from a Pete Seeger songbook.", "Polio had weakened her left hand, so she devised alternative tunings to compensate; she later used these tunings to create nonstandard approaches to harmony and structure in her songwriting.Mitchell started singing with her friends at bonfires around Waskesiu Lake, northwest of Prince Albert, Saskatchewan.", "She widened her repertoire to include her favourite performers, such as Édith Piaf and Miles Davis, at age 18.Her first paid performance was on October 31, 1962, at a Saskatoon club that featured folk and jazz performers.", "Although she never performed jazz herself in those days, Mitchell and her friends sought out gigs by jazz musicians.", "Mitchell said, \"My jazz background began with one of the early Lambert, Hendricks and Ross albums.\"", "That album, ''The Hottest New Group in Jazz'', was hard to find in Canada, she says, \"so I saved up and bought it at a bootleg price.", "I considered that album to be my Beatles.", "I learned every song off of it, and I don't think there is another album anywhere—including my own—on which I know every note and word of every song.", "\"After graduating from high school at Aden Bowman Collegiate in Saskatoon, Mitchell took art classes at the Saskatoon Technical Collegiate with abstract expressionist painter Henry Bonli and left home to attend the Alberta College of Art in Calgary for the 1963–64 school year.", "She felt disillusioned about the high priority given to technical skill over free-class creativity there, and felt out of step with the trend toward pure abstraction and the tendency to move into commercial art.", "She dropped out of school after a year at age 20, a decision that greatly displeased her parents, who remembered the Great Depression and valued education highly.===1964–1967: Career beginnings, motherhood, and first marriage===She continued to play gigs as a folk musician on weekends at her college and at a local hotel.", "Around this time she took a $15-a-week job in a Calgary coffeehouse called The Depression Coffee House, \"singing long tragic songs in a minor key\".", "She sang at hootenannies and made appearances on local TV and radio shows in Calgary.", "In 1964, at the age of 20, she told her mother that she intended to be a folk singer in Toronto.", "She left western Canada for the first time in her life, heading east for Ontario.", "Mitchell wrote her first song, \"Day After Day\", on the three-day train ride.", "She stopped at the Mariposa Folk Festival to see Buffy Sainte-Marie, an American folk singer who had inspired her.", "A year later, Mitchell played Mariposa, her first gig for a major audience, and years later Sainte-Marie herself covered Mitchell's work.Lacking the $200 needed for musicians' union fees, Mitchell performed at a few gigs at the Half Beat and the Village Corner in Toronto's Yorkville neighbourhood, but she mostly played non-union gigs \"in church basements and YMCA meeting halls\".", "Rejected from major folk clubs, she resorted to busking, while she \"worked in the women's wear section of a downtown department store to pay the rent.\"", "She lived in a rooming house, directly across the hall from poet Duke Redbird.", "Mitchell also began to realize each city's folk scene tended to accord veteran performers the exclusive right to play their signature songs—despite not having written the songs—which Mitchell found insular, contrary to the egalitarian ideal of folk music.", "She found her best traditional material was already other singers' property.", "She said she was told You can't sing that.", "That's my song.'", "And I named another one.", "'You can't sing that.", "That's my song.'", "This is my introduction to territorial songs.", "I ran into it again in Toronto.\"", "She resolved to write her own songs.Mitchell discovered that she was pregnant by her Calgary ex-boyfriend Brad MacMath in late 1964.She later wrote, \"He left me three months pregnant in an attic room with no money and winter coming on and only a fireplace for heat.", "The spindles of the banister were gap-toothed—fuel for last winter's occupants.\"", "She gave birth to a baby girl in February 1965.Unable to provide for her daughter, Kelly Dale Anderson, she placed her for adoption.", "The experience remained private for most of Mitchell's career, although she alluded to it in several songs, such as \"Little Green\", which she performed in the 1960s and recorded eventually for the 1971 album ''Blue''.", "In \"Chinese Cafe\", from the 1982 album ''Wild Things Run Fast'', Mitchell sang, \"Your kids are coming up straight / My child's a stranger / I bore her / But I could not raise her.\"", "These lyrics did not receive wide attention at the time.The existence of Mitchell's daughter was not publicly known until 1993, when a roommate from Mitchell's art school days in the 1960s sold the story of the adoption to a tabloid magazine.", "By that time, Mitchell's daughter, renamed Kilauren Gibb, had already begun a search for her biological parents.", "Mitchell and her daughter met in 1997.After the reunion, Mitchell said that she lost interest in songwriting, and she later identified her daughter's birth and her inability to take care of her as the moment when her songwriting inspiration had really begun.A few weeks after the birth of her daughter in February 1965, Mitchell was playing gigs again around Yorkville, often with a friend, Vicky Taylor, and was beginning to sing original material for the first time, written with her unique open tunings.", "In March and April she found work at the Penny Farthing, a folk club in Toronto.", "There she met New York City-born American folk singer Charles Scott \"Chuck\" Mitchell, from Michigan.", "Chuck was immediately attracted to her and impressed by her performance, and he told her that he could get her steady work in the coffeehouses he knew in the United States.Mitchell left Canada for the first time in late April 1965.She travelled with Chuck Mitchell to the US, where they began playing music together.", "Joni, 21 years old, married Chuck in an official ceremony in his hometown in June 1965 and took his surname.", "She said, \"I made my dress and bridesmaids' dresses.", "We had no money...", "I walked down the aisle brandishing my daisies.\"", "Mitchell is both a Canadian and U.S. citizen.While living at the Verona apartments in Detroit's Cass Corridor, the couple regularly performed at area coffee houses, including the Chess Mate on Livernois, near Six Mile Road; the Alcove bar, near Wayne State University; the Rathskeller, a restaurant on the campus of the University of Detroit; and the Raven Gallery in Southfield.", "She began playing and composing songs in alternative guitar tunings taught to her by a fellow musician, Eric Andersen, in Detroit.", "Oscar Brand featured her several times on his CBC television program ''Let's Sing Out'' in 1965 and 1966.The marriage and partnership of Joni and Chuck Mitchell ended with their divorce in early 1967, and she moved to New York City to follow her musical path as a solo artist.", "She played venues up and down the East Coast, including Philadelphia, Boston, and Fort Bragg, North Carolina.", "She performed frequently in coffeehouses and folk clubs and, by this time creating her own material, became well known for her unique songwriting and her innovative guitar style.===1968–1969: Breakthrough with ''Song to a Seagull'' and ''Clouds''===Folk singer Tom Rush had met Mitchell in Toronto and was impressed with her songwriting ability.", "He took \"Urge for Going\" to the popular folk artist Judy Collins, but she was not interested in the song at the time, so Rush recorded it himself.", "Country singer George Hamilton IV heard Rush performing it and recorded a hit country version.", "Other artists who recorded Mitchell's songs in the early years were Buffy Sainte-Marie (\"The Circle Game\"), Dave Van Ronk (\"Both Sides Now\"), and eventually Judy Collins (\"Both Sides Now\", a top ten hit for her, and \"Michael from Mountains\", both included on her 1967 album ''Wildflowers'').", "Collins also covered \"Chelsea Morning\", another recording that eclipsed Mitchell's own commercial success early on.While Mitchell was playing one night in 1967 in the Gaslight South, a club in Coconut Grove, Florida, David Crosby walked in and was immediately struck by her ability and her appeal as an artist.", "She accompanied him back to Los Angeles, where he set about introducing her and her music to his friends.", "Soon she was being managed by Elliot Roberts, who, after being urged by Buffy Sainte-Marie, had first seen her play in a Greenwich Village coffee house.", "He had a close business association with David Geffen.", "Roberts and Geffen were to have important influences on her career.", "Eventually she was signed to the Warners-affiliated Reprise label by talent scout Andy Wickham.", "Crosby convinced Reprise to let Mitchell record a solo acoustic album without the folk-rock overdubs in vogue at that time, and his clout earned him a producer's credit in March 1968, when Reprise released her debut album, known either as ''Joni Mitchell'' or ''Song to a Seagull''.Mitchell toured steadily to promote the LP.", "The tour helped create eager anticipation for Mitchell's second LP, ''Clouds'', which was released in April 1969.This album contained Mitchell's own versions of some of her songs already recorded and performed by other artists: \"Chelsea Morning\", \"Both Sides, Now\", and \"Tin Angel\".", "The covers of both LPs, including a self-portrait on ''Clouds'', were designed and painted by Mitchell, a blending of her painting and music that she continued throughout her career.===1970–1972: ''Ladies of the Canyon'' and ''Blue''===231x231pxIn March 1970, ''Clouds'' produced her first Grammy Award for Best Folk Performance.", "The following month, Reprise released her third album, ''Ladies of the Canyon''.", "Mitchell's sound was already beginning to expand beyond the confines of acoustic folk music and toward pop and rock, with more overdubs, percussion, and backing vocals, and for the first time, many songs composed on piano, which became a hallmark of Mitchell's style in her most popular era.", "Her own version of \"Woodstock\", slower than the cover by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, was performed solo on a Wurlitzer electric piano.", "The album also included the already-familiar song \"The Circle Game\" and the environmental anthem \"Big Yellow Taxi\", with its famous line, \"they paved paradise and put up a parking lot.", "\"''Ladies of the Canyon'' was an instant smash on FM radio and sold briskly, eventually becoming Mitchell's first gold album (selling over a half million copies).", "She made a decision to stop touring for a year and just write and paint, yet she was still voted \"Top Female Performer\" for 1970 by ''Melody Maker'', a leading UK pop music magazine.", "On the April 1971 release of James Taylor's ''Mud Slide Slim and the Blue Horizon'' album, Mitchell is credited with backup vocals on the track \"You've Got a Friend\".", "The songs she wrote during the months she took off for travel and life experience appeared on her next album, ''Blue'', released in June 1971.Comparing Joni Mitchell's talent to his own, David Crosby said, \"By the time she did ''Blue'', she was past me and rushing toward the horizon\".", "''Blue'' was an almost instant critical and commercial success, peaking in the top 20 of the ''Billboard'' albums chart in September and also hitting the British Top 3.The lushly produced \"Carey\" was the single at the time, but musically, other parts of ''Blue'' departed further from the sounds of ''Ladies of the Canyon''.", "Simpler, rhythmic acoustic parts allowed a focus on Mitchell's voice and emotions (\"All I Want\", \"A Case of You\"), while others such as \"Blue\", \"River\" and \"The Last Time I Saw Richard\" were sung to her rolling piano accompaniment.", "Her most confessional album, Mitchell later said of ''Blue'', \"I have, on occasion, sacrificed myself and my own emotional makeup, ... singing 'I'm selfish and I'm sad', for instance.", "We all suffer for our loneliness, but at the time of ''Blue'', our pop stars never admitted these things.\"", "In its lyrics, the album was regarded as an inspired culmination of her early work, with depressed assessments of the world around her serving as counterpoint to exuberant expressions of romantic love (for example, in \"California\").", "Mitchell later remarked, \"At that period of my life, I had no personal defenses.", "I felt like a cellophane wrapper on a pack of cigarettes.", "I felt like I had absolutely no secrets from the world and I couldn't pretend in my life to be strong.", "\"===1972–1975: ''For the Roses'' and ''Court and Spark''===Mitchell performing at the Anaheim Convention Center in 1974Mitchell decided to return to the live stage after the great success of ''Blue'', and she presented new songs on tour which appeared on her next album, her fifth, ''For the Roses''.", "The album was released in October 1972 and immediately zoomed up the charts.", "She followed with the single, \"You Turn Me On, I'm a Radio\", which peaked at No.", "25 in the ''Billboard'' charts in February 1973.", "''Court and Spark'', released in January 1974, saw Mitchell begin the flirtation with jazz and jazz fusion that marked her experimental period ahead.", "''Court and Spark'' went to No.", "1 on the ''Cashbox'' Album Charts.", "The LP made Mitchell a widely popular act for perhaps the only time in her career, on the strength of popular tracks such as the rocker \"Raised on Robbery\", which was released right before Christmas 1973, and \"Help Me\", which was released in March of the following year, and became Mitchell's only Top 10 single when it peaked at No.", "7 in the first week of June.", "\"Free Man in Paris\" was another hit single and staple in her catalog.While recording ''Court and Spark'', Mitchell had tried to make a clean break with her earlier folk sound, producing the album herself and employing jazz/pop fusion band the L.A. Express as what she called her first real backing group.", "In February 1974, her tour with the L.A. Express began, and they received rave notices as they traveled across the United States and Canada during the next two months.", "A series of shows at L.A.'s Universal Amphitheater from August 14–17 were recorded for a live album.", "In November, Mitchell released that album, ''Miles of Aisles'', a two-record set including all but two songs from the L.A. concerts (one selection each from the Berkeley Community Theatre, on March 2, and the L.A. Music Center, on March 4, were also included in the set).", "The live album slowly moved up to No.", "2, matching ''Court and Spark''s chart peak on ''Billboard''.", "\"Big Yellow Taxi\", the live version, was also released as a single and did reasonably well (she released another version of the song in 2007).In January 1975, ''Court and Spark'' received four nominations for Grammy Awards, including Grammy Award for Album of the Year, for which Mitchell was the only woman nominated.", "She won only the Grammy Award for Best Arrangement, Instrumental and Vocals.===1975–1977: ''The Hissing of Summer Lawns'' and ''Hejira''===231x231pxMitchell went into the studio in early 1975 to record acoustic demos of some songs that she had written since the ''Court and Spark'' tour.", "A few months later she recorded versions of the tunes with her band.", "Her musical interests were diverging from both the folk and the pop scene of the era, toward less structured, more jazz-inspired pieces, with a wider range of instruments.", "The new song cycle was released in November 1975 as ''The Hissing of Summer Lawns''.", "On \"The Jungle Line\", she made an early effort at sampling a recording of African musicians, something that became more commonplace among Western rock acts in the 1980s.", "\"In France They Kiss on Main Street\" continued the lush pop sounds of ''Court and Spark'', and efforts such as the title song and \"Edith and the Kingpin\" chronicled the underbelly of suburban lives in Southern California.During 1975, Mitchell also participated in several concerts in the Rolling Thunder Revue tours featuring Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, and in 1976 she performed as part of ''The Last Waltz'' by the Band.", "In January 1976, Mitchell received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the album ''The Hissing of Summer Lawns'', though the 1976 Grammy for that category went to Linda Ronstadt.In early 1976, Mitchell traveled with friends who were driving cross country to Maine.", "Afterwards, she drove back to California alone and composed several songs during her journey which featured on her next album, 1976's ''Hejira''.", "She stated that \"This album was written mostly while I was traveling in the car.", "That's why there were no piano songs ...\" ''Hejira'' was arguably Mitchell's most experimental album so far, owing to her ongoing collaborations with jazz virtuoso bass guitarist Jaco Pastorius on several songs, namely the first single, \"Coyote\", the atmospheric \"Hejira\", the disorienting, guitar-heavy \"Black Crow\", and the album's last song \"Refuge of the Roads\".", "The album climbed to No.", "13 on the Billboard Charts, reaching gold status three weeks after release, and received airplay from album-oriented FM rock stations.", "Yet \"Coyote\", backed with \"Blue Motel Room\", failed to chart on the Hot 100.", "''Hejira'' \"did not sell as briskly as Mitchell's earlier, more 'radio-friendly' albums, but its stature in her catalogue has grown over the years\".", "Mitchell herself believes the album to be unique.", "In 2006 she said, \"I suppose a lot of people could have written a lot of my other songs, but I feel the songs on ''Hejira'' could only have come from me.", "\"===1977–1980: ''Don Juan's Reckless Daughter'' and ''Mingus''===In mid-1977, Mitchell began work on new recordings that became her first double studio album.", "Close to completing her contract with Asylum Records, Mitchell felt that this album could be looser in feel than any album she had done in the past.", "She invited Pastorius back, and he brought with him fellow members of jazz fusion pioneers Weather Report, including drummer Don Alias and saxophonist Wayne Shorter.", "Layered, atmospheric compositions such as \"Overture/Cotton Avenue\" featured more improvisatory collaboration, while \"Paprika Plains\" was a 16-minute epic that stretched the boundaries of pop, owing more to Mitchell's memories of childhood in Canada and her study of classical music.", "\"Dreamland\" and \"The Tenth World\", featuring Chaka Khan on backing vocals, were percussion-dominated tracks.", "Other songs continued the jazz-rock-folk collisions of ''Hejira''.", "Mitchell also revived \"Jericho\", written years earlier (a version is found on her 1974 live album) but never recorded in a studio setting.", "''Don Juan's Reckless Daughter'' was released in December 1977.The album received mixed reviews but still sold relatively well, peaking at No.", "25 in the US and going gold within three months.", "The cover of the album would later create occasional controversy: Mitchell was featured on the cover in blackface disguise, wearing a curly afro wig, a white suit and vest, and dark sunglasses.", "The character, whom she called Art Nouveau, was based on a pimp who, she says, once complimented her while walking down an LA street.", "This character who symbolized her turn toward jazz and streetwise lyrics reappears in the concert video 'Shadows and Light', her contribution to the film anthology 'Love', and the music video for \"Beat of Black Wings\".A few months after the release of ''Don Juan's Reckless Daughter'', Mitchell was contacted by the esteemed jazz composer, bandleader and bassist Charles Mingus, who had heard the orchestrated song \"Paprika Plains\", and wanted her to work with him.", "She began a collaboration with Mingus, who died before the project was completed in 1979.She finished the tracks, and the resulting album, ''Mingus'', was released in June 1979, though it was poorly received in the press.", "Fans were confused over such a major change in Mitchell's overall sound, and though the album topped out at No.", "17 on the ''Billboard'' albums chart—a higher placement than ''Don Juan's Reckless Daughter''—''Mingus'' still fell short of gold status, making it her first album since the 1960s not to sell at least half a million copies.Mitchell's tour to promote ''Mingus'' began in August 1979 in Oklahoma City and concluded six weeks later with five shows at Los Angeles' Greek Theatre and one at the Santa Barbara County Bowl, where she recorded and filmed the concert.", "It was her first tour in several years, and with Pastorius, jazz guitarist Pat Metheny, and other members of her band, Mitchell also performed songs from her other jazz-inspired albums.", "When the tour ended she began a year of work, turning the tapes from the Santa Barbara County Bowl show into a two-album set and a concert film, both to be called ''Shadows and Light''.", "Her final release on Asylum Records and her second live double album, it was released in September 1980, and made it up to No.", "38 on the ''Billboard'' charts.", "A single from the LP, \"Why Do Fools Fall in Love?", "\", Mitchell's duet with The Persuasions (her opening act for the tour), bubbled under on ''Billboard'', just missing the Hot 100.===1981–1987: ''Wild Things Run Fast'', ''Dog Eat Dog'', and second marriage===For a year and a half, Mitchell worked on the tracks for her next album.While the album was being readied for release, her friend David Geffen, founder of Asylum Records, decided to start a new label, Geffen Records.", "Still distributed by Warner Bros. (who controlled Asylum Records), Geffen negated the remaining contractual obligations Mitchell had with Asylum and signed her to his new label.", "''Wild Things Run Fast'' (1982) marked a return to pop songwriting, including \"Chinese Cafe/Unchained Melody\", which incorporated the chorus and parts of the melody of the famous The Righteous Brothers hit, and \"(You're So Square) Baby I Don't Care\", a remake of the Elvis chestnut, which charted higher than any Mitchell single since her 1970s sales peak when it climbed to No.", "47 on the charts.", "The album peaked on the ''Billboard'' charts in its fifth week at No.", "25.During this period she recorded with bassist and sound engineer Larry Klein, whom she married in 1982.Mitchell performing in 1983In early 1983, Mitchell began a world tour, visiting Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and Scandinavia and then going back to the United States.", "A performance from the tour was videotaped and later released on home video (and later DVD) as ''Refuge of the Roads''.", "As 1984 ended, Mitchell was writing new songs when she received a suggestion from Geffen that perhaps an outside producer with experience in the modern technical arenas that they wanted to explore might be a worthy addition.", "Mitchell hired the British synthpop musician Thomas Dolby to assist with synthesizers and production, but found working with him difficult: \"I was reluctant when Thomas was suggested because he had been asked to produce the record by Geffen, and would he consider coming in as just a programmer and a player?", "So on that level we did have some problems ...", "He may be able to do it faster.", "He may be able to do it better, but the fact is that it then wouldn't really be my music.", "\"''Dog Eat Dog'', released in October 1985, was only a moderate seller, reaching No.", "63 on ''Billboard''s Top Albums Chart, Mitchell's lowest chart position since her first album peaked at No.", "189 almost eighteen years before.", "One of the songs on the album, \"Tax Free\", created controversy by lambasting \"televangelists\" and what she saw as a drift to the religious right in American politics.", "\"The churches came after me\", she wrote, \"they attacked me, though the Episcopalian Church, which I've seen described as the only church in America which actually uses its head, wrote me a letter of congratulation.", "\"===1988–1993: ''Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm'' and ''Night Ride Home''===Mitchell continued experimenting with synthesizers, drum machines and sequencers for the recordings of her next album, 1988's ''Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm''.", "She also collaborated with artists including Willie Nelson, Billy Idol, Wendy & Lisa, Tom Petty, Don Henley, Peter Gabriel, and Benjamin Orr of the Cars.", "The album's first official single, \"My Secret Place\", was in fact a duet with Gabriel, and just missed the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart.", "The song \"Lakota\" was one of many songs on the album to take on larger political themes, in this case the Wounded Knee incident, the deadly battle between Native American activists and the FBI on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in the previous decade.", "Musically, several songs fit into the trend of world music popularized by Gabriel during the era.", "Reviews were mostly favorable towards the album, and the cameos by well-known musicians brought it considerable attention.", "''Chalk Mark'' ultimately improved on the chart performance of ''Dog Eat Dog'', peaking at No.", "45.In 1990, Mitchell, who by then rarely performed live, participated in Roger Waters' ''The Wall Concert in Berlin''.", "She performed the song \"Goodbye Blue Sky\" and was also one of the performers on the concert's final song \"The Tide Is Turning\" along with Waters, Cyndi Lauper, Bryan Adams, Van Morrison and Paul Carrack.Throughout the first half of 1990, Mitchell recorded songs that appeared on her next album.", "She delivered the final mixes for the new album to Geffen just before Christmas, after trying nearly a hundred different sequences for the songs.", "The album ''Night Ride Home'' was released in March 1991.In the United States, it premiered on ''Billboard''s Top Albums chart at No.", "68, moving up to No.", "48 in its second week, and peaking at No.", "41 in its sixth week.", "In the United Kingdom, the album premiered at No.", "25 on the albums chart.", "Critically, it was better received than her 1980s work.", "This album was also Mitchell's first since Geffen Records was sold to MCA Inc., meaning that ''Night Ride Home'' was her first album not to be initially distributed by WEA (now Warner Music Group).===1994–1999: ''Turbulent Indigo'', ''Taming the Tiger'', and divorce===President Clinton's dog Buddy in the Oval Office in 1998\|265x265pxTo wider audiences, the real return to form for Mitchell came with 1994's Grammy-winning ''Turbulent Indigo''.", "The recording of the album coincided with the end of Mitchell's marriage to musician Larry Klein after 12 years; Klein was also co-producer of the album.", "''Indigo'' was seen as Mitchell's most accessible set of songs in years.", "Songs such as \"Sex Kills\", \"Sunny Sunday\", \"Borderline\" and \"The Magdalene Laundries\" mixed social commentary and guitar-focused melodies for \"a startling comeback\".", "The album won two Grammy awards, including Best Pop Album, and it coincided with a much-publicized resurgence in interest in Mitchell's work by a younger generation of singer-songwriters.In 1996, Mitchell agreed to release a greatest ''Hits'' collection, despite initial concerns that such a release would damage sales of her catalog.", "Reprise also agreed to release a second album, called ''Misses'', that would include some of the lesser-known songs from her career.", "''Hits'' charted at No.", "161 in the US, but made No.", "6 in the UK.", "Mitchell also included on ''Hits'', for the first time on an album, her first recording, a version of \"Urge for Going\" which preceded ''Song to a Seagull'' but was previously released only as a B-side.Peter Bogner listening to premix of Herbie Hancock's ''Gershwin's World'' (Venice Beach, California, in 1999)\|251x251pxTwo years later, Mitchell released her final set of \"original\" new work before nearly a decade of other pursuits, 1998's ''Taming the Tiger''.", "She promoted ''Tiger'' with a return to regular concert appearances, including a co-headlining tour with Bob Dylan and Van Morrison.On the album, Mitchell had played a custom guitar equipped with a Roland hexaphonic pickup that connected to a Roland VG-8 modeling processor.", "The device allowed Mitchell to play any of her many alternate tunings without having to re-tune the guitar.", "The guitar's output, through the VG-8, was transposed to any of her tunings in real-time.It was around this time that critics also began to notice a real change in Mitchell's voice, particularly on her older songs; the singer later confirmed the change, explaining that \"I'd go to hit a note and there was nothing there\".", "While her more limited range and huskier vocals have sometimes been attributed to her smoking (she was described by journalist Robin Eggar as \"one of the world's last great smokers\"), Mitchell believes that the changes in her voice that became noticeable in the 1990s were because of other problems, including vocal nodules, a compressed larynx, and the lingering effects of having had polio.", "In an interview in 2004, she denied that \"my terrible habits\" had anything to do with her more limited range, and pointed out that singers often lose the upper register when they pass fifty.", "In addition, she contended that her voice had acquired a more interesting and expressive alto range when she could no longer hit the high notes, let alone hold them as she had in her youth.===2000–2005: ''Both Sides Now'', retirement tour and retrospectives===The singer's next two albums featured no new songs and, Mitchell has said, were recorded to \"fulfill contractual obligations\", but on both she attempted to make use of her new vocal range in interpreting familiar material.", "''Both Sides Now'' (2000) was an album composed mostly of covers of jazz standards, performed with an orchestra, featuring orchestral arrangements by Vince Mendoza.", "The album also contained remakes of \"A Case of You\" and the title track \"Both Sides, Now\", two early hits transposed down to Mitchell's new dusky, soulful alto range.", "It received mostly strong reviews and motivated a short national tour, with Mitchell accompanied by a core band featuring her ex-husband Larry Klein on bass plus a local orchestra on each tour stop.", "Its success led to 2002's ''Travelogue'', a collection of re-workings of her previous songs with lush orchestral accompaniments.Mitchell stated at the time that ''Travelogue'' would be her final album.", "In a 2002 interview with ''Rolling Stone'', she voiced discontent with the state of the music industry, describing it as a \"cesspool\".", "Mitchell expressed her dislike of the record industry's dominance and her desire to control her own destiny, possibly by releasing her own music over the Internet.During the next few years, the only albums Mitchell released were compilations of her earlier work.", "In 2003, her Geffen recordings were collected in a remastered four-disc box set, ''The Complete Geffen Recordings'', including notes by Mitchell and three previously unreleased tracks.", "A series of themed compilations of songs from earlier albums were also released: ''The Beginning of Survival'' (2004), ''Dreamland'' (2004), and ''Songs of a Prairie Girl'' (2005), the last of which collected the threads of her Canadian upbringing and which she released after accepting an invitation to the Saskatchewan Centennial concert in Saskatoon.", "The concert, which featured a tribute to Mitchell, was also attended by Queen Elizabeth II.", "In the ''Prairie Girl'' liner notes, she wrote that the collection is \"my contribution to Saskatchewan's Centennial celebrations\".In the early 1990s, Mitchell signed a deal with Random House to publish an autobiography.", "In 1998 she told ''The New York Times'' that her memoirs were \"in the works\", that they would be published in as many as four volumes, and that the first line would be \"I was the only black man at the party.\"", "In 2005, Mitchell said that she was using a tape recorder to get her memories \"down in the oral tradition\".===2006–2010: ''Shine'' and other late recordings===In an interview with the ''Ottawa Citizen'' in October 2006, Mitchell \"revealed that she was recording her first collection of new songs in nearly a decade\", but gave few other details.", "Four months later, in an interview with ''The New York Times'', Mitchell said that the forthcoming album, titled ''Shine'', was inspired by the war in Iraq and \"something her grandson had said while listening to family fighting: 'Bad dreams are good—in the great plan.'