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\section{\label{sec:Introduction}Introduction}
Quantum sensors based on nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in diamond have emerged as a powerful platform for detecting magnetic fields across a range of length scales~\cite{DEG2017}. At the few-nanometer scale, single NV centers have been used to detect magnetic phenomena in condensed-matter~\cite{CAS2018,ACO2019} and biological~\cite{SCH2014,WU2016} samples. At the scale of a few hundred nanometers, diamond magnetic microscopes have been used to image biomagnetism in various systems, including magnetically-labeled biomolecules~\cite{LOU2019} and cells~\cite{STE2013,GLE2015} and intrinsically-magnetic biocrystals~\cite{FES2019,MCC2019}. At the micrometer scale, diamond magnetometers have detected the magnetic fields produced by neurons~\cite{BAR2016}, integrated circuits~\cite{NOW2015,HOR2018}, and the nuclear magnetic resonance of fluids~\cite{GLE2018,SMI2019}.
Diamond magnetometers with larger active volumes are expected to offer the highest sensitivity~\cite{BAR2019}. However, in order to be competitive with existing technologies, they must overcome several technical drawbacks, including high laser-power requirements and poor sensitivity at low frequencies. The most sensitive diamond magnetometer reported to date featured a projected sensitivity of ${\sim}0.9~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ using $400~{\rm mW}$ of laser power~\cite{WOL2015}. However this magnetometer used a Hahn-echo pulse sequence which limited the bandwidth to a narrow range around 20 kHz. For broadband, low-frequency operation, the highest sensitivity reported to date is ${\sim}15~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ in the $80\mbox{--}2000~{\rm Hz}$ range, using $\gtrsim 3~{\rm W}$ of laser power~\cite{BAR2016}. A diamond magnetometer based on infrared absorption detection realized a sensitivity of ${\sim}30~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ at $10\mbox{--}500~{\rm Hz}$, using $0.5~{\rm W}$ of laser power~\cite{CHA2017}.
\begin{figure*}[htpb]
\includegraphics[width=0.93\textwidth]{Fig1_fluxguide_modeling.pdf}\hfill
\caption{\textbf{Simulations of magnetic flux concentrators.} (a) Model geometry. Two identical solid cones, configured in a bowtie geometry, are placed in an external magnetic field, $\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}$. (b) Simulated x-z plane cut of the relative magnetic field amplitude, $|\boldsymbol{B}(\boldsymbol{r})|/|\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}|$, for cones with relative permeability $\mu_r=6500$ and a tip gap of $\delta=43~{\rm \upmu m}$, upon application of $\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}$ at $\theta=0$. Arrows indicate the direction and magnitude of $\boldsymbol{B}(\boldsymbol{r})$. The point at the geometric center is labeled $\boldsymbol{r_0}$. (c) Vector components of the relative magnetic field amplitude at $\boldsymbol{r_0}$ as a function of $\theta$, for cones with $\mu_r=6500$ and $\delta=43~{\rm \upmu m}$. The relative axial magnetic field amplitude is fit to the function $B_z(\boldsymbol{r_0})/|\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}|=\epsilon \cos{\theta}$, where in this case $\epsilon=280$.
(d) Enhancement factor as a function of $\delta$ for cones with $\mu_r=6500$. (e) Enhancement factor as a function of $\mu_r$ for $\delta=43~{\rm \upmu m}$.
}
\label{fig:sim}
\end{figure*}
To understand the interplay between sensitivity and laser power, we consider a diamond magnetometer based on continuous-wave, fluorescence-detected magnetic resonance (FDMR) spectroscopy. Here, the sensitivity is fundamentally limited by photoelectron shot noise as:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:psn}\eta_{\rm psn}\approx\frac{\Gamma}{\gamma_{nv}C\sqrt{\xi P_{\rm opt}/E_{ph}}},
\end{equation}
where $\gamma_{nv}=28~{\rm GHz/T}$ is the NV gyromagnetic ratio, $\Gamma$ is the FDMR full-width-at-half-maximum linewidth, and $C$ is the FDMR amplitude's fractional contrast. The factor $\xi P_{\rm opt}/E_{ph}$ constitutes the photoelectron detection rate, where $P_{\rm opt}$ is the optical excitation power, $\xi$ is the fraction of excitation photons converted to fluorescence photoelectrons, and $E_{ph}=3.7\times10^{-19}~{\rm J}$ is the excitation photon energy ($532~{\rm nm}$). To set an optimistic bound on $\eta_{\rm psn}$, we insert the best reported values ($\xi=0.08$~\cite{WOL2015}, $\Gamma/C=1~{\rm MHz}/0.04$~\cite{BAR2016}) into Eq.~\eqref{eq:psn} to obtain $\eta_{\rm psn}\approx2~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}\,W^{1/2}}$. Even in this ideal case (\ref{sec:SIshot}), ${\sim}4~{\rm W}$ of optical power is needed to realize a sensitivity of $1~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$, and further improvements become impractical.
The need for such a high laser power presents challenges for thermal management and has implications for the overall sensor size, weight and cost. Applications which call for sub-picotesla sensitivity, such as magnetoencephalography (MEG)~\cite{BOT2016} and long-range magnetic anomaly detection~\cite{LEN2006,FRO2018}, may require alternative approaches to improve sensitivity. Avenues currently being pursued often focus on reducing the ratio $\Gamma/C$~\cite{BAR2019}. Approaches to reduce $\Gamma$ include lowering $^{13}$C spin density and mitigating strain and electric-field inhomogeneity~\cite{FAN2013,BAU2018}, increasing the nitrogen-to-NV$^-$ conversion yield~\cite{ACO2009,CHA2019,EIC2019}, and designing techniques to decouple NV centers from paramagnetic spins~\cite{DEL2012,BAU2018}. Methods to increase $C$ include using preferentially-aligned NV centers~\cite{OZA2019,OST2019}, detecting infrared absorption~\cite{JEN2014,CHA2017}, and detecting signatures of photo-ionization~\cite{SHI2015,BOU2015,HOP2016}.
In this Manuscript, we report a complementary approach to improve the sensitivity of diamond magnetometers. Our approach uses microstructured magnetic flux concentrators to amplify the external magnetic field amplitude by a factor of ${\sim}250$ within the diamond sensor. Using a dual-resonance magnetometry technique to suppress the effect of thermal shifts of the NV spin levels, we realize a sensitivity of ${\sim}0.9~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ in the $10\mbox{--}1000~{\rm Hz}$ range, using a laser power of $200~{\rm mW}$. We show that, with further improvements, a magnetic noise floor of ${\sim}0.02~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ at $1000~{\rm Hz}$ is possible before ferrite thermal magnetization noise limits the sensitivity.
\section{\label{sec:exp}Experimental design}
Magnetic flux concentrators have previously been used to improve the sensitivity of magnetometers based on the Hall effect~\cite{LER2006}, magnetoresistance~\cite{CAR1998}, magnetic tunnel junctions~\cite{CHA2008}, superconducting quantum interference devices~\cite{BON2002}, and alkali spin precession~\cite{GRI2009}. Typically, the magnetometer is positioned in the gap between a pair of ferromagnetic structures which collect magnetic flux from a larger area and concentrate it into the gap. The fractional increase in magnetic field amplitude due to the flux concentrators, $\epsilon$, is a function of their geometry, gap width, and relative permeability ($\mu_r$). Ideally, the concentrators are formed from a soft magnetic material with low remanence, high $\mu_r$, low relative loss factor~\cite{GRI2009}, and constant susceptibility over a broad range of magnetic field amplitudes and frequencies. The improvement in sensitivity is generally accompanied by a reduction in spatial resolution, as the total magnetometer size is larger (\ref{sec:SIsim}). Diamond sensors usually have sub-mm dimensions, whereas the flux concentrators used here have dimensions of ${\sim}10~{\rm mm}$. Thus our device is best suited for applications that require a spatial resolution ${\gtrsim}10~{\rm mm}$, such as MEG and magnetic anomaly detection.
\begin{figure*}[ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.92\textwidth]{Fig2_experimental_setup_and_enhancement.pdf}\hfill
\caption{ \textbf{Experimental setup and enhancement measurement.} (a) Schematic of the experimental setup. Inset: photograph of the diamond membrane in the gap between ferrite cones. (b) Fluorescence-detected magnetic resonance (FDMR) spectrum obtained at $B_{\rm ext}=2.62~{\rm \upmu T}$. Two peaks are present, with central frequencies $f_{\pm}$ extracted from Lorentzian fits. (c) Measured FDMR frequencies as a function of $B_{\rm ext}$. Error bars are smaller than the plot markers. The gray solid lines are a fit using the NV spin Hamiltonian (\ref{sec:SIham}), assuming $B_{\rm gap}=\epsilon B_{\rm ext}$, with $\epsilon=254$.}
\label{fig:setup}
\end{figure*}
The optimal flux concentrator geometry depends on a number of factors, which include the sensor dimensions and target application. Here, we consider a pair of identical cones (height: $10~{\rm mm}$, base diameter: $10~{\rm mm}$), with ${\sim}370\mbox{--}{\rm \upmu m}$ diameter flat tips, arranged in a bowtie configuration, Fig.~\ref{fig:sim}(a). A static magnetic field, $\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}$, is applied at an angle $\theta$ from the cone symmetry axis ($\boldsymbol{\hat{z}}$) and the resulting magnetic field, $\boldsymbol{B(r)}$, is simulated using finite-element magnetostatic methods. Figure~\ref{fig:sim}(b) shows a plane-cut of the relative magnetic field amplitude, $|\boldsymbol{B}(\boldsymbol{r})|/|\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}|$, for cones with $\mu_r=6500$ and a tip gap of $\delta=43~{\rm \upmu m}$, upon application of $\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}$ at $\theta=0$. Throughout the gap (\ref{sec:SIsim}), $\boldsymbol{B}(\boldsymbol{r})$ is aligned along $\boldsymbol{\hat{z}}$ with a uniform relative magnetic field $|\boldsymbol{B}(\boldsymbol{r})|/|\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}|\approx280$.
Figure~\ref{fig:sim}(c) shows the vector components of the relative magnetic field at the center of the bowtie geometry ($\boldsymbol{r}=\boldsymbol{r_0}$) as a function of $\theta$. The relative axial magnetic field is well described by $B_z(\boldsymbol{r_0})/|\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}|\approx\epsilon \cos{\theta}$, where $\epsilon$ is the enhancement factor (in this simulation $\epsilon=280$). On the other hand, the relative transverse magnetic field,
$B_x(\boldsymbol{r_0})/|\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}|$, is less than 0.1 for all values of $\theta$. Thus, the structure acts as a filter for the axial component of external magnetic fields, producing a uniform field throughout the gap of:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:enhancement}
\boldsymbol{B_{\rm gap}}\approx\epsilon\, |\boldsymbol{B_{\rm ext}}|\cos{\theta}\,\boldsymbol{\hat{z}}.
\end{equation}
For the remainder of the manuscript, we consider only external magnetic fields applied along $\boldsymbol{\hat{z}}$ ($\theta=0$) and describe $\boldsymbol{B_{\rm gap}}$ according to Eq.~\eqref{eq:enhancement}.
\begin{figure*}[t]
\includegraphics[width=0.95\columnwidth]{Fig3_Dual_resonance_concept.pdf}
\caption{\textbf{Dual-resonance magnetometry concept.} (a) Microwave frequency modulation used for dual-resonance magnetometry. (b) Schematic of the lock-in technique. Both microwave signals depicted in (a) are combined and delivered through the microwave loop. NV fluorescence is continuously excited and its time-varying intensity is recorded by the balanced photodetector. This signal is then fed to a lock-in amplifier and demodulated by the reference signal. (c) Lock-in signal as a function of $B_{\rm ext}$ for both single-resonance and dual-resonance modulation protocols. The microwave frequencies were centered about the $f_{\pm}$ values measured by FDMR spectroscopy at $B_{\rm ext}=1.73~{\rm \upmu T}$. In all cases, $f_{\rm mod}=15~{\rm kHz}$ and the lock-in uses a 12 dB/octave low-pass filter with a $100~{\rm \upmu s}$ time constant. For the $f_-$ scan, the lock-in reference signal had a $\pi$ phase shift relative to the modulation function. The right vertical axis converts the lock-in signal to the amplitude of photocurrent oscillations at $f_{\rm mod}$, which is used to estimate the photoelectron-shot-noise-limited sensitivity, \ref{sec:SIshot}. }
\label{fig:lock}
\end{figure*}
Fig.~\ref{fig:sim}(d) shows simulation results of the enhancement factor as a function of gap length for cones with $\mu_r=6500$. For $\delta$ in the $20\mbox{--}100~{\rm \upmu m}$ range, $\epsilon$ varies from 560 to 120, indicating that large enhancement factors are possible for typical diamond membrane thicknesses. Figure ~\ref{fig:sim}(e) is a plot of the simulated $\epsilon$ as a function of $\mu_r$ for $\delta=43~{\rm \upmu m}$. For $\mu_r\gtrsim500$ the enhancement factor is relatively constant at $\epsilon\approx280$. This indicates that a wide range of magnetic materials can be used for flux concentration and minor variations in $\mu_r$ (due, for example, to temperature variation) have a negligible impact on $\boldsymbol{B_{\rm gap}}$.
We elected to use MN60 ferrite ($\mu_r\approx6500$) as the experimental concentrator material, owing to its low thermal magnetic noise~\cite{GRI2009,KIM2016}. The ferrite cones were micro-machined to have approximately the same dimensions as simulated in Fig.~\ref{fig:sim}. Figure~\ref{fig:setup}(a) depicts the experimental setup. An NV-doped diamond membrane with [100] faces is positioned in the gap between the ferrite cones. The membrane was formed from a commercially-available, type Ib diamond grown by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) synthesis. The diamond had been irradiated with $2\mbox{--}{\rm MeV}$ electrons at a dose of ${\sim}10^{19}~{\rm cm^{-2}}$. It was subsequently annealed in a vacuum furnace at $800\mbox{--}1100\degree~{\rm C}$~\cite{FES2019} and mechanically polished and cut into a membrane of dimensions ${\sim}300\times300\times43~{\rm \upmu m}^3$.
Approximately $200~{\rm mW}$ of light from a $532~{\rm nm}$ laser is focused by a 0.79 NA lens to a ${\sim}40~{\rm \upmu m}$ diameter beam that traverses the diamond membrane parallel to its faces. The same lens is used to collect NV fluorescence, which is then refocused onto one of the channels of a balanced photodetector, producing ${\sim}1.2~{\rm mA}$ of photocurrent. A small portion of laser light is picked off from the excitation path and directed to the other photodetector channel for balanced detection. Microwaves are delivered by a two-turn copper loop wound around one of the ferrite cones. The ferrite cones provide a $\gtrsim2$-fold enhancement in the microwave magnetic field amplitude within the diamond (\ref{sec:SIrabi}). All measurements were performed using ${\lesssim20}~{\rm mW}$ of microwave power.
The ferrite-diamond assembly is positioned at the center of a pair of Helmholtz coils (radius: $38~{\rm mm}$), which produce a homogenous magnetic field parallel to the cone axis of amplitude $B_{\rm ext}$. The coils' current response was calibrated using three different magnetometers (\ref{sec:SIcalib}). A 1.5-mm-thick cylindrical mu-metal shield (diameter: $150~{\rm mm}$, height: $150~{\rm mm}$) surrounds the Helmholtz coils, providing a shielding factor of $\sim100$.
To measure the enhancement factor, we recorded the NV FDMR spectrum as a function of $B_{\rm ext}$. Figure~\ref{fig:setup}(b) shows a typical FDMR spectrum acquired at $B_{\rm ext}=2.62~{\rm \upmu T}$. Two peaks are present, with central frequencies $f_{\pm}$. These frequencies correspond to NV electron-spin transitions between the $m_s=0$ and $m_s=\pm1$ magnetic sublevels (\ref{sec:SIham}). For magnetic field amplitudes within the diamond in the range $0.5~{\rm mT}\lesssim \epsilon B_{\rm ext}\lesssim5~{\rm mT}$, the transition frequencies may be approximated as:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:freqs}
f_{\pm}\approx D(\Delta T)\pm \gamma_{nv}\, \epsilon B_{\rm ext}/\sqrt{3},
\end{equation}
where, in our experiments (\ref{sec:SIexpopt}), $D(\Delta T)\approx2862~{\rm MHz}+\chi \Delta T$ is the axial zero-field splitting parameter which shifts with changes in temperature, $\Delta T$, as $\chi\approx-0.1~{\rm MHz/K}$~\cite{TOY2012}. The $1/\sqrt{3}$ factor in Eq.~\eqref{eq:freqs} comes from projecting $\boldsymbol{B_{\rm gap}}$ onto the four NV axes which are all aligned at $55\degree$ with respect to the cone axis.
Figure~\ref{fig:setup}(c) plots the fitted $f_{\pm}$ values as a function of $B_{\rm ext}$. These data were obtained by scanning $B_{\rm ext}$ back and forth between $\pm50~{\rm \upmu T}$ two times. For a given $B_{\rm ext}$, the extracted $f_{\pm}$ are nearly identical regardless of scan history, indicating negligible hysteresis (\ref{sec:SIhysteresis}). The data were fit according to the NV spin Hamiltonian (\ref{sec:SIham}), which reveals an experimental enhancement factor of $\epsilon=254\pm19$. The uncertainty in $\epsilon$ is primarily due to uncertainty in the $B_{\rm ext}$ current calibration (\ref{sec:SIcalib}). The experimental enhancement factor is ${\sim}10\%$ smaller than the one simulated in Fig.~\ref{fig:sim}(b). This could be explained by a ${\sim}4~{\rm \upmu m}$ increase in $\delta$ due to adhesive between the diamond and ferrite tips (\ref{sec:SIexpcones}).
\begin{figure*}[ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{Fig4_Dual_Resonance_performance.pdf}\hfill
\caption{\textbf{Sub-picotesla diamond magnetometry.} (a) Time-domain lock-in signals for single-resonance ($f_-$) and dual-resonance modulation. Throughout, $f_{\rm mod}=15~{\rm kHz}$ and the lock-in uses a 12 dB/octave low-pass filter with a $100~{\rm \upmu s}$ time constant. The adjacent plot is a zoom of the dual-resonance signal where the $580~{\rm pTrms}$ test field at $135~{\rm Hz}$ can be seen. The test-field frequency for $f_+$ and $f_-$ single-resonance experiments were 125 and 130 Hz, respectively, with the same $580~{\rm pTrms}$ amplitude. (b) Magnetic noise spectra of single-resonance (two shades of gray) and dual-resonance (blue) signals. A reference spectrum obtained with microwaves turned off (green) shows noise from the un-modulated photodetector signal. Each spectrum was obtained by dividing a $100\mbox{--}{\rm s}$ data set into one hundred $1\mbox{--}{\rm s}$ segments, taking the absolute value of the Fourier Transform of each segment, and then averaging the Fourier Transforms together. Spectra were normalized such that the test field amplitudes matched the calibrated $580~{\rm pTrms}$ values (\ref{sec:SItest}). The dashed red line is the projected value of $\eta_{\rm psn}$ for dual-resonance magnetometry (\ref{sec:SIshot}). The dashed magenta line is the calculated thermal magnetization noise produced by the ferrite cones (\ref{sec:SInoise}). (c) Frequency dependence of the test field amplitude measured by dual-resonance magnetometry.}
\label{fig:results}
\end{figure*}
Having established that the ferrite cones provide a ${\sim}250$-fold field enhancement, we now turn to methods of using the device for sensitive magnetometry. A common approach in diamond magnetometry~\cite{SCH2011,SHI2012} is to modulate the microwave frequency about one of the FDMR resonances and demodulate the resulting fluorescence signal using a lock-in amplifier (\ref{sec:SIlockin}). We call this method ``single-resonance'' magnetometry, as each resonance frequency is measured independently. For example, to measure $f_+$, the microwave frequency is varied as $\mathcal{F}(t)\approx f_+ + f_d\cos{(2\pi f_{\rm mod} t)}$, where $f_d$ is the modulation depth and $f_{\rm mod}$ is the modulation frequency. The lock-in amplifier demodulates the photodetector signal using a reference signal proportional to $\cos{(2\pi f_{\rm mod} t)}$. The resulting lock-in output is proportional to variations in $f_+$.
However, a single FDMR resonance can shift due to changes in \textit{temperature} in addition to magnetic field, see Eq.~\eqref{eq:freqs}. To isolate the shifts due only to changes in magnetic field, the difference frequency $(f_+-f_-)$ must be determined. Previous works accomplished this by measuring both resonances either sequentially~\cite{CLE2015} or simultaneously by multiplexing modulation frequencies~\cite{SCH2018,CLE2018}. The magnetic field was then inferred by measuring $f_+$ and $f_-$ independently and calculating the difference.
Here, we use an alternative ``dual-resonance'' approach, which extracts the magnetic field amplitude directly from a single lock-in measurement (\ref{sec:SIlockin}). Two microwave signal frequencies, centered about $f_{\pm}$, are modulated to provide time-varying frequencies, $\mathcal{F}_{\pm}(t)\approx f_{\pm}\pm\cos{(2\pi f_{\rm mod} t)}$. In other words, each tone is modulated with the same modulation frequency and depth, but with a relative $\pi$ phase shift, Fig.~\ref{fig:lock}(a). The photodetector signal is then demodulated by the lock-in amplifier using a reference signal proportional to $\cos{(2\pi f_{\rm mod} t)}$, Fig.~\ref{fig:lock}(b). In this way, the lock-in output is proportional to $(f_+-f_-)$ and is unaffected by thermal shifts of $D(\Delta T)$. Furthermore, the dual-resonance lock-in signal's response to magnetic fields is larger than in the single-resonance case. Figure~\ref{fig:lock}(c) shows the experimental lock-in signal as a function of $B_{\rm ext}$ for dual-resonance modulation and both of the $f_{\pm}$ single-resonance modulation protocols. The slope for dual-resonance modulation is ${\sim}1.3$ times larger than that of single-resonance modulation. This is close to the expected increase of $4/3$ (\ref{sec:SIdual}).
\section{\label{sec:Measurements} Results}
We next show that the combination of flux concentration and dual-resonance modulation enables diamond magnetometry with sub-${\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ sensitivity over a broad frequency range. A $1.73~{\rm \upmu T}$ bias field and $580~{\rm pTrms}$ oscillating test field in the $125\mbox{--}135~{\rm Hz}$ range were applied via the Helmholtz coils. The lock-in signal was continuously recorded for $100~{\rm s}$ using either dual-resonance or single-resonance modulation. Figure~\ref{fig:results}(a) shows the magnetometer signals as a function of time. For single-resonance modulation, the signals undergo low-frequency drifts, likely due to thermal shifts of $D(\Delta T)$. These drifts are largely absent for dual-resonance modulation.
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{Fig5_magnetometer_comparison.pdf}\hfill
\caption{\textbf{Magnetometer comparison.} Magnetic noise spectra of a commercial magnetoresistive magnetometer (Twinleaf VMR), fluxgate magnetometer (SENSYS FGM-100) and our dual-resonance NV-ferrite magnetometer reproduced from Fig.~\ref{fig:results}(b). Each magnetometer was placed in a similar location within the experimental apparatus and subject to the same bias and test field amplitudes. The test field frequency was $130~{\rm Hz}$ for both commercial sensors and $135~{\rm Hz}$ for NV-ferrite. The manufacturer-specified sensitivities are $300~{\rm pT/ \sqrt{Hz}}$ and $10~{\rm pT/\sqrt{Hz}}$ for the VMR and fluxgate, respectively.}
\label{fig:mags}
\end{figure}
Figure~\ref{fig:results}(b) shows the magnetic noise spectrum for the different modulation techniques. In addition to the calibrated test field signals, numerous peaks appear for both single and dual-resonance modulation. We attribute these peaks to ambient magnetic noise that is not sufficiently attenuated by the single-layer mu-metal shield. In regions without peaks, the noise floor for single-resonance magnetometry is ${\sim}1.5~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ for frequencies ${\gtrsim}300~{\rm Hz}$, but it exhibits nearly $1/f$ behavior for lower frequencies. On the other hand, the noise floor for dual-resonance magnetometry is ${\sim}0.9~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ for frequencies ${\gtrsim}100~{\rm Hz}$ and remains at this level, to within a factor of two, for frequencies down to ${\sim}10~{\rm Hz}$. The remaining noise below $10~{\rm Hz}$ may be due to thermal variation in the gap length, $\delta$ (\ref{sec:SIgap}). For reference, a spectrum obtained with the microwaves turned off is also shown. It features a constant noise floor of ${\sim}0.8~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ throughout the $1\mbox{--}1000~{\rm Hz}$ frequency range. This level is consistent with the projected photoelectron shot-noise limit, $\eta_{\rm psn}=0.72~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$, which was calculated based on the average photocurrent and lock-in slope (\ref{sec:SIshot}).
The frequency response of the magnetometer was determined by recording magnetic spectra at different test-field frequencies, while holding the amplitude of the driving current constant. Figure~\ref{fig:results}(c) plots the test-field amplitude, recorded by dual-resonance diamond magnetometry, as a function of frequency. The amplitude decays by less than a factor of two over the $1\mbox{--}1000~{\rm Hz}$ range. The observed decay is due to a combination of the lock-in amplifier's low-pass filter and a frequency-dependent magnetic field attenuation due to metal components within the Helmholtz coils (\ref{sec:SItest}).
Finally, we compared the performance of our magnetometer with two commercial vector sensors: a magnetoresistive magnetometer and a fluxgate magnetometer. Figure~\ref{fig:mags} shows the magnetic noise spectra obtained under comparable experimental conditions. Evidently, the NV-ferrite magnetometer outperforms the commercial magnetometers throughout the frequency range.
\section{\label{sec:Discussions}Discussion and conclusion}
The demonstration of broadband, sub-picotesla diamond magnetometry is a significant step towards applications in precision navigation, geoscience, and medical imaging. Since only $200~{\rm mW}$ of laser power and $20~{\rm mW}$ of microwave power were used, the device holds promise for future miniaturization and parallelization efforts. Moreover, our magnetometer operates at microtesla ambient fields, which raises the intriguing possibility of operating in Earth's magnetic field without an additional bias field.
Our implementation used a commercially-available, type Ib HPHT diamond processed using standard electron-irradiation and annealing treatments~\cite{ACO2009}. This material exhibits relatively broad FDMR resonances ($\Gamma\approx9~{\rm MHz}$), which leads to a photoelectron-shot-noise-limited sensitivity of $\eta_{\rm psn}=0.72~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ even after the ${\sim}250$-fold flux-concentrator field enhancement. State-of-the-art synthetic diamonds have recently been fabricated that feature several orders of magnitude narrower resonances~\cite{BAU2018,ZHE2019}. The excitation photon-to-photoelectron conversion efficiency in our experiments ($\xi\approx10^{-2}$) could also be improved by at least an order of magnitude with optimized collection optics~\cite{WOL2015}. With these additions, $\eta_{\rm psn}$ could be further improved by several orders of magnitude, Eq.~\eqref{eq:psn}. However, at this level, thermal magnetization noise intrinsic to the flux concentrators becomes relevant.
Thermal magnetic noise originating from dissipative materials can be estimated using fluctuation-dissipation methods~\cite{GRI2009,LEE2008}. The noise has contributions due to thermal eddy currents and magnetic domain fluctuations. As discussed in~\ref{sec:SInoise}, we find that thermal eddy currents in the ferrite cones produce an effective white magnetic noise of ${\sim}7\times10^{-5}~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$. This negligibly-low noise level is a consequence of our choice of low-conductivity ferrite. On the other hand, thermal magnetization noise results in a larger, frequency-dependent magnetic noise. At 1 Hz, this noise is $0.5~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$, and it scales with frequency as $f^{-1/2}$, reaching ${\sim}0.02~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ at $1~{\rm kHz}$. This noise, shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:results}(b), is not a limiting factor in our experiments, but it may have implications for future optimization efforts. If a material with a lower relative loss factor could be identified, it would result in lower thermal magnetization noise (\ref{sec:SInoiseM}).
In summary, we have demonstrated a diamond magnetometer with a sensitivity of ${\sim}0.9~{\rm pT\,s^{1/2}}$ over the $10\mbox{--}1000~
{\rm Hz}$ frequency range. The magnetometer operates at ambient temperature and uses $0.2~{\rm W}$ of laser power. These improved sensor properties are enabled by the use of ferrite flux concentrators to amplify magnetic fields within the diamond sensor. Our results may be immediately relevant to applications in precision navigation, geoscience, and medical imaging. More broadly, the use of micro-structured magnetic materials to manipulate magnetic fields offers a new dimension for diamond quantum sensors, with potential applications in magnetic microscopy~\cite{LOU2019,STE2013,GLE2015,FES2019,MCC2019,BAR2016,NOW2015,HOR2018} and tests of fundamental physics~\cite{CHU2016}.
\begin{acknowledgments}
The authors acknowledge advice and support from A. Laraoui, Z. Sun, D. Budker, P. Schwindt, A. Mounce, M. S. Ziabari, B. Richards, Y. Silani, F. Hubert, and M. D. Aiello. This work was funded by NIH grants 1R01EB025703-01 and 1R21EB027405-01, NSF grant DMR1809800, and a Beckman Young Investigator award.
\textbf{Competing interests}
I. Fescenko, A. Jarmola, and V. M. Acosta are co-inventors on a pending patent application. A. Jarmola is a co-founder of ODMR Technologies and has financial interests in the firm. The remaining authors declare no competing financial interests.
\textbf{Author contributions}
V. M. Acosta and I. Savukov conceived the idea for this study in consultation with I. Fescenko and A. Jarmola. I. Fescenko carried out simulations, performed experiments, and analyzed the data with guidance from V. M. Acosta. P. Kehayias, J. Smits, J. Damron, N. Ristoff, N. Mosavian, and A. Jarmola contributed to experimental design and data analysis. All authors discussed results and helped write the paper.
\end{acknowledgments}
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
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Centerfeed paper dispenser of the Elegance Line, made of ABS, make it a compact centerfeed paper dispenser, robust and with anti-vandalism characteristics. It presents a polyvalent and timeless design that adapts to any space. Ideal for toilets and kitchens with high traffic.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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| 6,834
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Q: How do I use a correlated sub query for a new column in my view? I am trying to write a view that has 3 columns: Planet, Moon, and Largest.
The view is meant to show planets, their moons, and a Yes or No column indicating whether or not it is the largest moon for the planet.
Only one Basetable is used, and the columns I am referencing are moonPlanetOrbit (only not null if bodyType is = to 'Moon'), bodyName (name of the moon), and largest ('yes' or 'no').
Here is my attempt so far:
CREATE VIEW Moons (Planet, Moon, Largest)
select moonPlanetOrbited, bodyName, ('Yes' if bodyName = (SELECT top 1 moonMeanRadius from Body where moonPlanetOrbited = bodyName order by moonMeanRadius) as Largest)
I can provide any more information if needed.
Thanks,
Cody
A: SQL works best with sets of data. My advice is to get the set of largest moons using a SELECT statement and the MAX() function, and then join the result set with the whole table. Then test whether the moon is equal to the largest in order to print 'yes' or 'no'.
Here's an example using MySQL. I created a table Moons containing the columns moonPlanetOrbited, bodyName, moonMeanRadius. The following SQL selects the largest moonMeanRadius for a given moonPlanetOrbited:
SELECT moonPlantedOrbited, MAX(moonMeanRadius) as maxMoonRadius
FROM Moons
GROUP BY moonPlanetOrbitede
Now that we have a list of maxMoonRadius, join the result set with the entire table and test if the moonMeanRadius is equal to the maxMoonRadius:
SELECT m1.moonPlanetOrbited, m2.bodyName,
if(m1.moonMeanRadius = m2.maxMoonRadius, 'Yes', 'No') as Largest
FROM Moons m1
JOIN (
SELECT moonPlanetOrbited, MAX(moonMeanRadius) as maxMoonRadius
FROM Moons
GROUP BY moonPlanetOrbited
) m2
ON m1.moonPlanetOrbited = m2.moonPlanetOrbited;
The IF syntax is from MySQL 5.5:
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/control-flow-functions.html#function_if
Tested using the following SQL :
CREATE TABLE Moons(
moonPlanetOrbited VARCHAR(255),
bodyName VARCHAR(255),
moonMeanRadius FLOAT
);
INSERT INTO Moons('a', 'b', 1.01);
INSERT INTO Moons('a', 'c', 1.02);
INSERT INTO Moons('a', 'd', 1.03);
INSERT INTO Moons('a', 'e', 1.04);
+-------------------+----------+---------+
| moonPlanetOrbited | bodyName | Largest |
+-------------------+----------+---------+
| a | b | No |
| a | c | No |
| a | d | No |
| a | e | Yes |
+-------------------+----------+---------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)
A: Here is my MS-SQL Syntax stab at it:
SELECT
B.moonPlanetOrbited
, B.bodyName
, CASE
WHEN B.bodyName =
(SELECT TOP 1
iB.bodyName
FROM
Body AS iB
WHERE
iB.moonPlanetOrbited = B.bodyName
ORDER BY
iB.moonMeanRadius DESC
)
THEN 'Yes'
ELSE 'No'
END CASE AS [Largest]
FROM
Body AS B
If the table uses IDs as a primary key it may be better to compare the IDs instead of the names.
A: Here is an attempt (untested) that resembles your approach as closely as possible, since your idea wasn't that far off:
Select
M.moonPlanetOrbited,
M.bodyName,
CASE
WHEN M.bodyName =
(SELECT top 1 bodyName from Body
where moonPlanetOrbited = M.moonPlanetOrbited
order by moonMeanRadius DESC)
Then 'Y'
Else 'N'
AS Largest
FROM body
You just needed a table prefix to actually do the correlating to the root table, and also to make sure that you were comparing apples to apples in your CASE statement.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 2,377
|
Robotics firm Systemantics gets next round of funding from Nandan Nilekani
The latest investment in Systemantics will mark at least the seventh venture that has been backed by Nilekani, who has actively invested in early-stage startups.
March 02, 2016, 14:36 IST
BENGALURU: Robotics firm Systemantics, which builds industrial robots for the manufacturing sector, has raised another round of funding from venture capital giant Accel Partners and Infosys cofounder Nandan Nilekani, a few years after it received backing from investors such as Blume Ventures.
Systemantics, which was founded by IIT-Madras alumni Jagannath Raju in 1995, raised the latest round a few months ago. ET could not immediately verify the exact terms of the latest round of investment.
The latest investment in Systemantics will mark at least the seventh venture that has been backed by Nilekani, who has actively invested in early-stage startups that he believes are building disruptive ideas which are "highly impactful".
Over the past 12 months, Nilekani has also backed Team Indus, Fortigo, Mubble, Juggernaut, Lets-Venture and Power2SME. Nilekani has co-invested in a number of these ventures with Accel, including Fortigo and Power2SME. "I do a few, very select investments.
If I feel something is highly impactful, then I like to get involved — for example, look at Team Indus.
An Indian company landing a rover on the moon is something great. Somebody who has a stretch goal like that or somebody who's making an ecosystem or creating scale in some way, I look for those kind of things.
And where there is an original idea. So I'm very selective about my investments," Nilekani had said in an interview with ETlast July.
Anand Daniel, a partner at Accel Partners India, declined to comment. When contacted, Raju confirmed that Accel and Nilekani had recently backed Systemantics.
Over the course of the past two decades, Systemantics, which likes to keep a low profile, has quietly worked on custom robotics projects with the Government, as well as with companies such as Titan and Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL). Systemantics is currently building robotics products for the industrial and manufacturing sectors.
"Systemantics is Make In India truly at work — with India's cost structure advantages and innovative design efficiency at full strength. This core belief drove our decision to back them. Their seasoned management team's executional ability, coupled with deep-tech IP, could eventually challenge global incumbents," said Sanjay Nath, managing partner at Blume Ventures, which had backed Systemantics in 2013.
The investment in Systemantics comes at a time when early-stage investing in India continues toscale new highs, although larger so-called "unicorns" including homegrown poster boys such as Flipkart are struggling to raise larger follow-on rounds, amid fears of a valuation bubble.
Systemantics
Nandan Nilekani
|
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 8,892
|
Morocco: Tangier Experiences Massive Flooding
Written byJillian C. York
Posted 26 October 2008 16:52 GMT
Read this post in Français, Português, Español, Italiano, Malagasy
For the past few years, Morocco has been experiencing a significant drought. Unfortunately, recent rain storms have brought little relief, as Northern Morocco experiences massive flooding, claiming the lives of at least 13 people.
The View From Fez recently reported on the floods:
Thirteen people have been killed in northern Morocco after their homes collapsed in flash flooding caused by torrential rains.
The interior ministry said 11 were swept away by the floods in Driouch, Nador province, and two in Tangiers.
Around 20 homes have collapsed as a result of the floods and many remain submerged.
A Moro in America posts videos from students at a Tangier high school, commenting:
The northern city's industrial district and other neighborhood were literally submerged by water during Thursday and Friday. Several deaths have been reported, especially amongst women and children. About a week ago, King M6 had ordered his ministers and governors to stay close to the affected cities and to be physically present at affected areas. So far, none of them have been spotted.
In the following video, students of Abdelkrim Lkhettabi High School can be seen struggling to leave to their homes with water up to their necks.
The Gulf nation of Qatar, which also recently sent flood aid to Yemen, has also supported Morocco, reports The View from Fez
In response to the Emiri directives issued by the Emir, H H Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, Qatar decided to send emergency aid to the Kingdom of Morocco and the Republic of Yemen, an official source at the Foreign Ministry told The View from Fez These Emiri directives express Qatar's solidarity with Yemen and Morocco in order to help them face effects of the flood that recently hit the Hadramout Province in Yemen and Oujda city in Morocco.
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Martha Brummett
Does "industrial district" mean that area on the Med coast on the road to Tetouan? East of new port but west of Jebel Musa?
26 October 2008, 19:01 pm
I dont think so. I think they mean the industrial district in the south of the city, where the highway towards Rabat starts. (With the Scania dealer and stuff)
27 October 2008, 9:43 am
Obviously this help and this money will disappear before getting to the the people and the places affected. Some minister, responsible and police who are corrupt will share the help.
27 October 2008, 11:26 am
tingismon
The industrial district is on the east side of Tangier near Plaza de Toro. They buried the Portuguese River and built a new canal, but they obviously screwed up.
Also the Oued el Ehud flooded in Dradeb since they basically built right over it. Dumb.
Always dangerous to mess with a river mouth–New Orleans being the most drastic and poignant example recently.
Join the conversation -> Martha Brummett
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 6,887
|
Daniel George Niculae (; born 6 October 1982) is a former Romanian professional footballer who played mainly as a striker. Currently he is the president of Liga I club
Rapid București.
He has made 39 appearances for Romania since his debut in 2003.
Club career
Rapid București
Daniel "Nico" Niculae started his professional career at Rapid București in 2000. Despite a period playing for the B team in 2001, Nico proved he is one of the most gifted players of the club, and helped his club to win the championship in the 2002–03 season – his first as a first-team regular.
Niculae was Rapid's leading scorer in the 2004–05 season, with 14 goals – the third highest total in Romania's Liga 1.
In the 2005–06 UEFA Cup campaign, he and Mugurel Buga formed one of the most powerful striker pairs of the competition, with Niculae scoring 8 goals, as Rapid reached the Quarter-Finals of the competition. The season also saw Rapid claim the 2006 Romanian Cup, with Niculae scoring the winning goal in the first minute of extra-time, against Național București.
Auxerre
Niculae was transferred to French club AJ Auxerre in the summer of 2006, for €3.3 million. His first season with the club saw him score 4 goals in the UEFA Cup, but he struggled for goals in Ligue 1. However, the following season his form improved, as he scored 11 goals to help keep the club in Ligue 1.
The 2008–09 season was one to forget for Niculae. He was deeply affected by the loss of his father, and despite threatening to score on several occasions, he failed to find the net in 32 games.
Things got back on track in 2009–10 however. Jean Fernandez initially wanted to loan out Niculae for the season, but the latest signing Alexandre Licata was ruled out for most of the season with a serious ankle injury. Daniel Niculae found a new role in the Auxerre side, as a creator of goals rather than a scorer of them. As of April 2010, he lies third in the table for assists in Ligue 1 with a total of 8. He has a brilliant entente with Polish goalscorer Ireneusz Jeleń and has helped the Burgundian side to reach second in the table and to thus push for the Champions League places.
Monaco
After the expiration of his contract with AJ Auxerre on 15 June 2010, Niculae signed a three-year-deal with Ligue 1 rivals AS Monaco.
On 31 August 2011, Niculae signed for French side AS Nancy on a season-long loan. In a game against his former club, AJ Auxerre, on 30 January 2012, Nicuale scored a double giving his team the win. Although, before the game started, Auxerre's supporters booed him, at the end he got a standing ovation for his impressive performance.
Kuban Krasnodar
On 6 June 2012, he joined the Russian club Kuban Krasnodar, on a two-year contract. Here he will be coached by Yuri Krasnozhan.
International career
Niculae won his first international cap for Romania in 2003, but did not become a regular squad member until the 2005–06 season.
He was selected for Romania's Euro 2008 squad, and started his country's first two matches. He came on as a substitute for their final group game against the Netherlands, but could not help Romania to a win, which would have taken the country into the Quarter-Finals.
Other than the fact that they share birthplace, he has no connection with namesake and fellow international Marius Niculae.
Career statistics
Scores and results list Romania's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Niculae goal.
Honours
Rapid București
Divizia A: 2002–03
Cupa României: 2001–02, 2005–06
Supercupa României: 2002, 2003
Liga IV – Bucharest: 2017–18
Auxerre
UEFA Intertoto Cup: 2006
Astra Giurgiu
Liga I: 2015–16
Cupa României runner-up: 2016–17
Supercupa României: 2016
References
External links
1982 births
Living people
Romania under-21 international footballers
Romania international footballers
Footballers from Bucharest
Romanian footballers
Association football forwards
FC Rapid București players
AJ Auxerre players
AS Monaco FC players
AS Nancy Lorraine players
FC Kuban Krasnodar players
FC Astra Giurgiu players
Liga I players
Liga II players
Ligue 1 players
Russian Premier League players
Romanian expatriate footballers
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in France
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Expatriate footballers in France
Expatriate footballers in Monaco
Expatriate footballers in Russia
UEFA Euro 2008 players
FC Rapid București presidents
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaWikipedia"
}
| 6,922
|
namespace client {
// Represents the native parent window for an off-screen browser. This object
// must live on the CEF UI thread in order to handle CefRenderHandler callbacks.
// The methods of this class are thread-safe unless otherwise indicated.
class OsrWindowWin :
public base::RefCountedThreadSafe<OsrWindowWin, CefDeleteOnUIThread>,
public ClientHandlerOsr::OsrDelegate
#if defined(CEF_USE_ATL)
, public OsrDragEvents
#endif
{
public:
// This interface is implemented by the owner of the OsrWindowWin. The
// methods of this class will be called on the main thread.
class Delegate {
public:
// Called after the native window has been created.
virtual void OnOsrNativeWindowCreated(HWND hwnd) = 0;
protected:
virtual ~Delegate() {}
};
// |delegate| must outlive this object.
OsrWindowWin(Delegate* delegate,
const OsrRenderer::Settings& settings);
// Create a new browser and native window.
void CreateBrowser(HWND parent_hwnd,
const RECT& rect,
CefRefPtr<CefClient> handler,
const CefBrowserSettings& settings,
CefRefPtr<CefRequestContext> request_context,
const std::string& startup_url);
// Show the popup window with correct parent and bounds in parent coordinates.
void ShowPopup(HWND parent_hwnd, int x, int y, size_t width, size_t height);
void Show();
void Hide();
void SetBounds(int x, int y, size_t width, size_t height);
void SetFocus();
private:
// Only allow deletion via scoped_refptr.
friend struct CefDeleteOnThread<TID_UI>;
friend class base::RefCountedThreadSafe<OsrWindowWin, CefDeleteOnUIThread>;
~OsrWindowWin();
// Manage native window lifespan.
void Create(HWND parent_hwnd, const RECT& rect);
void Destroy();
// Manage GL context lifespan.
void EnableGL();
void DisableGL();
// Redraw what is currently in the texture.
void Invalidate();
void Render();
void NotifyNativeWindowCreated(HWND hwnd);
static void RegisterOsrClass(HINSTANCE hInstance,
HBRUSH background_brush);
static LRESULT CALLBACK OsrWndProc(HWND hWnd, UINT message, WPARAM wParam,
LPARAM lParam);
// WndProc message handlers.
void OnMouseEvent(UINT message, WPARAM wParam, LPARAM lParam);
void OnSize();
void OnFocus(bool setFocus);
void OnCaptureLost();
void OnKeyEvent(UINT message, WPARAM wParam, LPARAM lParam);
void OnPaint();
bool OnEraseBkgnd();
// Manage popup bounds.
bool IsOverPopupWidget(int x, int y) const;
int GetPopupXOffset() const;
int GetPopupYOffset() const;
void ApplyPopupOffset(int& x, int& y) const;
// ClientHandlerOsr::OsrDelegate methods.
void OnAfterCreated(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser) OVERRIDE;
void OnBeforeClose(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser) OVERRIDE;
bool GetRootScreenRect(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
CefRect& rect) OVERRIDE;
bool GetViewRect(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
CefRect& rect) OVERRIDE;
bool GetScreenPoint(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
int viewX,
int viewY,
int& screenX,
int& screenY) OVERRIDE;
bool GetScreenInfo(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
CefScreenInfo& screen_info) OVERRIDE;
void OnPopupShow(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser, bool show) OVERRIDE;
void OnPopupSize(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
const CefRect& rect) OVERRIDE;
void OnPaint(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
CefRenderHandler::PaintElementType type,
const CefRenderHandler::RectList& dirtyRects,
const void* buffer,
int width,
int height) OVERRIDE;
void OnCursorChange(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
CefCursorHandle cursor,
CefRenderHandler::CursorType type,
const CefCursorInfo& custom_cursor_info) OVERRIDE;
bool StartDragging(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
CefRefPtr<CefDragData> drag_data,
CefRenderHandler::DragOperationsMask allowed_ops,
int x, int y) OVERRIDE;
void UpdateDragCursor(CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser,
CefRenderHandler::DragOperation operation) OVERRIDE;
#if defined(CEF_USE_ATL)
// OsrDragEvents methods.
CefBrowserHost::DragOperationsMask OnDragEnter(
CefRefPtr<CefDragData> drag_data,
CefMouseEvent ev,
CefBrowserHost::DragOperationsMask effect) OVERRIDE;
CefBrowserHost::DragOperationsMask OnDragOver(CefMouseEvent ev,
CefBrowserHost::DragOperationsMask effect) OVERRIDE;
void OnDragLeave() OVERRIDE;
CefBrowserHost::DragOperationsMask OnDrop(CefMouseEvent ev,
CefBrowserHost::DragOperationsMask effect) OVERRIDE;
#endif // defined(CEF_USE_ATL)
// Only accessed on the main thread.
Delegate* delegate_;
// The below members are only accessed on the UI thread.
OsrRenderer renderer_;
HWND hwnd_;
HDC hdc_;
HGLRC hrc_;
RECT client_rect_;
CefRefPtr<CefBrowser> browser_;
#if defined(CEF_USE_ATL)
CComPtr<DropTargetWin> drop_target_;
CefRenderHandler::DragOperation current_drag_op_;
#endif
bool painting_popup_;
bool render_task_pending_;
bool hidden_;
// Mouse state tracking.
POINT last_mouse_pos_;
POINT current_mouse_pos_;
bool mouse_rotation_;
bool mouse_tracking_;
int last_click_x_;
int last_click_y_;
CefBrowserHost::MouseButtonType last_click_button_;
int last_click_count_;
double last_click_time_;
bool last_mouse_down_on_view_;
DISALLOW_COPY_AND_ASSIGN(OsrWindowWin);
};
} // namespace client
#endif // CEF_TESTS_CEFCLIENT_BROWSER_OSR_WINDOW_WIN_H_
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 2,020
|
El idioma proto-tupí es una lengua reconstruida o protolengua que, hipotéticamente, dio origen a las leguas tupí. Reconstruida por el método comparativo partir de datos de sus idiomas descendientes (Tupí clásico, Guarani, Aweti, Munduruku, Gavião de Rondônia). En Brasil, los estudios histórico-comparativos están siendo desarrollados principalmente por dos equipos científicos: uno del Laboratório de Línguas Indígenas (LALI) de la Universidad de Brasilia; y el otro del Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, ubicado en Belém. Los estudios muestran varias evidencias importantes sobre la cultura Proto-Tupi (demostrando, por ejemplo, que los antepasados de los pueblos Tupi se dedicaban a la agricultura)
Lugar originario de los hablantes
Se considera que el lugar originario del idioma proto-tupí está en algún lugar entre los ríos Guaporé y Aripuanã, en la cuenca del río Madeira. Gran parte de esta área corresponde al estado actual de Rondônia, Brasil. De las 10 ramas de las lenguas tupís, 5 se encuentran en esta área, así como algunas lenguas tupi-guaraníes (especialmente el idioma Kawahíb), lo que lo convierte en el probable urheimat de estos idiomas y tal vez de sus pueblos hablantes. Se cree que esta lengua existió alrededor de 5,000 antes del presente.
Véase también
Apapocuva
Lenguas indígenas de las Américas
Lenguas de Brasil
Língua Geral
Lista de palabras en español de origen indígena
Protoquechua
Referencias
Otras lecturas
Rodrigues, Aryon Dall'Igna (2007). "As consoantes do Proto-Tupí". In Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara Cabral, Aryon Dall'Igna Rodrigues (eds). Linguas e culturas Tupi, p. 167-203. Campinas: Curt Nimuendaju; Brasília: LALI.
Protolenguas
Lenguas de Brasil
Lenguas tupí
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaWikipedia"
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| 2,036
|
This has been a fun year at Yesterfood. I continue to get to meet so many wonderful people, and I appreciate every one of you from the very bottom of my heart. Thank you!
10. The tenth most popular recipe was Homemade Chocolate Pudding with Pie Crust Dippers. This was a personal favorite of mine, too- it was my Grandmother's recipe, served in one of her teacups.
9. Number nine was Fresh Basil Pesto- bright, fresh, easy, and more delicious and less expensive than store-bought.
8. Easy Pineapple Upside Down Cake came in eighth for the year. A dressed-up mix, it's a cheery classic!
6. Another personal favorite, number six was rich, dense, moist Mexican Chocolate Buttermilk Pound Cake.
5. Cranberry Pecan Chicken Salad came in fifth. The sweet cranberries mixed with the crunch of pecans and celery were a delicious contrast to the salty creaminess of the mayonnaise.
3. Coconut Oil Pie Crust was one I was really happy with- an experiment that turned out deliciously, to come in at number three. It's the pie crust recipe I use most often now.
2. The second most popular recipe of 2013 was Maple Cornbread Muffins- the subtle maple flavor and sweetness made these muffins irresistible!
Homemade Apple Pie: sweet, juicy, tender apples wrapped up in a golden crust.
Thank you again for joining me this year, and I look forward to seeing you in 2014.
The Top 10 Recipes may have been taken to some of these great parties!
Loved this list! I pinned a bunch of it!
Lynn, thank you, and thanks for pinning! I have really enjoyed getting to know you this year. :) I hope you have a wonderful New Year!
What a wonderful collection! I think I may have gained 5 pounds just reading the recipes! Thanks Joy! Happy 2014 to you, your family and all of your readers.
I remember them all, great collection. Happy New Year Joy.
Thank you, Wanda Ann! I am so happy that my 2013 included you...and so will my 2014! :) Happy, happy 2014 to you and David!
I love recipes! Thanks for sharing!
Your recipes look very delicious! I'm going to explore them all. Thank for your comment on my blog. Happy 2014!
Thank you, Pat, and thank you for visiting! :) I hope you have a very Happy New Year!
I'm so glad you shared the pineapple cake! My mother always made that and I'd love to recreate it for my family - now I can! Thanks!
It's such a fun classic, isn't it, Joyce? Thank you for coming by, and I hope you and your family have a wonderful New Year!
Love your recipes, Joy, and I always enjoy the stories behind them too. This is an excellent post - you've featured some of my favourites. I'll be pinning this for future reference for sure :-) Wishing you and yours a Happy, Healthy New Year!
I enjoyed reading your list of Best Post. That Chocolate Pound Cake look so moist and delicious! I am pinning this cake for later!!
Thank you so much for linking up to 1st Wonderful Wednesday Blog Hop "2014″. I look forward to following all your social medias.
These all look delicious. I think the Chocolate Pound Cake will be the first of the New Year!
Thank you! :) I think w'ere all going to have a great year, Kris- I'm looking forward to all your posts, too!
I seem to love everything you cook so your top 10 Recipes look fabulous! Thank you so much for sharing your awesome Roundup with us today at Full Plate Thursday. I am very excited about your new Linky Party and hope to be there!
Miz Helen, thank you so much! You know I love Full Plate Thursday. I'd love to see you at our new party- thank you!
These are great posts and recipes. The maple cornbread muffins look especially good! Thank you for linking to the In and Out of the Kitchen Link Party. Hope to see you next week.
Great recipe roundup. I'm especially drooling over the Mexican Chocolate Buttermilk Pound Cake! Yum.
I remember every one of these recipes and photos from this past year. What a great collection, Joy!
Lovely collection joy, I will give it try to your mexican chocolate buttermilk pound cake looks yumm. Thanks for sharing to Hearth and Soul blog hop. I am highlighting this on Hearth and Soul blog hop.
Swathi, thank you so much! The Mexican Chocolate Buttermilk Pound Cake is one of my very favorite cakes- if you try it, I hope you enjoy it as much as we do! :) Thank you for hosting Hearth and Soul blog hop.
My daughter has discovered a love for pesto. I'm excited I can now use your recipe. Thanks for sharing at Inspire Us Thursday on Organized 31.
Great and delicious list of recipes! Thanks for posting this at the Saturday Night Fever link party. Hope to see you back on Saturday!
Great list, Joy! Some of these recipes are actually on my "to do" list! Pinned - Thanks for linking up to Freedom Fridays!
What a delicious list. Chocolate pudding with pie crust dippers! Yum. :) Thanks for sharing at The Gathering Spot. Have a wonderful weekend.
Diane, the chocolate pudding was definitely one of my personal favorites! :) Thanks for coming by, and for hosting The Gathering Spot! I hope you have a wonderful weekend, too.
Joy, what a wonderful roundup! I missed that pesto one and I pinned it for next year when I have fresh basil in the garden. Thanks for sharing with SYC.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
| 1,923
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{"url":"https:\/\/lavelle.chem.ucla.edu\/forum\/viewtopic.php?f=123&t=57083&p=213117","text":"## ICE table approximation\n\n$PV=nRT$\n\nJasmine W 1K\nPosts: 49\nJoined: Sat Sep 07, 2019 12:18 am\n\n### ICE table approximation\n\nHow do you know whether you can use the approximation shortcut rather than the quadratic equation for problems involving ICE tables?\n\nSidharth D 1E\nPosts: 98\nJoined: Sat Aug 24, 2019 12:17 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nYou can approximate if the K value for the table is less than 10-3.\n\nPosts: 100\nJoined: Wed Sep 18, 2019 12:19 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nIf the K value is less than 10^-3 and then if the percent protonation is less than 5% it is ok to take the shortcut.\n\nYing Yan 1F\nPosts: 101\nJoined: Fri Aug 02, 2019 12:16 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nIf you have a K value that is smaller than 10^-3, then you can use the approximation shortcut. If you still need more clarification, Dr. Llavell talks about this in Video Module 3. Hope that helped!\n\nVincent Leong 2B\nPosts: 207\nJoined: Fri Aug 09, 2019 12:15 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nThe approximation is only used when K is small enough and you know this approximation works if the x you solve for is < 5% of the initial concentration.\n\nValerieChavarin 4F\nPosts: 99\nJoined: Wed Sep 18, 2019 12:18 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nYou take a look at the K value. If it is less than 10^-3, then you can approximate. If the K value is 10^-3, it can get a bit tricky, so I would still do the full calculation.\n\nAyushi2011\nPosts: 101\nJoined: Wed Feb 27, 2019 12:17 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nIf K value is very small, we can approximate.\n\nWilliam Francis 2E\nPosts: 101\nJoined: Wed Sep 18, 2019 12:20 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nYou can check that your approximation is valid after solving by showing that your calculated x value is less than 5 percent of the initial concentration of the weak acid or base being used.\n\nTahlia Mullins\nPosts: 105\nJoined: Thu Jul 25, 2019 12:15 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nTo verify that the approximation is valid, divide x by the initial value and multiply by 100, and if the value is less than 5%, then it is valid.\n\nKylie Lim 4G\nPosts: 110\nJoined: Sat Aug 17, 2019 12:15 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nYou can approximate that x is 0 when K<10^-3. You can always check to see if an approximation is valid if x is less than 5% of the initial concentration.\n\nMegan Cao 1I\nPosts: 103\nJoined: Sat Sep 07, 2019 12:18 am\n\n### Re: ICE table approximation\n\nyou can approximate shortcut when K is less than 10-3.","date":"2021-03-07 03:36:57","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 0, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 1, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.6455480456352234, \"perplexity\": 3415.7988391907375}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": true, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2021-10\/segments\/1614178376006.87\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20210307013626-20210307043626-00090.warc.gz\"}"}
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Q: How `weak_ptr` and `shared_ptr` accesses are atomic std::shared_ptr<int> int_ptr;
int main() {
int_ptr = std::make_shared<int>(1);
std::thread th{[&]() {
std::weak_ptr int_ptr_weak = int_ptr;
auto int_ptr_local = int_ptr_weak.lock();
if (int_ptr_local) {
cout << "Value in the shared_ptr is " << *int_ptr_local << endl;
}
});
int_ptr.reset(nullptr);
th.join();
return 0;
}
Is the code above thread safe? I read this answer About thread-safety of weak_ptr but just wanted to make sure that the above code is thread safe.
The reason I ask this is that if the code above is indeed thread safe, I cannot understand how the std::weak_ptr and std::shared_ptr interfaces make the following operation atomic expired() ? shared_ptr<T>() : shared_ptr<T>(*this). It just seems to me that making two logical lines of code like above cannot be made synchronous without using some sort of mutex or spinlock.
I understand how atomic increments work with different instances of shared pointers and I understand that shared_ptrs themselves are not thread safe, but if the above is indeed thread safe it is very much like a thread safe shared_ptr and I don't understand how two lines of code like in the conditional above can be made atomic without locks.
A:
Is the code above thread safe?
I believe it's not, as int_ptr.reset(nullptr); is racing against std::weak_ptr int_ptr_weak = int_ptr;
I cannot understand how the std::weak_ptr and std::shared_ptr interfaces make the following operation atomic expired() ? shared_ptr<T>() : shared_ptr<T>(*this)
Such an operation is not atomic, as expired() may return false, yet by the time you act upon that value, it may no longer be accurate. On the other hand if it returns true, that's guaranteed to remain accurate, as long as no one modified this particular instance of shared_ptr since then. That is, operations on other copies of a given shared_ptr can't cause it to unexpire.
The weak_ptr::lock() implementation is not going to be using expired(). It will probably do something like atomic compare-exchange, where an extra strong reference is added only if the current number of strong references is greater than zero.
A: This question has two parts:
Thread-safety
The code is NOT threadsafe, but this has nothing to do with lock():
The race exists between int_ptr.reset(); and std::weak_ptr int_ptr_weak = int_ptr;. Because one thread is modifying the non-atomic variable int_ptr while the other reads it, which is - by definition - a data race.
So this would be OK:
int main() {
auto int_ptr = std::make_shared<int>(1);
std::weak_ptr<int> int_ptr_weak = int_ptr; //create the weak pointer in the original thread
std::thread th( [&]() {
auto int_ptr_local = int_ptr_weak.lock();
if (int_ptr_local) {
std::cout << "Value in the shared_ptr is " << *int_ptr_local << std::endl;
}
});
int_ptr.reset();
th.join();
}
Atomic version of the example code expired() ? shared_ptr<T>() : shared_ptr<T>(*this)
Of course the whole process can't be atomic. The actually important part is that the strong ref count is only incremented if it is already greater than zero and that the check and the increment happen in an atomic fashion. I don't know if there are any system/architecture specific primitives available for this, but one way to implement it in c++11 would be:
std::shared_ptr<T> lock() {
if (!isInitialized) {
return std::shared_ptr<T>();
}
std::atomic<int>& strong_ref_cnt = get_strong_ref_cnt_var_from_control_block();
int old_cnt = strong_ref_cnt.load();
while (old_cnt && !strong_ref_cnt.compare_exchange_weak(old_cnt, old_cnt + 1)) {
;
}
if (old_cnt > 0) {
// create shared_ptr without touching the control block any further
} else {
// create empty shared_ptr
}
}
A: No, your code is not thread-safe. There is a data race between the int_ptr.reset() operation in the main thread (which is a write operation) and the initialization of int_weak_ptr from int_ptr in th (which is a read operation).
A: " how the std::weak_ptr and std::shared_ptr interfaces make the following operation atomic expired() ? shared_ptr<T>() : shared_ptr<T>(*this)"
The interfaces don't. It's internal to the implementation. Exactly how it's done will differ between implementations.
|
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being held at Manly Sailing Club July 7th - 9th, 2017.