\"", "Early media reports characterized the album as having \"a minimal feel ... that harks back to Mitchell's early work\" and a focus on political and environmental issues.In February 2007, Mitchell returned to Calgary and served as an advisor for the Alberta Ballet Company premiere of \"The Fiddle and the Drum\", a dance choreographed by Jean Grand-Maître to both new and old songs.", "She worked with the French-Canadian TV director Mario Rouleau, well known for work in art and dance for television, such as Cirque du Soleil.", "She also filmed portions of the rehearsals for a documentary that she was working on.", "Of the flurry of recent activity she quipped, \"I've never worked so hard in my life.", "\"In mid-2007, Mitchell's official fan-run site confirmed speculation that she had signed a two-record deal with Starbucks' Hear Music label.", "''Shine'' was released by the label on September 25, 2007, debuting at number 14 on the ''Billboard'' 200 album chart, her highest chart position in the United States since the release of ''Hejira'' in 1976, over thirty years previously, and at number 36 on the United Kingdom albums chart.", "On the same day, Herbie Hancock, a longtime associate and friend of Mitchell, released ''River: The Joni Letters'', an album paying tribute to Mitchell's work.", "Among the album's contributors were Norah Jones, Tina Turner, Leonard Cohen, and Mitchell herself, who contributed a vocal to the re-recording of \"The Tea Leaf Prophecy (Lay Down Your Arms)\" (originally on her album ''Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm'').", "On February 10, 2008, Hancock's recording won Album of the Year at the Grammy Awards.", "It was the first time in 43 years that a jazz artist had taken the top prize at the annual award ceremony.", "In accepting the award, Hancock paid tribute to Mitchell as well as to Miles Davis and John Coltrane.", "At the same ceremony Mitchell won a Grammy for Best Instrumental Pop Performance for the opening track, \"One Week Last Summer\", from her album ''Shine''.In 2009, Mitchell stated she had the skin condition Morgellons and that she would leave the music industry to work toward giving more credibility to people who suffer from Morgellons.In a 2010 interview with the ''Los Angeles Times'', Mitchell was quoted as saying that singer-songwriter Bob Dylan, with whom she had worked closely in the past, was a fake and a plagiarist.", "The controversial remark was widely reported by other media.", "Mitchell did not explain the contention further, but several media outlets speculated that it may have related to the allegations of plagiarism surrounding some lyrics on Dylan's 2006 album ''Modern Times''.", "In a 2013 interview with Jian Ghomeshi, she was asked about the comments and responded by denying that she had made the statement while mentioning the allegations of plagiarism that arose over the lyrics to Dylan's 2001 album ''Love and Theft'' in the general context of the flow and ebb of the creative process of artists.===2010–2022: Health problems, recovery, and archival projects===Mitchell in 2013Although Mitchell said that she would no longer tour or give concerts, she made occasional public appearances to speak on environmental issues.", "Mitchell divides her time between her longtime home in Los Angeles, and the property in Sechelt, British Columbia, that she has owned since the early 1970s.", "\"L.A. is my workplace\", she said in 2006, \"B.C.", "is my heartbeat\".", "Since 2011, she said she focuses mainly on her visual art, which she does not sell and displays only on rare occasions.In March 2015, Mitchell suffered a brain aneurysm rupture, which required her to undergo physical therapy and take part in daily rehabilitation.", "Mitchell made her first public appearance following the aneurysm when she attended a Chick Corea concert in Los Angeles in August 2016.She made a few other appearances, and in November 2018 David Crosby said that she was learning to walk again.Since 2018, Mitchell has approved a number of archival projects.", "In September 2018, Eagle Rock Entertainment released the Murray Lerner-directed documentary ''Both Sides Now: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970'', which included restored video footage and previously unseen interviews with Mitchell, plus a separate program featuring the complete concert uninterrupted.", "On November 2, 2018, Mitchell released an 8-LP vinyl reissue of ''Love Has Many Faces: A Quartet, A Ballet, Waiting to Be Danced''.", "A limited-edition blue vinyl edition of ''Blue'' followed in January 2019.On November 7, 2018, Mitchell attended the ''Joni 75: A Birthday Celebration'' concert in Los Angeles.", "To celebrate her 75th birthday, artists Brandi Carlile, Emmylou Harris, James Taylor, Chaka Khan, Graham Nash, Seal, Kris Kristofferson, and others interpreted songs written by Mitchell.", "Fellow Canadian artist Diana Krall offered two performances.", "Selections from that night's performances were released on DVD, along with a separate CD release.", "A vinyl edition of the album was released for Record Store Day in April 2019.Mitchell later attended another tribute concert, Songs Are Like Tattoos, which featured ''Joni 75'' participant Brandi Carlile performing Mitchell's ''Blue'' album in full.Mitchell approved ''Joni: The Joni Mitchell Sessions'', a book of photos taken and collected by Norman Seeff, released in November 2018.Mitchell also revisited her poetry with ''Morning Glory on the Vine'', a collection of facsimile handwritten lyrics, poetry and artwork originally compiled in 1971 as a gift for friends and family.", "The expanded and reformatted wide-release edition of ''Morning Glory on the Vine'' was published on October 22, 2019, in a standard hardcover edition, as well as a limited signed edition.In September 2020, it was announced that Mitchell and Rhino Records had created the Joni Mitchell Archives, a series of catalog releases containing material from the singer's personal vaults.", "The project's first release, a five-disc collection titled ''Joni Mitchell Archives – Vol.", "1: The Early Years (1963–1967)'', followed on October 30, 2020.In April 2022 Mitchell received a Grammy Award for 'Best Historical Album' for this release.", "She showed up personally to collect the award.", "On the same day, Mitchell released ''Early Joni – 1963'' and ''Live at Canterbury House – 1967'' (both culled from the 5-CD box set) as standalone vinyl releases.A special remastered collection of Mitchell's first four albums (''Song to a Seagull'', ''Clouds'', ''Ladies of the Canyon'' and ''Blue)'' was released on July 2, 2021, as ''The Reprise Albums (1968–1971)''.", "The collection is the first to feature a new mix of Mitchell's 1968 debut album, overseen by Mitchell herself.", "Commenting on the original mix of ''Song to a Seagull'', Mitchell called it \"atrocious\" and said it sounded like it \"had been recorded under a bowl of Jello.", "\"On January 28, 2022, Mitchell demanded that Spotify remove her songs from its streaming service in solidarity with her long-time friend and fellow childhood polio survivor Neil Young, who removed his tracks from the streaming platform in protest against COVID-19 misinformation on the popular Spotify-hosted podcast ''The Joe Rogan Experience''.", "She wrote on her website: \"Irresponsible people are spreading lies that are costing people their lives.", "I stand in solidarity with Neil Young and the global scientific and medical communities on this issue.\"", "British National Health Service doctor and author Rachel Clarke tweeted: \"Both Neil Young & Joni Mitchell… know painfully well how much harm, suffering & avoidable death anti-vaxxers can cause.", "\"On April 1, 2022, Mitchell was honored as the 2022 MusiCares Person of the Year by the Recording Academy.", "Mitchell was present at the Awards show accepting the award personally.=== Since 2022: Return to live performance ===On July 24, 2022, Joni Mitchell appeared unannounced as a special guest in the closing performance of the final day of the Newport Folk Festival in Rhode Island, where she had first played in 1967, as part of a set billed as \"Brandi Carlile and Friends\".", "Supported by a group of well-wisher musicians, she participated in a 13-song set of her own material and covers, including one that she played as a solo on electric guitar.In 2017, Mitchell had been inspired by a music-making visit from an old friend, singer-songwriter Eric Andersen, to begin hosting monthly music sessions at her home in Laurel Canyon.", "The sessions became known as \"Joni Jams\".", "Brandi Carlile organised the sessions and recruited musicians, and among those who came over the years to play music and sing in Mitchell's living room were Elton John, Paul McCartney, Bonnie Raitt, Harry Styles, Chaka Khan, Marcus Mumford, Herbie Hancock, Jess Wolfe, Holly Laessig, Taylor Goldsmith and Blake Mills.Mitchell was delighted by the return of music to her home.", "The music sessions raised her spirits and assisted her recovery from the serious and disabling aneurysm she had suffered in 2015, and she began to sing in the sessions and learn to play guitar again.", "As her health improved, a return to live performance began to seem possible, plans were cautiously laid, a set list was prepared; and in July 2022, after a rehearsal the night before, Mitchell joined Carlile and others on stage at the Newport Festival for a live Joni Jam, her first public performance in nine years.Mitchell was given an ecstatic reception, and she said afterwards, \"I was delighted and honoured.", "It gave me the bug for it.\"", "Songs performed included \"Carey\", \"Come in from the Cold\", \"A Case of You\", \"Big Yellow Taxi\", \"Both Sides Now\", \"The Circle Game\" and George Gershwin's \"Summertime\".", "After her appearance at Newport, Mitchell told Carlile, \"I want to do another show.", "I want to play again.\"", "The Newport set was released as a live album in 2023 and won the Grammy Award for Best Folk Album in 2024.On October 19, 2022, Carlile announced that Mitchell would play a headline concert, billed as \"Joni Jam 2\", in a weekend event at Washington State's Gorge Amphitheatre, \"one of the most beautiful venues in the world\", on June 10, 2023.Previously Mitchell's last official headline shows had been on the Both Sides Now tour in 2000.Mitchell's appearance at Gorge Amphitheatre attracted a capacity audience of 27,000.In her first headline concert in 23 years, supported by 19 singers and musicians, she performed a nearly three-hour set of 21 songs, plus a three-song encore in which she played guitar.", "Annie Lennox, who sang on \"Ladies of the Canyon\", said Mitchell was \"a visionary, a legend and an inspiration.", "\"Mitchell was awarded the 2023 Gershwin Prize for her lifetime contributions to popular music.", "She was celebrated with a concert delivered on March 2 in Washington, D.C., where musicians taking part included Brandi Carlile, Annie Lennox, Angélique Kidjo, Herbie Hancock, Diana Krall, Cyndi Lauper, Graham Nash, James Taylor, Ledisi, Lucius, Marcus Mumford, Sara Bareilles and Celisse.", "Mitchell performed Gershwin's \"Summertime\" and participated in all-star renditions of her songs \"Big Yellow Taxi\" and \"The Circle Game\".On February 4, 2024, Mitchell performed, for the first time, at the 66th Annual Grammy Awards.", "Mitchell has announced two concerts at the Hollywood Bowl on October 19 and 20, 2024, where she plans to perform with Brandi Carlile and other guests." ], [ "Legacy", "===Guitar style===While some of Mitchell's most popular songs were written on the piano, almost every song she composed on the guitar uses an open, or non-standard, tuning; she has written songs in some 50 tunings, playing what she has called \"Joni's weird chords\".", "The use of alternative tunings allows guitarists to produce accompaniment with more varied and wide-ranging textures.", "Her right-hand picking/strumming technique has evolved over the years from an initially intricate picking style, typified by the guitar songs on her first album, to a looser and more rhythmic style, sometimes incorporating percussive \"slaps\".In 1995, Mitchell's friend Fred Walecki, proprietor of Westwood Music in Los Angeles, developed a solution to alleviate her continuing frustration with using multiple alternative tunings in live settings.", "Walecki designed a Stratocaster-style guitar to function with the Roland VG-8 virtual guitar, a system capable of configuring her numerous tunings electronically.", "While the guitar itself remained in standard tuning, the VG-8 encoded the pickup signals into digital signals which were then translated into the altered tunings.", "This allowed Mitchell to use one guitar on stage, while an off-stage tech entered the preprogrammed tuning for each song in her set.Mitchell was highly innovative harmonically in her early work (1966–1972), incorporating modality, chromaticism, and pedal points.", "On her 1968 debut album ''Song to a Seagull'', Mitchell used both quartal and quintal harmony in \"The Dawntreader\" and quintal harmony in \"Song to a Seagull\".In 2003, ''Rolling Stone'' named her the 72nd-greatest guitarist of all time; she was the highest-ranked woman on the list.===Influence===Mitchell's approach to music struck a chord with many female listeners.", "In an era dominated by the stereotypical male rock star, she presented herself as \"multidimensional and conflicted ... allowing her to build such a powerful identification among her female fans\".", "Mitchell asserted her desire for artistic control throughout her career, and still holds the publishing rights for her music.", "She has disclaimed the notion that she is a \"feminist\"; in a 2013 interview she rejected the label, stating, \"I'm not a feminist.", "I don't want to get a posse against men.", "I'd rather go toe-to-toe; work it out.\"", "David Shumway notes that Mitchell \"became the first woman in popular music to be recognized as an artist in the full sense of that term.... Whatever Mitchell's stated views of feminism, what she represents more than any other performer of her era is the new prominence of women's perspectives in cultural and political life.", "\"Mitchell's work has had an influence on many other artists, including Taylor Swift, Björk, Prince, Ellie Goulding, Harry Styles, Corinne Bailey Rae, Gabrielle Aplin, Mikael Åkerfeldt from Opeth, Pink Floyd's David Gilmour, Marillion members Steve Hogarth and Steve Rothery, their former vocalist and lyricist Fish, Paul Carrack, Haim, Lorde, and Clairo.", "Madonna has also cited Mitchell as the first female artist that really spoke to her as a teenager; \"I was really, really into Joni Mitchell.", "I knew every word to ''Court and Spark''; I worshipped her when I was in high school.", "''Blue'' is amazing.", "I would have to say of all the women I've heard, she had the most profound effect on me from a lyrical point of view.", "\"Several artists have had success covering Mitchell's songs.", "Judy Collins's 1967 recording of \"Both Sides, Now\" reached No.", "8 on ''Billboard'' charts and was a breakthrough in the career of both artists.", "(Mitchell's own recording did not see release until two years later, on her second album ''Clouds''.)", "This is Mitchell's most-covered song by far, with over 1,200 versions recorded at latest count.", "Hole also covered \"Both Sides, Now\" in 1991 on their debut album, ''Pretty on the Inside'', retitling it \"Clouds\", with the lyrics altered by frontwoman Courtney Love.", "Pop group Neighborhood in 1970 and Amy Grant in 1995 scored hits with covers of \"Big Yellow Taxi\", the third-most covered song in Mitchell's repertoire (with over 300 covers).", "More recent releases of this song included versions by Counting Crows in 2002 and Nena in 2007.Janet Jackson used a sample of the chorus of \"Big Yellow Taxi\" as the centerpiece of her 1997 hit single \"Got 'Til It's Gone\", which also features rapper Q-Tip saying \"Joni Mitchell never lies\".", "\"River\", from Mitchell's album ''Blue'' became the second-most covered song of Mitchell's in 2013 as many artists chose it for their holiday albums.", "Rap artists Kanye West and Mac Dre have also sampled Mitchell's vocals in their music.", "In addition, Annie Lennox has covered \"Ladies of the Canyon\" for the B-side of her 1995 hit \"No More I Love You's\".", "Mandy Moore covered \"Help Me\" in 2003.In 2004 singer George Michael covered her song \"Edith and the Kingpin\" for a radio show.", "\"River\" has been one of the most popular songs covered in recent years, with versions by Dianne Reeves (1999), James Taylor (recorded for television in 2000, and for CD release in 2004), Allison Crowe (2004), Rachael Yamagata (2004), Aimee Mann (2005), and Sarah McLachlan (2006).", "McLachlan also did a version of \"Blue\" in 1996, and Cat Power recorded a cover of \"Blue\" in 2008.Other Mitchell covers include the famous \"Woodstock\" by Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young, Eva Cassidy, and Matthews Southern Comfort; \"This Flight Tonight\" by Nazareth; and well-known versions of \"A Case of You\" by Tori Amos, Michelle Branch, Jane Monheit, Prince, Diana Krall, James Blake, and Ana Moura.", "A 40th anniversary version of \"Woodstock\" was released in 2009 by Nick Vernier Band featuring Ian Matthews (formerly of Matthews Southern Comfort).", "Fellow Canadian singer k.d.", "lang recorded two of Mitchell's songs (\"A Case of You\" and \"Jericho\") for her 2004 album ''Hymns of the 49th Parallel'' which is composed entirely of songs written by Canadian artists.Prince's version of \"A Case of U\" appeared on ''A Tribute to Joni Mitchell'', a 2007 compilation released by Nonesuch Records, which also featured Björk (\"The Boho Dance\"), Caetano Veloso (\"Dreamland\"), Emmylou Harris (\"The Magdalene Laundries\"), Sufjan Stevens (\"Free Man in Paris\") and Cassandra Wilson (\"For the Roses\"), among others.Several other songs reference Joni Mitchell.", "The song \"Our House\" by Graham Nash refers to Nash's two-year relationship with Mitchell at the time that Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young recorded the ''Déjà Vu'' album.", "Led Zeppelin's \"Going to California\" was said to be written about Robert Plant and Jimmy Page's infatuation with Mitchell, a claim that seems to be borne out by the fact that, in live performances, Plant often says \"Joni\" after the line \"To find a queen without a king, they say she plays guitar and cries and sings\".", "Jimmy Page uses a double dropped D guitar tuning similar to the alternative tunings Mitchell uses.", "The Sonic Youth song \"Hey Joni\" is named for Mitchell.", "Alanis Morissette also mentions Mitchell in one of her songs, \"Your House\".", "British folk singer Frank Turner mentions Mitchell in his song \"Sunshine State\".", "The Prince song \"The Ballad of Dorothy Parker\" contains the lyric – Oh, my favorite song' she said – and it was Joni singing 'Help me I think I'm falling.", "\"Lavender\" by Marillion was partly influenced by \"going through parks listening to Joni Mitchell\", according to vocalist and lyricist Fish, and she was later mentioned in the lyrics of their song \"Montreal\" from ''Sounds That Can't Be Made''.", "John Mayer makes reference to Mitchell and her ''Blue'' album in his song \"Queen of California\", from his 2012 album ''Born and Raised''.", "The song contains the lyric \"Joni wrote ''Blue'' in a house by the sea\".", "Taylor Swift also details Mitchell's departure from the music industry in her song \"The Lucky One\" from her 2012 album ''Red''.In 2003, playwright Bryden MacDonald launched ''When All the Slaves Are Free'', a musical revue based on Mitchell's music.Mitchell's music and poems have deeply influenced the French painter Jacques Benoit's work.", "Between 1979 and 1989 Benoit produced sixty paintings, corresponding to a selection of fifty of Mitchell's songs.Maynard James Keenan of the American progressive metal band Tool has cited Mitchell as an influence, claiming that her influence is what allows him to \"soften staccato, rhythmic, insane mathematical paths and bring them back to the center, so you can listen to it without having an eye-ache.\"", "A Perfect Circle, another band featuring Keenan as lead vocalist, recorded a rendition of Mitchell's \"The Fiddle and the Drum\" on their 2004 album ''eMOTIVe'', a collection of anti-war cover songs.=== Rejection of Baby Boom counter-culture ===Mitchell has said that the parents of baby-boomers were unhappy, and \"out of it came this liberated, spoiled, selfish generation into the costume ball of free love, free sex, free music, free, free, free, free we're so free.", "And Woodstock was the culmination of it.\"", "But \"I was not a part of that,\" she explained in an interview.", "\"I was not a part of the anti-war movement, either.", "I played in Fort Bragg.", "I went the Bob Hope route i.e., touring to entertain military personnel because I had uncles who died in the war, and I thought it was a shame to blame the boys who were drafted.\"" ], [ "Awards and honours", "Joni Mitchell's star on Canada's Walk of FameMitchell has received many honours from her home country of Canada.", "She was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 1981 and received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts, in 1996.Mitchell received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame in 2000.In 2002 she was named a Companion of the Order of Canada, Canada's highest civilian honour, making her only the third popular Canadian singer-songwriter (Gordon Lightfoot and Leonard Cohen being the other two) to receive this honor.", "She received an honorary doctorate in music from McGill University in 2004.In January 2007 she was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame.", "The Saskatchewan Recording Industry Association bestowed upon Joni their Lifetime Achievement Award in 1993.In June 2007 Canada Post featured Mitchell on a postage stamp.Mitchell has received eleven Grammy Awards during her career (ten competitive, one honorary), the first in 1969 and the most recent in 2024 for Best Folk Album.", "She received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002, with the citation describing her as \"one of the most important female recording artists of the rock era\" and \"a powerful influence on all artists who embrace diversity, imagination and integrity\".In 1995, Mitchell received Billboard's Century Award.", "In 1996, she was awarded the Polar Music Prize.", "In 1997, Mitchell was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but did not attend the ceremony.In tribute to Mitchell, the TNT network presented an all-star celebration at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City on April 6, 2000.Mitchell's songs were sung by many performers, including James Taylor, Elton John, Wynonna Judd, Bryan Adams, Cyndi Lauper, Diana Krall, and Richard Thompson.", "Mitchell herself ended the evening with a rendition of \"Both Sides, Now\" with a 70-piece orchestra.", "The version was featured on the soundtrack to the movie ''Love Actually''.In 2008, Mitchell was ranked 42nd on ''Rolling Stone''s \"100 Greatest Singers\" list and in 2015 she was ranked ninth on their list of the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time.On February 12, 2010, \"Both Sides, Now\" was performed at the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Vancouver.To celebrate Mitchell's 70th birthday, the 2013 Luminato Festival in Toronto held a set of tribute concerts entitled ''Joni: A Portrait in Song – A Birthday Happening Live'' at Massey Hall on June 18 and 19.Performers included Rufus Wainwright, Herbie Hancock, Esperanza Spalding, and rare performances by Mitchell herself.Due to health problems, she did not attend the San Francisco gala in May 2015 to receive the SFJAZZ Lifetime Achievement Award.In 2018, Mitchell was honoured by the city of Saskatoon, when two plaques were erected to commemorate her musical beginnings in Saskatoon.", "One was installed by the Broadway Theatre beside the former Louis Riel Coffee House, where Mitchell played her first paid gig.", "A second plaque was installed at River Landing, near the Remai Modern art gallery and Persephone Theatre performing arts centre.", "As well, the walkway along Spadina Crescent between Second and Third Avenues was formally named the ''Joni Mitchell Promenade''.In 2020, Mitchell received the Les Paul Award, becoming the first woman to be so honored.", "She was named as MusiCares Person of the Year in 2022.In 2021, Mitchell was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Historical Album, for her ''Archives, Vol.", "1: The Early Years (1963–1967)'' collection.", "She won the award on April 3, 2022.On December 4, 2021, Mitchell received the Kennedy Center Honor for a lifetime of achievement in the performing arts at the Medallion Ceremony, held at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.", "The next day, Mitchell attended the show at the Kennedy Center.An all-star ensemble performs at the 2023 Gershwin Prize honoring Mitchell.On January 1, 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked Mitchell as number 50 on its list of \"The 200 Greatest Singers of All Time\".On January 12, 2023, Mitchell was named by the Library of Congress as that year's Gershwin Prize recipient with a concert delivered on March 2 in Washington, D.C., in honour of the award.", "''Rolling Stone'' named Mitchell the 9th greatest guitarist of all time in 2023.===ASCAP Pop Awards=== 2005 \"Big Yellow Taxi\" Most Performed Song ===Grammy Awards=== Year Category Work Result1969 Best Folk Performance ''Clouds'' 1974 Album of the Year ''Court and Spark'' Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female Record of the Year \"Help Me\" Best Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) \"Down to You\" 1976 Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female ''The Hissing of Summer Lawns'' 1988 Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female ''Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm'' 1995 Best Pop Album ''Turbulent Indigo'' Best Album Package 2000 Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female \"Both Sides, Now\" Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album ''Both Sides, Now'' 2002 Lifetime Achievement Award – 2008 Album of the Year ''River: The Joni Letters'' Best Pop Instrumental Performance \"One Week Last Summer\" 2016 Best Album Notes ''Love Has Many Faces: A Quartet, a Ballet, Waiting to Be Danced'' 2022 Best Historical Album ''Joni Mitchell Archives – Vol.", "1: The Early Years (1963–1967)'' 2024 Best Folk Album ''Joni Mitchell at Newport'' Although officially a Herbie Hancock release, Mitchell also received a Grammy for her vocal contribution to the album.===Juno Awards=== 1980 Herself Female Vocalist of the Year 1981 Canadian Hall of Fame 1982 Folk Artist of the Year Female Artist of the Year 1983 1995 Songwriter of the Year ''Turbulent Indigo'' Best Roots & Traditional Album 2000 ''Taming the Tiger'' Best Pop/Adult Album 2001 ''Both Sides, Now'' Best Vocal Jazz Album 2008 Herself Producer of the Year ===Pollstar Concert Industry Awards===Ref.", "1986 ''Tour'' Comeback Tour of the Year" ], [ "Discography", ":'''Studio albums''' 1968: ''Song to a Seagull''* 1969: ''Clouds''* 1970: ''Ladies of the Canyon''* 1971: ''Blue''* 1972: ''For the Roses''* 1974: ''Court and Spark''* 1975: ''The Hissing of Summer Lawns''* 1976: ''Hejira''* 1977: ''Don Juan's Reckless Daughter''* 1979: ''Mingus''* 1982: ''Wild Things Run Fast''* 1985: ''Dog Eat Dog''* 1988: ''Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm''* 1991: ''Night Ride Home''* 1994: ''Turbulent Indigo''* 1998: ''Taming the Tiger''* 2000: ''Both Sides Now''* 2002: ''Travelogue''* 2007: ''Shine''" ], [ "References" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * The Emergence of Joni Mitchell – public radio special by Paul Ingles* * * Joni Mitchell at Rock and Roll Hall of Fame* Radio New Zealand: Reflections on 1983 concert in Auckland" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Justus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Justus''' (died on 10 November between 627 and 631) was the fourth Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Pope Gregory the Great, sent Justus from Italy to England on a mission to Christianize the Anglo-Saxons from their native paganism, probably arriving with the second group of missionaries despatched in 601.Justus became the first Bishop of Rochester in 604 and attended a church council in Paris in 614.Following the death of King Æthelberht of Kent in 616, Justus was forced to flee to Gaul but was reinstated in his diocese the following year.", "In 624, Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury, overseeing the despatch of missionaries to Northumbria.", "After his death, he was revered as a saint and had a shrine in St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury." ], [ "Arrival in Britain", "The evangelist portrait of Luke, from the St. Augustine Gospels (c. 6th-century), which may have accompanied Justus to Britain.Justus was a member of the Gregorian mission sent to England by Pope Gregory I.", "Almost everything known about Justus and his career is derived from the early 8th-century ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum'' of Bede.", "As Bede does not describe Justus' origins, nothing is known about him before he arrived in England.", "He probably arrived in England with the second group of missionaries, sent at the request of Augustine of Canterbury in 601.Some modern writers describe Justus as one of the original missionaries who arrived with Augustine in 597, but Bede believed that Justus came in the second group.", "The second group included Mellitus, who later became Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canterbury.If Justus was a member of the second group of missionaries, then he arrived with a gift of books and \"all things which were needed for worship and the ministry of the Church\".", "A 15th-century Canterbury chronicler, Thomas of Elmham, claimed that there were some books brought to England by that second group still at Canterbury in his day, although he did not identify them.", "An investigation of extant Canterbury manuscripts shows that one possible survivor is the St. Augustine Gospels, now in Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, Manuscript (MS) 286." ], [ "Bishop of Rochester", "Augustine consecrated Justus as a bishop in 604 over a province including the Kentish town of Rochester.", "The historian Nicholas Brooks argues that the choice of Rochester was probably not because it had been a Roman-era bishopric, but rather because of its importance in the politics of the time.", "Although the town was small, with just one street, it was at the junction of Watling Street and the estuary of the Medway and was thus a fortified town.", "Because Justus was probably not a monk (Bede did not call him that), his cathedral clergy was very likely non-monastic too.The beginning of the charter in ''Textus Roffensis''.A charter purporting to be from King Æthelberht, dated 28 April 604, survives in the ''Textus Roffensis'', as well as a copy based on the Textus in the 14th-century ''Liber Temporalium''.", "Written mostly in Latin but using an Old English boundary clause, the charter records a land grant near Rochester to Justus' church.", "Among the witnesses is Laurence, Augustine's future successor, but not Augustine himself.", "The text turns to two different addressees.", "First, Æthelberht is made to admonish his son Eadbald, who had been established as a sub-ruler in the region of Rochester.", "The grant itself is addressed directly to Saint Andrew, the patron saint of the church, a usage parallelled by other charters in the same archive.Historian Wilhelm Levison, writing in 1946, was sceptical about the authenticity of this charter.", "Levison felt the two separate addresses were incongruous.", "Levison suggested that the first address, occurring before the preamble, may have been inserted by someone familiar with Bede to echo Eadbald's future conversion (see below).", "A more recent and more positive appraisal by John Morris argues that the charter and its witness list are authentic because they incorporate titles and phraseology that had fallen out of use by 800.Æthelberht built Justus, a cathedral church in Rochester; the foundations of a nave and chancel partly underneath the present-day Rochester Cathedral may date from that time.", "What remains of the foundations of an early rectangular building near the southern part of the current cathedral might also be contemporary with Justus or may be part of a Roman building.Together with Mellitus, the Bishop of London, Justus signed a letter written by Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury to the Irish bishops urging the native church to adopt the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter.", "This letter also mentioned the fact that Irish missionaries, such as Dagan, had refused to share meals with the missionaries.", "Although the letter has not survived, Bede quoted from parts of it.In 614, Justus attended the Council of Paris, held by the Frankish king, Chlothar II.", "It is unclear why Justus and Peter, the abbot of Sts Peter and Paul in Canterbury, were present.", "It may have been just chance, but historian James Campbell has suggested that Chlothar summoned clergy from Britain to attend in an attempt to assert overlordship over Kent.", "The historian N. J. Higham offers another explanation for their attendance, arguing that Æthelberht sent the pair to the council because of shifts in Frankish policy towards the Kentish kingdom, which threatened Kentish independence, and that the two clergymen were sent to negotiate a compromise with Chlothar.A pagan backlash against Christianity followed Æthelberht's death in 616, forcing Justus and Mellitus to flee to Gaul.", "The pair probably took refuge with Chlothar, hoping that the Frankish king would intervene and restore them to their sees, and by 617 Justus had been reinstalled in his bishopric by the new king.", "Mellitus also returned to England, but the prevailing pagan mood did not allow him to return to London; after Laurence's death, Mellitus became Archbishop of Canterbury.", "According to Bede, Justus received letters of encouragement from Pope Boniface V (619–625), as did Mellitus, although Bede does not record the actual letters—the historian J. M. Wallace-Hadrill assumes both letters were general statements encouraging the missionaries." ], [ "Archbishop", "Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury in 624, receiving his pallium—the symbol of the jurisdiction entrusted to archbishops—from Pope Boniface V, following which Justus consecrated Romanus as his successor at Rochester.", "Boniface also gave Justus a letter congratulating him on the conversion of King \"Aduluald\" (probably King Eadbald of Kent), a letter which is included in Bede's ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum''.", "Bede's account of Eadbald's conversion states that it was Laurence, Justus' predecessor at Canterbury, who converted the King to Christianity, but the historian D. P. Kirby argues that the letter's reference to Eadbald makes it likely that it was Justus.", "Other historians, including Barbara Yorke and Henry Mayr-Harting, conclude that Bede's account is correct, and that Eadbald was converted by Laurence.", "Yorke argues that there were two kings of Kent during Eadbald's reign, Eadbald and Æthelwald, and that Æthelwald was the \"Aduluald\" referred to by Boniface.", "Yorke argues that Justus converted Æthelwald back to Christianity after Æthelberht's death.Justus consecrated Paulinus as the first Bishop of York, before the latter accompanied Æthelburg of Kent to Northumbria for her marriage to King Edwin of Northumbria.", "Bede records Justus as having died on 10 November, but does not give a year, although it is likely to have between 627 and 631.After his death, Justus was regarded as a saint, and was given a feast day of 10 November.", "The ninth century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day, along with Mellitus and Laurence.", "In the 1090s, his remains were translated, or ritually moved, to a shrine beside the high altar of St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury.", "At about the same time, a ''Life'' was written about him by Goscelin of Saint-Bertin, as well as a poem by Reginald of Canterbury.", "Other material from Thomas of Elmham, Gervase of Canterbury, and William of Malmesbury, later medieval chroniclers, adds little to Bede's account of Justus' life." ], [ "See also", "* List of members of the Gregorian mission" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Eccles (neurophysiologist)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Carew Eccles''' (27 January 1903 – 2 May 1997) was an Australian neurophysiologist and philosopher who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the synapse.", "He shared the prize with Andrew Huxley and Alan Lloyd Hodgkin." ], [ "Life and work", "===Early life===Eccles was born in Melbourne, Australia.", "He grew up there with his two sisters and his parents: William and Mary Carew Eccles (both teachers, who home schooled him until he was 12).", "He initially attended Warrnambool High School (now Warrnambool College) (where a science wing is named in his honour), then completed his final year of schooling at Melbourne High School.", "Aged 17, he was awarded a senior scholarship to study medicine at the University of Melbourne.", "As a medical undergraduate, he was never able to find a satisfactory explanation for the interaction of mind and body; he started to think about becoming a neuroscientist.", "He graduated (with first class honours) in 1925, and was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to study under Charles Scott Sherrington at Magdalen College, Oxford University, where he received his Doctor of Philosophy in 1929.In 1937 Eccles returned to Australia, where he worked on military research during World War II.", "During this time, Eccles was the director of the Kanematsu Institute at Sydney Medical School, where he and Bernard Katz gave research lectures at the University of Sydney, strongly influencing the intellectual environment of the university.", "After the war, he became a professor at the University of Otago in New Zealand.", "From 1952 to 1962, he worked as a professor at the John Curtin School of Medical Research (JCSMR) of the Australian National University.", "From 1966 to 1968, Eccles worked at the Feinberg School of Medicine at Northwestern University in Chicago.===Career===In the early 1950s, Eccles and his colleagues performed the research that would lead to his receiving the Nobel Prize.", "To study synapses in the peripheral nervous system, Eccles and colleagues used the stretch reflex as a model, which is easily studied because it consists of only two neurones: a sensory neurone (the muscle spindle fibre) and the motor neurone.", "The sensory neurone synapses onto the motor neurone in the spinal cord.", "When a current is passed into the sensory neurone in the quadriceps, the motor neurone innervating the quadriceps produced a small excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).", "When a similar current is passed through the hamstring, the opposing muscle to the quadriceps, an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is produced in the quadriceps motor neurone.", "Although a single EPSP was not enough to fire an action potential in the motor neurone, the sum of several EPSPs from multiple sensory neurones synapsing onto the motor neurone can cause the motor neurone to fire, thus contracting the quadriceps.", "On the other hand, IPSPs could subtract from this sum of EPSPs, preventing the motor neurone from firing.Apart from these seminal experiments, Eccles was key to a number of important developments in neuroscience.", "Until around 1949, Eccles believed that synaptic transmission was primarily electrical rather than chemical.", "Although he was wrong in this hypothesis, his arguments led him and others to perform some of the experiments which proved chemical synaptic transmission.", "Bernard Katz and Eccles worked together on some of the experiments which elucidated the role of acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter in the brain.===Honours===He was appointed a Knight Bachelor in 1958 in recognition of services to physiological research.He won the Australian of the Year Award in 1963, the same year he won the Nobel Prize.In 1964, he became an honorary member to the American Philosophical Society, and in 1966 he moved to the United States to work as a professor at the Institute for Biomedical Research at the Feinberg School of Medicine in Chicago.", "Unhappy with the working conditions there, he left to become a professor at The State University of New York at Buffalo from 1968 until he retired in 1975.After retirement, he moved to Switzerland and wrote on the mind–body problem.In 1981, Eccles became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.In 1990 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) in recognition of service to science, particularly in the field of neurophysiology.", "He died at the age of 94 in 1997 in Tenero-Contra, Locarno, Switzerland.In March 2012, the Eccles Institute of Neuroscience was constructed in a new wing of the John Curtin School of Medical Research, with the assistance of a $63M grant from the Commonwealth Government.", "In 2021, a new $60M animal research building was opened at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, and named the Eccles Building.John Carew Eccles (right) with Czech psychiatrist Cyril Höschl (left) in 1993" ], [ "Philosophy<!--linked from 'Popper's three worlds'-->", "In ''The Understanding of the Brain'' (1973), Eccles summarises his philosophy: \"Now before discussing brain function in detail I will at the beginning give an account of my philosophical position on the so-called 'brain-mind problem' so that you will be able to relate the experimental evidence to this philosophical position.", "I have written at length on this philosophy in my book ''Facing Reality''.", "In Fig.", "6-1 you will be able to see that I fully accept the recent philosophical achievements of Sir Karl Popper with his concept of three worlds.", "I was a dualist, now I am a trialist!", "Cartesian dualism has become unfashionable with many people.", "They embrace monism to escape the enigma of brain-mind interaction with its perplexing problems.", "But Sir Karl Popper and I are interactionists, and what is more, ''trialist interactionists''!", "The three worlds are very easily defined.", "I believe that in the classification of Fig.", "6-1 there is nothing left out.", "It takes care of everything that is in existence and in our experience.", "All can be classified in one or other of the categories enumerated under Worlds 1, 2 and 3.'''Fig.", "6-1, Three Worlds'''WORLD 1WORLD 2WORLD 3PHYSICAL OBJECTS AND STATESSTATES OF CONSCIOUSNESSKNOWLEDGE IN OBJECTIVE SENSE1.Inorganic: Matter and Energy of CosmosSubjective KnowledgeRecords of Intellectual Efforts2.Biology: Structure and Actions of All Living Beings; Human BrainsExperience of: Perception, Thinking, Emotions, Dispositional Intentions, Memories, Dreams, Creative ImaginationPhilosophical, Theological, Scientific, Historical, Literary, Artistic, Technological3.Artifacts: Material Substrates of human creativity, of tools, of machines, of books, of works of art, of music.Theoretical Systems: Scientific Problems, Critical Arguments\"In Fig.", "6-1, World 1 is the world of physical objects and states.", "It comprises the whole cosmos of matter and energy, all of biology including human brains, and all artifacts that man has made for coding information, as for example, the paper and ink of books or the material base of works of art.", "World 1 is the total world of the materialists.", "They recognise nothing else.", "All else is fantasy.", "\"World 2 is the world of states of consciousness and subjective knowledge of all kinds.", "The totality of our perceptions comes in this world.", "But there are several levels.", "In agreement with Polten, I tend to recognise three kinds of levels of World 2, as indicated in Fig.", "6-2, but it may be more correct to think of it as a spectrum.FIG.", "6-2, World of ConsciousnessOuter SenseInner SensePure EgoLight, Colour, Sound, Smell, Taste, Pain, TouchThoughts, Feelings, Memories, Dreams, Imaginings, IntentionsThe Self – self soul and spirit\"The first level (outer sense) would be the ordinary perceptions provided by all our sense organs, hearing and touch and sight and smell and pain.", "All of these perceptions are in World 2, of course: vision with light and colour; sound with music and harmony; touch with all its qualities and vibration; the range of odours and tastes, and so on.", "These qualities do not exist in World 1, where correspondingly there are but electromagnetic waves, pressure waves in the atmosphere, material objects, and chemical substances.", "\"In addition there is a level of ''inner sense'', which is the world of more subtle perceptions.", "It is the world of your emotions, of your feelings of joy and sadness and fear and anger and so on.", "It includes all your memory, and all your imaginings and planning into the future.", "In fact there is a whole range of levels which could be described at length.", "All the subtle experiences of the human person are in this inner sensory world.", "It is all private to you but you can reveal it in linguistic expression, and by gestures of all levels of subtlety.", "\"Finally, at the core of World 2 there is the ''self'' or ''pure ego'', which is the basis of our unity as an experiencing being throughout our whole lifetime.", "\"This World 2 is our ''primary reality''.", "Our conscious experiences are the basis of our knowledge of World 1, which is thus a world of ''secondary reality'', a derivative world.", "Whenever I am doing a scientific experiment, for example, I have to plan it cognitively, all in my thoughts, and then consciously carry out my plan of action in the experiment.", "Finally I have to look at the results and evaluate them in thought.", "For example, I have to see the traces of the oscilloscope and their photographic records or hear the signals on the loudspeaker.", "The various signals from the recording equipment have to be received by my sense organs, transmitted to my brain, and so to my consciousness, then appropriately measured and compared before I can begin to think about the significance of the experimental results.", "We are all the time, in every action we do, incessantly playing backwards and forwards between World 1 and World 2.", "\"And what is World 3?", "As shown in Fig.", "6-1 it is the whole world of culture.", "It is the world that was created by man and that reciprocally made man.", "This is my message in which I follow Popper unreservedly.", "The whole of language is here.", "All our means of communication, all our intellectual efforts coded in books, coded in the artistic and technological treasures in the museums, coded in every artefact left by man from primitive times—this is World 3 right up to the present time.", "It is the world of civilisation and culture.", "Education is the means whereby each human being is brought into relation with World 3.In this manner he becomes immersed in it throughout life, participating in the heritage of mankind and so becoming fully human.", "World 3 is the world that uniquely relates to man.", "It is the world which is completely unknown to animals.", "They are blind to all of World 3.I say that without any reservations.", "This is then the first part of my story.", "\"Now I come to consider the way in which the three worlds interact...\"Despite these words, in his late book ''How the Self Controls Its Brain'', Eccles proposed a dualistic mechanism of mind." ], [ "Personal life and death", "Eccles had nine children.", "Eccles married Irene Miller Eccles (1904-2002) in 1928 and divorced in 1968.After his divorce in 1968, Eccles married Helena Táboríková; a fellow neuropsychologist and M.D.", "of Charles University.", "The two often collaborated in research and they remained married until his death.", "Eccles died on 2 May 1997 in his home of Contra, Switzerland.", "He was buried in Contra, Switzerland." ], [ "Styles", "* Mr John Eccles (1903–1929)* Dr John Eccles (1929–1944)* Prof. John Eccles (1944–1958)* Sir John Eccles (1958–1990)* Sir John Eccles AC (1990–1997)" ], [ "Bibliography", "* 1932, ''Reflex Activity of the Spinal Cord''.", "* 1953, ''The neurophysiological basic of the mind: The principles of neurophysiology'', Oxford: Clarendon.", "* 1957, ''The Physiology of Nerve Cells''.", "* 1964, ''The Physiology of Synapses''.", "* 1965, ''The brain and the unity of conscious experience'', London: Cambridge University Press.", "* 1969, ''The Inhibitory Pathways of the Central Nervous System''.", "* 1970, ''Facing reality: Philosophical Adventures by a Brain Scientist'', Berlin: Springer.", "* 1973, ''The Understanding of the Brain''.", "* 1977, ''The Self and Its Brain'', with Karl Popper, Berlin: Springer.", "* 1979, ''The human mystery'', Berlin: Springer.", "* 1980, ''The Human Psyche''.", "* 1984, ''The Wonder of Being Human – Our Brain & Our Mind'', with Daniel N. Robinson, New York, Free Press.", "* 1985, ''Mind and Brain: The Many-Faceted Problems'', (Editor), New York : Paragon House.", "* 1989, ''Evolution Of The Brain : Creation Of The Self''.", "* 1994, ''How the Self Controls Its Brain''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Pratt, D.: ''John Eccles on Mind and Brain''.", "A theosophical view.", "* Sabbatini, R.M.E.", ": Neurons and synapses.", "The history of its discovery IV.", "Chemical transmission.", "''Brain & Mind'', 2004.", "* Interdisciplinary introduction to J.C. Eccles's life and philosophy – Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger''', (13 December 1769 – 17 April 1844) was an English lawyer, politician and judge." ], [ "Early life", "James Scarlett was born in Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, had property.", "In the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his education at Hawkshead Grammar School and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1789.Having entered the Inner Temple he took the advice of Samuel Romilly, studied law on his own for a year, and then was taught by George Wood.", "He was called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the Lancashire sessions." ], [ "Legal and political career", "Though Scarlett had no professional connections, he gradually obtained a large practice, ultimately confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and the northern circuit.", "He took silk in 1816, and from this time till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income reached £18,500, a large sum for that period.", "He first entered parliament in 1819 as Whig member for Peterborough, representing that constituency with a short break (1822–1823) till 1830, when he was elected for the borough of Malton.", "He became Attorney General, and was made a Knight Bachelor when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and though he resigned when the Duke of Wellington came into power in 1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the Duke in 1830.His opposition to the Reform Bill caused him to leave the Whigs and join the Tories, and he was elected, first for Cockermouth in 1831 and then in 1832 for Norwich, for which he sat until the dissolution of parliament in 1835.He was appointed Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 1834, and presided in that court for more than nine years.", "He was appointed to the Privy Council at the end of that year.", "He was raised to the peerage as '''Baron Abinger''', ''of Abinger in the County of Surrey and of the City of Norwich'' in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in 1813.The qualities which brought him success at the bar were not equalled on the bench; he had a reputation for unfairness, and complaints were made about his domineering attitude towards juries.While he was studying in England, he became the guardian of Edward Moulton, who later assumed his mother's family name, and became the father of the poet Elizabeth Barrett, later Elizabeth Barrett Browning.", "The Scarletts and the Barretts had been friends for many years in Jamaica, and it seems natural that James Scarlett would have been selected to keep an eye on young Moulton, while the boy was at school in England.", "In a note prefixed to the ''Collected Edition'' of his wife's poems, Robert Browning tells us that \"On the early death of his father, he (Edward Moulton) was brought from Jamaica to England when a very young child, as ward to the late Chief Baron Lord Abinger, then Mr. Scarlett, whom he frequently accompanied in his post-chaise when on pursuit.\"" ], [ "Family", "Lord Abinger was twice married (the second time only six months before his death), and by his first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title passing to his eldest son, Robert.", "His second son was General Sir James Yorke Scarlett, leader of the heavy cavalry charge at Balaklava.", "His third son, Peter Campbell Scarlett, was a diplomat.", "His elder daughter, Mary, married John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden.", "Sir William Anglin Scarlett, Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of Jamaica.", "While attending the Norfolk circuit on 2 April, Lord Abinger was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury St Edmunds.A more distant relation was the painter John Scarlett Davis." ], [ "Cases", "''Fouldes v. Willoughby'' (1841)" ], [ "Property", "In 1836, Scarlett was awarded compensation of £626 2s 2d for 30 slaves on the Spring Grove estate in Manchester, Jamaica." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jewish views on marriage" ], [ "Introduction", "''A Jewish wedding'' (1903) by Jozef Israëlsmarriage certificate, dated 1740 (Brooklyn Museum)'''Marriage in Judaism''' is the documentation of a contract between a Jewish man and a Jewish woman in which God is involved.", "In Judaism, a marriage can end either because of a divorce document given by the man to his wife, or by the death of either party.", "Certain details, primarily as protections for the wife, were added in Talmudic times.Non-Orthodox developments have brought changes in who may marry whom.", "Intermarriage is often discouraged, though opinions vary." ], [ "Overview", "===Historic view===In traditional Judaism, marriage is viewed as a contractual bond commanded by God in which a Jewish man and a Jewish woman come together to create a relationship in which God is directly involved.", "Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is traditionally expected to fulfil the commandment to have children.", "In this view, marriage is understood to mean that the husband and wife are merging into a single soul, which is why a man is considered \"incomplete\" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains to be unified.===Recent non-Orthodox views===Non-Orthodox Jewish denominations, such as Reconstructionist, Reform, and Conservative Judaism, recognize same-sex marriage, and de-emphasize procreation, focusing on marriage as a bond between a couple." ], [ "Betrothal and marriage", "''The Jewish Bride'' (Rembrandt, 1662–6)In Jewish law, marriage consists of two separate acts, called or , which is the betrothal ceremony, and or , the actual Jewish wedding ceremony.", "changes the couple's personal circumstances, while brings about the legal consequences of the change of circumstances.", "In Talmudic times, these two ceremonies usually took place up to a year apart; the bride lived with her parents until the actual marriage ceremony (), which would take place in a room or tent that the groom had set up for her.", "Since the Middle Ages the two ceremonies have taken place as a combined ceremony performed in public.According to the Talmud, involves the groom handing an object to the bride – either an object of value such as a ring, or a document stating that she is being betrothed to him.", "In order to be valid, this must be done in the presence of two unrelated male witnesses.", "After , the laws of adultery apply, and the marriage cannot be dissolved without a religious divorce.", "After , the couple may live together.The act of may be made by the intending parties or by their respective parents or other relatives on their behalf with their consent.", "A man and a woman cannot be betrothed to one another without agency and consent.", "The act is formalized in a document known as the , the \"Document of Conditions\" which is read prior to the .", "After the reading, the mothers of the future bride and groom break a plate.", "Today, some sign the contract on the day of the wedding, some do it as an earlier ceremony, and some do not do it at all.", "It should also be emphasized that this practice is not explicitly mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.In Haredi communities, marriages may be arranged by the parents of the prospective bride and groom, who may arrange a by engaging a professional match-maker () who finds and introduces the prospective bride and groom and receives a fee for their services.", "The young couple is not forced to marry if either does not accept the other." ], [ "Matrimony", "=== Marital harmony ===Marital harmony, known as , is valued in Jewish tradition.", "The Talmud states that a man should love his wife as much as he loves himself, and honour her more than he honours himself; indeed, one who honours his wife was said, by the classical rabbis, to be rewarded with wealth.", "Similarly, a husband was expected to discuss with his wife any worldly matters that might arise in his life.", "The Talmud forbids a husband from being overbearing to his household, and domestic abuse by him was also condemned.", "It was said of a wife that \"God counts her tears\".As for the wife, the greatest praise the Talmudic rabbis offered to any woman was that given to a wife who fulfils the wishes of her husband; to this end, an early midrash states that a wife should not leave the home \"too frequently\".", "A wife, also, was expected to be modest, even when alone with her husband.", "God's presence dwells in a pure and loving home.=== Conjugal rights and obligations ===Marriage obligations and rights in Judaism are ultimately based on those apparent in the Bible, which have been clarified, defined, and expanded on by many prominent rabbinic authorities throughout history.Traditionally, the obligations of the husband include providing for his wife.", "He is obligated to provide for her sustenance for her benefit; in exchange, he is also entitled to her income.", "However, this is a right to the wife, and she can release her husband of the obligation of sustaining her, and she can then keep her income exclusively for herself.", "The document that provides for this is the .The Bible itself gives the wife protections, as per Exodus 21:10, although the rabbis may have added others later.", "The rights of the husband and wife are described in tractate in the Talmud, which explains how the rabbis balanced the two sets of rights of the wife and the husband.According to the non-traditional view, in the Bible the wife is treated as a possession owned by her husband, but later Judaism imposed several obligations on the husband, effectively giving the wife several rights and freedoms; indeed, being a Jewish wife was often a more favourable situation than being a wife in many other cultures.", "For example, the Talmud establishes the principle that a wife is entitled, but not compelled, to the same dignity and social standing as her husband, and is entitled to keep any additional advantages she had as a result of her social status before her marriage.==== In the Bible ====Biblical Hebrew has two words for \"husband\": (also meaning \"master\"), and (also meaning \"man\", parallel to meaning \"woman\" or \"wife\").", "The words are contrasted in Hosea 2:16, where God speaks to Israel as though it is his wife: \"On that day, says the Lord, you will call me 'my husband' (), and will no longer call me 'my master' ().", "\"Early nomadic communities practised a form of marriage known as , in which a wife would own a tent of her own, within which she retains complete independence from her husband; this principle appears to survive in parts of early Israelite society, as some early passages of the Bible appear to portray certain wives as each owning a tent as a personal possession (specifically, Jael, Sarah, and Jacob's wives).", "In later times, the Bible describes wives as being given the innermost room(s) of the husband's house, as her own private area to which men were not permitted; in the case of wealthy husbands, the Bible describes their wives as having each been given an entire house for this purpose.It was not, however, a life of complete freedom.", "The descriptions of the Bible suggest that a wife was expected to perform certain household tasks: spinning, sewing, weaving, manufacture of clothing, fetching of water, baking of bread, and animal husbandry.", "The Book of Proverbs contains an entire acrostic about the duties which would be performed by a virtuous wife.The husband, too, is indirectly implied to have responsibilities to his wife.", "The Torah obligates a man to not deprive his wife of food, clothing, or of sexual activity (); if the husband does not provide the first wife with these things, she is to be divorced, without cost to her.", "The Talmud interprets this as a requirement for a man to provide food and clothing to, and have sex with, each of his wives, even if he only has one.As a society, the Israelites did not have any laws which imposed monogamy on men.", "Adulterous married and betrothed women, as well as their male accomplices, were subject to the death penalty by the biblical laws against adultery.", "According to the Book of Numbers, if a woman was suspected of adultery, she was to be subjected to the ordeal of the bitter water, a form of trial by ordeal, but one that took a miracle to convict.", "The literary prophets indicate that adultery was a frequent occurrence, despite their strong protests against it, and these legal strictnesses.==== In the Talmud and Rabbinic Judaism ====The Talmud sets a minimum provision which a husband must provide to his wife:* Enough bread for at least two meals a day* Sufficient oil for cooking and for lighting purposes* Sufficient wood for cooking* Fruit and vegetables* Wine, if it is customary in the locality for women to drink it* Three meals on each shabbat consisting of fish and meat* An allowance of a silver coin (Hebrew: ) each weekRabbinic courts could compel the husband to make this provision, if he fails to do so voluntarily.", "The Chatam Sofer, a prominent 19th century halachic decisor, argued that if a man could not provide his wife with this minimum, he should be compelled to divorce her; other Jewish rabbis argued that a man should be compelled to hire himself out, as a day-labourer, if he cannot otherwise make this provision to his wife.According to prominent Jewish writers of the Middle Ages, if a man is absent from his wife for a long period, the wife should be allowed to sell her husband's property, if necessary to sustain herself.", "Similarly, they argued that if a wife had to take out a loan to pay for her sustenance during such absence, her husband had to pay the debt on his return.In order to offset the husband's duty to support his wife, she was required by the Talmud to surrender all her earnings to her husband, together with any profit she makes by accident, and the right of usufruct on her property; the wife was not required to do this if she wished to support herself.", "Although the wife always retained ownership of her property itself, if she died while still married to her husband, he was to be her heir, according to the opinion of the Talmud; this principle, though, was modified, in various ways, by the rabbis of the Middle Ages.===== Home and household =====In Jewish tradition, the husband was expected to provide a home for his wife, furnished in accordance to local custom and appropriate to his status; the marital couple were expected to live together in this home, although if the husband's choice of work made it difficult to do so, the Talmud excuses him from the obligation.", "Traditionally, if the husband changed his usual abode, the wife was considered to have a duty to move with him.", "In the Middle Ages, it was argued that if a person continued to refuse to live with their spouse, the spouse in question had sufficient grounds for divorce.Most Jewish religious authorities held that a husband must allow his wife to eat at the same table as him, even if he gave his wife enough money to provide for herself.", "By contrast, if a husband mistreated his wife, or lived in a disreputable neighbourhood, the Jewish religious authorities would permit the wife to move to another home elsewhere, and would compel the husband to finance her life there.Expanding on the household tasks which the Bible implies a wife should undertake, rabbinic literature requires her to perform all the housework (such as baking, cooking, washing, caring for her children, etc.", "), unless her marriage had given the husband a large dowry; in the latter situation, the wife was expected only to tend to \"affectionate\" tasks, such as making his bed and serving him his food.", "Jewish tradition expected the husband to provide the bed linen and kitchen utensils.", "If the wife had young twin children, the Talmud made her husband responsible for caring for one of them.