Please follow the prompts to register as a competitor.
Manly Sailing Club is proud to host the 2nd Annual NZ Winter O'pen Cup.
Manly Sailing Club is situated on the beautiful Hibiscus Coast, just 35 minutes north from Auckland CBD. Big Manly Bay has beautiful clear warm waters which are sheltered in almost all wind directions and are excellent for junior sailors with easy launching & retrieving.
This regatta isn't going to disappoint! With pre-regatta coaching by Sir Russell Coutts and the FIRST EVER foiling Bic speed time trial, this regatta is a true step forward for the O'pen BIC Class and is not one to miss! Most importantly of all, and in keeping with the O'pen BIC philosophy, the focus will be on fun!
Is there food available at the regatta?
Yes! For each regatta day (Friday, Saturday and Sunday), there will be a hot lunch available to purchase for $12. This will be something savoury (eg lamb burgers one day), something sweet and a piece of fruit. It will also include a hot milo and biscuit at the end of the day.
In addition to this, there will be freshly made Bacon & Egg rolls in the mornings and homemade Sweet Treats in the afternoons for purchase.
Coffee will also be available onsite.
Please let us know if you are vegetarian and we will do our best to cater for you.
On Friday evening we will be going to swim at Waiwera Hot Pools. Food is available to purchase there, or can be taken in.
This year with such large numbers of sailors, we will be holding the BBQ at the clubhouse straight after sailing on the Saturday. There is a charge of $12 per head for this meal. This can be paid in advance online as per the meals, or on the night.
If you are able to help out, please email Fiona (secretary@manlysailingclub.org.nz) to let her know.
The Hibiscus Coast has a wide range of beaches, which attract people to live there. Other places of interest on the coast or nearby include Snow Planet, Silverdale Luge, Go-Kart Centre, the Pacific Plaza (and surrounding shopping centre), Hoyts 5 - cinema, the Waiwera Hot Pools, Orewa Beach, Shakespear Regional Park, and Gulf Harbour. Gulf Harbour is near the end of the Whangaparaoa Peninsula, which is quite close to the wildlife reserve Tiritiri Matangi Island. Ferries transport people to the island from the harbour and back on a regular basis.
|
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| 2,407
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Az A8-as autópálya (másként Kelet–Nyugat autópálya, románul Autostrada Est-Vest) egy tervezett romániai autópálya, amely kelet–nyugat irányban szeli majd át az országot. A 4-es és 9-es páneurópai közlekedési folyosók forgalmát hivatott könnyíteni. Az autópálya összeköti Moldvát Erdély központi részével, érintve Székelyföld északi részét.
Története
A székelyföldi Hargita Megye Tanácsa 2011 júniusában kedvezően bírálta el az autópálya Hargita megyét átszelő szakaszának kidolgozás alatt álló megvalósíthatósági tanulmányát, és előzetes beleegyezését adta. A Maros Megyei Tanács 2012 augusztusában adta ki a hivatalos engedélyeket.
A megvalósíthatósági tanulmányt később a kormány frissíteni szerette volna. Az erre vonatkozó szerződést 2015-ben írták alá, de ezt később felbontották.
Az EU elfogadta, hogy az autópálya a TEN-T (transzeurópai közlekedési hálózat) része, így a terveket 2014-ig elkészítik, és az autópálya főleg európai uniós forrásokból 2020-ig megépülhet.
Nyomvonala
Nyomvonala Jászvásár–Szépvásár–Szabófalva–Németvásár–Poiana Largului–Ditró–Marosvásárhely lesz, és csatlakozik az A3-as autópályához. A tervezett hossz 310,30 km. A beruházás értéke kb. 6,14 milliárd euró.
Tervezési szakaszok:
Marosvásárhely–Ditró: 91,6 km;
Ditró–Németvásár: 118,100 km;
Németvásár–Ungheni: 100,6 km.
Csomópontok és pihenőhelyek
|}
Jegyzetek
Források
A román állami útkezelő (CNADR) honlapja
Románia autópályái
Gyorsforgalmi utak
|
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| 3,574
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# JOHN QUINCY ADAMS
## DIARIES
I: 1779–1821
David Waldstreicher, _editor_
THE LIBRARY OF AMERICA
Volume compilation, notes, and chronology copyright © 2017 by
Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., New York, N.Y.
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without
the permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.
Selections also published in _Diary of John Quincy Adams, 1779–1788_ ,
David Grayson Allen, Robert J. Taylor, Marc Friedlander,
and Celeste Walker, eds., 2 vols., copyright © 1981 by the
Massachusetts Historical Society used by permission.
All other texts used by permission of the Adams Family Papers,
Massachusetts Historical Society.
For more information on the specific texts see the Note on the Texts.
Images of diaries courtesy Collection of the Massachusetts Historical Society. First: diary for November 1–3, 1783. Second: diary for March 19–20, 1815.
LIBRARY OF AMERICA, a nonprofit publisher, is dedicated to publishing, and keeping in print, authoritative editions of America's best and most significant writing. Each year the Library adds new volumes to its collection of essential works by America's foremost novelists, poets, essayists, journalists, and statesmen.
Visit our website at www.loa.org to find out more about Library of America and to explore our popular Story of the Week and Moviegoer features.
eISBN 978–1–59853–523–5
_John Quincy Adams:_
_Diaries_
is published with support from
**THE BODMAN FOUNDATION**
and
**SIDNEY AND RUTH LAPIDUS**
#### Contents
___Preface_
CHAPTER I • 1779–1793
Europe — Harvard — Boston
CHAPTER II • 1794–1801
London — The Hague — Berlin
CHAPTER III • 1802–1809
Boston — Washington
CHAPTER IV • 1809–1814
St. Petersburg
CHAPTER V • 1814–1815
Ghent — Paris
CHAPTER VI • 1815–1817
London — Little Ealing
CHAPTER VII • 1817–1821
Secretary of State
___Chronology_
___Note on the Texts_
___Notes_
___Index_
#### Preface
"Have you kept a regular Journal? If you have not, you will be likely to forget most of the Observations you have made. If you have omitted this Usefull Exercise, let me advise you to recommence it, immediately. Let it be your Amusement, to minute every day, whatever you may have seen or heard worth Notice. One contracts a Fondness of Writing by Use. We learn to write readily, and what is of more importance, We think, and improve our Judgments, by committing our Thoughts to Paper."
John Adams to John Quincy Adams, May 14, 1783
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS's diary is one of the most extraordinary works in American literature. Begun in 1779, when Adams was twelve, it was maintained more or less faithfully until his death almost seventy years later, and extends over fifty-one manuscript volumes and more than fourteen thousand closely written pages, including an unbroken string of daily observance spanning a remarkable twenty-six years. Its entries, which range from five hundred to five thousand words or more, record the events of Adams's public and private lives, including detailed accounts, sometimes verbatim transcripts, of cabinet meetings, diplomatic interviews, congressional debates, dinner conversations, and social calls; incisive character sketches of presidents and princes; painful confessions of anxiety about his own shortcomings, and about the welfare of his family; reflections on sermons he heard and books he read; experiments in verse and translation; theater reviews; and scientific and natural observations. The devotion with which Adams maintained his diary, even when the press of events made doing so burdensome, suggests that it served a number of essential purposes for him, as a confessional, an aide-mémoir, and as a proving ground for his thoughts on everything from public policy to philosophy.
This Library of America volume, the first of a two-volume set, presents a selection of diary entries from November 1779 until March 1821, the conclusion of the first term of President James Monroe, under whom Adams served as secretary of state. Daily entries, when possible, are presented in full. In some, certain passages, especially such recurring features of the diary as meteorological observations, records of social visits received and returned, and accounts of bills paid and due, have been cut for space and to avoid repetition. Resulting breaks within an entry, or at the end of an entry followed by the next day's entry, are indicated with the ≈ symbol. All other breaks are indicated with a small centered rule line. The Note on the Texts in this volume offers more information on the history of the diaries and on the textual policy followed in this edition.
A NOTE ON IDENTIFICATION: Adams's diary records his interactions with or reflections on a very large cast of characters. Where these individuals are referred to by surname, identification is provided in the Index. Where they are designated only by their first names or titles, or where additional explanation is warranted, they are identified in the Notes.
# CHAPTER I 1779–1793
## Europe — Harvard — Boston
[November 1779]
A Journal
A Journal by Me
J Q A
Vol: 1st.
Friday 12th. this Morning at about 11 O'Clock I took leave of my Mamma my Sister & Brother Tommy and went to Boston with Mr. Thaxter in order to go on board the Frigate the Sensible of 28 twelve Pounders. we arrived at Boston at about 1 O'Clock; dined at my uncle Smiths', we expected to go on board in the afternoon but We could not conveniently till to morrow.
Saturday 13th. to day at about 1 O'Clock Pappa, & my Brother Charles, came to town, and at about 5 O'Clock we all came on board and took our lodgings. My Brother Charles is to lodge with My Pappa and I with Mr. Thaxter.
Sunday 14th. this morning a great number of Gentlemen came on board, and amongst others col Johonnot with a son of his who is going to France with us. there are a great number of Passengers and the Frigate is very well mann'd. col Johonnot introduced me to his son, with whom I hope I shall form an acquaintance, which will be very agreable to me and I shall endeavour to make myself agreable to him. this afternoon Capt'n tucker, came on board, and told us that he saw a day or two agone two ships and a brig off Cape Ann: we were very glad he told us of it, so that now we can take proper Measures for shunning them.
[August 1783]
Aug. 10th. Sunday. This morning, at about 10 O'Clock, I accompanied my Father to Passy, to see Dr. Franklin whom I knew already, and Mr. Jay, the american Minister at Madrid, whom I had never seen before; they were at breakfast and had a great deal of Company. Mr. Jay and my Father took a walk in the Garden and had a Conversation upon politicks, which, is of no Necessity here. From thence we went to Auteuil; to see Mr. Barclay, the American Consul-General in France, but found he was gone, and therefore we saw only Mr. Ridley. The House where they are is a very fine one; but, above all there is in it, one thing, which is very curious. it is a small octogonal room with a bath in the middle of it, and in every one of the eight corners of it is a Looking-glass. the cieling, is also made of a Looking-glass; so that a person can see himself in more than thirty different positions in it. The garden is a small and pretty one filled with fruit Trees; we took a walk in it. Mr. Ridley told me that Sammy Cooper Johonnot and Ben. Bache, two of my old schoolmates here had returned from Geneva, where they have been for some time, and that Sam Cooper is gone to Nantes.
Aug. 11th. Monday. This morning Mr. Hartley the British Minister for making Peace, came to pay a visit to my Father, but as he was out he desired to see me. I had some Conversation with him. he says he hopes the Peace will be soon signed. In the afternoon I went with my Father to Passy, and saw there Dr. Franklin and Mr. and Mrs. Jay. I also renewed my acquaintance with young Mr. Bache.
We went at the same time to see the Abbés Chalut and Arnauld two gentlemen of letters, with whom my Father has been familiarly acquainted ever since his first arrival in Europe. we found with them the Abbé de Mably, famous for being the author of a work entitled _Le Droit public de l'Europe_ ; and of another entitled _principes des Negociations_ , and the Abbé le Monnier _who has given to the world an elegant French Translation of Terence's Comedies_. As the general Turn of the Conversation was upon Politicks; there was nothing in it, necessary to be transcribed here.
Aug. 12th. Tuesday. This morning my Father went to Versailles. At half past 12 I met the Abbé Arnaud at the Thuileries, and we walk'd together to Passy. I dined at the Abbé Chalut's there, in Company with the Abbé de Mably and some other Gentlemen. The Abbé has travelled thro' Poland, and talk'd a good deal about that Country. For the Climate he says that for the first fortnight in November it commonly snows there continually, and from that time untill the latter end of February, a continuation of very severe colds. he has seen Reaumur's Thermometer at the degree of 28 below 0. This is quite different from the weather at Petersburg. There, it snows every day more or less from the middle of November to the middle of January, and then commonly they have 3 weeks or a month of extreme colds. I have seen Réaumur's thermometer in Petersburg at 31 degrees below 0. He also said something upon the Constitution of Poland, upon the Slavery of the people, the Tyranny of the Nobles, and the humiliations the Kings of Poland are obliged to undergo, and yet he said the Ambition of every one of the nobles was to be King. As they might expect it, because the Kingdom was Elective, and that they seldom choose, a King out of the Family of the preceding one. he said that in Poland the nobility had the vanity of desiring to be King, as the nobility in France, had the vanity of wishing to be a Duke. He says also that they could not Live in Poland without the Jews. t'was they who carried on all the commerce. the Nobility were too proud to engage in Commerce. the Slaves could not; every thing that was done there in that way, was done by the Jews. As there were very few other foreigners, who would chuse to settle in that Country. In the evening as my Father return'd from Versailles to Paris, he stopp'd at the Abbés, and took me in his Carriage. Mr. Hartley came and paid a visit to my Father; but it was intirely Political.
Aug. 15th. Friday. This day I dined at Passy at Dr. Franklin's with a numerous Company. In the evening I went to the Comedy at the Bois de Boulogne. _Beverlei_ and le _Français a Londres_ were the plays represented. Beverlei is what the French call a _Tragedie bourgeoise_ , as Barnwell in English. the Subject of it is, a Man addicted to gaming, who ruins himself by it, or rather is ruined by a villain who pretends to be his Friend; and at last puts an end to his Life by Poison. It was intended to set the passion of gaming in its worst Light but the execution has not answered its Purpose, for it seems to encourage, a still worse passion; I mean suicide. however that was not the author's intention. his design was very Laudable. _Le Français a Londres_ is a Farce, calculated to show the difference of the French and English Characters and the author has carried both to a pleasing extravagance. I met at the Comedy, Mr. de Chaumont, whom I had not seen since I returned to Paris. he asked me a great many Questions, about Sweden, Russia, Denmark, and all the Countries thro' which I have been.
[October 1783]
Thursday 23d. This morning at 10 O'Clock we went on board the Packet Boat; for Dover. we got out of the harbour with a great deal of difficulty as the wind was quite Contrary, but as soon as we were out a Calm came on which lasted till about 11 O'Clock at night. some wind then arose which brought us near the Port of Dover: at about 2 in the morning; but the wind being very strong; we were obliged to go on board a Pilot Boat: which put us on shore at about 3: in the morning of
Friday Octr. 24th. Stay'd all day at Dover; we went up on the top of one of the cliffs: they are extremely high: the weather was somewhat foggy, but upon a clear day; the view must be very extensive, out at sea; and the coasts of France (which are about 20 miles distant) must be very easily seen, and make a fine appearance. We saw upon this hill several sheep; much larger, than any I have ever seen in France, owing probably to the manner of keeping: the Land appears more covered with verdure, and richer than that of France; this, my father thinks, is entirely owing to the different cultivation, as the soil seems to be the same here as that on the other side.
Saturday. Octr. 25. We set away from Dover in a post chaise and pair; went through Canterbury; the chief see of all England. we were told there was a curious Cathedral there but had not time to go to see it. we dined at Rochester: a considerable city: 43 miles distant from Dover. we arrived at Dartford at about 4½ and stopp'd there for the Night.
Sunday Octr. 26th. We came away from Dartford at about 8 O'Clock; and arrived at London at about 11: the distance from Dover is 72 miles: we took up Lodgings at _Osborn's Adelphi Hotel John Street; in the Strand_.
Tuesday. 28th. This forenoon we went to see the Monuments in Westminster Abbey: we saw a great Collection of tombs of Kings, Heroes, Statesmen, and Poets. there are some very ancient monuments: a number of figures in wax and the chairs in which the kings and Queens of England are crowned: they are said to be more than 1400 years old: we had not time to examine very attentively this building: and shall probably pay it another visit: At 6 O'Clock P.M. I went to Drury Lane Thêatre, where was represented the Tragedy of _Hamlet_ , with the Citizen. I must confess; I do not think they act Tragedy so well here as in Paris: the Tragedy was not acted, as I expected it would be: there is I think something like affectation; throughout the actors. They lay an emphasis upon almost every word; yet in some places they speak, both too low and too slow. for Instance, when the Ghost first appears to Hamlet he starts and cries out
"Angels & ministers of Grace defend us," &c.
and speaks a speech of about 20 lines: which the actor is full a quarter of an hour delivering; continually in the same situation; which makes the action of the stage languish a great deal. As for the small piece they play'd that, I think as well as they do in France, but if I judge by this one play they do not equal the French in Tragedy.
Wednesday 29th. Took private lodgings; at Mr. Stockdale's, opposite Burlington House. Piccadilly.
Thursday 30th. This forenoon I went with some Gentlemen & Ladies to dine out of town. we pass'd over Westminster Bridge and Black Friars, and went through Islington, over High gate hill, to Hamsted, where we dined. the appearance of the Land on this is extremely rich. and at this time of year, the verdure is nearly as great, as it is in France in the Month of May. the Prospect is said to be the finest near London. it is very beautiful. we dined at the assembly house in Hamsted, and returned into Town by a different Road from that out of which we went.
Friday Octr: 31st. Dined at Mr. Vaughan's: in the evening we went to the Drury Lane Theatre, where _Isabella_ _, or the Fatal marriage_ & _the Irish Widow_ , were represented. Mrs. Siddons; supposed to be the first Tragick performer in Europe, play'd the part of Isabella. A young Lady, in the next Box to where we were, was so much affected by it as to be near fainting and was carried out. I am told that every Night Mrs. Siddons performs; this happens, to some persons. I never heard of any thing like it, in France: Whether this proves there is more Sensibility here, that the Tragedies are deeper, or that they [are] better performed, is a problem. perhaps all those reasons may be given.
[November 1783]
Saturday November 1. 1783. This morning I went with Mr. W. Vaughan to see the Paintings of Mr. Pine, and Mr. Copley, & Sir Joshua Reynolds. the Death of the Earl of Chatham, by Mr. Copley, is the most Remarkable of the Paintings We saw; it is very Beautiful. we went also to see Mrs. Wright's waxwork. dined at Mr. Bingham's.
Sunday Nov'r. 2. 1783. I went this forenoon to take a view of St. Paul's Church, which is the largest, & most magnificent Protestant church now standing and excepting St. Peter's at Rome the largest in the World. But we could not get into it, because on Sundays it is open only in Service time; and we were there between services, so we saw only the outside of it. it was built of a whitish stone, but the lower Parts of it are now of a browny, smoaky Colour, occasioned by the smoke of the City; they say this gives it a Venerable appearance; but for my Part I think it would look much better in its first Colour. several gentlemen dined with us.
Monday Nov'r. 3. 1783. Went in the Evening to the theatre, Drury Lane where _Measure for Measure_ , with the Apprentice were represented. Mrs. Siddons play'd the part of Isabella in _measure for measure_ , because it had been said, she could not speak Shakespeare's lines; and that she could not play in Comedy; for the first part she prov'd the contrary; as she play'd extremely well. but the critics say she has not yet play'd in Comedy; as the Character of Isabella has nothing Comick in it; in this play; and the piece itself Notwithstanding it's ending well, being more a Tragedy than a Comedy.
Tuesday Nov'r. 4th. This forenoon we went with Mess'rs Jay, Bingham, & W. Vaughan, to see the Holophusicon, or Sir Ashton Lever's Museum; there is an immense Collection, of all sorts of Natural History; But the most Compleat part is that of the birds, of which he has between three and four thousand; they are extremely Curious; and worth more examination than we had time to give to them. But besides this he has a Room full of curiosities all collected in the Countries which were discovered in the last Voyage of Capt'n Cook. there are a Number of their Idols made of Wood: others of feathers of bird: and also a kind of Robe which their Chiefs put on upon certain occasions, made of birds feathers, their cloths and their war instruments, and their fishhooks with the ropes. all these things are very curious, & for the most part, they are very ingeniously done, and show those People had arrived at a certain degree of Civilization. their Ropes are made as well as any in Europe, and their fishhooks tho' of stone are very well made. from Sir Ashton Lever's we went to the British Museum: which is much more extensive, and Comprehends all sorts of Curiosities. 1. a Library of printed books. 2. a Library of Manuscript Books. 3. Antiquities. 4. Coins and Medals & 5. Natural History. for this Last article, Sir Ashton Lever's Collection is much more perfect: but among the others' there are some very curious things, particularly in the Manuscripts. We saw some original Letters of Henry the 8th and the ensuing Kings and Queens of England to Charles the 1st Letters also of Oliver Cromwell, and Pope's first Rough transcript of the Iliad. there are many more very Curious things in this Place, but we had not time to examine them attentively.
[January 1785]
4th. Paris. _Variété_ _s_; at the _palais_ _Royal_. Small Théatre, built in three weeks time. _le nouveau_ _parvenu_. _Le palais du bon gout_. _l'Intendant Comédien malgré lui_. _Le mensonge excusable_. _Volange_, an excellent actor for the lowest kind of Comic-plays seven or eight parts in one piece with a wonderful facility. one or two other actors, good in their way. Yet I wonder how people of any delicacy, and especially Ladies can frequent this and the other small Théatres in Paris. the plays acted have seldom much wit, and almost universally are very indecent. I know not what this People would not run to; their taste seems to be entirely corrupted. the french Théatre is deserted, when those pieces, which do honour to the nation are represented, and these theatres are always crowded, though they present nothing but low buffoonery, and scurrility. O tempora, O mores! Letters from America, when we return'd. none for me.
21st. Paris. Dined at Mr. Jeffersons. Capt'n Paul Jones told us the Marquis de la Fayette was arrived. _Vrais Principes_ _de la Langue Française, Synonimes François de M: l'Abb_ _é_ _Girard._ _Abdir_, a new piece was announced for to day at the French Théatre, but is put off to next Wednesday. Mr. Blanchard cross'd from Dover to Calais in an air balloon, the 7th of the month, accompanied by Dr. Jefferies. they were obliged to throw over their cloathes to lighten their balloon. Mr. Blanchard met with a very flattering reception at Calais, and at Paris. he and his companion, have been applauded at the Théatres. the king has given him twelve thousand livres, and a pension of 1200 a year. All that has as yet been done relative to this discovery, is the work of the French. Montgolfier, Pilâtre de Rozier, & Blanchard will go down, hand in hand to Posterity.
29th. Paris afternoon, alone. Mr. Jeffersons. he looks much afflicted. the last letters, brought him news of the death of one of his daughter: he has a great deal of Sensibility. Bought books.
[February 1785]
7th. Dined at Mr. Jefferson's. Masks in the fauxbourg St. Antoine. and in the ruë St. Honoré. With reason, are the Parisians called by all the rest of the Nation badauds de Paris, for nothing can be conceived more stupid, than this Carnaval amusement. an hundred people perhaps run about the streets in masks, and there are ten thousand people without masks looking upon them: it is said however that this diversion is going much out of fashion; and that the Police, are obliged to hire a vast number of People, to set the example: two thirds of the Masks, are paid, say they. thus does this government take every measure imaginable, to keep the eyes of the People shut, upon their own situation: and they really do it very effectually.
14th. Dined at Dr. Franklin's with a great deal of Company, among the rest Dr. Jeffries who lately cross'd with Mr. Blanchard, from Dover to Calais. he is a small man: has not an agreeable address, but seems to be very sensible: he related his voyage: in which his intrepidity had well nigh been fatal to him: the balloon descended he says, ¾ of a mile in 2 minutes: he and Mr. Blanchard were both of them obliged to throw almost all their cloaths in the water. at one time they were not more than 20 yards above the surface. Mr. B–g–m who decides upon all subjects in a more positive manner than I think he would if he was versed well in any, said it was impossible for a balloon to remain steady in one place; because said he, there is nothing to resist it: Mess'rs Roberts in the account they gave of their last voyage in the air say that at one time for five minutes their balloon did not stir forward: they saw the shadow of it upon the ground, and were therefore sure of what they advanced: this was alledged but Mr. B–g–m said M: M: Roberts were fools: this was the shortest way by which he could prove the truth of his assertion.
[March 1785]
7th. Dined at the Marquis de la Fayette's. the Chevalier de la Luzerne dined there has been in the Country for some Months past. _M: de Camaran_ a young french gentleman who went to America with the Marquis the last time was asked by Mrs. B. what part of America he liked best. he did not know from what part she was, and answered Boston. "I never was there" said Mrs. B. the Gentleman was embarrass'd when he found she was a Philadelphian; but she added _j'aime beaucoup mieux l'Europe que l'Amerique_. Mrs. B. is handsome, about 20 years of age, and her husband is supposed to be, and lives as if he was, very rich; so it is not very astonishing that she prefers Europe to her own Country.
20th. My father went to Versailles in the morning to the Count de Vergennes upon the subject of a Treaty between the U. States and the Powers of Barbary. The Emperor of Morocco has taken an American vessel belonging to Mr. Fitz Simmons of Philadelphia. he has made the Master and the crew prisoners, but has not suffered them to be made slaves. he has ordered his People not to take any more untill Congress may send a Consul to him: & he offers to treat with us upon the same footing that he does with all the Powers of Europe. this matter gives the American Commissioners, a great deal of trouble at present.
27th. Sunday. Mr. Adams dined with Mr. de St. Olympe's and spent the evening at Mr. Jefferson's. At about seven O'Clock in the evening, the Queen, was delivered of a Son, who is _Monseigneur le Duc de Normandie:_ this is one of the most important events that can happen in this kingdom; & every Frenchman has been expecting it, as if the fate of his life depended upon it. One would think that after having a Dauphin they would be easy, and quiet, but say they, the Dauphin is young and may die; and tho' the king has two brothers one of whom has several children, yet the Capital point is that the crown should pass down eternally from father to Son: insomuch that they would prefer being governed by a fool or a tyrant, that should be the Son of his predecessor, than by a sensible and good prince, who should only be a brother. The Canons announced to us the birth of the Prince. the Queen was taken ill only an hour before her delivery, a Circumstance which must have been very agreeable to her. for a few minutes before she is delivered, the doors of her apartment are always opened, and every body that pleases is admitted, to see the child come into the world, and if there had been time enough, all Paris would have gone _pour voir_ _accoucher la Reine_. the name of the young Duke of Normandy, is not yet known.
29th. Dr. Franklin's early in the morning. Col'l Humphreys breakfasted with us, and went with Mr. Adams to Versailles, where they were presented _for the first time_ , to the new born Prince, who received them in bed: there were half a dozen ladies in the chamber. there were three beds joining each other, and in the middle one laid _M: le Duc_. probably that in the night one of the Ladies sleep in each of the other beds to prevent Monseigneur from falling out. the king was exceedingly gay, & happy, & his brothers _appeared so_ too.
[April 1785]
26th. ≈ walk'd in the Palais Royal, where I met Mr. Williamos; and as I had sent our carriage back to Auteuil and, it was too late to walk home, I went with him & dined at Mr. Jefferson's. A few minutes after Dinner, Some Letters came, in from America, and I was informed by Mr. J: that the Packet le Courier de L'Orient, which sail'd from New York the 23d of March, is arrived: Mr. J. & Col'l Humphreys had Letters from Gen'l Washington: & a Letter from Mr. Gerry, of Feb'y 25th: says, Mr. Adams, is appointed Minister to the Court of London. I believe he will promote the Interests of the United States, as much as any man: but I fear his Duty will induce him to make exertions which may be detrimental to his Health: I wish however it may be otherwise. Were I now to go with him, probably my immediate Satisfaction, might be greater than it will be in returning to America. After having been travelling for these seven years, almost all over Europe, and having been in the world and among Company for three: to return & spend one or two years in the Pale of a College, subjected to all the rules, which I have so long been freed from: then to plunge into the Dry & tedious study of the law; for three years, & afterwards not expect, (however good an Opinion I may have of myself), to bring myself into Notice, under three or four years more; if ever: it is really a Prospect some what discouraging for a youth of my Ambition (for I have Ambition, though I hope its object is laudable). But still . . .
Oh! How wretched
Is that poor Man, that hangs on Princes favours.
or on those of any body else. I am determined that as long as I shall be able to get my own living, in an honorable manner; I will depend upon no one. My father has been so much taken up all his lifetime, with the Interests of the public, that his own fortune has suffered by it: So that his children will have to provide for themselves; which I shall never be able to do, if I loiter away my precious time in Europe; and shun going home untill I am forced to it. With an ordinary share of common Sense, which I hope I enjoy, at least in America, I can live _independent_ and _free_ , and rather than live other wise, I would wish to die, before, the time, when I shall be left at my own Discretion. I have before me a striking example, of the distressing & humiliating Situation a person is reduced to by adopting a different line of Conduct, & I am determined not to fall into the same error.
[May 1785]
4th. In the afternoon I went into Paris alone: went to the Griffon, Rue de Bussy & bought some Stationary. To the Hôtel de Nassau rue de la Harpe, to see Mm. la Comtesse d'Ouradou, but she was not within. Bought me a Couple of Trunks. Went to Mr. Jefferson's: he tells me, that the Count, thinks of not going in the next Packet. I fear Mr. Williamos, after failing me, himself, has been endeavouring to persuade the Count to do so too, which I do not think is very polite. Mr. Jefferson, spoke concerning Virginia, a State, which he knows very particularly as it is his native Country. The blacks, he tells me, are very well treated there; and increase in population, more in proportion, than the whites. before the War, he says the negroes, were to the whites, in the proportion of 3 to 4. Now they are as 10 to 11, which is a very material difference. he supposes about 500,000 souls in the State. he disapproves very much the Cultivation of Tobacco, and wishes, it may be laid entirely aside. he thinks wheat would be much more advantageous, & profitable, much less Laborious, & less hurtful to the ground: he is a man of great Judgment.
10th. Mr. A. went to Versailles to take leave of the Court. Mr. Carnes came out. Was all day preparing for my departure. in the evening Mm. de la Fayette, with two of her Children, came out: & Mr. Jarvis and Mr. Randall.
[July 1785]
4th. Calm weather continually: and so warm that it is almost insupportable. We still esteem ourselves 50 leagues East of the Bermudas. I wish'd very much to arrive in America before this day, which is the greatest day in the year, for every true American. The anniversary of our Independence. may heaven preserve it: and may the world still see
A State where liberty shall still survive
In these late times, this evening of mankind
When Athens, Rome and Carthage are no more
The world almost in slavish sloth dissolv'd.
Sunday July 17th. 1785. At four in the morning we came to anchor, and weigh'd it again at eight O'Clock: we sailed up the North River, and pass'd by the ruins of the forts built by the British while they were in possession of New York. upon Staten Island they are numerous. the Entrance of this river furnishes a number of very beautiful prospects; and the Situation of a number of country Seats upon long island is exceeding fine. At about noon we arrived directly before the City, and anchored near the shore. ≈
18th: At about 9 in the morning, I went on shore with my trunks, which were search'd, so that I almost thought myself in Europe again.
23d: After breakfast I went to see Col'l Monroe, and Mr. Hardy, of the Virginia delegation. Call'd upon Mr. Fontfreyde. lounged about untill near two O'Clock, and then return'd again to N (189) where the gentlemen of the Virginia delegation lodge. Mr. Gerry, Mr. King, Mr. Monroe, Mr. Hardy, Mr. Smith, & myself, went all in the president's Carriage, to general Knox, who lives about 2 miles out of town. there was a considerable company at dinner. Miss R. Sears, was remarkable among the Ladies, and was exceedingly pretty. She has lately been ill, and is a little pale, but had she sufficient colour, she would I think be a compleat beauty. — Mr. Hardy advised me to spend some time in Virginia, with Mr. Wythe, who has form'd a sort of a law academy, which, he as well as Mr. Jefferson, & the president think a most usefull institution. Mr. Hardy wishes that there may be much intercourse between the different States, in order to increase, our Union. And for that purpose he thinks that it would be very useful for the youths of one State, to be educated in another. — Went in the Evening to the Coffee house, and at about 9 O'Clock returned home.
[August 1785]
21st: At six in the morning, we all left Middleton: and rode on to Hartford, where we arrived at about 9. the distance is 14 miles. for several miles on this side [of] Middleton, we rode along by the side of the river: and after we left it, we had from the top of an hill a most elegant prospect. indeed there are a number in this Country, which looks as prosperous, and as fertile, as any I remember ever to have been through. ≈
22d. ≈ I went into a bookseller's shop, and there found a new publication, called the Conquest of Canaan, an american epic Poem, in eleven books, by Mr. T. Dwight. It is but lately that it was printed, and I have heard a very high Character of it, which induced me, to purchase it. Mr. Wadsworth was so kind as to give me a copy of McFingal, and these are the two pieces in which americans have endeavour'd most to soar as high, as European bards. McFingal is generally agreed to be equal, if not superior to Hudibras. of the serious poem, no criticism has appeared, owing I suppose, to its being so lately publish'd. — I met just before dinner with my old fellow scholar, Deane, who came from Weathersfield this morning. I was told he was in New London: had I known he was at Weathersfield, I should have stop'd there, on purpose to see him; for there is nothing I think more shameful, than to forget our old acquaintance. ≈
23d. It was almost seven O'Clock before we got under way this morning. we rode about 10 miles and then cross'd Connecticut river; which serves there as a boundary between that State and Massachusetts. two miles after we had cross'd the river we came to Springfield. we breakfasted there, and stopp'd about an hour; after which we proceeded on our Journey about 14 miles further before dinner. The mistress of the tavern where we dined told me my name, and said she knew me from my resemblance to my father who had passed several times this way. At 4 O'Clock we again set out, and found the roads so very bad, that it was almost ten before we got to Marlborough which was only 12 miles. hills and rocks seem to have been the only things we have this day come across. I cannot recommend the roads of Massachusetts as a model.
26th. A tous les couers bien nés que la patrie est chere
Qu'avec ravissement je revois ce séjour.
No person who has not experienced it can conceive how much pleasure there is in returning to our Country after an absence of 6 years especially when it was left at the time of life, that I did, when I went last to Europe. the most trifling objects now appear interesting to me: in the morning I went to see my uncle Smith, but he was not at home. I saw my aunt and Mr. Smith, who went with me to the Treasury office, where I found my uncle Cranch. I was introduced to a number of gentlemen, and met several of my old acquaintances. I delivered a Letter to Mr. Breck from the Marquis. Dined at Mr. Cranch's lodgings, where I found my Cousins Betsey and Lucy. in the afternoon they went to Cambridge, and I followed them there with Mr. Smith. at College I met my Cousin, & brother Charles, who entered about 6 weeks agone. We spent an hour with them, & were then obliged to return to Boston. I lodged at Deacon Smith's.
I shall not attempt to describe the different Sensations I experienced in meeting after so long an absence, the friends of my childhood, and a number of my nearest and dearest relations. this day will be forever too deeply rooted in my Memory, to require any written account of it. it has been one of the happiest I ever knew.
28th. Attended Mr. Wibird's meeting forenoon, and afternoon. his voice and look was as familiar to me, as if I had not been absent. Among the People that were grown up before I went away, there were few or no new faces, in the house: but there were but few young People, that I could recollect. 6 years have very little effect upon the appearance of men, & women, but a surprising one, upon that of Children. but of all the persons I have seen none have so compleately altered as my Cousin W. Cranch. I never can realize the idea, of his being the same little boy I left in 1779. and I am told that I myself have alter'd nearly as much. When the afternoon service was over I went with Mr. Tyler down to my father's house, and no object ever brought to my mind such a variety of different Sensations. it reminded me of the days of my Childhood, most of which were past in it. but it look'd so lonely, and melancholy without its inhabitants, as drew a deep sigh from my breast. I paid a visit to the Library, and found it in pretty good order.
31st: This morning Mr. Chaumont came to the College, with Mr. Toscon, and two other french gentlemen, Mr. Issotier, & Mr. Serano. We went and saw all the curiosities belonging to the College, which are not very numerous. there are several exceeding fine pictures done by Mr. Copley, all portraits. The library is good, without being magnificent. We all paid a visit to Mr. Willard the president of the College. the other gentlemen left me with him, and after he had made enquiries concerning my acquisitions: he advised me to wait till next spring before I offer: and then enter for three months in the junior Sophister Class. I left him and return'd to the gentlemen. We went back to Boston, and got there at about 11. I paid a number of visits, & dined with Deacon Storer. After dinner I went with Mr. Chaumont & visited Mr. Cushing the lieutenant Governor: but he was not at home. I met Mr. Appleton, & went with him to his father's house. — return'd in the evening to Mr. Storer's and supped there. rec'd a letter from my Sister, through N. York.
[October 1785]
4th: I began this day to translate the Eclogues of Virgil. What a difference between this Study, and that of a dry barren greek Grammar. But without sowing the grain there certainly can be no harvest. and there is no Rose, without a thorn. I have been invited to several places, but as yet have had to plead, as an excuse, that my trunks have not come, and I have no Clothes to appear decently in. although I am much in want of my trunks, yet I should be glad if I could make the excuse serve longer, than I shall be able to: for I feel every day the desire of forming new Acquaintances, diminishing. I have been for these eight years continually changing my Society: as soon as I have been able to distinguish good Characters from bad, and have obtained any friends, I could have any Confidence in, I have been obliged to leave them, probably never to see them more. My heart instead of growing callous by a frequent repetition of the same pain, seem'd to feel every seperation more than, any of the former ones. I am really weary of this wandering, strolling kind of Life, and now I wish to form few new acquaintances, have few friends, but such as I may
Grapple to my heart with hooks of steel.
29th: I began to give over all hopes of receiving any Letters from my Sister by the last Vessels. but this morning while we were at Breakfast A large packet came in from Boston, inclosing me a very long Letter, with the account untill the 15th of August. the pleasure I received was enhanced by having it when it was unexpected. But it has not satisfied me, upon one subject, which gives me still a great deal of anxiety. Doubts, hopes, & fears alternately rise in my Breast, and I know not what to Conclude. the subject is of great importance to me, as it regards the happiness of a Sister, for whom I have the tenderest and sincerest affection. between 12 and 1 I went down to Mr. White's, and read my Letter to the Ladies. stay'd and dined there. Spent part of the afternoon with Mr. Thaxter: he gave me a piece of information which surprised me very much, but which I sincerely hope to be true. Nancy came home, this Evening. I have been endeavouring for some time past, to climb, up some steps upon the hill of the muses but, Boileau says with great truth
C'est en vain qu'au Parnasse un téméraire auteur
Pense de l'art des vers atteindre la hauteur
S'il n'a reçu du ciel, l'influence secrete,
Si son astre en naissant ne l'a formé Poete.
the hill I fear is by far too slippery for me.
[November 1785]
3d: Mr. Shaw went to the lecture of a neighbouring brother, and dined out; I was pretty close, all day, and did not go out of the house. Events cannot be interesting, when one is in this Situation. and few Reflections can be made, by one entirely employ'd in acquiring those of others. — I feel a degree of Melancholy which may be owing to my having been so much confined these three or four days, but I rather imagine proceeds from another Cause. When our Reason is at variance with our heart, the mind cannot be in a pleasing State: I have heretofore more than once, been obliged to exert all my Resolution, to keep myself free from a Passion, which I could not indulge, and which would have made me miserable had I not overcome it. I have escaped till now more perhaps owing to my good Fortune, than to my own firmness, and now again, I am put to a trial. I have still more Reason, than I ever had, to repress my feelings; but I am also perswaded, that I never was in greater danger; one Circumstance there is, which gives me hopes; and if it takes place, will put an end to my danger & my fears.
27th: The forenoon discourse was upon Revelations III. 15 & 16. 'I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot; I would thou wert cold or hot. So then, because thou art luke-warm, & neither cold, nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth.' A very good Sermon was delivered, to inculcate a proper Zeal for Religion, & to show, the evil Consequences, of a lukewarm disposition. In the afternoon the text was in James IV: 17th. 'Therefore to him that knoweth to do good, and doeth it not, to him it is sin.' there is an Idea, which I cannot imagine to be a just one, in any Case, but which seems to possess every religious sect, more or less. it is not carried so far, in what is called the Protestant religion as in most others, but I cannot but wish, it was wholly erased from all. We are the chosen few, is repeated continually, and I believe equally unreasonably by all. I will freely own, that the divinity, has wisely thought fit to involve himself in an obscurity impenetrable to mortals. But it is in my mind, a settled maxim that every Idea, tending to excite a doubt, of the perfect benevolence, of the supreme being, is a false one. and from this I draw the Conclusion, that any human creature, who seeks the general welfare of the Society he belongs to, does all the good, and as little harm, as is possible, and adheres to what he has been taught from his Infancy to be his duty, can never be exposed to the resentment of a good and wise god, whatever the mode of his worship may be.
28th: In the forenoon I began, upon Xenophon's Cyropaedia, & in the afternoon, upon the book of Matthew; closed in the Evening my N: 9 to my Sister. I have for about a month past, recited in the morning, with my brother in Virgil, and it is rather to me a relaxation, than a study. It is a general Observation, that mankind have too exalted ideas, of those goods they do not possess, and too low an opinion of them, when attained. But I believe, with Respect to Science, this maxim, must be reversed. It is most commonly despised by the ignorant, but is well appreciated by those, who have overcome, the difficulties, that occur in the road to it. A youth seldom takes pleasure, in the first pursuit of those Studies, which afterwards afford him, the highest Entertainment. When I first went through Virgil, I was struck with many Beauties, which it is impossible to overlook. but the difficulty of understanding the passages, often overballanced the Satisfaction, I then derived from them: but whenever I read over any part of this Author again I am abundantly rewarded, for all the pains I ever took, in becoming acquainted with him.
[December 1785]
15th. Thanksgiving Day. a day of feasting throughout the State. Custom (and I know not but law also) has established, that towards the End of the year, the Governor, should appoint a certain day, for returning thanks to the supreme being for his favours during the course of the year. and the Custom is universally, to have something extraordinary on that day, to feast upon. We had a sermon in the forenoon, upon the occasion, from Exodus XXIII. 15. 16. and none shall appear before me empty: And the feast of the harvest, the first-fruits of thy labours, which thou hast sown, in the field: and the feast of the in-gathering, which is in the end of the year, when thou hast gathered in thy labours out of the field. Mr. Shaw who has been ill of a cold for some time, and was very hoarse, wish'd Mr. Porter to preach for him: but he refused, because, sometime ago, just before the thanksgiving day in New Hampshire, upon his applying to Mr. Shaw to preach for him, he answered that Every Minister ought to preach his own thanksgiving. Mr. Stoughton, with his Lady and Daughter dined here, and our Eliza. We had a very abundant Entertainment. We spent the evening at Mr. White's. the usual Circle, were present; & Mr. _Johnny_ White (as they call him here, for distinction sake) and his Lady. We play'd cross Purposes, and I know not what. We laugh'd at one another all the Evening, and at about 9 in the Evening retired respectively, in good humour.
21st. All day at home. I am often at a great loss, what to say at the End of a day in this Journal, of mine: I would place my thoughts upon Persons and things: but Persons I do not often see, and when I am in Company with a new Character, and recollect my Observations upon it, they are for the most part either such as I am afraid I should in future consider as partial an ill natured, or wholly insignificant; & my time is so entirely taken up, in other employments, that I make very few reflections upon things. however this scene of perpetual sameness, which does not agree perfectly with my disposition, will not last very long. The family I am in, presents as perfect a scene of happiness, as I ever saw: but it is entirely owing to the disposition of the persons. a life of Tranquility is to them a life of bliss. It could not be so to me. Variety is my Theme. and Life to me is like a journey, in which an unbounded plain, looks dull and insipid; while it affords greater pleasure to be surrounded by a beautiful valley, altho' steep and rugged mountains must be overcome, before it can be got at. I know not whether my Choice is the wisest: and it is possible I may live to change it; but such it is, at present.
[January 1786]
27th. Finished the first book of the Satires, and began, the 2d. these I find no difficulty in, as I have translated them before. Read in Locke's Essay upon the Understanding in the afternoon; the whole of the first book is taken up in proving that there are no innate Ideas. A person should never pass judgment upon such points, or indeed any others that are the subjects of Contention, without hearing both sides of the Question: but he appears to reason in such a manner that I am very much inclined to think him right. It has been said, that his arguments to prove that the Existence of a God is not an innate Idea, may be injurious, but they make no alteration in the reality, nor do they in the least invalidate, the evidence, of, what Nature cries aloud in all her works. This is the only idea, which I think night be contended for as innate; for as to those of a Virtue, justice &c. I conceive of nothing that can be answered to what he says upon the subject.
[February 1786]
4th: Dined at Mr. Osgood's in a large Company. 16 persons, at table Mr. Larieu, a frenchman, and Mr. W. Greenleaf, were the only, that I was not before acquainted with. Mr. Larieu has been very unfortunate in losing, almost all his Estate, by the failure of Mr. Fessenden, in this Town. Drank tea at Mr. White's, where, Eliza pass'd the Day. in the Evening I was conversing my aunt, upon the subject of _Courtship_ , and that of _Self love._ Mr. Shaw was present when I said I thought _Self_ , was the ultimate motive of all actions, _good, bad_ , or _indifferent_. he opposed the idea, and as I persisted in my opinion, he said he thought it a little Strange, that at 19 a youth should make such positive decisions, in opposition to persons much older, than myself. I believe in answer I shew, too much warmth, as his charge was partly true. I fear I am too tenacious of many of my opinions, and what in itself is nothing, but as to the effect it has on mankind, is all; I still own, that I have not altered them, even after hearing them Reason upon the subject; unless I have really been convinced. It has made persons suppose I was obstinate, and dogmatical, & _pedantic_ , as Mr. Shaw expressed himself, when if my heart deceives me not, I only wish to acquire information, and own my thoughts, without ever having an Idea, to wish other persons might adopt my Sentiments; it is not unpolite to think differently from a person older than yourself, but the unpoliteness lies in combatting his opinions. I wish to be more fully Sensible of this maxim, at times, when it is necessary to put it in practice. Reverence for age, is one of the most important and necessary qualities, a young man can have: and a deference to their sentiments, ought, apparently to be shown, even although, they were absurd and ridiculous. N. B. to think more upon this Subject.
[March 1786]
15th: Between 9 and 10 in the morning, I went to the President's, and was there examined, before, the President, the four Tutors three Professors, and Librarian. the first book was Horace, where Mr. _James_ the Latin Tutor told me to turn to the Carmen saeculare where I construed 3 stanza's, & parsed the word _sylvarum_ , but called _potens_ a substantive. Mr. Jennison, the greek Tutor then put me to the beginning of the fourth Book of Homer; I construed Lines, but parsed wrong αλληλομϚ. I had then παραβληδην given me. I was then asked a few questions in Watts's Logic by Mr. Hale, and a considerable number in Locke, on the Understanding, very few of which I was able to answer. the next thing was Geography, where Mr. Read ask'd me what was the figure of the Earth, and several other questions, some of which I answered; & others not. Mr. Williams asked me if I had studied Euclid, & Arithmetic, after which the President conducted me to another Room, and gave me the following piece of English to turn into Latin, from the World. _There cannot certainly be an higher ridicule, than to give an air of Importance, to Amusements, if they are in themselves contemptible & void of taste. but if they are the object and care of the judicious and polite and really deserve that distinction, the conduct of them is certainly of Consequence_. I made it thus. _Nihil profectó risu dignior, potest esse, quam magni aestimare delectamenta, si per se despicienda sunt, atque sine sapore. At si res oblatae atque cura sunt sagacibus et artibus excultis, et reverá hanc distinctionem merent, administratio eorum haud_ _dubié utilitatis est_. (I take it from memory only, as no scholar is suffered to take a Copy of the Latin he made at his examination.) The President then took it, was gone about ¼ of an hour, return'd, and said "you are admitted, Adams," and gave me a paper to carry to the Steward. I had the form of a bond, which is to be signed by two persons, in the presence of two witnesses: this is what every student is obliged to do; and the bondsmen forfeit 200 ounces of silver, if the bills are not paid once a Quarter. Mr. Shaw went to Boston before dinner: I sent by him the form of the bond to Doctor Tufts to fill it. I went with my brother to Mr. Dana's, where we dined, in Company with Harris, of the Senior Class, who boards there. It is against the Laws of the College to call any under-graduate, by any but his Sir-name, & I am told, the President, who is remarkably strict in all those matters, reproved a gentleman at his table, for calling a student _Mr_. while he was present. — Spent the afternoon, & evening in College. The Sophimore Class had what is called in College, an high-go. they assembled all together in the Chamber, of one of the Class; where some of them got drunk, then sallied out and broke a number of windows for three of the Tutors, and after this sublime manouevre stagger'd to their chambers. such are the great atchievements of many of the sons of Harvard, such the delights of many of the students here. — Return'd to Mr. Dana's, & lodged there.
23d. I did not hear the Bell Ring this morning, and was tardy at Prayers. Every time a Student is tardy at prayers he is punished a penny; and there is no eluding that Law, so that a Student must prefer not attending prayers at all; to being ½ a minute too Late. after prayers we went in to Mr. James to recite in Terence. the manner of reciting this is, the Persons at the head of the Class, read an whole scene in the Latin, and then the same into English. and when they have finished the next read another Scene and so on. — Cranch went to Boston in the forenoon. Thursday, is a Day which commonly both Tutors and Students take as a leisure day. and there is seldom, any reciting, except in the morning. After Prayers the President read a Paper to this effect. That on the evening of the 15th, it appeared the Sophimores had assembled at the Chamber of one in the Class, and had behaved in a tumultuous, noisy manner; that at length they sallied out, and were very riotous to the disturbance, and _dishonor_ of the University. But as their conduct till then had been such as deserved approbation, & was _submissive_ and, as they early shew a proper repentance for their fault, having presented an humble petition to be forgiven. Therefore, it had been voted that no further Notice should be taken of it; but it was hoped the Students, would not abuse, the Lenity of the government, but rather show that they were deserving of it. The Fresh men, who are always, as a Class, at Variance with the Sophimores, thought the government had been partial; and the Consequence was, that Mr. James, the Tutor of the Sophimore Class, and who was supposed, to have favoured them, and to have been the means of saving them from severer punishment; had four squares of glass broken in his Windows. Such was the Effect of the Lenity, which was to induce the Students to do their Duty.
[April 1786]
3d. We recite this Week, to Dr. Jennison in Greek. Mornings in Homer, and afternoons in the Greek Testament. Willard, first came in to recite; the Dr. ask'd me by what rule λαβων, governed γομνϖν. H: 6: v. 45. I did not know, & said Verbs of Sense &c. no, it was under _that long Rul_ _e_ ; I read the long Rule, there was nothing to be found in it, that would apply. He said there was something very peculiar in it, and I sat down. He is not a very extraordinary greek scholar, but they say, he improves, as it is but of late since, he has taken that department. at 11, We had a Lecture from Mr. Williams, upon Motion; that of elastic, and that of non-elastic bodies. The Lecture was not, to me, so entertaining, as the two former. This evening, there were it is said upwards of 100 Scholars out on the common, armed with Clubs, to fight the People, belonging to the Town. a few evenings since, Lovell, a junior, got quarrelling with a man belonging to the Town, about a girl, two or three other juniors being present took Lovell's part, and a few blows were dealt on both sides. Lovell, has told his story just as he pleased; and has raised almost all college; for this Society like most others thinks that an insult offered to one member, must be resented by all. and as in a well ordered Republic, although, some of the Classes, have of late, been so much at Variance, yet immediately upon a foreign insult they all United. the only thing wanting, to make the scholars highly praise-worthy in this Case, is a good Cause. It appears plainly that the first insult was from Lovell, and the original Cause of the quarrel an infamous girl. There would probably some very severe blows have past had not the Tutors and professor Williams, interposed, this Evening. They perswaded both Parties to disperse; but this will perhaps be only a Suspension of arms: I doubt whether the matter will end here.
4th: The Seniors this morning had a forensic disputation, upon the Question, whether a democratical form of Government, is the best of all. The Class in alphabetical order, alternately supported or opposed this Question. I went to Sullivan's chamber. Studied in the 7th. Book of the Iliad. I made tea, for the Club this evening. they were all here Amory, Beale, Bridge, 3 Chandler's, Cranch, Hammond, Kendall, Little, Lloyd, Mason, Putnam, White, and Williams. After tea, and singing two or three songs, they all retired but Bridge, a very steady, & studious young fellow, who sat and had a couple of hours chat with me.
[May 1786]
8th. We recite this week in Terence, and Caesar to Mr. James. This is the tutor of the oldest standing in College. he is very well acquainted with the branch he has undertaken, and Persons, that are not Students, say that he is much of a Gentleman. but it seems almost to be a maxim among the Governors of the College, to treat the Students pretty much like brute Beasts. There is an important air, and a haughty look, that, every Person, belonging to the government, (Mr. Williams excepted) assumes; which indeed it is hard for me to submit to. but it may be of use to me, as it mortifies my Vanity, and if any thing, in the world, can teach me humility, it will be, to see myself subjected to the commands of a Person, that I must despise.
[June 1786]
2d: We had another Lecture from Mr. Williams to day, with an explanation of the different optical Instruments, that are most commonly made use of. But there was such, a flocking to see through the microscope, and the magic Lantern, and the camera obscura, that something got broke, and Mr. Williams, shew nothing more after it. Weather very warm, several of us, bath'd in the River this afternoon.
3d. We had a Lecture this morning upon Electricity; we received two small shocks, which however, gave me such a stroke in the joints at my elbows that I could not write after it; The weather very warm indeed. Fahrenheit's thermometer I am told was at 87. 80 is the common summer heat. We did not recite in Doddrige, this morning.
17th: This day, the Bridge over Charlestown Ferry was compleated, and as the same day 11 years agone, was mark'd at Charlestown, with dreadful Scenes, of Slaughter and Destruction, the managers, and directors of the Bridge, determined, that this day should be mark'd with Pleasure and festivity. I do not think however that the scheme, was good. a Dinner was provided for 600 People, on Bunker's hill: the havoc of oxen, sheep, & fowls of all kinds, was I suppose as great to day, as that of men upon the former occasion and I dare say, there was as much wine drank now, as there was blood spilt then. and to crown the whole, The head of the table, was I hear placed on the very spot where the immortal Warren fell. I think however, that the ground which had been the scene, of such an awful Day, should [not], be made a scene, of revels, and feasting. What must be the feelings of a man of Sensibility, who, would naturally say to himself "perhaps I am now seated on the grave of my dearest friend. perhaps this is the Spot where he drew his last gasp; and I may now be treading down his bones." all this may be called prejudice, but they are feelings natural to the heart, and such as ought not I think to be rooted from it. Three or four Songs were composed upon the occasion, by different persons, in every one of which Charlestown was compared, to a Phoenix, rising from its ashes. All the Tutors, were gone, so that we had no Prayers in the afternoon, and there were not more than 30 persons in to Commons. for my Part, I did nothing all day in Consequence of it. after dinner we bathed in the River.
[September 1786]
7th: No reciting. Cranch went to Boston. — The Commonwealth, is in a State of considerable fermentation. Last week at Northampton, in the County of Hampshire, a body of armed men to the number of three or four hundred, prevented the Court of common Pleas from sitting, and bruised the high-sheriff dangerously, as it is reported. The same Court was likewise stopp'd the day before yesterday, at Worcester by 400 men. The Court went to a Tavern, and adjourned till yesterday. They were again prevented from proceeding yesterday, and adjourned without a day. The militia it seems could not be raised to quell them. The Governor issued a Proclamation, calling upon the People at large to support the Constitution, attacked in such a flagrant manner, and directing the State's Attorney, to prosecute the abbettors of these Riots. The Militia in the Town of Boston, have already offered their Services, and declared their determination to support the government with their Lives and Fortunes. where this will end Time alone, can disclose. I fear, it will not before some blood is shed. The People complain of grievances; the Court of Common Pleas, the Senate, the Salaries of Public Officers, the Taxes in general, are all grievances, because they are expensive: these may serve as pretences, but the male-contents, must look to themselves, to their Idleness, their dissipation and extravagance, for their grievances; these have led them to contract debts, and at the same time have, rendered them incapable of paying them. Such disturbances if properly managed may be productive of advantages to a Republican Government, but if they are suffered to gain ground, must infallibly lead to a civil war, with all its horrors. This will not I believe be the Case at present; but such struggles seldom end without the loss of some Lives. Such Commotions, are like certain drugs, which of themselves are deadly Poison but if properly tempered may be made, highly medicinal.
8th: I went in the evening to see Mrs. Dana; there was a large Company there, and I escaped as soon as I could. I intended to make a number of Sage Reflections, this evening, but I feel so ill-natured, that I will not attempt it.
26th. The exhibition began at about a quarter after 12, with, the Latin Oration by Bridge, it was a Panegyric upon the military institution which has lately been established. The forensic between Cranch, and me, came next. I read as follows. ≈
"Conscious of the insufficiency of my ability to perform the task allotted to me, I would fain implore the Indulgence, and Candour of this respectable Audience. But Apologies of this kind, are seldom of much avail, especially when they have any foundation: I shall therefore without any further Preamble, introduce the Question, Whether inequality among the Citizens, be necessary to the Preservation of the Liberty of the whole?
There are two views in which the word _Inequality_ as relating to the Citizens of a State, may be considered. Inequality of Fortune, or of Rights, Privileges and Dignities. In the Case of Riches, the Inequality arises in the natural Course of Things; Nor is there an Instance of a State of any Consequence, subsisting without it. There were indeed several sharp Contests in the Roman Republic, with Respect to an equal distribution of Lands; but they were never of any Service, to the People, and were always attended, with the most unhappy Consequences. The Question appears therefore to be, in other Words, whether a pure democracy be the most favourable Government to the Liberties of a People.
It is a very general political maxim, that Men can never possess a great degree of Power without abusing it. Hence, so few Instances of despotic Monarchs, who have not been the scourges of their People. In an aristocratic government, the Power being in a number of hands, this tyrannical disposition becomes more dangerous, and extends wider its baneful Influence. But of all Tyrannies, the most dreadful, is that of an whole People; and in a Government, where all men are equal, the People will infallibly become Tyrants. What Protection can any Laws afford a Citizen in a State where every individual, thinks he has a right of altering and annulling them at his Pleasure, and where nothing is wanting, but the capricious whim of a vile Rabble, to overturn all Laws and Government? If a Prince is oppressive, at least he has been taught in some measure, the Art of governing an Empire, and has commonly been educated, for it. The same may be said of an Aristocracy, they will at least endeavour to support the Dignity of a State, and will take proper Measures for the safety of the majority, of the People, though they may be unjust to individuals. But when the Passions of a People, conscious of their Liberty and strength are raised, they hurry them into the greatest extremities: an enraged multitude, will consult nothing, but their fury; and their Ignorance serves only to increase their Obstinacy, and their Inconsistency.
The most simple forms of Government, are probably the most ancient: But Mankind soon perceived, the great inconveniences which naturally arise from a despotic Monarchy, an arbitrary Aristocracy, and an inconstant Democracy. they endeavoured therefore to form Constitutions, which might unite all the advantages, severally possessed by each of those Systems, without having their Defects. Such was the Constitution which raised a petty Village of Italy to the Empire of the World; and such in more modern Times was the Constitution which enabled Great Britain, to make such a splendid figure, in three Quarters of the Earth, and to prescribe terms of Peace to two combined Kingdoms, whose natural Advantages were so much superior to her own: happy would it have been for her, if Prosperity had not introduced Luxury and Corruption, which have undermined the Pillars of her excellent Constitution, and exposed her to the Contempt and Derision of those very Nations by whom she was formerly view'd with Terror.
I am sensible, my Friend, that you have the popular Prejudice in your favour; and that in declaring against equality I am combating the Sentiments, of perhaps a large majority of the Inhabitants of this Common wealth. It is the Duty of every Person, and more especially of an unexperienced Youth, to show a proper Deference, and Respect for the Opinions of Mankind in general, and of his Countrymen in particular. But when his Reason tells him that these Opinions would lead him to a manifest absurdity; I think he has a Right to refuse his Assent to them, at least untill sufficient Arguments are brought to support them. Now, as Nature has in every other Particular, created a very great inequality among Men, I see not upon what grounds we can found the Supposition, that they ought all to share an equal degree of Power. And that too great a degree of equality among the Citizens, is prejudicial to the Liberty of the whole, the present alarming Situation of our own Country will I think afford us a sufficient Proof.
[March 1787]
10th: We had not obtained leave to be absent from College, and were therefore obliged to be at meeting, in Cambridge, to-morrow, or to submit to the fine. this morning therefore, between 9 & ten, we left Haverhill, with beautiful weather, but sloppy riding, as a great deal of snow, was melted by the rain last night: we got to the half way tavern by twelve, we stop'd and dined there, after which we again proceeded; and arrived at College while the prayer bell was tolling, just before Sun Set. Foster quitted us in Mystic, & went to Boston. soon after prayers I heard with equal grief and surprize, that judge Dana was seized with an apoplectic, and paraletic fit, on thursday in the forenoon: that his life was for sometime despaired of, and that he is still in a very dangerous situation. to me, he has been a second father, and his instructions, though too much neglected at the Time when he gave them, have since been more attended to; & have at least check'd some of my failings, and were calculated to reform them entirely. I have therefore reason to revere him in a peculiar manner: but a man of his Talents and virtues, filling one of the most important offices in the State, is precious to the whole Commonwealth; and should his disease prove fatal, his loss will not be easily repaired.
[June 1787]
10th: Attended meeting all day. Mr. Burr, preach'd two very good sermons. dined at Mr. Dana's, in Company with Mr. Parsons of Newbury-Port: a man of great wit, as well as of sound judgment and deep learning.
20th: ≈ It is not without many melancholy reflections that I bid a last adieu to the walls of Harvard! the scenes through which I have past since my entrance at the university have been for the most part agreeable, I have formed an intimacy, with a number of amiable & respectable characters of my own age, and with dispositions corresponding to my own. I have never once regretted, but have frequently rejoyced that I left Europe, to come and pass a twelve-month here. it has been productive of very good effects; particularly, in reducing my opinion of myself, of my acquirements, and of my future prospects, nearer to the level of truth and reality. I hope, that in two or three years more, I shall have taken down, without any violence, all the elegant castles which my imagination had built in the air, over my head, and which for want of a foundation, were liable, to be overset, and crush the builder, if any accident had happened. and I believe that even now, (making allowance, for a little vanity, which has frequently been flattered,) I do not exaggerate my prospects, more than other young people of my age, and circumstances, do.
29th: I intended to have gone to Cambridge this afternoon, but could not get an horse. my Cousin went and will return to-morrow night. wrote a letter to my father. — I do not relish this life of idleness and expectation. I am very desirous that Commencement should be over, and shall certainly, not feel easy, till then. and indeed after that, till I get settled at some business, I shall not be contented.
[July 1787]
11th. This day completes my twentieth year: and yet I am good for nothing, and cannot even carry myself forward in the world: three long years I have yet to study in order to qualify myself for business: and then — oh! and then; how many more years, to plod along, mechanically, if I should live; before I shall really get into the world? grant me patience ye powers! for I sicken, at the very idea: thus is one third of a long life employ'd in preparing to act a part during another third; and the last is to be past in rest and quiet waiting for the last stroke, which places us just where we were 70 years before. Vanity! Vanity! all is vanity and vexation of spirit.
[August 1787]
14th. It was so warm again this day, that I did not set out from Haverhill, till between 3 and 4 in the afternoon. On the road I met at different times, Mr. Tappan, Stedman & Thompson, and Tom Hooper. I arrived at Mr. Tufts's in Newbury-Port, just before sun-set. I did not enter the town with the most favorable impressions: about three weeks hence I am to become an inhabitant of the place; without friends or connections, I am to stand on my own ground, and am in all probability To live here three years; whether, agreeably or not time only must discover; but the presages within my breast are not such as I should wish realized.
17th: At home all the forenoon, reading Tom Jones, one of the best novels in the language. the scenes are not only such as may have taken place, but they are similar to such as almost every person may have witnessed. this book cannot lead a person to form too favorable an opinion of human nature; but neither will it give a false one.
Pass'd the afternoon and part of the evening at Mr. White's. the papers of this day, give an account of a violent hurricane, which did a vast deal of injury in the towns of Framingham, Sudbury, Marlborough and some others in the County of Worcester; on wednesday in the afternoon. It was not perceived in these parts of the Country, where there were only two or three heavy showers of rain in the course of that day.
29th: Rain'd in the fore part of the day but cleared up in the afternoon: I went with my gun down upon the marshes; but had no sport. Game laws are said to be directly opposed to the liberties of the subject: I am well perswaded that they may be carried too far, and that they really are in most parts of Europe. But it is equally certain that when there are none, there never is any game: so that the difference between the Country where laws of this kind exist, and that where they are unknown, must be that in the former very few individuals will enjoy the privilege of hunting, & eating venison, and in the latter this privilege will be enjoy'd by nobody.
[October 1787]
12th: The day pass'd as usual, except, that I had some political chat with Mr. Parsons. he favours very much the federal constitution, which has lately been proposed by the Convention of the States. Nor do I wonder at all that he should approve of it, as it is calculated to increase the influence, power and wealth of those who have any already. If the Constitution be adopted it will be a grand point gained in favour of the aristocratic party: there are to be no titles of nobility; but there will be great distinctions; and those distinctions will soon be hereditary, and we shall consequently have nobles, but no titles. For my own part I am willing to take my chance under any government whatever, but it is hard to give up a System which I have always been taught to cherish, and to confess, that a free government is inconsistent with human nature.
28th: I attended upon Mr. Wibird in the forenoon. And pass'd the afternoon down at my father's library. W. Cranch came from Boston last evening, and returned there to'night after meeting. I was very much entertained in reading some journals of my father's, from 1769, to 1776.
29th: At about 10. O'Clock Mr. Thaxter came in from Hingham on his way to Boston: he stay'd but a few minutes, and I set off with him. We got into Town before one. I dined with Miss B. Smith, who still lives in the house that was her father's. Mrs. Cranch was there, and went for Braintree soon after dinner. I went and spent the evening with Dr. Kilham at his lodgings: he has made himself rather unpopular, by opposing the submission of the federal Constitution, to a State Convention, and I think he is perfectly right, in preferring his independency to his popularity.
[December 1787]
10th. This forenoon Townsend, sat off for Boston. Mr. Parsons intended to have gone likewise, as the supreme Court, sits by adjournment, there this week. But he was so much troubled with an ague in his face, and the tooth ach, that he could not go. — I pass'd the evening with Little at Dr. Swett's. Mrs. Swett is a pretty woman; and agreeable: not endow'd I believe with great strength of mind; not much of a reasoner nor much of a patriot, and professes to know nothing of politics, which she supposes to be entirely out of the sphere of the female sex. It would perhaps be as well, if all women thought so, and conducted upon the principle: yet I wish even females to feel some interest in the welfare of their country. — The Dr. is a man of learning, and ingenuity. he went through a course of professional studies in Scotland, and has travell'd in different parts of Europe. but he has a mean idea of human nature, and I should not wonder if all physicians had: for they are incessantly conversant with the physical defects and infirmities of mankind: they see humanity in a state of humiliation, and it is no wonder if they have no idea of its glory.
11th. Reading Blackstone all day; and I pass'd the evening, at the office till eight: after which I went and past an hour with Putnam. F. Bradbury was with him. We had some conversation upon the stale topic of self love and disinterested benevolence. A subject, upon which I have very frequently conversed, with many different persons: and notwithstanding every thing that I have heard said upon the subject, I still retain the opinion, which I adopted when I first reasoned upon it. I will not venture to say there is no such thing as disinterested benevolence, but I must say that after searching as deeply as possible into my own mind, I cannot find a trace of it there. — Talk'd with Doctor Kilham upon the federal constitution; the elections which have hitherto been made in different parts of the State, appear to be generally favorable to it.
[January 1788]
Tuesday January 1st. 1788. Pass'd the day and evening at the office. read at my own lodgings till one O'Clock in the morning. — I feel every day a greater disposition to drop this nonsense. it takes up a great deal of my time, and as it is incessantly calling upon me, I can never have any respite: in the extreme cold of winter I have no conveniences, for writing, and was it not for the pleasure of complaining to myself, I believe I should have done long ago. I often get in arrears and then I have as much time to recollect, the circumstances of one day, as at other times I have to write for four. These inconveniences however are most prevalent in the severity of the winter Season. As I have got so far through this, and more particularly as I have now begun the year, I will make an effort to carry it on for one more revolution of the Sun, and if I then feel as averse to writing as at present, I will e'en stop, at least while the events in which I am concern'd are as trivial, as they are at present. One consideration upon this subject, at least affords me some satisfaction: it is that when I look back in these volumes, and peruse, the temporary productions of my pen; I am at least able to say, at the close of the day; that day I did something.
15th: After passing the day as usual at the office, Townsend, came spent the evening and supp'd with me. The weather for these three or four days past has been excessive cold; but has moderated greatly this evening. — After supper I amused myself an hour or two with writing. And I have been reading two or three of Shakespear's historical plays. I believe I should improve my reading to greater advantage, if I confined myself to one book at a time; but I never can. If a book does not interest me exceedingly it is a task to me to go through it: and I fear for this reason, I shall never get through Gibbon. indolence, indolence I fear will be my ruin.
16th: It snow'd all the forenoon; but the weather continued moderating and in the afternoon, a steady rain took place of the snow: and when I came this evening from the office, the ground was covered all the way with one continual glare of ice. It was dangerous walking, and I came as much as half the way, without lifting my feet. — I spent the evening at home; writing to make good the time which I have lately lost; but I accomplished my purpose only in part. — It may be observed that I say of late, little, but of what I do in the evening; and the reason is, that the only varieties of any kind, that take place, are in that part of the day. At about nine in the morning, I regularly go to the Office, and when, I do not lose, my time in chat, with Amory or Townsend, I take up my lord Coke, and blunder along a few pages with him. At two I return to dinner. at three again attend at the office, and again consult my old author. There I remain till dark, and as Mr. Parsons for special reasons, to him best known, objects to our having a fire in the office, in the evening, while he is absent, as soon as day-light begins to fail, we put up our books, and then employ the remainder of the day, as best suits our convenience, and the feelings of the moment. I go but little into company, and yet I am not industrious. I am recluse, without being studious; and I find myself equally deprived of the pleasures of society, and of the sweet communion with the might dead. I am no stranger to the mid-night lamp; yet I observe not that I make, a rapid progress in any laudable pursuit. I begin seriously to doubt of the goodness of my understanding, and am not without my fears, that as I increase in years, the dulness of my apprehension likewise increases. but we are all mortal.
17th: Putnam called at our office this forenoon, and return'd Sullivan's Lectures, which he borrow'd about a fortnight ago. I pass'd the evening till 9, with Little and Putnam at Thompson's. We convers'd upon the subject of originality. Thompson opposed my sentiments upon that head, though, I believe he does not differ very widely from me. — I told him I was fond of novelty in characters, and was even pleased with excentricity if it was not affected. I cannot bear your people, who have no characters at all. And yet I could name many young gentlemen, who being merely blest by nature with a good memory, and by art with diligence and application; bustle through the world, and even find people, who will call them men of genius. These fellows will always secure the favour of their superiors by an hypocritical kind of modesty. They will treat their equals equivocally, and suit their conduct to circumstances: but from those whom they consider as their inferiors, they will claim the same veneration which they themselves pay to men from whom they have any thing to expect. I have sometimes been fatigued to death, with a coxcomb of this kind, in hearing him deal out for an half an hour together, a parcel of common place thoughts, with as much pomposity, as if he was all the time delivering aphorisms. and this he will do in the company of three or four women, who will all the time wonder at the immensity of his abilities. But of such an one, I can neither disguise nor conceal my contempt. his genius is imitation, and his skill is cunning. I had much rather see a person, who can invent, who can create, even though the production should be more imperfect.
[February 1788]
7th: This day at about noon, the news arrived in this Town, that the federal Constitution, was yesterday, adopted and ratified by a majority of nineteen members in our State convention. — In this town the Satisfaction is almost universal: for my own part, I have not been pleased with this System, and my acquaintance, have long since branded me with the name of an _antifederalist_. But I am now converted, though not convinced. my feelings upon the occasion have not been passionate nor violent, and as upon the decision of this question I find myself on the weaker side, I think it my duty to submit without murmuring against what is not to be helped. In our Government, opposition to the acts of a majority of the people is rebellion to all intents and purposes; and I should view a man who would now endeavour to excite commotions against this plan, as no better than an insurgent who took arms last winter against the Courts of Justice. ≈
8th: This afternoon the delegates from Newbury, and from this town, returned home from Convention. A number of very respectable citizens, and a number, who were not very respectable, went out on horse-back to meet the members and escort them into Town; as they came along, the bells at the different churches, were set to ringing, and this noisy expression of joy, was continued with some intermissions till 8 O'Clock in the evening. The mob huzza'd and one would have thought that every man from the adoption of the Constitution had acquired, a sure expectancy of an independent fortune. — I pass'd the evening at home in reading and writing.
[June 1788]
18th: I went to the Office in the forenoon, but found myself incapacitated to do any thing, and therefore lost the morning in conversation. Just before two I went with trembling hope to the post office: and as I went into the door my heart almost failed me: but I was soon made happy by a letter from my brother Tom, which confirms the arrival of my Parents. In the afternoon I did nothing more than prepare to go to Boston in the Stage to-morrow morning. I called in the evening at Mrs. Hooper's, and at Mr. Carter's, to take their commands.
20th: I was up early in the morning, and mounted my horse at about seven. It was ten when I got into Boston. I went to Mr. Smith's, and found my father was gone to Braintree but my Mamma was at the Governor's: I immediately went there and enjoy'd all the satisfaction that can arise from the meeting so near & dear a friend after a long absence. We dined at Deacon Storer's. Old Mrs. Edwards was there (v. Vol 2. p. 27.) and Dr. Waterhouse, &c. between five and six we set out for Braintree. As I was already somewhat fatigued, my Cousin Cranch gave me up his seat in the Chaise with my Mamma, and took my horse. At about eight we got to Mr. Cranch's and there my Satisfaction & pleasure were again renew'd at finding my father in good health. and here I must stop for the present.
[July 1788]
10th: George Warren came over from Milton this forenoon, & paid us a visit. He opened an office in Milton last winter, and has done as much business, as a lawyer generally does for the first six months after he begins; but the prospects are far from being encouraging. When I am in spirits this circumstance strikes me only as an incentive to more strenuous exertions: and at such times I feel such a resolution to overcome difficulties, that I seem already in a fair way of acquiring reputation and property. My father says, that when he was a student, he heard, an old lawyer tell the present judge Sewall, who was then a student likewise, "that he never knew a lawyer that studied, who did not grow rich." the observation made an impression, and his own experience has confirmed it.
11th: This day completes my twenty first year; It emancipates me from the yoke of paternal authority which I never felt, and places me upon my own feet, which have not strength enough to support me. I continue therefore still in a state of dependence. One third of the period of my professional studies has also now elapsed; and two years more will settle me, should life and health continue; in a situation where all my expectations are to center. I feel sometimes a strong desire to know what my circumstances will be in seven years from this: but I must acknowledge, I believe my happiness would rather be injured than improved by the information.
[September 1789]
17th. ≈ I attended this morning in the gallery of the house of representatives; to hear the debates. They were upon the judiciary bill. Mr. Gerry, Mr. Jackson, Mr. Burke, Mr. Stone, Mr. Lee, Mr. Maddison, & Mr. Benson all took a part in this debate. But I confess, I did not perceive any extraordinary powers of oratory display'd by any of these gentlemen. The subject had been already so much discussed, that little could be said of further importance. The eloquence had all been exhausted, but the spirit of contention still remained.
18th: I attended again this day in the galleries of the house. The principal debate was upon the salaries of the Judges. The subject was not very interesting; but like almost every other subject exhibited the difficulty of adjusting the opposing sentiments which direct the conduct of men living in different climates and used to very different modes of living.
[May 1792]
_Wednesday May 1_ _6_ th: _1792_. I am not satisfied with the manner in which I employ my time. It is calculated to keep me forever fixed in that state of useless and disgraceful insignificancy which has been my lot for some years past. At an age bearing close upon 25, when many of the characters who were born for the benefit of their fellow creatures have rendered themselves conspicuous among their contemporaries, and founded a reputation upon which their memory remains and will continue to the latest posterity, at that period I still find myself as obscure, as unknown to the world, as the most indolent, or the most stupid of human beings. In the walks of active life, I have done nothing. Fortune indeed, who claims to herself a large proportion of the merit which exhibits to public view the talents of professional men at an early period of their Lives, has not hitherto been peculiarly indulgent to me. But If to my own mind I enquire whether I should at this time to be qualified to receive and derive any benefit from an opportunity which it may be in her power to procure to me, my own mind would shrink from the investigation. My heart is not conscious of an unworthy ambition; nor of a desire to establish either fame honour or fortune upon any other foundation, than that of desert. — But it is conscious, and the consideration is equally painful and humiliating, it is conscious that the ambition is constant, and unceasing, while the exertions to acquire the talents which ought alone to secure the reward of Ambition, are feable, indolent, frequently interrupted, and never pursued with an ardor equivalent to its purposes. My future Fortunes in Life, are therefore the objects of my present Speculation, and it may be proper for me to reflect further upon the same subject, and if possible to adopt some Resolutions, and prescribe to myself some regulations which may enable me as uncle Toby Shandy said of his miniature sieges, _to answer the great ends of my existence._
First then, I begin, with establishing as a fundamental principle upon which all my subsequent pursuits and regulations are to be established, that the acquisition, at least of a respectable reputation, is (subject to the overruling power and wisdom of Providence) within my own powers. And that on my part nothing is wanting, but a constant, and persevering determination to tread in the steps which naturally lead to honour: And at the same time, I am equally convinced, that I never shall attain that credit in the world, which my Nature directs me to wish, without such a steady, patient and persevering pursuit of the means adapted to the end I have in view, as has often been the subject of my speculation, but never of my practice.
"Labour and Toil stand stern before the throne,
And guard, so Jove commands, the sacred place."
The mode of life, adopted almost universally by my contemporaries and equals, is by no means calculated to secure the objects of my ambition. My Emulation is seldom stimulated, by observing the Industry and application of those whom my situation in Life gives me for companions. The pernicious and childish opinion, that extraordinary Genius, cannot brook the slavery of plodding over the rubbish of antiquity (a cant so common among the heedless votaries of indolence) dulls the edge of all industry, and is one of the most powerful ingredients in the Circean potion, which transforms many of the most promising young men into the beastly forms, which in sluggish idleness feed upon the labours of others. — The degenerate Sentiment I hope will never obtain admission in my mind, and if my Time should be loitered away in stupid laziness, it will be under the full conviction of my conscience, that I am basely bartering the greatest benefits with which human beings can be indulged; for the miserable gratifications which are hardly worthy of contributing to the enjoyments of the brute creation.
And as I have grounded myself upon the principle, that my character is (under the smiles of Heaven) to be the work of my own hands, it becomes necessary for me to determine, upon what part of active or of speculative life, I mean to rest my pretentions to eminence. My own Situation and that of my Country equally prohibit me from seeking to derive any present expectations from a public career. — My disposition is not military; and happily the warlike talents are not those which open the most pleasing or the most reputable avenue to fame. — I have had some transient thoughts of undertaking some useful litterary performance, but the pursuit would militate at present too much, with that of the profession upon which I am to depend, not only for my reputation, but for my subsistence.
I have therefore concluded, that the most proper object of my present attention, is _that profession itself._ And in acquiring the faculty to discharge the duties of it, in a manner suitable to my own wishes and to the expectations of my friends, I find ample room for close and attentive application: for frequent and considerate observation, and for such benefits of practical experience as occasional opportunities throw in my way.
The abilities requisite to constitute the character of a great lawyer, may be traced in the labours which in the course of his profession, he is called upon to perform. These may be divided with us into two classes. The business of his office, and the business he transacts in Court. A long, painful, and incessant attention to the prescriptions of _positive_ Law (by which I mean in general the municipal Laws) is absolutely necessary, to qualify him for giving proper advice, for doing thorough justice to his clients, as a counsellor, and for preparing the causes which are to be litigated in the Courts.
[July 1793]
4. Independence Day. Delivered the Oration at the request of the Town; the performance well received. — for which I feel grateful as I ought. — Dined with S. Cooper with an agreeable party. excellent turtle-soup. Went from thence to D Sargent's, where I found another pleasant party, and was received with great cordiality. Walking in the Even'g with J. Gardner. Saw Edes, who was very solicitous to print.
[August 1793]
10. Returned alone to Boston. Weather very warm. Unwell. On my arrival was informed I had been posted on the mast of the french frigate la Concorde, as an aristocrat, with several others. Defamed; proscribed; — what next?
[November 1793]
22. Saw Mr. Woodward in the State House. commenced writing, but for what purpose. The cause of my Country? Evening at my office. evening at J. Gardner, Callender, J. Amory. Agreeable enough.
23. Employed all day in writing. Evening at Club. Party well filled. Retired earlier than usual.
24. Dull weather. and warm. Attended meeting the whole day. All my leisure time till 10 at night, at my Office, writing.
25. Continued writing, upon public and upon private affairs. Read to J. Hall. Evening again at my Office. Wrote a very decent flourish upon the passions, & confirmed my opinion by my example. Minaci pendentem scopulo —
# CHAPTER II 1794–1801
## London — The Hague — Berlin
[June 1794]
On the 3d day of June, 1794. When I returned to my lodgings at the close of the Evening; upon opening a Letter from my father, which I had just before taken from the post office, I found it contained information that Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State of the United States had on the morning of the day, when the Letter was dated called on the writer and told him that the President of the United States had determined to nominate me to go to the Hague as Resident Minister from the United States. — This intelligence was to me very unexpected and indeed surprizing. I had laid down as a principle that I never would solicit for any public office whatever, and from this determination no necessity has hitherto compelled me to swerve. From the principles of the same nature which my father has always rigidly observed, I knew that no influence, nor even a request of any kind from him could have occasioned this intention of the President. And yet I was very sensible, that neither my years, my experience, my reputation nor my talents, could entitle me to an office of so much respectability. It is however of no service to indulge conjecture upon the subject.
On the 5th: day of June 1794. I received further Letters from my father; informing me, that the nomination had been made; and had received, the advice and consent of the Senate without a dissenting voice.
On the Sunday following the eighth of June my father arrived at Quincy from Philadelphia, and on Tuesday the tenth of June, I went from Boston to Quincy to see him. I found that my nomination had been as unexpected to him as to myself, and that he had never uttered a word upon which a wish on his part could be presumed, that a public office should be conferred upon me. His opinion upon the subject agrees with my own; but his satisfaction at the appointment is much greater than mine.
I wish I could have been consulted before it was irrevocably made. I rather wish it had not been made at all. My friends on the other hand appear to be very much pleased with it, and seem to consider it as a subject of pure and simple congratulation.
On Thursday June 12th: 1794, I received a letter from the Secretary of State giving me notice of my appointment, and requesting me to go to Philadelphia. — from that time untill Monday the 30th of June I was detained in Boston partly by sickness and partly in arranging my affairs.
[July 1794]
_Monday July_ _7_ th: I remained at New York in order to get a little recruited and refreshed. I lodged at my Brother-in-Law, Col'l W. S. Smith's. — At dinner this day at his house, I met M. Talleyrand, the ci-devant bishop of Autun, Mr. Beaumetz member of the constituent national Assembly of France, and Mr. De la Colombe, who was aid-de-Camp to M. de la Fayette, was with him when he left his own army, and made his own escape from the Austrians in disguise.
_Talleyrand_ and _Beaumetz_ have both been Presidents of the constituent assembly in France. the former was the intimate friend of Mirabeau; great promoters of the revolution and among the first victims of it. The former a man of high birth and a bishop, first made the motion for the confiscation of the ecclesiastical property. They are now here in banishment. Excluded from France, by the prevalence of a party different from that to which they belong: excluded from England for the part which they have borne in the french revolution; this Country of universal Liberty, this asylum from the most opposite descriptions of oppression is the only one in which they can find rest.
Talleyrand is reserved and distant. Beaumetz more sociable and communicative. It is natural to look with reverence or at least with curiosity upon men who have been so highly and so recently conspicuous upon the most splendid theatre of human affairs. If indeed success is the criterion of political excellence, not one individual that has been hitherto actively engaged in the progress of the french revolutions has been equal to the situation in which he has been placed. The parties have successively destroyed one another, and in the general wreck it is not easy to distinguish between those whose fall has been the effect of their own incapacity, and those who have been only unfortunate.
Perhaps there never has been a period in the history of mankind, when Fortune has sported so wantonly with Reputation, as of late in France. The tide of popularity has ebbed and flowed with nearly the same frequency as that of the Ocean, though not with the same regularity. Necker, Bailly, La Fayette, Mirabeau, Barnave, Pettion, Condorcet, Brissot, Danton and innumerable others have in their turns been at one moment the idols and at the next the victims of the popular clamour. In the distribution of fame as in every thing else they have been always in extremes. And no doubt among the great number whom it has pleased the Sovereign people, to adore, for a moment, there must be many very undeserving of their worship. Many ordinary characters adapted only to the mediocrity of calm & quiet times, and whom nothing but the rapid circulation of a revolutionary period could ever have raised to be seen upon the surface. Whether the Gentlemen of whom I am now speaking are of this description, it becomes not me to say.
_Friday July 1_ _1_ th. _1794._ The day on which I entered upon the twenty-eighth year of my age, I received my Commission from the Secretary of State. At the same time I began the reading of six large folio volumes containing the dispatches from my father during his negotiations in Europe. — By the invitation of the President I attended at the reception he gave to _Piomingo_ and a number of other Chickasaw Indians. Five Chiefs, seven warriors, four boys and an interpreter, constituted the company. — As soon as the whole were seated the ceremony of smoaking began. A large East Indian pipe was placed in the middle of the Hall. the tube which appeared to be of leather was twelve or fifteen feet in length. The President began, and after two or three whiffs past the tube to Piomingo; he to the next chief, and so all round. Whether this Ceremony be really of indian origin as is generally supposed, I confess I have some doubt. At least these Indians appeared to be quite unused to it, and from their manner of going through it looked as if they were submitting to a process in compliance with _our_ custom. Some of them I thought smiled with such an expression of countenance as denoted a sense of _novelty_ & of _frivolity_ , too; as if the ceremony struck them not only as new, but also as ridiculous. When it was finished the President address'd them in a speech, which he read, stopping at the close of every sentence for the interpreter to translate it. I observed that the interpreter at the close of every sentence concluded by repeating the same word twice over. The sound was something like this, "Tshkyer! Tshkyer!" He always repeated them very rapidly, and as soon as he had done, the five Chiefs all together would utter a sound, imparting their approbation. The sound was strong or faint in proportion to the degree of satisfaction they had in what was said. But I can give no adequate idea of what it was by any combination of our Letters. It resembled a horse's neighing as much as any thing, and more than once reminded me of the Houynhms. — Piomingo then desired he might be excused from giving his _talks_ at this Time being very unwell; but promised to give them in a few days. They then made several enquiries respecting the Cherokees, who have recently been here. Their questions discovered a mixture of curiosity and of animosity. These two nations are at war, and the Chickasaws spoke of the others as a perfidious people. The _fides punica_ it seems is not confined to civilized Nations.
The informal conversation was held while wine, punch, and cake was carrying round. The President told them that the Chickasaws had always been distinguished as sincere and faithful friends. And that the United States always valued such friends most highly. — They said nothing of their own sincerity, and made no answer to the President's compliment.
These formalities employed about an hour; after which they rose, shook hands with us all and departed.
There was nothing remarkable in their appearance. Some of them were dressed in coarse jackets & trowsers, & some in the uniform of the United States. Some of them had shirts and some had none. They were none of them either painted or scarified and there were four or five who had rings in their Noses. One or two had large plates apparently of silver hanging upon the breast, and I do not recollect observing any other ornaments upon them.
I dined at Gen'l: Knox's. Mr. Griffin, a member of Congress from Virginia; Mr. Maund, an English Gentleman settled in that state and a member of their Senate, and the ci-devant Vicomte de Noailles were of the company. — This is another illustrious exile from France. Once a President of the Constituent Assembly, and the first who moved for the abolition of the feudal rights of the nobility, or for some other famous revolutionary measure. He fell with the monarchy; but by some good fortune, having originally left the Country with express permission, he is not included in the full severity of the Laws against emigrants. He purposes now to settle for life upon a newly cleared place on the Susquehannah called the _Asylum_ , which really serves as such to many frenchmen expelled from their own Country, by the violence of their internal feuds.
We accompanied Mrs. Knox to the Theatre, which is spacious and elegant, and supplied with a very good Company of performers. — Part of the entertainment however we left to go and pay the customary visit to Mrs. Washington. As this was merely a mark of respect we retired as early as we could, and returned to the play. The remainder of the Evening I was seated next to M. Fauchet the minister plenipotentiary from the french Republic. I found him tolerably conversable; but reserved. he appears to be not much beyond thirty. He spoke of the abbé Raynal whom he knew; but said he had seldom seen him in Latter times, and never without conversing on the subject of the Revolution. — There was another man, of Letters, much his superior; the abbé Barthelemi. I told him I had great veneration for his character, and had heard with great regret that he had lately " _suffere_ _d_ " (I hardly knew how to express with the delicate ambiguity, which I thought necessary, the operation of the Guillotine.) he assured me that my information was false, and that the abbé Barthelemi, was highly respected by the present ruling powers of France. — Milton's mask of Comus was one part of the evening's performance. — "It is the work of a great man," said Mr. Fauchet. "Ay" said I "and of a great Republican." He wrote a book in defence of the people of England for beheading Charles the 1st. That book said Mr. Fauchet, Mirabeau boasted of having made known in France, and published a translation of it which he pretended was his own; but in reality it was an old one, which had been published many years ago. — "Mirabeau's reputation said I, has undergone great Revolutions since that of France began." — "He was indisputably said he a Man of great Talents, but as to his integrity the fact is not so clearly settled." Was he a Man of courage? — on prétend que non. — Everything was as cautious and guarded as this. — "The accounts of success from the french armies are confirmed said he, and it is not improbable that on your arrival you will find the Stadtholder's Court at Breda. I have great hopes of that Country. I think the seeds of a happy Revolution are there; and always regretted that the patriots were abandoned and sacrificed. — You will arrive at a very critical time. Important negotiations must take place, at the close of the present campaign. The combined powers, Prussia, Austria, Spain, must surely discover, that they are labouring for an object the success of which would be destructive to themselves. — France once destroyed; and where will there be found a power to balance that of England — They are wrong to abuse _Pitt_ as they do. His plan is in my opinion vast and profound; and his Execution hitherto has been equally artful. His object is to ruin France; to establish beyond controul the power of Britain, and he has had the address to employ those nations, the most deeply interested against the system, to spend their blood and treasure in promoting it." — I was content to be simply an hearer of these observations, and easily perceived the policy of Mr. Fauchet in advancing these sentiments. For if this be the system of the british Government, there is none of the European Nations who ought to wish more earnestly for its failure, than the United States. As a commercial people we must very soon be their most dangerous rivals. As a naval power we must in time be their superiors, and France being the only Country in Europe, that can pretend to cope with them on the Sea at this Time, their claim to the _dominion of the Ocean_ would be established beyond controul by the destruction of the French power. In the triumphs of Britain, it would be absurd to expect moderation, and if by the ruin of her rival she could effectually secure the lordship of the waves, the United States would certainly be among the first to feel the insolence of her supremacy. This was not said by Mr. Fauchet, but it is an inevitable inference from his opinions, and I believe it has too much foundation. — I have seen however in some of the opposition news-papers a speculation in which the system is attacked, and the writer attempts to prove that by the destruction of France, England herself would be brought in jeopardy, and the power of _Russia_ only would be so promoted and strengthened as to become the Tyrant of Europe.
_Saturday July 12_ th _1794._ Dined with Mr. Hammond, the British minister plenipotentiary. There was no other Company, and we were tolerably sociable. It was the renewal of an old acquaintance, but I felt it necessary to be peculiarly cautious with the Minister of a foreign Nation, with whom the United States are now engaged in a controversy which bears a very serious aspect. He spoke of the late speech of the Governor of Massachusetts, which appears to have given him much offence. He seemed to wish me to speak of that Gentleman, and to expect that I should express not much respect for his character. I did not choose to gratify him, but spoke of the Governor in general Terms, and with Respect. I enquired if he had any further particulars than such as were public, relative to the late actions in Flanders. he said no. — He affected to speak lightly of the Duke of York's defeat, as well as of the late proceedings in England, and the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act. The Government there he said was infinitely stronger than ours and even had fewer opposers. Personally he said he wished well to our Government, and hoped it would continue. But he believed that two-thirds of the people were opposed to it: whereas in Great Britain, there was not more than one in an hundred hostile to their Government. — I told him that for the employment of Force, the observation was just, and that our constituted authority could not venture upon measure so decisive as were adopted by theirs. But that as to a spirit of real hostility I did not think it existed in the proportion of two thirds nor even of one in this Country.
[September 1794]
Wednesday morning September 17th: 1794. I embarked on board the ship _Alfred_ , Stephen Macey, commander, for London; together with my brother and a servant. Dr. Welsh and Mr. W. Smith accompanied us on board the ship, and returned on shore as soon as we were fairly under weigh. My friends Daniel Sargent jun'r & Nathan Frazier jun'r went with us down as far as the light-house. At ten A.M. we weighed anchor, & just at noon were a-breast of the light. — my friends then left us to return home. "The name of your ship said Frazier is auspicious," and alluding to the new French Calendar, "you depart" said he, "on the day of _Virtue_ ; I hope you will return, upon the day of _Rewards_." The pain of separation from my friends and Country, was felt as poignantly by me, at the moment when these two young men left the ship, as it ever has been at any period of my life. It was like the severing the last string from the Heart. I looked back at their boat as long as it could be seen, and when it had got out of sight, I did not, but I could have turned my eye and wept. By two P.M. we were fairly at sea; the weather clouded up the wind for a moment veered to the East, and we began to apprehend a difficulty to clear the Capes; but the western gale finally prevailed, a slight shower of rain was succeeded by a beautiful Rainbow in the East a pledge of fair weather for the morrow, and a lucid corner broke forth in the west, from whence the clouds were very soon dispelled from the sky, and left us for the night a cloudless canopy over our heads and a fresh western breeze to waft us on our course.
[October 1794]
_Wednesday October 15. 1794._ At about three this morning, Mr. Walker, my brother and myself started from Deal in a Post-Chaise, leaving my servant behind to come on this afternoon, in the stage-Coach. ≈ We breakfasted at Canterbury at the most indifferent house we found on the Road. At Dartford we dined and arrived at the Virginia Coffee House just below the Royal Exchange, at about half past 7 in the Evening. Just before we got to the London Bridge we heard a rattling before us and immediately after a sound as of a trunk falling from the Carriage. I instantly looked forward and saw that both our trunks were gone. One of them contained all the public dispatches which I brought for the American Ministers here, and which was my principal inducement for coming here. For a moment, I felt sensations of the severest distress. But my brother immediately alighted, and found the trunk of dispatches directly under the carriage. The other trunk was a few rods behind, and in half a minute more must have been crushed to pieces by the horses hoofs of a carriage which followed hard upon us. We secured them both inside of our Chaise for the rest of our way, and our driver assured us that the trunks could not have fallen unless the straps had been cut away. On reaching our lodgings and bringing our trunks to a light, we found the conjecture of our postilion was well founded, but whether his sagacity arose from his being privy to the villainy, and concerned in it, or not we had no means of determining, and as our things were saved was of little consequence to us to know.
But for myself I felt the most exquisite satisfaction at this hair-breadth escape from a misfortune which to my mind as it respected myself personally, would have reduced me to the condition of regretting my other escape from the dangers of the seas. Entrusted with dispatches of the highest importance, with numerous original documents relative to the depredations upon the american Commerce, now a subject of negotiation between the two Countries, with papers particularly committed to my care, _because_ they were highly confidential, and the ground upon which I was directed by the President of the United States to take my passage first to London in preference to an immediate opportunity for Amsterdam, with what a face could I have presented myself to the minister for whom they were intended, to tell him that I had lost them on the way? How could I have informed the Secretary of State of the fate of his papers? what would have been my feelings on the reflection that they would probably all be put in the possession of the Ministry here? and how could I have supported the idea, that the story with a thousand alterations and aggravations would be resounded from one end of the United States, to the other? What a field for the aspersions of malice? What a fund for the suspicions of Jealousy? what an opening for the insinuations of Envy? and what a ground-work for the fabric of slander? — Well then might I consider this instance of good fortune as more important to myself and to my Country, than my preservation and even that of the papers from the perils of the voyage.
Yet for the mortification of my vanity I can attribute very little if any of my luck in avoiding this accident to any precaution of my own. An extreme anxiety for the trust committed to me had indeed never left me from the moment we landed at Deal, and I had been at the pains of having the whole package of two trunks changed there, that I might have my treasure under my own eye, rather than leave it but for a day in the custody of my servant. We set out so early in the morning, in order to reach London before dark; and as long as day-light lasted my trunk had been scarcely a moment out of my sight. — But we had not succeeded in finishing our journey, before the night set in. The dexterous felony was committed in the shade of night, in the bustle of a London street; our carriage rattling over the pavements, and the noise of twenty others contributing to confuse our sense of hearing. half a minute more and my trust would have been irretrievably gone. That I heard the falling trunk early enough to defeat the intended theft, I can only consider as one of the most fortunate circumstances that ever occurred to me in the course of my life.
Had the misfortune really befallen me, I could not have imputed it however to any fault or even to any deficiency of mine. I had neglected no possible precaution, for the papers were too voluminous to be contained in a trunk which could have been carried within the carriage. And although the trunks were lashed before the chaise, the straps were cut by an invisible hand, when most assuredly there was nobody to be seen near them. There is but one method by which we can account for the performance of this ingenious trick. About 3 minutes before it was done, the chaise had stopped to pay the toll of a turnpike. A small child might at that moment have crept under the carriage between the hind wheels, and fastened himself upon the perch; waited there until we were again in motion, then silently sever the ropes and straps with a knife or Razor; drop from the perch, mingle with the crowd of passengers in the street, and wait with his accomplices to pick up the fallen-goods as soon as our carriage should have been a few rods further advanced. This I am told is a practice not unusual among the skilful thieves of this metropolis, and seems to be the only possible means by which the attempt was made which, so happily for my peace, and the welfare of my Country, failed of success. ≈
_Thursday October 16. 1794._ Before we rose this morning Tilly, arrived in the Coach from Deal. We indulged ourselves indeed beyond the usual hour, and made it late before we went to breakfast with Mr. Jay. We found there a Mr. Pierpont who has just arrived from France, and who gave us some account of the state of things in Paris, where the moderate party now prevails. Indeed nothing ever was more surprizing to me, than when Mr. Jay, last evening, asked me whether the Death of Robespierre was known in America before I sailed. I repeated with utter astonishment, "Robespierre dead," more times than was perfectly decent; and could scarcely believe I had heard right, until he assured me very seriously, that about six weeks or two months since, Robespierre, with a considerable number of his partizans were accused, tried, condemned and executed in less than twenty-four hours by a party of _moderates_ who had succeeded to his power, and from that day to this have loaded his memory with every possible execration, calling him by scarce any other name than _the Tyrant_ , and imputing to him and his system, all the horrible cruelties which have desolated the Country for the last two years.
The party which began its career of power, by ridding the Earth of such a scourge, cannot fairly on that account, be charged with having falsely assumed the title of moderates. And their conduct since that time has been such as to give them a real claim to the epithet. There have been scarcely any public executions since that time; few arrests, and great numbers of prisoners released, who can attribute their present existence only to the fall of Robespierre.
After breakfast, Col'l Trumbull, Mr. Jay's secretary went with us, and introduced us to Mr. Pinckney, our Minister Plenipotentiary at this Court, for whom I likewise had dispatches.
_Saturday October 18. 1794._ The former part of the day was entirely employed in visiting and delivering Letters; and in this immense City the distance from one gentleman's house to another is such a Journey that this business proceeds very slowly indeed: I could pay but two or three visits before dinner time, which is here postponed till five O'Clock in the afternoon. Crafts dined with us and we sat together with much satisfaction remembering the Saturday night's club in Boston, till near 7 when we all went to Drury Lane theatre to see _Henry the eight_ _h_ ; with a farce called the _Glorious_ _1_ st: _of June_ _._ The house itself has undergone a thorough alteration since I was here before, and has been lately repaired at the expence, it is said of an hundred thousand pounds. It is indeed very elegant; but the form into which the boxes are thrown is not convenient, and the house is too large. There are few voices that can be heard at all as far as the galleries, and frequently when the occasion of the scene requires a feeble utterance from the speaker, three fourths of the audience must be ignorant of what is spoken. the pillars between the boxes must intercept the sight in some degree, though their dimensions are reduced to a very small circumference indeed.
The house was thin notwithstanding Mrs. Siddons appeared in the character of Queen Catherine. She is as much as ever, and as deservedly the favourite of the public, but the enthusiasm of novelty is past, and her appearance alone, no longer crowds the houses, as it was wont, when I saw her formerly in the autumn of 1783. She performed the part of Catherine to great perfection; much beyond the excellence of Mrs. Yates whom I once saw and admired in the same character. None of the other persons of the Drama were better, most of them not so well filled as at the former period, and in Wolsey, Bensley was a miserable substitute indeed, for Henderson, who in this character, used to excel himself. Palmer's Henry was very good, but all the rest, were below the style of mediocrity. The farce or after-piece, was a miserable compound of dulness and gasconade upon the subject of their late naval Victory; which nothing but the ostrich stomach of national Vanity could ever have digested, and for which even the undistinguishing palate of their heavy pride was obliged to affect a relish higher than it felt. The applause of the Audience was frequent enough; but it was faint, and very evidently was bestowed by patriotism at the expence of taste. for it is doubtless an unequivocal proof of patriotism, to clap the hands, at the stupid fustian, of national adulation, and the puny cits and courtiers, who are idling in the arms of my Lady Peace, at a play-house, think when they applaud this nonsense, that they are rendering important services to their _King and Country_.
_Monday October 20_ th: _1794._ I spent most of the forenoon at Mr. Jay's in company with Mr. Pinckney, in conversation upon the subject of the negotiation now on foot between the former of these Gentlemen and the Ministry here. The plan of a Treaty now in discussion was read, and then taken up and considered Article by Article. The business however was not finished, & we adjourned over the subject for a further meeting till to-morrow. We dined with Mr. Jay; and afterwards I went with Col'l Trumbull and Mr. Peter Jay, son to the Minister to Covent-Garden Theatre, having first called at my lodgings to take my brother with us. The performance of the Night was _Romeo and Juliet_ with a pantomime called _Oscar and Malvina_, the subject of which is taken from Ossian. Juliet was personated by a Miss Wallis, who makes her first appearance on the London stage this Season. Her external appearance has every thing to captivate. Young, beautiful, and amiable in the highest degree, she is peculiarly calculated for characters in which these qualities are to be displayed. But her voice has hardly sufficient strength to fill the house, and she is not adapted to those situations where the energies of a sublime genius are required. In these talents Mrs. Siddons has yet no competitor; but for the soft and delicate graces, for the peculiar charm of female tenderness and sensibility, I have seldom seen an actress who could dispute the prize with Miss Wallis. Holman in Romeo, was detestable. Lewis in Mercutio excellent. The Nurse was very well acted, and friar Lawrence tolerable. The rest were worse than indifferent; and the tout-ensemble of the performance was very little superior to that of Powell's company at Boston which I saw there last May. The pantomime of Oscar and Malvina, was an insipid pageant, which was only made tolerable by the comparison with the stuff I had seen at Drury Lane. ≈
In the Interlude between the plays, the music, struck the tune of _God save the King_. immediately a thunder-clap of loud applause, burst forth from every part of the house, and the whole Audience rose: they continued standing for as much as ten minutes, while the tune was played; clapping their hands and crying _bravo! bravo!_ with as much enthusiasm as they could have done, had they felt all the interest they pretended. Pure patriotism again. All for the service of their king and Country. I am always averse to an appearance of singularity. I rose with the rest of the Company but I was under no Obligation to join in the applause, & I could not help disdaining the baseness of their servility.
_Wednesday October 22_ d: _1794_. We pass'd this forenoon like the two former, and at length got through the discussion of the Treaty. It is far from being satisfactory to those Gentlemen; it is much below the standard which I think would be advantageous to the Country, but with some alterations, which are marked down, and to which it seems there is a probability they will consent it is in the opinion of the two plenipotentiaries, preferable to a War. and when Mr. Jay asked me my opinion I answered that I could only acquiesce in that idea.
There are three points of view in which this, Instrument may be considered. As it respects the Satisfaction to be received by the United States; as it relates to the satisfaction to be made: and as a permanent Treaty of Commerce.
In the first place the satisfaction proposed to be made to the United States for the recent depredations upon their Commerce, the principal object of Mr. Jay's mission, it is provided for in as ample a manner as we could expect. That complete indemnification will be made to every individual sufferer I fear is impossible; but as the evil is done and cannot be recalled, I know not well how we could require, more than the stipulations of this Treaty contain. The delivery of the Posts is protracted to a more distant period than would be desirable; but the compensation made for the past and the future detention of them will I think be a sufficient equivalent. The commerce with their West India Islands, partially opened to us will be of great importance, and indemnify us for the deprivation of the fur trade since the treaty of Peace, as well as for the negroes carried away contrary to the engagement of the Treaty; at least as far as it respects the Nation.
As to the satisfaction we are to make, I think it is no more than in Justice is due from us. The indemnity promised to british subjects for their losses resulting from the non-compliance with the Treaty on our part, is to be settled in the same manner with that which our citizens are to receive, and in fact is to depend upon the fulfilment of their engagement to deliver the Posts. The article which provides against the future confiscation of debts and of property in the funds, is useful because it is honest. If its operation should turn out more advantageous to them, it will be more honourable to us; and I never can object to entering formally into an obligation to do that which upon every virtuous principle ought to be done without it.
As a Treaty of Commerce this Treaty will indeed be of little use to us: and we never shall obtain any thing more favourable, so long as the principles of the Navigation Acts are so obstinately adhered to in this Country. This system is so much a favourite with the Nation, that no Minister would dare depart from it. Indeed I have no idea that we shall ever obtain by compact a better footing for our Commerce with this Country than that on which it now stands. And therefore the shortness of time limited for the operation of this part of the compact, is I think beneficial to us.
The Article proposed by Lord Loughborough, the Chancellor, is certainly extremely liberal, although Mr. Jay thinks it best to leave it as a subject for future consideration. It is that in either Country the subjects or citizens of the other shall be exempted from _all_ _the disabilities of alienage_. Such an article would certainly tend to promote the friendly intercourse between the nations; and I do not know that it could produce any material inconvenience to either. But it would be necessary to have an Act of parliament to confirm the stipulation here, which his Lordship says may be obtained without difficulty. A more material obstacle arises from the Constitution of the United States, with one clause of which, such an article would certainly militate.
This nobleman, who during the American contest was so conspicuous in his opposition to our principles and pretensions, by the name of Wedderburne, has assured Mr. Jay, that at present that controversy having been once determined, and the point of separation settled, his dispositions are perfectly friendly towards America. That he thinks it for the interest of both Countries to assimilate and draw together as much as possible, and that his sincere wishes are to facilitate the most liberal and amicable intercourse.
The proposition which I have mentioned, and several others of inferior importance but equal liberality, seem to prove that his assurances are not disingenuous or false. And I think the intention of every man who aims at levelling the barriers which perpetuate the unnecessary separation of Nations, and widen the distance between Man and Man, is at least deserving of applause.
_Monday October 27. 1794._ Mr. W. Vaughan called on us this morning, & engaged us to dine with his father at Hackney to-morrow. Dined at Mr. Copley's. With Mr. Erving, and his son, whom I knew last year in America. Mr. Clark, Mrs. Copley's father. Their son and two daughters. The eldest daughter may be called handsome, if not beautiful, and is very pleasing in her manners. There is something so fascinating in the women I meet with in this Country, that it is well for me, I am obliged immediately to leave it. ≈
_Tuesday October 28. 1794_. I found notwithstanding I had taken great pains to be ready for this day, that I had a great deal of business crowded into the last five or six hours.
I called early this morning upon Mr. Jay. In the first place having received no answer to a letter I wrote the American bankers at Amsterdam, on my arrival here, for a draught to give me a pecuniary supply here, I found myself rather short in the necessary article of cash. I knew of no person upon whom I could more confidently venture to call than Mr. Jay, and found myself not disappointed in my idea. He very readily gave me the draught I requested, and offered to extend his goodness still further. I thought best however to take only a supply for my immediate occasion, feeling highly obliged to him for this additional instance of his friendship
I then requested him to favour me with his advice respecting the conduct which in my public character it will be proper to hold during the crisis in which that Country now stands. He was equally indulgent on that head, and I believe I shall derive much benefit from his counsel. He said that I should stand in a situation extremely delicate. That the parties which so unhappily divide the Country, to which I am sent might very possibly press me hard on either side to shew some preference or partiality. That I ought very cautiously to avoid it, and take no part whatever in their internal dissensions. That as to the possible revolution in Government to which they are now particularly exposed, in case an essential change should take place, the operation of my functions would cease of course, and it would not be advisable for me upon any terms whatever to do business with any new power that might arise, until I should receive instructions upon the subject. And in the meantime I might write as soon as possible for eventual instructions. That if the french should obtain complete possession of Holland and the Government of the Country be actually dissolved my best way will be to stay there if I can with any possible convenience, but if I should be under the necessity of quitting the Country, it will be more proper for me to retire to Hamburg, as a neutral City, than to come to England or go to France, which might give occasion for censure, or at least for observations that would be unpleasant. And if the conquest should be so thoroughly completed as to extinguish the independance of the Nation itself, I may return home rather than wait any great length of time for the regular recall.
[January 1795]
18. To Amsterdam with the Post-Waggon at 9 in the morning. Arrived at Amsterdam about 4 P.M. found it a moment of crisis. Saw Mr. Bourne several times in the Evening. Mr. Willink, Mr. M'Evers, Mr. Hubbard, Mr. Plenti who appears very much embarassed how to get away, and afraid of being stopped. Some symptoms of agitation among the people. General Golofkin commander of the Garrison here, received this morning from General Daandels, commander of the Batavian Corps, an _order_ to surrender and lay down their arms. A Batavian by the name of Krayenhoff, who fled lately from this City, and is cited to appear on Tuesday next before the Court of Schepens, came this afternoon exhibited to the Regency a Commission constituting him Commander of this City. He demands of the magistrates to abdicate their authority. — In the evening the three-coloured cockade began to make its appearance in the Streets: they were noisy through the night. The carmagnole song, & Marseillaise hymn, were every where singing. But no mischief of any kind took place.
_19._ A noisy and tumultuous day; but witness to no violence, as was apprehended. At about 10 in the morning, a detachment of 25 or 30 french hussars appeared before the Stad-House; the tree of liberty was planted. The national flag displayed from its summit. A provisional municipality of twenty persons appointed by the revolutionary Committee commenced their operations by dismissing the regency. In the afternoon the State prisoners lately confined, were released, and Mr. Visscher, appointed Grand Baillif of the provisional administration. The former guards & patroles are yet continued. Every body else wears the three coloured cockade.
Dined at Mr. W. Willink's. — Mr. Bourne, Mr. Hubbard, Mr. M'Evers, and a Dutch Gentleman & Lady unknown. — Towards the Evening a troop of the people passing before the House, gave it a cheer, and made demand of some money to drink, which Mr. Willink accordingly gave. Conversation with Mess'rs Willink & Hubbard, respecting our American Affairs. Evening at home.
20. The day perfectly tranquil. Every thing hitherto has past without the smallest disorder. General Pichegru, and about two or three thousand of the french troops entered the City this afternoon. The General is lodged at the house of Mr. Hope, which was vacant. The commissioners lodge next door at Mr. Muilman's. The troops are quartered upon the citizens. Any further arrangements, civil and military are equally unknown.
22. Paid a visit with Mr. Bourne & my brother to the Representants du peuple français, and was received with civility. Principally complimentary in their fashionable cant, which I adopted in all its forms. They told me they received the visit of the _citoyen ministre_ of a free people, the friend of the _peuple français_ , with much pleasure. That they considered it _tout à fait_ as a _visite fraternelle_ ; I told them that hearing of their arrival, I felt myself obliged to present my respects to the citoyens Representans of the peuple français, for whom my fellow-citizens had the greatest attachment, and to whom they felt grateful for the obligations under which they felt themselves to the french nation, &c. The substance of the business was that I demanded safety and protection to all american persons and property in this Country: and that they told me it would be under the safeguard in common with those of the Country and of other strangers here. That all property would invariably be respected, as well as persons and opinions. That if hereafter there should be any occasion for exceptions they would make the strongest representations to their constituents in behalf of americans.
They spoke of the President, whom like all Europeans, they called General Washington. enquired his age, and on being told, said he might still long enjoy his glory. That he was a great man, and they had great veneration for his character &c. They observed that a Treaty of Commerce had lately been concluded, between Great Britain and the United States, by Mr. Jay. — They were emulous to surpass one another in expressions of inveteracy against England. one said She was their most obstinate enemy. Another that she was their _only_ remaining enemy; a third that she had always been their enemy. a fourth that she was the Enemy of all the maritime powers. They said however that America, not having a navy sufficient to protect her commerce against Britain, and _having no possessions of that power near them which she could attack by land_ , was right in maintaining peace. They acquiesced in the observation of Mr. Bourne that this peace was even for the interest of France, because it enabled us to supply her with provisions and other necessary articles which in case we were at war could not be done.
They spoke of Mr. Monroe's reception by the national Convention. " _parbleu_ said one, it was a _scene attendrissante_. It was _une des plus fameuses séances_ of the convention. There were more than 10,000 persons present. He shed tears, he was so much affected. I saw him cry." "Ah! said another c'etait aussi bien de quoi faire pleurer." Then they said one of the flags had been sent to America. — In short the national character appeared in nothing more conspicuous than in the manner in which they spoke of this occurrence.
They inquired if Mr. Morris was in Switzerland. I answered them I did not know. That I had no personal acquaintance with Mr. Morris. Ah! said the Citoyen who appeared to be at the head of the deputation, "La France, sait parfaitement qu'il est en Suisse." He spoke with a peculiar emphasis, but I did not think proper to make any further enquiry of him on the subject.
They asked me if I had ever been in France; I answered that I had. That I received part of my education there, and had resided there several years: that I had therefore from my infancy every possible reason to form sentiments of admiration and of affection for the french Nation. Whereupon they replied that the Representants du peuple français were delighted to hear me say so.
Thus ended the conversation, upon which we withdrew. — Mr. Faesch paid me a visit; & mentioned some particulars of the Stadtholder's quitting the Hague. The circumstance appears to affect him.
[February 1795]
2. Visit to Mr. Scholten. He has a pay-master quartered in his house. appears to be quite easy. To Mr. Mersen, who is laid up with the Gout. Told me some particulars of the Stadholder's departure. He talk'd with many of the people as he went along; wish'd them well; said he always had their happiness at heart &c. The princess was furious. The hereditary Princess resigned to any thing but going to England. Prince Frederic very averse to going at-all. Said he had done nothing but his duty. Had served his Country, and had committed no faults unless of inexperience which could not be criminal. He could not bear to fly like a malefactor; and finally submitted only upon the express and positive command of his father: These anecdotes whether true or false are characteristic of the several reputations. The Stadtholder himself, is well disposed, with a good heart & a feeble mind, he is the man of his councils, and not of his own energy. The princess detested almost universally. Haughty, Domineering, incapable of submitting to misfortune with dignity, when she found her power at an end, and no resource for personal safety, but inglorious flight, in an open paltry fishing boat, in the extreme severity of a season almost unexampled, she could no longer contain her passions. But broke out in transports of rage, until she was totally exhausted, and sunk into a state of sullen apathy. The hereditary Princess was beloved. Her youth, beauty, innocence and affability of disposition all recommended her to compassion, and the interest in her favour is encreased by attributing to her so popular a sentiment as an antipathy against England. Her husband seems to have no character at all. He is cold reserved and unamiable, without being positively hated. Nothing is said of him. Frederic is the favourite, and therefore he is supposed to have gone with great reluctance
The Representatives of the people sent me word they would see me when I pleased. I visited them in the evening to demand a passport for Mr. M'Evers, and the permission to an American Vessel at the Texel entered since the arrival of the french here, to depart. they promised it should be immediately done, demanding however for their justification a claim from me in writing, to which I agreed.
In Conversation, they spoke of my father in a complimentary stile. Enquired if I knew Mr. Monroe &c. I observed I had been more acquainted with his Predecessor Mr. Jefferson, who I believed was still remembered in France with pleasure. — Yes said the deputy with more pleasure to speak the truth than Mr. Morris. They appeared doubtful whether Morris was yet employed by the Government of the United States or not. The drift was evident, and I told them that he was not, to my knowledge or belief. — They said Mr. Morris was in Switzerland, at Basle, intriguing; and the soul of councils against France; but his manoeuvres were perfectly known, & it was to be hoped they would do no harm. I said that if Mr. Morris, was doing or attempting anything against the interests of France, it was most assuredly not by any authority from the United States. That I knew perfectly well the disposition of the American councils was very far from being unfriendly to the french republic. — He said they were fully perswaded of it, and what had happened, sufficiently proved it.
They were very glad he said to have the ministers of their friends here to witness their conduct; and see what was the manner in which the french people answer calumny. — It is to be hoped (he added) that it will do away some of the impressions produced by the representations which Messieurs les Emigrés, have been pleased to make of us. Calumny is one of the weapons, which have been used against us. We hope it will not be more successful than the others. I said the weapon would soon lose all its efficacy, by such examples as they had shown here.
I left them; and soon after my return home Mr. M'Evers called on me just arrived from Amsterdam.
3. Addressed the demand for a passport in writing &c. to the Commissaries, and carried it myself. They soon after addressed the Passport; & notice of their having given the order, to me. The President of the Assembly of provisional Representatives of the people of Holland addressed me a notification of the Assembly of the abolition of the States of Holland & West Friesland, of his being President of the new Assembly, and of his being substituted to perform the functions of the councilor pensionary. Answered that I thanked him for the notification, and would as soon as possible advise the American Government of it. ≈
Visited Mess'rs Schubart & Araujo, the Danish, and Portugueze Ministers, neither of whom was at home; then the General en chef Pichegru; with whom I held a conversation of about a quarter of an hour. He turn'd it very soon from the subject of his campaign to enquiries upon American affairs. — This man is systematic, in retiring from public display, and he is the more successful for it. The questions he asked, were concerning the late Western Insurrection — Our differences with England — The tribes of Savages — The state of our public force — But particularly as to our paper currency in the late Revolution; what had been done with it, and how it had been funded. — Upon all these subjects I answered him as well as was in my power. — He asked whether I thought Great Britain sincere in the intention to perform the treaty lately concluded: I said we hoped she was sincere, as we wish to live at Peace with all the world.
A Man who in three years time rises from the rank of a Serjeant of Artillery to that of Commander in chief over an army of an hundred thousand men; and in the last capacity performs a campaign, like that of Pichegru since last March, deserves particular consideration. — His person has nothing remarkable. His stature is of the middling size. His person well formed; his countenance manly; but not handsome, nor impressive. His manners easy and graceful, and his address polite though not the politeness of Courts.
The rock upon which La Fayette, Dumouriéz, Custine and innumerable other french Generals as well as Statesmen have been wrecked, is Vanity. Each of them too hastily concluded himself to be the pivot upon which the affairs of the world were to turn, and neither had the talent to disguise or conceal the opinion. Pichegru has learnt wisdom from the example of their fate, and covers himself with a mantle of humility.
23. Another visit this morning from Madam Palm D'aelders, who left with me her letter for M. de Ternant, and lent me her political works. They consist in two or three addresses to popular societies, upon the subject of the rights of women; delivered in the year 1791, and full of the kind of trash, fashionable at that day. The performances are upon a level with the subject, and contain the usual common-place of argument, upon the rights of women and the injustice they suffer. — This has been at one period among the whimsies of the french Revolution. But it is in vain to labour and toil against the prescriptions of Nature. Political subserviency and domestic influence must be the lot of women, and those who have departed the most from their natural sphere, are not those who have shown the sex, in their most amiable light. But Madam Daelders Palm may yet be serving an interest; she is too furiously democratic, not to become suspicious. She complains of every thing now going forward; the Princess of Orange could not be more bitter; but her pretext is that the present men and measures are aristocratical. She said she had rather live at Constantinople, than at Venice; though she did not like the Turkish Government, which allowed one Man, to have five or six wives. — The observation that perhaps she would prefer that Government reversed, appeared to give her great delight. — N.B. To remark this woman.
[March 1795]
12. Mr. Bielfeld called on me this morning and I took a walk with him round the town. Conversation with him upon a variety of subjects, principally political speculation. We talk'd much of the rights of Man, the origin and foundation of human Society and the proper Principles of Government. He says that in his opinion no consideration whatever, can in any case justify a violation of truth. I told him that such a sentiment was rather extraordinary coming from a diplomatic man. He declared his determination never to depart from it. — We discussed the theory of human rights and of Government. We soon concluded that aristocracy, feudality, nobility could not be reconciled with a Government founded upon _rights._ But whether Man is so constructed as to be capable of living in Society upon any plan of government clearly deducible, from a theory of rights was then a question which we debated untill we found our walk at an end.
17. ≈ "Disguise thyself as thou wilt, Slavery! still thou art a bitter draught!" These people, french and Dutch, cannot on either side carry through their farce of equality of independence or of republicanism. In the midst of all the forms which they cast around the real substance of things, the respective situations, and the prevalent ideas arising from each, break through upon all occasions. On one side politeness has the garb of condescension, on the other it degenerates into flattery; their equality and fraternity are good as a subject of declamation, but there is nothing of it in their manners and practice.
[November 1795]
11. At about 8 in the morning I descended from the stage coach, and went to Osborne's Hotel, Adelphi Buildings in the strand. After breakfasting went immediately to Great Cumberland Place N. 1 to see Mr. Deas but found he was not at home. Went from thence to Mr. Johnson's the Consul and delivered him my letters. found Col'l Trumbull with him. Sent my letters that were to be transmitted. Dined with Mr. Trumbull, at Mr. Johnson's. As I was going out Mr. Deas delivered me a couple of letters from America. One of them from Mr. Pickering, who was exercising the office of Secretary of State vacant by Mr. Randolph's resignation on the 7th: of August. — after Dinner Mr. Johnson's daughters entertained us with good music.