===== Clothing =====The Talmud elaborates on the biblical requirement of the husband to provide his wife with clothing, by insisting that each year he must provide each wife with 50 zuzim's-worth of clothing, including garments appropriate to each season of the year.", "The Talmudic rabbis insist that this annual clothing gift should include one hat, one belt, and three pairs of shoes (one pair for each of the three main annual festivals: Passover, Shabu'ot, and Sukkoth).", "The husband was also expected by the classical rabbis to provide his wife with jewelry and perfumes if he lived in an area where this was customary.===== Physical obligations =====The Talmud argues that a husband is responsible for the protection of his wife's body.", "If his wife became ill, then he would be compelled, by the Talmud, to defray any medical expense which might be incurred in relation to this; the Talmud requires him to ensure that the wife receives care.", "Although he technically had the right to divorce his wife, enabling him to avoid paying for her medical costs, several prominent rabbis throughout history condemned such a course of action as inhuman behaviour, even if the wife was suffering from a prolonged illness.If the wife dies, even if not due to illness, the Talmud's stipulations require the husband to arrange, and pay for, her burial; the burial must, in the opinion of the Talmud, be one conducted in a manner befitting the husband's social status, and in accordance with the local custom.", "Prominent rabbis of the Middle Ages clarified this, stating that the husband must make any provisions required by local burial customs, potentially including the hiring of mourners and the erection of a tombstone.", "According to the Talmud, and later rabbinic writers, if the husband was absent, or refused to do these things, a rabbinical court should arrange the wife's funeral, selling some of the husband's property in order to defray the costs.If the wife was captured, the husband was required by the Talmud and later writers to pay the ransom demanded for her release; there is some debate whether the husband was required only to pay up to the wife's market value as a slave, or whether he must pay any ransom, even to the point of having to sell his possessions to raise the funds.", "If the husband and wife were both taken captive, the historic Jewish view was that the rabbinic courts should first pay the ransom for the wife, selling some of the husband's property in order to raise the funds.===== Fidelity =====In the classical era of the rabbinic scholars, the death penalty for adultery was rarely applied.", "It forbids conviction if:* the woman had been raped, rather than consenting to the crime;* the woman had mistaken the paramour for her husband;* the woman was unaware of the laws against adultery before she committed the crime;* the woman had not been properly warned.", "This requires that the two witnesses testifying against her warn her that the Torah prohibits adultery; that the penalty for adultery is death; and that she immediately responded that she is doing so with full knowledge of those facts.", "Even if she was warned, but did not acknowledge those facts immediately upon hearing them, and immediately before doing the act, she is not put to death.", "These conditions apply in all death-penalty convictions.These rules made it practically impossible to convict any woman of adultery; in nearly every case, women were acquitted.", "However, due to the belief that a priest should be untainted, a Kohen was compelled to divorce his wife if she had been raped.In Talmudic times, once the death penalty was no longer enforced for any crime, even when a woman was convicted, the punishment was comparatively mild: adulteresses were flogged instead.", "Nevertheless, the husbands of convicted adulteresses were not permitted by the Talmud to forgive their guilty wives, instead being compelled to divorce them; according to Maimonides, a conviction for adultery nullified any right that the wife's marriage contract (Hebrew: ) gave her to a compensation payment for being divorced.", "Once divorced, an adulteress was not permitted, according to the Talmudic writers, to marry her paramour.As for men who committed adultery (with another man's wife), Abba ben Joseph and Abba Arika are both quoted in the Talmud as expressing abhorrence, and arguing that such men would be condemned to Gehenna.===== Family purity =====The laws of \"family purity\" () are considered an important part of an Orthodox Jewish marriage, and adherence to them is (in Orthodox Judaism) regarded as a prerequisite of marriage.", "This involves observance of the various details of the menstrual laws.", "Orthodox brides and grooms attend classes on this subject prior to the wedding.", "The niddah laws are regarded as an intrinsic part of marital life (rather than just associated with women).", "Together with a few other rules, including those about the ejaculation of semen, these are collectively termed \"family purity\".===== Sexual relations =====In marriage, conjugal relations are guaranteed as a fundamental right for a woman, along with food and clothing.", "This obligation is known as .", "Sex within marriage is the woman's right, and the man's duty.", "The husband is forbidden from raping his wife, they are not to be intimate while drunk or while either party is angry at the other.", "A woman should be granted a (divorce) if she seeks it because her husband is disgusting or loathsome to her.", "If either partner consistently refuses to participate, that person is considered rebellious, and the other spouse can sue for divorce." ], [ "Age of marriage{{anchor\|Child marriage}}", "Citing the primacy of the divine command given in Genesis 1:28, the time between puberty and age twenty has been considered the ideal time for men and women to be wed in traditional Jewish thought.", "Some rabbis have gone further to commend the age of eighteen as most ideal, while others have advocated for the time immediately following puberty, closer to the age of fourteen, essentially \"as early in life as possible.\"", "Babylonian rabbis understood marriage as God's means of keeping male sexuality from going out of control, so they advocated for early marriage to prevent men from succumbing to temptation in their youth.", "The ḳeṭannah (children aged three to twelve) might be given in marriage by her father, and the marriage was valid, necessitating a formal divorce if separation was desired.", "Some commended early marriage for its benefits: Rabbi Ḥisda maintained that early marriage could lead to increased intelligence.A large age gap between spouses, in either direction, is advised against as unwise.", "A younger woman marrying a significantly older man however is especially problematic: marrying one's young daughter to an old man was declared as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution.", "Moreover, it is problematic for an older man to be unmarried in the first place.", "Marriage is held to be uniquely mandatory for men, and an unmarried man over the age of twenty is considered \"cursed by God Himself.", "\"There is evidence however that in some communities males did not marry until \"thirty or older.\"", "In medieval Jewish Ashkenazi communities, women continued to be married young.", "Since the Enlightenment, young marriage has become rarer among Jewish communities.=== Consent ===According to the Talmud, a father is commanded not to marry his daughter to anyone until she grows up and says, \"I want this one\".", "A marriage that takes place without the consent of the girl is not an effective legal marriage.A (literally meaning \"little one\") was any girl between the age of 3 years and that of 12 years plus one day; she was subject to her father's authority, and he could arrange a marriage for her without her agreement.", "However, after reaching the age of maturity, she would have to agree to the marriage to be considered as married.", "If the father was dead or missing, the brothers of the , collectively, had the right to arrange a marriage for her, as had her mother.", "In these situations, a would always have the right to annul her marriage, even if it was the first.If the marriage did end (due to divorce or the husband's death), any further marriages were optional; the retained her right to annul them.", "The choice of a to annul a marriage, known in Hebrew as (literally meaning \"refusal\", \"denial\", \"protest\"), led to a true annulment, not a divorce; a divorce document () was not necessary, and a who did this was not regarded by legal regulations as a divorcee, in relation to the marriage.", "Unlike divorce, was regarded with distaste by many rabbinic writers, even in the Talmud; in earlier classical Judaism, one major faction – the House of Shammai – argued that such annulment rights only existed during the betrothal (not engagement) period () and not once the actual marriage () had begun." ], [ "Intermarriage", "Rates of marriage between Jews and non-Jews have increased in countries other than Israel (the Jewish diaspora).", "According to the National Jewish Population Survey 2000-01, 47% of marriages involving Jews in the United States between 1996 and 2001 were with non-Jewish partners.", "Jewish leaders in different branches generally agree that possible assimilation is a crisis, but they differ on the proper response to intermarriage.===Attitudes===* All branches of Orthodox Judaism do not sanction the validity or legitimacy of intermarriages.", "* Conservative Judaism does not sanction intermarriage, but encourages acceptance of the non-Jewish spouse within the family, hoping that such acceptance will lead to conversion.", "* Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism permit total personal autonomy in interpretation of Jewish Law, and intermarriage is not forbidden.", "Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis are free to take their own approach to performing marriages between a Jewish and non-Jewish partner.", "Many, but not all, seek agreement from the couple that the children will be raised as Jewish.There are also differences between streams on what constitutes an intermarriage, arising from their differing criteria for being Jewish in the first place.", "Orthodox Jews do not accept as Jewish a person whose mother is not Jewish, nor a convert whose conversion was conducted under the authority of a more liberal stream.=== Interracial Marriage ===Jewish prohibitions on marriage typically concern interfaith marriages.", "There is no historical prohibition of interracial marriage, nor is there explicit permission of such.", "However, debates around Numbers 12:1 suggest that Zipporah, the wife of Moses, is described as a \"Cushite woman\" to highlight a potentially much darker skin tone.", "Under modern social constructs, this would constitute Moses's marriage as an interracial one.", "However, there is no concrete proof that the Cushite woman referred to in Numbers is the same Zipporah from Exodus." ], [ "Marriage in Israel", "In Israel, the only institutionalized form of Jewish marriage is the religious one, i.e., a marriage conducted under the auspices of the rabbinate.", "Specifically, marriage of Israeli Jews must be conducted according to Jewish Law (), as viewed by Orthodox Judaism.", "One consequence is that Jews in Israel who cannot marry according to Jewish law (e.g., a and a divorcée, or a Jew and one who is not halachically Jewish), cannot marry each other.", "This has led for calls, mostly from the secular segment of the Israeli public, for the institution of civil marriage.Some secular-Jewish Israelis travel abroad to have civil marriages, either because they do not wish an Orthodox wedding or because their union cannot be sanctioned by .", "These marriages are legally recognized by the State, but are not recognized by the State Rabbinate.Marriages performed in Israel must be carried out by religious authorities of an official religion (Judaism, Islam, Christianity, or Druze), unless both parties are without religion." ], [ "Divorce", " (Jewish Law) allows for divorce.", "The document of divorce is termed a .", "The final divorce ceremony involves the husband giving the document into the hand of the wife or her agent, but the wife may sue in rabbinical court to initiate the divorce.", "In such a case, a husband may be compelled to give the , if he has violated any of his numerous obligations outlined in Jewish law and the couple's specific ''ketubah''; Historically, this was sometimes accomplished by beating and or monetary coercion.", "The rationale was that since he was required to divorce his wife due to his (or her) violations of the contract, his good inclination desires to divorce her, and the community helps him to do what he wants to do anyway.", "In this case, the wife may or may not be entitled to a payment.Since around the 12th century, some officials within Judaism have recognized the right of a wife abused physically or psychologically to a forced divorce.Conservative Judaism follows halacha, although differently than Orthodox Judaism.", "Reform Jews usually use an egalitarian form of the at their weddings.", "They generally do not issue Jewish divorces, seeing a civil divorce as both necessary and sufficient; however, some Reform rabbis encourage the couple to go through a Jewish divorce procedure.", "Orthodox Judaism does not recognize civil law as overriding religious law, and thus does not view a civil divorce as sufficient.", "Therefore, a man or woman may be considered divorced by the Reform Jewish community, but still married by the Conservative community.", "Orthodox Judaism usually does not recognize Reform weddings because according to Talmudic law, the witnesses to the marriage must be Jews who observe , which is believed by Orthodox authorities to seldom be the case in Reform weddings.=== ===Traditionally, when a husband fled, or his whereabouts were unknown for any reason, the woman was considered an (literally \"an anchored woman\"), and was not allowed to remarry; in traditional Judaism, divorce can only be initiated by the husband.", "Prior to modern communication, the death of the husband while in a distant land was a common cause of this situation.", "In modern times, when a husband refuses to issue a due to money, property, or custody battles, the woman who cannot remarry is considered a , not an agunah.", "A man in this situation would not be termed a (literally, \"a refuser of a divorce document\"), unless a legitimate Beis Din had required him to issue a Get.", "The term is often used in such circumstances, but it is not technically accurate.Within both the Conservative and Orthodox communities, there are efforts to avoid situations where a woman is not able to obtain a Jewish divorce from her husband.", "The serves this function in Conservative Judaism in order to prevent husbands from refusing to give their wives a divorce.", "To do this, the has built in provisions; so, if predetermined circumstances occur, the divorce goes into effect immediately.", "After the fact, various Jewish and secular legal methods are used to deal with such problems.", "None of the legal solutions addresses the problem in the case of a missing husband." ], [ "Same-sex marriage", "=== In Orthodox Judaism ===Orthodox Jewish protesters holding anti-LGBT signs during the Gay Pride parade in Haifa, Israel (2010)Orthodox Judaism does not have a Jewish legal construct of same-gender marriage.", "While any two Jewish adults may be joined by a Jewish legal contract, the rites of are reserved for a union of a man and woman.", "Orthodox Judaism does not recognize civil marriages to have theological legal standing, be they civil marriages between male and female, or between two adults of the same gender.=== In Conservative Judaism ===In June 2012, the American branch of Conservative Judaism formally approved same-sex marriage ceremonies in a 13–0 vote with one abstention.=== In Reform Judaism ===In 1996, the Central Conference of American Rabbis passed a resolution approving same-sex civil marriage.", "However, this same resolution made a distinction between civil marriages and religious marriages; this resolution thus stated:In 1998, an ad hoc CCAR committee on human sexuality issued its majority report (11 to 1, 1 abstention) which stated that the holiness within a Jewish marriage \"may be present in committed same gender relationships between two Jews and that these relationships can serve as the foundation of stable Jewish families, thus adding strength to the Jewish community.\"", "The report called for CCAR to support rabbis in officiating at same-sex marriages.", "Also in 1998, the Responsa Committee of the CCAR issued a lengthy (rabbinical opinion) that offered detailed argumentation in support of both sides of the question whether a rabbi may officiate at a commitment ceremony for a same-sex couple.In March 2000, CCAR issued a new resolution stating that \"We do hereby resolve that the relationship of a Jewish, same gender couple is worthy of affirmation through appropriate Jewish ritual, and further resolve, that we recognize the diversity of opinions within our ranks on this issue.", "We support the decision of those who choose to officiate at rituals of union for same-sex couples, and we support the decision of those who do not.", "\"=== In Reconstructionist Judaism ===The Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association (RRA) encourages its members to officiate at same-sex marriages, though it does not require it of them." ], [ "See also", "* Jewish prenuptial agreement* (guidelines for physical contact)* (matchmaker)* (modest behavior)* (prohibitions of seclusion with the opposite sex)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Janusz Zajdel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Janusz Andrzej Zajdel''' (15 August 1938 – 19 July 1985) was a Polish science fiction author, second in popularity in Poland to Stanisław Lem.", "His major genres were social science fiction and dystopia.", "His main recurring theme involved the gloomy prospects for a space environment into which mankind carried totalitarian ideas and habits: Red Space Republics, or Space Labor Camps, or both.", "His heroes desperately try to find meaning in the world around them.The Polish science fiction fandom award was named after him: the Janusz A. Zajdel Award.", "He was a trustee of World SF." ], [ "Life", "Janusz Zajdel was born 15 August 1938 in Warsaw, Poland.", "He studied physics at the University of Warsaw.", "After graduating, he worked many years as a radiological engineer and an expert on nuclear physics at the Central Laboratory of Radiological Protection in Poland.", "He published a number of academic works, handbooks of safety regulations, as well as educational and popular science texts.In his spare time, he popularized science by writing science fiction.", "With his brother, he started a column in a Polish magazine for young people interested in science and engineering, '''' (''Young Technician''), in which they proposed various futuristic gadgets.", "In 1961 ''Młody Technik'' published Zajdel's science-fiction debut, the short story \"''Tau Ceti''\" ().", "Other stories by him soon appeared in several other Polish magazines.His first book was published in 1965, a short-story anthology, ''Jad mantezji'' (''The Venom of Mantesia''), which included stories from ''Młody Technik'' and some others that had already appeared a year earlier in another anthology.", "By 1982 he had published four more collections: ''Przejście przez lustro'' (Through the Mirror, 1975); ''Iluzyt'' (1976); ''Feniks'' (The Phoenix, 1981); and ''Ogon diabła'' (The Devil's Tail, 1982).His first novel, '''', appeared in 1966, a year after his first short-story anthology, and was geared toward young adults.", "His first serious science-fiction novel was a \"first contact\"-type SF mystery, '''' (Right of Return, 1975); but it was his novels of the late 1970s and early 1980s – ''Cylinder van Troffa'' (Van Troff's Cylinder, 1980); ''Limes inferior'' (The Lower Limit, 1982); ''Cała prawda o planecie Ksi'' (The Whole Truth about Planet Xi, 1983); '''' (Out of the Shadows, 1983); and ''Paradyzja'' (Paradise: World in Orbit, 1984) – that earned him a reputation as one of the most important Polish science-fiction writers.He was an active member of Polish and international science fiction fandom, and a Trustee of World SF.", "In the 1980s he was an active supporter of the Polish Solidarity movement.On 19 July 1985 he died of lung cancer, after three years' struggle against the disease." ], [ "Themes", "Zajdel's early works, from the 1960s and early 1970s, focuses on scientific inventions and their role in space exploration, alien contact or artificial intelligence.", "As his writing career continued, however, his stories evolved to focus on the social aspects and often negative consequences of those inventions.", "Over time, a theme became increasingly visible in his works - a concern over dangers inherent in attempts to control the human society.", "He is also condemning human ignorance, warning against xenophobia, and asking philosophical questions about the nature of the universe, happiness and human destiny.", "Zajdel's works from his second period - late 1970s and 1980s - and represent the genres of social and dystopian fiction.", "In his works, he envisions totalitarian states and societies living under extreme forms of mass surveillance.His works are also recognized as being a critique of the totalitarian, communist state, a reality of his life in People's Republic of Poland.", "Science fiction genre, with its outer-worldly, clearly fictional, and often allegorical setting and invented jargon was able to debate fundamentals of such systems with frankness that more mainstream literature would not be allowed to." ], [ "Importance", "Zajdel has been described as the second science fiction writer in popularity in Poland after Stanisław Lem.", "He has also been described as the writer who replaced Lem as the \"top Polish SF writer\", after \"Lem vacated this position earlier of his own volition\".He is recognized as an originator of the social science fiction genre in Polish science fiction, known in Poland as the sociological speculative fiction (''fantastyka socjologiczna'').", "He has been an inspiration to a number of younger Polish science fiction authors such as Maciej Parowski and Marek Oramus.His works have been translated into Belarusian, Bulgarian, Czech, Esperanto, Finnish, German, Hungarian, Russian and Slovenian.", ", the only work translated into English is the short story ''Wyjątkowo trudny teren'' (\"Particularly Difficult Territory\") that Zajdel wrote for the English language ''Tales from the Planet Earth'' anthology edited by Frederik Pohl and Elizabeth Anne Hull." ], [ "Recognition", "In 1973 Zajdel received an honorary award Magnum Trophaeum from the ''Młody Technik'' (''Young Technician'') magazine for long-term cooperation.", "In 1980 Zajdel received the Polish Ministry of Culture and Arts Best SF Book of the Year Award for ''Van Troff's Cylinder''.", "Zajdel also received the Golden Sepulka Award two times: for ''Limes Inferior'' (1982 novel; 1983 award) and ''Wyjście z cienia'' (\"Out of the Shadow\") (1983 novel; 1984 award).In 1984 Polish fantasy and science fiction fandom (associated with the Polish SF convention Polcon) decided to establish an annual award, initially named ''Sfinks'' (\"Sphynx\").", "Janusz A. Zajdel became the first winner of this award, for his 1984 novel ''Paradyzja''.", "He won the award posthumously in 1985, shortly after his death, at which time it was decided to rename the award after him, and it became known as the Janusz A. Zajdel Award.Frederik Pohl dedicated the anthology ''Tales From The Planet Earth'' to Zajdel and A. Bertram Chandler." ], [ "Bibliography", "In addition to the solo-authored works listed below, Zajdel's stories have also appeared in many anthologies of science-fiction stories, together with works by other authors.===Novels===* '''', 1966* '''' (Right of Return), Nasza Księgarnia, 1975* ''Cylinder van Troffa'' (Van Troff's Cylinder), 1980* ''Limes inferior'' (The Lower Limit), 1982* ''Cała prawda o planecie Ksi'' (The Whole Truth about Planet Xi), 1983* ''Wyjście z cienia'' (''Coming out of the Shadow''), 1983* ''Paradyzja'' (Paradise: World in Orbit), 1984* '''' (A Second Look at Planet Xi), 2014** Posthumously completed by Marcin Kowalczyk, see ''Cała prawda o planecie Ksi'' for details===Short-story collections===* ''Jad mantezji'' (The Venom of Mantesia), Nasza Księgarnia, 1965* ''Przejście przez lustro'' (Through the Mirror), Iskry, 1975)* ''Iluzyt'', Nasza Księgarnia, 1976* ''Feniks'' (The Phoenix), Nasza Księgarnia, 1981* ''Ogon diabła'' (The Devil's Tail), KAW, 1982* ''Dokąd jedzie ten tramwaj?''", "(Where Is This Streetcar Going?", "), 1988* ''Wyższe racje'' (Higher Considerations), Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1988* ''List pożegnalny'' (Farewell Letter including outlines of unfinished novels), Alfa, 1989* ''Relacja z pierwszej ręki'' (First-hand Account), superNOWA, 2010" ], [ "See also", "* Koalang – term invented by Zajdel" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Rumi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī''' (), or simply '''Rumi''' (30 September 1207 – 17 December 1273), was a Persian 13th-century poet, Hanafi faqih, Islamic scholar, Maturidi theologian and Sufi mystic originally from Greater Khorasan in Greater Iran.Rumi's works were written mostly in Persian, but occasionally he also used Turkish, Arabic and Greek in his verse.", "His ''Masnavi'' (''Mathnawi''), composed in Konya, is considered one of the greatest poems of the Persian language.", "Rumi's influence has transcended national borders and ethnic divisions: Iranians, Afghans, Tajiks, Turks, Kurds, Greeks, Central Asian Muslims, as well as Muslims of South Asia have greatly appreciated his spiritual legacy for the past seven centuries.", "His poetry influenced not only Persian literature, but also the literary traditions of the Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai, Pashto, Kurdish, Urdu, and Bengali languages.Rumi's works are widely read today in their original language across Greater Iran and the Persian-speaking world.", "His poems have subsequently been translated into many of the world's languages and transposed into various formats.", "Rumi has been described as the \"most popular poet\", is very popular in Turkey, Azerbaijan and South Asia, and has become the \"best selling poet\" in the United States." ], [ "Name", "He is most commonly called ''Rumi'' in English.", "His full name is given by his contemporary Sipahsalar as ''Muhammad bin Muhammad bin al-Husayn al-Khatibi al-Balkhi al-Bakri'' ().", "He is more commonly known as ''Molānā Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī'' ().", "''Jalal ad-Din'' is an Arabic name meaning \"Glory of the Faith\".", "''Balkhī'' and ''Rūmī'' are his ''nisbas'', meaning, respectively, \"from Balkh\" and \"from Rûm\" ('Roman,' what European history now calls Byzantine Anatolia).According to the authoritative Rumi biographer Franklin Lewis of the University of Chicago, \"the Anatolian peninsula which had belonged to the Byzantine, or eastern Roman empire, had only relatively recently been conquered by Muslims and even when it came to be controlled by Turkish Muslim rulers, it was still known to Arabs, Persians and Turks as the geographical area of Rum.", "As such, there are a number of historical personages born in or associated with Anatolia known as Rumi, a word borrowed from Arabic literally meaning 'Roman,' in which context Roman refers to subjects of the Byzantine Empire or simply to people living in or things associated with Anatolia.\"", "He was also known as \"Mullah of Rum\" ( ''mullā-yi Rūm'' or ''mullā-yi Rūmī'').Rumi is widely known by the sobriquet ''Mawlānā''/''Molānā'' ( ) in Iran and popularly known as in Turkey.", "''Mawlānā'' () is a term of Arabic origin, meaning \"our master\".", "The term ''Mawlawī''/''Mowlavi'' (Persian) and (Turkish), also of Arabic origin, meaning \"my master\", is also frequently used for him." ], [ "Life", "Jalal ad-Din Rumi gathers Sufi mystics===Overview===Rumi was born to Persian parents, in Balkh, modern-day Afghanistan or Wakhsh, a village on the East bank of the Wakhsh River known as Sangtuda in present-day Tajikistan.", "The area, culturally adjacent to Balkh, is where Mawlânâ's father, Bahâ' uddîn Walad, was a preacher and jurist.", "He lived and worked there until 1212, when Rumi was aged around five and the family moved to Samarkand.Greater Balkh was at that time a major centre of Persian culture and Sufism had developed there for several centuries.", "The most important influences upon Rumi, besides his father, were the Persian poets Attar and Sanai.", "Rumi expresses his appreciation: \"Attar was the spirit, Sanai his eyes twain, And in time thereafter, Came we in their train\" and mentions in another poem: \"Attar has traversed the seven cities of Love, We are still at the turn of one street\".", "His father was also connected to the spiritual lineage of Najm al-Din Kubra.Rumi lived most of his life under the Persianate Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, where he produced his works and died in 1273AD.", "He was buried in Konya, and his shrine became a place of pilgrimage.", "Upon his death, his followers and his son Sultan Walad founded the Mevlevi Order, also known as the Order of the Whirling Dervishes, famous for the Sufi dance known as the Sama ceremony.", "He was laid to rest beside his father, and over his remains a shrine was erected.", "A hagiographical account of him is described in Shams ud-Din Ahmad Aflāki's ''Manāqib ul-Ārifīn'' (written between 1318 and 1353).", "This biography needs to be treated with care as it contains both legends and facts about Rumi.", "For example, Professor Franklin Lewis of the University of Chicago, author of the most complete biography on Rumi, has separate sections for the hagiographical biography of Rumi and the actual biography about him.===Childhood and emigration===Rumi's father was Bahā ud-Dīn Walad, a theologian, jurist and a mystic from Wakhsh, who was also known by the followers of Rumi as Sultan al-Ulama or \"Sultan of the Scholars\".", "According to Sultan Walad's ''Ibadetname'' and Shamsuddin Aflaki (c.1286 to 1291), Rumi was a descendant of Abu Bakr.", "Some modern scholars, however, reject this claim and state it does not hold on closer examination.", "The claim of maternal descent from the Khwarazmshah for Rumi or his father is also seen as a non-historical hagiographical tradition designed to connect the family with royalty, but this claim is rejected for chronological and historical reasons.", "The most complete genealogy offered for the family stretches back to six or seven generations to famous Hanafi jurists.We do not learn the name of Baha al-Din's mother in the sources, only that he referred to her as \"Māmi\" (colloquial Persian for Māma), and that she was a simple woman who lived to the 1200s.", "The mother of Rumi was Mu'mina Khātūn.", "The profession of the family for several generations was that of Islamic preachers of the relatively liberal Hanafi Maturidi school, and this family tradition was continued by Rumi (see his Fihi Ma Fih and Seven Sermons) and Sultan Walad (see Ma'rif Waladi for examples of his everyday sermons and lectures).When the Mongols invaded Central Asia sometime between 1215 and 1220, Baha ud-Din Walad, with his whole family and a group of disciples, set out westwards.", "According to hagiographical account which is not agreed upon by all Rumi scholars, Rumi encountered one of the most famous mystic Persian poets, Attar, in the Iranian city of Nishapur, located in the province of Khorāsān.", "Attar immediately recognized Rumi's spiritual eminence.", "He saw the father walking ahead of the son and said, \"Here comes a sea followed by an ocean.\"", "Attar gave the boy his ''Asrārnāma'', a book about the entanglement of the soul in the material world.", "This meeting had a deep impact on the eighteen-year-old Rumi and later on became the inspiration for his works.From Nishapur, Walad and his entourage set out for Baghdad, meeting many of the scholars and Sufis of the city.", "From Baghdad they went to Hejaz and performed the pilgrimage at Mecca.", "The migrating caravan then passed through Damascus, Malatya, Erzincan, Sivas, Kayseri and Nigde.", "They finally settled in Karaman for seven years; Rumi's mother and brother both died there.", "In 1225, Rumi married Gowhar Khatun in Karaman.", "They had two sons: Sultan Walad and Ala-eddin Chalabi.", "When his wife died, Rumi married again and had a son, Amir Alim Chalabi, and a daughter, Malakeh Khatun.On 1 May 1228, most likely as a result of the insistent invitation of 'Alā' ud-Dīn Key-Qobād, ruler of Anatolia, Baha' ud-Din came and finally settled in Konya in Anatolia within the westernmost territories of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm.===Education and encounters with Shams-e Tabrizi===A page of a copy c. 1503 of the ''Diwan-e Shams-e Tabriz-i''.", "See Rumi ghazal 163.Baha' ud-Din became the head of a madrassa (religious school) and when he died, Rumi, aged twenty-five, inherited his position as the Islamic molvi.", "One of Baha' ud-Din's students, Sayyed Burhan ud-Din Muhaqqiq Termazi, continued to train Rumi in the Shariah as well as the Tariqa, especially that of Rumi's father.", "For nine years, Rumi practised Sufism as a disciple of Burhan ud-Din until the latter died in 1240 or 1241.Rumi's public life then began: he became an Islamic Jurist, issuing fatwas and giving sermons in the mosques of Konya.", "He also served as a Molvi (Islamic teacher) and taught his adherents in the madrassa.During this period, Rumi also travelled to Damascus and is said to have spent four years there.It was his meeting with the dervish Shams-e Tabrizi on 15 November 1244 that completely changed his life.", "From an accomplished teacher and jurist, Rumi was transformed into an ascetic.Shams had travelled throughout the Middle East searching and praying for someone who could \"endure my company\".", "A voice said to him, \"What will you give in return?\"", "Shams replied, \"My head!\"", "The voice then said, \"The one you seek is Jalal ud-Din of Konya.\"", "On the night of 5 December 1248, as Rumi and Shams were talking, Shams was called to the back door.", "He went out, never to be seen again.", "It is rumoured that Shams was murdered with the connivance of Rumi's son, 'Ala' ud-Din; if so, Shams indeed gave his head for the privilege of mystical friendship.Rumi's love for, and his bereavement at the death of, Shams found their expression in an outpouring of lyric poems, ''Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi''.", "He himself went out searching for Shams and journeyed again to Damascus.", "There, he realised:===Later life and death===''Masnavi-i ma'navi''), 1461 manuscriptMewlana had been spontaneously composing ''ghazals'' (Persian poems), and these had been collected in the ''Divan-i Kabir'' or Diwan Shams Tabrizi.", "Rumi found another companion in Salaḥ ud-Din-e Zarkub, a goldsmith.", "After Salah ud-Din's death, Rumi's scribe and favourite student, Hussam-e Chalabi, assumed the role of Rumi's companion.", "One day, the two of them were wandering through the Meram vineyards outside Konya when Hussam described to Rumi an idea he had had: \"If you were to write a book like the ''Ilāhīnāma'' of Sanai or the ''Mantiq ut-Tayr'' of 'Attar, it would become the companion of many troubadours.", "They would fill their hearts from your work and compose music to accompany it.\"", "Rumi smiled and took out a piece of paper on which were written the opening eighteen lines of his ''Masnavi'', beginning with:Hussam implored Rumi to write more.", "Rumi spent the next twelve years of his life in Anatolia dictating the six volumes of this masterwork, the ''Masnavi'', to Hussam.In December 1273, Rumi fell ill; he predicted his own death and composed the well-known ''ghazal'', which begins with the verse:Tomb shrine of Rumi, KonyaRumi died on 17 December 1273 in Konya.", "His death was mourned by the diverse community of Konya, with local Christians and Jews joining the crowd that converged to bid farewell as his body was carried through the city.", "Rumi's body was interred beside that of his father, and a splendid shrine, the \"Green Tomb\" (Turkish: Yeşil Türbe, ; today the Mevlâna Museum), was erected over his place of burial.", "His epitaph reads:Georgian princess and Seljuq queen Gurju Khatun was a close friend of Rumi.", "She was the one who sponsored the construction of his tomb in Konya.", "The 13th century Mevlâna Mausoleum, with its mosque, dance hall, schools and living quarters for dervishes, remains a destination of pilgrimage to this day, and is probably the most popular pilgrimage site to be regularly visited by adherents of every major religion." ], [ "Teachings", "''Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī'', Mevlana Museum, Konya, TurkeyLike other mystic and Sufi poets of Persian literature, Rumi's poetry speaks of love which infuses the world.", "Rumi's teachings also express the tenets summarized in the Quranic verse which Shams-e Tabrizi cited as the essence of prophetic guidance: \"Know that ‘There is no god but He,’ and ask forgiveness for your sin\" (Q.", "47:19).", "In the interpretation attributed to Shams, the first part of the verse commands the humanity to seek knowledge of ''tawhid'' (oneness of God), while the second instructs them to negate their own existence.", "In Rumi's terms, ''tawhid'' is lived most fully through love, with the connection being made explicit in his verse that describes love as \"that flame which, when it blazes up, burns away everything except the Everlasting Beloved.", "\"Rumi's longing and desire to attain this ideal is evident in the following poem from his book the Masnavi:The ''Masnavi'' weaves fables, scenes from everyday life, Qur'anic revelations and exegesis, and metaphysics into a vast and intricate tapestry.Rumi believed passionately in the use of music, poetry and dance as a path for reaching God.", "For Rumi, music helped devotees to focus their whole being on the divine and to do this so intensely that the soul was both destroyed and resurrected.", "It was from these ideas that the practice of whirling Dervishes developed into a ritual form.", "His teachings became the base for the order of the Mevlevi, which his son Sultan Walad organised.", "Rumi encouraged Sama, listening to music and turning or doing the sacred dance.", "In the Mevlevi tradition, ''samāʿ'' represents a mystical journey of spiritual ascent through mind and love to the Perfect One.", "In this journey, the seeker symbolically turns towards the truth, grows through love, abandons the ego, finds the truth and arrives at the Perfect.", "The seeker then returns from this spiritual journey, with greater maturity, to love and to be of service to the whole of creation without discrimination with regard to beliefs, races, classes and nations.In other verses in the ''Masnavi'', Rumi describes in detail the universal message of love:Rumi's favourite musical instrument was the ney (reed flute)." ], [ "Major works", "Ottoman era manuscript depicting Rumi and Shams-e Tabrizi.Rumi's poetry is often divided into various categories: the quatrains (''rubayāt'') and odes (''ghazal'') of the ''Divan'', the six books of the ''Masnavi''.", "The prose works are divided into The Discourses, The Letters, and the ''Seven Sermons''.===Poetic works===''Bowl of Reflections'' with Rumi's poetry, early 13th century; Brooklyn Museum* Rumi's best-known work is the ''Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī'' (''Spiritual Couplets''; ).", "The six-volume poem holds a distinguished place within the rich tradition of Persian Sufi literature, and has been commonly called \"the Quran in Persian\".", "Many commentators have regarded it as the greatest mystical poem in world literature.", "It contains approximately 27,000 lines, each consisting of a couplet with an internal rhyme.", "While the mathnawi genre of poetry may use a variety of different metres, after Rumi composed his poem, the metre he used became the mathnawi metre ''par excellence''.", "The first recorded use of this metre for a mathnawi poem took place at the Nizari Ismaili fortress of Girdkuh between 1131–1139.It likely set the stage for later poetry in this style by mystics such as Attar and Rumi.", "* Rumi's other major work is the ''Dīwān-e Kabīr'' (''Great Work'') or ''Dīwān-e Shams-e Tabrīzī'' (''The Works of Shams of Tabriz''; ), named in honour of Rumi's master Shams.", "Besides approximately 35000 Persian couplets and 2000 Persian quatrains, the Divan contains 90 Ghazals and 19 quatrains in Arabic, a couple of dozen or so couplets in Turkish (mainly macaronic poems of mixed Persian and Turkish) and 14 couplets in Greek (all of them in three macaronic poems of Greek-Persian).===Prose works===* ''Fihi Ma Fihi'' (''In It What's in It'', Persian: ) provides a record of seventy-one talks and lectures given by Rumi on various occasions to his disciples.", "It was compiled from the notes of his various disciples, so Rumi did not author the work directly.", "An English translation from the Persian was first published by A.J.", "Arberry as ''Discourses of Rumi'' (New York: Samuel Weiser, 1972), and a translation of the second book by Wheeler Thackston, ''Sign of the Unseen'' (Putney, VT: Threshold Books, 1994).", "The style of the ''Fihi ma fihi'' is colloquial and meant for middle-class men and women, and lack the sophisticated wordplay.", "* ''Majāles-e Sab'a'' (''Seven Sessions'', Persian: ) contains seven Persian sermons (as the name implies) or lectures given in seven different assemblies.", "The sermons themselves give a commentary on the deeper meaning of Qur'an and Hadith.", "The sermons also include quotations from poems of Sana'i, 'Attar, and other poets, including Rumi himself.", "As Aflakī relates, after Shams-e Tabrīzī, Rumi gave sermons at the request of notables, especially Salāh al-Dīn Zarkūb.", "The style of Persian is rather simple, but quotation of Arabic and knowledge of history and the Hadith show Rumi's knowledge in the Islamic sciences.", "His style is typical of the genre of lectures given by Sufis and spiritual teachers.", "* ''Makatib'' (''The Letters'', Persian: ) or ''Maktubat'' () is the collection of letters written in Persian by Rumi to his disciples, family members, and men of state and of influence.", "The letters testify that Rumi kept very busy helping family members and administering a community of disciples that had grown up around them.", "Unlike the Persian style of the previous two mentioned works (which are lectures and sermons), the letters are consciously sophisticated and epistolary in style, which is in conformity with the expectations of correspondence directed to nobles, statesmen and kings." ], [ "Religious outlook", "It is undeniable that Rumi was a Muslim scholar and took Islam seriously.", "Nonetheless, the depth of his spiritual vision extended beyond narrow understanding sectarian concerns.", "One quatrain reads:According to the Quran, Muhammad is a mercy sent by God.", "In regards to this, Rumi states:\"The Light of Muhammad does not abandon a Zoroastrian or Jew in the world.", "May the shade of his good fortune shine upon everyone!", "He brings all of those who are led astray into the Way out of the desert.", "\"Rumi, however, asserts the supremacy of Islam by stating:\"The Light of Muhammad has become a thousand branches (of knowledge), a thousand, so that both this world and the next have been seized from end to end.", "If Muhammad rips the veil open from a single such branch, thousands of monks and priests will tear the string of false belief from around their waists.", "\"Many of Rumi's poems suggest the importance of outward religious observance and the primacy of the Qur'an.Rumi states:I am the servant of the Qur'an as long as I have life.I am the dust on the path of Muhammad, the Chosen one.If anyone quotes anything except this from my sayings,I am quit of him and outraged by these words.Rumi also states:On the first page of the Masnavi, Rumi states: \"Hadha kitâbu 'l- mathnawîy wa huwa uSûlu uSûli uSûli 'd-dîn wa kashshâfu 'l-qur'ân.", "\"\"This is the book of the Masnavi, and it is the roots of the roots of the roots of the (Islamic) Religion and it is the Explainer of the Qur'ân.", "\"Hadi Sabzavari, one of Iran's most important 19th-century philosophers, makes the following connection between the Masnavi and Islam, in the introduction to his philosophical commentary on the book:It is a commentary on the versified exegesis of the Qur’ān and its occult mystery, since all of it all of the Mathnawī is, as you will see, an elucidation of the clear verses of the Qur’ān, a clarification of prophetic utterances, a glimmer of the light of the luminous Qur’ān, and burning embers irradiating their rays from its shining lamp.", "As respects to hunting through the treasure-trove of the Qur’ān, one can find in it the Mathnawī all the Qur’ān's ancient philosophical wisdom; it the Mathnawī is all entirely eloquent philosophy.", "In truth, the pearly verse of the poem combines the Canon Law of Islam (sharīʿa) with the Sufi Path (ṭarīqa) and the Divine Reality (ḥaqīqa); the author's Rūmī achievement belongs to God in his bringing together of the Law (sharīʿa), the Path, and the Truth in a way that includes critical intellect, profound thought, a brilliant natural temperament, and integrity of character that is endowed with power, insight, inspiration, and illumination.Seyyed Hossein Nasr states:One of the greatest living authorities on Rûmî in Persia today, Hâdî Hâ'irî, has shown in an unpublished work that some 6,000 verses of the Dîwân and the Mathnawî are practically direct translations of Qur'ânic verses into Persian poetry.Rumi states in his Dīwān:The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr." ], [ "Legacy", "===Universality===Rumi's work has been translated into many of the world's languages, including Russian, German, Urdu, Turkish, Arabic, Bengali, French, Italian, and Spanish, and is being presented in a growing number of formats, including concerts, workshops, readings, dance performances, and other artistic creations.", "The English interpretations of Rumi's poetry by Coleman Barks have sold more than half a million copies worldwide, and Rumi is one of the most widely read poets in the United States.===Iranian world===These cultural, historical and linguistic ties between Rumi and Iran have made Rumi an iconic Iranian poet, and some of the most important Rumi scholars including Foruzanfar, Naini, Sabzewari, etc., have come from modern Iran.", "Rumi's poetry is displayed on the walls of many cities across Iran, sung in Persian music, and read in school books.Rumi's poetry forms the basis of much classical Iranian and Afghan music.", "Contemporary classical interpretations of his poetry are made by Muhammad Reza Shajarian, Shahram Nazeri, Davood Azad (the three from Iran) and Ustad Mohammad Hashem Cheshti (Afghanistan).===Mewlewī Sufi Order; Rumi and Turkey===The Mewlewī Sufi order was founded in 1273 by Rumi's followers after his death.", "His first successor could have been Salah-eddin Zarkoub who served Rumi for a decade and Rumi revered him highly in his poets.", "Zarkoub was illiterate and uttered some words incorrectly.", "Rumi used some of these incorrect words in his poems to express his support and humility towards Zarkoub.", "Rumi named him his successor but Zarkoub died sooner than him.", "So Rumi's first successor in the rectorship of the order was \"Husam Chalabi\" and, after Chalabi's death in 1284, Rumi's younger and only surviving son, Sultan Walad (d. 1312), popularly known as author of the mystical ''Maṭnawī Rabābnāma'', or the ''Book of the Rabab'' was installed as grand master of the order.", "The leadership of the order has been kept within Rumi's family in Konya uninterruptedly since then.The Mewlewī Sufis, also known as Whirling Dervishes, believe in performing their ''dhikr'' in the form of Sama.", "During the time of Rumi (as attested in the ''Manāqib ul-Ārefīn'' of Aflākī), his followers gathered for musical and \"turning\" practices.According to tradition, Rumi was himself a notable musician who played the ''robāb'', although his favourite instrument was the ''ney'' or reed flute.", "The music accompanying the ''samāʿ'' consists of settings of poems from the ''Maṭnawī'' and ''Dīwān-e Kabīr'', or of Sultan Walad's poems.", "The Mawlawīyah was a well-established Sufi order in the Ottoman Empire, and many of the members of the order served in various official positions of the Caliphate.", "The centre for the Mevlevi was in Konya.", "There is also a Mewlewī monastery (, ''dargāh'') in Istanbul near the Galata Tower in which the ''samāʿ'' is performed and accessible to the public.", "The Mewlewī order issues an invitation to people of all backgrounds:Rumi's tomb in Konya, TurkeyDuring Ottoman times, the Mevlevi produced a number of notable poets and musicians, including Sheikh Ghalib, Ismail Rusuhi Dede of Ankara, Esrar Dede, Halet Efendi, and Gavsi Dede, who are all buried at the Galata Mewlewī Khāna (Turkish: ''Mevlevi-Hane'') in Istanbul.", "Music, especially that of the ney, plays an important part in the Mevlevi.With the foundation of the modern, secular Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk removed religion from the sphere of public policy and restricted it exclusively to that of personal morals, behaviour and faith.", "On 13 December 1925, a law was passed closing all the ''tekkes'' (dervish lodges) and ''zāwiyas'' (chief dervish lodges), and the centres of veneration to which visits (''ziyārat'') were made.", "Istanbul alone had more than 250 ''tekke''s as well as small centres for gatherings of various fraternities; this law dissolved the Sufi Orders, prohibited the use of mystical names, titles and costumes pertaining to their titles, impounded the Orders' assets, and banned their ceremonies and meetings.", "The law also provided penalties for those who tried to re-establish the Orders.", "Two years later, in 1927, the Mausoleum of Mevlâna in Konya was allowed to reopen as a Museum.In the 1950s, the Turkish government began allowing the Whirling Dervishes to perform once a year in Konya.", "The Mewlānā festival is held over two weeks in December; its culmination is on 17 December, the Urs of Mewlānā (anniversary of Rumi's death), called ''Šab-e Arūs'' () (Persian meaning \"nuptial night\"), the night of Rumi's union with God.", "In 1974, the Whirling Dervishes were permitted to travel to the West for the first time.", "In 2005, UNESCO proclaimed \"The Mevlevi Sama Ceremony\" of Turkey as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.Rumi and his mausoleum on the reverse of the 5000 Turkish lira banknotes of 1981–1994Rumi and his mausoleum were depicted on the reverse of the 5000 Turkish lira banknotes of 1981–1994.===Religious denomination===As Edward G. Browne noted, the three most prominent mystical Persian poets, Rumi, Sanai and Attar, were all Sunni Muslims and their poetry abounds with praise for the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb.", "According to Annemarie Schimmel, the tendency among Shia authors to anachronistically include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of Twelver Shia as the state religion in the Safavid Empire in 1501.===Eight hundredth anniversary celebrations===Rumi on a 1968 Afghan stampIn Afghanistan, Rumi is known as ''Mawlānā'', in Turkey as ''Mevlâna'', and in Iran as ''Molavī''.At the proposal of the Permanent Delegations of Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey, and as approved by its executive board and General Conference in conformity with its mission of \"constructing in the minds of men the defences of peace\", UNESCO was associated with the celebration, in 2007, of the eight hundredth anniversary of Rumi's birth.", "The commemoration at UNESCO itself took place on 6 September 2007; UNESCO issued a medal in Rumi's name in the hope that it would prove an encouragement to those who are engaged in research on and dissemination of Rumi's ideas and ideals, which would, in turn, enhance the diffusion of the ideals of UNESCO.On 30 September 2007, Iranian school bells were rung throughout the country in honour of Mewlana.", "Also in that year, Iran held a Rumi Week from 26 October to 2 November.", "An international ceremony and conference were held in Tehran; the event was opened by the Iranian president and the chairman of the Iranian parliament.", "Scholars from twenty-nine countries attended the events, and 450 articles were presented at the conference.", "Iranian musician Shahram Nazeri was awarded the Légion d'honneur and Iran's House of Music Award in 2007 for his renowned works on Rumi masterpieces.", "2007 was declared as the \"International Rumi Year\" by UNESCO.Also on 30 September 2007, Turkey celebrated Rumi's eight-hundredth birthday with a giant Whirling Dervish ritual performance of the ''samāʿ'', which was televised using forty-eight cameras and broadcast live in eight countries.", "Ertugrul Gunay, of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, stated, \"Three hundred dervishes are scheduled to take part in this ritual, making it the largest performance of sema in history.", "\"===Mawlana Rumi Review===The ''Mawlana Rumi Review'' is published annually by The Centre for Persian and Iranian Studies at the University of Exeter in collaboration with The Rumi Institute in Nicosia, Cyprus, and Archetype Books in Cambridge.", "The first volume was published in 2010, and it has come out annually since then.", "According to the principal editor of the journal, Leonard Lewisohn: \"Although a number of major Islamic poets easily rival the likes of Dante, Shakespeare and Milton in importance and output, they still enjoy only a marginal literary fame in the West because the works of Arabic and Persian thinkers, writers and poets are considered as negligible, frivolous, tawdry sideshows beside the grand narrative of the Western Canon.", "It is the aim of the Mawlana Rumi Review to redress this carelessly inattentive approach to world literature, which is something far more serious than a minor faux pas committed by the Western literary imagination.\"" ], [ "See also", "===General===* Blind men and an elephant* Sant Mat* Symphony No.", "3 (Szymanowski)===Poems by Rumi===* Rumi ghazal 163===Persian culture===* List of Persian poets and authors* Persian literature* Persian mysticism===Rumi scholars and writers===* Hamid Algar* Rahim Arbab* William Chittick* Badiozzaman Forouzanfar* Hossein Elahi Ghomshei* Fatemeh Keshavarz* Majid M. Naini* Seyyed Hossein Nasr* Franklin Lewis* François Pétis de la Croix* Annemarie Schimmel* Dariush Shayegan* Abdolkarim SoroushAbdolhamid Ziaei Abdolhossein Zarinkoob===English translators of Rumi poetry===* Arthur John Arberry* William Chittick* Ravan A.G. Farhadi* Nader Khalili* Daniel Ladinsky* Franklin Lewis* Majid M. Naini* Reynold A. Nicholson* James Redhouse* Shahriar Shahriari* Shahram Shiva" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===English translations===* '' Ma-Aarif-E-Mathnavi A commentary of the Mathnavi of Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi'' (R.A.), by Hazrat Maulana Hakim Muhammad Akhtar Saheb (D.B.", "), 1997.", "* ''The Sufi Path of Love: The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi'', by William Chittick, Albany: SUNY Press, 1983.", "* ''The Mysteries of the Universe and Rumi's Discoveries on the Majestic Path of Love'', by Majid M. Naini, Universal Vision & Research, 2002 www.naini.net* '' The Mesnevi of Mevlâna Jelālu'd-dīn er-Rūmī.", "Book first, together with some account of the life and acts of the Author, of his ancestors, and of his descendants, illustrated by a selection of characteristic anecdotes, as collected by their historian, Mevlâna Shemsu'd-dīn Ahmed el-Eflākī el-'Arifī'', translated and the poetry versified by James W. Redhouse, London: 1881.Contains the translation of the first book only.", "* ''Masnaví-i Ma'naví, the Spiritual Couplets of Mauláná Jalálu'd-din Muhammad Rúmí'', translated and abridged by E.H. Whinfield, London: 1887; 1989.Abridged version from the complete poem.", "On-line editions at sacred-texts.com, archive.org and on wikisource.", "* ''The Masnavī by Jalālu'd-din Rūmī.", "Book II'', translated for the first time from the Persian into prose, with a Commentary, by C.E.", "Wilson, London: 1910.", "* ''The Mathnawí of Jalálu'ddín Rúmí'', edited from the oldest manuscripts available, with critical notes, translation and commentary by Reynold A. Nicholson, in 8 volumes, London: Messrs Luzac & Co., 1925–1940.Contains the text in Persian.", "First complete English translation of the ''Mathnawí''.", "* ''Rending The Veil: Literal and Poetic Translations of Rumi,'' translated by Shahram Shiva Hohm Press, 1995 .", "Recipient of Benjamin Franklin Award.", "* ''Hush, Don't Say Anything to God: Passionate Poems of Rumi,'' translated by Shahram Shiva Jain Publishing, 1999 .", "* ''The Essential Rumi'', translated by Coleman Barks with John Moyne, A.J.", "Arberry, Reynold Nicholson, San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1996 ; Edison (NJ) and New York: Castle Books, 1997 .", "Selections.", "Description of 2010 expanded edition.", "A much-cited poem therein is \"The Guest House found in, for example, Mark Williams and Danny Penman (2011), ''Mindfulness'', pp.", "165–167.The poem is also at The Guest House by Rumi.", "* ''The Illuminated Rumi'', translated by Coleman Barks, Michael Green contributor, New York: Broadway Books, 1997 .", "* ''The Masnavi: Book One'', translated by Jawid Mojaddedi, Oxford World's Classics Series, Oxford University Press, 2004 .", "Translated for the first time from the Persian edition prepared by Mohammad Estelami with an introduction and explanatory notes.", "Awarded the 2004 Lois Roth Prize for excellence in translation of Persian literature by the American Institute of Iranian Studies.", "* ''Divani Shamsi Tabriz'', translated by Nevit Oguz Ergin as Divan-i-kebir, published by Echo Publications, 2003 .", "* ''The rubais of Rumi: insane with love'', translations and commentary by Nevit Oguz Ergin and Will Johnson, Inner Traditions, Rochester, Vermont, 2007, .", "* ''The Masnavi: Book Two'', translated by Jawid Mojaddedi, Oxford World's Classics Series, Oxford University Press, 2007..", "The first ever verse translation of the unabridged text of Book Two, with an introduction and explanatory notes.", "* ''The Rubai'yat of Jalal Al-Din Rumi: Select Translations Into English Verse'', Translated by A.J.", "Arberry, (Emery Walker, London, 1949)* ''Mystical Poems of Rumi'', Translated by A.J.", "Arberry, (University of Chicago Press, 2009)* ''The quatrains of Rumi: Complete translation with Persian text, Islamic mystical commentary, manual of terms, and concordance'', translated by Ibrahim W. Gamard and A.G. Rawan Farhadi, 2008.", "* ''The Soul of Rumi: A New Collection of Ecstatic Poems'', translations by Coleman Barks, Harper One, 2002.", "* ''The Hundred Tales of Wisdom'', a translation by Idries Shah of the ''Manāqib ul-Ārefīn'' of Aflākī, Octagon Press 1978.Episodes from the life of Rumi and some of his teaching stories.", "* ''Rumi: 53 Secrets from the Tavern of Love: Poems from the Rubaiyat of Mowlana Rumi,'' translated by Amin Banani and Anthony A. Lee (White Cloud Press, 2014) .===Life and work===* ''RUMI, JALĀL-AL-DIN''.", "Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2014.", "* Dr Khalifa Abdul Hakim, \"The metaphysics of Rumi: A critical and historical sketch\", Lahore: The Institute of Islamic Culture, 1959.", "* Afzal Iqbal, ''The Life and thought of Mohammad Jalal-ud-Din Rumi'', Lahore: Bazm-i-Iqbal, 1959 (latest edition, ''The life and work of Jalal-ud-Din Rumi'', Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, 2014).", "Endorsed by the famous Rumi scholar, A.J.", "Arberry, who penned the foreword.", "* Abdol Reza Arasteh, ''Rumi the Persian: Rebirth in Creativity and Love'', Lahore: Sh.", "Muhammad Ashraf, 1963 (latest edition, ''Rumi the Persian, the Sufi'', New York: Routledge, 2013).", "The author was a US-trained Iranian psychiatrist influenced by Erich Fromm and C.G.", "Jung.", "* Annemarie Schimmel, ''The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi'', Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.", "* Fatemeh Keshavarz, \"Reading Mystical Lyric: The Case of Jalal al-Din Rumi\", University of South Carolina Press, 1998..* Mawlana Rumi Review mawlanarumireview.com.", "An annual review devoted to Rumi.", "Archetype, 2010..* Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ''Islamic Art and Spirituality'', Albany: SUNY Press, 1987, chapters 7 and 8.", "* Majid M. Naini, The Mysteries of the Universe and Rumi's Discoveries on the Majestic Path of Love, Universal Vision & Research, 2002, * Franklin Lewis, ''Rumi: Past and Present, East and West'', Oneworld Publications, 2000.", "* * Leslie Wines, ''Rumi: A Spiritual Biography'', New York: Crossroads, 2001 .", "* ''Rumi's Thoughts'', edited by Seyed G Safavi, London: London Academy of Iranian Studies, 2003.", "* William Chittick, ''The Sufi Doctrine of Rumi: Illustrated Edition'', Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2005.", "* Şefik Can, ''Fundamentals of Rumi's Thought: A Mevlevi Sufi Perspective'', Sommerset (NJ): The Light Inc., 2004 .", "* Rumi's Tasawwuf and Vedanta by R.M.", "Chopra in Indo Iranica Vol.", "60* Athanasios Sideris, \"Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi\", an entry on Rumi's connections to the Greek element in Asia Minor, in the ''Encyclopedia of the Hellenic World – Asia Minor'', 2003.", "* Waley, Muhammad Isa (2017).", "''The Stanzaic Poems (Tarjī'āt) of Rumi''.", "''Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary, with Additional Chapters on Aspects of His Divan.''", "(School of Oriental and African Studies, London.", ")===Persian literature===* E.G.", "Browne, ''History of Persia'', four volumes, first published 1902–1924.", "* Jan Rypka, ''History of Iranian Literature'', Reidel Publishing Company; 1968 .", "* \"RUMI: His Teachings and Philosophy\" by R. M. Chopra, Iran Society, Kolkata (2007).", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * * Dar al Masnavi, several English versions of selections by different translators.", "* Poems by Rumi in English at the Academy of American Poets* ''Masnavi-e Ma'navi'', recited in Persian by Mohammad Ghanbar" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Norris Memorial Trophy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''James Norris Memorial Trophy''', or simply the '''Norris Trophy''', is awarded annually to the National Hockey League's top \"defense player who demonstrates throughout the season the greatest all-round ability in the position\".", "It is named after James E. Norris, the longtime owner of the Detroit Red Wings.", "The James Norris Memorial Trophy has been awarded 62 times to 26 players since its beginnings in 1953–54.At the end of each season, members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association vote to determine the player who was the best defenseman during the regular season." ], [ "History", "The trophy is named in honour of James E. Norris, owner of the National Hockey League's Detroit Red Wings from 1932 to 1952.The trophy was first awarded at the conclusion of the 1953–54 NHL season.Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins won the award for a record eight consecutive seasons (1968–75).", "Doug Harvey and Nicklas Lidstrom won the award seven times, and Ray Bourque won it five times; Bourque was in the top three vote-getters for the trophy a further ten times.", "The Boston Bruins have had the most Norris Trophies winners with 14; the Montreal Canadiens have had the second most with 12.Only two players have won both the Norris and Hart Memorial Trophy for the league Most Valuable Player in the same season: Bobby Orr, who won both trophies in the 1969–70, 1970–71 and 1971–72 seasons, and Chris Pronger, who won the Hart and Norris in the 1999–2000 NHL season.", "As of 2021, no defenseman has won the Hart Trophy without also winning the Norris Trophy since the latter was introduced.Six defensemen won the Hart Trophy as the league's most valuable player before the Norris Trophy's establishment: Herb Gardiner, Eddie Shore (four times), Albert \"Babe\" Siebert, Ebbie Goodfellow, Tommy Anderson and Babe Pratt.Save for Randy Carlyle, every Norris winner eligible to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame has been.Members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association vote at the end of the regular season, and each individual voter ranks their top five candidates on a 10–7–5–3–1 point(s) system.", "Three finalists are named and the trophy is awarded at the NHL awards ceremony after the conclusion of the playoffs." ], [ "Winners", "Bobby Orr, eight-time winner.Nicklas Lidstrom, seven-time winner.Ray Bourque, five-time winner.Erik Karlsson, three-time winner.Brian Leetch, two-time winner.Chris Pronger, one-time winner.SeasonWinnerTeamWin #Team Win # 1953–54 Detroit Red Wings 1 1 1954–55 Montreal Canadiens 1 1 1955–56 Montreal Canadiens 2 2 1956–57 Montreal Canadiens 3 3 1957–58 Montreal Canadiens 4 4 1958–59 Montreal Canadiens 1 5 1959–60 Montreal Canadiens 5 6 1960–61 Montreal Canadiens 6 7 1961–62 New York Rangers 7 1 1962–63 Chicago Black Hawks 1 1 1963–64 Chicago Black Hawks 2 2 1964–65 Chicago Black Hawks 3 3 1965–66 Montreal Canadiens 1 8 1966–67 New York Rangers 1 2 1967–68 Boston Bruins 1 1 1968–69 Boston Bruins 2 2 1969–70 Boston Bruins 3 3 1970–71 Boston Bruins 4 4 1971–72 Boston Bruins 5 5 1972–73 Boston Bruins 6 6 1973–74 Boston Bruins 7 7 1974–75 Boston Bruins 8 8 1975–76 New York Islanders 1 1 1976–77 Montreal Canadiens 1 9 1977–78 New York Islanders 2 2 1978–79 New York Islanders 3 3 1979–80 Montreal Canadiens 2 10 1980–81 Pittsburgh Penguins 1 1 1981–82 Chicago Black Hawks 1 4 1982–83 Washington Capitals 1 1 1983–84 Washington Capitals 2 2 1984–85 Edmonton Oilers 1 1 1985–86 Edmonton Oilers 2 2 1986–87 Boston Bruins 1 9 1987–88 Boston Bruins 2 10 1988–89 Montreal Canadiens 1 11 1989–90 Boston Bruins 3 11 1990–91 Boston Bruins 4 12 1991–92 New York Rangers 1 3 1992–93 Chicago Blackhawks 2 5 1993–94 Boston Bruins 5 13 1994–95 Detroit Red Wings 32 1995–96 Chicago Blackhawks 3 6 1996–97 New York Rangers 2 4 1997–98 Los Angeles Kings 11 1998–99 St. Louis Blues 11 1999–2000 St. Louis Blues 12 2000–01 Detroit Red Wings 13 2001–02 Detroit Red Wings 24 2002–03 Detroit Red Wings 35 2003–04 New Jersey Devils 11 2004–05''Season cancelled due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout'' 2005–06 Detroit Red Wings 46 2006–07 Detroit Red Wings 57 2007–08 Detroit Red Wings 68 2008–09 Boston Bruins 1 14 2009–10 Chicago Blackhawks 1 7 2010–11 Detroit Red Wings 79 2011–12 Ottawa Senators 11 2012–13 Montreal Canadiens 1 12 2013–14 Chicago Blackhawks 2 8 2014–15 Ottawa Senators 22 2015–16 Los Angeles Kings 12 2016–17 San Jose Sharks 11 2017–18 Tampa Bay Lightning 11 2018–19 Calgary Flames 1 1 2019–20 Nashville Predators 1 1 2020–21 New York Rangers 1 5 2021–22 Colorado Avalanche 1 1 2022–23 San Jose Sharks 3 2" ], [ "See also", "List of National Hockey League awardsList of NHL playersList of NHL statistical leaders" ], [ "References", ";General James Norris Memorial Trophy at NHL.com* James Norris Memorial Trophy history at Legends of Hockey.net;Specific" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "JANET" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Janet''' is a high-speed network for the UK research and education community provided by Jisc, a not-for-profit company set up to provide computing support for education.", "It serves 18 million users and is the busiest National Research and Education Network in Europe by volume of data carried.", "Previously, Janet was a private, UK-government funded organisation, which provided the JANET computer network and related collaborative services to UK research and education.All further- and higher-education organisations in the UK are connected to the Janet network, as are all the Research Councils; the majority of these sites are connected via 20 metropolitan area networks across the UK (though Janet refers to these as regions, emphasising that Janet connections are not just confined to a metropolitan area).", "The network also carries traffic between schools within the UK, although many of the schools' networks maintain their own general Internet connectivity.", "The name was originally a contraction of Joint Academic NETwork but it is now known as Janet in its own right.The network is linked to other European and worldwide NRENs through GÉANT and peers extensively with other ISPs at Internet Exchange Points in the UK.", "Any other networks are reached via transit services from commercial ISPs using Janet's Peering Policy.The Janet network is operated by Jisc Services Limited, part of Jisc.", "Janet is also responsible for the .ac.uk and .gov.uk domains.", "On 1 December 2012, Janet and Jisc Collections joined together to form Jisc Collections and Janet Limited, as subsidiary organisations to Jisc.", "In March 2015, Jisc Collections and Janet Limited was renamed to Jisc Services Limited.", "Jisc Services continues to operate under the brand name of Janet, with the same remit.", "Janet was previously known as the JNT Association, and prior to that, UKERNA (the United Kingdom Education and Research Networking Association)." ], [ "History", "=== Early academic networks ===Janet developed out of academic networks built in Britain since the late 1960s.", "Planning for the first regional network, South West Universities Computer Network (SWUCN), centred on Bristol began in 1967 and work started in 1969.A number of national computer facilities serving the Science Research Council (SRC) community developed in the early 1970s, each with their own star network (ULCC London, UMRCC Manchester, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory).", "Other regional networks followed in the mid-late 1970s around Edinburgh (RCOnet), London (METROnet), the Midlands (MIDnet), and Newcastle (NUMAC - the Northern Universities Multiple Access Computer) among others such as Yorkshire and the South East.", "These groups of institutions pooled resources to provide better computing facilities than could be afforded individually.", "The star networks developed into distributed computer networks but each was based on one manufacturer's standards and were mutually incompatible and overlapping.=== JANET ===In the early 1980s a standardisation and interconnection effort started, hosted on an expansion of the SERCnet X.25 research network.", "The JANET effort was based on the Coloured Book protocols developed by the British academic community, which provided the first complete X.25 standard, and gave the UK \"several years lead over other countries\".", "The naming scheme, JANET NRS, established \"UK\" as the top-level domain.", "When the Internet's Domain Name System adopted the ISO standard for country code top-level domains later in 1984, the UK had a pre-existing national standard which was retained as the .uk Internet country-code top level domain for the United Kingdom.JANET went live on 1 April 1984, two years before the NSFNET initiated operations in the United States.", "It hosted about 50 sites with line speeds of 9.6 kbit/s.", "In the mid-80s the backbone was upgraded to 2 Mbit/s, with 64 kbit/s access links.", "JANET connected to NSFNET in 1989.===JIPS===Planning began in January 1991 for the JANET Internet Protocol Service (JIPS).", "It was set up as a pilot project in March 1991 to host Internet Protocol (IP) traffic on the existing network.", "Within eight months the IP traffic had exceeded the levels of X.25 traffic, and the IP support became official in November.", "JANET became, primarily, a high-speed IP network.", "A further upgrade in the early 1990s took the backbone to 8 Mbit/s and the access links to 2 Mbit/s, making Janet the fastest X.25 network in the world.There had been some talk of moving Janet to OSI protocols in the 1990s, but changes in the networking world meant this never happened.", "The X.25 service was closed in August 1997.=== SuperJanet ===In order to address speed concerns, several hardware upgrades have been incorporated into the Janet system.", "In 1989 SuperJanet was proposed, to re-host JANET on a fibre optic network.", "Work started in late 1992, and by late 1993 the first 14 sites had migrated to the new 34 Mbit/s ATM system.", "SuperJanet also moved solely to IP.In 1995 SuperJanet2 started, adding 155 Mbit/s ATM backbones and a 10 Mbit/s SMDS network encompassing some of the original JANET nodes.", "JANET's mandate now included running metropolitan area networks centred on these sites.SuperJanet3 created new 155 Mbit/s ATM nodes to fully connect all of the major sites at London, Bristol, Manchester and Leeds, with 34 Mbit/s links to smaller sites around the country.In March 2001 SuperJanet4 was launched.", "The key challenges for SuperJanet4 were the need to increase network capacity and to strengthen the design and management of the JANET network to allow it to meet a similar increase in the size of its userbase.SuperJanet4 saw the implementation of a 2.5 Gbit/s core backbone from which connections to regional network points of presence were made at speeds ranging between 155 Mbit/s to 2.5 Gbit/s depending upon the size of the regional network.", "In 2002 the core SuperJanet4 backbone was upgraded to 10 Gbit/s.SuperJanet4 also saw an increase in the userbase of the JANET network, with the inclusion of the Further Education Community and the use of the SuperJanet4 backbone to interconnect schools' networks.", "The core point of presence (Backbone) sites in SuperJanet4 were Edinburgh, Glasgow, Warrington, Reading, Bristol, Portsmouth, London and Leeds.In October 2006 the SuperJanet5 project was launched after £29 million of investment.", "It provides a 10 Gbit/s backbone, with an upgrade path to 40 Gbit/s over the next few years.", "The new backbone as a result of the SuperJanet5 project is a hybrid network offering, providing both a high speed IP transit service and private bandwidth channel services provisioned over a dedicated fibre network.", "It is designed not only to fully accommodate the requirements of the traditional JANET user base - all research institutes, universities and further education - but also to meet the needs of a new userbase in the UK's primary and secondary schools.In April 2011 Verizon helped Janet upgrade 4 central locations to run at 100 Gbit/s bringing it to a national research and education network performance parity with Internet2 (which upgraded its backbone to 100 Gbit/s in October 2007).", "As of October 2011 they have over 18 million end-users.Janet6 started to go live in July 2013, and was officially launched at an event at the London Film Museum on 26 November 2013.At launch, Janet6 had an initial capacity of 2 Tbit/s." ], [ "Regions", "The Janet network is implemented through 18 regions which connect universities, colleges and schools to the Janet network.", "Most regions are operated by Janet, although a few operate as independent entities working under contract.Each regional network covers a specific geographical area.", "As of 2014 the following regional networks are connected to Janet:* C&NLMAN – Cumbria and North Lancashire* East of England* East Midlands* KPSN Kent Public Services Network (under bespoke contract)* London* North West* North East* North East Scotland* Northern Ireland* PSBA Wales (under bespoke contract)* South* South East Scotland* South West* South West Scotland* Thames Valley* The Highlands and Islands (bespoke contract with University of the Highlands & Islands)* West Midlands* Yorkshire and Humberside" ], [ "See also", "* Abilene Network* Internet in the United Kingdom* MidMAN* Protocol Wars* TERENA" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Jisc" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Harrison" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Harrison''' ( – 24 March 1776) was an English carpenter and clockmaker who invented the marine chronometer, a long-sought-after device for solving the problem of calculating longitude while at sea.Harrison's solution revolutionized navigation and greatly increased the safety of long-distance sea travel.", "The problem he solved had been considered so important following the Scilly naval disaster of 1707 that the British Parliament was offering financial rewards of up to £20,000 (equivalent to £ in ) under the 1714 Longitude Act, though Harrison was never fully able to receive these rewards due to political rivalries.Harrison presented his first design in 1730, and worked over many years on improved designs, making several advances in time-keeping technology, finally turning to what were called sea watches.", "Harrison gained support from the Longitude Board in building and testing his designs.", "Toward the end of his life, he received recognition and a reward from Parliament.", "Harrison came 39th in the BBC's 2002 public poll of the 100 Greatest Britons." ], [ "Early life", "Woodcut of cross section of English longcase (grandfather) clock movement from the mid-1800sJohn Harrison was born in Foulby in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the first of five children in his family.", "His stepfather worked as a carpenter at the nearby Nostell Priory estate.", "A house on the site of what may have been the family home bears a blue plaque.Around 1700, the Harrison family moved to the Lincolnshire village of Barrow upon Humber.", "Following his father's trade as a carpenter, Harrison built and repaired clocks in his spare time.", "Legend has it that at the age of six, while in bed with smallpox, he was given a watch to amuse himself and he spent hours listening to it and studying its moving parts.He also had a fascination for music, eventually becoming choirmaster for Church of Holy Trinity, Barrow upon Humber.", "Harrison built his first longcase clock in 1713, at the age of 20.The mechanism was made entirely of wood.", "Three of Harrison's early wooden clocks have survived: * the first (1713) is in the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers' collection previously in the Guildhall in London, and since 2015 on display in the Science Museum.", "* The second (1715) is also in the Science Museum in London* the third (1717) is at Nostell Priory in Yorkshire, the face bearing the inscription \"John Harrison Barrow\".The Nostell example, in the billiards room of this stately home, has a Victorian outer case, which has small glass windows on each side of the movement so that the wooden workings may be inspected.On 30 August 1718, John Harrison married Elizabeth Barret at Barrow-upon-Humber church.", "After her death in 1726, he married Elizabeth Scott on 23 November 1726, at the same church.In the early 1720s, Harrison was commissioned to make a new turret clock at Brocklesby Park, North Lincolnshire.", "The clock still works, and like his previous clocks has a wooden movement of oak and lignum vitae.", "Unlike his early clocks, it incorporates some original features to improve timekeeping, for example the grasshopper escapement.", "Between 1725 and 1728, John and his brother James, also a skilled joiner, made at least three precision longcase clocks, again with the movements and longcase made of oak and lignum vitae.", "The grid-iron pendulum was developed during this period.", "Of the longcase clocks,* Number 1, is in a private collection.", "(Until 2004, it belonged to the Time Museum (USA) which closed in 2000.", ")* Number 2 is in the Leeds City Museum, as the centrepiece of a permanent display dedicated to John Harrison's achievements.", "The exhibition, \"John Harrison: The Clockmaker Who Changed the World\" opened on 23 January 2014.It was the first longitude-related event marking the tercentenary of the Longitude Act.", "* Number 3 is in the collection of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers'.Harrison was a man of many skills and he used these to systematically improve the performance of the pendulum clock.", "He invented the gridiron pendulum, consisting of alternating brass and iron rods assembled so that the thermal expansions and contractions essentially cancel each other out.", "Another example of his inventive genius was the grasshopper escapement – a control device for the step-by-step release of a clock's driving power.", "Developed from the anchor escapement, it was almost frictionless, requiring no lubrication because the pallets were made from wood.", "This was an important advantage at a time when lubricants and their degradation were little understood.In his earlier work on sea clocks, Harrison was continually assisted, both financially and in many other ways, by George Graham, the watchmaker and instrument maker.", "Harrison was introduced to Graham by the Astronomer Royal Edmond Halley, who championed Harrison and his work.", "This support was important to Harrison, as he was supposed to have found it difficult to communicate his ideas in a coherent manner." ], [ "Longitude problem", "Longitude lines on the globeLongitude fixes the location of a place on Earth east or west of a north–south line called the prime meridian.", "It is given as an angular measurement that ranges from 0° at the prime meridian to +180° eastward and −180° westward.", "Knowledge of a ship's east–west position was essential when approaching land.", "After a long voyage, cumulative errors in dead reckoning frequently led to shipwrecks and a great loss of life.", "Avoiding such disasters became vital in Harrison's lifetime, in an era when trade and navigation were increasing dramatically around the world.Many ideas were proposed for how to determine longitude during a sea voyage.", "Earlier methods attempted to compare local time with the known time at a reference place, such as Greenwich or Paris, based on a simple theory that had been first proposed by Gemma Frisius.", "The methods relied on astronomical observations that were themselves reliant on the predictable nature of the motions of different heavenly bodies.", "Such methods were problematic because of the difficulty in accurately estimating the time at the reference place.Harrison set out to solve the problem directly, by producing a reliable clock that could keep the time of the reference place.", "His difficulty was in producing a clock that was not affected by variations in temperature, pressure or humidity, remained accurate over long time intervals, resisted corrosion in salt air, and was able to function on board a constantly-moving ship.", "Many scientists, including Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens, doubted that such a clock could ever be built and favoured other methods for reckoning longitude, such as the method of lunar distances.", "Huygens ran trials using both a pendulum and a spiral balance spring clock as methods of determining longitude, with both types producing inconsistent results.", "Newton observed that \"a good watch may serve to keep a reckoning at sea for some days and to know the time of a celestial observation; and for this end a good Jewel may suffice till a better sort of watch can be found out.", "But when longitude at sea is lost, it cannot be found again by any watch\"." ], [ "First three marine timekeepers", "Henry Sully's clock (Fig.1) with escapement (Fig.2) and shipboard gimbaled suspension mechanism (Fig.7).In the 1720s, the English clockmaker Henry Sully invented a marine clock that was designed to determine longitude: this was in the form of a clock with a large balance wheel that was vertically mounted on friction rollers and impulsed by a frictional rest Debaufre type escapement.", "Very unconventionally, the balance oscillations were controlled by a weight at the end of a pivoted horizontal lever attached to the balance by a cord.", "This solution avoided temperature error due to thermal expansion, a problem which affects steel balance springs.", "Sully's clock kept accurate time only in calm weather, because the balance oscillations were affected by the pitching and rolling of the ship.", "However his clocks were amongst the first serious attempts to find longitude in this way.", "Harrison's machines, though much larger, are of similar layout: H3 has a vertically mounted balance wheel and is linked to another wheel of the same size, an arrangement that eliminates problems arising from the ship's motion.In 1716, Sully presented his first to the French Académie des Sciences and in 1726 he published .In 1730, Harrison designed a marine clock to compete for the Longitude prize and travelled to London, seeking financial assistance.", "He presented his ideas to Edmond Halley, the Astronomer Royal, who in turn referred him to George Graham, the country's foremost clockmaker.", "Graham must have been impressed by Harrison's ideas, for he loaned him money to build a model of his \"Sea clock\".", "As the clock was an attempt to make a seagoing version of his wooden pendulum clocks, which performed exceptionally well, he used wooden wheels, roller pinions and a version of the 'grasshopper' escapement.", "Instead of a pendulum, he used two dumbbell balances, linked together.It took Harrison five years to build his first sea clock (or H1).", "He demonstrated it to members of the Royal Society who spoke on his behalf to the Board of Longitude.", "The clock was the first proposal that the Board considered to be worthy of a sea trial.", "In 1736, Harrison sailed to Lisbon on HMS ''Centurion'' under the command of Captain George Proctor and returned on HMS ''Orford'' after Proctor died at Lisbon on 4 October 1736.The clock lost time on the outward voyage.", "However, it performed well on the return trip: both the captain and the sailing master of the ''Orford'' praised the design.", "The master noted that his own calculations had placed the ship sixty miles east of its true landfall which had been correctly predicted by Harrison using H1.This was not the transatlantic voyage demanded by the Board of Longitude, but the Board was impressed enough to grant Harrison £500 for further development.", "Harrison had moved to London by 1737 and went on to develop H2, a more compact and rugged version.", "In 1741, after three years of building and two of on-land testing, H2 was ready, but by then Britain was at war with Spain in the War of Austrian Succession and the mechanism was deemed too important to risk falling into Spanish hands.", "In any event, Harrison suddenly abandoned all work on this second machine when he discovered a serious design flaw in the concept of the bar balances.", "He had not recognized that the period of oscillation of the bar balances could be affected by the yawing action of the ship (when the ship turned, such as \"coming about\" while tacking).", "It was this that led him to adopt circular balances in the Third Sea Clock (H3).The Board granted him another £500, and while waiting for the war to end, he proceeded to work on H3.Harrison spent seventeen years working on this third 'sea clock', but despite every effort it did not perform exactly as he would have wished.", "The problem was that, because Harrison did not fully understand the physics behind the springs used to control the balance wheels, the timing of the wheels was not isochronous, a characteristic that affected its accuracy.", "The engineering world was not to fully understand the properties of springs for such applications for another two centuries.", "Despite this, it had proved a very valuable experiment as much was learned from its construction.", "Certainly in this machine Harrison left the world two enduring legacies – the bimetallic strip and the caged roller bearing." ], [ "Longitude watches", "Harrison's \"sea watch\" No.1 (H4), with winding crankAfter steadfastly pursuing various methods during thirty years of experimentation, Harrison found to his surprise that some of the watches made by Graham's successor Thomas Mudge kept time just as accurately as his huge sea clocks.", "It is possible that Mudge was able to do this after the early 1740s thanks to the availability of the new \"Huntsman\" or \"Crucible\" steel produced by Benjamin Huntsman sometime in the early 1740s which enabled harder pinions but more importantly, a tougher and more highly polished cylinder escapement to be produced.Harrison then realized that a mere watch after all could be made accurate enough for the task and was a far more practical proposition for use as a marine timekeeper.", "He proceeded to redesign the concept of the watch as a timekeeping device, basing his design on sound scientific principles.===\"Jefferys\" watch===He had already in the early 1750s designed a precision watch for his own use, which was made for him by the watchmaker John Jefferys 1752–1753.This watch incorporated a novel frictional rest escapement and was not only the first to have a compensation for temperature variations but also contained the first miniature ''going train fusee'' of Harrison's design which enabled the watch to continue running whilst being wound.", "These features led to the very successful performance of the \"Jefferys\" watch, which Harrison incorporated into the design of two new timekeepers which he proposed to build.", "These were in the form of a large watch and another of a smaller size but of similar pattern.", "However, only the larger No.", "1 (or \"H4\" as it is sometimes called) watch appears to have ever been finished (See the reference to \"H4\" below).", "Aided by some of London's finest workmen, he proceeded to design and make the world's first successful marine timekeeper that allowed a navigator to accurately assess his ship's position in longitude.", "Importantly, Harrison showed everyone that it could be done by using a watch to calculate longitude.", "This was to be Harrison's masterpiece – an instrument of beauty, resembling an oversized pocket watch from the period.", "It is engraved with Harrison's signature, marked Number 1 and dated AD 1759.=== H4 ===The clockwork in Harrison's H4 watchDrawings of Harrison's H4 chronometer of 1761, published in ''The principles of Mr Harrison's time-keeper'', 1767.Harrison's first \"sea watch\" (now known as H4) is housed in silver pair cases some in diameter.", "The clock's movement is highly complex for that period, resembling a larger version of the then-current conventional movement.", "A coiled steel spring inside a brass mainspring barrel provides 30 hours of power.", "This is covered by the fusee barrel which pulls a chain wrapped around the conically shaped pulley known as the fusee.", "The fusee is topped by the winding square (requiring separate key).", "The great wheel attached to the base of this fusee transmits power to the rest of the movement.", "The fusee contains the maintaining power, a mechanism for keeping the H4 going while being wound.", "From Gould: In comparison, the verge's escapement has a recoil with a limited balance arc and is sensitive to variations in driving torque.", "According to a review by H. M. Frodsham of the movement in 1878, H4's escapement had \"a good deal of 'set' and not so much recoil, and as a result the impulse came very near to a double chronometer action\".The D-shaped pallets of Harrison's escapement are both made of diamond, approximately 2 mm long with the curved side radius of 0.6 mm; a considerable feat of manufacture at the time.", "For technical reasons the balance was made much larger than in a conventional watch of the period, in diameter weighing and the vibrations controlled by a flat spiral steel spring of 3 turns with a long straight tail.", "The spring is tapered, being thicker at the stud end and tapering toward the collet at the centre.", "The movement also has centre seconds motion with a sweep seconds hand.The Third Wheel is equipped with internal teeth and has an elaborate bridge similar to the pierced and engraved bridge for the period.", "It runs at 5 beats (ticks) per second, and is equipped with a tiny second remontoire.", "A balance-brake, activated by the position of the fusee, stops the watch half an hour before it is completely run down, in order that the remontoire does not run down also.Temperature compensation is in the form of a 'compensation curb' (or 'Thermometer Kirb' as Harrison called it).", "This takes the form of a bimetallic strip mounted on the regulating slide, and carrying the curb pins at the free end.", "During its initial testing, Harrison dispensed with this regulation using the slide, but left its indicating dial or figure piece in place.This first watch took six years to construct, following which the Board of Longitude determined to trial it on a voyage from Portsmouth to Kingston, Jamaica.", "For this purpose it was placed aboard the 50-gun , which set sail from Portsmouth on 18 November 1761.Harrison, by then 68 years old, sent it on this transatlantic trial in the care of his son, William.", "The watch was tested before departure by Robertson, Master of the Academy at Portsmouth, who reported that on 6 November 1761 at noon it was 3 seconds slow, having lost 24 seconds in 9 days on mean solar time.", "The daily rate of the watch was therefore fixed as losing seconds per day.When ''Deptford'' reached its destination, after correction for the initial error of 3 seconds and accumulated loss of 3 minutes 36.5 seconds at the daily rate over the 81 days and 5 hours of the voyage, the watch was found to be 5 seconds slow compared to the known longitude of Kingston, corresponding to an error in longitude of 1.25 minutes, or approximately one nautical mile.", "William Harrison returned aboard the 14-gun , reaching England on 26 March 1762 to report the successful outcome of the experiment.", "Harrison senior thereupon waited for the £20,000 prize, but the Board were persuaded that the accuracy could have been just luck and demanded another trial.", "The board were also not convinced that a timekeeper which took six years to construct met the test of practicality required by the Longitude Act.", "The Harrisons were outraged and demanded their prize, a matter that eventually worked its way to Parliament, which offered £5,000 for the design.", "The Harrisons refused but were eventually obliged to make another trip to Bridgetown on the island of Barbados to settle the matter.At the time of this second trial, another method for measuring longitude was ready for testing: the Method of Lunar Distances.", "The Moon moves fast enough, some thirteen degrees a day, to easily measure the movement from day to day.", "By comparing the angle between the Moon and the Sun for the day one left for Britain, the \"proper position\" (how it would appear in Greenwich, England, at that specific time) of the Moon could be calculated.", "By comparing this with the angle of the Moon over the horizon, the longitude could be calculated.During Harrison's second trial of his 'sea watch' (H4) Nevil Maskelyne was asked to accompany HMS ''Tartar'' and test the Lunar Distances system.", "Once again the watch proved extremely accurate, keeping time to within 39 seconds, corresponding to an error in the longitude of Bridgetown of less than .", "Maskelyne's measures were also fairly good, at , but required considerable work and calculation in order to use.", "At a meeting of the Board in 1765 the results were presented, but they again attributed the accuracy of the measurements to luck.", "Once again the matter reached Parliament, which offered £10,000 in advance and the other half once he turned over the design to other watchmakers to duplicate.", "In the meantime Harrison's watch would have to be turned over to the Astronomer Royal for long-term on-land testing.Harrison's Chronometer H5, (Collection of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers), in the Science Museum, LondonUnfortunately, Nevil Maskelyne had been appointed Astronomer Royal on his return from Barbados, and was therefore also placed on the Board of Longitude.", "He returned a report of the watch that was negative, claiming that its \"going rate\" (the amount of time it gained or lost per day) was due to inaccuracies cancelling themselves out, and refused to allow it to be factored out when measuring longitude.", "Consequently, this first Marine Watch of Harrison's failed the needs of the Board despite the fact that it had succeeded in two previous trials.Harrison began working on his second 'sea watch' (H5) while testing was conducted on the first, which Harrison felt was being held hostage by the Board.", "After three years he had had enough; Harrison felt \"extremely ill used by the gentlemen who I might have expected better treatment from\" and decided to enlist the aid of King George III.", "He obtained an audience with the King, who was extremely annoyed with the Board.", "King George tested the watch No.2 (H5) himself at the palace and after ten weeks of daily observations between May and July in 1772, found it to be accurate to within one third of one second per day.", "King George then advised Harrison to petition Parliament for the full prize after threatening to appear