24. Called on Dr. Edwards by agreement between 12 & 1 to go with him & visit Mr. West. He proposed to me, to take the same opportunity to visit Mr. Morris, at the York Hotel, Covent Garden which we did accordingly. This is the first time I ever saw that Gentleman, who conversed with as much freedom as from his character I expected. We had not been there a quarter of an hour when he asked me whether I was accredited to this Court, or was only a Commissioner with full Powers. The simple truth is sometimes as well prepared to meet such questions as the most artificial refinement; I answered "neither." He then observed that he had not asked the question from an impertinent curiosity, but because he meant in case my mission was as had been reported to negotiate upon the subject of the Treaty, to offer me any assistance in point of information that might be in his power, for which I thanked him. You will find I think said he the Cabinet here well disposed to America. — Do you think so Sir? — Yes, they are so now. They hesitate a little upon the dependence they can place on the American Government. They see such a display of opposition to it, from the antifederal faction there, that they are afraid of losing the neutrality of America. — But said I, are they really so much attached to our neutrality? would they not prefer to see that opposition which you speak of, kept up in all its strength? Do they not wish to have the American Government shackled, and harassed, or driven into measures which shall exhibit to the world, the wavering, unsteady policy of weakness? — "Not at present. There was a time, just after their capture of Toulon when they thought themselves about to carry every thing before them; when they were backed by all Europe: then, I suppose they did intend to bring on a quarrel with America. They imagined they could compass any point they please. But they have found they cannot go through with that dragooning system: they have made their arrangements upon a plan that comprehends the neutrality of the United States, and are anxious that it should be preserved. As to their personal dispositions, the king himself is not, and never will be cordially well inclined towards the Americans; because the greater their prosperity may be, the more poignant all his feelings of regret will be at his having lost so fine an Estate. The Prince of Wales, partakes of the same Sentiments. In the Council there is a great division. Among its members there are several who were the most active and inveterate advisers of the American War. They hate us completely. But the others are very differently disposed. Mr. Pitt indeed is not to be depended on. He varies according to circumstances. but Lord Grenville is another sort of man. Those among the ministers of other Nations who know him best, tell me, that he does not indeed always say all that he does mean, but that reliance may be placed upon all that he does say." The conversation here took another turn. Mr. Morris by his own account must be a very able negotiator, for he gave us to understand that while he was our Minister in France, he knew every thing that was going forward. It was his business to know it he said, and he told us a number of curious anecdotes connected with the History of the Revolution in France. — of the papers he had seen before the 10th: of August 1792, handed to him by the king, and which contained the whole plan of the insurrection that took place on that day. It was he says planned by the Brissotine party of the Jacobins, but they were cowards, and would have shrunk back from the Execution, but for Westermann, whom they had employed to command their Marseillese. He was the greatest mauvais sujet in France, and when he had once got fairly engaged in that business, not only refused to retreat, but threatened the others to denounce them if they flinched. — And yet says Mr. Morris those people were not ashamed of declaring the king guilty of an insurrection against the People on that same 10th: of August. — If however he had at the Time of his trial, put himself into the hands of the other party they would have spared his life. Chabot himself said so to a person who told it to Mr. Morris. They would not have suffered the trial, by asserting the principle that the Convention had no right to try him. But as he committed himself to the Brissotines, Chabot said he must die, that being the only way to get at them.
From this account of a first conversation it appears that Mr. Morris is sufficiently communicative, for a man of such extraordinary diplomatic penetration. The time of secrecy, as to these affairs is indeed past. But this parade of sagacity, these lessons in the theory and practice of negotiation so freely given, and so liberally tendered, what do they mean?
27. Mr. Williams of Boston here this morning. Some conversation with him upon his affairs here. He is one of the sufferers by the British depredations and has come to reclaim compensation. Called as requested at Mr. Hammond's office, and he introduced me to Lord Grenville. My conversation with him will be related in my letters to the Secretary of State. Some conversation afterwards with Mr. Hammond. He told me he wished Mr. Pinckney would go home, and that I might be placed here in his stead. Enquired whether I should not like it as well as being at the Hague. Answered him that this was a pleasant Country, and that personally I thought the residence here would be very agreeable. He asked if I had any news from America. I answered none. He said he heard the _democrats_ were quite _cock-a-whoop_. Talked very high of impeaching the President, &c. — There always will be in all Countries said I, people that will talk very high. you find that in this Country, as well as elsewhere. Ay said he, the best way is to let them talk. — "Your Government seem to think otherwise" I might have said, but I preferr'd saying nothing, not chusing to imitate his conduct. He suggested that the place of ordinary minister here would be very agreeable to me, because it would be succeeding to the station my father had held. That may do very well for you, said I. You may be an aristocrat with propriety. But in my Country you know, there is nothing hereditary in public offices.
This foolish talk of his, is very intelligible. "I do see to the bottom of this Justice Shallow." but he knows not me. If I stay here any time, he will learn to be not quite so fond, nor yet quite so impertinent.
[December 1795]
1. Called on Mr. Hammond at noon, as by appointment, and had considerable conversation with him. But his tone with me begins already to be different from what it was at first. His conversation was still such as if he thought my personal feelings or sentiments upon political subjects would have a tendency to make me complaisant. Asked if I had heard any thing of the President's intending to resign? Told him no. He said he had heard such was his determination at the expiration of his present term, in case there should be no _troubles_ in the Country. — What sort of a soul does this man suppose I have? — He talk'd about the Virginians, the Southern People, the democrats, but I let him know, that I consider them all, in no other light than as Americans. They never shall be considered by me in any other light, in treating with foreigners. He spoke again of Mr. Randolph's resignation. I told him I had seen an account from which, if true it appeared clearly that there was nothing like bribery in the case. He said that the President, Mr. Wolcott, Mr. Pickering, and Mr. Bradford were all fully convinced that Randolph was guilty. I replied that not having seen the papers, I could not be a competent judge of the facts. That the public officers he mentioned, might think there had been improper conduct without believing there was any corruption. — He said he had not the smallest doubt but Randolph was bribed by the french: and added he had better be quiet on that score for if he presumed to deny it, other proof amounting to demonstration would be produced. He said he would shew me the next time I should see him the intercepted dispatches of Fauchet. But he promised me the same thing once before, and I question, whether he means I shall see them. He says they abuse all the federalists very much: particularly my father. (another address to my feelings, fruitless like all the rest.) That they speak highly of Mifflin, Dallas, Jefferson, Madison and Giles: of Randolph and Monroe. Perhaps said I, this was because he thought those persons, not much your friends. "Ah," said he, "but they are your enemies, more than they are ours." No indeed said I, they are not in my opinion our enemies. "Yes they hate us said he, because they owe us money, and they hate you because you will not let them owe you money." — "Why they do not owe you much money now; that matter is in a great measure settled already. the old debts are principally discharged, and as to all recent ones, we pay your people to admiration. Indeed we are the best customers you have. What an immense quantity of your manufactures we take. You swallow up almost all the balance of trade in our favour, that we get from every other quarter, and your trade with us, supplies you principally with the means of supporting your war." — "But we are the best customers you have too. We take more articles of yours than anybody else does." — "Ay! but in no proportion to what you sell us, and the balance in your favour is prodigious." — "True, there is a balance to be sure; but as to the old debts, you are much mistaken in supposing them small. When that Commission comes to sit, you will find they amount to three or four millions sterling." — "Well the Commission will see, but I have no idea that the amount will be comparable to the sum you suggest." This conversation was far from pleasant to him. At least it was very different from what he was doubtless disposed that I should hold.
He came at last to a language not less intelligible, but rather more of unqualified acid. "Well, said he, Congress is to meet next Monday, and if they do not pass such laws as will be necessary to give effect to the Treaty, _we shall be all at sea again._ And I hear said he that the _antifederalists_ , threaten very high." — This perpetual allusion to an American party, and affectation of an idea, that our sense of injuries from this Country, is confined to that party alone at length gave me an opportunity to touch another string. — "Why, said I, all Governments have their opposition, who find fault with every thing. Who has better reason to know that, than you have in this Country? But in America you know opposition speaks in a louder voice than any where else. Every thing comes out. We have no lurking disaffection, that works in secret, and is not seen; nothing that rankles at the heart, while the face wears a smile. So that a very trifling opposition naturally makes a great shew."
8. Received this morning a card from Lord Grenville informing me, that I am to have to-morrow after the levee, the audience I _solicited_ of the king. this card was addressed to me as Minister Plenipotentiary from the United States of America. This circumstance struck me as singular, considering that I have no sort of pretension to that character. Dined with Mr. Hammond, and mentioned to him the mistake, presuming he would take proper notice of it.
9. Received this morning from Mr. Cottrell, assistant Master of the Ceremonies, a card addressed again to me as Minister Plenipotentiary &c. and informing me he would come to me at one O'Clock, to conduct me to the levee, and expressing his regret that he had not heard before of my arrival. This looked so much like a formal design of _construeing_ me into a Minister Plenipotentiary, that I thought it necessary to guard against it, and immediately wrote a card to Lord Grenville informing him that I have not the character of Minister Plenipotentiary, that my Letter to the King styles me Minister Resident of the United States at the Hague, and that if _this circumstance_ precludes me by the forms and usages of this Court, from an audience to deliver the letter, I wish to be notified of it, as I cannot admit that I am vested with the character of a Minister Plenipotentiary. Received an answer saying that a credential as Minister Resident entitled me to deliver my credentials; and although this note was not explicit, I conceived the fair warning I had given, as sufficient to prevent any future improper conclusions, and when Mr. Cottrell came, accompanied him to the levee. He again expressed his regret that he had not before heard of my arrival — I told him I should have notified it to him, but for the informal character in which I was placed here. He had all the forms of courtly civility about him as of course. At the levee he introduced me to the Duke of Portland, to Mr. Dundas, to the Marquis of Salisbury, the Earl of Mansfield, whom he called Lord Stormont, to the Minister of the Elector Palatine &c. — After the levee was over I was introduced into the private closet of the king, by Lord Grenville and presenting my credential letter said, "Sir. To testify to your Majesty the Sincerity of the United States of America in their Negotiations, their President has directed me to take the necessary measures connected with the exchange of the Ratifications of the Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation concluded between your Majesty and the United States. He has authorised me to deliver to your Majesty this letter, and I ask your Majesty's permission to add on their part the assurance of the sincerity of their intentions." — He then said, "To give you my answer Sir, I am very happy to have the assurances of their sincerity, for without that you know, there would be no such thing as dealings among men." — He afterwards asked to which of the States I belonged, and on my answering Massachusetts, He turned to Lord Grenville, and said, "All the Adams's belong to Massachusetts?" to which Lord Grenville answered, they did. He enquired whether my father was now Governor of Massachusetts? I answered No Sir, he is Vice-President of the United States. "Ay said he, and he cannot hold both offices at the same time?" "No Sir." — He asked where my father is now? At Philadelphia, Sir, I presume, the Congress being now in Session. — "When do they meet?" "The first week in December Sir." — "And where did you come from last?" "From Holland Sir." "You have been employed there." "Yes Sir about a year." "Have you been employed before, and any where else?" No Sir. — I then withdrew. — Mr. Cottrell invited me to go and witness the ceremony of an address presented by the Bishop and clergy of London, which was received upon the throne. — The Bishop read his address, to which a _very gracious_ answer was returned, and they all kissed his hand, kneeling to obtain _that honour_. — As I was coming from the Palace, with Mr. Cottrell he called for the American Minister's servants, and said that he had spoken to Lord Grenville who said that in the Gazette which would mention my audience I might be styled Minister Resident but without saying whether it was to be added to this Government or not. Determined to see Hammond on this matter. Resolved on the same account not to go to the house of commons this Evening to hear the debates. Hammond has intimated to me, that I should have a place under the galleries, as one of the foreign ministers, and as they seem to make a point of it, I am determined to assume no privilege, that shall imply any thing like an assent on my part to the principle.
[March 1796]
2. Dined at Mr. Johnson's. Younger part of Mr. Pinckney's and Mr. Church's families there. Mr. Pinckney himself in the Evening. Hall likewise. Ring from Louisa's finger. — Tricks play'd, a little music and dancing. — Placed in a very difficult dilemma. Know not how I shall escape from it.
[April 1796]
4. Fine Weather. At Mr. Copley's, final sitting for my portrait. He has made a good picture of it Home just in time to keep my appointment with the Ladies. Walked in St. James's park. — Foster dined and passed part of the Evening with me. Read Gibbon's letters during the remainder. — Hall was engaged. — Second evening of victory, though weaker than the former.
18. Dined and pass'd the Evening at Mr. Johnson's. Conversation with Louisa. Was explicit with her, and obtained her acquiescence. The same with him. Upon one point however, the only one to which I _must_ adhere, neither of them was satisfied. — The right and the reason of the thing are however indisputably with me, and I shall accordingly persist.
[May 1796]
27. Continuing preparations for my departure. At about 4 P.M. received word from the Captain that he should sail to-morrow morning at 5 O'Clock, that the wind is perfectly fair and if it continues so he will be at Gravesend by noon, ready to proceed from thence. This intelligence comes quite unexpected, and precipitates me so as to make several arrangements I had proposed, quite impracticable. Went immediately to the Duke of Portland's office to procure an order to permit my embarkation. Was obliged to return a second time, and then informed I could not have the order till ten or eleven to-morrow morning. Very anxious lest after all my disappointments I should lose this opportunity of returning to Holland. Evening at Mr. Johnson's, an Evening of delight and of regret. Took my leave of all the family with sensations unusually painful. Conversation with Mr. Johnson. — At home at 2 in the morning.
[June 1796]
30. ≈ _Day_. On my return from England I determined to resume a life of application to business and study, which during the principal part of my residence there I found altogether impossible. It has not yet settled into a course perfectly regular, but it is hitherto equal to my expectations. Rise and dress at six. Read works of _instruction_ , from thence till nine. Breakfast. read the papers and translate from the Dutch till eleven or twelve. Then dress for the day. Write letters or attend to other business that occurs till between two and three. Walk till half-past three. Dine and sit till five. Read works of _amusement_ till between eight & nine. Walk again about an hour. then take a very slight supper, and my segar, and retire to bed at eleven. — The variations from this course are not considerable. those that have taken place as yet are marked in the diary. I have as before mentioned now devoted an hour a day to the study of Italian, which Bielfeld and I are learning together. — Too much of this time is devoted to reading, and too little to Society. But I was not formed to shine in company, nor to be delighted with it; and I have now a considerable lapse of time to repair. While in London, by far too large a portion of my time was spent [in] it. — I hope and intend at a future time to take some of my present reading hours, for the purpose of writing. I wish no other change.
In my morning reading I have gone through Smith's Wealth of Nations, and commenced Luzac's Richesse de la Hollande. I have never had the advantage of systematic reading in its perfection, because I was never taught a system. To form one for myself has been the subject of my frequent meditations, but I have never satisfied myself as to the detail. My studies are indeed all directed to one point, which is pointed out to me by the station that I hold. The ultimate object of all reading must be the improvement of the mind. — But how to compass the greatest quantum of improvement; in a given portion of time and study is a problem, that I have not yet solved, and of which I still seek the solution. — My afternoon reading has been, one hour of epic verse in English, which has carried me through Pope's Homer & Dryden's Eneid. I have now begun upon that of Pitt. — The Memoires Secrets et Critiques des Cours d'ltalie of Gorani, I read in consequence of their reputation, and because I wanted information relative to the present state of that Country. They have accordingly furnished me with new materials for knowledge, but the book is superficial, and dull; full of commonplace political folly and personal scandal. Such books cost only the trouble of writing them. The author thinks himself a profound legislator, while he is only a coxcomb and a pedant. The Life of Dumouriez, is of quite a different description. The book is as entertaining as the principles of the author are depraved. — I mean to speak of him again.
[September 1796]
4. ≈ Finished reading the Paradise lost, the admiration of which encreases in my mind upon every perusal. — A criticism upon it would take too much time, and could have nothing original. — I mention therefore only two observations which occur to me upon censures expressed by eminent men without Justice. — Pope after noticing the quibbles of the Angels and Archangels (an undoubted blemish to the Poem) adds that Milton makes "God the Father turn a school-divine." This is epigrammatic, but if the Subject of the Poem, Paradise lost, and the object of the Poet, To justify the ways of God to Men, be considered, it appears to be an absolute necessity that the Justice of the Divine proceedings should be established upon the assertion of free election in Men. This could not be explained without metaphysical argument; without the nice distinctions which appear in the passages, that the sarcasm of Pope would condemn. Doctor Johnson among other objections to the conduct of the Poem, says that the Angel Raphael in his conversation with Adam, speaks in a comparison of "timid deer," before deer could be timid. There is no such expression, or idea, as that of "timid deer," through the whole course of the poem.
[December 1796]
31. ≈ With the commencement of the present year I began the practice of noting monthly the usual distribution of my employments and amusements through the course of the day. A practice which is not without its use for my own retrospection. The five first months of this year, spent in London were a period of leisure accidentally given me, and too much of which I allowed to the indulgence of indolence. The seven last months pass'd at the Hague have on the contrary been a time of as steady and constant application as ever occurred in the course of my life. I have endeavoured to contract the habit of early rising, and although since the commencement of the Winter, the severity and darkness of the Season have produced some relaxation in the execution of my determination, yet I have maintained it upon the whole with less flexibility than I apprehended I should. I have in a great measure repaired to my own satisfaction the loss of my time in the dissipation of London, and have now only to hope for resolution and health to continue, the same degree of industry, with some variation in my objects of pursuit. — With my conduct also since my return from England, I am more content than I was there, and in the course of seven months I can have nothing essential to regret. I have indeed happily nothing vicious to reproach myself with, during the whole year, though I remember with the regret which I hope will tend to my improvement many errors, and some follies. At least I have not knowingly injured any human being and I can form no more fervent prayer to Heaven than that at the termination of every succeeding year which may be granted me, and at the end of life my own heart may yield me a testimony as pure and as favourable as it does at this moment.
[January 1797]
31. ≈ _Day_. Rise in the morning at about 7. Translate two pages of History from Tacitus. Breakfast at about ten. — Afterwards till 2, Dressing, receiving or paying visits or writing Letters. Dine between 3 and 4. After dinner read a few papers of the Rambler. Walk of three or four miles immediately before or after dinner. Evening generally in company and at cards. Seldom at home, and reading a few of Cicero's Letters. — A profound anxiety has taken possession of my mind. The situation of two objects the nearest to my Heart, my Country and my Father, press continually upon my reflections. They engross every thought, and almost every power, every faculty. — The struggle is painful indeed amid such sensations, to bear a cheerful countenance to the world, to stifle every apprehension, and repress every rising sigh. — A sullen glooms hangs upon futurity — May the merciful disposer of all Events, avert the approaching terror, and dispel the threatening tempest. — For myself I ask only Virtue and Fortitude. — Virtue to discharge all the duties of life, and Fortitude to bear whatever destiny awaits me. For my father and my Country, my supplications to Eternal wisdom and goodness, comprehend the issue and result of action, and pray for their welfare and prosperity no less than for the means that tend to procure them.
[March 1797]
4. The day upon which the new Administration of the United States commences; and I am still uncertain what the Elections have decided. Every thing hitherto has contributed to accumulate anxiety upon this Event in my mind. Futurity laughs at our foresight. I can only pray for the Happiness and Prosperity of my Country. — Wrote a Letter to my father.
[July 1797]
18. As I was going out this morning, I met Mr. King, who delivered me Letters from the Secretary of State of 27 May and 1 June, and from my father of 2 June. They direct me, not to proceed to Lisbon, but wait here for a Commission and Instructions to the Court of Berlin. — Paid a number of visits, and spent an hour with Mr. King. Dined and passed the Evening at Mr. Johnson's.
21. Called at Mr. Johnson's sometime before dinner, and received his directions concerning his affairs with his former partners, in case I should ever have occasion for them. — Made our arrangements for my marriage which is to take place on Wednesday next.
26. At nine this morning I went accompanied by my brother to Mr. Johnson's, and thence to the Church of the Parish of All Hallows, Barking, where I was married to Louisa Catherine Johnson, the second Daughter of Joshua and Catherine Johnson, — by Mr. Hewlett. — Mr. Johnson's family, Mr. Brooks, my brother and Mr. J. Hall were present. We were married before 11 in the morning: and immediately after, went out to see Tilney House; one of the splendid Country seats for which this Country is distinguished. — We returned at about 4 P.M. The company before mentioned, and Mrs. Court a friend of Mrs. Johnson, dined with us. — The day was a very long one and closed at about 11.
[October 1797]
9. Our Captain who was to have sailed yesterday postpones his departure as usual from day to day. Had a number of visitors in the course of the forenoon. Dined with Mr. Medford at N. 50 Finsbury Square, with a number of Americans — Lyle a stock-jobbing Jacobin. — the others all apparently decent. — Rogers, Murdock, Ross, a Mr. Stuart, and a Doctor Tate, with an English Gentleman. — Conversed with Mr. Murdock after dinner. — Find the affairs of Mr. J. more & more adverse. — This trial is a strong one — more so indeed than I expected. — and I expected it would be strong. — I have done my duty — rigorous, inflexible duty, and no Event whatsoever shall convince me that by pursuing a more interested, and less faithful course, I should have been rewarded with better success. — Mrs. A dined with her friend Mrs. Cadignan at Hackney.
[November 1797]
16. Mrs. Adams appeared to be recovering well all this day, and we had some hopes of escaping the misfortune which we have dreaded, and which threatened — It must not be — This evening her complaint returned with a violence which no longer leaves a doubt, and reduces us to the misery of lamenting that the worst should be still delayed. — The king of Prussia, Frederic William II, died this morning at 9 O'Clock, and was succeeded by his son, third of the same name. — I endeavoured this day to find some private apartments for lodgings, but without success.
17. A dreadful night again, passed in continual expectation, and with the torture of disappointment prolonged which yet continues. — Continued through the whole day — It is neither wise nor good to murmur at the ways of Providence — I have been highly favoured: beyond my deserts and even beyond my wishes. — Shall I receive good, and shall I not receive evil? — The mind at least submits, however the heart will rebel.
30. ≈ _Day_. I mark this month as one of the most unfortunate that have occurred to me in the course of my life. I have risen usually between 6 and 8, since my arrival here, and Mrs. Adams's illness. breakfast at 9. Dress, walk, read or write a little from breakfast time untill 2. Then dine. Afternoon and Evening, reading untill 9. Sup. and to bed at 10. Three fourths of my time is employed in nursing. — None is left me for any laudable or useful pursuit. — Still living at a tavern.
[December 1797]
8. At noon, went by appointment and was introduced by the Baron de Münchhausen to Prince Henry. He usually resides at Rheinsberg, and is now here only upon the occasion of the king's death; after the funeral solemnity he will return. His conversation discovered more knowledge of America, and a mind more turned to speculation than any of the other Princes whom I have yet seen. He said that America was a rising while Europe was a declining part of the world, and that in the course of two or three centuries the seat of arts and sciences and Empire would be with us, and Europe would lose them all. Their progress had been westward, beginning in Asia, and it was natural that America should have her turn. But he asked whether we should have a center of union sufficiently strong to keep us together, and to stand the trials of the inconveniences incident to republican, and especially to federative Governments. — He enquired after General Washington, of whom he spoke in terms of great respect. — Mentioned Franklin, whose bust he said he kept, and made some enquiries respecting my father. He enquired also after young Marshall, who he said had been here; whom he had seen, and who was quite a joli garçon. — He told me the circumstance upon which Marshall came here, and which related to the liberation of M. de la Fayette. — This Prince is turned of 70. His name is very well known both in Europe and America. His countenance has strong marks of the features which distinguished that of his yet greater brother. — I believe that Mirabeau has done him great injustice. — At half past one, at the time fixed, went and was presented by the Comte de Wintzingerode to Madame the dowager Landgrave, who is a fine woman; a sister of the Princess Ferdinand. — She wears a star of the order of St. Catherine, instituted by the late Empress of Russia. — Stayed to dinner, as I had been invited. The company consisted of the Duke of Brunswic, and his second son; the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, Prince Augustus, youngest Son of Prince Ferdinand, and each of these accompanied by a Gentleman attendant. There was also the Minister of State Struensée; the new Minister from Hanover; and the Chargé d'Affaires from the same Court the Baron d'Ompteda The Marquis Parella, Sardinian Minister and his Lady, The Baron de Reede, formerly Minister from Holland and his Lady — a Russian Princess Menzikoff, and one or two other Russian officers, General Riedesel in the service of the Duke of Brunswick, and well known in the American War as having been captured with Burgoyne at Saratoga. — A list of names is all that such an occasion affords — The dinner was perfectly elegant and every thing discovered taste rather than cost. I wished to have observed something more than the countenance of the Duke of Brunswick. — Baron Riedesel talked with me much about America, and enquired particularly after General Schuyler of whose treatment to him at the time when he was taken prisoner he spoke very highly. — We sat down to dinner soon after two; a late hour here where they usually dine between one and two. — About two hours at table. — Home before five. Half an hour after, went as appointed and was introduced to the hereditary Princess of Orange, at the Royal Palace where she has apartments. I saw her once before at the Hague; she looks now as if she had met with misfortune since then as she really has. — This place is but a refuge to her and her residence is far from being so pleasant as that of the vieille Cour.
10. ≈ The guards from Potsdam came into town this morning. The king and Court went out to meet them. Saw them pass. The finest regiment I ever saw. — Evening and supper at Prince Ferdinand's. Played at reversi with a Lady and two Gentlemen whom I did not know — Neither the Prince nor Princess supped at table. Their son Prince Augustus did the honours. I knew none of the Company except the Gentlemen of the Princes and M. de Maisonneuve Prince Radziwill was there part of the Evening. Prince Ferdinand asked me whether there was not yet a great connection between America and England: upon my saying there was, he replied that if it had not been for the folly and caprices of the king of England, he supposed the connection would never have been broken. I said, the king of England had certainly been badly advised at that time; and indeed said the Prince he is as much so now, for continuing this War. — The Princess again eulogised Kosciuszko — Home at about 11.
[March 1798]
21. Walk in the morning; found it very muddy. Remainder of the day at home. These days all resemble one another: Mrs. Adams ill again — thy prophetic heart! — I have no doubt of the cause — The cup of bitterness must be filled to the brim and drank to the dregs. — Finished As you like it, this Evening.
[April 1798]
28. Weather warm. Walk in the park along by the river. Mrs. A. continues unwell. At the Casino, afternoon. Reading German papers. Three quarters of my life have been spent in learning languages, and I know but two, tolerably well: Read a little Shakspeare in the Evening.
[July 1798]
14. Dinner at Count Finckenstein's. But he was not at home himself: he dined with the king at Charlottenburg, but came in just as dinner was over — His son-in-Law the Minister Voss did the honours of the table. — Mrs. Adams again ill — It was only yesterday I was indulging some faint and feeble hopes of a better event than I had anticipated hitherto — I cannot even form an hope with impunity — The tortures of Tantalus have been inflicted upon me without ceasing.
15. Mrs. A ill, the whole day. — This practice of minuting down the transactions of every day, becomes excessively painful, at times when there is nothing but distress to record. — When there has not been a moment in the course of a day without its pang the recollections of such hours is heavy and melancholy. I read prayers and the bible as usual this morning. — Was at the Casino towards Evening — received a number of letters.
16. Mrs. A. continued unwell through the day. — Writing to the Sec'y of State — Evening, a couple of hours at the Casino — Stayed there indeed a little too late.
17. A dreadful night. Mrs. A. soon after going to bed was taken extremely ill, and between 12 and 1 O'Clock was in such extreme pain, that I sent for Doctor Ribke. — He was at Charlottenburg — So was Dr. Brown. sent for them both — They came between 3 and 4 in the morning. In the meantime Mrs. A had suffered the most excruciating pains — She was after that somewhat relieved, and throughout the day easier. — The Doctors stayed till 6 and 8 in the morning and returned several times through the day. — The case appears in almost every point similar to that of last November — Patience and Resignation is all that we can have. — Was up all night. Wrote however a little, this forenoon — Excused myself at Baron Lutzow's Picnic, and at Prince Ferdinand's this Evening. — My brother went.
26. Mr. Childs — came from Dresden last. — With a letter of recommendation from Mr. Murray. He called this afternoon — Walk with him — My brother dined with him at the Ville de Paris. — First anniversary of my marriage day. The external occurrences of the year have not been fortunate — But from the loveliness of temper and excellence of character of my wife, I account it the happiest day of my life.
[September 1798]
30. My brother went off this morning at five O'Clock; — to Dessau — Intending to proceed from thence to Hamburg, and as soon as possible, to America. It is something more than four years since we sailed from Boston together, and we have continued together the principal part of this time. He has ever been a faithful friend, and kind companion, as well as an industrious and valuable assistant to me. — In compliance with my repeated requests, he has prolonged his stay in Europe, much beyond his original intention, and now it is with an heavy heart that I part with him.
[December 1798]
31. ≈ _Day_. The forenoon, the same as the months past — The only difference of the Evening is that now we have scarcely one from one end of the month to the other, without some engagement in company. — This kind of life so contrary to that which my inclination would dictate, is unavoidable. — The year has not in any respect been a profitable one to me. — The only acquisition of any value that it has afforded is that of reading German very indifferently.
[July 1799]
11. I am this day thirty two years old. — Went at eleven O'Clock according to the notification which I received from the cabinet Ministry, to Count Finkenstein's where I found the three Ministers assembled, and Mr. Rensuer, a councillor in the department of foreign affairs. — The four copies of the Treaty, two in English and two in French were ready, and we immediately proceeded to exchange full powers and then sign and seal the Treaty — I then took them all with me home to examine them and ascertain their accuracy. — In the Evening I carried back and left at Count Finkenstein's the copies which are to remain here.
26. Second anniversary of my marriage day. — We took a walk before breakfast upon the hill which overlooks the town, and enjoyed a variety of fine prospects. — Walked again after breakfast — At the tea party, which was this day given by Madame de Melnitz a Saxon Lady — Went afterwards to the play, and saw a Comedy of Schröder, entitled "The Ensign" — The author appears to be an imitator of Kotzebue. — The two billets; translated from Florian, was likewise performed by children — Mrs. Adams did not go out, this afternoon; owing to the weather which was cold and rainy — The Chevalier de Villenotte, told me, he had seen me at Artaud's at Petersburg in the year 1782. I had altogether forgotten it.
[November 1799]
3. Visit this morning from Mr. Murray, who brought me a letter of recommendation from Mr. King. Finished reading Wieland's Oberon, which is one of the best things I have read in German — Latter part of the Evening at Dr. Brown's — Count Brühl and his family there — Played Chess with him.
[December 1799]
31. Mrs. Adams unwell — Doctor Brown here this forenoon — Evening at the Chanoine Rochow's of Rekahn. Played Whist with Countess Moltke, Madame de Tastrow, and Mr. Knoblauch.
_Day._ Rise at different hours from 5 to 8, generally, about 7. — German lessons, or translating Oberon, till 10. Breakfast. — Read or write as I have occasion till 2. — Walk — Dine at 3. — Translate another Stanza, from Oberon — Read Spenser or Pope's Iliad; or spend the Evening out; untill 10. — Bed at 11.
The year would in general have been a pleasant one, but for the state of my wife's health which has been almost continually bad, and concerning which I am even now deeply concerned. — The subject preys upon my spirits more than I can express. — I have written during the year somewhat more than usual. Principally in the months of May and June, when I made the translation of Bülow's book. — Since the middle of November too, I have amused myself with translating from Wieland's Oberon — a work which serves in some degree to withdraw my reflections from painful subjects, which have too great a tendency to engross them — I have learnt in the course of the year something more of the German language, which I can read with tolerably facility — And I have sufficiently ascertained that I never shall speak it —
[January 1800]
2. Mrs. Adams was bled this morning, and bore the operation well, but fainted in the Evening just before going to bed. — Went to the play and saw Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm — Like his Emila Galotti, it seems to me better for reading than upon the Stage, where it is cold — The weather was extremely so this evening, and the performance appeared to partake of the season — Found Dr. Brown when I came home. The translation of Oberon flags — at least as to the success of the work.
8 — Mrs. Adams taken ill this morning, in the process of a fourth misfortune, like three others which she has gone through since we arrived at Berlin — She remained all day in bed, suffering no pain; and still entertaining some hopes — Evening party at Count Podewils's — I was there about half an hour —
9. After an uneasy, restless and in some degree painful night, Mrs. A. has this day gone through as I hope the worst of her misfortune — She was for about three hours excessively ill — I can only pray to God, that there may never again be the possibility of another like event — A better hope, it were folly to indulge; for in cases like this hope itself is but an aggravation of misery — I did not leave the house, the whole day — But at night was so overcome with fatigue and anxiety, that at 8 O'Clock I retired to bed.
10. Mrs. Adams is easier though yet extremely weak — Dined at Count Bunau's, with a small party. We were to have been thirteen at table; but Mr. de Sellentin, one of the guests making it a point never to sit down in that number. the Countess upon being informed of his scruples, called in one of her young daughters, and made her dine with us. Came home immediately after dinner, and spent the evening at my wife's bed side.
11. Wrote to Mr. Murray and Mr. Pitcairn; begin to attend again to my translation, which has for two days been almost wholly suspended — Walk'd again this day — Mrs. A. did not yet quit her bed.
[June 1800]
23. Had a sleepless, restless, feverish night, and was unwell all this day. At half-past one, I went and exchanged the ratifications of the Treaty with Count Haugwitz; who offered me a snuff-box, with the king's picture set round in diamonds, in the king's name upon the occasion; which of course I declined; but at his strong solicitation consented to write and request leave of Congress to accept it, which I told him I was sure would be refused — Countess Brühl, and her daughter Mary took tea, and spent part of the evening with Mrs. Adams. I read to them the first book of my translation of Oberon; with which I am now wholly dissatisfied. My translation from Juvenal is almost wholly suspended.
[February 1801]
2. Received this afternoon in a letter from Mr. Murray at the Hague, information of the death of my brother Charles at New-York, on the first of December — May the tender mercies of an over gracious Heaven have attended him in his passage to the world of Spirits.
3. Had the information this day by the Hamburg Gazette and English newspapers which Mr. Garlike sent me, that the election of the President of the United States has fallen upon Mr. Jefferson — And that my father was ill of a fever, by the last accounts from Washington — Shall we receive good at the hands of God, and shall we not receive evil? — The two eldest Miss Brown's were here in the Evening. Mrs. A. was quite unwell.
4. Had letters this morning from Mr. King, Mr. Pitcairn, and my brother; my only brother! They confirm the intelligence of the two preceding days — Mrs. A. still very unwell — Dr. Brown was here this Evening. — I walk out, for an hour every day; in the park — Pass the remainder of course at home. I sent this morning an excuse for not attending the party this Evening at the Queen Mother's.
[April 1801]
12. I have this day to offer my humble and devout thanks to almighty God, for the birth of a son, at half-past three O'Clock afternoon.
30. Mrs. A. not quite so ill as she had been for several days before — Spent the Evening at Madame de Saldern's — Play'd whist with Madame de Heinitz, Countess Haugwitz, and the new Portuguese Minister Chevalier de Correa — Home soon after nine.
_Day_. Mrs. A.'s illness through the whole of this month, has unavoidably broken through the regularity of my occupations — my rest has so often been disturbed in the night that I could have no constant rising hour; and the extreme anxiety and agitation of my mind, has often rendered studious application impossible. I have usually risen between 6 and 7. And when I could, have pass'd the forenoon, excepting when with Mrs. A, in writing letters — Walk'd half an hour — Dined between 3 and 4. Walk'd again an hour towards evening, and spent the remainder of it until 10 or 11 in her chamber.
[May 1801]
18. The weather extremely warm. Find myself left without an occupation, and without the resolution & perseverance to give myself one — Mrs. A.'s health, varying from day to day between bad and worse keeps me in a crucifying state of suspense. My own health suffers from it in proportion.
[June 1801]
17. At half past seven this morning we took our final leave of Berlin, and came in the course of the day seven German miles to Fehrbellin — About a mile before reaching the town we pass'd a small column; with an inscription purporting that Frederic William the Great, came, saw and conquered on the 18th of June 1675 — This was a celebrated battle in the annals of Brandenburg.
[September 1801]
21. ≈ In Roxbury street I left the stage, and took a horse and chaise in which at 9 in the evening I reached my father's house at Quincy. Here I had the inexpressible delight of finding once more my parents, after an absence of seven years — This pleasure would have been unalloyed but for the feeble and infirm state of my mother's health. My parents received me with a welcome of the tenderest affection.
22. I had the satisfaction of spending this day almost entirely with my parents. Dr. Tufts called, in the forenoon. — In the afternoon I walk'd out with my father upon his farm, which has during my absence been much altered and improved — Louisa Smith is still in the family, and my mother has with her my brother Charles's oldest daughter Susan, a fine child, about 5 years old.
30. ≈ _Day_. This has been one of the months of my life, in the course of which I have gone through the greatest variety of scenery. When it commenced we were still at sea. Since then I have landed at Philadelphia; parted, for the first time since my marriage, from my wife — Travell'd on to New-York, and to this place, and enjoyed the luxuries of meeting all my old friends, after an absence of seven years. My mode of life has of course been altogether various. — I have resumed the practice of bathing and taking exercise before breakfast, which I found so beneficial last Spring.
[October 1801]
26. Mr. Johnson gave me some of his papers to look over. He has been unfortunate in his trusts, and considered as a prey by every man with whom he has dealt — I am strongly apprehensive of the issue of his principal causes now depending ≈ Dined at the President's — Besides Mr. Johnson's family, Mr. & Mrs. Madison, Miss Payne, and Mr. Lewis, the President's secretary, form'd the company — The dinner, as Mrs. Orby Hunter said, was of chilling frigidity — We spent the evening and supp'd at Mr. Hellen's.
27. Went this morning with Mrs. Johnson, Kitty, Mrs. Adams, the child and Epps, to Mount-Vernon to visit Mrs. Washington — Mr. Johnson intended to have gone with us, but just before setting out received a letter which required his immediate departure for Annapolis — At half past nine in the morning we left the City and cross'd the ferry at George-town. In two hours we reached Alexandria, where we staid about half an hour, and then proceeding arrived at Mount-Vernon soon after three — Here we dined and spent the rest of the day — Mrs. Washington has with her, Mr. & Mrs. Lewis, with their two children, Miss Henley, Miss Maria Washington, and Mr. Washington Custis, her grandson & brother to Mrs. Lewis — This lady, whom I formerly saw at Philadelphia, before her marriage, is a very pleasing and beautiful woman.
28. We slept at Mount Vernon, and this morning just before ten, took leave and return'd to Washington. We stop'd at Alexandria as before, and, at half past three, got to Mr. Johnson's door — The distance is about 18 miles and Alexandria is half way between the two places. The views along the Potomack are very beautiful, as are the prospects from Mount-Vernon.
[November 1801]
25. Called in the morning upon Mrs. B. Shaw, to deliver the letter from her mother — She had not risen — Soon after 9 O'Clock we left Mr. Smith's, and came to Quincy, where we arrived just at noon; and thus happily completed the voyage and journey commenced on the 17th of June — Here I had the pleasure of introducing my wife and child to my parents — With whom we spent the remainder of the day — Weather cold, but perfectly clear and fine.
[December 1801]
31. Mrs. A. much better — She went this forenoon and return'd several visits — I was busied about many things, but none to much purpose. — W. Shaw called here — Afternoon and evening at home.
_Day_. Part of the month spent at Quincy. The last ten days here — But the arrangements of moving, and settling to keep house have taken up all our time; and are not yet fully accomplished. I endeavour to establish the practice of early rising, not without various petty obstacles to prevent it — 5 is the hour I fix for rising, but I must occasionally lose or gain an hour or two upon it — Before breakfast I prepare my acc'ts for the day preceding. And I have likewise employed an hour upon Mair's Book-keeping — This art I never was taught, either at School, at College, or while a Student at Law — I have always kept Books, but for want of method and regularity they have not answered the purpose. — I am undertaking to keep henceforth regular books, and am prepared to commence the New Year in due form — At 9 we breakfast — From which time untill two, I have hitherto strolled about the town, marketing, making purchases or visiting — At two we dine — The afternoon and Evening I spend at home, reading or in conversation — Before 10 we go to bed.
At the close of this year, gratitude to Providence, for the blessings bestowed upon me, in its course ought to be the first sentiment of my heart — Those blessings have been great and signal — The birth of my child, and the safe return of my family and myself to my Country and friends, are among the most conspicuous of them; And the unusual portion of health I have enjoyed is no less to be remembered with suitable acknowledgment — I am now returned to a private station and to my former profession. — To begin the world anew, with the common chances of good or ill success. — I have only to implore the favour of Heaven for a continuance of health, and for the will and power to practice all the virtues which are calculated to promote the happiness of my fellow creatures, and my own. To that Providence I shall with full confidence, trust the event.
# Chapter III 1802–1809
## Boston — Washington
[January 1802]
28. The day, chiefly at my office — In the forenoon reading Park, and in the afternoon, the British critic — Evening at home, alone — Studying G. Adams on air and chimney fire places — Walk'd in the mall just before night — I feel strong temptation and have great provocation to plunge into political controversy — But I hope to preserve myself from it, by the considerations which have led me to the resolution of renouncing — A politician in this Country must be the man of a party — I would fain be the man of my whole Country. — Mr. Isaac Smith called upon me in the morning.
29. Mr. Boylston and Mr. W. Smith called at my office in the forenoon — J. Phillips in the afternoon. Phillips was desirous of information whether I would accept the office of Judge at the Supreme Court of this State, vacant by the resignation of Mr. Dawes, who is appointed to the probate and municipal offices — But he did not tell me what was the motive for his curiosity. He said he had heard only three persons mentioned — Sedgwick — Thomas of Plymouth, and me. — I told him that if the Governor, or any member of the council whose vote was to concur in the appointment wish'd to know my resolution, they might know it, by applying either personally or by any friend directly to me — That I would tell him, I did not want the place; and wished that no friend of mine would move a finger to obtain it for me — But that it would be ridiculous for me to tell any body and every body that I would or would not accept an office which there might be no thoughts of offering me — In the evening I attended the meeting of the Society, which for the want of an apparatus, again pass'd off in miscellaneous conversation; with a few additional magnetical experiments.
[April 1802]
1. Forenoon at my Office, reading Park — Private meeting of Commissioners in the case of William Micklefield — Declared him bankrupt — Evening at home reading Locke on clear and obscure, distinct and confused, adequate and inadequate, real and fantastical and true and false ideas — I called at the Branch Bank this morning and took out money by a check — Mr. Tudor called at my office, seemingly somewhat uneasy at a paragraph in this morning's Chronicle, objecting to the choice of him and myself as Senators, (we have been held up as candidates in what are called the federal papers) because we are Commissioners of bankrupts, which the writer says must engross all our time — Mr. Tudor wished a paragraph in the Centinel to state that we can without difficulty attend to the duties of both offices at once — He may have more reason than me to feel concern'd for the result of the election; because being now a Senator he will be left out, and I shall only not be chosen: which are very different things — I have little desire to be a Senator; for whether it will interfere with my duties as a Commissioner or not, it will interfere with pursuits much more agreeable to me than politics.
5. This day the election of Governor, Lieutenant Governor and Senators took place — The votes in this town, were 2372 for Governor Strong, and 1498 for Mr. Gerry — The federal list of Senators, containing the names of Oliver Wendell, William Tudor, and Peleg Coffin; with mine, had 2375. The opposite list, Benj. Austin jun'r, James Bowdoin, Nathaniel Fellows, and David Tilden, had 1498.
[November 1802]
3. The result of the election in this District stands thus.
So that Dr. Eustis stands re-elected by a majority of 59 votes — The cause assigned by the federalists for their failure is that the election day was rainy, and that a large number of strong federal votes from the remotest part of the town was lost, by non-attendance — This is one of a thousand proofs, how large a portion of federalism is a mere fair-weather principle, too weak to overcome a shower of rain — It shews the degree of dependence that can be placed upon such friends — as a party, their adversaries are more sure, and more earnest — For myself, I must consider the issue as relieving me from an heavy burden, and a thankless task.
[February 1803]
2. ≈ Mr. Ames dined with us at Mr. Bussey's — As we were leaving the house together I told him that I had heard that both his name and mine were upon the nomination list, now in the house of Representatives, for the choice of a Senator in Congress — I asked him whether he would accept the office if chosen, and assured him, that if he would, my name should not stand in competition with his — That I would take care to have it removed; and should be highly gratified to contribute all in my power towards securing his election — He said _he_ was entirely out of the question — That he could not go at any rate, and that if his name was upon the nomination list, it was altogether without his knowledge, or consent — He said the federalists were driving on just like a militia, without concert or order, and that some measures ought to be taken to produce Union among them — That there would be two Senators to be chosen this Session, as Mr. Foster would certainly resign, and Mr. Mason declines a re-election — That there were _two men to be provided for_ , and that measures should be pursued to prevent the excitement of ambition, and of course to produce the leaven of disappointment in a multitude of good men, who could have no reasonable pretensions, and whose feelings ought not to be tampered — I told him that concurring entirely with him in the sentiment, that something should be done to obtain united action and exertion, this was an occasion upon which I could do no more than say that I would cordially assist on my part in supporting or promoting the election of any one or two men other than myself, upon whom they would agree — Here this matter rested — The House of Representatives, last Saturday assigned to-morrow 12 O'Clock, to make choice of the Senator for six years, instead of Mr. Mason, whose time expires on the 4th of March. — The Centinel and Palladium, published that the time assigned was next _Saturday_. Mr. Russell of Boston moved this day in the house to postpone the choice untill next Tuesday — Mr. Otis argued in favour of the postponement. The vote pass'd, but was afterwards re-considered, and the original time again assigned, for to-morrow 12 O'Clock — This hurrying on is occasioned by a coalition of the Jacobin party (so called) with the _Junto_, who expect to carry Mr. Pickering for the six years, and then to start another candidate, if Mr. Foster should resign.
3. The business in Senate this forenoon was of little importance — No bills of general interest being before them — About 1 O'Clock Mr. Otis came up from the house with a message — That the house had proceeded to the choice of a Senator in the Congress of the United States, in the room of Jonathan Mason, whose time of service expires on the fourth of March next — And that on the ballots being taken it appeared that John Quincy Adams had a majority of the whole number. — The Senate assigned next Tuesday 12 O'Clock to act upon this choice, and a nomination list in the mean time to be put up — Mr. Pickman immediately put my name upon the nomination list, and the name of Timothy Pickering was immediately after inserted — I know not by whom. ≈
Before the choice made in the house of Representatives, Mr. Pickman told me that as there would certainly be two vacancies in the Senate of the United States, he wished that Mr. Pickering and myself might be chosen to fill them — But one of the places being for the whole six years, and the other only a remnant, he thought Mr. Pickering's age, and the cruel persecutions of calumny which he had suffered, gave him the right to the first choice — He thought him an honest and an able man, though of an unaccommodating and too assuming temper — His volunteering an answer to an address from Princess Ann County, instead of laying the address before the President, had always struck him as a very improper thing — He ask'd me whether the difference between Mr. Pickering and my father would have such influence on me, as to make me unwilling to sit in the same house with him. — I told him I had no personal resentment against Mr. Pickering whatever; and far from wishing to exclude him I would cordially give my vote for him, and for any other man upon whom the federalists would agree. — He then said that he had made up his mind, not to be active at all in the election; but to vote for the person whom the house should send up, provided, he should think him a suitable person. — And he added that he most sincerely wished Mr. Pickering had not suffered his name to be put up.
There were four trials in the house before the choice was made — The candidates and the numbers of votes, at the several trials stood as follows.
The reason of the election's taking such an extraordinary turn, I am told was this — A caucus of about twenty members was held last evening at Mr. Russell's house. They could not agree together upon supporting either Mr. Pickering or me — Each being proposed and urged by several persons. At length it was agreed by way of compromise, that Mr. Pickering should have the first chance of two trials. And if his election could not then be carried, they would unite for me. — This agreement was but very imperfectly complied with at the third trial. — At the two first and the fourth it was executed as faithfully as such things ever can be — At the caucus Mr. _Lowell_ and Mr. _Otis_ were warm partizans for Mr. _Pickering_ — Of Lowell I could expect no less — Nor indeed of Otis — For he has of his own accord told me several times that as Mr. Mason would certainly decline a re-election, he, the said _Otis_ , meant to use all his endeavours to get ME chosen in his stead — How could I possibly imagine, then, that Otis would propose or support any man but Pickering.
4. At 9 this morning, I attended the Committee on applications for new trials, in behalf of Mr. Boylston — They agreed upon an order of notice to Mr. Gill — The business transacted in the Senate was not very important. — After we adjourned, Otis took me into one of the lobbies, to talk with me upon the subject of the application for a new bank in the town of Boston — He said I had no conception of the interest and agitation, which this affair had excited — That the application embraced a great multitude of the most respectable persons in this town, and almost the whole commercial interest — That it appeared to be, an opinion among them, that it depended entirely upon me, and he had heard I had objections against the plan, which he wished to remove if possible — He understood the Committee had required the Subscription paper to ascertain the names of the persons concerned and the amount of their subscriptions — He made no hesitation to avow that he was interested in it — He had never concealed it, and never wished to conceal it; but at the same time he did not wish to have his name appear to be animadverted upon by every member of the legislature and by the public abroad. — That he would tell me exactly how the plan was formed — The establishment of a new bank in this town had been talk'd of these two or three years; but lately about twenty Gentlemen met together, and projecting to unite all the great and respectable interests in the town, had chosen a Committee from among themselves to offer the subscription round to every gentleman of respectable character; and to _apportion_ the amount which each person should be allowed to subscribe. That no individual subscriber was to take more than fifty shares, _excepting the original_ projectors themselves — That the two Insurance offices were to have two thousand shares each, but were to give up five hundred shares apiece, _if such shares should be found necessary_ for any unforeseen demand — And that one thousand shares should be _reserved_ , to be taken by the twenty original projectors, among themselves, for their extraordinary trouble and attention. — The fact was that if the plan should be defeated, it would be solely owing to the _liberality_ with which it was undertaken — If it should be defeated, the Jacobins would undertake and carry through a bank of their own, of which they had even matured a project — That had subsided only in consequence of the bank now proposed, for when Dr. Jarvis was applied to to subscribe this application he refused, alledging that he had already signed another application — Finally his principal object in thus talking with me was to say that there could be no necessity for having a subscription paper containing the names of the parties interested bandied about in public. — I told him I was sensible how deep, how large, and how powerful, an interest was combined in the pursuit of this project — That so far from contending against such a respectable weight of influence, it would be my strongest wish to comply with and promote every thing they should desire, so far as might be consistent with my duty — That the Committee on which I sat were equally divided; two being for giving leave to bring in a bill without limitation, and two absolutely against it — That so far the question depended upon me. — But it had been rumored abroad that in forming the capital of this Bank a certain number of shares was _reserved_ , to be distributed among the members of the legislature; and this was a species of influence so dishonourable to the legislature itself, that I considered it indispensable, to remove as far as could be the possibility of such a suspicion — That in consequence of this, I had suggested, and the Committee had adopted the idea of calling for the subscription paper — But I presumed there would be no necessity for making it public.
At ½ past three in the afternoon the Committee met again; but Mr. Treadwell the chairman was not present — Mr. Higginson, Mr. Lyman, and Mr. Lloyd again came, and urged further arguments to recommend their plans, and to remove objections — They produced their subscription paper; but as the Committee thought no _reservation_ ought to remain unappropriated, they took back the paper to have it fill'd up — The Committee agreed to give them leave to bring in a bill — But with condition that some clause should be introduced to indemnify the Commonwealth for the loss it will sustain upon its Union Bank Shares. And that the specie for the vaults of the New Bank, shall not be drawn from any Bank incorporated by the Commonwealth.
8. The Senate was occupied in discussing several bills and motions, untill 12 O'Clock — The time assigned for the choice of a Senator in Congress for 6 years after the 4th of March next — The number of votes was twenty-six (of course, I did not vote at-all) — There were nineteen votes for John Quincy Adams, and seven for Tompson J. Skinner — The federal side of the house therefore was unanimous to concur in the choice made by the house.
[July 1803]
4. _Independence Day_. I return'd to Boston early this morning; and on my arrival received from the countenance, and mouth of Mr. Shaw the news, that I have a second child — A Son, born at 3 O'Clock this morning — The mother and child are both as well as I could hope. For this new blessing, I desire to offer my humblest gratitude to the throne of Heaven — Mrs. Adams was taken ill between 7 and 8 last Evening. Sent for Dr. Welsh about 11. — He had not long been returned from Quincy. I went to hear the anniversary Oration, which was delivered by Mr. W. Sullivan — The prayer by Mr. Baldwin, the Chaplain to the House of Representatives — In the afternoon I called at Mr. Parsons's office, and saw him. — Took one turn in the mall, where there was as usual a great crowd of people. Evening at home.
[August 1803]
19. The heaviness of heart and of spirits, which I am unable to resist, disqualifies me from every proper occupation; and I aggravate the evils, which I am unable to remove, by that of absolute idleness — Mr. Boylston, Mr. Murray the clergyman, and Mr. Gardner called on me this forenoon — The last to tell me he had been last Evening at Quincy, and seen my mother — His account agrees with that of Dr. Welsh: and he saw her only an hour or two later. — I do nothing, but read; and that without system or profit —
[September 1803]
18. Heard Mr. Thomas of Scituate, whom I did not know — Find my mother, God be praised, much better. Spent the leisure part of my time, chiefly in arranging and sorting my letters and papers received since I have been in America. Read a few letters of Sevigne; and walk'd with my father over his grounds, to examine the fruit — Spent the Evening with him.
[October 1803]
21. At 11 this morning, I took my seat in the Senate of the United States, after delivering my credential letter to Mr. Otis, the Secretary; and being sworn to support the Constitution of the United States, by Mr. John Brown of Kentucky, who is the President pro tem: — Mr. Burr, the Vice-President, being absent. There was little business done, and the Senate adjourned soon after 12. — Mr. Otis is much alarmed, at the prospect of being removed from his office. It has been signified to him this day, that in order to retain it, he must have all the printing done by Duane. — His compliance may possibly preserve him one session longer. After the Senate adjourned, I went in, without the bar of the House of Representatives; but they adjourned immediately afterwards — As I returned home, I called at the President's, and not finding him at home, left a Card.
23. There is no church of any denomination at this City. but religious service is usually performed on Sundays at the Treasury Office, and at the Capitol — I went both forenoon and afternoon to the Treasury, but found there was this day no preaching there, on account of the Indisposition of Mr. Laurie. — The two Senators from Delaware, Mess'rs Wells and White, and Mr. Huger a Member of the House of Representatives from South Carolina, called upon me this morning.
28. I called at the Secretary of State's Office, to give him a letter for Mr. Randolph — Spoke to him also for a copy of Laws and Journals for the Historical Society — I ask'd him whether the Executive had made any arrangements with any member of either house to bring forward the proposal for an Amendment to the Constitution to carry through the Louisiana Treaty — That if any such arrangement was made, I should wait quietly untill it should be produced — But if not, I should think it my duty to move for such an amendment — He said he did not know that it was universally agreed that it required an Amendment of the Constitution. But for his own part, had he been on the floor of Congress, he should have seen, no difficulty in acknowledging that the Constitution had not provided for such a case as this — That it must be estimated by the magnitude of the object, and that those who had agreed to it must rely upon the candour of their Country for Justification — To all of which I agreed, but urged the necessity of removing as speedily as possible all question on this subject, to which he readily assented — He said he did not know that any arrangement had been made; that probably when the objects of immediate pressure were gone through it would be attended to, and if _he should have any agency_ in concerting the measure, he would request the gentleman who might propose it to consult previously with me. — Attended in Senate. — Mr. Butler's Resolution for a _further_ Negotiation with France under consideration, debated untill past 3. P.M. when we adjourned — I was unwell in the Evening, and had been indeed so the whole day. Had no rest last night.
29. In Senate — The debate was upon the bill to enable the President to take possession of Louisiana, &c, which comes back from the House with Amendments to the second Section — I moved an amendment to the last Amendment from the house, by an addition of the words "consistently with the Constitution of the U. S." But it was objected that this was not in order, my proposed amendment referring not to the Amendment from the House, but to the original section of the bill, upon which this House, having already acted could not now act again — The President so decided, but requested the sense of the House which confirmed his decision. The amendments were all rejected, and a Committee of Conference appointed. The House of Rep: insisted — The Conferees met, and agreed, that the Senate should recede from their disagreement to the amendments from the House, and agree to the same, with a further amendment — When our Conferees came in, the Senate agreed to that part of the report which proposed to recede, but disagreed to the additional amendment of their own Conferees — So the bill pass'd as amended in the House of Representatives — It was observed as a rule and on all sides recognized that the Speaker of the House and President of the Senate could not sign an enrolled bill, but while those bodies are respectively in session — Adjourned after 3 O'Clock.
31. In Senate, Mr. Breckinridge, introduced a resolution, to wear crape a month for the three illustrious patriots, Samuel Adams, Edmond Pendleton and Stevens Thompson Mason. — I asked for the Constitutional Authority of the Senate to injoin upon its members this act, and he referred to the manual, that such a regulation was merely conventional, and not binding upon the members. I then objected against it, as improper in itself, tending to unsuitable discussions of character, and to an employment of the Senate's time in debates altogether foreign to the subjects which properly belong to them — This led to a debate of three hours, in the course of which the resolution was divided into two — One for Mr. Mason, as a matter of form and of course, to a member of the Senate, holding the office at the time of his decease — The other for the two other illustrious patriots. The first was unanimously agreed to — The last by a majority of 21 to 10 ≈
_Day_. From the 1st to the 20th of this month we were upon our journey from Quincy to Washington, with the customary irregularity of travelling. Here my mode of life is more uniform — I rise at about 7. Write in my own chamber untill 9. Breakfast — Dress, and soon after ten begin my walk to the Capitol. The distance is two miles and an half, and takes me 45 minutes — I get there soon after 11, and usually find the Senate assembled. We sit untill 2 or 3, and when the adjournment is earlier, I go in and hear the debates in the House of Representatives. Home at 4, dine — and pass the Evening, idly, with George in my chamber, or with the ladies. They sup between 9 and 10. — At 11 is the hour for bed — This great change in the arrangement of my daily occupations and manner of living, has affected my health in some degree, and the interest with which my mind seizes hold of the public business, is greater than suits my comfort or can answer any sort of public utility.
[December 1803]
20. Going to the Senate this morning the Vice-President in his carriage overtook me, and offered me a seat which I accepted. He enquired after my father; and spoke of his _social_ intimacy with him when he was a Senator, and my father Vice-President. The Senate had little business before them and soon adjourned. Mr. and Mrs. Huger and Mr. Purviance, a member of Congress from North Carolina, pass'd the evening with us. — Snow.
31. Spent the day too indolently, in reading — Mr. Smith's view of the Constitutions, and Montesquieu on the Romans. Walk'd to Georgetown this morning — Mr. and Mrs. Lowndes, and Mr. Coles paid a visit here. I prepared a demand against R. Bird of New-York — Did not sufficiently attend to the subject which comes next week again before the Senate.
_Day_. Differs only from that of the last month, by a greater frequency of dining and passing Evenings abroad.
The year now closing, has been remarkable as a part of my life, by one very unfortunate occurrence, and by several events which call for gratitude to an overruling Providence — The failure of a commercial house in London, with whom I had deposited a considerable part of my father's property, brought upon him a loss which is more distressing to me than to himself — It put me to great inconvenience to make the provisions to supply the chasm created by this circumstance, but its effects in diminishing the comforts of my father's age, have been among the most painful things that ever happened to me. I have in some degree shared in the loss, and have done all in my power to alleviate its evils to him. But it has been and remains a continual source of uneasiness to me; nor have I any prospect that it will ever be removed. — In the disposal of my property however to meet the necessities which arose from the protest and return of the bills I had drawn on the house, I met with several facilities, and advantages which I had no right to expect — The calamity has fallen the lighter for this, and my own property has remained nearly in its former state — In my family I have been highly favoured, by the birth of a second Son, and the unusual degree of health which we have all enjoyed. — The restoration of my mother too from the gates of death, and from a confinement of five months, has filled my heart with the purest of enjoyments — My election as a Senator of the United States for six years, has been the only important incident of my political career. It has opened to me a scene in some sort, though not altogether new, and will probably affect very materially my future situation in life — I have already had occasion to experience, what I had before the fullest reason to expect, the _danger_ of adhering to my own principles — The Country is so totally given up to the Spirit of party, that not to follow blind-fold the one or the other is an inexpiable offence — The worst of these parties has the popular torrent in its favour, and uses its triumph with all the unprincipled fury of a faction; while the other gnashes its teeth, and is waiting with all the impatience of revenge, for the time when its turn may come to oppress and punish by the people's favour. Between both, I see the impossibility of pursuing the dictates of my own conscience, without sacrificing every prospect not merely of advancement, but even of retaining that character and reputation I have enjoyed — Yet my choice is made, and, if I cannot hope to give satisfaction to my Country, I am at least determined to have the approbation of my own reflections.
[January 1804]
7. Committee met and agreed upon their report — Curious Conversation between S. Smith, Breckenridge, Armstrong and Baldwin, about "Smith's nephew, the first Consul's brother" — Smith swells upon it, to very extraordinary dimensions — Call'd in at the House where they decided for the Committee of inquiry 80 and 40. — I went with Mr. Tracy to his chamber and had a conversation with him, upon some resolutions which I propose to offer the Senate — It is another feather against a whirlwind. — A desperate, and fearful cause, in which I have embarked — But I must pursue it; or feel myself either a coward or a traitor — Mr. Tracy approves my purpose, promises his support, and suggested to me some important ideas for the modification of my resolutions — Tea and spent the Evening at Mr. Pichon's — Citizen Jerome Bonaparte, and his wife there — Also the Vice-President, Secretaries and several frenchmen — Played chess with one of them who beat me one game and gave me another — Pichon is profoundly mortified at the marriage of Jerome. He says it is impossible the first Consul should put up with it. Tis a marriage against many laws, many usages, many opinions, and many prejudices, personal, official, and national, of the first Consul — Jerome is not of age; he is an officer — He is the first Consul's brother — The marriage will undoubtedly be broken — But P. hopes it will not affect the national honour — He has given express warning of all these facts to the ladies parents — But they have such an _inconceivable infatuation_ , they and the whole family of the Smith's for the match that make it they must, and it was really the young man who was seduced — Sam. Smith's wife and Miss Patterson's mother were Sisters — Spear's — And even the sound sense of Mr. Nicholas, who he believes also married a Spear, had not been proof against this ridiculous Vanity — Pichon's fears may be carried too far — The first Consul may think it politic to make the best of what has happened, but all the chances of _rational_ probability are the other way. — I have not heard Nicholas say any thing on this subject, but the Smith's are so elated with their supposed elevation by this adventure, that one step more would fit them for the discipline of Dr. Willis. —
8. Rain and Snow the whole day; so that I could not go out — Employed the day in reading and writing. Varied the Resolutions which I have concluded to offer to the Senate, on the subject of the Louisiana Revenue — The subject has already given me more than one sleepless night. — Yet for what? — For the Constitution I have sworn to support — For the Treaty that binds our national faith. — For the principles of Justice — and for opposing to the utmost of my power those who in this measure will violate them all. —
9. Senate — Court of Impeachment opened — Received from the Committee of arrangements a report — which is to be printed, and considered to-morrow. — Executive business — Spanish Convention ratified — Treaty of limits with G. Britain, further debated; but no question taken — Committee appointed on a Resolution of Mr. Bradley's, on the opinions of the lawyers, communicated among the documents of the Spanish Negotiation — Dined with the Vice-President — Mess'rs Wells, Stedman, Dwight, Hastings, Mitchell, Betton, and Thatcher dined there — Mr. Burr is a man of very insinuating manners, and address — Walk'd home alone in the evening. Finished reading the pamphlet which defends Mr. Burr against the attacks he has sustained — It is well written, but would bear some pruning to much advantage.
13. The amendments of the Committee to the Louisiana revenue bill were adopted and the bill pass'd to a third reading — The Government bill was taken up, and some progress in it made, but no question upon it taken — My warmth of opposition against these measures has reconciled some persons to it, who hate me rather more than they love any principle. I wait for the decision of time, and pray for moderation as well as firmness in my adherence to principles. — These are now almost totally unsupported — I Dined, with Mrs. Adams and Mrs. Johnson, at Mr. John Mason's, Georgetown — Mr. Merry, Mr. Pichon and their ladies. Mr. Dayton, Mr. Breckenridge & a Mr. Dawes were there.
14. The Senate met, though on Saturday, to pass the Louisiana revenue bill, which they did — yeas 21, nays 3. — Mr. Tracy, Mr. Hillhouse and Mr. White were absent — Mr. Pickering voted for the bill and enjoyed no small satisfaction in his vote — Before I presented my resolutions denying the _right_ of the Senate to concur in a bill for taxing the people of Louisiana without their consent, I shewed them to Mr. Pickering, and had a free conversation with him upon them, and he made no material objection against them. — On the day when they were discussed, He affectedly left his seat, went out of the Senate room, came in again, kept in a perpetual bustle round the floor and in the lobbies, and just before the vote on my resolutions was taken, took great care to come and take his seat again; so as to be there for the vote — When his name was called he rose and, with a tone of great delight at his expedient, desired to be _excused_ from voting, as _not having heard the discussion_. He was accordingly excused, but yesterday and to-day he has voted for the bill against which my resolutions were specially pointed. His conduct taken together speaks this language — "See! how kindly I spare the feelings of my colleague! — Take notice! His resolutions are very ridiculous — But please to observe with how much delicacy I forbear to vote against them." — Thus much for Mr. Pickering — This and his behaviour to me on every former occasion when his feelings could operate has convinced me beyond all doubt that he will _always_ vote against every thing proposed by me when he dares — In the debates on the Amendment to the Constitution, his votes on the _5_ and _3_ questions gave the most decisive demonstration of his views — However as the loss of his concurrence takes off half the force of the few federalists left, I cannot pursue opposition to any effect without his support. — I therefore barely took the yeas and nays at this reading, without making any observations on the bill itself. — The Senate then immediately adjourned. I wrote letters to my brother, and to Mr. W. Smith, inclosing to the latter the bill now pending in the House, for the further protection of our seamen, with a request of his opinion — In the evening I read Raynal.
15. At the Treasury, and heard Mr. Lawrie. — I called upon Mr. Pickering, and had a very full and free conversation, with him on the subject of my resolutions, and the Louisiana bills. — I represented to him the importance of harmony between us, and told him that as I found the measures, which I intended to have opposed to the utmost of my power, appeared to have his approbation, I should stop short in the career of my opposition, to avoid every appearance of controversy with _him_ — For that, however ready and willing I am to contend with the ruling majority, I felt the importance of preserving unanimity with him, both as it respected ourselves and our Constituents — I also asked him what clause or Section of the Constitution it was, under which he conceived Congress have the power to pass these Laws — He answered me, that he was sensible of the importance of our agreeing together in our measures, and regretted when he thought it necessary to vote differently from me. That in this instance, as to the abstract principle of the Law of Nations, as I quoted from Vattel, _I was certainly righ_ _t_ ; and that there was no particular clause of the Constitution which gave Congress the power, unless possibly it might be the clause enabling them to _provide for the general welfare_ — But as a point of expediency, it would be imprudent to give the people of Louisiana an option to submit to our government or not, and that as to the natural rights of men they always were disregarded in cessions of this kind — Such are Mr. Pickering's reasons for disapproving my opposition to these two Laws — He abandons altogether the ground of _right_ , upon both questions, and relies upon what is _expedient_ in opposition to the right — I told him I was satisfied as to the object of my inquiries, and that from deference to him, and to avoid the appearance of contending with him, I should urge my opposition on these bills no further; except so far as merely to record my votes — He said he was afraid it would be attributed to an obstinate determination to oppose every thing, if he continued to oppose the measures for the Government of Louisiana, and that however desirous he was to be in harmony in me, he could not sacrifice his opinions — This conversation has finished opening to me Mr. Pickering's heart and his understanding — Another remark I made was that he conversed with the most perfect freedom on the subject of the Treaty of limits with Great-Britain, and the questions now in discussion upon it, _in the presence of_ Mr. Dana, although there is an express injunction of secrecy upon every member of the Senate, relative to it. — Read this evening in Raynal — Finished Book 7, History of Peru and Chile — And began book 8, that of Paraguay.
24. ≈ The Amendments to the Louisiana Government Bill were taken up, and some progress made in them — Mr. Venable's amendment, to give them the beginning of a popular representation, failed for want of one vote yeas 14, nays 14 — On the section prohibiting the slave trade, no question was taken — A letter from Governor Claiborne to the Secretary of State was received and read. It was sent with a _private_ letter to the President of the Senate, which however Mr. Brown read — In the evening, I continued reading the 11th book of Raynal. It contains an account of the Slave trade; and closes with the Articles cultivated in the West Indies by slaves; Cotton, Coffee, Sugar, and Arnotto.
26. The section for prohibiting the admission of slaves from abroad into Louisiana was again debated all day. It was at last taken by yeas and nays 17 & 6 — The discussion of this question has developed characters. — Jackson, has opposed the section totis viribus, in all its shapes, and was very angry when the question was taken. — Called twice for an adjournment, in which they would not indulge him; and complained of unfairness — Dayton has opposed the Section throughout with equal vehemence; but happened to be absent when the question was taken. — Smith of Maryland, who has been all along extremely averse to the Section, but afraid to avow it, complained bitterly that the yeas and nays were taken in quasi-committee, instead of waiting to take them on the ultimate question in the Senate — But finding his party on this point stiff to him as if he was in the minority, he left his seat to avoid voting at all, in the yeas and nays — Bradley of Vermont, after trying various expedients to give the slip to the real question, finally moved an Amendment to prohibit the admission of Slaves altogether — as well from the United States as from abroad — His object was to defeat the thing by its own excess, and made his abhorrence of _all_ slavery the ground of his argument to oppose the partial prohibition — He therefore took the yeas and nays upon his own proposed amendment before they were taken on Mr. Hillhouse's Section — The workings of this question upon the minds and hearts of these men, opened them to observation as much as if they had had the window in the breast — I called to see Mr. Tracy who is unwell, at his lodgings — Finished reading the 11th and began the 12th Book, of Raynal, this evening — The twelfth Book contains the account of the West-India Islands, resumed.
27. The Senate met only to adjourn over till Monday; on account of the Louisiana feast — About 70 members of the two houses of Congress dined together at Stella's — The President and the Heads of Departments were there by invitation — Scarcely any of the federal members were there — The dinner was bad, and the toasts too numerous. I left about 30 of the company there at about 8 in the evening. Walk'd home, and on coming into the warm house, from the external cold, found myself immediately very sick. I was however much relieved before going to bed.
30. The Louisiana Government Bill yet engrosses the attention of the Senate — The Sections to secure the prohibition of the slave trade, are still under discussion — And Mr. Breckenridge has at length produced one which I suppose is to be the last — Tis to be printed, for to-morrow. — In the evening, I began the 6th Volume and 18th Book of Raynal — History of the _French_ West-India islands. — Read also to the Ladies, two acts of Shakespear's Julius Caesar.
[March 1804]
29. Walk'd with my wife, T. B. Johnson and three of the young Ladies to the House of Mr. Stewart the painter. Found Mrs. Morton was there sitting — Mrs. Merry came in while we were there; as did Mr. Thornton, and Mr. King, the Gentleman who last summer brought me a letter from Mr. Kinnaird — We saw a number of portraits — All remarkably fine likenesses — Among the rest are heads of my father and mother taken about four years ago, at Philadelphia, and ever since left unfinished — These portraits all appear to be as striking for their delineation of character, as for that of the countenance — On returning home, I pass'd the rest of the day chiefly in writing — Had a heavy thunder-storm in the Evening — Mr. Tracy, Mr. White, and Mr. Purviance called to take leave of us this morning. They go for Baltimore to-morrow.
31. Went to Georgetown this morning, and took two seats in the Stage to Baltimore — For myself and Patty, who returns to Boston with me. My wife and children are to spend the Summer here — Took George with me, to the Stage Office — Pass'd the remainder of the day in making arrangements for my departure; packing my trunks &c.
_Day_. By the illness of Martha Stokes, the young woman who lives with my wife, I was obliged to give up my chamber, at the beginning of this month, and have been irregular in the distribution of my time ever since. My nights have been much disturbed by the sickness of my children, and I have not risen so early in the morning, or had so much leisure for study in the Evening. Rise between 6 and 8. Write or read about an hour before — Breakfast — Attend in Senate, untill 4 P.M. — Come home to dinner, and pass the Evening with my wife in her chamber — The Session of Congress being now broken up, my mode of life will again change.
[October 1804]
3. Mr. Quincy was here this morning, and urged me to consent to stand as a Candidate for the Office of President of the University — Upon which I could only repeat the answer I gave him when he mentioned it to me last week. I then supposed him joking. But he was this day very serious — It will not answer — They are still to choose a member of the Corporation and a Professor of Divinity — Quincy opened to me more fully the real causes of their former delays, and the personal and family views which enter into these elections. ≈ Read the curious case of Marbury and Madison, in Cranch's Reports — Finish'd reading Thucydides, in Smith's translation — I hope one day to read the original.
31. Paid visits to the President, and Mr. Madison: both of whom I found at home. The President conversed with me respecting the impressments by the British frigates upon our Coast; and respecting the trade carried on by some of the merchants with the Blacks at St. Domingo — This he appears determined to suppress, and I presume a Law will pass for the purpose at the approaching Session.
[November 1804]
5. This was the day to which the Session of Congress was adjourned — I attended at the Capitol, at 11 in the morning. Only thirteen Senators attended, with the Vice-President; and not being a sufficient number to form a quorum, barely met and adjourned ≈
N. B. The Vice-President, Mr. Burr, on the 11th of July last fought a duel with Gen'l Alexander Hamilton, and mortally wounded him, of which he died the next day — The Coroner's Inquest on his body, found a verdict of wilful murder, by Aaron Burr, Vice-President of the United States — The grand-Jury in the County of New-York found an Indictment against him, under a Statute of the State, for sending the challenge — And the Grand-Jury of Bergen-County, New Jersey, where the duel was fought, have recently found a bill against him for murder — Under all these circumstances, Mr. Burr appears and takes his seat as President of the Senate of the United States.
14. Senate had again adjourned before I reached the Capitol: this being the second day of the Races. I soon returned home, and employed the remainder of the day, chiefly in writing.
15. Third day of the Races — I found the Senate again adjourned — Nothing will be done this week, to all appearance — I walk'd with Mr. Tracy to his lodgings and had some conversation with him — He shewed me a letter from Col'l John Walker to him, which he received _open_ , from the Post-Office here at Washington, though dated in May last and directed to him in _Connecticut_. The word Hartford being inserted, between the name and the place of direction on the cover — But in a different hand and ink from the rest of the direction. This Col'l Walker is the man whose wife, Mr. Jefferson attempted to debauch; and the letter has some relation to the subject — The story of Mr. Jefferson's attempt on Mrs. Walker, has been known to some individuals many years, but was first divulged to the public in general terms by Callender, more than two years ago — Mr. Jefferson's friends then treated it as a mere calumny, but as Col'l Walker and he had once been upon terms of the most intimate friendship, and for some time had been known to be at enmity against each other, Mr. Jefferson was asked by one of his own partizans, what had been the cause of their variance — He assigned as a reason, that Col'l Walker had defrauded him in some pecuniary, transaction — This was reported to Col'l Walker, who immediately sent Jefferson a challenge, by General Henry Lee — Mr. Jefferson, confessed to Lee, that he had assigned a pecuniary fraud by Walker, as the cause of the rupture in their friendship — That this allegation was entirely without foundation, but given for the sake of concealing the real cause; the wrong he had done to Walker — But he declared himself ready to give Mr. Walker any satisfaction he could justly require — Lee then exacted of him to write Walker a letter acknowledging all these facts, and recanting the slander he had uttered against him, which letter Mr. Jefferson accordingly wrote — It was also insisted on by Lee, and acquiesced in by Mr. Jefferson, that the substance of this satisfaction should be made public; but in such manner as might be most accommodating to Mr. Jefferson — This humble, confessing and recanting letter to Col'l Walker has been heard of, and a copy of it is now in possession of Major Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina. Col'l Walker had been informed that Mr. Tracy was desirous of having a copy of it, and this letter is in answer to that request — He consents that Mr. Tracy shall have such a copy, on condition that he will not give any copy from it, and that it shall not be printed — He says that as Mr. Jefferson has not yet pointed out the manner, in which the satisfaction given by him should be made public, he should be indulged with further time — That perhaps he (Walker) might eventually be compelled to publish the whole correspondence; but he wished to reserve to himself the judgment as to the propriety, and the time for this — That in such case he should mention several additional circumstances now known to few, and which very much _aggravated the turpitude_ of Jefferson's _transgression_ — Such as that his (Walker's) father had been Jefferson's guardian and patron. That he himself and Jefferson had been bred together in the greatest intimacy as children. Had been classmates at College; came forward in public life together, untill Jefferson went to France; and that Jefferson was himself a married man, when he made this assault on the chastity of his friend's wife. — Such is the substance of this letter from Col'l Walker to Mr. Tracy, which ascertains facts that have often been denied by Jefferson's partizans, as the slander of his enemies — After coming home, I pass'd the remainder of the day in writing; a review of Mr. Cranch's Reports — The young ladies with Mr. Hellen, went to the Race Ball.
16. The Races at length are finished, and the Senate really met this day — But there was nothing to do — Mr. Bradley moved to go into the Consideration of Executive business, merely for the sake of having, on the _printed_ Journals, an _appearance_ of doing business, though there was really none to do — This vote pass'd, for mine was the only voice heard against it. My reason was a natural abhorrence of tricks to save appearances contrary to the real truth of things.
23. The credentials of Mr. Bayard, as Senator for Delaware, this Session, instead of Mr. Wells, resigned, were read; as were those of Dr. Mitchell, Senator for New-York, instead of Gen'l Armstrong — Dr. Mitchell took his seat. I wrote to my father and Mr. Dennie — Dined with the President; Mrs. Johnson & her daughters Catherine and Eliza went — Mrs. Adams did not — The Company were Mr. R. Smith, Sec'y. of the Navy, and his Lady, Mr. & Mrs. Harrison, Miss Jenifer, and Miss Mouchette, Mr. Brent, and the President's two Sons in law, with Mr. Burwell his private Secretary — I had a good deal of conversation with the President — The french minister just arrived had been this day first presented to him, and appears to have displeased him, by the profusion of gold-lace on his cloaths. He says they must get him down to a plain frock coat, or the boys in the Streets will run after him, as a sight — I asked if he had brought his _Imperial_ Credentials, and was answered he had. Mr. Jefferson then turned the conversation towards the French Revolution; and remarked how _contrary to all expectation_ , this great _bouleversement_ had turned out — It seemed as if every thing in that Country for the last 12 or 15 years, had been _a dream_ , and who could have imagined that such an _ebranlement_, would have come to this — He thought it very much to be wished, that they could now return to the Constitution of 1789, and call back, _the Old Family_ — For although by that Constitution the Government was much too weak, and although it was defective, in having a legislature only in one branch, yet even thus it was better than the present form, where it was impossible to perceive _any limits_. I have used as near as possible his very words, for this is one of the most unexpected phases, in the waxing and waning opinions of this Gentleman concerning the French Revolution. — He also mentioned to me the extreme difficulty he had in finding fit characters for appointments in Louisiana, and said he would now give _the Creation_ , for a young Lawyer of good abilities, and who could speak the French language, to go to New-Orleans, as one of the Judges of the Superior Court, in the Territory — The Salary was about 2000 dollars — He had been very lucky in obtaining one such Judge, in Mr. Prevost of New-York, who had accepted the appointment, and was perfectly well qualified; and he was in extreme want of another — I could easily have named him a character fully corresponding to the one he appeared so much to want — But if his observations were meant as a _consultation_ , or an intent to ask whether I knew any such person I could recommend, he was not sufficiently explicit — Though if they were not, I know not why he made them to me — He further observed that both French and Spanish, ought to be made primary objects of acquisition in all the educations of our young men — As to Spanish it was so easy, that he had learn'd it, with the help of a Don Quixote lent him by Mr. Cabot, and a Grammar, in the course of a passage to Europe, on which he was but 19 days at sea. But Mr. Jefferson tells large stories — At table, he told us that when he was at Marseilles, he saw there a Mr. Bergasse a famous manufacturer of wines, who told him that he would make him any sort of wine he would name, and in any quantities, at 6 or 8 sols the bottle — And though there should not be a drop of the genuine wine required, in his composition, yet it should so perfectly imitate the taste, that the most refined Connoisseurs should not be able to tell, which was which — You never can be an hour in this man's company without something of the marvellous like these Stories — His genius is of the Old French School — It conceives better than it combines — He shewed us, among other things, a natural History of Parrots in French, with coloured plates very beautifully executed.
29. At last the signal of approaching business is given. Mr. Giles this day moved for the appointment of a Committee, to draw up and report rules of proceeding for the Senate in cases of Impeachment, generally — We are now to have another specimen of what _impeachments_ are under our Constitution — This Mr. Giles has long been one of the most inveterate enemies of Judge Chase, in the United States — And while a member of the House of Representatives two years ago, declared he would himself impeach him were he not compell'd by the State of his Health to relinquish his seat in Congress — He has now become one of the Judges to try him; and what chance of impartiality is to be expected from him may be easily imagined — But the issue of this prosecution like that of Judge Pickering last Winter must be settled _out of doors_ — And for this purpose Mr. John Randolph the prosecutor, and Mr. Giles the Judge, are in daily conference together — It is said they have been obliged to delay the subject for some time on account of the difficulty of managing Dr. Mitchell, who has always been averse to this impeachment, and who has now become a Senator — But when I recollect the conduct of many Senators at the last impeachment, and especially that of Mr. Bradley of Vermont, I have little faith in any resistance of principle in this Senate, against the resolute violence of the leaders in the House of Representatives. — Mr. Hellen's youngest child was this day baptized by Mr. Scyres of Georgetown by the name of Walter. Mr. T. B. Johnson and myself stood for him, and Carolina Johnson held him — In the evening there was company here — Several gentlemen and Captain & Mrs. Thompson —
30. Mr. Giles's Committee to propose and report Rules for Impeachments was this day appointed — of five — Mess'rs Giles, Baldwin, Breckenridge, Bradley & Stone — The Spirit of party is apparent even in this selection. Mr. Randolph also in the House of Representatives brought forward two new Articles of Impeachment against Judge Chase — So the proceedings of the accuser and judge proceed _pari passu_ — Mr. Pickering told me he should give notice of asking leave to bring forward the Resolution for amending the Constitution, on Monday — and the resolution itself on Tuesday. — I translated another French Song this Evening. — I still continue much out of health.
[December 1804]
21. Mr. White this day moved in Senate, an adjournment to Monday the last day of this month; upon which some debate was had; and the subject subsided, untill next Monday. — There was little business to do and the adjournment took place early — Sitting by the fire-side afterwards I witness'd a conversation between Mr. Giles and Mr. Israel Smith, on the subject of Impeachments — During which Mr. John Randolph came in and took part in the discussion. Giles laboured with excessive earnestness to convince Smith of certain principles, upon which not only Mr. Chase, but all the other Judges of the Supreme Court, excepting the one last appointed must be impeached and removed. He treated with the utmost contempt the idea of an _Independent_ Judiciary — Said there was not a word about such an Independence in the Constitution, and that their pretensions to it were nothing more nor less than an attempt to establish an Aristocratic despotism in themselves. — The power of Impeachment, was given without limitation to the House of Representatives; the power of trying Impeachments was given equally without limitation to the Senate; and if the Judges of the Supreme Court should dare, as they had done, to declare an Act of Congress, unconstitutional; or to send a mandamus to the Secretary of State, as they had done, it was the undoubted right of the House of Representatives to impeach them and of the Senate to remove them, for giving such opinions, however honest or sincere they may have been in entertaining them. — Impeachment, was not a criminal prosecution; it was no prosecution at all — The Senate sitting for the trial of Impeachments was not a Court, and ought to discard and reject all process of analogy to a Court of Justice. A trial and removal of a Judge upon Impeachment, need not imply any criminality or corruption in him — Congress had no power over the person, but only over the office — And a removal by Impeachment, was nothing more than a declaration by Congress to this effect — You hold dangerous opinions, and if you are suffered to carry them into effect you will work the destruction of the Nation — _We want your office_ _s_ ; for the purpose of giving them to men who will fill them better — In answer to all this, Mr. Smith only contended that _honest error of opinion_ , could not as he conceived be a subject of impeachment — And in pursuit of this principle, he proved clearly enough the persecution and tyranny to which those of Giles and Randolph inevitably lead. It would, he said, establish a _tyranny over opinions_ , and he traced all the arguments of Giles to their only possible issue of rank absurdity — In all this Conversation I opened my lips but once, in which I told Giles that I could not assent to his definition of the term Impeachment. It was easy to see that Giles was anxious about Smith's vote on the impeachment of Judge Chase — His manner was dogmatical, and peremptory — Smith's was not merely mild, and hesitating, but continually conceding too much, and to use an expression of Burke, "above all things afraid of being too much in the right." — Mr. Smith has so often express'd these opinions that the friends of Judge Chase flatter themselves he will vote for an acquittal on the trial — But though in this instance his opinions are undoubtedly correct, I have no confidence in his firmness — His opinions were correct on the impeachment of Judge Pickering — But his vote abandoned them. — Indeed Giles's doctrines are very natural inferences from those upon which that case was decided, and I never can have any confidence in the resolute integrity of those, who shrunk from the convictions of their own Consciences at that Time. It is obvious that on Smith's principles, Chase must be acquitted; for the Articles of Impeachment contain no charge, which indicates corruption, or turpitude — So that Smith and Giles were really trying the Judge over the fireside — Old Mathers the door-keeper saw this so plainly, that after they were gone he said to me "If all were of Mr. Giles's opinion, they never need trouble themselves to bring Judge Chase here." — I perceive, also that the Impeachment system is to be pursued, and the whole Bench of the Supreme Court to be swept away, because _their offices are wanted_ — And in the present State of things I am convinced it is as easy for Mr. John Randolph and Mr. Giles, to do this as to say it.
31. ≈ The year which this day expires, has been distinguished in the course of my life, by its barrenness of Events — During its first three, and last two months I was here attending my duty as a Senator of the United States — The Seven intervening months were past in travelling to and from Quincy, and in residence at my father's house there — The Six months spent at Quincy, were not idle — Indeed, I have seldom in the whole course of my life been more busily engaged — I gave some attention to agricultural pursuits; but I soon found they lost their relish, and that they never would repay the labour they require. My studies were assiduous and seldom interrupted. I meant to give them such a direction, as should be useful in its tendency; yet on looking back, and comparing the time consumed with the knowledge acquired, I have no occasion to take pride in the result of my application — I have been a severe Student, all the days of my life — But an immense proportion of the time I have dedicated to the search of knowledge, has been wasted upon subjects which can never be profitable to myself or useful to others — Another source of useless toil, is the want of a method properly comprehensive and minute, in the pursuit of my enquiries — This method has been to me a desideratum for many years; I have found none in books; nor have I been able to contrive one for myself. From these two causes, I have derived so little use from my labours, that it has often brought me to the borders of discouragement, and I have been attempted to abandon my books altogether — This however is impossible — for the habit has so long been fixed in me, as to have become a passion, and when once severed from my books, I find little or nothing in life, to fill the vacancy of time — I must therefore continue to plod, and to lose my labour; contenting myself with the consolation, that even this drudgery of Science, contributes to Virtue, though it lead not to wealth or honour. In respect to my family, it has pleased Heaven, to extend peculiar favour to me during this year. My Parents, my wife, and children have all been preserved to me, though my mother's state of health has often occasioned me much anxiety — My own Health has been indifferent, but not bad — My property has remained at a stand; and my political Prospects, have been daily declining — On the whole I ought to conclude the year, with the sincerest gratitude to Heaven, for the blessings with which I have been indulged.
[January 1805]
2. This was the day appointed for the appearance of Judge Chase to answer the Articles of Impeachment against him; at twelve O'Clock the Senate went from the Committee Room into their Hall, which has been prepared for the occasion. Mr. Chase was called and appeared. He requested and obtained the permission of a Seat; upon which he read a paper of some length, requesting time to prepare his answer, and for trial, untill the first day of the next Session — He was interrupted several times by the Vice-President, but proceeded and read his paper through — The Vice-President, then required him to reduce his request to writing in the form of a motion, which he did — The Vice-President informed him, the Senate would meet again to-morrow; and the Senate, without adjournment of the Court, returned, to the Committee Room — A debate of four hours immediately ensued, on the next step to be taken. Mr. Giles was for fixing on a day for trial, without taking any notice of Mr. Chase's request. He repeated over again his whole system of Impeachments — contended there was no occasion for any answer or pleading, other than simply of not guilty — That we ought to discard all precedents derived either from the English practice upon impeachments, or from the proceedings of our own Courts of Justice, and that Mr. Chase's motion was no more than a request for another _appearance_ day — This theory however has got much weakened since it is brought to the test.
11. After the Hail and Snow, the weather changed to severe cold; so that it was scarcely possible to walk, from the roads being so slippery. ≈ Dined at the President's, with my wife, Mrs. Johnson, Caroline, Kitty and Adelaide — General Smith and his brother of the Navy, Mr. William Smith, formerly a member of Congress from Baltimore; Mr. Williams and his two daughters, Mrs. Hall and Mrs. Hewes, were there — So was the Vice-President — The President appeared to have his mind absorbed by some other object; for he was less attentive to his company than usual — His itch for telling prodigies, however is unabated — Speaking of the cold he said he had seen Fahrenheit's thermometer _in Paris_ , at 20 degrees below 0 and that, not for a single day, but that for six weeks together it stood _thereabouts_ — Never once in the whole time, said he, so high as 0, "which is _fifty_ degrees below the freezing point" — These were his own words — He knows better than all this; but he loves to excite wonder.
15. Mr. Anderson was chosen President pro Tem; and the usual orders pass'd to notify the House of Representatives, and the President of the choice. Mr. Bayard appeared and took his Seat — The Georgetown dam Bill was debated; and both the Amendments proposed by Mr. Giles and reported by the Committee were rejected: the Bill pass'd to the third reading. Upon the first amendment, respecting the pretended compact between Maryland and Virginia, I took a large part in the debate, and indeed an exclusive one on the side I advocated, as to the question of right — There were not more than seven members, (I think not more than six) who rose in favor of the Amendment — On this occasion, as on almost every other, I felt most sensibly my deficiency as an extemporaneous speaker — In tracing this deficiency to its source, I find it arising from a cause that is irreparable — No efforts, no application on my part can ever remove it. It is slowness of comprehension — An incapacity to grasp the whole compass of a subject, in the mind at once, with such an arrangement, as leaves a proper impression of the detail — An incapacity to form ideas properly precise and definite, with the rapidity necessary to give them uninterrupted utterance — My manner therefore is slow, hesitating, and often much confused — Sometimes from inability to furnish the words to finish a thought commenced, I begin a sentence with propriety, and end it with nonsense — Sometimes after carrying through an idea of peculiar force to its last Stage, the want of the proper word at close, drives me to use one which throws the whole into a burlesque — And sometimes the most important details of argument, escape my mind at the moment when I want them, though ever ready to present themselves before and after. Hence I never know when I have finished any given subdivision of my subject. And hence in making the transition from one part of it to the other, I am often compelled to take a minute or two for recollection, which leaves a chasm of silence always disagreeable to the hearers — I must therefore never flatter myself with the hope of oratorical distinction — At the same time it is possible that by continual exertions, application, and self-censure part of the ill-effects of these infirmities may be remedied — One rule for this purpose will be to take part in the debate, only at its late Stages, and after the ground has been travell'd over by others — To take minutes of the strongest points assumed by the opponent; and to methodize them by very short notes before commencing a reply — Another is attentively to observe the _manner_ , of the best Speakers — To mark whether they are not occasionally struggling with some of the same difficulties which I so often experience; and how they get over them. A third is to take great pains to understand the subject upon which I speak. If these endeavours will never suffice to give me the palm of eloquence, they will at least make me better qualified to be useful in the Station where I am placed.
21. ≈ In Senate Dr. Logan presented the petition of certain Quakers, requesting the interference of Congress, as far as they have power to check the Slave-trade — A question was made whether the petition should be received; and very warmly debated for about three hours; when it was taken by yeas and nays — yeas 19, nays 9. — A motion of reference, to the Committee who have the petition from Louisiana, in favour of the slave-trade before them; taken without yeas and nays, was negatived, 14 ayes 13 nays, and the President, who has got over his scruple against voting, by forming a tie, prevented its passing — This same petition was presented to the House of Representatives, read, and referr'd to a Committee, without any objection — The reason for this difference of treatment to the same papers, I take to be, because the debates of that house are always published, and those of the Senate very seldom; nor were there any stenographers this day present.
[February 1805]
13. The business first transacted this day, was the declaration of the elections of President and Vice-President. ≈ The whole number of Electors and of votes was 176, of which 162 were for Thomas Jefferson as President, and George Clinton as Vice-President; and 14 for Charles Cotesworth Pinckney as President and Rufus King, as Vice-President. After two hours employed in reading and summing up the returns, the Vice-President declared Thomas Jefferson and George Clinton to be duly elected to the respective offices of President and Vice-President of the United States, for four years commencing on the 4th of March next — The two houses then retired for about half an hour, and then returned again to the Hall, to proceed in the trial of the Impeachment.
28. The Vice-President being absent, Mr. Anderson was chosen President pro Tem. — The bill to allow Mr. Burr the privilege of franking during life, pass'd after a long and extraordinary debate, in which Mr. Wright said he could justify duelling by the example of David and Goliah in the Scriptures; and that this bill was now opposed only because _our_ David, had slain the Goliah of federalism.
[March 1805]
3. ≈ Thus has terminated the second Session of the Eighth Congress; the most remarkable transaction of which has been the trial of the Impeachment against Samuel Chase — This is a subject fruitful of reflections, but their place is not here — I shall only remark that this was a party prosecution, and has issued in the unexpected and total disappointment of those by whom it was brought forward — It has exhibited the Senate of the United States, fulfilling the most important purpose of its institution, by putting a check upon the impetuous violence of the House of Representatives. It has proved that a sense of Justice is yet strong enough to overpower the furies of faction; but it has at the same time shewn the wisdom and necessity of that provision in the Constitution which requires the concurrence of two-thirds for conviction upon Impeachments — The attack upon Mr. Chase, was a systematic attempt upon the independence, and powers of the Judicial Department, and at the same time an attempt to prostrate the authority of the National Government, before those of the individual States — The principles first started in the case of John Pickering at the last Session, have on the present occasion been widened, and improved upon to an extent, for which the Spirit of party itself was not prepared — Hence, besides the federal members, six, out of the twenty-five, devoted to the present administration voted for the acquittal of Judge Chase on all the charges, and have for a time arrested the career of political frenzy — The Resolutions for amending the Constitution, brought forward by two of the managers, of the Impeachment, immediately after the decision, and the proceedings of the House upon them, are ample indications that this struggle will be renewed, with redoubled vehemence at the next Session of Congress — How far the firmness of the Senate, or of individual Senators will support the promise of this time, I presume not to conjecture — Untill the final question was taken, I confess I had no reliance upon that firmness now, because I had seen it yield the last Session to a breach of principle to my mind as great, as it would have been at this time — They certainly have shewn now a degree of perseverance and of spirit in their resistance, which then failed them — Their conduct now has partly redeemed their characters in my opinion; yet the extent of their compliance before, has proved beyond redemption that they are made of materials which will break — The prophetic and solemn words of Mr. Burr, that the dying agonies of the Constitution, will be witness'd on the floor of the Senate, were uttered with a pointed allusion to what had just pass'd, and they lead to an anxious consideration of the temper of metal, to be found in the body as now composed — The essential characters which _ought_ to belong to the Senate are _coolness_ , and _firmness_. I hope that when the occasion shall call they will be found to possess them; and it would be doing injustice to the body, and its members not to acknowledge that in this memorable instance these qualities have been eminently displayed. It has however furnished several instances of weak compliance, as well as of honourable resistance, and I have some reason to believe that more than one member voted for the conviction of the Judge, who at the same time disapproved altogether of the prosecution. ≈
4. I called this morning at Stella's Hotel and paid a visit to our new Vice-President Mr. Clinton, and had some conversation with him, in which he contrasted the appearance of this part of the Country, with that of New-England and New-York, much to the advantage of the latter — I then called upon Mr. Tracy, who has been for the last ten days very dangerously ill with peripneumona, and at no small hazard was brought out on the 1st inst't to give his vote on the Sentence to the Impeachment — It was a good deed, and he suffered no injury from the effort it required — He is now on the recovery, and went with me to the Senate chamber, where we saw the President and Vice-President sworn into office — The President previously delivered an inaugural address, in so low a voice that not half of it was heard by any part of the crowded auditory. After it was over I walk'd with Mr. White and Mr. Huger to his House, where we found a large company assembled to compliment him on the occasion — I stay'd about half an hour, and then came home where I spent the remainder of the day, chiefly in writing. — Mr. Burr was this day present at the inauguration; in the Gallery.
[April 1805]
25. My wife came up to our own house this morning and here remained — After dinner I came, with Eliza and the two children — Returned to my father's with the Chaise, and early in the Evening came _hom_ _e_ ; to the house in which I was born; but in which I have not before pass'd a night, for upwards of twenty-five years. My brother came and pass'd a half an hour with us — I had a number of Peach, pear and cherry trees set out this afternoon; in the spot I have allotted for a nursery. — On going back to my father's house, I found Mr. and Mrs. Smith of Boston there, and Mrs. Cranch. — On coming into my own house, I am entering upon a new mode of life, as it regards my family and myself. It is attended with many circumstances upon which I am not desirous to dwell; but as it was dictated by necessity, so I hope it will eventually prove highly advantageous to us all — That it will ensure us to some of its inconveniences, and enable us to remove others — That it will reduce our desires to a level with our circumstances, and compensate to us in safety, whatever it may take from us in elegance or ease — I have taken this step upon full and long deliberation — More than two years since the occasion happened, which made it necessary — The determination was then taken, which is now carrying into effect — Here I purpose to reside during the Summer Seasons; in the intervals from my attendance upon Congress — At the expiration of my term of service, my intention is to remove again into Boston; if possible — In these measures, my intention is to do all in my power, for the preservation of my family — The issue must be beyond my controul — May it be auspicious!
[August 1805]
1. Mr. S. Dexter, Dr. Kirkland, Mr. Holmes of Cambridge, Mr. Storer and Judge Davis, as a Committee of the Corporation and Overseers of the University, came this morning to give me notice of my being elected the professor of Oratory, on the foundation of Nicholas Boylston. I mentioned to them the impossibility, I should be under of performing all the duties assigned to the professor in the Rules and Statutes, and that I could neither bind myself to residence, at Cambridge, or to attendance more than a part of the year. They supposed that the Statutes might be so modified, as to accommodate me in these particulars; and requested me to state my own wishes in this respect to the chairman of the Committee in a letter, to which I agreed.
[September 1805]
30. ≈ The days have already become so short, that one Chapter of Aristotle occupies the whole time I can find in the afternoon — And I have now but one month left, before I must take my departure for Washington, and abandon for the winter the studies, which have so agreeably occupied me since the beginning of July — My knowledge of Greek is yet imperceptible. From my own dulness I learn to excuse that of my Son George, whose progress in French is as slow, as my own in Greek.
[November 1805]
25. ≈ We were therefore compelled to return to our lodgings, and content ourselves with remaining another day at Philadelphia. At the corner of Water Street, as we returned; we met Mr. Tracy, who like us was going in the Packet, and lost his passage by being belated — My principal concern was for my baggage, which has no direction, and is liable to get lost — After returning to Mrs. Decharms's, Mr. John Vaughan called on me, as did Dr. Rush — The object of the latter was to inform me of a conversation which he had with Mr. Madison, the Secretary of State in the course of the last Summer, respecting me. Mr. Madison he said had express'd himself in very favourable terms, of me; and had told him that the President's opinion of me was equally advantageous; & that it was his wish to employ me on some mission abroad, if I was desirous of it — The Doctor therefore intimated that I might govern myself accordingly, and take such measures to manifest my views as I should think expedient. I told him that I had heretofore received suggestions of a similar nature. That I was obliged to Mr. Jefferson, and Mr. Madison, for their good opinion — That I never had, and I hoped never should ask for any office of any man; and certainly never should sollicit Mr. Jefferson, for any place whatsoever — That all I could say to him was that if Mr. Jefferson should nominate me for any office abroad to which he thought me competent, I would not refuse it merely because the nomination should come from him — He said this assurance was entirely satisfactory; and that he believed the apprehension of a disdainful refusal, was the only thing which could deter Mr. Jefferson, from offering me an appointment — I assured him there was no office in the President's gift, for which I had any wish, and that without being rich, I possessed the means of maintaining my family, without feeling the necessity of any public Station. — He then made some remarks on the obligation a citizen is under to serve the public in places for which he is qualified, and concluded in complimentary terms, which I need not repeat, and ought to forget —.
[December 1805]
17. A long debate was held in Senate this day, on the question whether Mr. Bradley should have leave to bring in a bill to prohibit the importation of Slaves into the United States after the 1st of January 1808 — The principal question was whether consistently with the Constitution of the United States, Congress could pass any Law upon the subject prior to that year — But some of the members thinking it inexpedient to discuss the subject at this time, would have refused the leave to bring in the bill, and spoke to that purpose untill he asked for the yeas and nays on the question. — Then Dr. Mitchell made a long speech to shew why he should vote for giving leave, though he had previously spoken against it — The Journal he said would be the record of his Fame, and he could not suffer it to exhibit the appearance of his voting against the reception of a bill to the principle of which he was so friendly — Mr. Wright from a similar fear to vote as he wished, moved the previous question — But all would not do. The majority decided to take the question immediately, and then to receive the bill, which was read; and before the question was taken whether it should go to a second reading, Mr. Bradley moved an adjournment, which was carried. Evening at home, reading Ward.
30. Attended in Senate — Little business done. I spent an hour before in Committee with Mr. Anderson, and Mr. Tracy, on the bill respecting foreign Coins. — We concluded to revise the whole Law, instead of the partial repeal of the second Section as the House of Representatives have past the Bill — Mr. Tracy's Resolution to request papers relative to the Treaty with Tripoli was adopted, without debate. Adjourned soon after 12 O'Clock. After the adjournment the chiefs of several Indian tribes now here on visits came with their interpreters, and address'd their Speeches to the Vice-President, who took the chair to receive them — The Cherokees differ very little in appearance from our own people. They suffer their hair to grow and wear it powdered, and dress in all respects like ourselves — Use no paint; no beads, and none of the customary indian ornaments — But the tribes from the Missouri, Osages, Sacs, and Foxes, though partly clad in clothes furnished them by our Government, were very deeply painted, and with various colours — had beads at the nose and ears, birds feather's, fox and squirrel skins and tails, and the other decorations usual to the Savages of this Continent before their intercourse with Europeans — The Osages were several of them remarkably strong, and athletic men; and one of them very erect in his attitude, and firm in his gait — The rest were shabby in appearance, and aukward in their deportment — Their Speeches were nearly to the same purport, complimentary to the Vice-President, whom they address'd as their _grandfather_ , and boasting of the distance they had come to see us — The Cherokee said he hoped we should find his _Nation_ had far advanced in their improvements; an idea seemingly suggested to him by a comparison between his tribe, and the more genuine Savages of the rest then present; and the Osage said that after travelling so far, he hoped he should go home wiser than he came — the interpreter of the Osages spoke only French, so that a second interpreter was required to give their speeches — They used considerable gesture, but it consisted principally of pointing the finger upwards and downwards alternately. — In the Evening, all the family excepting Mrs. Adams and me were at a party at Mr. Merry's — Mrs. Adams was severely ill with one of her violent head-aches —
31. We had a short Session again in Senate this day, and adjourned over to-morrow; having scarcely any business before us — I afterwards returned a number of visits, without finding any of the Gentlemen at home. Spent the Evening in writing and reading — Finished the third volume of Marshall's Life of Washington.
_Day_. Rise between 7 and 8 in the morning: usually about Sun rise — Read in the Greek Testament or Homer's Iliad untill 9. Breakfast — Walk to the Capitol; and attend at the Senate-Chamber untill 2 or 3. Walk home — Dine about four — From five untill 9 in the Evening, I generally read; sometimes write about half an hour — Pass very few Evenings in Company, either abroad or at home — Sup at 9, and soon after 10 seek the repose of night.
In reviewing the occurrences of the year, which is now closing I find equal reason for sentiments of Gratitude to Providence for the blessings I have enjoyed in its progress, and of self reproof for the little advantage I have derived from them — The two first, and the last month of the year were pass'd in attendance on my duty in Congress, where I have not been so profitable a servant as I might be — Not that I have positively neglected my duty; but because I have not exerted myself in its discharge with sufficient vigour and ardour — When I returned to Quincy last Spring, my intention was by an assiduous application to subjects of public concern to remove part of the ignorance which often interferes with my wishes to serve the public — I had barely commenced the execution of this design, when ill-health compell'd me to lay it aside — And before I could resume it, my appointment to the Professorship at Cambridge gave my studies necessarily a new and different direction. — From the beginning of July a large portion of my time has been devoted to the Greek Language, and to Rhetorical Writers — And these are fields which I must for years to come (if my life be spared) explore and cultivate with unabating industry, or without effect. — My health has been worse during the course of the whole year than I had long experienced, and its prospects are not flattering; but my Parents, my wife and my children have all lived, and in general been blest with health, for which Heaven be praised — My political prospects continue declining. The state of my affairs in other respects remains nearly as at the commencement of the year — In some respects improved; in others less advantageous; but on the whole more favourable and promising — The privations to which I have found it necessary to recur have been very painful as they respect my family, and in their effects, though on my own account they never had on my mind or spirits the weight of a Straw — Thus much for the past, upon which reflection can be of no use, but as it may influence the conduct of the future — Let me then resolve to devote that future to the steady pursuit of real Wisdom and Virtue; and let me pray for assistance from above, that the general imperfections of humanity and my peculiar individual frailties and infirmities may be successfully overcome by the stronger and increasing power of Justice, Temperance, Patience, and Fortitude.
[January 1806]
1. At noon I went with Mrs. Johnson and Mrs. Adams to pay the customary visit to the President — We found there a more numerous company than I have ever seen upon any similar occasion — It was indeed considerably increased by the Tunisian Minister with his two guards, and by about forty Indians; many of whom were almost naked, and fantastically painted with various colours — General Tureau took me aside, and endeavoured to convince me that our suffering any Commerce with Saint Domingo, was contrary to the Law of Nations; but without success — After leaving the President's, we paid a visit at Mr. Simmons's; whose lady we found at home. Mrs. Adams spent the Evening at Mrs. Boyd's, where I called to return home with her. Mr. Sheldon came with us and stayed to supper — Mr. Chevalier, and Mr. Cabre, a Secretary of General Tureau, spent part of the evening here — I began reading the fourth Volume of Washington's Life — I also continue reading two Chapters daily in the Greek Testament; and begin this day with two in the English bible.
16. Mr. Wright gave notice that he should move next Monday for leave to bring in a bill for the protection and indemnification of American Seamen. His project, with which he is so delighted that he cannot hold it to himself, is to confiscate British debts, and with the money pay heavy wages to the Seamen impress'd by the British, while they keep them — Mr. Bradley moved a new reference of the papers sent with the Tripolitan Treaty, which was accordingly done — The weather was so severely cold that the Senate adjourned early — The members had this morning a pamphlet laid on their tables without any information whence it came; against the new principle asserted by the British Government, against neutral rights — It is understood to be the work of Mr. Madison the Secretary of State — I dined at General Mason's, in Georgetown. Mrs. Adams was likewise invited, but being not very well, and the weather very severe she did not go — Mr. and Mrs. Blount, and Mr. and Mrs. Williams of S. Carolina were of the Company; as were Drs. Logan and Mitchell and Mr. Clay of Philadelphia. Dr. Murray Mrs. Mason's father was also there — I came home early in the Evening, and read a little; but the Season is so excessive that I can neither read nor write with any satisfaction.
17. Met the Committee on revising the Rules for conducting the business in Senate, at ten this morning — We merely entered upon some general conversation on the subject, and had come to no determination, when we were called in to a Message from the President — In the meantime, Mr. Bidwell and Mr. Early, had been in as a Committee from the House of Representatives, with a confidential message, and a bill appropriating, and placing at the President's disposition two millions of dollars, to purchase the Florida's. This is the great result of a Month's closed doors in the House, and is to be the end of all the vapouring against Spain, at the beginning of the Session — The message from the President was accompanied by very voluminous documents on the subject of our differences with Great Britain; and particularly a letter from Mr. Monroe our Minister at London, to the Secretary of State, full of bitterness against England, and urging strong & decisive measures. Some few of the papers were read; and one or two bills — Adjourned early — In the Evening I read part of Mr. Madison's pamphlet. Cold still extreme.
31. ≈ The crowd of business pressing upon us, occasions many remarks which might be useful, but which I have not time to record, and which will be lost — On these important questions, which we are now agitating, I feel a distressing consciousness of my own weakness of capacity, together with a profound and anxious wish for more powerful means — I lament the want of _genius_ , because I want a mighty Agent for the service of my Country — I pray for light from above, and hope there is neither presumption nor fanaticism in the prayer — I pray for a sound head and a pure heart in deliberating upon points on which peace and War, are pledg'd; and I pray that I may never mistake the suggestions of personal ambition or any other selfish passion for the dictates of patriotism. Feeble and insignificant as my influence upon the Counsels of the Nation is, I feel a load of responsibility weighing upon me to the utmost I can bear — Honest intention and sincerity must be my only substitute for more efficacious powers, and I hope I never shall suffer them, to be overborne by any partial or dishonourable aim. ≈
[February 1806]
1. Attended the Committee on the President's Message at 10 this morning — The Chairman's second Resolution was further discussed; and it soon appeared that Dr. Logan and Mr. Baldwin, were against it — They are for doing nothing — Mr. Baldwin made one of his serpentine speeches in favour of temporizing policy — The War in Europe could not last long — The _good man_ _at the head of the British Government_ could not live much longer. His Death would bring in an entire new set of men; with different principles; there was no appearance of any thing permanent in the present state of things; it would be sufficient for us to pass general Resolutions, declaring our rights on this and the other objects of complaint that we have; without taking any further measures &c — Dr. Logan was for asking the President to send an Envoy Extraordinary to negotiate — Perhaps Mr. Monroe had irritated the British Government and aggravated their offences — Mr. Monroe was known not to be friendly to England; he wanted to try the effect another Minister there. We had heard Mr. Merry tell Mr. Madison, that before we went to War, we ought to be very sure that no other measure of a conciliatory nature remained. ≈ This is the third Session I have sat in Congress — I came in as a member in a very small minority; and during the two former Sessions, almost uniformly avoided to take a lead. Any other course would have been dishonest or ridiculous — On the very few and unimportant objects which I did undertake, I met at first with universal opposition — The last Session, my influence rose a little — At the present it has hitherto been apparently rising; though I have continued in the same system to avoid all appearance of an attempt to lead, untill this great National subject of deliberation arose — Even on this I took none of the usual means to be put upon the Committees relating to it — When on them, I came forward as late as possible — And I see that the advancement or declension of my influence will depend on my conduct throughout this affair more than on any other single subject — But the occasion, calls for every exertion of my faculties to serve the public, and I can never cease to regret that those faculties are so feeble to meet such an emergency — I have set aside all party spirit, and I have devoted myself to honest and unwearied application upon the case. The gratification of my own Vanity or Ambition, by a display of influence would be a despicable motive, of which I am utterly unconscious — The chance of a possibility that I may render real service to my Country, is very small; yet small as it is, not to be abandoned in peevishness or despair.
[March 1806]
17. The most important business done this day in Senate was the appointment of Mr. Armstrong, which finally prevailed. There was nothing said this day in his favour. The Speakers against him were Mr. Smith of Maryland, Mr. Pickering, Mr. Wright and myself; who closed the debate. The votes were 15 to 15 — And the Vice-President decided in favour of the appointment — Mr. Adair of Kentucky left his seat to avoid voting — He was averse to the appointment, but had not the courage to vote against it; and by his weakness, this shameful transaction was accomplished. Of the 15 members who voted for this nomination two thirds at least answered with faltering voices — I consider it as one of the most disgraceful acts of Mr. Jefferson's Administration — A nomination of several new officers was also this day received — among others a Surveyor at New-York in the room of Col'l Smith who is removed.
[May 1806]
13. ≈ In the Evening I attended a Caucus of federalists at Faneuil-Hall, who met to agree upon their list — Mr. H. G. Otis made them a very good speech — They agreed to chuse 27 Representatives, and adopted the names presented to them — Then a motion was made for five more, which after some opposition was adopted. — These names were also agreed upon, though preparation had not properly been made for this measure — I came home at about 10. They were then about to dissolve the meeting — This was the first time I was ever present at a public Caucus — I once attended a private one, in 1793, or 1794. — It may be a necessary, but appears to me a clumsy way of transacting such business.
[June 1806]
12. Between 12 and 1 O'Clock I went to Cambridge — I was in a Chaise alone, but met Mr. Barrett of Quincy, and took him with me — My father and the family at Quincy came into town, and went also to Cambridge before dinner. I Dined with my father, Mr. Boylston and Professor Ware, at President Webber's — In the afternoon, I was installed as Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory — The hour fixed for the purpose was half past three; but just at that time there arose a violent thunder gust and shower, which delayed the performances about two hours — From the philosophy chamber, where there was a meeting of the Corporation and Overseers, we went in procession to the meeting-house — About 5 in the afternoon — The President began by an introductory prayer — Next followed an Anthem — Then An Address by the President in Latin — Mr. Ware read the regulations of the Professorship. I read and subscribed the declaration, and delivered it to the Governor as Chairman of the Overseers — the President then declared me a Professor, and I delivered the discourse I had prepared for the Occasion; it was well received; but the company present was very small — The business was concluded by a hymn song — The procession returned to the Philosophy Chamber; where I stopp'd only a few minutes. I took tea at Mr. Ware's — Mr. & Mrs. Stoughton were there; as was Mr. Barrett — with him, I returned to Boston, and pass'd the Evening at Mr. Storer's — My father and mother were there — & Mr. Peabody came in while I was there. Mr. Strong was this day sworn as Governor of the State — Mr. Heath, who was chosen Lieutenant Governor, declined accepting the office.
16. Returned to Boston this morning in the Quincy Stage — I soon after went to Mr. Bussey's; in whose garden, the gentlemen of the philosophical Society met to take the observation of the Solar Eclipse — It commenced at 3 minutes 21 seconds past 10 in the morning — At XI. 22. 38 the total obscurity commenced. At XI. 27. 9. The first ray of the Sun, blazed out from behind the moon, and at XII. 48. 1. the Eclipse ended. The total obscuration continued more than four minutes and a half — The sky during the whole time was unusually clear, and not a speck of cloud was visible on the horizon. At the commencement of the eclipse the thermometer in the shade stood at 68 — It fell gradually, untill the end of the total obscurity, when it stood at 57. — There it remained stationary about a quarter of an hour — then began to rise, untill at the end of the eclipse it was 67, and a few minutes after at 70 — The fading of the Sun's light, from its greatest splendour, untill its total extinction was peculiar, differing much from that of the usual declining day, on the approach of Evening. Six or eight Stars were visible, during a considerable part of the time. The planet Venus particularly appeared as large and as bright in the darkness, as it usually does in the Evening. The Colours of natural objects appeared to the eye with a tinge different from any thing I had ever seen. during the total concealment of the Sun, The Center of the Moon's disk appeared black as ebony; but the shade appeared gradually less black to the circumference, which was of a dusky brown — A feeble luminous circle, not equally light in every part, surrounded the edge of the moon, and beyond that circle, a coruscation fainter and fainter shot forth in angular aspects extended to a distance equal to about the semidiameter of the moon; the western side of the hemisphere being that from which the moon advanced, was much darker than the Eastward on which part the sun's rays were last shut in, and during the whole time the borders of the horizon were very luminous throughout their extent — The darkness was about equal to that of half an hour after Sun-set at this Season of the year — Or much like the darkness of midnight, which I have witness'd in June, at St. Petersburg. — About fifteen seconds before the first returning Sun-beam, a line of deep crimson, appeared on the moon's edge, on the limb, where the Sun was about to issue — But the most striking appearance was the first returning beam; it was about two seconds supportable to the naked eye, and in brightness far exceeded any thing I ever beheld — It was remarkable that for two or three minutes before the Sun's disappearance, it could be looked at without the shelter of a glass; though it was so immediately intolerable on its return — The effect of the momentary gloom was heightened by the contrasted splendor of the day, before and after. The Cattle, and poultry discovered the symptoms of night, and followed their usual habits on its approach — The swallows appeared surprized, and flew with that wild irregularity, which is described as betokening the approach of an Earthquake. — The atmosphere had the chilness of night but there was no fall of dew — Upon the whole the phenomenon was principally curious on account of its uncommonness — Having never occurred at this place since the settlement of the Country; and being not to happen again for several centuries — Mr. Bussey entertained us with a cold collation, between the first re-appearance of the Sun, and the end of the Eclipse — I dined at Sheriff Allen's, in Company with Governor Strong and several other Gentlemen — In the afternoon I was somewhat unwell — Read , late at night.
30. Mr. Foster's child was so ill that they were obliged to take a carriage to bring it into Boston; and I brought in his horse and Chaise. On reaching Boston I called on Mr. Shaw, who delivered me several Letters — I saw Judge Davis and had some conversation with him respecting the application I have made to the Corporation of the College. Met Mr. Boylston, and wrote a letter on his business to Mr. Caldwell. While I was writing it Mr. Shaw came in to the Suffolk Insurance Office, where I was and gave me a letter from my wife — I instantly opened it and found it a message of Misfortune — Her child — (a son) was born dead — Her own danger had been very great — But she was so much recovered as to be able to write, herself — I finished my letter for Mr. Boylston, without discovering my own emotion. — But he asked me what my account from Washington was — I told him — and left him — It was one O'Clock, and rained; but the desire of being alone determined me to walk to Cambridge immediately; which I did — They had dined at Dr. Waterhouse's — I retired to my chamber, after dining, myself, and there yielded to the weakness, which I had so long struggled to conceal and restrain — I endeavoured to reason myself into resignation to the will of Heaven, and I felt duly grateful for the inestimable blessings it has given me in my other Children, and for the favour bestowed in preserving my wife through her imminent danger — Her Letter affected me deeply by its tenderness — its resignation — and its fortitude — As soon as I was able to hold a pen, I wrote to her, and to vary the scene and circumstances around her which must be painful after this Event, have invited her to come here as soon as she gets well enough to travel; without waiting my return to her in the winter at Washington — I have heretofore felt and express'd too bitterly the pangs of such disappointments — The mercy of Heaven has compensated me for all those sufferings by my two boys, who promise all that a parent's Heart can wish from children of their age — I had given up my Heart to Hope, and Joy in the Hope of a third — It is gone — Let the rigour of the stroke help to purify my soul by affliction, and may my never ceasing gratitude flow for the blessings which remain to me by the bounty of Providence —
Day — I cannot detail it — But must refer to the close of the next Month if I see it.
[July 1806]
11. I enter this day upon my fortieth year. — And I this day commenced my course of Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory — An undertaking of magnitude and importance, for the _proper_ accomplishment of which, I pray, for patience, perseverance, and that favour from above, without which no human industry can avail; but which without persevering Industry, it is presumption to ask — I have devoted all the time, which I can borrow from the necessary _business_ of life, for seven years if so much of life is granted me, to this object — Of these seven years, one has already elapsed — My progress has been slow, and my own improvement, upon which is to depend much of the improvement of others, has been very small — Yet, the beginning is now made, and its success is not without encouragement — My lecture was well received, and could I hope that the issue of the whole course would but bear a _proportion_ to the effect of this introduction, I should be fully satisfied — Few persons except the Scholars (the three Senior Classes) attended.
[October 1806]
18. This afternoon I took George with me, over part of the farm; with the view to familiarize him at this season of his life, with the scenes upon which my own earliest recollection dwells — I feel an attachment to these places more powerful than to any other spot upon Earth. Precisely because they are associated with the first impressions of which the traces remain upon my mind — These attachments are connected with some of the sentiments and opinions which I most cherish, and which I should wish my children to possess — In the Evening I read Odyssey, Book 18.
[December 1806]
31. This day completes one Month of time wasted by the Senate in doing nothing — The naval and army appropriation bills however are rapidly passing — After the adjournment I met Gen'l Smith of Maryland in Committee, for a bill to prevent the enticement of Soldiers from their duty — But Dr. Mitchell the other member of the Committee not being present we could come to no decision. — Dined at the President's, in Company with a company of members of Congress — all Federalists — Captain Lewis also was there, just returned from the South Sea — Called at Mr. Boyd's as I came home; but he was abroad — I finished the copy of my 15th lecture; but have been hurried, and am much Dissatisfied with it.
_Day._ Rise with the Sun; shortly after 7 — Read Homer's Odyssey in Greek, and in Pope's translation untill 9 or 10. — Breakfast, read in the English Bible, 4 Chapters — Walk to the Capitol. Attend in the Senate untill 1 or 2. After their adjournment return home — Read newspapers or write untill 4 — From 5 to 9 in my chamber, writing my lectures or reading Quintilian — Sup. Bed between 10 and 11. — Saturday's & Sunday's employed wholly on my Lectures.
The year which is now closed, has contained like every other portion of my life a mixture of good and of evil fortune; but on the whole gives me ample cause of gratitude to the giver of Good — On returning from Washington last April, I left my wife here, with the expectation that she would remain here the summer through; and with hopes, which were disappointed — My wife returned, and preferr'd remaining with the children this Winter at Boston — My occupation through the year has been constant and assiduous — The duties of my Station at the University have employed me without intermission, since my return home last Spring, and shew me in prospect at least two years more, if bless'd with health, of as steady application — My health has been, taking the year through, better than for several preceding years — My domestic concerns improving — and in better condition now than at the Commencement of the year — My political prospects in a regular decline. My progress in Wisdom and Virtue, if any, far too small.
[January 1807]
15. Called at the Bank as I went to the Capitol — received the dividend for N. Blanchard, and wrote to him, enclosing a check on the Branch Bank, Boston, for the amount — The slave Bill which originated in Senate was discussed in Committee of the whole and occasioned a long debate — Mr. Clay, the new member from Kentucky made an ardent Speech upon one of the Sections — He is quite a young man — an Orator — and a Republican of the first fire — I took, and intend to take no part in the debates on this subject.
[March 1807]
3. The Salt and Mediterranean fund Bill employed the greatest part of this day — After being debated at the second, and passing to the third reading, Mr. Turner moved that it should be read the third time this day — to which I objected — He then brought forward his Resolution to suspend part of the 12th Rule, which after long debate and various modifications was carried. The bill was then read a third time and pass'd — The Bill to settle Eaton's accounts also pass'd 16 to 12. The Senate sat untill pass'd 5 P.M. — Then adjourn'd to 7 and sat again untill almost Midnight — About 10 O'Clock the joint Committee of the two Houses, Dr. Mitchell and myself from the Senate, Mr. Varnum, Mr. Alston and Mr. Gregg from the House, were sent with the usual notification of the recess to the President — He was not, as usual at the closing of the Sessions, in the Committee room at the Capitol, being detained by indisposition at his own house — The joint Committee, excepting Mr. Gregg, went in a Carriage together, and carried eight or ten bills for his signature — After he had done this, he said he had expected to receive this Evening the Treaty lately signed by our Ministers with the Commissioners of Great-Britain, at London; but it had not arrived — He had however seen a Copy received this afternoon by Mr. Erskine, which he had been so obliging as to lend him. — Mr. Mitchell said we had been requested by several members of the Senate, who had heard of this copy received by Mr. Erskine, to enquire whether there would probably be a call of the Senate, at an early day, to consider the Treaty; as some of them would in that case prefer to remain here — The President replied, in emphatic tone: "certainly not." — He then added that there were two things either of which, would prevent him from troubling the Senate, with the consideration of this Treaty — The one was that it contained no satisfactory Article respecting the impressment of men from our ships, not even what they had offered, at a previous stage of the negotiation; and the other was a declaration delivered by the British Commissioners at the time, when the Treaty was signed, purporting that the King reserved the right of retaliating, against the decree of the French Emperor of 21 November last; unless the United States should resist it — This the President said would involve us in the War, and compel us to make a common Cause with Great-Britain; and the only way he could account for our Ministers having signed such a Treaty, with such Circumstances, was by supposing that in the first panic of the french imperial decree they had concluded a war would be inevitable, and that we must make a common Cause with England. He should however continue amicable negotiation with England, and continue the suspension of the non-importation act — And instructions had been sent in January to our Ministers, which he supposed they had by this time received, to give notice, even if they should have signed the Treaty without the Article to protect our Seamen from impressment, that it would not be ratified, and to renew the Negotiation — The Members of the Committee returned to the Capitol; but I walk'd home, which I reached not much before Midnight — The young Ladies soon after came in from a party at Mrs. Erskine's.
[April 1807]
5. I took George to meeting with me this day, and heard Mr. Emerson — in the afternoon — and Dr. Lathrop, for him in the morning — His Sermon was on the uses of _Affliction_ — from the text it is good for me that I have been afflicted — that I might learn thy Statutes — I had once heard from the same place an excellent Sermon from that text, delivered by Mr. Brown the Scotchman — But I was much pleased with this of Mr. Emerson; which was occasional, to himself, on the Death of his sister, Mrs. Farnham, of Newbury-Port — Mr. Dexter called upon me this afternoon. Harriet Welsh was also here — I attended the federal meeting at Faneuil-Hall this Evening — The Hall was nearly as full as it could hold. Mr. Quincy was speaking when I went in — Mr. Otis and Mr. Gore succeeded him — But there was no diversity of opinion — The vote was put for supporting Mr. Strong as Governor, at the Election to-morrow, and Mr. Robbins as Lt. Gov'r. — with the last year's list of Senators — They were all unanimously carried — Walking home with Mr. Dexter, I was remarking, upon the questionable nature of this party-organization, and its tendency under our Constitution — It is perhaps unavoidable; but it is not altogether reconciliable to the freedom of the elective principle.
6. I had been placed at the list of one hundred and twenty distributors of votes; and it was agreed to meet this morning at the Marine Insurance Office, where they were to be prepared as we found them — The poll opened at 9 O'Clock, and closed at two, afternoon — The number of votes upwards of 3000 for Mr. Strong, and of 2000 for Mr. Sullivan, a greater number on both sides than were ever before given — by nearly one thousand votes in the whole — While on the ground I conversed with Judge Davis and Mr. Jackson, members of the College Corporation — with Mr. Whitman, Mr. Morse and Mr. English, and Mr. Parkman, who have sons at College; endeavouring to produce a settlement of the difficulties between the Government of College, and the Students. I also conversed with Mr. Parkman's Son, and endeavoured to persuade him to take the only course proper in this case; a compliance with the requisitions of the Corporation.
[July 1807]
9. The numerous interruptions, with which I have been diverted from my professional business the last seven days, have almost entirely suspended my proper labours — I returned to them this day and wrote the customary quantity of my 22d Lecture; which I ought before this to have finished, but which I have little more than commenced — I had this day a debate somewhat warm, with Mr. John Lowell at the Suffolk Insurance Office. But was the greatest part of the day at home.
10. Walked up to Cambridge with John Smith — Read my 21st Lecture; which, as I had expected, appeared to give satisfaction — Among my hearers was Judge Thacher and Mr. Smith, the chief justice of New-Hampshire — They also with me attended the Lecture of Dr. Waterhouse, which immediately followed mine, and was upon the scale of being — We all dined at the Drs. after I had spent an hour in the Library — At 2 I attended the Declamation in the Chapel — it was good, but not equal to the last — One of the Speakers appeared again with the aid of a prompter; of which I strongly express'd my disapprobation — Dr. Waterhouse immediately after the declamation took me into Boston in his Chaise — A meeting of the Citizens of Boston, and the neighbouring towns had been call'd to meet at the State-House, to consider the late outrageous attack of the British ship Leopard upon our frigate Chesapeake, and to adopt resolutions concerning it — I had been desirous of a regular _town-meeting_ , but this was utterly discouraged by the federalists, and the other party were afraid of calling it — This meeting was not numerous, and consisted almost entirely of friends to the present Administration — Mr. Morton urged me to act as Moderator, but I declined — Mr. Gerry at length arrived and was chosen chairman — Mr. Morton Secretary — A Committee of seven was immediately chosen to draft Resolutions and report them to the meeting, B. Bidwell, Dr. Jarvis, B. Austin, G. Blake, T. J. Skinner, P. Morton, and myself — We went into the Senate chamber. G. Blake had got his Resolutions all drawn; and the Committee had obviously discussed them before — I objected to one of the Resolutions, which was immediately given up — Objections were also made to a long preamble which Blake had drawn, and which was also abandoned. A shorter preamble was also agreed to drawn by B. Austin — We then unanimously reported the Resolutions, which were unanimously adopted; and the meeting adjourned in perfect order. I pass'd the Evening at home — My brother dined at my house; and returned to lodge here this night — John Smith went out to Quincy. Mrs. Adams has been very ill; but is recovering.
11. My brother went this day to Haverhill, with his brother in Law, Foster — John Smith came for him this morning from Quincy, but returned alone at night — Dr. Welsh and his Lady were here a short time this Evening — I was at the Insurance-Offices before dinner — J. Phillips told me I should _have my head taken off_ , for apostasy, by the federalists — I have indeed expected to displease them, but could not help it — My Sense of duty shall never yield to the pleasure of a party. — I am this day forty years of age, and when I reflect how much in the course of that period I have received in blessings from Heaven, and how little I have returned in benefit to the world, I can neither look back nor forwards with any satisfaction.
[August 1807]
18. By the Blessing of God, I have this day a third son, born at half-past eight O'Clock this Morning — Just before 2, My wife waked me, and desired me to procure the Doctor and Nurse, immediately. I went myself for Dr. Welsh, and sent James for Mrs. Alker — I returned in about half-an-hour with the Dr. and found the nurse already here — Mrs. Adams was still so well that the Dr. and myself went soon after to bed; and rose again about seven O'Clock; the pains had become sharp, but not yet frequent — By the time we had breakfast'd they were violent, and came in quick succession — The process was not of the most casual and favorable kind, though not the most dangerous. The sufferings of the mother for about an hour were extreme — In the birth the infant appeared to have suffered some injury, and had when first-born no appearance of life — In about five minutes however, while preparation was making to set its lungs in motion, it commenced respiration of itself, and very soon appeared to be in full life — It is a very large child, and to appearance weighs as much as George and John together, at their birth — About half an hour afterwards my Sister Smith and her son John arrived here — I was going with John to the exhibition at Cambridge, but now could not leave my wife — John Smith went alone — I wrote immediately to Mrs. Johnson, and carried the letter myself at noon to the Post-Office — John Smith returned after dinner from Cambridge, and went out alone to Quincy, leaving his mother here — Requested her to stay this night with us, to which she readily consented — Mr. Boylston called on us this morning — Mr. Keith also from Alexandria visited me to enquire concerning Mrs. Hall's business — with the state of which I acquainted him. In the Evening there was a fire at the North part of the Town, which kept me up late; and which broke out again in the night. But I did not hear the bells the second time — There were five old wooden houses burnt down. We were not without concern at night on account of the Child. — Met Mr. Emerson in the Mall.
[September 1807]
13. My child, born the 18th of last month, was this afternoon baptized by Mr. Emerson, and received the name of _Charles Francis_ — the first of which I gave him in remembrance of my deceased brother, and the second, as a token of honour to my old friend and patron judge Dana — Mrs. Adams was not well enough to attend at Church, but went to the door, and waited in the Carriage untill the ceremony was performed.
[October 1807]
30. ≈ I employed the whole Evening in looking over the Journals of the Senate since I have been one of its members — In the numerous traces of my own conduct there I remark materials for serious reflection. Of the very little business which I have commenced during the four Sessions, at least three fourths has failed with circumstances of peculiar mortification — The very few instances in which I have succeeded have been always after an opposition of great obstinacy, often ludicrously contrasting with the insignificance of the object in pursuit. More than one instance has occurr'd, where the same thing which I have assiduously laboured in vain to effect, has been afterwards accomplished by others without the least resistance; more than one where the pleasure of disappointing me has seemed to me the prominent principle of decision — Of the preparatory business matured in Committees I have had a share gradually increasing through the four Sessions, but always as a subordinate member — The merely laborious duties have been readily assigned to me, and as readily undertaken and discharged — My success has been more frequent in opposition than in carrying any proposition of my own, and I hope I have been instrumental in arresting many unadvised purposes and projects. — Though as to the general policy of the Country, I have been uniformly in a small, and constantly decreasing minority, my opinions and votes have been much oftener in unison with the Administration than with their opponents: and I have met with at least as much opposition from my party friends as from their adversaries — I believe more — I know not that I have made any personal enemies, now in Senate; nor can I flatter myself with having acquired any personal friends. There have been hitherto two, Mr. Tracy and Mr. Plumer, upon whom I could rely, but it has pleased Providence to remove one of them by Death, and the changes of political party have removed the other — With the warmest wish to render real service to the public according to the measure of my ability, the path which Prudence prescribes to me under the circumstances of the time is to undertake little, to content myself with the regular attendance which is the duty of every member, and to restrain rather than indulge the propensities to debate.
[November 1807]
3. Nothing done in Senate. — I am tired of this continued state of nihility at the Commencement of a Session, and will attempt something further to rescue the Senate from it — It will however be necessary to proceed with caution — I went into the House, where they were doing as little as nothing, and soon adjourned — Dined at the President's, with a Company, consisting chiefly of members of Congress — Mess'rs Mitchell, Van Cortlandt, Verplanck, Van Allen, Johnson, Key, Magruder, Taylor, Calhoun, Butler, Thompson, and Eppes — I mentioned to Mr. Jefferson that the publishing Committee had a letter from him to the Earl of Buchan, sent by him to the Massachusetts Historical Society with a view to its publication — But the Committee thought it most consistent at least with delicacy to ascertain whether the publication would be not disagreeable to him — He asked whether it did not contain some free sentiments respecting the British Government; I told him it did — He then desired it might not be published, _at least while he remained in public offic_ _e_ ; and said he could not conceive why Lord Buchan could have sent it for publication unless it were because it contained some compliments to himself. — At dinner, there was much amusing Conversation between him and Dr. Mitchell, though altogether desultory — There was as usual a dissertation upon Wines; not very edifying — Mr. Jefferson said that the _Epicurean_ philosophy came nearest to the truth, in his opinion, of any antient system of philosophy — But that it had been misunderstood and misrepresented — He wished the work of Gassendi concerning it had been translated — It was the only accurate account of it extant. I mentioned Lucretius — He said that was only a part — only the _natural_ philosophy — But the _moral_ philosophy was only to be found in Gassendi — Dr. Mitchell mentioned Mr. Fulton's Steam-Boat as an invention of great importance — to which Mr. Jefferson assenting, added — and I think his Torpedoes a valuable invention too — He then enlarged upon the certainty of their Effects and adverted to some of the obvious objections against them, which he contended were not conclusive — Dr. Mitchell's conversation was very various, of chemistry — of Geography — and of natural philosophy — of oils, grasses, beasts, birds — petrifactions and incrustations — Pike and Humboldt — Lewis and Barlow; and a long train of et cetera — for the Doctor knows a little of every thing and is communicative of what he knows — which makes me delight in his Company — Mr. Jefferson said that he had always been extremely fond of Agriculture, and knew nothing about it; but the person who united with other Science the greatest agricultural knowledge of any man he knew was Mr. Madison — He was the best farmer in the world. — On the whole it was one of the _agreeable_ dinners I have had at Mr. Jefferson's — I retir'd with the rest of the Company, soon after dinner, and spent the Evening at Mr. Boyd's — On returning home I found a letter from my mother with the grateful intelligence that my children whom we left behind were both well.
14. My trunks and the box of books which I had sent round from Boston, for the library of Congress arrived this day; and were sent from the Navy-yard to the Capitol ≈ In the Evening I received a letter from Governor Sullivan — From the intelligence this day received from Europe, the opinion I have entertained for some months that this Country cannot escape a War is very much confirmed; It is a prospect from which I would gladly turn my eyes — To my Parents, to my children, to my Country full of dangers if not of ruin! yet a prospect which there is scarce a hope left of avoiding — May I meet it as becomes a Man!
25. The bill I reported yesterday, was read the second time, and made the order of the day for to-morrow — Dr. Mitchell's Gun-Boat Bill was taken up in Committee of the whole and warmly debated, untill at his own motion it was postponed, for further consideration untill next Monday (30th) I moved a Resolution to request of the President a Statement of impress'd Seamen, since the last Report — It lies for consideration — Dined at the President's, with my wife — Mrs. Johnson, and her daughters Catherine and Adelaide. — Mr. & Mrs. Erskine and Mr. Foster were there — As were Mr. and Mrs. Blount, Mr. Barlow and Mr. Fulton — The President said to Mr. Erskine, that by the Accounts in the English newspapers it was alledged that their Government had determined to transfer the pending Negotiation here; and that said he, I suppose, will take us all Winter; and in the mean time your Nation will make Peace, and leave us nothing to dispute about — " _that is all my hope_." If there was any sincerity in these words _Procrastination_ , includes the whole compass of Mr. Jefferson's policy — which I believe to be really the case — Mr. Fulton was very anxious to make an experiment of his Torpedoe's before both of Houses of Congress — We sat at table later than usual, and after leaving it I returned immediately home with the Ladies.
[December 1807]
14. Mr. Quincy brought me a transcript of the petition from Boston, for the modification, suspension, or repeal of the Non-importation Act, signed by upwards of 800 names. — I had told Gen'l Smith of Maryland that this petition was coming, and asked him what should be done with it — He said it would be best to let it lay on the table, with the Petition from Philadelphia. — I have conversed lately several times with him and Dr. Mitchell, & Mr. Anderson, and told them that I believed the best thing that could be done by the administration would be to give up this law, and repeal it at once — But that as the Executive would finally be the responsible party, and as it had been pass'd for the purpose of aiding in Negotiation, so long as the President believed it would assist him, I would not countenance any thing that should attempt to weaken the Government by opposition — Smith has himself appeared much embarrass'd on the subject — He wishes for the repeal — He admits that it is rather an obstacle than a benefit to negotiation, but he intimates that the President is still attached to it, and said the other day "the devil of it is, that there are 80 members of the House of Representatives, who have committed themselves upon the question." — In consequence of these and similar conversations, I barely presented the petition from Boston, without making any motion for its reference — But it had not lain above a quarter of an hour, before Gen'l Smith himself moved its reference to a Committee of 5, which was immediately agreed to, and a Committee appointed, of which Smith is chairman — Mr. Maclay then moved that the Philadelphia petition which has lain several days on the table, should be referr'd to the same Committee — Smith opposed this, on the ground that this was a political trick, intended to embarrass the Government. It occasioned a debate of two hours, when the petition was referr'd, on yeas and nays taken, 16 to 13 — After this came on a new Amendment reported by the Committee to the Potowmac Bridge, which was debated untill the adjournment without coming to a decision — I afterwards went into the House of Representatives where they had been all day debating whether the Boston petition should be referr'd; they soon after decided by yeas and nays that it should — And adjourned.
18. ≈ We attended the Senate about noon — A motion was made for considering my proposed Amendment to the Bridge-bill, when a message came from the President — There was a private letter to the Vice-President, stating that the message was to be confidential or not as Congress should deem expedient, and a request that two papers, being letters between Gen'l Armstrong, and Champagny, the french Minister of foreign Affairs, should be return'd — From these documents it appeared, that the Emperor of France had determined to carry the decree of 21 Nov'r. 1806, into full execution, without regard to her Treaty with us — The message enclosed also the king of England's Proclamation recalling the Seamen, and authorizing their impressment from merchant vessels — It likewise recommended in unequivocal terms an immediate embargo.
31. ≈ It was almost 5 O'Clock when we adjourned — The House of Representatives sat still later — They were engaged upon a motion for an inquiry into Gen'l Wilkinson's conduct, instituted Mr. Randolph. — Wilkinson this morning _posted_ Randolph in printed Hand-Bills, headed, a Hector unmasked — And proclaiming him a slanderous, prevaricating poltroon — Randolph is said to have declined fighting him, as a disgraced character, on a level with Aaron Burr and Serjeant Dunbaugh — There was a Ball this Evening, at which the Ladies excepting Mrs. Adams, attended.
_Day_. The whole of this month I have been so much engaged upon Committees and their business that I have been obliged entirely to forego the continuation of my lectures — I rise generally with the Sun, or a little before — Read or write untill 9. Breakfast and walk to the Capitol, where I am very much occupied untill four — Walk home — dine; and pass the Evening in my chamber reading public papers or writing until 9 at night. Supper below — bed about eleven — Occasionally spending an Evening abroad.
I have more than abundant reason to be thankful for the blessings of Providence during the past year; which has been perhaps the most prosperous year of my life; and the least checkered with unpropitious Events — After passing its two earliest months here, in March I returned home, and resumed my residence in Boston — There I pass'd the Summer and was bless'd in the birth of a third son, who has hitherto had health beyond the common portion of an infant — My other children, though of more slender Constitutions, have also been preserved to us, as have my parents and other near relations — On the return of the Congressional Meeting, with my wife and infant boy, I came safely here where we have since remained. — My private affairs have been improving, though I have contracted a large debt, which it must be my constant, and unwearied care to discharge. My own health with some slight interruptions has been greater than I had known for many years — My general consideration among my fellow-citizens, though not marked by any new public testimonial in the course of the year, has been to my observation apparently rising. During the present Session of the Senate my standing in that body has been singular — Apparently so distinguished, as to have excited jealousies, with little more real influence than heretofore — The usual principal leading characters of the Senate have been absent altogether or principally this Session — Tracy and Baldwin are no more — Giles and Bayard have not yet appeared — Smith of Maryland has been absent nearly half the time — The leading members have been Bradley, Anderson and Mitchell, with whom in respect of the business of Committees I have been much associated. — On most of the great national questions now under discussion, my sense of duty leads me to support the administration, and I find myself of course in opposition to the federalists in general — But I have no Communication with the President other than that in the regular order of business in Senate — In this state of things my situation calls in a peculiar manner for prudence; my political prospects are declining, and as my term of Service draws near its close, I am constantly approaching to the certainty of being restored to the situation of a private citizen — For this Event however, I hope to have my mind sufficiently prepared — In the mean time, I implore that Spirit from whom every good and perfect gift descends to enable me to render essential Service to my Country, and that I may never be governed in my public conduct by any consideration other than that of my duty.
[January 1808]
11. I offered this morning a Resolution for the appointment of a Committee to consider & report where the Embargo may be taken off, and whether, merchant-vessels shall then be permitted to be armed, and in defence of their lawful Commerce to resist foreign oppression — It seemed to meet almost universal approbation, but lies for consideration — Several of the members asked an explanation of what I meant — Some of them after my explanation appeared more reconciled to it — But there was still great apparent opposition against it.
20. ≈ Mr. Bradley delivered me a printed (circular) invitation to attend the meeting of the _Republican_ members of both houses, Saturday Evening at 6 O'Clock to consult respecting the next Presidential Election — He observed to me that he hoped the old Gentleman, Mr. Clinton, would be complimented with an _unanimous_ vote for re-election as Vice-President; though he did not expect he would serve — I asked whether he was not to be supported for the Presidency — He said no — he was too old — And we were all witnesses that his faculties were failing — That Madison was the man for the Presidency — I agreed to attend the meeting. Col'l Williams spent the Evening with us at Mr. Hellen's — Mrs. Adams is recovering, and the child almost well.
21. The Resolution which I offered some days since for a Committee to inquire when the Embargo can be removed, and for the arming of merchant vessels on its removal was taken up, and after I had assigned my reasons for moving it, was rejected without debate or answer, 17 to 10. — After the vote was pass'd, Mr. Smith of Maryland said, that he was willing the second object of the Resolution, that of arming, should be pursued, but made no motion.
[February 1808]
1. There was little business done in the Senate, and they adjourned early. Met Mr. Smith of Maryland and Mr. Gilman, on a Committee to whom was referr'd a petition from two persons by the name of Chase and Gardner at Nantucket — After some conversation it was agreed that I should call upon the Secretary of the Treasury for some papers in the case — Mr. Quincy asked me to have some conversation with him; which I did at his chamber — He enquired into the motives of my late conduct in Congress, which I fully detailed to him — He said my principles were too pure for those with whom I was acting — and _they would not thank me for them_ — I told him I did not want their thanks — He said they would not _value me_ the more for them — I told him, I cared not whether they valued me for them or not — My character, such as it was must stand upon its own ground, and not upon the bolstering of any man or party — I fully opened to him my motives for supporting the Administration at this Crisis, and my sense of the danger which a Spirit of opposition at this time is bringing upon the _Union_. I told him where that opposition in case of War must in its nature end — Either in a _Civil_ War — or in a dissolution of the Union with the Atlantic States in subserviency to Great-Britain — That to resist this I was ready if necessary to sacrifice every thing I have in life, and even life itself — I intimated to him that he would be called perhaps ere long to make the election which side he would take too — He said he did not see the prospect in the same light, but if he did, he should also be willing to meet that question when it came — He did not say which side he should take — The result of the Conversation was an opinion on my part that he was too far pledged in opposition to retreat, and that his own idea was rather that of reclaiming me from the " _error of my ways_ " — We must wait with patience, to see where the right is.
13. Mr. Hellen gave me a seat to the Capitol, where I met the Committee on the Bill supplementary to the non-importation Act. Mr. Smith of Maryland (Chairman) and Mr. Mitchell were the other members — Mr. Newton, the Chairman of the Committee of Commerce and Manufactures was with us, and proposed the introduction of several amendments, which he had not had time to carry through the house, before the Bill pass'd there — But we did not agree to them — We determined to report the Bill without amendment — There were at the Capitol several members of both Houses; and Mr. Giles appeared much exasperated at a threat which has appeared from Mr. Monroe, of publishing another Book — An Electioneering Book, to defeat Madison's Election & promote his own — Giles says he told Mr. Jefferson it would and in that, long since; and that he would after his return home pursue a course of conduct which would lead to his own destruction, or to that of the Administration — Mr. Cook, of the House of Representatives, asked me for some private conversation — And then told me that many of the eastern members were disgusted at the state of degradation and oppression in which the interests of that part of the Country was kept, by these negro-votes (as he called them.) He said that Mr. Story was here; and very much hurt at the refusal of the house yesterday to hear him as Counsel for the Yazoo Claimants. And he ask'd me, _what was to be don_ _e_? — I told him that before any thing could be done by way of concerted operation for retrieving that weight in the national Councils, to which we were justly entitled, it would be necessary that we should understand one another, and be sure that we could harmonize among ourselves — That I had little intimacy with the members of his general political opinions — That our weakness was the necessary consequence of our divisions — That unless these could be healed it was idle to think of attempting any thing — That if a disposition to that object existed I should be glad to contribute my aid, for effecting it; and I should readily converse with any Gentleman who wished it, on the subject — He said he would commit to paper his ideas and mention there the names of the Gentlemen whose co-operation to that end might be relied on — If this matter should be pursued any further I shall be very cautious how I proceed — The object and tendency of the thing is not yet sufficiently apparent — I see enough however to put me upon my guard — Il faut voir venir — I attended a short time in the Supreme Court, where all the judges were present — hearing Mr. Martin. — Evening at home.
23. On taking my seat in Senate this morning, I found a Philadelphia newspaper of the 19th (Jackson's political Register) directed to me, and laid on my table; containing a letter from this place, full of falsehoods, and abuses against me, by name — The writer insinuates that he is a member of Congress; and refers to Mr. Lewis, a member from Virginia, for his name upon certain _conditions_ — But the charges against me, are merely of a ridiculous character; and, in every particular stated as fact, false — The object of the writer is obviously to get himself into notice, by seeking a controversy with me — I had some doubts whether I should not call upon Lewis, for the writer's name — But concluded, after some reflection that it would be giving him too much consequence — The danger of once undertaking to answer newspaper falsehoods, is of involving yourself in a sort of obligation always to answer, which would be endless — On consulting Mr. Anderson, he concurr'd entirely in this opinion — There was little business done in Senate. Mr. Giles's bill was postponed untill to-morrow. Our Ladies all attended the party at Mr. Erskine's this Evening — I did not go.
24. I received this morning letters from my father and mother — I answered the last, immediately — These letters contain a test for my firmness — for my prudence; and for my filial reverence — May I be assisted to stand this test, without impairing either of those duties! — In Senate, the principal business was the discussion of Mr. Giles's Bill — Mr. Pope made a long and eloquent Speech against it — Mr. Crawford spoke in its support. — Dined with my wife and child at Mr. Boyd's — In the Evening a Mr. Schwarz was there with a very beautiful copy in Crayons of a Madona from Raphael — Returning home we got nearly overset in the Carriage — And bewildered for some time in the fields — We however reached home safe at last.
[March 1808]
4. The Committee on the third Embargo-Bill met, and agreed on some Amendments which the chairman reported — The Committee on the Bill for raising 6000 men also met and reported several Amendments — The Chairman Mr. Giles was by illness unable to attend — The Senate adjourned early, and I know not upon what they were engaged; for Mr. Nicholas asked for some conversation with me, in the Committee Room of the Senate; to which we accordingly retired — He then express'd much anxiety respecting the present State of Affairs, and particularly respecting the rumours of French influence as predominating in the Administration — He was very solicitous that they should be refuted; declared they were entirely destitute of truth; and requested me to ask the President himself, who would be pleased to give me a direct Answer on the subject — I told him that the jealousies and suspicions among my friends and neighbours were founded on a variety of circumstances, which gave them colour, and which were not easily susceptible of refutation — I then told him of a letter I had seen early last Summer from the Governor of Nova-Scotia, asserting that the British Government were informed of a plan determined upon by France, to conquer the British Provinces on this Continent, and form a Monarchy of them under General Moreau — And at the same time to introduce a more monarchical Government in these States — All which was to be effected by means of a War between this Country and Great Britain — This Story, combined with many recent occurrences, was a source of distrust which could not without difficulty be removed — He disclaimed all knowledge or belief of such a plan, and supposed its object to be merely a British device to divide and distract us — We had a conversation of perhaps a couple of hours; he asked me whether he might make use of the information I had given him; to which I assented, so far as that no names might be implicated.
15. ≈ In the Evening I called upon the President, and gave him the information respecting the letter from the Governor of Nova-Scotia which I saw last Summer. He assured me there had never been any negotiation on the subject with France, and that France had never intimated a wish that we should join her in the War — He appears convinced however that the British Government do not now intend immediate War with us.
31. I finished my letter to H. G. Otis for publication; and before I sent it away shewed it to Mr. Anderson, for his opinion whether there was in it any thing that ought to be struck out — in particular whether it treated my Colleague Mr. Pickering with sufficient delicacy. ≈ The step I have this day taken of publishing my letter to H. G. Otis, will be to me of the first importance — It will not be without importance to the Nation — It was taken from a strong sense of duty — That it will increase the difficulties and dangers of my situation I am fully aware — That it will bring upon me the fury of all my former enemies and a host of new ones, I perceive — I ask aid from above to support and pass through this ordeal — As my act has been deliberate, and will probably involve further controversy I pray for Intrepidity — Perseverance — Temperance — Justice, and Fortitude.
[April 1808]
23. ≈ Mr. Gilman this day spoke to me, with intimations that it was the wish of several gentlemen with whom he had conversed, to _bring me forward_ , in some active and distinguished Station — But that it was wished I would take occasion either in some Speech, or in some written publication, to express my Sentiments with respect to the practicability of our present form of Government — As from some of my writings published before I went to Europe, there were persons who thought me inclined to favour a Constitution approaching nearer to the monarchical form — I told him I would reflect upon these suggestions, but my present impressions which I did not think likely to change, were these — I was sworn to support the Constitution of the United States — I would support it with the utmost of my power; and with perfect sincerity — I had during the present Session of Congress, to say nothing of preceding dates, pledged more to support it, in my own opinion, than any other man in the Union — I had sacrificed to it the favour of the party which had placed me in my present Station — I had therefore not only the common Stake of others who support the Administration, but the responsibility of appearing to abandon my own party; and was liable to all the obloquy which such desertion carried with it — My motive for it was, to support the Constitution as I had sworn — I had therefore taken an active part in the public Affairs both foreign and domestic — And to the best of my ability endeavoured to defend it against its enemies external and internal — But I had not set one party at defiance, in this conduct, for the purpose of making myself the instrument of another — That as to my speculative opinions upon the practicability of our present Constitution, I had my doubts, whether in case of a _War_ , it would get along in its present form — I believed it would become more democratic — With regard to the theory of Government, I had not for many years read over any of the papers written by me and published before I went to Europe; but I was not aware of any one sentiment or opinion contained in them, that I would now retract — That, as to my being brought forward in a conspicuous Station, I certainly did not think it a desirable thing — There was not a place in the gift of the People or of the Executive of the United States or of my own State, for which I had the slightest wish. That to be _dismiss'd_ from the place which I now am in, would doubtless occasion a moment of personal mortification, for which however, my mind was made up; and which would be more than compensated by the advantage of being _released_ from the cares of the public service, at such a time as this — But that as to any thing else, so far as my personal desires were concerned, I would not speak ten words, nor write two lines, to be President of the United States — Nor of course to be any thing subordinate to that — He said this was standing on very independent ground indeed — But that for himself he was satisfied there ought to be that Confidence in a man's Principles, & integrity, not to require of him any pledge of opinions at-all. — I did not enquire, nor did he tell me with whom he had conversed, or what the object was to which he referr'd as the conspicuous Station of which he spoke in general terms — Mr. Gilman however is the particular friend of Mr. Clinton, as Mr. Giles is of Mr. Madison, with respect to the Presidential Election — And he sometime since asked me which of the Departments I should prefer — That of State, or that of the Treasury — I answered him laughingly that I was about as well qualified for the one as for the other — He then said in the same tone; that he thought so too. But he believed the Department of State would suit me best; and when _he_ should be President of the United States, I should have it.
[May 1808]
10. After calling on Mr. Shaw, and at the Banks, from which I brought home my trunks, I went with my wife and child Charles to my father's at Quincy. I then went and brought John from Mr. Cranch's. We dined at my father's and also pass'd the afternoon there. In the Evening we returned to Boston — I called on Chief-Justice Parsons and had some conversation with him on political subjects — I found him, as I expected totally devoted to the British Policy, and avowing the opinion that the British have a right to take their seamen from our ships — have a right to interdict our trade with her Enemies, other than the peace trade — And a right by way of retaliation to cut off our trade with her Enemies altogether — He also thinks the people of this Country corrupted, already in a state of voluntary subjugation to France, and ready to join an Army of Bonaparte, if he should send one here, to subdue themselves — The only protection of our liberties, he thinks, is the British navy.
18. After writing some part of the morning, I went to the old South Church and attended the ordination of Mr. Joshua Huntington as the Colleague of Dr. Eckley — I found Dr. Morse preaching the Sermon — Dr. Dwight the President of New-Haven College where the young Gentleman was educated had been expected; but was arrested on his way by ill health — The Church was crowded, and I took a stand in one of the aisles; but the Committee of the Church soon sent and provided me with a seat, and afterwards gave me an invitation to the public dinner — I accordingly attended it — The dinner was agreeable, but Dr. Osgood of Medford attacked me in a rude and indecent manner on the subject of my letter to Mr. Otis — I told him that in consideration of his age, I should only remark that he had one lesson yet to learn, of which I recommended to him the study as specially necessary — And that was Christian Charity. After dinner I called for an hour at my office, and spent the Evening with the Ladies at a large party at Mrs. S. Dexter's.
[June 1808]
1. General Varnum called upon me this morning, and had some conversation with me on the subject of public affairs — He read to me part of a letter from Washington, which states that it was circulated there, and had been asserted by a federalist with the offer of a bet, that Mr. Madison had made me the offer of a foreign embassy, provided I would join his party — I told him there was no foundation in the report — That I had never had any conversation with Mr. Madison, either about the next Election, or about political party — That Mr. Madison had never made me any promises, and I was never inclined to receive promises from him had he been disposed to make me any — I told him that Mr. Giles had occasionally mentioned to me that both Mr. Jefferson & Mr. Madison would be gratified by receiving from federalists support to the Administration — And that I had taken occasion to tell him that there was and would be nothing in the gift of the President of the United States, which I wanted or wished — And that any support they had received or should receive from me would be from public considerations, and no personal motive whatsoever. I dined at Mr. James Prince's, the Marshal. Judges Cushing & Davis; with several other Gentlemen were there — Mr. Brooks, Mr. Story, Sheriff's Allen and Cutler & Mr. Shaw — I called afterwards at Mr. Emerson's & saw him — Dr. Dexter was with him — I took home with me my lectures, which Mr. Emerson has had over Winter — Attended the club afterwards at Dr. Eliot's. It was tolerably well attended.
2. Mr. Isaac Smith called upon me this morning, and pass'd an hour with me. Spent the Evening with the Ladies at Dr. Danforth jun'r's with a company of Ladies and Gentlemen. Mr. Wheaton's Resolutions were this day adopted by the House of Representatives; and this afternoon the House came to the choice of a Senator of the United States, to serve from the 3d of March next; when my time would expire — The votes were for James Lloyd, jun'r 248, for J. Q. Adams, 213, for Laban Wheaton 1. Of course Mr. Lloyd is chosen —
3. The appointment of Mr. Lloyd, as a Senator of the United States, in my stead, after the 3d of March next, was this day confirmed by the Senate — 21 votes for Mr. Lloyd, and 17 for me. Spent the day at home, excepting a short time at the Athenaeum — And at several Bookseller's shops, where I ordered a number of books.
7. Mr. S. A. Otis called upon me this morning; and told me that he thought our Legislature had done a very bad thing, by not re-electing a very good Senator — meaning me — That he was very much mortified at it — And _his Son_ (H. G. Otis President of the Senate) was equally so — That he did every thing in his power, but could not prevent it — That the tide ran too strong — The Essex Junto were omnipotent — All this I understand — perfectly well — I was part of this morning at my office. — The remainder of the day at home writing, for my Lectures — Walk, morning and Evening in the Mall — Mr. Ripley was here this afternoon.
8. Walking this morning in the Mall I met Gen'l H. Jackson, who express'd himself very favourably of the principles contained in my letter to Mr. Otis. I found on going into State-Street that Mr. Wheaton's anti-embargo Resolutions were yesterday adopted by the Senate — I therefore this day sent a letter to the two houses with my resignation of my Seat as a Senator of the United States; which I enclosed to Mr. H. G. Otis, and left at his house, he not being at home — I attended the club, this Evening, at Mr. Edward Gray's — It was well attended.
[July 1808]
11. I enter this day upon my forty-second year — I employed it from early in the morning, untill the dusk of Evening very assiduously writing at my Lecture, and reading — The day was dull and rainy untill towards night, when the sky cleared and the Sun with "farewell sweet" made his appearance — I walked nearly an hour in the Mall — The return of my birth-day is one of the Seasons which call on me for reflection — In the course of the last year I have been called by my duties as a Citizen and a Man to act and to suffer more than at any former period of my life — To my duties I have steadfastly adhered. The course I pursued has drawn upon me much obloquy, and the change of parties in the State, with an accumulated personal malignity, borne me both on my father's and my own account, by those who rule the State, produced in the first instance the election of a Senator to fill my place after the 3d of March next — This election was precipitated for the sole purpose of specially marking me — For it ought in regular order not to have been made untill the Winter Session of the Legislature — They also pass'd Resolutions enjoining upon their Senators a course of conduct, with which neither my judgment could approve, nor my Spirit brook. I therefore resigned my seat — For my future prospects I have no reliance but on the disposer of Events. For the past I have the testimony of a good Conscience; and a firm belief that I have rendered essential service to my Country.
[September 1808]
26. Returned to Boston this morning in the Stage — Attended at my office. Mr. Bacon called there, and told me it was the wish of the _republicans_ , to hold me up as the candidate to represent this District in Congress at the approaching Election, which from a variety of considerations I declined. The decisive inducement to me is my friendship for Mr. Quincy, the present Representative, and my belief that he will not unite in the combination against the Union and Independence of the Country — Mr. Bacon urged me with great earnestness to accept, but I told him I was irrevocably determined — I spent part of the Evening at Dr. Welsh's — where I found Mrs. G. Payne, and Miss Buckminster. — Catherine attended a Ball at Mr. H. G. Otis's.
27. I saw Mr. G. Blake this morning, and renewed my refusal to stand as a Candidate at the approaching Election — Mr. Bacon had yesterday, proposed to me on finding my determination made, that the offer should be publicly made to me, leaving it to me either to accept or decline. At the first suggestion of this it had occurred to me, that this circumstance would give me an opportunity to declare, in declining my adherence to all the principles for which I have contended, and by which I have lost the favour of the federal party — As a mark of strong confidence from the opposite party there might also be some gratification to my personal feelings. I had however before parting from Mr. Bacon strongly inclined to the conclusion that it would be best that the offer should not be made to me at-all — After leaving him, on further reflection this conclusion became the more decisive upon me — For, as to the personal gratification, I saw my duty to set that aside, entirely — And as to the opportunity of manifesting my adherence to my principles, it is not now necessary, since I have done nothing to induce suspicion of my having deserted them; and if occasion should arise requiring such an assurance from me to the public, nothing can be easier than to find, or to make an opportunity to do it. There appeared also to me to be forcible reasons against my consenting to have a public offer made to me, with a predetermination to decline it, known to the leaders of the party by whom the offer would be made, before they should make it — There seems to be a littleness in such a preconcerted offer and refusal, which ought alone to discard it as a mode of proceeding — It would probably promote Quincy's election; but he does not need it, to secure that object, and it would be an improper way of aiding him; since it must be at the expence of those who are manifesting this unlimited confidence in me — It would also be no cordial to the feelings, of the Candidate who may be substituted in my stead — who has also strong claims to delicacy of treatment from me. These motives had presented themselves to me in so strong a light, that I was apprehensive Mr. Bacon might have considered my answer on this point as so far indecisive that the offer might be made me — I therefore called at his lodgings last Evening, to make my answer perfectly explicit. He was not at his lodgings, and this morning left town. I therefore called on Blake, as one of the central Committee of that party, and found that from Mr. Bacon's report to them, he had understood me perfectly, as inclining against the offer, but not decisively; so that they would certainly make it — I therefore explicitly declared my wish that the offer should not be made; and explained my reasons to Blake to his satisfaction, and they will not make it — Their Candidate will be Eustis. — I met also Mr. Hall, and Mr. Gorham at the Fire and Marine Insurance office, on business.
[October 1808]
10. Mr. Benjamin Austin this morning called at my office, and in a long conversation urged me again to permit my name to be held up as the candidate for this district at the approaching election — Two other members of the Committee also called at my house this afternoon for the same purpose — I think a Mr. Rhodes and Mr. I persevered however in my determination to the last. — In proportion as the anxious importunities of these persons have been repeated, my own anxiety, to discharge faithfully _all_ my duties has encreased upon me. The first and the last impression upon my mind has been, that I ought not to sacrifice the obligations of private friendship, by suffering myself to be put up in opposition to Mr. Quincy. The other considerations, which in the first instance would have disinclined me to consent, I should have given up to the earnestness and the propriety with which I have been entreated, merely not to decline an election, if my name should be announced. I believe the election would be carried. — At any rate; I should carry all but a majority, if not a complete one. At any rate my personal feelings would be gratified by the strength of the support I should receive. My personal importance would be raised, in the estimation of both parties, and I am not unaware that my resolution on this occasion, will have the contrary effect upon both — All this, however I must be willing to endure — I can find no difficulty in disposing of arguments the power of which centres in myself — The subject has been presented to me by my own feelings and by others in a more fascinating form — That the moment is critical — That a patriotic Citizen ought not to withhold himself from the public Service, and the wishes of his fellow-citizens — That private friendship must be made subordinate to the public welfare — And that by merely being inactive, and doing nothing either to encourage or to discountenance the nomination, I should not violate any duty of friendship, since, rival candidates may still remain cordial friends — This reasoning, I have found it most arduous to resist — I do believe my services to be a right of my Country to claim — But so are Quincy's — and I cannot bring myself to that pitch of self-imagined importance as to suppose that I am bound to seek the means of public service, by acceding to an attempt at edging him out of it — The representation of this District, is not the hinge upon which the destinies of this Nation will turn, nor is Quincy a man who will lend himself to the destructive projects of the present leaders of the federal party — Upon the whole, I feel satisfied with my own decision in this case — Its event is in wiser hands than mine.
[March 1809]
4. Going up to the Capitol I met Mr. Quincy, who was on his way to Georgetown to get a passage to Baltimore. — The Court met at the usual hour and sat untill twelve — Mr. Martin continued his argument untill that time — And then adjourned untill two. I went to the Capitol, and witness'd the inauguration of Mr. Madison, as President of the United States — The house was very much crowded and its appearance very magnificent — He made a very short Speech, in a tone of voice so low that he could not be heard, after which the official oath was administered to him by the Chief Justice of the United States — The four other judges of the Supreme Court being present, and in their robes — After the Ceremony was over, I went with Mrs. Johnson, and Mr. and Mrs. Hellen to pay the visit of custom — The company was received at Mr. Madison's house; he not having yet removed to the President's house — Mr. Jefferson was among the visitors. — The Court had adjourned untill 8 O'Clock. I therefore returned to them at that hour — Mr. Martin closed the argument in the cause of Fletcher and Peck — After which the Court adjourned — I came home to dinner, and in the Evening went with Mr. Hellen and the Ladies to a Ball at Long's in honour of the new President — The crowd was excessive — the heat oppressive, and the entertainment bad — Mr. Jefferson was there — About Midnight the Ball broke up.
6. This morning while at breakfast I received a note from Mr. Madison the new President, requesting me as I should go up to the Capitol-Hill, to call upon him at his late residence, or at the President's house; which I accordingly did — He there informed me that he proposed to nominate me to the Senate, as Minister Plenipotentiary to Russia — Mr. Jefferson had sent Mr. Short there last Summer; but on his nominating him, the Senate had rejected the nomination — Mr. Madison said he had been informed the objection was not to the mission, but to the man — That the Emperor of Russia had so frequently and so strongly urged a wish for an interchange of Ministers with this Country, that he, Mr. Madison, was very desirous of complying with that inclination — That the commercial relations between the two Countries was important, and that in this disposition of the Emperor, perhaps some valuable advantages might be obtained — He apologized for not having given me earlier notice of this proposition, from the extraordinary pressure of business, which the recent occurrences had thrown upon him; and observed that the nominations must be sent in within the course of half-an-hour. I thank'd him for the confidence, which was indicated by this proposal, and enquired what the particular objects of negotiation would be; and at what time I should be required or expected to go — He said that there would be no particular immediate subject of negotiation, unless it should appear that commercial arrangements of mutual benefit might be made — But that if a negotiation for Peace should ensue, and the principles of maritime rights become objects of the Treaty, the interests of the United States might require their participation — That at least it might be necessary to guard against any possible combination of the two powers at War against us, and that the cultivation of the Emperor of Russia's friendship might in this respect be very important — He said that copies of Mr. Short's instructions would be furnished me, and such further instructions as might occur as necessary — That as to the time of my departure, it might be, as soon as my convenience would admit — probably not under a month and perhaps more — The Salary and allowances would be those usual to Ministers of the same rank. I enquired what length of time the mission would probably continue — He said that was indefinite, and might depend upon Events — Perhaps three or four years. I told him that upon the little consideration I was able to give the subject upon this sudden notice, I could see no sufficient reason for refusing the nomination; though from the circumstances, the confirmation by the Senate might be uncertain. He again apologized for the shortness of the time, and said that if upon further consideration I should perceive any insuperable obstacle to my acceptance, on the confirmation of the appointment, I might still reserve the right of finally declining. On these grounds I consented that the nomination should be made.
31. I sent this morning to judge Davis for the depositions yesterday taken, and wrote to Mr. Pendleton; but before I could get the packet to the Post-Office, the mail for this day was closed — About Noon I walk'd to Cambridge — Found the road not very bad — Dined at Dr. Waterhouse's — Attended the Declamation at 2, and read my tenth Lecture at 3. In the interval between the two exercises I called upon President Webber, to whom I had written the day before yesterday giving him notice of my return — I found the Corporation upon receiving the copies of my letters which I had left for them had concluded not to do any thing further in regard to the subject of my absence; and had found no difficulty in supplying my place. ≈
_Day_. The first half of the month like that which preceded it — The next ten days, traveling from Washington — The last week quite unsettled — It would be my wish, and if I could make resolutions, would be my determination, to fix upon some _one_ object of application to which I should devote all my leisure time — But I fear nothing less than a necessity of external causes can overcome the indolence of my nature, and the instinctive horror of long and systematic pursuit of one purpose — This is one of the most essential defects in my character.
[May 1809]
20. My book-cases were brought home, but will not have room for half the books which I have lately received from Quincy. My library is now, almost entirely collected together, but proves to me more and more the absurdity of pretending to own a library without a large Estate to keep it in countenance — The apartment necessary to hold a large collection of books must be of a size which no other than a rich man can spare from the other parts of his dwelling house; and the manner in which I am compell'd to crowd my books together leaves me little more use for them than if I had no library at-all — We walked this Evening in the Mall — Mr. De Cabre and Mr. De Grand joined us, and came home and supp'd with us — They stayed untill Midnight. This has been an idle week — The species of Dissipation into which I seem insensibly to be sliding is of a dangerous kind — It requires to guard against it a rigour of Resolution, which I am somewhat apprehensive of summoning, lest it should fail me; yet I perceive that it threatens the welfare of my family, and my own final reputation.
[July 1809]
4. My father arrived in town early this morning — And at 10 O'Clock I went with him to the Senate chamber, in the State-house, from which, a procession of the Governor and Council, with the Selectmen of the Town, and a numerous company, went to the Old South Church; where the Town Oration was delivered by Mr. William Tudor jun'r — While in the Church, and immediately after the delivery of the Oration, Mr. Shaw gave me several letters, one of which was from the Secretary of State, enclosing the Commission to St. Petersbourg. ≈ About ten at night I returned home, and found that my father was gone, on his return to Quincy, and that Mrs. Adams and Catherine were at my neighbour Mr. William Foster's — I went there, and found them with all the family, on the top of his house looking at the fire-works — They were principally from the gun-house, and the rockets sent up, came down in blazing paper and burning sticks upon the house itself, and several of the neighbouring houses and yards, including mine — in a manner which I thought dangerous — No accident of fire however ensued. I found at home a letter from Mr. A. H. Everett requesting me to take him with me, as my Secretary — This application was also too late.
5. ≈ I answered the Secretary of State's letter enclosing the commission, and accepted the office. It is with a deep sense of the stormy and dangerous career upon which I enter; of the heavy responsibility that will press upon it, and of the unpromising prospect which it presents in perspective. My personal motives for staying at home are of the strongest kind; — the age of my Parents, and the infancy of my children, both urge to the same result. My connection with the College, is another strong tie which I break with great reluctance; and by refusing the office I should promote my personal popularity more than by accepting it — In my own opinion also, I could do more public service here in a private Station, than abroad upon this mission — To oppose all this, I have the duty of a Citizen to obey the call of his Country, signified by the regular Constituted authority; the Satisfaction of being removed at least for a time, and with honour from a situation, where the deepest retirement has not sheltered me from the most virulent and unrelenting Persecution, and the vague _hope_ of rendering to my Country some important service, as intended by the mission — finally the desire to justify the confidence reposed by Mr. Madison in me, by assuming the Station which _he_ has chosen to assign to me, and by devoting all my powers to the support of his administration, so far as it shall aim, as I am perfectly convinced it does and will aim, at the welfare of this whole Union — These are my motives — And I implore the blessing of Almighty God, upon this my undertaking — That all its critical moments may find me in possession of myself — in possession of the virtues, which contribute all that human power can contribute to success — and prepared alike for whatever Event his Providence destines for its termination — Finally, with the profoundest sense of Gratitude, for that goodness, which has so far rescued from its perils my beloved Country, and from perils not less menacing my own person and reputation, with the people of America, I humbly ask for perfecting goodness; for the entire extrication of my Country from her difficulties and dangers, and for myself the continued consciousness of purity in my motives, and so far as it has been or may be deserved, the approbation of my Countrymen.
I answered my young friend Everett, like the rest — that the appointment of my Secretary had been engaged from the time I had received W. S. Smith's letter, which was the first application — He was extremely disappointed, but acquiesced in the determination.
11. I am this day forty-two years of age — And the reflections which return at every anniversary of my birth-day, naturally recur, with increasing pressure — The year of my life now expiring has been marked by a continuance of that persecution, which the combined personal enemies of my father and myself, had unrelentingly pursued the year before. It has appeared in various forms, some of them singular enough; but its effect has been to impel me into more general notice and estimation throughout the Country. — I have now just received an appointment of great trust and Importance, totally unsolicited, and confirmed by every vote in Senate, excepting my personal enemies, and two others, who voted not against me, but against the mission. Mr. Turner of North-Carolina, who voted against the nomination, express'd in the highest terms his approbation of the person — With this Trust, my duties to my Country, bring again a burden of responsibility, which I ought perhaps to have declined — On the integrity of my Intentions, and on the aid of that Gracious Heaven which never has deserted me, I must rely — I pray for clearness of intellectual vision to _see_ the right path — for the necessary courage to pursue it, and for the Fortitude and the Temperance to bear with equanimity the vicissitudes of its Fortunes, whether adverse or propitious. Grant, O God, that I may do good to my Country and to Mankind! — And deal with me, and mine, if it be thy gracious will, in Mercy.
# CHAPTER IV 1809–1814
## St. Petersburg
[August 1809]
Eternal Spirit! Ruler of the Skies!
From whom all good and perfect gifts arise;
Oh! grant that while this feeble hand portrays
The floating image of my earthly days,
Still the firm purpose of this heart may be
Good to Mankind, and Gratitude to thee!
And while the page, a true resemblance bears
Of all my changes, through a life of cares,
Let not one worthless deed here claim a place,
To stain the future, or the past disgrace.
Nor yet one thought the faithful record swell
But such as Virtue may delight to tell.
Saturday 5. August 1809. At noon this day, I left my house, at the Corner of Boylston and Nassau Streets in Boston, accompanied by my wife, my youngest child, Charles-Francis, my wife's Sister, Catherine Johnson, my nephew and private Secretary, William Steuben Smith, Martha Godfrey, who attends my wife as her chambermaid, and a black man-servant named Nelson, to embark on a voyage to Russia, charged with a Commission as Minister Plenipotentiary from the United States of America to that Court. We went in a Carriage, over Charles river Bridge, to Mr. William Gray's wharf at Charlestown; we there went on board his Ship Horace, Captain Bickford, fitted out on a voyage to St. Petersburg direct — We found already on board the ship, Mr. Alexander H. Everett, and Mr. Francis S. Gray, who are going with me, as Secretaries attached to the Legation, but at their own expence. Mr. and Mrs. Gray were also at the vessel, with two of their other sons — There were also a number of Gentlemen there, who took leave of us at the wharf — We left it precisely as the Boston and Charlestown Bells were ringing one O'Clock. Dr. Welsh and my brother went with us, down the harbour, and some short distance without the light-house — We received on our passage Salutes at the Navy-Yard in Charlestown, at Fort-Independence on Castle-Island, the Garrison of which was paraded as we pass'd; from the Revenue Cutter Massachusetts, Captain Williams; and from the Chesapeake Frigate, Captain Hull, which lay anchored about two miles without the light; and from which Captain Hull, sent an officer on board with his compliments, and wishing us a pleasant passage. We returned the Salutes, and the compliments as well as we could. We had a fair wind, and a tolerably fresh breeze — About 4 in the afternoon my brother and Dr. Welsh took leave of us, and went on board the revenue Cutter, to return to Boston; we then stood out with a light breeze, and fair weather, which continued all the Evening, and had almost lost sight of the land, before the darkness of night intercepted the shores from our view.
At this Commencement of an Enterprize, perhaps the most important of any that I have ever in the course of my life been engaged in, it becomes me to close the day by imploring the blessing of Providence upon it — That its result may prove beneficial to my Country, prosperous to my family and myself; and advantageous to all who are concerned in the voyage.
6. _Sunday_. — On rising, this morning we found ourselves out of sight of land — Weather cool and foggy — Winds light, and rather scant — About South; with some East — All the ladies, Charles, and Mr. Everett who has never before been to sea, are sick. Mr. Gray, who likewise is a new Sailor, has not yet been so — Mr. Smith and myself scarcely perceive that we are at sea.
This is the fourth time that in the course of my life, I have embarked from Boston for Europe — The first was 11 Feb'y 1778, in the Boston Frigate, Captain Tucker — The second, 14 November 1779, in the Sensible, French Frigate, Captain Chevagnes. The third 17 September 1794. In the Alfred, merchant ship, Captain Macey — On the first and second of these voyages, I accompanied my father, who was going abroad upon public missions — On the third, I went in a similar character myself, and was accompanied by my brother — The separation from my family and friends has always been painful; but never to the degree, which I feel it now — The age of my Parents, weakens both in them and me the hopes of our meeting again, and I now leave two of my own infant children behind — My father and mother are also deeply affected by my departure, and I received yesterday from my mother a letter which would have melted the heart of a Stoic. — Thus ties which bind me to my Country have multiplied with the increase of my years, and the difficulties and dangers of every kind, which present themselves in anticipation upon this occasion, exceed those of any former time — Excepting however the dangers of War to which on my two first voyages I was exposed; and which do not threaten us now — My Motives for accepting this Commission are various — That of serving my Country, in the Station which its regular organs have chosen to assign me, stands foremost of them all; and though it neither suits my own inclination, nor my own private judgment, I deem it a duty to sacrifice them both to the public sense, express'd by the Constitutional authority.
13. Head winds and fogs continually rising and dispersing through the day — Saw nothing. I read over again Plutarch's life of Lycurgus, and made some minutes from it — In the afternoon also, I read two Sermons of Massillon — On the forgiveness of injuries, and on the word of God. The first of these is the best of this author's Sermons that I have yet read — The subject is indeed most interesting and copious — And the manner in which he treats it is adapted peculiarly to his auditory — to men of the world and courtiers.
[September 1809]
19. We had a calm and quiet night, and this morning about 6 the Captain called me, and told me there was a cruizer close on board of us — I rose immediately, and within a quarter of an hour, a brig with English colours lay along side of us — Without speaking she sent a boat with an officer, and four men to us — The officer came on board, and after examining the Captain's papers, left us, saying I suppose you may proceed — He told me it was fortunate we had not met him last night; for he might have fired into us; having been yesterday all day in pursuit of two Danish men of war, which they chased into Christiansand — This was a brig of eighteen guns — He gave the Captain some news — as that the French had defeated the Austrians in a battle, and there was now an armistice between them — That the English in Portugal had also been defeated, and Lord Wellesley obliged to make good his retreat — About 7 in the morning we parted from this vessel, and within two hours came in sight of another brig, under Danish Colours — She soon fired a gun to bring us to: upon which we waited for her about half an hour. She then passed close under our stern, hailed us and enquired from whence we came and where we were bound. On receiving the answer, she hauled down her Danish Colours, hoisted the English flag, and sent an officer on board of us, with four men — It seems they had not heard distinctly our answers to their hailing; for on being told that we were from Boston, bound to St. Petersburg, the officer told his men, to go on board their own vessel, and tell the Captain we were from Boston bound to St. Petersburg — He remained himself on board, and examined the Captain's papers, telling him that as we were going to Elsenoir, and they were at War with Denmark he did not know whether we could proceed or not. The boat however soon returned with the men, and the officer then left us. ≈
20. Immediately after breakfast this morning, I went with Captain Beckford, Mr. Smith, Mr. Everett and Mr. Gray, in the ship's boat to Christiansand, about four miles, in a winding passage among the Rocks; on our way we met three or four boats, with Americans going down to the ship; a Gentleman in one of them accosted me by name, but I did not know him untill we landed; when I found it was Mr. Lawson Alexander of Baltimore — He with a number more of the Americans detained here under capture of privateers were introduced to me at my landing ≈ The sight of so many of my Country men, in circumstances so distressing, is very painful, and each of them has a story to tell, of the peculiar aggravations of ill-treatment which he has received — The desire of contributing to their relief, is so strong in me, that I shall without waiting for express authority from the Government of the United States, use every effort in my power in their behalf, to however little purpose it may be as to its success.
[October 1809]
11. We had a night of moderate weather; but the wind continues directly a-head, and we had through this day a continual alternation of violent squalls, of wind, rain and hail, and of flat calms; attended with a short chopping swell of the sea, in which the vessel pitches very uncomfortably — We are still in sight of the island of Bornholm, and in six days have rather lost than gained of our course — The Prospect of reaching Cronstadt before the formation of the ice, which will make it impracticable, has now become desperate, and it only remains to be considered, what in this emergency is to be done — After full reflection upon the Captain's proposal to turn back, and go into Kiel — To winter there, and proceed in the Spring in the vessel to Petersburg; I determined to decline it — At least untill something better shall be found unattainable — The navigation upon the Baltic is now very dangerous, and I have proposed to the Captain, if possible to land us any where short of Cronstadt, but a-head of this, from which we may attempt to proceed on our journey by Land — This is now the expedient to which we must resort, and the success of this is in better hands than mine.
23. It blew a heavy gale of wind all the night, which continued this day so that it was equally impossible for the ship to warp into the mole, and for any boat to go off to the ship — But it was fair as possible for coming up to Petersburg ≈ where we landed just below the Bridge over the Neva, upon the Quay, at 4 in the afternoon.
25. This morning, Mr. Harris sent a note to the High Chancellor of the Empire, Count Romanzoff, informing him of my arrival, and of my wish to visit him; enquiring at what time it would be agreeable to him to receive this visit — He appointed seven O'Clock this Evening — Mr. Harris dined with us, and at 7 this Evening, went with me to the Chancellor's — We went according to the customary style in full dress — The Count received us with courtly State and politeness — He asked for a copy of my credential letter, which I gave him, with a French Translation — He said the Emperor was now indisposed, with an inflammation in both his legs, which confined him to a seat on his Sopha; but he would be up again in the course of a few days — He would take his orders on the subject of my request for an Audience to-morrow, and in the mean time he assured me, that the information of my appointment had been very agreeable to him — We made our visit short, and the conversation was upon general topics — After our return to my lodgings, Mr. Harris pass'd the Evening with us.
28. Mr. Krehmer paid me a visit this morning in company with Mr. Harris. I went with the latter of these Gentlemen to look at a house, the accommodations of which however did not please me — We met there the Baron de Schladen, the Prussian Minister, who was in pursuit of the same object, and to whom Mr. Harris introduced me — At four O'Clock I went with Mr. Harris and dined at the Chancellor Count Romanzoff's — I had in the year 1781, dined at the same house, much in the same style, with the Marquis de Vérac; then the french Minister at this Court — This was a diplomatic dinner, in the style of the highest Splendour; about forty-five persons at table — The French Ambassador, Duc de Vicence, M. de Colaincourt was the principal personage at table. — The Baron de Stedingk, who has been here many years, as Swedish Minister; and who was one of the negotiators of the late Treaty of Peace between Sweden and Russia, was also there — Mr. Six, whom I had formerly met at the Chevalier d'Araujo's at the Hague, now Minister here, from the King of Holland — I sat next to the Chevalier de Bray, Minister from the king of Bavaria, whom I once saw in the year 1800 at Berlin — The Chevalier de Navarro, Portuguese Chargé d'Affaires, I had also known as a Secretary to the Vicomte d'Anadia, at Berlin — The rest of the Company were Strangers to me — But they are all covered with Stars and Ribbons; beyond any thing that I had ever seen — The dinner did not last more than two hours — It was magnificent in every particular — The Chancellor, shewed me at table, and afterwards many pointed and formal civilities — He exhibited two superb large Vases of Seve China, and splendid Editions of Virgil and Racine — Presents which he had received from the Emperor Napoleon; bestowed in a very gracious manner, which the Count related, with much apparent satisfaction — The house — the Company — The exhibitions — the recollection of the Marquis de Vérac and his magnificence which I had witness'd on the same Spot, led my mind so forcibly to the mutability of human Fortunes, that it shared but little in the gorgeous Scene around me. — I was also very unwell; being severely under the operation of the Neva waters, which affect all foreigners on their first arrival — We returned home, about 7 in the Evening — Mr. Harris pass'd the Evening, with our family — But I was obliged to leave them and retire immediately to bed — Mrs. Adams is also extremely unwell from the same cause — Our Child Charles, is scarcely less affected in the same manner — None of us have been entirely exempt from this indisposition — We heard this day that the Peace, between France and Austria was concluded; and that Te Deum was to be sung to-morrow in the French Ambassador's chapel, on this occasion.
[November 1809]
2. Went out this morning with Mrs. Adams and looked over two or three houses, and lots of apartments which we have not yet engaged — Met Mr. Harris and Mr. Meyer, who called and paid us a visit — I delivered him a letter of credit from Mr. Gray — Mr. Harris called again and passed a couple of hours with us in the Evening — He sent me also a Russian and French Dictionary and Grammar, from which I began the attempt to learn the characters of the Russian Alphabet — Among the peculiarities of this Country with which it will be proper to become more conversant, are the Stoves, the kitchens — The double windows; the construction of the houses generally, and the drojky's — These and other things will be the subjects of more particular future observation — I tried this day, two of their most ordinary liquors — The quas, at two Kopoeks the bottle and the chitsligy at five — They have a taste of small beer, with an acid not unpalatable to me; though much so to all the rest of the family.
4. This morning, I received from the High Chancellor Count Romanzoff, a written notification, that the Emperor, being now better, had condescended to fix the audiences for me, to-morrow, immediately after his hearing Mass — and that immediately after coming out from the Emperor, I should have the honour of being presented to the Empress. — While we were at dinner Mr. Harris came in, with a Gentleman from the Commandeur de Maisonneuve, who told me that he, who is the Master of Ceremonies, would call upon me, at any hour I should name this Evening, to arrange with me the ceremonial of my presentation. I named to him seven O'Clock this Evening. He came about 8. — The formalities of these Court Presentations are so trifling and insignificant in themselves, and so important in the eyes of Princes and Courtiers, that they are much more embarrassing to an American than business of real importance. It is not safe or prudent to despise them; nor practicable for a person of rational understanding to value them — M. de Maisonneuve however as an old acquaintance gave me all the information which I could desire. ≈
5. At ten minutes past one according to the appointment of Mr. de Maisonneuve, I went to the Imperial Palace; and at about two was conducted by him to the entrance of the Emperor's cabinet, the door of which was opened, and at which he stop'd — I entered, and found the Emperor alone — As I step'd forward he advanced to me near to the door, and said in French Monsieur, je suis charmé d'avoir le plaisir de vous voir ici — I then presented to him my credential letter; and addressing him in French said that in delivering it, I was charged to add that the President of the United States hoped his Imperial Majesty would consider the mission as a proof of the President's respect for his Majesty's person and character, of his desire to multiply and to strengthen the relations of friendship and Commerce between his Majesty's Provinces and the United States, and of grateful acknowledgment for the frequent testimonials of good-will which his Majesty, on many occasions had given towards the United States — He replied by desiring me to assure the President of the United States, that this new addition to the relations between the two Countries, gave him great pleasure — That in every thing that depended upon him, he should be happy to contribute towards increasing the friendly intercourse between them — That with regard to the political relations of Europe, and those unhappy disturbances which agitated its different States, the system of the United States was wise and just; and they might rely upon it, he would do nothing to withdraw them from it. That the Continent of Europe was now in a manner pacified; and that the only obstacle to a general pacification was the obstinate adherence of England to a system of maritime pretensions which was neither liberal nor just — That the only object now to be obtained by the War, was to bring England to reasonable terms on this subject — And that she could no longer flatter herself with any support for her system upon the Continent — That Austria, after abandoning herself to inconsiderate councils, and disregarding the advice which _he_ had given her (qu'on lui avait donné) had now been obliged to make peace, and to sacrifice several of her provinces — That Austria was thus not in a condition to renew the contest — That the king of Prussia, was in a situation to make peace equally necessary to him — That he, himself, was convinced that the good of his Empire and of Europe, was best promoted by a state of Peace and Friendship between Russia and France; whose views, he believed, from the assurance of that Government, were not at all directed to the Conquest of England, but merely to make her recognize the only fair and equitable principles of neutral Navigation in time of War. — That the only danger to England from the establishment of those principles would be that France might be enabled in consequence of them to form and maintain again a large Navy; but this could be no justification for England's maintaining a system oppressive and destructive to the fair and lawful commerce of other Nations — That the Establishment of this just system of maritime rights, was the purpose of France; and as for me I shall adhere invariably to those which I have declared — I am sensible that it subjects us to inconvenience — That the People suffer privations and some distress under the present state of things — But the English maxims are much more intolerable and if submitted to would be permanent — In declaring his determination to abide by his declared principles, his tone and attitude assumed a firmness and dignity, which he had not taken before, and which immediately after slided again into that easy and familiar manner with which he had first accosted me — In the midst of this conversation, he had taken me by the arm, and walked from near the door, to a window opening upon the river; a movement seemingly intended to avoid being overheard — I occasionally answered his remarks; by observing to him, that as the political duty of the United States towards the powers of Europe, was to forbear interference in their dissensions, it would be highly grateful to the President to learn that their system in this respect met the approbation of his Imperial Majesty — That being at once a great commercial and a pacific Nation, they were deeply interested in the establishment of a system which should give security to the fair commerce of Nations in time of War — That the United States, and the world of Mankind, expected that this blessing to humanity would be accomplished by his Imperial Majesty, himself, and that the United States by all the means in their power, consistent with their Peace, and their separation from the political system of Europe would contribute to the support of the liberal principles to which his Majesty had express'd so strong and so just an attachment — He said that as between Russia and the United States, there could be no interference of Interests and no causes for dissension; but that by means of Commerce the two States might be greatly useful to each other, and his desire was to give the greatest extension and facility, to these means of mutual benefit. — After this he pass'd from topics of general politics, to conversation more particularly concerning myself and my Country — He enquired how long we had been upon our voyage, and how we had borne the inconveniences and fatigues of the sea — Whether I had ever been in Russia before — What were our principal Cities in America — the numbers of their inhabitants, and the manner in which they were built — I told him that I had been in Russia formerly, and had pass'd a winter at St. Petersburg during the reign of the Empress Catherine — That I had then admired the City as the most magnificent I had ever seen; but that I scarcely knew it again now — That the two principal Cities in population, of my Country, were New-York and Philadelphia, the latter of which had been founded by the celebrated Quaker Penn, of whom his Majesty had certainly heard — That the inhabitants in each of these two Cities were now about one hundred thousand — That they were both elegant Cities, with handsome buildings, three and four Stories high for the most part, and forming handsome and convenient dwelling-houses, suitable to the Citizens of a Republic, but which in point of splendor and magnificence, could not vie with the buildings of Petersburg, which to the eye of a stranger appeared like a City of Princes — He said that was nothing — That a Republican Government whose principles and conduct were just and wise was as respectable as any other — I said, assuredly — But that in regard to the buildings, no person could know better than his Majesty that Petersburg was the most magnificent City of Europe, or of the world — He said he had not been at Vienna or at Paris — But he had been at Dresden and at Berlin — That Dresden was small; but Berlin, was a beautiful City, as to all the part of it which could be called modern, and to which Frederic the second had been specially attentive — That the antient part of Berlin was not so handsome — That Petersburg had the advantage of being a City entirely modern, and built upon a plan — on which I remarked that this was not its only advantage; that this plan, was that of a man such as very seldom appeared on the face of this globe, and that it bore the marks of his sublime genius — That it had the further advantage of all the improvement which a succession of Sovereigns could give it, who had entered into the ideas of that great Prince, and had taken a pride in contributing to their full execution — He asked me to which of the United States I belonged, and upon being told Massachusetts, he asked me what was its climate. I told him that it was in the Northern part of the Union and had the climate the most nearly resembling that of this Residence of any in the United States — He asked how long our winter commonly was — I said between five and six months — Then said he, we have two months more here — We have eight months of Winter — September, October, November, December, January, February, March, and April. — And sometimes it lasts till June — But said he, you have good sleighing then in your Country — I said we had; but that the snow seldom lasted long upon the ground at a time. — We cannot complain of that said he. — When it once comes, it is sure to last long enough — I then said that there was an advantage in that; inasmuch as it facilitated the Communications by the roads — It was, he said a very great advantage; for it made roads in the winter, better than any that could be made by human art — That all the gravel, stone, or iron in the world could not make such a road as a few hours of snow and frost — And that the advantage of this was immense, to an Empire so extensive as this — So extensive that its size was one of its greatest evils; that it was very difficult to hold together so great a body as this Empire. — I was on the point of saying that great as this evil was, his Majesty had recently increased it, referring to the Treaty of Peace with Sweden, and the acquisition of Finland; but reflecting that the remark might be taken in ill part, or at least thought too familiar and smart for such an occasion, I suppressed it, and made no reply — After a short pause the Emperor dismiss'd me by renewing the assurance of his pleasure, at receiving a Minister from the United States, and with the obliging addition, that he was well pleased that the choice of the American Government had fallen upon me — That he should be happy to promote the relations between the two Countries through this medium, and that he hoped I should find my residence agreeable here. Upon which I took my leave in the usual form, and went again with M. de Maisonneuve to the Apartment of the Empress — Here he entered with me and stood near the door, while I advanced up to her Imperial Majesty, who was about the middle of the Room, standing alone, with a Lady, whether of Honour or a waiting woman, I did not ascertain, standing behind her Majesty, near the stove in the corner of the chamber — The Empress who was dress'd in a gown of lace; without a hoop — with a necklace of rubies, and a chain of the like precious stones round her head, connecting the utmost simplicity with the most costly ornament, address'd me by saying she was happy to see me here; and enquiring how I had found the roads. — I told her that I had come the whole way by water — Upon which she made enquiries, about the length of our voyage, and others of the same kind. From this she pass'd to remarks upon the climate; the bad weather — the cold season which was approaching, and the City of Petersburg. Upon all this my answers and observations were of the common place kind. — Her Majesty then said that two or three years since they had had the pleasure of seeing here two of my Countrymen, Mr. Smith and Mr. Poinsett, whose manners had been calculated to inspire great esteem personally to themselves, and to their Country, and asked me whether I had seen them since their return — I said that I had heard that two of my Countrymen, had been favoured with the honour of admission to her imperial Majesty's presence, and that I knew they recollected with great pleasure, the reception they had met here. That I had not the pleasure of being acquainted with Mr. Poinsett, but I had seen Mr. Smith at Washington upon his return from Europe, about two years since, and knew how much he prized the manner of his treatment at this Court — On taking leave of her Majesty, immediately after this conversation, conformably to the established usage I kiss'd her hand, a ceremony which M. de Maisonneuve told me many persons forget to perform; which the Empress herself never took in ill part; being the most amiable princess in the world — But that the Empress dowager was more apt to be displeased at such an omission. Having thus finished the ceremonies of presentation to the Emperor and Empress, I went in person to the house of the French Ambassador — the Duke de Vicence, who not being at home, I left a card there — He had sent two cards yesterday, one for Mrs. Adams and one for me — A circumstance for which I know not how to account.
12. Mr. Harris answered my note this morning, and called upon me just before eleven O'Clock — I went with him to the Palace, and attended the celebration of the Mass, and the Te Deum — Just as we were going out from the house I received a note from Count Romanzoff superscribed très pressée, informing me that Her Majesty, the Empress-Mother, had changed the hour for the presentation of Mrs. Adams, to ½ past 2 O'Clock — I gave notice accordingly to Mrs. Adams. On arriving at the Palace we were introduced first to the Antichamber, where all the foreign Ministers were assembled; and I was soon called out to have a private Audience of the Empress-Mother — She is said to be very much attached to the punctilio of etiquette, which the reigning Empress is not; but her Imperial Majesty, is all condescension and affability — Full of Conversation and upon a variety of topics — She spoke about America, which she said was un pays bien sage — I told her that we were much obliged to Her Majesty, for the good opinion she entertained of us — She asked whether there were not great numbers of emigrants arriving there from Europe — I told her, not many of late years — How so, said she — I thought there were even in these times more than ever — I said that the Ports of Holland and other Countries from which they were wont to embark, had been closed against our Commerce, and they could not find opportunities to go — That our Commerce was shut out, from almost all Europe. — But said she, it is freely admitted here — I said yes; it was an advantage which we still enjoyed, and very much cherished — That from the friendly dispositions, which his Majesty the Emperor, was pleased to manifest towards the United States, I hoped we should continue in the enjoyment of this advantage, which was important to the interests of both Countries — She said there were many very excellent articles of Commerce, brought here from America — And said I, many sent from this Country, equally important to us — So that it is a commerce extremely beneficial to both parties — This, she said was the best kind of commerce — She enquired after Mr. Smith and Mr. Poinsett, who were presented here, two or three years since, and of whom she spoke in very favourable terms — She asked me about our voyage — Said she had heard I had been at Berlin — Had I ever before been in Russia? — I said I had — At a time when her Majesty was absent, travelling on the Continent — She said it must then have been in the year 1781 — and 1782 — which I said it was — On taking my leave, she said she was happy to see me; and hoped I should find my residence at Petersburg agreeable — That she would have the pleasure of making the acquaintance of my Lady this day — I then returned into the Hall of the foreign Ministers, where I had some conversation with several of them — The French Ambassador — whose name is Colaincourt, and whose Style is Duc de Vicence, Grand Ecuyer de France, Ambassadeur Extraordinaire, près S. M. l'Empereur de toutes les Russies, and whom I informed that I had called to see him at his Hôtel in person, told me that he was sorry not to have been at home when I called, and that he also had called upon me, and had not found me at home — This, I believe, was a mistake — General Baron de Stedingk has been formerly Swedish Ambassador at this Court, and was the first Swedish Plenipotentiary, at the late Treaty of Peace, between Russia and Sweden — But he is here without any Diplomatic character at present — He told me, that he had been an officer in the French Army, during our War, and was wounded at the Battle of Savannah — He said he had received the order of the Cincinnati Society; but did not wear it because he had not the permission of his king so to do — I made many enquiries of him concerning my old Swedish acquaintances and received some information from him concerning some of them — Mr. de Wiggers, Agent of the Hanseatic Cities, was introduced to me, and spoke with much pleasure of his friendship for Mr. Harris. — About 12 O'Clock, we were informed that the Mass was about to begin, and went into the chapel — The Emperor, Empress, Empress Mother, Grand Duchess Ann, and the Princess Amelia of Baden the Empress's Sister, and the Grand-Duke and Czarovitz Constantine, with the Prince of Wurtemberg, brother to the Empress Mother, came in immediately after — A railing of massive silver separates the chapel from the place of the hearers — The Mass is heard standing, except at one particular moment, when every body kneeled — At the close of the Te-Deum, The Metropolitan presented to the Emperor, who then went within the railing a large crucifix, which he kiss'd, the Archbishop at the same time kissing the Emperor's hand — The same ceremony was performed to the two Empress's; and all the Priests who had performed in the ceremonies kiss'd the hands of both Empresses and of the Grand Duchess — The Te Deum was a separate and extraordinary performance for this day. At the moment of its beginning a salute of Cannon was fired from the Admiralty, near the Palace. The Ceremonies were performed in the Russian Language — The music altogether vocal — No instrumental music being allowed in the rites of this Church — The voices were admirable — During the performance of this Mass, two Messengers, belonging to the Department of Ceremonies, were successively sent to Mrs. Adams to inform her that she must come, first at two O'Clock, and then at ½ past one; by different arrangements ordered by the Empresses. She came in seasonable time, and was presented, first to the Empress, with whom the Emperor was at the same time; then to the Empress-Mother, and finally, immediately after me, to the Grand Duchess Ann; a young lady of fourteen or fifteen, sister to the Emperor, whose audience was short, and who spoke to me of our voyage, of the weather, and of the City of St. Petersburg — There were several gentlemen, foreigners presented to the Empresses and Grand Duchess besides us; which occasioned the disorder and confusion in the time — About 3 in the afternoon it was all finished, and we came home to our lodgings.
14. ≈ We came home at about 4 O'Clock, and Mr. Harris dined with us — Between 8 and 9 in the Evening we went to a splendid Ball, given by Count Romanzoff to the Empress-Mother, and at which were also present the Emperor and Empress, the Grand Duke Constantine, and the Grand-Duchess Ann, with a Court of about 250 persons — As almost total Strangers, we found this Ball somewhat tedious. But it resembled in every respect the parties of a similar kind, which we often attended at Berlin, where the king and royal family of Prussia were present. At this however the dresses were more splendid, and the profusion of diamonds and other precious stones, worn both by the men and the women, as well as of ribbands blue and red was greater than I ever witnessed any where. There was a fine supper, served at ten or fifteen tables, covering the second story of the House, besides the Emperor's table below; which I did not see, but which is said to have been very highly ornamented — The crowd in the dancing rooms was very great — The principal dancing was in what they call Polish dances, consisting simply in a number of couples walking up and down the rooms as in a procession. The Emperor and Empress Mother spoke I believe to all the foreign Ministers — He asked me some questions about my former visit to St. Petersburg — I told him that I had then been well acquainted with the House in which we now were; which was then the residence of the French Minister, the Marquis de Vérac — He said he supposed I had been here upon private affairs of my own — I told him that I had been attached to a Legation from the United States, which was not received here; it being in the time of the American War — He said that must have been a very interesting period of our history. — The Empress-Mother spoke about the climate and the weather — Mr. Harris arrived late, having had his Carriage overset, upon his first attempt to come — At about 1 in the morning the Emperor, and the Imperial Family retired — We came home immediately afterwards.
15. ≈ At 2 I went to Count Romanzoff's; by appointment — He received me in his private Cabinet, apologizing for it, as intending by it an invitation to call upon him whenever it might be agreeable to me — I told him the Circumstances of the information which I had received from Mr. Harris, respecting the questionable Passport and its bearer Graham — He express'd himself much obliged to me for the notice, of which he said he would make such use as might be proper, without any improper exercise of authority, which might affect the possible rights of the individual — He entered also into much general conversation; He assured me of his great attachment to the system of friendly intercourse with the United States, and his conviction of long standing, that the Interests of Russia, perfectly harmonized with theirs — He said je dois vous prévenir que nous sommes ici de Grands Anglomanes — That the prejudices in favour of England were founded upon old habits and a long established commercial intercourse — But that the English exclusive maritime pretensions, and views of usurpation upon the rights of other Nations, made it essential to them, and especially to Russia, that some great commercial State should be supported as their rival — That the United States of America were such a State, and the highest interest of Russia was to support and favour them, as by their relative situation the two powers could never be in any manner dangerous to each other — That he had been many years inculcating this doctrine, at this Court; that the Emperor had always manifested a favourable opinion of it; and he had had the satisfaction of perceiving the sentiments of his Imperial Majesty, daily becoming more strongly confirmed in this system — He said if there was any thing in which I could contribute to the purposes of this object; any views of the American Government that I could suggest, without wishing to penetrate into their secrets, he should only say that he should cheerfully lend his aid to any thing that I might propose — That in drawing up the Instructions of the Comte de Pahlen, the Minister who is going from the Emperor to the United States, he intended to consult me, and would insert any thing which I should think might be useful to the great end of drawing closer the relations between the two Countries. His object appeared to me to be to ascertain whether I had power to conclude a Treaty with Russia, and to lead directly to propositions for that purpose from me — I answered him in general terms which I endeavored to make such as corresponded for politeness with his own — I told him how much gratified I knew the President of the United States would be on receiving information of these Sentiments, and of those, so conformable to them, which the Emperor had express'd to me, in the private audience which he had granted me — That the United States who found themselves and their Commerce at once under the pressure of injustice by both the great rival powers, France and England, would still find great satisfaction and support in the knowledge that a Sovereign, so powerful and so enlightened as the Emperor of Russia was devoted to neither, but like themselves favoured a course equally independent of both. — He said he should make no scruple to say to me that he did not approve the present system of France in relation to Commerce — That he had seen and conversed much with the Emperor Napoleon. That he had found him in general of a sound judgment and quick perception — But that en fait de Commerce ce n'est qu'un Etourdi — At the same time he said he hoped I should not think he meant to give him a mauvaise reputation. But he wished to know whether in the application of this system there was any thing which could accommodate the views of the United States, and if there was, requested that I would suggest it — I told him that the great and only object desirable to the United States, was that to which they were entitled by right — Freedom to their Commerce — Freedom of admission and departure for ships — Freedom of purchase and sale for goods — The more completely they could obtain this, the better — That in the restrictions upon them I thought the proceedings both of England and France unjust and impolitic; and was persuaded that the more liberal system established under his auspices, by Russia, was not only of great advantage to both Countries, but would very much increase the commerce already existing between them. He told me also among other things that Col'l Burr, now at Gottenburg, had applied for a Passport to come to Petersburg; which had been refused him unless it should be regularly applied for under the sanction of the representative of his Country at this Court.
30. ≈ _Day_ — We rise seldom earlier than 9 in the morning — Often not before ten — Breakfast — Visitors to receive, or visits to make untill three; soon after which the Night comes on — At 4 we dine; and pass the Evening either abroad untill very late, or at our lodgings with Company untill ten or eleven O'Clock — The night parties abroad seldom break up, untill 4 or 5 in the morning. It is a life of such irregularity and dissipation, as I cannot, & will not continue to lead.
[January 1810]
8. We all went to a Ball this Evening at the French Ambassadors. ≈ At Supper I sat next to Count Chernicheff, a young officer, about 25 years old, who has been repeatedly sent by the Emperor on special missions, about the person of the Emperor of Austria, and of the Emperor of France — He has been during the whole of the last Campaign, with Napoleon, and in his immediate family — constantly the companion of his table; and sleeping in his tent. He told me that he had been present at eight pitched battles — Among which were those of Eylau, Friedland, Elsling and Wagram — That of Elsling he said was totally lost, "mais grandement," by the French. And that it was entirely the fault of the Austrians that they did not take advantage of it — He said that the military reputation of the Archduke Charles was irretrievably lost, and that all the present misfortunes were imputable to him almost alone. — He told me several particulars relating personally to Napoleon — I asked him if he was subject to the epilepsy — He hesitated about answering — but finally said, not to his knowledge — Then casting his eyes on both sides, as if fearful any body might hear, he said "il a la galle rentrée." He added that he slept little — waked often in the night, and would rise in his bed — speak — give some order, and then go to sleep again.
31. Engaged all the morning, in writing to the Secretary of State, to send by Mr. Baxter — In the Evening we all went to the Great Theatre, where we saw Rusalka, the Nymph of the Dnieper — The fourth part — A great Russian Opera. Its character resembles much the English Pantomimes — With a variety of Scenery — the action extravagantly romantic — The ballets indifferent, and the music still more so.
[February 1810]
2. Mr. Baxter, and Mr. Berry went off this morning — After writing part of the day, I walked on the quay of the Neva. On returning I met Mr. Harris, and walking with him on the quay below the bridge we were overtaken, by the Emperor, who stopp'd and spoke to us about the weather — He walks by direction of his physician, for the benefit of his foot, which is not yet entirely recovered from the injury it suffered last Autumn — He walks entirely alone, and stops and speaks to many persons, whom he meets.
27. Count Romanzoff had appointed me this day at twelve O'Clock to see him; at which hour I accordingly went, and found him in his Cabinet, with M. Gervais, one of the under Officers in his department, who immediately left him. I again returned him my thanks for the care of my packets forwarded by his Courier to Paris, and of those which had come by his Courier and he had sent me — I mentioned also that I had sent him a Copy of the Official Documents published by the Government of the United States concerning the recent Negotiations with Great-Britain and France — He enquired whether it was probable, as seemed to be indicated by a Passage in the late Speech of the king of England to Parliament, that the Negotiations between them and the United States, would be resumed — I told him that if the Sentiments of his Britannic Majesty were such as his Speech professed, the Negotiations undoubtedly would be resumed; and that as we must always implicitly believe the word of a king, thus solemnly spoken in the face of the world, I considered it as certain that they would be resumed — The Count made no reply to this; excepting by a smile, and a very significant look, in return for my compliment to the Faith of kings. ≈ The Count made also many enquiries whether I had any intelligence from South America; which appeared to be an object of peculiar interest at this moment; but I had none — On some allusion that I made to the rigour with which the French Government and its dependencies were proceeding towards America, which I told him would most powerfully negotiate in the United States, in favour of their reconciliation with England; he asked me whether I knew that Col'l Burr was gone to Paris — I said I had heard he was arrived there — He said he did not know of his arrival; but that he knew from a certain source that he was gone there — He said Col'l Burr had written a letter to him requesting permission to come here; but that not being desirous of encouraging people who had fled from the violated laws of their own Country, to come into this, he had not answered his letter — If he wanted to come here he must make his application through me, and if I had desired it, no difficulty would have been made. — He enquired what Burr's project had been; which I explained to him, as well as its complicated nature would admit in the compass of a short conversation.
[April 1810]
12. My eldest son George is this day, if it please God, nine years old — The day brought with it a mixture of pleasing, and of melancholy sensations — The comfort and enjoyment of my life, to which his birth so essentially contributed has been constantly promoted by the pleasures and occupations of his nurture and education, and of that of his younger brothers — But now, we are separated from him, and from another of our children — from the enjoyment of their Society; and from the means of aiding their improvement — May the blessing of Heaven, supply the place of parents to them — I went this morning to several booksellers — Etter — Klosterman, Leynowski, to seek for Russian and Slavonian Dictionaries and Grammars. I found several, but at such excessive prices that I purchased none of them — Dined with Mr. Six — The french Ambassador, several others of the foreign Ministers, M. de Laval and M. Dournoff were there — M. de Rayneval and the Ambassador after dinner gave me their opinions upon the state of this Country, and its principal personages with much freedom — Like all other foreigners here, they speak of the Country very unfavourably — The only exception to this remark that I have yet found, is Mr. Harris — Evening at home, employed as usual. (Charles 2 f. 10 inches)
29. Easter Sunday — The greatest Holiday of the Russian Calendar — It celebrates the Resurrection of Christ — The Ceremonies, as at Christmas begin at Midnight. Mr. Everett and Mr. Smith attended at the Church of St. Isaac, where a service of about two hours was performed, partly without the Church round which the Priests went three times successively in procession, and partly within it, where was a representation of the Sepulchre from which the Saviour arose — The crowd of People attending was excessive — At Midnight, the signal was given by the firing of a Cannon at the fortress; which was soon after followed by several others; and at two or three subsequent periods of the night a salvo of twenty-five or thirty guns was fired — The midnight service is performed at all the Churches, and the Emperor and Imperial family attend at their Chapel — Among the customs of the Country is that of embracing one another at this period, and all the people who attend at the Court Chapel are admitted to kiss the Emperor's sleeve, and the Empress's hand — It is also the custom to make presents upon this day, and particularly of eggs — The muzhik's present real eggs, hard-boiled and died red with log-wood; for which they receive roubles. Persons of higher standing present eggs of sugar, glass, gilt-wood, porcellain, marble, and almost every other substance, and of various dimensions. Many of them made into cups, or boxes, filled with sugar-plums — Others with paintings and biscuit figures upon them, emblematical of the crucifixion and resurrection — Some of these eggs are made to cost a hundred roubles or upwards — Servants present these eggs to their Masters and receive presents in return, as at the new year — Friends present them to one another and embrace — It is a mode of gallantry, allowable towards Ladies, by Gentlemen of their intimate acquaintance; and in return for an egg, the Gentleman is entitled to a salutation.
[May 1810]
23. There is a custom of visiting annually the fortress of St. Petersburg this day, the occasion of which I have not heard. I thought I had not the time to spare and did not go — Mr. Harris called upon me this afternoon; and told me he was informed that General Armstrong had left Paris. — The French Ambassador gave this Evening a splendid Ball, on occasion of the marriage of the Emperor Napoleon — It was attended by the Emperor, and Imperial family. The Hotel was elegantly illuminated, as were those of General Pardo, Count Bussche — Mr. Six — the Chevalier de Bray, and Mr. Brancia, the Chargé d'Affaires of Naples. — As the imperial family were at the Ball, it was necessary to go early — We went at 9 O'Clock, but it was day-light as at noon, so that the illumination made scarcely any show at-all. It was past two in the morning when the Court retired, after which we immediately came home — It was then again broad day-light, and by the time I got to bed, almost Sun-rise. At midnight it scarcely could be called dark. The Emperor was gracious to every body, even beyond his usual custom, which is remarkable for affability — He asked Mr. Harris to shew him where Mrs. Adams sat, and danced a Polonaise with her; and afterwards one with Catherine Johnson, a Circumstance the more noticed, as she has not been presented at Court — He enquired of me whether I had taken a walk this day, and on my answering that I had, he observed that he had not met me — He said that the difference of my looks in the Street, without a wig, from that in which he had usually seen me, had been the cause that the first time he had met me he did not recognize me.
[June 1810]
3. I had visits this morning from Mr. Six and Baron Blome; which consumed the greatest part of the time between the hours of breakfast, and of dinner — Baron Blome brought me a message from Count Tolstoy, the Grand Maréchal de la Cour, of the Emperor, respecting Nelson, the black man who came with us from America — Nelson has been to him to obtain Service, as one of the Emperor's blacks — But the Count sent me word, that he would not take him, unless it was my desire that he should — I desired Baron Blome, to thank Count Tolstoy, for his delicacy of proceeding, in this case — That as it would be making the fellow's Fortune, to get him a place in the Emperor's service, I should recommend him to it; only observing that he would require some attention to be kept a useful Servant, and that he had not been long enough in my Service, for me to be understood in my recommendation as answering for his good conduct — I gave him his character as far as I have observed it, and as favourably as I could consistently with truth.
25. ≈ I received also visits from Mr. Montreal, and Mr. Dorsey. Mr. Montréal offered me any money for which I might have occasion, to be drawn for at my own convenience — Mr. Harris made me the same obliging offer immediately after my first arrival here — Under the Circumstances in which I find myself here it is difficult to resist the opportunities thus presented for anticipating upon my regular income — But I am determined to do it — The whole experience of my life, has been one continual proof of the difficulty with which a man can adhere to the principle of living within his income — The first, and most important principle of private economy — From the month of July 1790, when I commenced my Career as a man, untill the close of 1792, I was enabled to accomplish this purpose only by the assistance of small supplies from my father — I had then acquired the means of maintaining myself — In 1794, I was sent to Europe, and untill my Marriage in 1797, kept more easily within my bounds than at any preceding or subsequent period — Since I have had a family, I have kept steady to my principle, but at the price of uncommon sacrifices of consideration and a reputation which in the Spirit of this age, economy cannot escape — In this Country beyond all others, and in my situation more than in any other the temptations to excess in expence amount almost to compulsion — I have withstood them hitherto, and hope for firmness of character to withstand them in future — I declined with thanks Mr. Montréal's kind offer, as I had that of Mr. Harris.
[August 1810]
22. There was a Te Deum at Court this day at Noon, for a splendid victory, though it is said a very dear one gained over the Turks, in the presence of the Grand Vizir, before Shumla — The ceremony was precisely the same, as at the last, for the taking of Silistria. The Emperor, the Empress Mother, the Czarowitz Constantine, and the Grand Duchess Ann were there. I went later than usual, and waited very little — The French Ambassador spoke to me, and said he hoped the differences between his Country and mine would be settled — He assured me, and requested me to write to my Government that it was the desire of the Emperor of France, and of his Ministers to come to the best terms with the United States — That they knew our interests were the same; that he was perfectly persuaded that if any other person than General Armstrong was there, our business might be settled entirely to our satisfaction — I told him that as I was very desirous, that we should come to a good understanding, I regretted very much that any thing personal to General Armstrong should be considered by his Government as offensive. I was sure the Government of the U.S. would regret it also, and would wish in learning it, to be informed what were the occasions of displeasure which he had given — "C'est d'abord un très galant homme" — said the Ambassador — but he never shews himself — and upon every little occasion, when by a verbal explanation with the Minister, he might obtain any thing, he presents peevish Notes — This is much the same thing as what Mr. Six told me, and appears to me an intriguing manoeuvre, of which I might easily be made the dupe — Just as we were at this stage however of the conversation, we were summoned in to the Te Deum.
28. Mr. Harris was here this forenoon, and again after dinner, with letters from Archangel, and complaints of Masters and Supercargoes of American vessels that they cannot get admitted — Mr. J. S. Smith dined with us — At 8 O'Clock in the Evening I went to Count Romanzoff according to his appointment — I first mentioned to him the despatches which I had received on the subject of Mr. Daschkoff's application to the Government of the United States in relation to a trade between the United States, and a Russian Settlement on the North-West Coast of America — But I told him I was referred to Documents forwarded by another opportunity, and which I had not yet received. — He said he had also received despatches from Mr. Daschkoff, stating that his application had been favourably received by the Government of the United States — That they had a growing settlement on the North-West Coast of America, and that from it a profitable trade might be carried on to China — That they had sent two vessels there, under the command of Captain Krusenstern, which had gone from there to Canton — Canton was a Port open to all the Nations of Europe; but the Russians, who were specially favoured by the Chinese Government, had an exclusive trade with them, carried on at a place called _Yakta_ — But the Chinese had refused to admit Captain Krusenstern's ships at Canton, upon the _pretext_ that as the Russian trade with them had long been carried on with exclusive privileges at Yakta, they supposed that if the Russians meant to change the channel of trade, they would have given them notice of it — And as they had heard nothing about such vessels coming to Canton, they could not tell, whether they were really Russians or not — There had been the Count said, some _Sheets_ pass'd between the two Governments since on the subject, but the convulsed state of Europe and other objects of so much greater magnitude had so absorbed his attention that they had not yet come to any arrangement with China, for the admission of Russian vessels at Canton — He had therefore wished that the trade from the Russian Settlement on the North-West Coast of America, to China, might be carried on by the Americans — And as the Settlement itself was in the neighbourhood of Indians, who were sometimes troublesome and dangerous neighbours to it, he had thought an Arrangement might be concerted with the United States, under which the Americans might have the trade of the settlement, under a restriction not to furnish warlike weapons and instruments to the neighbouring Indians — I told him I collected from the papers which I had received, that Mr. Daschkoff was not specifically instructed, as to the limits within which it was wished that the Restriction should be extended, and asked him whether he could point them out to me — He said that it would require some consideration; but that their maps included the whole of Nootka sound, and down to the mouth of Columbia River, as part of the Russian possessions.
[September 1810]
26. ≈ I have made it a practice for several years to read the Bible through in the course of every year — I usually devote to this reading the first hour after I rise every morning. As including the Apocrypha it contains about 1400 chapters, and as I meet with occasional interruptions, when this reading is for single days, and sometimes for weeks, or even months suspended, my rule is to read five chapters each morning, which leaves an allowance for about one fourth of the time for such interruptions — Extraordinary pressure of business, seldom interrupts more than one day's reading at a time — Sickness has frequently occasioned longer suspensions — And travelling still more and longer — During the present year, having lost very few days, I have finished the perusal earlier than usual — I closed the book yesterday — As I do not wish to suspend the habit of allowing regularly this time to this purpose, I have this morning commenced it anew — And for the sake of endeavouring to understand the Book better, as well as of giving some variety to the study, I have begun this time, with Ostervald's french Translation; which has the advantage of a few short reflections upon each chapter. — I ought perhaps to be ashamed at having read this Book through so many times, and at possessing its contents so little as I do. The regular and methodical manner of reading is not without defects — The division, by a given number of chapters is arbitrary and artificial — The appropriation of a certain hour inevitably devotes times when occasionally the attention is absorbed by objects, passions, interests, feelings, which the affairs of life bring up as it runs, and when the mind cannot command its application — The Bible is in many of its parts, as Saint Peter says of his brother Paul's Epistles, hard to be understood — It presents difficulties of various kinds — The help of Commentators I have scarcely ever had at hand, and if I had, could not use, without devoting several hours of every day, instead of one to this object — It has long been one of the numerous Resolutions, which I take, and do not fulfill, to undertake this at some indefinite time; but I am always making to myself excuses for postponing it to some future time — Imperfect as my method is, I regret none of the time thus bestowed — At every perusal, I do add something to my knowledge of the Scriptures — something to my veneration of them, and I would hope, something to the improvement, which ought to result from this occupation, and which is the great motive to it.
[December 1810]
17. Mr. Montréal was with me this morning and Mr. Harris in the Evening — Mr. Delapré, the keeper of the house at the Ville de Bordeaux was here — I engaged him to furnish us our dinners, at a stated price — twenty Rubles a day. And I shall dismiss my Cook — When a family becomes large, there is no possibility of observing economy in it, without the closest attention to minute details. Since we entered this house my monthly expence books have been insensibly swelling untill they amount to double what they were the first month. We have a Maitre d'Hotel, or Steward — A Cook who has under him, two Scullions — Moozhiks. A Swiss or Porter. Two footmen — A Moozhik to make the fires. A Coachman and Postillion — And Thomas, the Black man, to be my valet de chambre — Martha Godfrey the maid we brought with us from America — A femme de chambre of Mrs. Adams, who is the wife of the Steward. A House-Maid and a Laundry maid. — The Swiss, the Cook, and one of the footmen are married; and their wives all live in the house. The Steward has two Children, and the washerwoman a daughter; all of whom are also kept in the house. — I have Bakers, Milkmans, Butcher's, Greenman's, poulterers, and fishmonger's & grocer's bills, to pay monthly; besides purchases of tea, coffee, sugar, wax and tallow candles — The fire-wood is luckily included as part of my Rent. On all these articles of consumption the Cook and Steward, first make their profits on the purchase, and next make free pillage of the articles themselves — The Steward takes the same liberty with my wines — In dismissing my Cook I shall attempt to escape from a part of these depredations — To avoid a great part of them is impossible — It is I believe the law of Nature between Master and Servant, that the Servant shall spoil or plunder the Master — In this Country at least it is universal usage — It requires the most constant and minute attention to keep this pilfering within tolerable bounds; and among the losses occasioned by it, the most valuable is the loss of time; swallowed up in the baseness of such drudgery. It engaged me so much of this day that I had only time left to write to my mother; and to that I was obliged to devote the evening as well as the day.
[January 1811]
20. Our footman Paul had a daughter born on the Russian New-Years day, of which according to the custom of the Country he immediately gave me notice — Paul himself is a Finlander, and a Lutheran; but his wife being a Russian of the Greek Church, the child which is a daughter was to be christened after the fashion of the Greek Church — Paul asked Mrs. Adams and Martha to stand as Godmother, and Mr. Gray as God-father, and the child was baptized in our parlour, this day at 8 O'Clock P.M. — There was a Priest and an inferior attendant not in clerical habits, who chanted the Slavonian service, the Priest from a Mass-Book — A plated vessel of the size of a small bathing tub, contained the water which the Priest consecrated at the Commencement of the Ceremony. Three tapers were at first fixed at the end most distant from the priest and at the two sides of the baptismal vase — The child was brought in and held by the Nurse untill the Priest took it naked, and plunged it three times into the water — With a pencil brush, before and after the plunging he marked a cross on its forehead and breast and finally on its forehead shoulders & feet; repeating the same thing afterwards with a wet spunge — A shirt and cap, provided by the god-mother, were then put upon the child, and a gold baptismal cross, furnished by the God-father — Tapers lighted, were put into their hands, two of them from the sides of the vase, round which they marched three times preceded by the Priest — He then with a pair of scissars cut off three locks of the child's hair, which with wax he roll'd up into a little ball, and threw into the water, in which the child was baptized; and finally after a little more chanting from the book the ceremony was concluded — During the first part of the Ceremony, the Priest turned his back to the vessel of water, and the Sponsors with the Nurse and child to the Priest — Another singularity was that at one part of the ceremony they were all required to spit on the floor — The Priest received five Roubles from the God-father, and the Nurse the same from the Godmother — The priest took away with him the napkin that he had used, and would have taken the table-cloth which covered the table — Paul himself carried round the wine, and received the five or ten rouble presents on the waiter.
23. At 11 O'Clock this morning, I called upon Count Romanzoff, and found with him a General Doctoroff who immediately retired. I told the Count I was sorry to be importunate with him; but I came to him again on the subject of the vessels and Cargoes of my Countrymen who had been so long waiting here — He said he had been afraid that this was the subject upon which I had asked the conference; because he was informed that at present the papers were before the Emperor, and depended upon his personal pleasure — I said that this being the case; it was unnecessary for him to urge the matter to him — He said that although it was a more difficult matter to him to press his Master for a decision than his Ministers, yet he would see what he could do in the case — He then spoke of the State of our affairs with France and England, and made several enquiries concerning it — Of South America which always appears to interest him much, I said I thought it hardly possible that this War should finish without demolishing the antient Colonial systems of Europe; which would indeed be at present only a loss to England — France having already lost her Colonies; and Spain having now lost hers — But then said the Count, what will Spain herself be — I answered, what she must at all Events be, a dependance upon France. This she would be if England should succeed in the present War, and could restore Ferdinand 7 in Spain and the House of Braganza in Portugal. In the present State of Europe it is inevitable — I mentioned to the Count that the President of the United States, in consideration of circumstances relating to my private affairs had given me permission to return to the United States, and that I had received a letter to take leave of the Emperor, with a discretionary power to deliver it when I should be ready for my departure — I presumed it would be proper for me to keep it untill that time — He said certainly; or even to suppress it altogether, if I was not under the necessity of going — And he could assure me that when I should go, I should be much regretted here — That they had a very great and sincere esteem for me, and would be happy that my stay should be prolonged — I assured him that I was strongly sensible of the kindness and friendly reception that I had experienced here, and should be desirous of remaining here as long as I could — At any rate I could not take my leave untill the approach of Summer, and perhaps I might stay until the appointment of a successor.
[February 1811]
8. I wrote an answer to the letter from the President of the United States which I received last Evening. My Cold still continues troublesome; though better than the two preceding days — In the Evening we all went to a children's Ball at the French Ambassador's — A great part of the Company assembled late, and retired very early — The children danced Polish dances, country dances and French Dances — But there appeared a coldness and reserve about the party which I had never observed on like occasions before — The Chinese Shadows were duller than usual — I saw Count Romanzoff there and delivered Mr. Harris's message to him — I also mentioned to him that I should probably not deliver the letter for the Emperor, at least before the Summer, and perhaps not then — He expressed himself satisfied with both my articles of communication to him — The children had their supper between 11 and 12 O'Clock — We came home ourselves soon after one in the morning, leaving the remnant of the company still dancing, but the Ball moving on heavily — It seemed as if the Adventure of General Hitroff was fresh upon every lady's memory. The person who appeared to enjoy it the most, and who was in the highest Spirits was Count St. Julien, the Austrian Envoy, an old Rake, whose desire has long outlived his performance — He told me that he wanted a chair upon rollers, to be moved round the room from lady to lady, and to coquette with them all — He said he delighted above all things in Company, and was very fond of amusing himself with making People ridiculous — I said that was an amusement more agreeable to the giver than to the receiver — He said that it was generally returned, and the laughers were sufficiently laughed at themselves — That he liked as well to be the subject of ridicule himself as to make others so, especially when it was done with wit; but that this disposition had once cost him a thrust through his arm — In his youth he used to draw, and was fond of making caricatures; he had made one of a friend, which was very striking, and he must do himself the justice to say very ingenious. He had given it to another friend in great secrecy, to shew to nobody; but he had shewn it to others, untill it came to the person himself who was caricatured — He thought proper to take it amiss et il avait raison — He challenged me to fight et il avait raison — he ran his sword through my arm et il avait raison — We embraced each other et nous avions tous deux raison — But I told him that as soon as my arm was well I would set about making another Caricature of him — Such, said the Count by a grave conclusion — are the follies of Youth. The Count very honestly and sincerely exaggerates a little to himself more than to others the keenness of his own wit — He brags of every thing that a Courtier and a soldier is vain of; and has not yet discovered that the levities which in youth may be graceful, are at his years the best of subjects for Caricature — I told him that with his tastes he would not want materials to work with here — He said no — that every where — at St. Petersburg, at Vienna, and no doubt at Washington there were objects enough for this amusement — But here it was true there were des ridicules très saillans; and then pointed me to one of an officer, notre chevalier là, qui danse les Allemandes sans les savoir. The Counts Spirits were probably the gayer, for the coldness which appeared between the Ambassador and his Russian guests.
[March 1811]
18. ≈ As I was walking afterwards I met first Mr. Navarro, who told me that Count Chernicheff had arrived last night from Paris. I afterwards met Count Lüxbourg who was going to dine at Baron Blome's and I walked with him. He thinks that Russia is about to adopt decidedly a system of neutrality, and speaks of a new Ukaze for the regulation of trade, which is to be issued next Sunday the anniversary of the Emperor's accession. I do not much believe in that — Lüxbourg told me that his letters from Count Montgelas, the Bavarian Minister of foreign Affairs informed him that all their advices from Paris concurred in stating that the coolness between France and Russia, was becoming more and more notorious; but that hopes were entertained it would not come to an absolute rupture this Season. — He says that the Emperor Napoleon scarcely speaks to Prince Kurakin, and that Monsieur de Champagny has had quite an angry conversation with Mr. Nesselrode, at a public dinner and before a large Company — Yesterday the Ambassador dined with the Emperor, who after dinner was in Conference with him untill 10 O'Clock; and this day the Ambassador has been engaged writing, and has admitted nobody — In the mean time both parties continue to arm and prepare for War — There are now at least two hundred thousand men stationed on the frontier from Riga to Kiew, and yesterday or the day before 180 heavy Cannon were sent off from this City, in addition to all those that had been sent before — On the other hand France has just sent a large quantity of fire-arms to Dantzick and to Warsaw; and the number of troops under arms in the Duchy of Warsaw, is from fifty to sixty thousand men.
21. A Diplomatic dinner of about sixty persons at the French Ambassador's. — The Chancellor, great Crown Officers, Generals, and foreign Ministers were there; all in full dress. Immediately after I went in Baron Campenhausen came to me and told me that it was better late than never; that he had been upwards of a fortnight upon pins, untill yesterday which had been the first day that he had been able to make his report to the Emperor — That he was happy now to say that the cases of all the American vessels (excepting that of the Eliza at Archangel) were definitively decided. — That the Cargoes and parts of Cargoes, which had not the necessary certificates should be admitted, on the engagement of the persons interested in them to produce the Certificates hereafter — That as to all the other small parcels, which were under other circumstances of irregularity, the Emperor had also ordered that they also should be admitted, and that thus every thing recognized as American should be cleared — With regard to the case of the Eliza, there might be some further delay — A Gentleman who had some interest in it, had called upon him once or twice; but could speak nothing but English; which he, the Baron could not speak; and therefore they had found some difficulty in understanding one another. — That however he had already written his opinion, that the case was very strongly distinguishable from those of the pretended Teneriff vessels, which were condemned and confiscated here last Summer; and the business would be eventually terminated to my satisfaction. — I thanked the Baron for his information, and especially for the final decision upon the cases which had been in suspense — And I asked him whether the Custom-House had received the orders for the admission of the merchandizes — He said that they would be expedited from the Commission for neutral Navigation to-morrow or the next day, and that he had told Mr. Stieglitz eight or ten days ago, that he might freely make advances upon the goods as much as if they were already admitted.
[April 1811]
14. There was this morning a very splendid parade, and review of forty-thousand men; half of whom it is said are to march off immediately to the frontiers of Poland — The Emperor sent a horse to General Watzdorf to attend this parade — Mr. Navarro called to see me this morning. — The Day was uncommonly fine for Easter. In walking on the Quay I met and walked with General Pardo, who told me that he considered an immediate War between Russia and France as inevitable — The Duke of Oldenburg, and the commercial system were the causes — He said that as to the complaints and protest of Russia against the seizure of the Duke of Oldenburg's territories, Napoleon had answered according to his custom _par une sottise_ — that the thing was sanctioned by a Senatus-consult — As if his Senate consulted any thing but by his command — The General said there would soon be a great dispersion of all the Corps Diplomatique; and that he himself he supposed would also be expected to go — But I can tell you, said he, that on account of my own concerns, I shall not go — I shall stay here. — As to Romanzoff, said he; the only thing that still keeps him in, is that Caulaincourt is yet here — When he is gone, Romanzoff will not last a week — I asked who he thought would succeed him. — He said there was talk of Panin — but not Markoff, whom the Emperor personally disliked. — Mr. Harris dined with us — He had told me last Evening, while we were sitting in the guard-room, some information which he had recently received concerning the prospect of War, and he now urged the expedient of making a sort of provisional Treaty to be finished if the U.S. Government should send powers — He has renewed this subject to me many times — But I think it best to wait for authority to act. — It is true that if Count Romanzoff goes out there will be little chance of doing any thing afterwards — But in that case any provisional arrangement would avail us nothing. — We had this day a succession of Easter-compliments, and eggs of all kinds — glass, porcellain, wood, marble and sugar — besides the real eggs — I lost my usual Sunday reading.
[May 1811]
6. Morning visit from Mr. Raimbert, who complains much of the accounts furnished by Mr. Rodde of Reval, upon Mr. Gray's vessels that have wintered there and are coming to Cronstadt — He told me also that he had just come from the Ambassador's: that he hoped there would be no War — That they were afraid here — I afterwards paid a visit to the Ambassador myself and found him at home — He enquired if I had any recent accounts of the State of our affairs with France or England — I told him all I had heard — and said that after the Emperor Napoleon's declaration in the answer to the deputation from Hamburg, Lubeck and Bremen, all we could do would be to wait with patience — The Emperor said that the decrees of Berlin and Milan for all Nations that did not support their flag, against the British Orders in Council — The British would not revoke them — We had nothing left to maintain our flag but War — And in a War with England, we should have no flag — When we have two hundred ships of the line, and a navy in proportion we may talk of maintaining our flag by War — Now, it would be ridiculous — He said he wished it were possible to see a prospect of Peace — I observed that according to general opinion it was more remote than ever — Though I understood the hope of preserving Peace between France and Russia was now stronger than some time ago — Oh! Oui! said he — J'espere que tout cela _se civilisera_ — I do not see any great interests upon which the two Countries need to quarrel; nor even any small interests which may not easily be arranged to their mutual satisfaction. And then he repeated j'espere que tout cela se civilisera — I asked him if he expected General Lauriston soon to arrive — he answered, to day or to-morrow — Indeed he might have been here before this — A Courier who arrived three days ago left him at Dantzick. — I said I had heard that there had been a change in the Department of Foreign Affairs in France — that the Duke de Cadore was no longer the Minister — It was true — The Minister appointed in his place was the Duke de Bassano — I remarked that he had been long and constantly engaged in public Affairs, and Secretary, I believe ever since the Executive Council — The Ambassador said I was mistaken — That the Secretary under the Directory was La Garde, and Maret came in only at the time of the Consulate — He did not know what was the occasion of the Duke de Cadore's going out — It was only mentioned to him in a private letter of 16 April, the day when it happened, and when the Courier was to have left Paris — I asked if it would probably produce any material change in the political system — No — The Emperor governs so much by himself, that a Minister is nothing more than the pen, and not the hand that guides it — I asked if the Prince of Benevento had not still some Superintendance over the department of foreign affairs — No — He had no hand in the public affairs at present; but was altogether in retirement — His capacity as a Grand-Dignitaire was that of Vice-Grand-Elector, the _double_ , of the king of Spain who was Grand-Elector. This was a place not of business, but merely of Representation — Its only duty was to present to the Emperor the Senators, and members of the Legislative Body. The only Office of a diplomatic Nature, in Rank above that of the Minister of Exterior Relations was the Arch-Chancellor of State; which was held by the Vice-Roy of Italy. — I asked him whether he expected to go, soon after the arrival of his Successor — He said in three or four days — That he had had full time to be prepared, and should be impatient to get home — I asked him if he would do me the favour to take a small packet of letters for Mr. Russell, which he promised to do with pleasure — He said that shortly before his departure he would give me notice, and call to take leave of Mrs. Adams — From his house I went to visit Mr. Laval, but did not find him at home. — I then called upon Mr. Wiggers heretofore the Agent from the Hanseatic Cities, and returned him the French History of that League which he lent me last Summer; and which I have kept from that time — I had a long conversation with him — He does not believe in a War with France for the present year. After this visit I dismissed my Carriage, and walked round by the Fontanka home — I met the Emperor who stop'd and conversed with me: at first as usual about the weather, which he remarked was warmer and finer he said than he remembered ever to have known it, so early in the season — But he was afraid we should have it balanced by foul weather hereafter — Snow, it was at least certain we should have — for he had never known, and there never had been known here an instance of a month of May passing entirely without Snow. I said that now the weather was rather that of an Italian Spring — He remarked that it was very long since he had seen me, and asked if I had abandoned my habit of walking — I answered that I had not, but I believed that it was the hour at which I usually walked that deprived me of the happiness of meeting his Majesty — He said that he had often of late been so engaged in business that he could not take his usual walks; and sometimes he had gone out of the usual track, which might also have contributed to the length of time since he had met me — He then said the Ice from the Ladoga was passing down, (he was coming from the river, I was going towards it) but that there was not much of it, and the weather was so moderate, he thought there would not be so much as usual — He then made a movement as if to leave me, and I was about to bow and turn from him, when he step'd back to me and leaning on the iron-railing of the Canal asked me if I had any late accounts from home — I told him I had letters to the 20th of February — He asked if they contained information of any particular importance? — I said they did not — That the occurrence of principal note of which I had heard was the arrival of the new French Minister, Serrurier, to replace the former one General Turreau — He asked me what the state of our Affairs with England was — I answered that they remained in an unsettled state — That our Minister there had taken leave and was gone; but he had left a Chargé des Affaires there; and that the English Government had sent out a new Minister to the United States, who as Mr. Perceval had said in Parliament carried out some new propositions from England — I added that I had heard Mr. Smith, a Gentleman who had been with me, and had had the honour of being presented to his Majesty, would be chargé d'Affaires in England. But, said the Emperor, did not he go from here to Vienna? I said he did; and was now at Paris — But I had heard he was to be the Chargé d'Affaires in England — It is a place of some importance, said His Majesty, is it not? — I said of very considerable importance — especially in the present state of the relations between the United States and England — And, said he, I hear you have lately made an acquisition — I observed, I supposed his Majesty meant in Florida — he said that was what he meant — But said he, it appears to have been a spontaneous movement of the People themselves, who were desirous of joining themselves to the United States — I said, so it appeared from the accounts which I had seen, but that I had received no Communication from my Government upon this subject — I added that this was a part of the Territory which had been ceded by France to the United States in the Louisiana Treaty — That Spain however had entered into a controversy with us about it, upon which Negotiations were pending at the time when the great changes in the Government of Spain itself had taken place — That since then the People of that Country had been left in a sort of abandonment by Spain, and must naturally be very desirous of being annexed to the United States — under these Circumstances the United States have taken possession of the Country — The Emperor smiled, and said "On s'aggrandit toujours un peu, dans ce Monde" — and bowed; upon which I quitted him and continued my walk. — We had been standing so long that numbers of People between the two Bridges had observed us, and from the time when I left him, untill I had got beyond the distance where we could be seen together, the people gazed upon me as upon a very important personage — Once pass'd those boundaries every Moozhik brushed by me with as little notice, as if passing one of his fellows — Such is the Magic of an Emperor's countenance — We had stood all the time immediately before the guard of Soldiers stationed upon the Fontanka; who were turned out under arms — When he turn'd back to me, to speak of politics he waved his hand to the Officer to dismiss the guard from being under arms, which he did.
23. On rising this morning I found a number of letters from my father, mother and brother at Quincy, which were brought by the Washington, Captain Brown — They contained the melancholy intelligence of the Death of my wife's Sister, Mrs. Hellen, and of my Cousin Mrs. Norton of Weymouth — I communicated the information to Catherine first, and afterwards to Mrs. Adams — It was a severe stroke to both of them; but to my wife, of dangerous import. The shock was sudden, unexpected and violent — For an hour or two Mrs. Adams was alarmingly ill, and all the rest of the day very unwell — I was out about half an hour in the morning, and all the remainder of the day and Evening with her — Mr. Jones called on me this morning — I had invited a number of Gentlemen to dinner on Saturday; to whom I desired Mr. Smith to send excuses — Mr. Harris called in the Evening.
24. Mrs. Adams and Catherine continued both very unwell all this day — Dr. Galloway was here, and Mrs. Reineke — Although my letters from America give me occasion for much writing, I have in that respect entirely lost both yesterday and this day — In the distress and anxiety of mind occasioned by the calamities which I have just learnt of, I have not sufficient self-controul coolly to sit down and write pages of daily matter — I can scarcely keep my Journal at its station — One day of omission always doubles the duty of the next morning in this book — And the chasm of a day breaks in upon the frequency if not the punctuality of my correspondence — Mr. Krehmer sent me the London Courier from 19 to 26 April, where I found articles which give me great concern upon the account of my Country — They threaten War in the most unequivocal terms — I fear the British Ministry have made it unavoidable. They menace us with an "Iliad of woes" and already deny us every particle of compassion for our sufferings under them — Non nobis, Domine! If our trial is now to come, God of Justice and of Mercy! give us Spirit to bear with fortitude, and to derive ultimate power and virtue from all the evils that they can inflict, and spare us from that woe of woes, the _compassion_ of Britons.
31. ≈ I took my usual morning's walk — On the Fontanka, near the Bridge through which the Canal joins the river I met the Emperor walking — As he approached me, he said, Monsieur Adams, il y a cent ans que je ne vous ai vu, and coming up, took and shook me with great cordiality by the hand — After some common observations upon the weather which has been very fine, which this day was cold and autumnal, and which he thought would yet come to snow, before the end of the month, Russian style, he asked me whether I intended to take a house in the Country this Summer — I said no — That I had for some time had such an intention but had given it up — And why so, said he? I was hesitating upon an answer, when he relieved me from embarrassment by saying "Peut-être sont ce des considerations de Finance." — As he said it in perfect good humour, and with a smile, I replied in the same manner — Mais, Sire, Elles y sont pour une bonne part — Fort bien, said he — vous avez raison — Il faut toujours proportionner la dépense à la recette — A maxim worthy of an Emperor, though few Emperors practice upon it — He then asked me if I had received any late news from America — I said I had — He replied that he also had lately received some very interesting despatches from Count Pahlen, which had given him much pleasure — He asked how our affairs stood with England — I said they had a very hostile appearance, and that the English Journals were threatening us with the last extremities; but that my own letters from America did not appear to expect that a War would ensue — It has however said he very much that appearance — at least if we believe the French Journals — But, au reste — he added, we know how much the Moniteur is to be believed; and that certain deductions are to be made from whatever that contains — I said to be sure — People were very apt to publish as fact, what they had an interest and a wish to believe. — On this he made me his usual parting bow, or rather military salute by raising his hand to his hat and pursued his walk.
[July 1811]
4. Anniversary of American Independence — A day, which Americans are accustomed to celebrate with many festivities, at home and abroad — But the toasting and roasting of it in numerous parties of very mixed company, are so little suited to my taste, that I have generally avoided this celebration whenever I conveniently could — The party Spirit and the intemperance which prevail on these occasions have rendered them disagreeable to me, and I prefer spending the day with my family — I have done so this day. Mr. Fisher called on me in the morning, and I went with him to one of the sheeting and linen warehouses near the exchange where I selected two pieces of linen to be sent to my Mother and my Sister — After an Evening walk in the Summer Gardens, I went with the Ladies and Mr. Gray, and paid a visit to the Chevalier Bezzera and his Lady — We found Mr. Navarro there. — My Son John is if it please God this day eight years old — Charles 3 f. 1 i.
23. ≈ My wife has been quite unwell the greatest part of this day — She is approaching the time of her Confinement. May the Mercy of God, grant her a safe and joyful deliverance!
26. I have this day been married fourteen years, during which I have to bless God, for the enjoyment of a portion of felicity resulting from this relation in Society, greater than falls to the generality of mankind, and far beyond any thing that I have been conscious of deserving — Its greatest alloy has arisen from the delicacy of my wife's Constitution, the ill health which has afflicted her much of the time, and the misfortunes she has suffered from it — Our Union has not been without its trials; nor invariably without dissensions between us — There are many differences of sentiment, of tastes and of opinions in regard to domestic economy, and to the education of children between us — There are natural frailties of temper in both of us; both being quick, and irascible, and mine being sometimes harsh — But she has always been a faithful and affectionate wife, and a careful, tender, indulgent and watchful mother to our children, all of whom she nursed herself — I have found in this Connection from decisive experience the superior happiness of the marriage state over that of celibacy, and a full conviction that my lot in marriage has been highly favoured — I completed this day a letter to my father which I have been nearly a week writing.
30. I received two Notes from Count Romanzoff. One to inform me of the appointment of Mr. Daschkoff as Russian Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States in the room of Count Pahlen, and the other to notify me that the Emperor had given orders that Mr. Hazard, should be immediately recognized as Consul at Archangel, and authorized to enter on the exercise of his functions — I answered one of these Notes, and left the other for to-morrow — The whole morning was engrossed by one of those occasional occupations which so often divert me from business of more urgency — I found in an American Newspaper a return of the whole population of the United States, by the last Census of 1810, and I engaged myself in calculations, resulting from a comparison of it with the returns of 1790, and 1800. The proportion of increase between the second and third Census, is exactly the same as that between the first and second — It is between 36 and 37 per Cent in ten years; rather more than three per Cent, and very nearly 31 per 1000 annually — I do not think it possible that this proportion should continue even for the next ten years — It is a phenomenon which the world never witnessed before, and which probably will never be seen again — The state in which we have been the last twenty years is too happy a Condition for human Nature long to endure — Blessed be God for it; and may he still protract it, notwithstanding the ingratitude and other vices by which we have forfeited almost the right to ask his favour — May he also protract the portion of virtue in the people, which has hitherto contributed to preserve the blessings they have enjoyed. May he continue to build up a State, which shall exhibit a clear and permanent improvement in the existence of social man. When I reflect upon the capabilities of that people, and that Territory, I have no curb to enthusiastic hope, but in the recollection of the follies and vices which have proved so fatal to mankind in all former ages, and which threaten to destroy all the glorious prospects of my Country — Let me implore the aid of Heaven to meditate further, and to some useful purpose on this subject, so that this may not be a day lost.
[August 1811]
6. ≈ The Count then told me that the Ambassador had just been with him — He had received a Courier who brought him the account that the Ecclesiastical Council, assembled at Paris had been dissolved; and three of the Bishops arrested. He was a little surprized at this instance of resistance to the will of the Emperor Napoleon; but he did not expect it would be followed by any serious consequences — He believed there was very little religion in France — When he was last there he had made it a particular object of his personal observation — He had supposed before he went there that the result of the horrible Revolution through which they had pass'd would have been to awaken religious ideas in the people, and have given their minds a peculiar direction that way — He saw no such thing. He saw no disposition with regard to religion but that of profound indifference — It was not a fashion of infidelity such as had been known in France thirty or forty years ago — Not a sectarian Atheism, courting martyrdom; but total indifference, a total absence of all thought concerning religion. He had mentioned it to the Emperor Napoleon, and had perceived that the remark had displeased him — He had asked him on what he founded his opinion — the Count answered that as he had before going to France entertained the theoretic idea that he should find strong symptoms of religious propensities, he had made it a point to observe, and had repeatedly gone into the principal churches of Paris on Sundays and Holidays in service time. They were all absolutely deserted. Scarcely a Soul to be seen; except here and there an occasional straggler, who looked as if he had been sent upon an errand, and had come into the Church and taken a chair to rest himself on the way. — The Emperor had replied — Perhaps it may be so, but I assure you it is not my fault — On the contrary I know the importance of religious sentiments, and encourage the propagation of them as much as I can — There are even five or six popular writers to whom I give pensions for this purpose, and among them are Chateaubriant and Madame de Genlis — Now said the Count, _he_ considers these people as drugs of the imperial pharmacopaea — ingredients to be mixed up in the chemical mass of an Emperor's Government — His own idea is political and not at-all religious.
12. I bless God, for the birth of a daughter this Evening at seven O'Clock — My wife had been taken with short pains from 7 in the morning and indeed quite unwell the greatest part of last night. from 11 in the the morning the pains had been sharp, and in the afternoon they were extremely severe — I was in her chamber from time to time during the whole day, and had been but a few minutes from it, when Catherine came into my room, and told me that I had a daughter. In the anxiety and fear that she might have a long and critical labour I had sent Waldstein immediately after dinner for Dr. Galloway — He came about nine in the Evening, two hours after the child was born. He had little to prescribe — Mrs. Adams was as well as the circumstances admitted. I wrote immediately to her mother and to my own, to give them the information.
[September 1811]
8. After finishing a letter, begun three or four days ago, I continued that to my Son George, which I intend to be the first of a series — But as I advance, I find the want of a plan arranged in my own mind — I am already so much dissatisfied with what I have written, find my ideas so undigested and confused, feel so much my own ignorance upon the subjects concerning which I meant to instruct him, and am so remote from the helps to which I might recur for assistance, that I am afraid I have in this instance as in numberless others undertaken more than I can execute — I have not yet however abandoned it entirely — Dined at Mr. Laval's with a Company of twenty-five persons — Count Romanzoff, the French Ambassador, and most of the other foreign Ministers were there — Returned home immediately after dinner — Found Mr. Blodget and Mr. Craig at my house — They pass'd the Evening with us untill about ten — I read two Sections of Robinson's character of Christ, 42 and 43. And the Sermons 5 and 6 in the first volume of the English preacher, on the unchangeable difference between Good and Evil; and on Self-love.
9. Finished the first of my letters to George, and took the walk round, and over the four Bridges — Four O'Clock P.M. was fixed for the Christening of my infant daughter — The Company invited, assembled at that hour — The Revd. London King Pitt, Chaplain to the English factory Church, performed the Ceremony — Levett Harris Esqr., Consul of the United States, in this City was the Godfather, and Madame Bezerra, the Lady of the Portugueze Minister, and Mrs. Annette Krehmer were the God mothers — The witnesses present were, the Chevalier Bezerra, General Watzdorf and Count Bussche, Portuguese, Saxon, and Westphalian Ministers, the Chevalier Navarro, Mr. and Mrs. Bentzon, Mr. Krehmer and his daughter Sally, Commodore Bainbridge, and Mess'rs Blodget, Fisher, Gray, Harris jun'r and Jones — together with our own family. The child was baptized by the name of _Louisa-Catherine_ , being that of her mother — The Ceremony took about a quarter of an hour, and immediately after it was over we sat down to dinner — Great part of the Company spent the Evening with us, and we had Cards — I played Whist with Mr. Bezerra, Mr. Jones and Mr. Gray. — My oldest Son, and my daughter have been baptized according to the rites of the Church of England — My Sons John and Charles were baptized at Boston, by my worthy friend Emerson, now deceased — I think the ceremony of baptism as performed in our Congregational Churches, much more proper and rational than that of the English Church. I have both in this instance and in that of my Son George recurred to the ceremony in this form, only because I thought the rite itself essential, and because the forms of the English Church, are the most like to those which I have considered as the best, and to which I myself was born, that I could have access to — The motives for my preference of our own form of baptism are 1. Because it is done in Church, a place devoted to Divine worship, and in the presence of the Congregation — It is therefore more solemn and more public than a private baptism can be; both of which are characters peculiarly well suited to this act. 2. Because it is much more simple, performed, only with a previous and a succeeding prayer of the Clergyman, without any entanglement of creeds and controversial doctrines. 3. Because the father of the Child is the only Sponsor, and solemnly undertakes, what it is his duty to perform; that is to educate the Child to virtuous and Christian Principles. — While the Sponsors of an English Christening, are often Strangers, who are never likely to have any controul over the child, and therefore rashly enter into solemn engagements, the performance of which will never depend upon themselves — But the rite itself, the solemn dedication of the child to God, I prize so highly, that I think it ought never to be deferred beyond a time of urgent necessity.
19. I received this morning a Note from Mr. Craig, informing me that he had heard there was to be a Ball this Evening at the French Ambassadors, and requesting me, to present him to the Ambassador, and to allow him to accompany me there — I answered him that I regretted I could not present any American at the French Ambassadors, unless he had been previously presented at Court — I returned the visit of the Chevalier de Bray, where I found Mr. St. Genest, and Mr. Harris — M. de Bray gave some particulars of the mode of Courtly living at Paris, which made me doubly rejoyce at having no Call there — St. Genest complained of the manner in which the diplomatic establishment in France is organized and said that if he, or Rayneval were to go to Paris they could not be presented at Court; because they were not Auditeur's, though Prevost their junior, having that title would be — They were refused it, and were told it was because they were above it — Besides which, to obtain it proof must be given of having an income of six thousand livres a year — I called on Mr. Harris, and had some conversation with him concerning this curious application to me, of Mr. Craig — I told him that I had adopted as rules which experience had rendered necessary 1. To present no Gentleman at Court, without first obtaining an express permission, from Count Romanzoff — 2. To present in person, no one, to Count Romanzoff, to the foreign Ministers or to any body, except at Court. 3. To solicit no letters for any one, to persons in other Countries — The Ambition of young Americans to crowd themselves upon European Courts, and into the Company of Nobility, is a very ridiculous, and not very proud feature of their character — There is nothing in my estimate of things meaner than Courting Society where if admitted, it is only to be despised — Yet such is this vicious Appetite for great acquaintance, and so little delicacy has it that an American Minister abroad can preserve himself from sharing in the scorn which it excites, only by adopting some such general rules as these.
[November 1811]
10. I had only time this morning to finish reading the Epinomis, or Philosopher at the close of Plato's Laws. As my acquaintance with Plato becomes more intimate, my admiration of his genius, and my regret for his errors increases — I lament that I had not sought this intimacy sooner, and more assiduously — In reading him it is necessary to be always upon one's guard — always winnowing the chaff from the wheat — His Laws, might with more propriety have been called the Republic, than the work which bears that name. The Laws, are professedly a project of a Constitution for a Cretan Colony, that was to issue from the City of Gnossus — As a project of Government it is if possible more absurd and impracticable than the Republic — He chuses to have 5040 families, and proposes laws to prevent their increase not less than their diminution. He makes laws for the most trivial domestic arrangements, and punishes with death more frequently than Draco. But some of his regulations are excellent, and many of his principles are truly admirable. His argument upon the existence and nature of the Gods, upon the immortality of the Soul, and upon future rewards and punishments is inferior to nothing but Christianity; and stronger in Logic than the Phaedo — The doctrine upon _Love_ , peculiar to Plato, is fully set forth in this book, and in spite of all ridicule is both beautiful and sublime — The Doctrine about numbers, seems to me rather pedantic than profound — But the advice to study the mathematics and Astronomy is well reasoned — I hope to be yet, much better acquainted with Plato — At Noon I went with Mr. Smith to the Winter Palace, and attended the Te Deum. The Emperor, Empress and Grand-Duke Constantine only were there of the Imperial Family. The Empress-Mother is sick at Getschina — I had some Conversation with the French Ambassador, who hinted to me that with the help of about five thousand Frenchmen, we could easily take Canada — The Te Deum was finished about ½ past two.
13. Another clear cold day — I took my second morning bath with the walk of an hour and a half immediately afterwards. If however I persevere in the Resolution of following this practice of walking before breakfast, I must make a new arrangement, of daily occupations, and a new distribution of my time. I found that after my return home, I had not time for reading the five chapters in the German Bible, and the usual portion, I had assigned to myself of Plato, before Breakfast. Still less to write the journal of yesterday — The two last I adjourned untill after Breakfast. I then began the Protagoras, of Grou's translation, occasionally comparing it with that of Dacier — But I had not got half-through, when Mr. Fisher called on me, and proposed paying a visit to Mr. Dubrowsky, the librarian of the Imperial library — While I was dressing to go with Mr. Fisher, Mr. Harris came in and sat with me nearly an hour — It was thus past 3 O'Clock before I went out with Mr. Fisher — I would have postponed the visit to Mr. Dubrowsky to another day, but Fisher was anxious to go this day, and I accompanied him — Mr. Dubrowsky received us in an obliging manner, and shewed us a number of curious manuscripts — Principally curious on account of the persons to whom they had belonged — Among them were a Mass-Book, belonging to the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, which she used while in prison in England, with many things written with her own hand upon the margins and blank pages — An English Chronicle, and some other books with the names of James (1) Charles (1) and O. Cromwell written on their first and last blank leaves — There was another name which I took to be _Edvardus_ , and supposed to be that of Edward 6. But Mr. Dubrowsky said it was _Ricardus_ , and upon my asking him which of the Richard's, he answered Richard _the fourth_ — which gave me no very high opinion of his antiquarian knowledge — There was a small Latin Bible, written upon a soft and beautiful kind of vellum, which he pretended was of human skin — I asked him, when and where the _manufactory_ of this material, in such a manner had existed, which however he could not tell me. He only said it was done by the monks of the middle ages, and must be the skins of infants who had died without baptism — I have yet some doubts with regard to the fact, though it is obviously a kind of vellum far more thin and delicate than that of a calf — There was a collection of letters written by Mary Queen of Scots, Elizabeth of England, James 1, and others, which I had not time to examine — A manuscript collection of poetry addressed to Louis 12 of France, and Anne de Bretagne his Queen, with illuminated pictures between many of the leaves; two of which Mr. Dubrowsky says, are by the hand of Raphael Sancio — They are allegories, and very beautifully done — There were many other curiosities of the same kind, but it grew late and dark and we were obliged to go away — I asked Mr. Dubrowsky's permission to call upon him again, to which he gave me an earnest invitation — He was an amateur of these curiosities, and formed a large collection of them, which the Emperor Paul purchased of him entire for 70,000 Roubles, and appointed him the keeper of them, as librarian.
22. After the usual morning walk, and reading in the German Bible, I this day finished reading the second Volume of Plato's dialogues, translated by Grou — These two volumes contain — The Theotates — Protagoras — First and Second Hippias — the Gorgias — on Rhetoric — Ion, upon Poetry — Philebus, on Pleasure, and Menon, upon Virtue — And I have thus completed the perusal of all the parts of Plato that have been translated into French — For many years I had read nothing that gave me more pleasure. — But the doctrine of Socrates, that Virtue is not communicable by Instructions, which recurs in several of the Dialogues, is among the things which I would wish not to believe — Virtue, he says is a divine inspiration; a special gift of Heaven to individual favourites — and therefore it cannot be taught — But he very often declares that he knows not what Virtue is — The opinion that Virtue cannot be taught is a dangerous error — The Menon contains an argument for the immortality of the Soul; founded upon a supposed demonstration that all knowledge is nothing but reminiscence — Socrates examines a slave of Menon's, and makes him prove that the square of the diagonal line of any given square will contain exactly the double of its superficies — Euclid's 47th Proposition, Book I, proved in a new form — I have not time here to write down all my reflections on this perusal of Plato, and I doubt whether I shall ever write them down at all — But I hope to read him again. We had no visitors through the whole day and Evening; but I was absorbed by various domestic concerns, of a nature excessively irksome — Walked again about an hour before dinner upon the Quay, and met a numerous company of walkers — Among them was the Emperor, who told me that he had made the acquaintance of a Countryman of mine — a Mr. Fisher — I told him, Mr. Fisher had mentioned to me his having had the honour of seeing His Majesty — So — you know him then, said he? — Yes, Sire! intimately — From what part of America does he come? — from Philadelphia — He speaks French very well — tolerably well, Sire — Is the French language very common in your Country? — Not very common — and not at-all so, except in the commercial Cities — In England, I have heard that French is scarcely ever spoken; and in Germany it is extremely rare among the common people — But you, I suppose have people of almost all nations mixed together — Of most European Nations, Sire — But chiefly Germans and Irish people — A few french — but altogether fewer than is generally supposed — And do they all amalgamate well together? — Very well, Sire, in a length of time — And does it not sometimes produce difficulties or confusion, at the elections for your assembly? — None that are of material consequence — And if they are elected, how do they express themselves? — They sometimes make speeches in English, and often speak very well — only their pronunciation is a little laughed at — But one of our Ministers for instance was a Genevan — and was many years a member of Congress; where he made speeches as well as any other member — He also asked me if Mr. Fisher had definitively settled himself here; and whether he succeeded prosperously in his business — which I answered affirmatively — In the Evening I read a few pages of the Itinéraire, Vol. 2. — Dr. Galloway was here to see the child who is quite unwell.
[January 1812]
4. Mr. J. W. Patterson called upon me this morning to ask for a Passport to go to France; upon which he has at length again concluded. Mr. Raimbert also paid me a morning visit, and brought with him a present of porcelain for my wife, and for Charles; and another for myself, of which he requested our acceptance — I gave him many thanks for us all, and assured him that being fully sensible of his kindness and attention, I should feel an additional obligation to him if he would take them back — it being a principle which I had found it necessary to adopt from the first day that I became a public man, never to accept for myself or my family, while I hold any public office, a present of more than trifling value, from any person — That this principle was not only the result of my own sense of propriety, but was altogether conformable to the general Sentiment of my Country, which was more punctilious on this subject than any European Nation, and which was peculiarly strict with regard to their Ministers abroad. Mr. Raimbert accordingly took the things home with him again — He appeared to feel a little mortification, but he expressed his approbation of my motive. The refusal of presents is one of the occasions on which I have found it most difficult ever since I have been in the public service to act with perfect propriety; and that difficulty becomes not a little aggravated, when they are offered to my family and not to myself — Were it possible for me to prevent it, not the value of a dollar should be offered by any body to any of us; but those who forbear presenting any thing to me, sometimes address themselves, where refusal may not be thought my duty, and those who begin with trifles, which it would be affectation, rather than virtue to reject, rise gradually to articles of cost and value which render it indispensable to recur to the standard of spotless integrity — I have heretofore accepted from Mr. Raimbert presents of fruit and other small things, which it would have been ridiculous to reject on the ground of a scruple, and which I could not refuse on any other — But this time the gift would have been of a value which I could not have received without feeling uneasy for it hereafter — The perfect line between self-denial and self-indulgence may not always be clear, but the principle of temperance has self-denial for its essence; and even excess on that side is better than the slightest deviation upon the other — I dined at the French Ambassador's with a Company of about fifty persons. The common diplomatic company — My next neighbors at table were Count Bussche, and the Grand-Veneur Narishkin. Count Romanzoff told me that he had received a Courier from Paris, and that there were two letters for me, which if I had not already received, would be sent me this Evening. — That he had the papers containing President Madison's Message, which recommended serious and energetic measures, but complained alike against both France and England — It also mentioned Russia; but in terms peculiarly gratifying to him. I came home immediately after dinner was over, but was disappointed in the expectation of receiving the letters which the Count had promised me
12. ≈ I had some Conversation with General Watzdorf, on the subject of the Bible — The other day at the Chevalier de Bray's, in speaking of Chateaubriand's Itinéraire, the Chevalier had told me that he had been more interested in his account of Athens, than in that of Jerusalem, and I had expressed a preference on the other side — The Chevalier had then extended his observation to the two Nations, and said he thought the Greeks a more interesting People of antiquity than the Hebrews — I had taken the other side of that question too; and said that without intending to derogate in the least from the merits of the Greeks, I thought that the Hebrews, whether historically or philosophically considered were the most interesting people of antiquity. This had led us into a considerable discussion of the subject, and the Chevalier had mentioned the Conversation to General Watzdorf, who said he was on my side of the question, generally; but he believed that the Greeks had excelled in the Arts; especially in Eloquence. We had much conversation upon this, in which I found that the General was more acquainted with the Scriptures than Mr. de Bray; and he has naturally founded on this better acquaintance a higher opinion of them and of the Nation which produced them — For setting prejudices, and all party Spirit aside, I believe that the respect and veneration of any person for the Bible will increase in proportion to the intimacy of his acquaintance with its contents.
29. While I was writing the above, and as I had reached thus far, I received a large packet from Count Romanzoff, enclosing three packets brought from Paris, by a Courier and numbered 1, 2, 3. they had been forwarded by Mr. Barlow, through the kindness of the Russian Ambassador Prince Kurakin — Mr. Barlow in his letter to me mentions six packets, but supposes four of them contain nothing but newspapers and pamphlets, and that they are too bulky to be sent all by one Courier. — The first letter that I opened was from Mr. Richard Forrest, a Clerk in the Department of State, and the first information it gave me was of the Death of my wife's mother, Mrs. Johnson, the 29th of September last, and of Mr. Andrew Buchanan, Caroline Johnson's husband, a few days after. A letter from Mrs. Hellen, gave a melancholy confirmation to this intelligence — Next came one from my dear and excellent mother repeating the same news, and adding to it that of the decease both of my uncle and Aunt Cranch on the 15th and 16th of October — and the further account that my Sister had undergone an operation for a Cancer in the breast — I had upon receiving these packets so strong a presentiment upon my mind that they would contain tidings of sorrow, that I opened them with a hand more unsteady and faltering than became me — I was prepared to be told of Mrs. Cranch's decease, having known for several months that her recovery was despaired of — That of Mr. Cranch was unexpected, though at his great age, (at least 85) it would not surprize me — But Mrs. Johnson had enjoyed many years of health, and was scarcely beyond the middle age of life — and of my whole circle of relations and friends in America, there was not one of whose end I could less have expected to hear, than of Mr. Buchanan's — he was in the very meridian of life, and apparently of an athletic Constitution, formed for a long career of health and vigour — In these multiplied instances of mortality among my kindred and friends, God grant that I may learn duly to estimate the frail tenure of human existence, to improve by wisdom and virtue the few remaining days that his Providence may have allotted to myself; and to be also ready for that change through which we must all pass.
[February 1812]
4. Rose, read and walked before Breakfast — And again trifled away several hours of the day. At Noon I called upon Count Romanzoff according to his appointment. — He apologized to me for receiving me in his full dress; which he said was occasioned by his having just received a deputation of Cabardinians — And I excused myself to him for _not_ being in full dress; at which he took no displeasure. I began by informing him, with my thanks to him for the packets which he had sent me, brought by the Courier from Paris, that I had received in them despatches from the Secretary-of-State, and a letter personally from the President of the United States — That the President according to the request, which my inability to return to the United States last Summer had made necessary on my part, had nominated another person to the judicial office, which had been previously designated for me, and had instructed me to remain here: a circumstance which I thought it proper to communicate to this Government; which was one of my motives in requesting the Conference with him. — The Count very civilly expressed his satisfaction at this arrangement, with which he said he was the more gratified, as he had seen paragraphs in the English, and German Gazettes, stating that I was to be removed to England — He had mentioned it to the Emperor, and had thought it probable, as there appeared in England a manifestation of conciliatory dispositions towards the United States. I told him that the paragraphs in the English Newspapers, were probably taken from some of the American papers; where it was much the fashion to announce appointments by anticipation, which never came to be realized — That I had not the slightest insinuation of an intention of the President to remove me to England; but from the tenor of my despatches I had every reason to believe, that no appointment of a Minister to England would be made; unless England should make further, and far more important advances towards conciliation than she had yet made or appeared disposed to make — He said that on the other hand, it was understood at Paris that in France, a better Understanding with America was intended, and even professed — that the entire revocation of the decrees of Berlin and Milan, so far as concerned the United States was confirmed, and that with regard to American Vessels, which should arrive in France, there would be little or no difficulty made, as to whence they came; or as to the nature of their Cargoes. That in the general view of the Russian policy, this was very agreeable to him, because it shewed something like a relaxation in favour of Commerce; but he referred me to our former Conversations, in which he had given me his opinion upon the character of the Emperor Napoleon — He did not think that the permanency of _any thing_ to which he should assent, concerning Commerce could be relied upon: every resolution, every act, was the result of an impulse of the moment — the effect of an occasional impression. To day the impression was of one sort, and the measure corresponded with it — to-morrow, the impression would be of an opposite nature, and the measure would follow that too — To make them consistent was not in the nature of the Man — He never looked at Commerce with commercial eyes — He never considered that Commerce was an interest in which all mankind were concerned — He saw in it nothing but the trade of a certain class of individuals — But in truth, said the Count, Commerce is the concern of us all — The merchants, are indeed only a class of individuals, bearing a small proportion to the mass of a People — But Commerce as the exchange of mutual superfluities for mutual wants, is the very chain of human association — It is the foundation of all the useful and pacific intercourse between Nations — It is a primary necessity to all Classes of People — The Emperor Napoleon will never see it in this light, and so his Commercial regulations and promises, will never be systematic or consistent — You can place little dependence upon them — I said that his present measures appeared obviously dictated by a political interest — As he saw the situation in which the English Government had chosen to place themselves with respect to America, he was taking advantage of it by assuming a course of an opposite character — And I believed the British Government alone could prevent his succeeding in it completely. And in order to defeat him they must adopt measures to which they did not appear at-all inclined; and of which I had little hope — He said that he should not dissemble to me, that he had seen the English Newspapers to the 7th of January, which had been sent to him from Stockholm — That the English Prince Regent's Speech at the opening of the Session of Parliament was in them — That it spoke of the State of the king's health — Said nothing at-all about the North of Europe — Mentioned that the affair of the Chesapeake frigate had been amicably arranged with the United States — That several other topics remained in discussion with them, upon which the most conciliatory disposition was entertained by him — I observed that the profession of conciliatory dispositions had always been sufficiently made by the British Government; but they had been so long the only things we had experienced from England that were conciliatory, that now something more would be necessary to produce the effect; and of this I was sorry to say I could scarcely discern any prospect — The Count said there were some intimations that a messenger had been sent over from France to England — It was even reported that he was charged with overtures for a pacific Negotiation — But that might perhaps be an ostensible measure, to excite the opinion here of a Negotiation between France and England — which in the great and extraordinary armaments said to be now making in France and destined against Russia, might be thought calculated to produce a certain effect here. — I said that as to Negotiations between France and England, I did not much believe in them, or in their success if really attempted; but that I had heard there were prospects of War between France and Russia which I lamented — He had mentioned the Emperor Napoleon (The print of him, in all his Imperial accoutrements as Napoleon le Grand, was hanging at the side of the wall, over the sopha upon which we were sitting) and how much was it to be wished, that it were possible the _Will_ of Peace and Tranquillity could be inspired into his heart! The world might then be allowed to enjoy a little Peace — The Count shook his head, and said No! — it is impossible. — Tranquility is not in his Nature — I can tell you in Confidence that he once told me so himself — I was speaking to him about Spain, and Portugal; and he said to me — I must always be _going_ — After the Peace of Tilsit, where could I go, but to Spain — I went to Spain, because I could not go any where else; and this said the Count was all that he had to say in justification of his having gone into Spain and Portugal — And now as perhaps there he is not quite satisfied with his going, he may intend to turn against us; from the same want of any other place where to go — I said that one would think Spain and Portugal still furnished, and were likely long to furnish him quite room enough to go in, without making it necessary to gratify his Passion in another quarter — The Count replied that there was no political consideration whatsoever, upon which he founded a hope that Peace might yet be preserved — But there was a consideration of a different nature, which might have its weight, and upon the effect of which he still rested some expectation — It was the scarcity of grain — He understood it was considerable at Paris — I said I had heard the same, and that the price of wheat and flour had much advanced — though not that of Bread which the Government kept down by payments of their own to the Bakers — He said the scarcity was so great, that there had been recently several riots at the doors of the Bakers, both at Paris and at Lyons — And as large armies could not be put in motion without very large supplies of such provisions, he still hoped that as the months of April and May should come on the inconvenience and difficulty of procuring such supplies for those armies, would ultimately arrest their march — for which however, added the Count, the Circumstances have rendered it proper for us to place ourselves in a state of preparation as we have accordingly done.
22. Visit from Mr. Fisher with Mr. Forrester, a young American from Salem — My day was occupied again like many of the past — The question of this day was to ascertain the extent of the Earth's Circumference — The only English Book I have at hand to consult in this case was Morse's Geography — There I find it stated at 25,038 Miles — which divided by 360 makes the degree = 69.55 miles. — But by the admeasurement of the Meridian between Dunkirk and Montjouy — the quarter of the earth's Circumference was definitively settled to be 5,130,740 French Toises (Toise du Perou) the 1/10,000,000 part of which is the _Metre_ of the new French system. — Taking then the English foot as .9386 of the French pied de Roi, the Circumference of the Earth is = 131193011 English feet or 24,847.25 Statute Miles and gives 69.02 to a degree. The quarter of the Circumference is 32,798,252.7 English feet, and the ten millionth part of it is 3 feet 3 inches 358 tenths of an inch.
[March 1812]
9. I had a morning visit from Mr. Brandel — I called upon the General of the Jesuits, Brzozowsky, to deliver him a letter I had received for him from New-York — from one of the fathers he sent out last Summer — I found the old father reading his Breviary, and he made me excuses for asking me to wait untill he had finished; which he did in a few minutes. I told him that father Malou who inclosed to me the letter for him had also written to me, mentioning that they had commenced a school, but were in great want of more teachers — The General answered that he could not supply them — That from all quarters he was called upon for fathers, and had none to spare — The Ecclesiastical life was now pursued by very few persons; the military Career was the only one in favour — He spoke to me about Waldstein; saying he had heard I had been robbed by a servant; and asked if he was a Russian. I said a Livonian. Ah! said he, and so a Lutheran! — But observing I suppose that I was not pleased with the remark, by my looks, he added that it would have given him great pain if he had been a Catholic; because those who were Catholics ought to prove themselves worthy of their religion — It was evident however that the old man thinks a man's being a protestant is a solution for every enormity committed by him — Madame de Bray the other day attributed it all to Waldstein's being an _affranchi_ — That said she, is the consequence of giving those people their freedom — Madame de Bray is the daughter of a Livonian nobleman, who probably relishes evidence against the emancipation of his peasants, as the Jesuit is a Catholic Churchman, who thinks Luther the root of all evil — Such is the mode of reasoning among men and women.
13. This morning I finished the perusal of the German Bible, which I began 20 June last — There are many differences of translation from either the English or the French Translations — Some of which I have compared in the three versions — Many passages obscure and even unintelligible to me in the English are clear in the French and German — Of the three, the German I think has the fewest of these obscurities — But the eloquence of St. Paul strikes me as more elevated and sublime in the English than in either of the others. In the German New Testament there is a transposition in the arrangement of the Books — The Epistle to the Hebrews being separated from the rest of St. Paul's, and placed after those of Peter and John — There is a difficulty which obviously often embarrassed all the Translators; it was how to render the significant proper names which abound in the Bible — For instance in the text where Adam says in the English Bible that Eve "shall be called _Woman_ , because she was taken out of man," the name does not correspond with the reason assigned for giving it — II Gen. 23. — The French Bible has it "on la nommera _Hommesse_ , car elle a été prise de l'homme" — The name and the reason here correspond, but _hommesse_ is not the french word for woman — there is no such word in the language — the German Bible resorts to the same expedient of coining a word, and says she shall be called _Männin_. if the English translators had taken the same liberty they would have called her _Manness_ — In expressions of this sort the English Translators whenever they can retain the very Hebrew word; and sometimes they give as proper names, words which the other translators render as things — The more I read the Bible the more I feel that it ought to be accompanied with critical and explanatory Notes — There are Commentators and Expositors enough; but they are too voluminous; and almost universally sectaries; whose labours are devoted not to explanation but to controversy — The German Bible has one very useful kind of annotation. It is that after every verse throughout the Book, all the other verses having reference to it are marked down — This is peculiarly convenient for consulting the mutual references between the Old and New Testament — the Prophecies and their fulfilment — The German New Testament also besides the division of the Books into Chapters marks the festivals at which particular Epistles and Gospels are to be read; at the passages themselves. There is at the commencement both of the French and German Bibles an excellent discourse upon the manner and dispositions in which the Scriptures should be read — that of the German Bible is the best. — Mr. Montreal paid me a morning visit — The Ladies spent the Evening at Madam Colombi's and Charles was left with me — I find it difficult to employ his time and when with me he entirely engrosses mine — I endeavour to amuse him, and at the same time to convey instruction to his mind through the medium of every thing that happens — But it is not always easy to discriminate between the knowledge suitable to his age, and the solid nourishment of mature years — He often asks questions which it is impossible to answer to his understanding; as do all children of good natural parts — My rule is, to answer them always truly; and as I should to a grown person; explaining what I can make him understand, but freely using terms which I know he cannot, when they are necessary to the definition — If he does not take the whole idea, he usually gets part of it, and seldom pushes the enquiry any further. I believe that all complex ideas must be thus acquired by parts at a time; and that they can only be completed, by the frequent repetition of their recurrence — By giving however some of these fragments, much beyond the comprehension of a Child, they are apt to associate themselves in his mind with the ideas which are lodged there, and the combination produces absurdities which may be liable to run eventually into errors of judgment or paradoxical opinions — Socrates says in one of Plato's dialogues, that he is only a midwife to the minds of his disciples — This Talent is perhaps the most essential of all that can contribute to form an accomplished teacher — How much I would wish to possess it — I give Charles a large portion of my Time; and I would fain have it prove profitable to him — He had the whole of this Evening.
18. The sky cleared away in the Night, and this morning the thermometer was at 10 degrees below 0. I took therefore my walk before breakfast which I had omitted for several days — On my return home I found the father General of the Jesuits who had brought me a letter to be forwarded to father Malon at New-York — After Breakfast Mr. Barthe and Mr. Ducorneau paid me a visit — They are about returning to Moscow — A black man came to ask assistance from me which I could not give him. He belongs to the Angerona, Captain Marks one of the ships, seized for coming with false papers — He says he can neither get his wages nor a discharge — I gave him a line of recommendation to Mr. Harris. — Charles and Paucton employed my day — I concluded upon my wife's persuasion, to write to America to have our two eldest sons sent to us here, if it can be done without extraordinary danger. Mr. Harris paid us an Evening visit.
19. The black man who was here yesterday came again this morning, and can obtain no relief at least for the present from Mr. Harris — He has no means of subsistence untill the Summer, and asked me to take him to attend and serve in my family, for his lodging and subsistence without wages untill the Navigation shall be open, and he can procure employment as a seaman to return to America — I concluded to take him accordingly. His name is Peter Cook, and he was born in Kent County Maryland. I called upon Mr. Harris, to make the necessary arrangement respecting his Passport — Walked afterwards upon the Quay, and met the Emperor — He told me he had seen one of our Americans this Morning, who must have very strong military propensities, for he had gone out, when there were at least 15 degrees of frost, to see one of the Regiments march — which were leaving the City — He meant Mr. _Fisher_ — I said he had perhaps some acquaintance among the Officers . . . . . . . No! not in that Regiment . . . . . . . But he is acquainted with Mr. Fenshaw, who belongs to the Regiment that will go next Saturday . . . . . . . And so it is, continued his Majesty — After all, that War is coming, which I have done so much to avoid — Every thing . . . . . . . I have done every thing, to prevent this struggle (cette lutte,) but thus it ends . . . . . . . But, said I, are all hopes vanished of still preserving the Peace? . . . . . . . At all Events said he, we shall not begin the War . . . . . . . My will is yet to prevent it; but we expect to be attacked — Then, said I, as your Majesty has determined not to commence, I would fain hope, it may still pass over without a War — . . . . . . . I wish it may, said he . . . . . . . "Mais tous les indices sont à la guerre" . . . . . . . Et puis . . . . . . . _il_ avance toujours . . . . . . . Il a commencé par prendre la Poméranie Suédoise . . . . . . . voila qu'a présent il vient d'occuper _la Prusse_ . . . . . . . il ne peut pas beaucoup plus avancer sans nous attaquer." I said it was to be hoped he would be stopped somewhere . . . . . . . Oh! Oui . . . . . . . j'espère bien quil ne viendra pas jusqu'ici . . . . . . . Seven or eight regiments have already marched from St. Petersburg, within the last three weeks, for the frontiers, and others are following twice or three times each week.
[April 1812]
20. I had received last Evening a note from Count Romanzoff requesting me to call upon him at 11 O'Clock this morning. I accordingly went — Count Chernicheff was with him, and I was requested to wait a few minutes — Chernicheff soon after pass'd through the antichamber where I waited, and as he pass'd stop'd to ask me, if I was not about to dispatch a Courier to Paris — I suppose he knew Mr. John W. Smith had come as a Courier, and expecting I should send him back wished to send something. — There were some books laying in the Chairs — A Projet pour un Code de Commerce by Boucher — A Manuscript, as I conjecture, and from its folio form and magnificent red Morocco binding I conclude, a present from the author — Also two sets of Mr. Rayneval's Book de la Liberté des Mers — The Chancellor came in after a very few minutes, and told me that the Emperor had fixed upon to-morrow for his departure; that he himself should be very soon afterwards obliged to follow him, and as there might perhaps be before his return some discussions in which the interests of the United States as well as those of Russia might be involved, from his wish to defend and support both he wished to know, as far as I was informed and might think proper to confide to him, what was the precise state of the relations between the United States, and France or England, or both; and he had been the more desirous of this information before he should go, as he knew the Courier I had expected from Paris was now arrived. That some time ago Prince Kurakin had written that there was to be a Treaty between France and the United States; and that arrangements favourable to America had actually been settled in France — But lately there seemed again to be some uncertainty upon the subject, and he had seen in one of the best Journaux de l'Empire, an Article, dated at Baltimore, which seemed to hold out an angry and irritated language towards the United States — I told him that since my last Conversation with him, I had received no Communication from my own Government, of a more recent date than I had then; nor had I any information from which I could infer that any change had occurred in the state of our political relations, from that in which I had then suggested to him — That with respect to France, all that I could say from the letters I had received from Mr. Barlow, was, that no definitive arrangement had yet been agreed upon; and with respect to England none had taken, nor as I believed was likely to take place — I had heard that late English Newspapers contained articles of intelligence from New-York to the 14 February; and that they said Mr. Foster the British Minister was in Negotiation with our Secretary of State, Mr. Monroe; and it was expected that a Treaty would be concluded. I could say nothing on this subject from my own Government; but my own opinion was that no such Treaty could be concluded — I was perfectly sure it could not, unless the revocation of the British orders in Council should be one of its explicit conditions — If Mr. Foster is authorized to stipulate for the revocation of the orders, a Treaty is possible — The Count asked how I thought France in that case would take it? I said I did not know; but I believed the American Government would not enquire whether France would take it well or ill. It was the right of the United States as a neutral Nation to trade with France, that the American Government was bound to protect — it was denied them by the British Orders of Council, and unless restored by the revocation of those orders, I had no doubt but the United States would vindicate it by War — But I did not anticipate a Declaration of War by the United States at present. The measures that had been taken this Winter, were measures of preparation — Upon the ocean we could do nothing — If hostilities were to commence there, they must come from the part of England, and not from ours — To attack the British upon our Continent we must be prepared — A bill for raising 25000 men had been passed by Congress. They must be raised by voluntary enlistment for we had no system of conscription. It was a difficult, and slow work to raise, organize and discipline 25000 men — I did not think it could be done in less time than the present year; nor should we commit the folly of commencing or declaring War before we could do something to maintain it — But unless the orders in Council were revoked, a War eventually must be their result — Did I think it probable they would be revoked? — No — every present prospect was to the contrary — I thought their existence now depended solely upon that of Mr. Perceval as prime Minister in England & Did I think Mr. Perceval would remain Prime Minister? — I believed he would — Was it not probable the Marquis of Wellesley would come in again; after the Catholic question shall be disposed of? — I thought not — But how was it possible that the English Regent should be so fascinated (said the Count) by Mr. Perceval, un homme a ce quil me parait, assez Mediocre, in preference to Wellesley, whose Career has been so much more brilliant, and who appears to have rendered real services to the Nation — a man especially so important to the affairs in Spain? — I said I had my suspicions that the Catholic question was little more than the ostensible cause of Lord Wellesley's retirement, and that a much more efficacious real cause, was the state itself of affairs in Spain. But how so? — There was a good deal of misunderstanding, between the British Government, and that of the Spaniards at Cadiz — It had already proceeded so far that the English had threatened to abandon them — Lord Wellesley must before this time have strong misgivings about the ultimate issue of their Cause in Spain — He may be glad to retire from his particular stake upon it, while it has yet the shew, of being unimpaired — The Count said he thought it very probable, and that the motive would be a very rational one — I then asked him if he expected very soon to leave the City? — Very shortly — within two or three days — The Emperor had finally resolved to go, and review the situation of his army on the frontiers — He should very shortly send me a written notice that during his absence, the business of the Department of foreign Affairs would again be entrusted to Count Soltikoff, as it had been heretofore — A person of great merit; and very deserving of the choice the Emperor had fixed upon him — I said that I could not but regret his the Chancellor's own absence, and wish that it might be short; but that if that must be, it would have been impossible for any appointment of the Emperor's choice to have fallen upon a person whom I esteemed and respected more than Count Soltikoff, or with whom it would be more agreeable to me to have the usual official relations — He said that his own departure was necessary; though he regretted it much; and he intimated that his advice had been not to go — But the Emperor had decided otherwise — The forces which were assembled on the frontiers, were immense — On both sides — There was in History, scarcely any thing like it — It was like Romance — What it would come to he knew not — That perpetual restlessness and agitation of the Emperor Napoleon, was such that it was impossible to say how it would terminate — And the most extraordinary of all was that there was no Cause of War — On the part of this Country, the affair of the Duchy of Oldenburg was the only object — Russia had made a Declaration in that case reserving her rights, but in that very Declaration had explicitly stated that she did not consider it as a cause for renouncing the Alliance or for changing the course of her policy — I said that from the late Report of the Duke of Bassano to the Emperor Napoleon, it would seem that the principles assumed by France, went to a total exclusion of all Commerce from the Country of her friends, as the English orders of Council went to a total exclusion of all commerce from France itself — But, said the Count, a total exclusion of all Commerce is impossible — You might as well set up a total exclusion of all air to breathe, or all food to subsist upon, from a whole Nation, as a total exclusion of Commerce — You must have Commerce in some shape — Either lawful and regular, or by contraband, and licenses — The system of licences is founded upon falsehood and immorality — A Sovereign who countenances such vices is no longer a sovereign — It is a virtual abdication of his authority — He is a sovereign for that very purpose to maintain justice and morality — And to give his sanction to falsehood and injustice, is in substance ceasing to reign.
[May 1812]
14. Morning visit from Mr. Harris. I walked before and after dinner in the Summer Gardens. In the morning I met and walked with the French Ambassador and had much Conversation with him — He still professes to hope that the War will not commence at present. But since the Emperor's departure he is in a manner left here with nothing to do — He says if Nesselrode had been sent to Paris, he is sure there would have been no War this year — But I asked him whether the late trial at Paris, in which Nesselrode's name was a little involved would not have hurt him — He said no — The matter would not have been made so public — Chernicheff was the only person who in that matter could have been peculiarly obnoxious; and it would have been enough to have ordered him away from France — The Ambassador however now speaks with some appearance of dissatisfaction of what is done here — dwells upon trifles — complains that Count Romanzoff is slow, and irresolute — talks of offensive publications in the Journal du Nord — He hinted that he had complained of them to Count Soltykoff, who had answered him by referring to the like publications offensive to Russia in the French Gazettes — Oh! you recriminate, do you? well! I despise les folliculaires too much to say any more about it — He adds that he goes into no Society — Visits no where — because he finds every body so shy of him, that he perceives his presence is irksome — He finds his situation therefore extremely insipid — I took Charles to walk with me after dinner — Found Mr. Haven and Mr. Plummer Evening visitors when I returned home — The weather is almost at summer heat.
15. Morning visit from Mr. Montreal — Walks in the Summer-Garden before and after dinner — There is still a remnant of the Ice from the Ladoga, floating down upon the river, and the atmosphere is at Summer-heat — I saw a tree in the open air, almost in full leaf — The grass has begun to shoot up, in the Summer-Garden, and is entirely green — On returning home this Evening I found Count St. Julien upon a visit. He persists in his opinion that the scarcity will prevent the War — The Count was perfectly good-humoured, and avowed his prejudices against the Class of Merchants, without reserve — He says they are the Cause of all these Wars, without ever taking part in them, or suffering from them — They fatten and grow rich upon the misery, and blood of Nations — That they have no Country, but their Counting-house — No God but Gain — That they will traffic with the Enemies of their Nation as readily as with their friends, and supply him with provisions, ammunition, arms, any thing that he wants to destroy their own Countrymen — He was a Nobleman, and it was natural he should not like Merchants — It was the _Caste_ of Society that he esteemed and respected the least of all — He was a military-man; and there was a natural antipathy between the soldier and the pedlar — He had ransomed some towns, and burnt some villages, in the course of his profession, but there was a reason of public necessity for it — But the merchants, burnt and destroyed by little and little — they consumed by defrauding on all sides — It was nothing to them who was victorious or who vanquished; they made their profit with equal indifference out of all — He had seen them at Vienna, after the French had been in possession of the City — To them it was as if nothing had happened — They sold their goods as freely to the frenchmen, and took the money pressed out from the Contributions of their Countrymen, as gaily as if it had been a public Jubilee — This was all said in a careless, rattling, good humoured tone, and is a sample of Austrian, or High Dutch feelings. Military Arrogance — and the radical prejudices of German Nobility — The Dark side of the commercial Character does present features by no means amiable, or respectable, and the Count seized them with sufficient sagacity — But the fair side, would present others which restore the balance of comparative merit; and in the estimate of impartial Justice place the Commercial _Caste_ , if not upon a level with the rest, at least by their side and not far beneath them — Had a sensible merchant been present, if he could not have justified his profession from the Count's reproaches, he might have turned the tables upon him, either as a Warrior, a Noble, a Courtier or a Diplomatist, all of which classes have vices of Condition, at least as odious as any that can be imputed to the merchants; and from those vices, the Count himself is by no means exempt — At my own house, and in the presence of my own family, only, I did not think it proper to discuss the subject with the Count, or to touch him in his tender parts, as the champion of the Merchants.
31. ≈ I read this day in the English Preacher Vol. 7 the Sermons 3 and 4, On Humility — Plain and Sensible Discourses, on a Subject of importance, but concerning which my mind is not settled to its own satisfaction — Humility, as this preacher Remarks, is a _mediate_ Virtue, between the excesses of Pride, and Pusillanimity. He also well observes, that although between those two Vices and perfectly distinct from them both, it resembles the latter more than the former, and that the former is the more general and predominating vice than the latter — He expatiates well upon the nature of Humility — Its excellence as a Christian Virtue; and the duty and proper means of cultivating it — But the great difficulty with regard to all these intermediate moral Qualities, is in applying the principle to the practice of Life. I cherish the Virtue of Humility, in proportion to the scarcity of it in the world — When associated with active and energetic powers, it is truly admirable — But there is great danger in that Humility, which implies the sacrifice of one's own Judgment to the opinions and wishes of others — In all the relations of Life, public and private, I have found this difficulty constantly recurring, and when compelled to decide, have erred sometimes in following the dictates of my own mind, and sometimes in yielding to the persuasions of others. The only true reliance is from above.
[June 1812]
24. I came in the course of my scripture reading this morning to Psalm 37 — Fret not thyself because of evil-doers &c and was much struck with its excellent and profound morality — The duty of reliance upon the retributive Justice of God, without being staggered either by the transient prosperities of the wicked, or by the afflictions of the good is inculcated with a force of sentiment, and an energy of expression such as I have never met with in any of the profane writers. Plutarch's Treatise on the delays of divine Justice, and Juvenal's 13th Satire are not comparable to it — they contain with more diffusion a part of the same doctrine — But this Psalm was written centuries before Homer, and a thousand years before Juvenal and Plutarch — There is not indeed in the Psalm any recurrence to the rewards and punishments of another life, and it leaves the argument entirely open for the sublime improvement of the Christian doctrine — But it is to be observed that one of its promises of blessedness (to the meek; for they shall inherit the Earth) is expressly quoted and repeated by our Saviour in his Sermon on the Mount. (Matt: V.5.) There is so much prosperity to the wicked in this world, and the good, as far as human nature can be called good, are followed by such great and manifold afflictions that some consolatory principle of trust upon divine Justice is necessary to the comfort of existence. I know of none equal to that in this Psalm, with the addition of the Christian faith — Morning visit from Mr. Montréal who told me that the Ambassador had now applied for his Passports to go away, for himself and all his family; but that he would not receive them untill Prince Kurakin shall be on the frontier — Afterwards I had a visit from the Ambassador himself, who told me that Prince Kurakin having for the third time demanded his Passports, they had been sent to him, and that it appeared the Emperor of Russia was determined not to negotiate at-all — That with his last demand for Passports the Prince had sent a Note, offering, on condition of the total evacuation by French troops, of the Prussian Territories, as a preliminary, that the Emperor Alexander would then do, what I, said the Ambassador have been urging and intreating them to do, these twelve months; that is, send powers to treat about the Duchy of Oldenburg. — And the Duke of Bassano, has sent me an English Newspaper, printed before Prince Kurakin presented his Note, and containing not only the substance of it, but the very words, excepting that it says that if the French do not evacuate Prussia, the Emperor of Russia will have War — This the Prince's Note does not say; but otherwise it is in the precise terms of the Article in the English Newspaper. As to the condition, how was it possible to suppose that we could comply with a preliminary dishonourable to ourselves — A proposition which after the Battle of Friedland we never thought of making to Russia on our part — Count St Julien, and all the Ministers of the Rhenish Confederation, have asked for their Passports also, and have received the same answer — Count Soltikoff had told me before that he was authorized to grant passports for us Ministers; but now he tells me he has dispatched my demand to Wilna — I asked him how this happened after what he had assured me; but he said, "Oh, mais a présent c'est autre chose" — So I suppose they keep us as hostages. As to Count St. Julien, he used to say to me "Ah! Monsieur l'Ambassadeur, you are going away, and I shall have all the women to myself." — But he too has asked for his Passports. For my own part; as soon as I cross the line at Polangen, I shall turn round; put on my uniform, and commence soldier again — I am sorry for it; for I should like, to be once for all one thing or another. — Thus it appears that the Rubicon is passed, and before this moment the dogs of War may be loose — The Ambassador asked me to take charge of some papers, relating merely to individuals, and which might even be delivered up if demanded. I told him I would with pleasure take them — I walked after dinner in the Summer Gardens; and observed from the strand upon the Quay the setting of the sun. Our Italian footman was detected this Evening in thieving.
28. Mr. Rayneval the Secretary of the French Embassy called upon me this morning to take leave — He goes this Night as a Courier, with his wife; and is not unconcerned, as to the safety of his passage out of the Country — He told me that a Courier had arrived last Night from Wilna in 47 hours, with the news that hostilities had commenced — that the French had passed the Nieman or Memel River at Kovno, which we found upon the great Russian Map — On their passage the Russian troops there had retired. The two Empresses it was expected he said would return to the City this Evening; and would reside here — It was said to be customary in time of War — or at least in Wars "un peu interessantes" — They have not been more than a week or ten days in the Country — I received the letter from Mr. Russell, brought by Mr. Proud — The French Ambassador paid us a visit in the Evening — He is yet waiting for his Passports from Wilna — He thinks the passage of the River at Kovno a very formidable manoeuvre, and says that it cuts off four divisions from the Russian line — _Now_ , he says they are quite astonished at it here, because they expected to be attacked on the side of Grodno; and _now_ they begin to be sorry that Passports were refused him for going to Wilna — I rode out with the Ladies and Children to Kammenoi ostrof, and walked home — Read Sermons 9 and 10 Vol. 7 of the English Preacher — on the folly of imitating popular and fashionable Vices, and on Justice — The precept thou shalt not follow a Multitude to do evil, is one of the most difficult to be practised, of all the Virtues prescribed in the Bible — Few of us are sensible how much we yield to the prevailing Spirit of others; nor is it always perfectly clear when compliance and when resistance is the duty — A just and sober judgment, a pure intention, and an ardent desire to do right are the qualities for which it becomes us to offer unceasing prayers to Heaven.
30. The St. Petersburg Gazette of this morning contains the Emperor's Rescript to Count Nicholas Soltykoff, the President of the Imperial Council, announcing the invasion of the Russian Territories by the French; and his Resolution never to make Peace, so long as an enemy remains in arms upon his territory.
[July 1812]
9. ≈ I called on Count Lauriston, at the Hotel du Nord, where he has a good suite of Apartments — I met Count Bussche there — The Ambassador said he had applied to Count Soltykoff to be informed whether he was to consider himself detained as a hostage or as a prisoner — Count Soltykoff had told him that he was perfectly innocent — That he received himself no answers from Head Quarters, not only on this but on any subject — Talking of the War, Bussche said he had been yesterday to purchase some fusees to make sport for his children — That he had seen a very large board painted with a Fame and Trumpets, and many Military trophies, as a transparency for an illumination — He asked what it was, and was told it had been ordered by the Empress-Mother — Ay! said the Ambassador! — they prepare for illumination before hand — I know they will illuminate, let the Event be what it will — But I shall look the next day after upon the map, to see where the Head-Quarters are; and perhaps they will be at Smolensk — He mentioned, and Mr. Harris had told me the same thing before that the Russians expected there would be a great Battle to day; because this was the anniversary of the Battle of Pultawa — It was the anniversary too of the Peace of Tilsit; at which time the Emperor Alexander, said to the Emperor Napoleon; that it was the _second_ time Russia _had been saved_ on that day. Count Lauriston added archly; the Emperor Napoleon laid up this remark, in his Memory — he has not forgotten it; and he probably has not waited for this day. — After I came home I had visits from Mr. Slade and Mr. Kimball — Mr. Slade shewed me a letter from London of 19 June, from which it would appear the British Ministers had concluded to repeal the Orders in Council, _conditionally_.
11. I am forty-five years old — Two thirds of a long life are past, and I have done Nothing to distinguish it by usefulness to my Country, or to Mankind — I have always lived with I hope a suitable sense of my duties in Society, and with a sincere desire to perform them — But Passions, Indolence, weakness and infirmity have sometimes made me swerve from my better knowledge of right, and almost constantly paralyzed my efforts of good — I have no heavy charge upon my Conscience — for which I bless my Maker, as well as for all the enjoyments that he has liberally bestowed upon me — I pray for his gracious kindness in future — But it is time to cease forming fruitless Resolutions. ≈
12. The leisure of the day was employed in writing to America, for Mr. Plummer — I had no interruption — After dinner I rode out to Kammanoi Ostrof, and walked home with Charles — Read Sermons 13 and 14 of the English Preacher Vol. 7. On the Irreligion usually attending on great Riches; by Sherlock; and on the duty of Charity, by Seed — Both very good discourses — The Commentary upon the Parable of the rich Man and Lazarus is ingenious, but whether just or not, may be questioned — Hard heartedness at least as well as irreligion may be inferred from the Narrative as having been the rich Man's crime — They naturally go hand-in-hand — A man without religion can never have a very strong feeling of humanity — nor can one truly religious be without it.
13. Mr. Montreal paid me a morning visit; and Mr. Fisher brought me letters he had just received for me from Archangel — They were from my father, mother and brother — The latest, dated 12 April — I was engaged almost the whole day in writing, to send by Mr. Plummer — After dinner I rode to Kammenoi Ostroff and walked home — Our youngest child has been these two days and nights very sick — I have myself been suffering with a Cold — The French Ambassador called this Evening, while we were out.
[August 1812]
1. Mr. Woodward brought me this morning from Mr. Slade a slip from an English Newspaper, of 10 July, containing Articles of intelligence from America to 13 June, which reduce it almost to a certainty that War against England was declared within a week from that time. Mr. Harris afterwards sent me the Morning Chronicle from 4 to 10 July — After dinner I rode to Kammenoi-Ostrof, and walked home. Returning, I met Mr. Harris, and walked with him. Notice had been given yesterday from the police to the Inhabitants of the City that the Emperor being expected this day, in case of his arrival they must illuminate their houses. Mr. Harris told me he had just come from the square of the Cazan Church, where a great crowd of People were assembled, waiting for the Emperor, that being the first place to which he would go, to attend a religious service. — He did not however arrive.
2. The Emperor was expected all this day but did not arrive. I rode to Kammanoi-Ostroff, and walked in Count Strogonoff's Gardens, with the Ladies — I also walked home — Met Mr. Plummer on the Quay. The Evening was uncommonly fine; and remarkably warm. I read the Sermons 3, 4, and 5, Vol. 8 of the English Preacher — On the spiritual Nature of the Christian Worship — Sterne's Vindication of human Nature; and on the peculiar infamy of vice in an enlightened age — I likewise read some pages in Watts's Logic; on the doctrine of Prejudices — which occasioned the reflection how excessively difficult it is to divest one's self of prejudices; and how much more difficult still to discard prejudices, without falling into indifference with regard to important truth. I believe the best guard against prejudice is a frequent examination of our opinions, and a cool estimate of the arguments opposed to them — You must as Cicero says identify yourself in imagination, first with your adversary and then with your judge — and above all you must have resolution to abide by the result even if it should be adverse to your preconceived opinions. The victory over prejudice is a Conquest of one's self. — It is better than to be the ruler of a City.
5. Bathed and walked in the Summer Gardens this morning before Breakfast — I attended from Noon, untill 4 in the afternoon, at the sale of the Chevalier de Bray's furniture — There I met Don Francisco Colombi and Mr. Zea, who informed me that Count Wittgenstein had totally defeated Marshal Oudinot, with great slaughter; and had taken his baggage, Artillery, and three thousand prisoners. — In Spain too he said all was going on well, and Lord Wellington was at Salamanca. — After dinner I had a visit from Claude Gabriel, the Black Man in the Emperor's service who went to America last Summer for his wife and children, and who is now come back with them — He complains of having been very ill-treated in America, and that he was obliged to lay aside his superb dress, and sabre which he had been ordered to wear, but which occasioned people to insult and even beat him. ≈
6. ≈ Mr. Proud dined with us, and brought with him the New-York Commercial Advertiser of 22 June, containing the Message from the President of the United States to Congress communicating the sequel of the Correspondence between Mr. Monroe, and Mr. Foster, and recommending a Declaration of War — The Report of the Committee of Foreign Relations upon this Message, also recommending an immediate appeal to arms — The Act, declaring War, approved 18 June — the Proclamation of the President, founded upon the Act of Congress — and the yeas and nays in both Houses upon the Act, 79 to 49 in the House of Representatives; and 19 to 13 in the Senate — Two Senators, Mr. Bradley and Mr. Whitesides absent.
[September 1812]
2. ≈ Visited also the Chevalier de Bezerra and his Lady — He knew a few particulars from the army and the Emperor which I had not heard, and was uninformed of others which I told him. It appears by all the accounts from the army that after four days of very severe battle, in all of which the Russians were victorious, they evacuated and set fire to Smolensk, and have since been constantly retreating. But the whole blame is laid upon the then Commander in Chief Barclai de Tolli — The loss of the French in killed, wounded, prisoners, and artillery taken, was much greater than that of the Russians, and General Kutuzoff arrived at the head-quarters last Saturday — He met on his way, and took back with him General Bennigsen, who is to command the first army, in the room of Barclai de Tolli — Kutuzoff is Commander in Chief of all the active armies — The Emperor Alexander has had his interview with the Prince Royal of Sweden (Bernadotte) at Abo, and is quite charmed with him.
6. I received this morning a note from Madame de Stael requesting me to call upon her at the Hotel de l'Europe at 4 O'Clock this afternoon; concerning something relative to America. I first went out with Dr. Galloway to Ochta — The child continues with little and occasional abatement in the rigorous symptoms of her disorder — No appearance of the teeth — No encouragement for any sentiment in our hearts but that of resignation — I took Dr. Galloway with me to Mr. Moxon's on the Apothecarys Island; returned home, and at four O'Clock called upon Madame de Stael — I found Lord Cathcart the newly arrived British ambassador with her — Also Admiral Bentinck, a young man who appeared to be an attendant upon Lord Cathcart — Madame de Stael's son and daughter — A son of Admiral Bentinck, a boy, and two or three other men whom I could not ascertain — To every soul in the room I was a total Stranger. Madame de Stael was in very animated conversation with Lord Cathcart, and expressing in warm terms her admiration of the English Nation, as the preservers of social order and the Saviours of Europe. She also complimented his Lordship very highly upon his exploit at Copenhagen — My lord looked a little awkward at the size and rankness of the Lady's applause; to the personal tribute offered to himself he made no answer; but to the besmearing of his Nation he answered that his Nation was a Nation which as such felt itself bound by Moral Obligations, which it would always fulfill, and to which it would never be false — I thought of the Moral Obligations of the Copenhagen Expedition and of the American revolutionary War — Lord Cathcart had his share in both — The English talk much about their honour and National Morality, sometimes without meaning; but generally with a mixture of hypocrisy and of self-delusion in about equal portions — Dr. Johnson in one of his poems honestly avows that in his time, English honour had become a standing jest; and it has assuredly not since then improved — The Lord and Lady conversed also, about his journey from Sweden to this place, upon which his Carriage overset, and rolled down-hill, and upon her journey here, and her fears of a water passage — She is to leave the City to-morrow — Admiral Bentinck seemed a little uneasy, under the close siege of compliments which was laid to the Ambassador, and when his Lordship took leave and went away, said as if he felt relieved "thank God! that is finished!" The Admiral himself immediately afterwards went away to his Lodgings, where the Baroness was to go and take him up, to go somewhere together to dinner — She had then leisure for some conversation with me — She has lands in the State of New-York upon Lake Ontario — and stocks in the United States funds, and she wished to enquire how she could continue to receive her interest, in England while there is War between U.S. and Great-Britain — This introduced a Conversation upon the War, which appeared to be to her a topic far more interesting, than the affairs upon which she had sent to consult me — But as she was going out to dinner, she desired me to come again to-morrow morning, and asked me why I had not been to see her before; having known her father by reputation — She said she had read my father's Book with great pleasure, and that her father had often spoken of it with great esteem — In the