in person to dress them down.", "Finally in 1773, when he was 80 years old, Harrison received a monetary award in the amount of £8,750 from Parliament for his achievements, but he never received the official award (which was never awarded to anyone).", "He was to survive for just three more years.In total, Harrison received £23,065 for his work on chronometers.", "He received £4,315 in increments from the Board of Longitude for his work, £10,000 as an interim payment for H4 in 1765 and £8,750 from Parliament in 1773.This gave him a reasonable income for most of his life (equivalent to roughly £450,000 per year in 2007, though all his costs, such as materials and subcontracting work to other horologists, had to come out of this).", "He became the equivalent of a multi-millionaire (in today's terms) in the final decade of his life.Captain James Cook used K1, a copy of H4, on his second and third voyages, having used the lunar distance method on his first voyage.", "K1 was made by Larcum Kendall, who had been apprenticed to John Jefferys.", "Cook's log is full of praise for the watch and the charts of the southern Pacific Ocean he made with its use were remarkably accurate.", "K2 was loaned to Lieutenant William Bligh, commander of HMS ''Bounty'' but it was retained by Fletcher Christian following the infamous mutiny.", "It was not recovered from Pitcairn Island until 1808 when it was given to Captain Folger, and then passed through several hands before reaching the National Maritime Museum in London.Initially, the cost of these chronometers was quite high (roughly 30% of a ship's cost).", "However, over time, the costs dropped to between £25 and £100 (half a year's to two years' salary for a skilled worker) in the early 19th century.", "Many historians point to relatively low production volumes over time as evidence that the chronometers were not widely used.", "However, Landes points out that the chronometers lasted for decades and did not need to be replaced frequently – indeed the number of makers of marine chronometers reduced over time due to the ease in supplying the demand even as the merchant marine expanded.", "Also, many merchant mariners would make do with a deck chronometer at half the price.", "These were not as accurate as the boxed marine chronometer but were adequate for many.", "While the Lunar Distances method would complement and rival the marine chronometer initially, the chronometer would overtake it in the 19th century.The more accurate Harrison timekeeping device led to the much-needed precise calculation of longitude, making the device a fundamental key to the modern age.", "Following Harrison, the marine timekeeper was reinvented yet again by John Arnold who while basing his design on Harrison's most important principles, at the same time simplified it enough for him to produce equally accurate but far less costly marine chronometers in quantity from around 1783.Nonetheless, for many years even towards the end of the 18th century, chronometers were expensive rarities, as their adoption and use proceeded slowly due to the high expense of precision manufacturing.", "The expiry of Arnold's patents at the end of the 1790s enabled many other watchmakers including Thomas Earnshaw to produce chronometers in greater quantities at less cost even than those of Arnold.By the early 19th century, navigation at sea without one was considered unwise to unthinkable.", "Using a chronometer to aid navigation simply saved lives and ships – the insurance industry, self-interest, and common sense did the rest in making the device a universal tool of maritime trade." ], [ "Death and memorials", "Bronze statue of John Harrison in leftHarrison's tomb at St John-at-Hampstead.Harrison died on 24 March 1776, at the age of eighty-two, just shy of his eighty-third birthday.", "He was buried in the graveyard of St John's Church, Hampstead, in north London, along with his second wife Elizabeth and later their son William.", "His tomb was restored in 1879 by the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers, even though Harrison had never been a member of the Company.Harrison's last home was 12, Red Lion Square, in the Holborn district of London.", "There is a blue plaque dedicated to Harrison on the wall of Summit House, a 1925 modernist office block, on the south side of the square.", "A memorial tablet to Harrison was unveiled in Westminster Abbey on 24 March 2006, finally recognising him as a worthy companion to his friend George Graham and Thomas Tompion, 'The Father of English Watchmaking', who are both buried in the Abbey.", "The memorial shows a meridian line (line of constant longitude) in two metals to highlight Harrison's most widespread invention, the bimetallic strip thermometer.", "The strip is engraved with its own longitude of 0 degrees, 7 minutes and 35 seconds West.The Corpus Clock in Cambridge, unveiled in 2008, is a homage by the designer to Harrison's work but is of an electromechanical design.", "In appearance it features Harrison's grasshopper escapement, the 'pallet frame' being sculpted to resemble an actual grasshopper.", "This is the clock's defining feature.", "In 2014, Northern Rail named diesel railcar 153316 as the ''John 'Longitude' Harrison''.On 3 April 2018, Google celebrated his 325th birthday by making a Google Doodle for its homepage.In February 2020, a bronze statue of John Harrison was unveiled in Barrow upon Humber.", "The statue was created by sculptor Marcus Cornish." ], [ "Subsequent history", "Clock B at the 271x271pxAfter World War I, Harrison's timepieces were rediscovered at the Royal Greenwich Observatory by retired naval officer Lieutenant Commander Rupert T. Gould.The timepieces were in a highly decrepit state and Gould spent many years documenting, repairing and restoring them, without compensation for his efforts.", "Gould was the first to designate the timepieces from H1 to H5, initially calling them No.1 to No.5.Unfortunately, Gould made modifications and repairs that would not pass today's standards of good museum conservation practice, although most Harrison scholars give Gould credit for having ensured that the historical artifacts survived as working mechanisms to the present time.", "Gould wrote ''The Marine Chronometer'' published in 1923, which covered the history of chronometers from the Middle Ages through to the 1920s, and which included detailed descriptions of Harrison's work and the subsequent evolution of the chronometer.", "The book remains the authoritative work on the marine chronometer.Today the restored H1, H2, H3 and H4 timepieces can be seen on display in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich.", "H1, H2 and H3 still work: H4 is kept in a stopped state because, unlike the first three, it requires oil for lubrication and so will degrade as it runs.", "H5 is owned by the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers of London, and was previously on display at the Clockmakers' Museum in the Guildhall, London, as part of the Company's collection; since 2015 the collection has been displayed in the Science Museum, London.In the final years of his life, John Harrison wrote about his research into musical tuning and manufacturing methods for bells.", "His tuning system, (a meantone system derived from pi), is described in his pamphlet ''A Description Concerning Such Mechanism ... (CSM)''.", "This system challenged the traditional view that harmonics occur at integer frequency ratios and in consequence all music using this tuning produces low frequency beating.", "In 2002, Harrison's last manuscript, ''A true and short, but full Account of the Foundation of Musick, or, as principally therein, of the Existence of the Natural Notes of Melody'', was rediscovered in the US Library of Congress.", "His theories on the mathematics of bell manufacturing (using \"Radical Numbers\") are yet to be clearly understood.One of the controversial claims of his last years was that of being able to build a land clock more accurate than any competing design.", "Specifically, he claimed to have designed a clock capable of keeping accurate time to within one second over a span of 100 days.", "At the time, such publications as ''The London Review of English and Foreign Literature'' ridiculed Harrison for what was considered an outlandish claim.", "Harrison drew a design but never built such a clock himself, but in 1970 Martin Burgess, a Harrison expert and himself a clockmaker, studied the plans and endeavored to build the timepiece as drawn.", "He built two versions, dubbed Clock A and Clock B.", "Clock A became the Gurney Clock which was given to the city of Norwich in 1975, while Clock B lay unfinished in his workshop for decades until it was acquired in 2009 by Donald Saff.", "The completed Clock B was submitted to the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich for further study.", "It was found that Clock B could potentially meet Harrison's original claim, so the clock's design was carefully checked and adjusted.", "Finally, over a 100-day period from 6 January to 17 April 2015, Clock B was secured in a transparent case in the Royal Observatory and left to run untouched, apart from regular winding.", "Upon completion of the run, the clock was measured to have lost only 5/8 of a second, meaning Harrison's design was fundamentally sound.", "If we ignore the fact that this clock uses materials such as duraluminium and invar unavailable to Harrison, had it been built in 1762, the date of Harrison's testing of his H4, and run continuously since then without correction, it would now ( ) be slow by just minutes and seconds.", "Guinness World Records has declared the Martin Burgess' Clock B the \"most accurate mechanical clock with a pendulum swinging in free air.\"" ], [ "In literature, television, drama and music", " In 1995, inspired by a Harvard University symposium on the longitude problem organized by the National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors, Dava Sobel wrote a book on Harrison's work.", "''Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time'' became the first popular bestseller on the subject of horology.", "''The Illustrated Longitude'', in which Sobel's text was accompanied by 180 images selected by William J. H. Andrewes, appeared in 1998.The book was dramatised for UK television by Charles Sturridge in a Granada Productions 4 episode series for Channel 4 in 1999, under the title ''Longitude''.", "It was broadcast in the US later that same year by co-producer A&E.", "The production starred Michael Gambon as Harrison and Jeremy Irons as Gould.", "Sobel's book was also the basis for a PBS NOVA episode entitled ''Lost at Sea: The Search for Longitude''.Harrison's marine time-keepers were an essential part of the plot in the 1996 Christmas special of long-running British sitcom ''Only Fools And Horses'', entitled \"Time on Our Hands\".", "The plot concerns the discovery and subsequent sale at auction of Harrison's Lesser Watch H6.The fictional watch was auctioned off at Sotheby's for £6.2 million.The song \"John Harrison's Hands\", written by Brian McNeill and Dick Gaughan, appeared on the 2001 album ''Outlaws & Dreamers''.", "The song has also been covered by Steve Knightley, appearing on his album 2011 ''Live in Somerset''.", "It was further covered by the British band Show of Hands and appears on their 2016 album ''The Long Way Home''.In 1998, British composer Harrison Birtwistle wrote the piano piece \"Harrison's clocks\" that contains musical depictions of Harrison's various clocks.", "Composer Peter Graham's piece ''Harrison's Dream'' is about Harrison's forty-year quest to produce an accurate clock.", "Graham worked simultaneously on the brass band and wind band versions of the piece, which received their first performances just four months apart, in October 2000 and February 2001 respectively." ], [ "Works", "" ], [ "See also", "History of longitudeLunar distance (navigation)Marine chronometer''The Island of the Day Before'' – Umberto Eco" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * Whittle, Eric S. (1984).", "''The Inventor of the Marine Chronometer: John Harrison of Foulby (1693-1776)''.", "Wakefield Historical Publications.", "" ], [ "External links", "* John Harrison and the Longitude Problem, at the National Maritime Museum site* PBS Nova Online: ''Lost at Sea, the Search for Longitude''* John 'Longitude' Harrison and musical tuning* Excerpt from: Time Restored: The Story of the Harrison Timekeepers and R.T. Gould, 'The Man who Knew (almost) Everything'* UK Telegraph: 'Clock from 1776 just goes on and on'* Andrew Johnson, ''Longitude pioneer was not a 'lone genius','' The Independent, 31 May 2009* Excellent accounting of John Harrison and his H1, H2, H3 Achievements* Harrison's precision pendulum-clock No.", "2, 1727, on the BBC's \"A History of the World\" website* Leeds Museums and Galleries \"Secret Life of Objects\" blog, John Harrison's precision pendulum-clock No.", "2 * Account of John Harrison and his chronometer at Cambridge Digital Library* Building an Impossible Clock Shayla Love, 19 Jan 2016, ''The Atlantic''* Biography Of John Harrison Informative portal for Biographys - Retrieved 13 August 2023, ''ttelangana''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Julia Child" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Julia Carolyn Child''' (née '''McWilliams'''; August 15, 1912 – August 13, 2004) was an American chef, author, and television personality.", "She is recognized for bringing French cuisine to the American public with her debut cookbook, ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking'', and her subsequent television programs, the most notable of which was ''The French Chef'', which premiered in 1963." ], [ "Early life", "On August 15, 1912, Julia Child was born as Julia Carolyn McWilliams in Pasadena, California.", "Child's father was John McWilliams Jr. (1880–1962), a Princeton University graduate and prominent land manager.", "Child's mother was Julia Carolyn (\"Caro\") Weston (1877–1937), a paper-company heiress and daughter of Byron Curtis Weston, a lieutenant governor of Massachusetts.", "Child was the eldest of three, followed by a brother, John McWilliams III, and sister, Dorothy Cousins.Child attended Polytechnic School and Westridge School from 4th grade to 9th grade in Pasadena, California.", "In high school, Child was sent to the Katherine Branson School in Ross, California, which was at the time a boarding school.", "Child played tennis, golf, and basketball as a youth.Child also played sports while attending Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, from which she graduated in 1934 with a major in history.", "At the time she graduated, she planned to become a novelist, or perhaps a magazine writer.", "Following her graduation from college, Child moved to New York City, where she worked for a time as a copywriter for the advertising department of W. & J. Sloane.", "She was still hoping to become a novelist.While Child grew up in a family with a cook, she did not observe or learn cooking from this person, and she never learned until she met her husband-to-be, Paul, who grew up in a family very interested in food." ], [ "Career", "=== Second World War ===Child joined the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in 1942 after finding that at six feet, two inches (1.88 m) tall, she was too tall to enlist in the Women's Army Corps (WACs) or in the U.S. Navy's WAVES.", "She began her OSS career as a typist at its headquarters in Washington, D.C., but, because of her education and experience, soon was given a position as a top-secret researcher working directly for the head of OSS, General William J. Donovan.As a research assistant in the Secret Intelligence division, Child typed over 10,000 names on white note cards to keep track of officers.", "For a year, she worked at the OSS Emergency Sea Rescue Equipment Section (ESRES) in Washington, D.C. as a file clerk and then as an assistant to developers of a shark repellent needed to ensure that sharks would not explode ordnance targeting German U-boats.", "When Child was asked to solve the problem of too many OSS underwater explosives being set off by curious sharks, \"Child's solution was to experiment with cooking various concoctions as a shark repellent,\" which were sprinkled in the water near the explosives and repelled sharks.", "Still in use today, the experimental shark repellent \"marked Child's first foray into the world of cooking.", "\"During 1944–1945, Child was posted to Kandy, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), where her responsibilities included \"registering, cataloging and channeling a great volume of highly classified communications\" for the OSS's clandestine stations in Asia.", "She was later posted to Kunming, China, where she received the Emblem of Meritorious Civilian Service as head of the Registry of the OSS Secretariat.For her service, Child received an award that cited her many virtues, including her \"drive and inherent cheerfulness\".", "As with other OSS records, her file was declassified in 2008.Unlike other files, Child's complete file is available online.While in Kandy, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) she met Paul Cushing Child, also an OSS employee, and the two were married on September 1, 1946, in Lumberville, Pennsylvania, later moving to Washington, D.C. Paul, a New Jersey native who had lived in Paris as an artist and poet, was known for his sophisticated palate, and introduced his wife to fine cuisine.", "He joined the United States Foreign Service, and, in 1948, the couple moved to Paris after the State Department assigned Paul there as an exhibits officer with the United States Information Agency.", "The couple had no children.===Post-war France===Child repeatedly recalled her first meal at La Couronne in Rouen as a culinary revelation; once, she described the meal of oysters, sole meunière, and fine wine to ''The New York Times'' as \"an opening up of the soul and spirit for me.\"", "In 1951, she graduated from the famous Cordon Bleu cooking school in Paris and later studied privately with Max Bugnard and other master chefs.", "She joined the women's cooking club ''Le Cercle des Gourmettes'', through which she met Simone Beck, who was writing a French cookbook for Americans with her friend Louisette Bertholle.", "Beck proposed that Child work with them to make the book appeal to Americans.", "In 1951, Child, Beck, and Bertholle began to teach cooking to American women in Child's Paris kitchen, calling their informal school ''L'école des trois gourmandes'' (The School of the Three Food Lovers).", "For the next decade, as the Childs moved around Europe and finally to Cambridge, Massachusetts, the three researched and repeatedly tested recipes.", "Child translated the French into English, making the recipes detailed, interesting, and practical.In 1963, the Childs built a home near the Provence town of Plascassier in the hills above Cannes on property belonging to co-author Beck and her husband, Jean Fischbacher.", "The Childs named it \"La Pitchoune\", a Provençal word meaning \"the little one\" but over time the property was often affectionately referred to simply as \"La Peetch\".In his New York Times best-selling book, ''Dearie: The Remarkable Life of Julia Child'', author Bob Spitz stated that Child was diagnosed with breast cancer in the mid-60s.", "She had a mastectomy on February 28, 1968.===Media career===The three would-be authors initially signed a contract with publisher Houghton Mifflin, which later rejected the manuscript for seeming too much like an encyclopedia.", "When it was finally published in 1961 by Alfred A. Knopf, the 726-page ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking'' was a best-seller and received critical acclaim that derived in part from the American interest in French culture in the early 1960s.", "Lauded for its helpful illustrations and precise attention to detail, and for making fine cuisine accessible, the book is still in print and is considered a seminal culinary work.", "Following this success, Child wrote magazine articles and a regular column for ''The Boston Globe'' newspaper.", "She would go on to publish nearly twenty titles under her name and with others.", "Many, though not all, were related to her television shows.", "Her last book was the autobiographical ''My Life in France'', published posthumously in 2006 and written with her grandnephew, Alex Prud'homme.", "The book recounts Child's life with her husband, Paul Cushing Child, in postwar France.===''The French Chef'' and related books===A 1961 appearance on a book review show on what was then the National Educational Television (NET) station of Boston, WGBH-TV (now a major Public Broadcasting Service station), led to the inception of her first television cooking show after viewers enjoyed her demonstration of how to cook an omelette.", "''The French Chef'' debuted as a summer pilot series, on July 26, 1962.This led to the program becoming a regular series, beginning on February 11, 1963, on WGBH, where it was immediately successful.", "The show ran nationally for ten years and won Peabody and Emmy Awards, including the first Emmy award for an educational program.", "Though she was not the first television cook, Child was the most widely seen.", "She attracted the broadest audience with her cheery enthusiasm, distinctively warbly voice, and unpatronizing, unaffected manner.", "In 1972, ''The French Chef'' became the first television program to be captioned for the deaf, even though this was done using the preliminary technology of open-captioning.Child's second book, ''The French Chef Cookbook,'' was a collection of the recipes she had demonstrated on the show.", "It was soon followed in 1970 by ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Volume Two,'' again in collaboration with Simone Beck, but not with Louisette Bertholle, with whom the professional relationship had ended.", "Child's fourth book, ''From Julia Child's Kitchen,'' was illustrated with her husband's photographs and documented the color series of ''The French Chef,'' as well as provided an extensive library of kitchen notes compiled by Child during the course of the show.=== Impact on American households ===Child had a large impact on American households and housewives.", "Because of the technology in the 1960s, the show was unedited, causing her blunders to appear in the final version and ultimately lend \"authenticity and approachability to television.\"", "According to Toby Miller in \"Screening Food: French Cuisine and the Television Palate,\" one mother he spoke to said that sometimes \"all that stood between me and insanity was hearty Julia Child\" because of Child's ability to soothe and transport her.", "In addition, Miller notes that Child's show began before the feminist movement of the 1960s, which meant that the issues housewives and women faced were somewhat ignored on television.===Later career===Julia Child's kitchen at the Smithsonian National Museum of American HistoryIn the 1970s and 1980s, she was the star of numerous television programs, including ''Julia Child & Company'', ''Julia Child & More Company'' and ''Dinner at Julia's''.", "For the 1979 book ''Julia Child and More Company'', she won a National Book Award in category Current Interest.There was a \"Contemporary\" or \"Current\" award category from 1972 to 1980.In 1980, Child started appearing regularly on ABC's ''Good Morning America''.In 1981, she founded the American Institute of Wine & Food, with vintners Robert Mondavi and Richard Graff, and others, to \"advance the understanding, appreciation and quality of wine and food,\" a pursuit she had already begun with her books and television appearances.", "In 1989, she published what she considered her magnum opus, a book and instructional video series collectively entitled ''The Way To Cook''.During the AIDS crisis of the 1980s, Child went from holding homophobic views to being a passionate AIDS activist, triggered by a close associate succumbing to AIDS.In the mid-1990s, as part of her work with the American Institute of Wine and Food, Child became increasingly concerned about children's food education.She starred in four more series in the 1990s that featured guest chefs: ''Cooking with Master Chefs'', ''In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs'', ''Baking with Julia'', and ''Julia & Jacques Cooking at Home''.", "She collaborated with Jacques Pépin many times for television programs and cookbooks.", "All of Child's books during this time stemmed from the television series of the same names.Child's use of ingredients like butter and cream has been questioned by food critics and modern-day nutritionists.", "She addressed these criticisms throughout her career, predicting that a \"fanatical fear of food\" would take over the country's dining habits, and that focusing too much on nutrition takes the pleasure from enjoying food.", "In a 1990 interview, Child said, \"Everybody is overreacting.", "If fear of food continues, it will be the death of gastronomy in the United States.", "Fortunately, the French don't suffer from the same hysteria we do.", "We should enjoy food and have fun.", "It is one of the simplest and nicest pleasures in life.", "\"Julia Child's kitchen, designed by her husband, was the setting for three of her television shows.", "It is now on display at the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. Beginning with ''In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs,'' the Childs' home kitchen in Cambridge was fully transformed into a functional set, with TV-quality lighting, three cameras positioned to catch all angles in the room, and a massive center island with a gas stovetop on one side and an electric stovetop on the other, but leaving the rest of the Childs' appliances alone, including \"my wall oven with its squeaking door.\"", "This kitchen backdrop hosted nearly all of Child's 1990s television series." ], [ "Later years", "Child in 1994After her friend Simone Beck died in 1991 at the age of 87, Child relinquished La Pitchoune after a month-long stay in June 1992 with her family, her niece, Phila, and close friend and biographer Noël Riley Fitch.", "She turned the keys over to Jean Fischbacher's sister, just as she and Paul had promised nearly 30 years earlier.", "That year, Child spent five days in Sicily at the invitation of Regaleali Winery.", "American journalist Bob Spitz spent a brief time with Child during that period while he was researching and writing his then working title, ''History of Eating and Cooking in America''.", "In 1993, Child voiced Dr. Julia Bleeb in the animated film, ''We're Back!", "A Dinosaur's Story''.Spitz took notes and made many recordings of his conversation with Child, and these later formed the basis of a secondary biography on Child, published August 7, 2012 (Knopf), five days before the centennial of her birthdate.", "Paul Child, who was ten years older than his wife, died in 1994 after living in a nursing home for five years following a series of strokes in 1989.In 2001, Child moved to a retirement community, donating her house and office to Smith College, which later sold the house.She donated her kitchen, which her husband had designed with high counters to accommodate her height, and which served as the set for three of her television series, to the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History, where it is now on display.", "Her copper pots and pans were on display at Copia in Napa, California, until August 2009 when they were reunited with her kitchen at the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C." ], [ "Death", "Child died of kidney failure in Montecito, California, on August 13, 2004, two days shy of her 92nd birthday.", "She ended her last book, ''My Life in France'', with \"...thinking back on it now reminds that the pleasures of the table, and of life, are infinite – toujours bon appétit!\"", "Her ashes were placed on the Neptune Memorial Reef near Key Biscayne, Florida." ], [ "Legacy", "===The Julia Child Foundation===Signature of Julia ChildIn 1995, Child established The Julia Child Foundation for Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, a private charitable foundation to make grants to further her life's work.", "The Foundation, originally set up in Massachusetts, later moved to Santa Barbara, California, where it is now headquartered.", "Inactive until after Julia's death in 2004, the Foundation makes grants to other nonprofits.", "The grants support primarily gastronomy, the culinary arts and the further development of the professional food world, all matters of paramount importance to Julia Child during her lifetime.", "The Foundation's website provides a dedicated page listing the names of grant recipients with a description of the organization and the grant provided by the Foundation.", "One of the grant recipients is Heritage Radio Network which covers the world of food, drink and agriculture.Beyond making grants, the Foundation was also established to protect Child's legacy.", "Many of these rights are jointly held with other organizations like her publishers and the Schlesinger Library at The Radcliffe Institute at Harvard University.", "The Foundation has been active in protecting these posthumous rights.", "Child was opposed to endorsements, and the Foundation follows a similar policy regarding the use of her name and image for commercial purposes.===Tributes and homages===The Julia Child Rose cultivar is known for its yellow blooms.The Julia Child rose, known in the UK as the \"Absolutely Fabulous\" rose, is a golden butter/gold floribunda rose named after Child.The exhibits in the West Wing (1 West) of the National Museum of American History address science and innovation.", "They include ''Bon Appétit!", "Julia Child's Kitchen.", "''On September 26, 2014, the US Postal Service issued 20 million copies of the \"Celebrity Chefs Forever\" stamp series, which featured portraits by Jason Seiler of five American chefs: Child, Joyce Chen, James Beard, Edna Lewis, and Felipe Rojas-Lombardi.The Julia McWilliams Child '34 Campus Center at Smith College.", "Smith College used the proceeds from the sale of Child's house in Cambridge to partially fund an architecturally dramatic campus center that opened in 2003.On November 17, 2022, it honored her by naming it the Julia McWilliams Child '34 Campus Center." ], [ "Awards and nominations", "On November 19, 2000, Child was presented with a Knight of France's Legion of Honor.", "She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000.She was awarded the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2003; she received honorary doctorates from Harvard University, Johnson & Wales University (1995), Smith College (her alma mater), Brown University (2000), and several other universities.", "In 2007, Child was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.===Awards===* 1965: Peabody Award for Personal Award for ''The French Chef''* 1966: Emmy for Achievements in Educational Television- Individuals for ''The French Chef''* 1980: U.S. National Book Awards for Current Interest (hardcover) for ''Julia Child and More Company''* 1996: Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Service Show Host for ''In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs''* 2001: Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Service Show Host for ''Julia & Jacques Cooking at Home''===Nominations===* 1972: Emmy for Special Classification of Outstanding Program and Individual Achievement – General Programming for ''The French Chef''* 1994: Emmy for Outstanding Informational Series for ''Cooking with Master Chefs''* 1997: Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Service Show Host for ''Baking with Julia''* 1999: Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Service Show Host for ''Baking with Julia''* 2000: Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Service Show Host for ''Julia & Jacques Cooking at Home''" ], [ "In popular culture", "Child was a favorite of audiences from the moment of her television debut on public television in 1963, and she was a familiar part of American culture and the subject of numerous references, including numerous parodies in television and radio programs and skits.", "Her great success on air may have been tied to her refreshingly pragmatic approach to the genre, \"I think you have to decide who your audience is.", "If you don't pick your audience, you're lost because you're not really talking to anybody.", "My audience is people who like to cook, who want to really learn how to do it.", "\"In 1996, Child was ranked No.", "46 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time.===On stage===* Jean Stapleton portrayed Child in a 1989 one-woman short musical play, ''Bon Appétit!", "'', based on one of Child's televised cooking lessons, with music by American opera composer Lee Hoiby.", "The title derived from her famous TV sign-off \"Bon appétit!", "\"===In film===* A film titled ''Primordial Soup With Julia Child'' was on display at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's ''Life in the Universe'' gallery from 1976 until the gallery closed.", "* Produced by WGBH, a one-hour feature documentary, ''Julia Child!", "America's Favorite Chef'', was aired as the first episode of the 18th season of the PBS series ''American Masters'' (2004).", "The film combined archive footage of Child with current footage from those who influenced and were influenced by her life and work.", "* ''Julie & Julia'' (2009) is a film adapted by Nora Ephron from Child's memoir ''My Life in France'' and from Julie Powell's memoir.", "Meryl Streep plays Child.", "Streep won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical or Comedy.", "* ''Keep On Cooking – Julia Child Remixed'' (2012): A video produced for PBS by musician and filmmaker John D. Boswell as part of the ''PBS Icons Remixed'' series in commemoration of Child's 100th birthday.", "Child's voice is auto-tuned to a melody derived from vocal samples, with synchronized video clips from Child's various television series.", "* ''Julia'' (2021) is a documentary, which chronicles Child's life.", "It was directed and produced by Julie Cohen and Betsy West.===On television===* Child was the inspiration for Judy Graubart's character \"Julia Grownup,\" hostess of the parody cooking show ''Here's Cooking At You,'' on the Children's Television Workshop program, ''The Electric Company,'' during its transmissions from 1971 to 1977.", "* In 1978, Child and Jacques Pépin were guests on the NBC talk show ''Tomorrow with Tom Snyder.''", "The program was to include a segment with the two chefs preparing food.", "Before taping the show, Child borrowed Pépin's knife to cut something and accidentally sliced her finger.", "Tom Snyder was horrified that Child had injured herself, but Child insisted on continuing the program with her bandaged finger.", "Child told Snyder that, during the taping, Pépin would do the cooking, and Child would taste the dishes.", "Although Child did not want the television audience to know about her injury, during the taping, Snyder asked Child about her cut finger.", "After the show, Pépin and Child went to the hospital, where Child received sutures on her sliced finger.", "Afterwards, Child and Pépin dined at L'Ermitage.", "''Saturday Night Live'' writers saw the ''Tomorrow'' episode with Child and thought it would make a funny sketch.", "The writers took Child's relatively minor mishap and transformed it into a major accident.", "Child is parodied by Dan Aykroyd, who is a fan of Julia Child.", "In the sketch, Aykroyd—as Julia Child—continued with a cooking show despite ludicrously profuse bleeding from a cut to his thumb, and eventually expired while advising, \"Save the liver.\"", "Child had a videocassette copy of the episode, and she reportedly loved this sketch so much she showed it to friends at parties.", "* She is parodied on ''The Cosby Show'' in the 1984 episode \"Bon Jour Sondra\" by characters Cliff and Theo Huxtable.", "* She appears in an episode of ''This Old House'' as designer of the kitchen.", "''This Old House'' was launched in 1979 by Russell Morash, who helped create ''The French Chef with Julia Child''.", "* In 1982, she is portrayed by John Candy in a sketch for ''Second City Television'', \"Battle of the PBS Stars,\" in which she takes part in a boxing match against fellow PBS star Mr. Rogers, who is parodied by Martin Short.", "She loses the match after taking multiple blows to the head from Rogers' puppet King Friday.", "* In 2014, she is portrayed in season 6, episode 5 of ''Rupaul's Drag Race'' by Dan Donigan, known as Milk on the show, as part of the Snatch Game challenge.", "* She was the character Gabi Diamond's inspiration on the TV show Young and Hungry (2014-2018).", "* In 2019, she is portrayed in season 1, episode 4 of RuPaul's Drag Race UK by Divina de Campo, who placed in the bottom three of the episode.", "* On March 14, 2022, the Food Network began a new series called ''The Julia Child Challenge''.", "The series is based in a replica of Julia's kitchen modified to allow eight contestants (all home cooks) to compete at the same time in a multi-episode cooking challenge.", "Each episode revolves around one or more episode of one of Child's cooking shows with clips of them interspersed into the contents of the competition.", "The winner will receive a scholarship to a cooking school in Paris.", "* In late March 2022, HBO Max began airing ''Julia'', a television series based on Child's life starring Sarah Lancashire in the title role.===Online===In 2002, Child was the inspiration for \"The Julie/Julia Project\", a popular cooking blog by Julie Powell that was the basis of Powell's bestselling book, ''Julie and Julia: 365 Days, 524 Recipes, 1 Tiny Apartment Kitchen,'' published in 2005, the year following Child's death.", "The paperback version of the book was retitled ''Julie and Julia: My Year of Cooking Dangerously.''", "The blog and book, along with Child's own memoir ''My Life in France'', in turn inspired the 2009 feature film ''Julie & Julia'' in which Meryl Streep portrays Child.", "For her performance, Streep was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress.Child is reported to have been unimpressed by Powell's blog, believing Powell's determination to cook every recipe in ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking'' in a year to be a stunt.", "In an interview, Child's editor, Judith Jones, said of Powell's blog: \"Flinging around four-letter words when cooking isn't attractive, to me or Julia.", "She didn't want to endorse it.", "What came through on the blog was somebody who was doing it almost for the sake of a stunt.", "\"On March 15, 2016, Twitch started to stream Child's show ''The French Chef''.", "This event was in celebration of both the launch of the cooking section of Twitch and the anniversary of Child's graduation from Le Cordon Bleu.In 2016, Child was parodied in the Youtube series ''Epic Rap Battles of History'' (Season 5, Episode 2), competing against Gordon Ramsey.", "Child was played by Mamrie Hart." ], [ "Works", "===Television series===* ''The French Chef'' (1963–1966; 1970–1973)* ''Julia Child & Company'' (1978–1979)* ''Julia Child & More Company'' (1979–1980)* ''Dinner at Julia's'' (1983–1984)* ''The Way To Cook'' (1985) six one-hour videocassettes* ''A Birthday Party for Julia Child: Compliments to the Chef'' (1992)* ''Cooking with Master Chefs: Hosted by Julia Child'' (1993–1994) 16 episodes* ''Cooking In Concert: Julia Child & Jacques Pépin'' (1994)* ''In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs'' (1995–1996), 39 episodes* ''Cooking In Concert: Julia Child & Graham Kerr'' (1995)* ''More Cooking in Concert: Julia Child & Jacques Pépin'' (1996)* ''Baking with Julia'' (1997–1999) 39 episodes* ''Julia & Jacques Cooking at Home'' (1999–2000) 22 episodes* ''Julia Child's Kitchen Wisdom'', (2000) two-hour special===DVD releases===* ''Julia Child's Kitchen Wisdom'' (2000)* ''Julia and Jacques: Cooking at Home'' (2003)* ''Julia Child: America's Favorite Chef'' (2004)* ''The French Chef: Volume One'' (2005)* ''The French Chef: Volume Two'' (2005)* ''Julia Child!", "The French Chef'' (2006)* ''The Way To Cook'' (2009)* ''Baking With Julia'' (2009)===Books===* ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking'' (1961), with Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle* ''The French Chef Cookbook'' (1968).", ".", "* ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Volume Two'' (1970), with Simone Beck.", ".", "* ''From Julia Child's Kitchen'' (1975).", ".", "* ''Julia Child & Company'' (1978).", ".", "* ''Julia Child & More Company'' (1979).", ".", "* ''The Way to Cook'' (1989).", ".", "* ''Julia Child's Menu Cookbook'' (1991), one-volume edition of ''Julia Child & Company'' and ''Julia Child & More Company''.", ".", "* ''Cooking With Master Chefs'' (1993).", ".", "* ''In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs'' (1995).", ".", "* ''Baking with Julia'' (1996).", ".", "* ''Julia's Delicious Little Dinners'' (1998).", ".", "* ''Julia's Menus for Special Occasions'' (1998).", ".", "* ''Julia's Breakfasts, Lunches & Suppers'' (1999).", ".", "* ''Julia's Casual Dinners'' (1999).", ".", "* ''Julia and Jacques Cooking at Home'' (1999), with Jacques Pépin.", ".", "* ''Julia's Kitchen Wisdom'' (2000).", ".", "* ''My Life in France'' (2006, posthumous), with Alex Prud'homme.", ".", "* (collected in) ''American Food Writing: An Anthology with Classic Recipes'', ed.", "Molly O'Neill (Library of America, 2007)" ], [ "Books about Child", "* * * * * * " ], [ "See also", " Doña Petrona* Fanny Cradock* Graham Kerr (The Galloping Gourmet)* List of Legion of Honour recipients by name" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Julia Child Foundation* Julia Child's Kitchen at the Smithsonian* Julia Child: Lessons with Master Chefs from PBS* News and commentary about Julia Child in ''The New York Times''* * * Julia Child Papers.", "Schlesinger Library , Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.", "* Videotape collection of Julia Child, 1979–1997: A Finding Aid.", "Schlesinger Library , Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.", "* Audio collection of Julia Child, 1961–1995: A Finding Aid.", "Schlesinger Library , Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.", "* The Julia Child Scholarship at Le Cordon Bleu London" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Beard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Andrews Beard''' (May 5, 1903 – January 23, 1985) was an American chef, cookbook author, teacher and television personality.", "He pioneered television cooking shows, taught at The James Beard Cooking School in New York City and Seaside, Oregon, and lectured widely.", "He emphasized American cooking, prepared with fresh, wholesome, American ingredients, to a country just becoming aware of its own culinary heritage.", "Beard taught and mentored generations of professional chefs and food enthusiasts.", "He published more than twenty books, and his memory is honored by his foundation's annual James Beard Awards." ], [ "Early life and education", "=== Family ===James Andrews Beard was born in Portland, Oregon, on May 5, 1903, to Elizabeth and John Beard.", "His British-born mother operated the Gladstone Hotel, and his father worked at the city's customs house.", "The family vacationed on the Pacific coast in Gearhart, Oregon, where Beard was exposed to Pacific Northwest cuisine.Common ingredients of this cuisine are salmon, shellfish, and other fresh seafood; game meats such as moose, elk, or venison; mushrooms, berries, small fruits, potatoes, and wild plants such as fiddleheads or young pushki (''Heracleum maximum'', or cow parsnip).Beard's earliest memory of food was at the 1905 Lewis and Clark Exposition, when he was two years old.", "In his memoir he recalled:I was taken to the exposition two or three times.", "The thing that remained in my mind above all others—I think it marked my life—was watching Triscuits and shredded wheat biscuits being made.", "Isn't that crazy?", "At two years old that memory was made.", "It intrigued the hell out of me.At age three Beard was bedridden with malaria, and the illness gave him time to focus on the food prepared by his mother and Jue-Let, the family's Chinese cook.", "According to Beard he was raised by Jue-Let and Thema, who instilled in him a passion for Chinese culture.", "Beard reportedly \"attributed much of his upbringing to Jue-Let,\" whom he referred to as his Chinese godfather.===Education===Beard graduated from Portland's Washington High School in 1920.In the same year he briefly attended Reed College in Portland, Oregon.", "He was expelled for homosexuality in 1922, having had relationships with \"one or more male students and a professor.\"", "The college granted Beard an honorary degree in 1976.After leaving Reed, he traveled from Portland to Liverpool aboard a British freighter, spending subsequent years living and traveling in Europe.", "In 1923, he joined a theatrical troupe and studied voice and theater.", "He also spent time in Paris, where he experienced French cuisine at its bistros and central market, Les Halles.", "In France, he also had the opportunity to enjoy sexual freedom, having a short relationship with a young man.", "From this period and the widespread influence of French food culture, he became a Francophile.", "In 1927 he returned to the US, spending time in Portland, Hollywood, and New York attempting to start a career in acting, costume and set design, and radio." ], [ "Career", "Beard moved to New York City in 1937.Unlucky in the theater, he and friend Bill Rhodes capitalized on the cocktail party craze by opening Hors d'Oeuvre, Inc., a catering company.", "This led to lecturing, teaching, writing, and the realization \"that part of his mission as a food connoisseur was to defend the pleasure of real cooking and fresh ingredients against the assault of the Jell-O-mold people and the domestic scientists.\"", "He published his first cookbook in 1940: ''Hors D'Oeuvre and Canapés'', a compilation of his catering recipes.", "According to fellow cooking enthusiast Julia Child, this book put him on the culinary map.World War II rationing ended Beard's catering business.", "He enlisted in the Army and was trained as a cryptographic specialist.", "Because he had hoped to serve in the hotel management division of the Army Quartermaster Corps, he sought and obtained release from the Army in 1943 based on a regulation applying to men over age 38.From August 1946 to May 1947, he hosted ''I Love to Eat'', a live television cooking show on NBC, beginning his ascent as an American food authority.", "According to Child, \"Through the years he gradually became not only the leading culinary figure in the country, but 'The Dean of American Cuisine'.", "\"In 1952, when Helen Evans Brown published her ''Helen Brown's West Coast Cook Book'', Beard wrote her a letter igniting a friendship that lasted until Brown's death.", "The two, along with her husband Phillip, developed a friendship which was both professional and personal.", "Beard and Brown became like siblings, admonishing and encouraging each other, as well as collaborating.According to the James Beard Foundation website, \"In 1955, he established The James Beard Cooking School.", "He continued to teach cooking to men and women for the next thirty years, both at his own schools (in New York City and Seaside, Oregon), and around the country at women's clubs, other cooking schools, and civic groups.", "He was a tireless traveler, bringing his message of good food, honestly prepared with fresh, wholesome, American ingredients, to a country just becoming aware of its own culinary heritage.", "\"Beard brought French cooking to the American middle and upper classes during the 1950s, appearing on TV as a cooking personality.", "David Kamp (who discusses Beard at length in his book, ''The United States of Arugula'') noted that Beard's was the first cooking show on TV.", "He compares Dione Lucas' cooking show and school with Beard's, noting that their prominence during the 1950s marked the emergence of a sophisticated, New York-based, nationally and internationally known food culture.", "Kamp wrote, \"It was in this decade the 1950s that Beard made his name as ''James Beard'', the brand name, the face and belly of American gastronomy.\"", "He noted that Beard met Alice B. Toklas on a trip to Paris, indicative of the network of fellow food celebrities who would follow him during his life and carry on his legacy after his death.Beard made endorsement deals to promote products that he might not have otherwise used or suggested in his own cuisine, including Omaha Steaks, French's Mustard, Green Giant Corn Niblets, Old Crow bourbon, Planters Peanuts, Shasta soft drinks, DuPont chemicals, and Adolph's Meat Tenderizer.", "According to Kamp, Beard later felt himself a \"gastronomic whore\" for doing so.", "Although he felt that mass-produced food that was neither fresh, local nor seasonal was a betrayal of his gastronomic beliefs, he needed the money for his cooking schools.", "According to Thomas McNamee, \"Beard, a man of stupendous appetites—for food, sex, money, you name it—stunned his subtler colleagues.\"", "In 1981, Beard and friend Gael Greene founded Citymeals-on-Wheels, which continues to help feed the homebound elderly in New York City." ], [ "Personal life", "Julia Child summed up Beard's personal life:Beard was the quintessential American cook.", "Well-educated and well-traveled during his eighty-two years, he was familiar with many cuisines but he remained fundamentally American.", "He was a big man, over six feet tall, with a big belly, and huge hands.", "An endearing and always lively teacher, he loved people, loved his work, loved gossip, loved to eat, loved a good time.Mark Bittman described him in a manner similar to Child's description:In a time when serious cooking meant French Cooking, Beard was quintessentially American, a Westerner whose mother ran a boardinghouse, a man who grew up with hotcakes and salmon and meatloaf in his blood.", "A man who was born a hundred years ago on the other side of the country, in a city, Portland, that at the time was every bit as cosmopolitan as, say, Allegheny, Pennsylvania.Beard admitted, \"until I was about forty-five, I guess I had a really violent temper.", "\"Beard was gay.", "According to Beard's memoir, \"By the time I was seven, I knew that I was gay.", "I think it's time to talk about that now.\"", "Beard came out in 1981, in ''Delights and Prejudices'', a revised version of his memoir.", "Of Beard's \"most significant romantic attachments\" was his \"lifetime companion\" of thirty years, Gino Cofacci, who was given an apartment in Beard's townhouse in the will and died in 1989, and Beard's former cooking school assistant Carl Jerome.", "John Birdsall, a food writer who won two James Beard Awards, ties Beard's sexuality to his food aesthetics, and said in 2016 it was only recently that people are accepting the connection." ], [ "Death", "James Beard died of heart failure on January 21, 1985, at his home in New York City at age 81.He was cremated and his ashes scattered over the beach in Gearhart, Oregon, where he spent summers as a child.In 1995, ''Love and Kisses and a Halo of Truffles: Letters from Helen Evans Brown'' was published.", "It contained excerpts from Beard's bi-weekly correspondence from 1952 to 1964 with friend and fellow chef Helen Evans Brown.", "The book gave insight to their relationship as well as the way that they developed ideas for recipes, projects and food." ], [ "Foundation", "''Hors d'oeuvres'' at the James Beard House, January 2007After Beard's death in 1985, Julia Child wanted to preserve his home in New York City as the gathering place that it had been during his life.", "Peter Kump, a former student of Beard's and the founder of the Institute of Culinary Education (formerly Peter Kump's New York Cooking School), spearheaded efforts to purchase the house and create the James Beard Foundation.Beard's renovated brownstone at 167 West 12th Street in Greenwich Village, is North America's only historic culinary center.", "It is preserved as a gathering place where the press and general public could appreciate the talents of emerging and established chefs.In 1986, the James Beard Foundation was established in Beard's honor to provide scholarships to aspiring food professionals and champion the American culinary tradition which Beard helped create.", "\"Since its inception in 1991, the James Beard Foundation Scholarship Program has awarded over $4.6 million in financial aid to a variety of students—from recent high school graduates, to working culinary professionals, to career changers.", "Recipients come from many countries, and enhance their knowledge at schools around the world.", "\"The annual James Beard Foundation Awards celebrate fine cuisine around Beard's birthday.", "Held on the first Monday in May, the awards ceremony honors American chefs, restaurants, journalists, cookbook authors, restaurant designers and electronic-media professionals.", "It culminates in a reception featuring tastings of signature dishes of more than 30 of the foundation's chefs.", "A quarterly magazine, ''Beard House'', is a compendium of culinary journalism.The foundation was affected by scandals; in 2004 its head, Leonard Pickell, resigned and was imprisoned for grand larceny and in 2005 the board of trustees resigned.", "During this period, chef and writer Anthony Bourdain called the foundation \"a kind of benevolent shakedown operation.\"", "A new board of trustees instituted an ethics policy and chose a new president, Susan Ungaro, to prevent future problems." ], [ "Works", "''Hors d'Oeuvre and Canapés'' (1940) M. Barrows & Co., revised in 1963 and 1985''Cook It Outdoors'' (1941) M. Barrows & Co.''Fowl and Game Cookery'' (1944) M. Barrows & Co.''The Fireside Cook Book: A Complete Guide to Fine Cooking for Beginner and Expert'' (1949) Simon & Schuster, reissued in 1982 as ''The Fireside Cookbook''''Paris Cuisine'' (1952) Little, Brown and Company Beard co-wrote Paris Cuisine with British journalist Alexander Watt.", "''The Complete Book of Barbecue & Rotisserie Cooking'' (1954) Maco Magazine Corp., reissued in 1958 as ''New Barbecue Cookbook'' and again in 1966 as ''Jim Beard's Barbecue Cookbook''''Complete Cookbook for Entertaining'' (1954) Maco Magazine org''How to Eat Better for Less Money'' (1954) Simon & Schuster''James Beard's Fish Cookery'' (1954) Little, Brown, reissued in 1976 and 1987 in paperback as ''James Beard's New Fish Cookery''''Casserole Cookbook'' (1955) Maco Magazine Corp.''The Complete Book of Outdoor Cookery'' (1955) Doubleday''The James Beard Cookbook'' (1959) Dell Publishing, revised in 1961, 1970, 1987 (paperback) and 1996''Treasury of Outdoor Cooking'' (1960) Golden Press''Delights & Prejudices: A Memoir with Recipes'' (1964) Atheneum, revised in 1981 and 1990''James Beard's Menus for Entertaining'' (1965) Delacorte Press''How to Eat (and Drink) Your Way through a French (or Italian) Menu'' (1971) Atheneum''James Beard's American Cookery'' (1972) Little, Brown and Company''Beard on Bread'' (1973) Alfred A. Knopf, revised in 1995 (paperback)''James Beard Cooks with Corning'' (1973)''Beard on Food'' (1974) Knopf''New Recipes for the Cuisinart Food Processor'' (1976)''James Beard's Theory & Practice of Good Cooking'' (1977) Knopf, revised in 1978, 1986, and 1990''The New James Beard'' (1981) Knopf, revised in 1989''Beard on Pasta'' (1983) Knopf''The Grand Grand Marnier Cookbook'', with John Chang McCurdy (1982) TBWA Advertising, Inc., New York ''Benson & Hedges 100's presents 100 of the world's greatest recipes'' (1976) Philip Morris Inc., New York ''The James Beard Cookbook on CuisineVu'' (1987) A computer diskette with about 125 recipes from ''The James Beard Cookbook'' (unpublished)''James Beard's Simple Foods'' (1993) Macmillan ''Love and Kisses and a Halo of Truffles'' (1994) Arcade, edited by John Ferrone ''The James Beard Cookbooks'' (1997) Thames and Hudson, edited by John Ferrone''The Armchair James Beard'' (1999) The Lyons Press, edited by John Ferrone ''The Essential James Beard Cookbook'' (2012) St. Martin's Press ===Archival collection===The James Beard Papers are housed in the Fales Library at New York University." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "* Culinary history of New York City* LGBT culture in New York City* List of LGBT people from New York City* List of LGBT people from Portland, Oregon" ], [ "References", "* Beard, James (1990) ''A James Beard Memoir: The James Beard Celebration Cookbook''.", "Ed.", "Barbara Kafka.", "New York: W. Morrow * Beard, James; José Wilson (2007) ''Beard on Food: The Best Recipes and Kitchen Wisdom from the Dean of American Cooking''.", "New York: Bloomsbury * Beard, James (1949) ''The Fireside Cook Book: A Complete Guide to Fine Cooking for Beginner and Expert''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster * Beard, James (1974) ''The Best of Beard: Great Recipes From a Great Cook''.", "New York: Warner Books ** Clark, Robert (1993) ''James Beard: A Biography''.", "New York: HarperCollins * Kamp, David (2006) ''The United States of Arugula: The Sun Dried, Cold-pressed, Dark-Roasted, Extra Virgin Story of the American Food Revolution''.", "New York: Broadway Books * Loughery, John (1998) ''The Other Side of Silence—Men's Lives and Gay Identities: A Twentieth-Century History''.", "New York, Henry Holt and Company ." ], [ "External links", "* The Fales Library Guide to the James Beard Papers* James Beard Foundation* James Beard Foundation Awards* James Beard — Food Expert/Writer from Oregon Encyclopedia* James Beard Audio Recordings* James Beard Quotes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Alan McPherson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Alan McPherson''' (September 16, 1943 – July 27, 2016) was an American essayist and short-story writer.", "He was the first African-American writer to win the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and was included among the first group of artists who received a MacArthur Fellowship.", "At the time of his death, McPherson was a professor emeritus of fiction at the Iowa Writers' Workshop." ], [ "Life and work", "===Early life and education===McPherson was born in Savannah, Georgia, on September 16, 1943, the second of four children.", "His father was a master electrician (the first African-American so recognized in Georgia), and his mother (born Mabel Small) was a maid.", "While McPherson was growing up, his father struggled with alcohol and spent time in jail.", "In the essay \"Going Up To Atlanta,\" McPherson describes the many odd jobs he took on during this time to help support his mother, brother, and sisters.", "But it was his discovery of the \"colored branch\" of the public library that changed his life.", "When he started reading books, McPherson learned that words, even without pictures, \"gave up their secret meanings, spoke of other worlds, made me know that pain was a part of other people's lives.", "\"He attended Morgan State University from 1963 to 1964 before receiving his undergraduate degree in history and English from Morris Brown College in 1965.In 1968, McPherson received a LL.B.", "from Harvard Law School, where he partially financed his studies by working as a janitor.While at Harvard, McPherson studied fiction writing with Alan Lebowitz in 1967 and worked on his stories when he found some spare time.", "It was the publication of his short story \"Gold Coast\" in ''The Atlantic Monthly'', following an \"open reading\" competition they had sponsored, that first brought him public recognition.", "During this period, McPherson established a close working relationship with Edward Weeks, an editor at ''The Atlantic Monthly,'' which led to McPherson becoming a contributing editor at that magazine in 1969.His fiction would go on to appear in numerous journals and magazines throughout the following decade.", "Many of his stories were anthologized, beginning with \"Gold Coast\" when it appeared in ''The Best American Stories'' in 1969.His first collection of short stories, ''Hue and Cry'', was published by Atlantic Monthly Press that year.In 1971, he received an M.F.A.", "in fiction from the Iowa Writers' Workshop, where he studied briefly with the short-story writer and novelist Richard Yates.", "While studying creative writing, McPherson decided not to practice law; however, he would continue to utilize his legal training in various projects.", "In a 1972 ''Atlantic Monthly'' essay, he exposed exploitative business practices against black homeowners, presaging the later work of Ta-Nehisi Coates.During this period in his life, he gained the attention of Ralph Ellison (1913–1994), who became both a friend and mentor to the young McPherson.", "In December 1970, McPherson interviewed Ellison for an ''Atlantic Monthly'' cover story and collaborated with him on the essay \"Invisible Man.\"", "This relationship with Ellison would have a lasting influence on his own life and work, as McPherson acknowledges in his essay \"Gravitas,\" which he published in 1999 as both a tribute to the (then) recently deceased writer, and to observe the posthumous publication of Ellison's novel ''Juneteenth'' that same year.", "McPherson also initiated a friendship with Albert Murray shortly after the publication of Murray's ''The Omni-Americans: Black Experience & American Culture'' (1970).===Career===McPherson taught English and creative writing at the University of California, Santa Cruz (assistant professor; 1969–1971), the Harvard University summer school (1972), Morgan State University (assistant professor; 1975–1976) and the University of Virginia (associate professor; 1976–1981) before joining the Iowa Writers' Workshop in 1981, with whom he was associated for the remainder of his life.", "He served as acting director of the program for two years following the death of Frank Conroy in 2005.Following the publication of ''Elbow Room'' (his final collection of fiction) in 1977, McPherson primarily focused on his teaching career, with the ''Chicago Tribune'' characterizing him as being \"only slightly more gregarious than J.D.", "Salinger.", "\"He was also a visiting scholar at Yale Law School (1978–1979) and a fellow at Stanford University's Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (1997–1998; 2002–2003).", "Significantly, McPherson lectured in Japan (at Meiji University and Chiba University), a country whose society and culture profoundly affected him.", "It was in Japan, he once wrote, where he went to lay down \"the burden carried by all black Americans, especially the males.", "\"''Crabcakes: A Memoir'', his first original work since ''Elbow Room'', was published in 1998.His final book (''A Region Not Home: Reflections on Exile'', an essay collection) was published in 2000." ], [ "Recognition", "In 1972, McPherson was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship.", "He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1978 for his short story collection ''Elbow Room'', becoming the first black writer to receive the program's Fiction Prize.He was the recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship in 1981, a member of the first group (21 recipients in all) ever selected for one of the MacArthur Foundation's so-called \"genius grants.\"", "In 1995, McPherson was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "In 2000, John Updike selected McPherson's short story \"Gold Coast\" for his collection ''Best American Short Stories of the Century'' (Houghton Mifflin).In October 2011, McPherson was honored as the inaugural recipient of the Paul Engle Award from the Iowa City UNESCO City of Literature.", "According to the citation:In 2020, an Iowa City park was renovated and renamed after McPherson.", "Previously Creekside Park, James Alan McPherson Park serves as a memorial and a gathering space for the community." ], [ "Death", "McPherson died in hospice on July 27, 2016, in Iowa City, Iowa, due to complications of pneumonia.", "He was 72.He is survived by a daughter, Rachel McPherson (a child from his first marriage to the former Sarah Charlton, which had ended in divorce); a son from another relationship, Benjamin Miyamoto; a sister; and a brother." ], [ "Works", "'''Nonfiction'''''Railroad: Trains and Train People in American Culture,'' edited with Miller Williams; (New York: Random House, 1976); ''Confronting Racial Difference,'' edited with DeWitt Henry; Ploughshares Vol.", "16, Nos 2 & 3 (Fall 1990); ''Fathering Daughters: Reflections by Men,'' edited with DeWitt Henry; (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1998); ''Crabcakes: A Memoir'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998); ''A Region Not Home: Reflections on Exile'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000); ''On Becoming an American Writer: Essays & Nonfiction'', selected and introduced by Anthony Walton (Boston, MA: Godine, 2023); '''Fiction'''''Hue and Cry: Stories'' (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1969) ''Elbow Room: Stories'' (New York: Atlantic-Little, Brown, 1977)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia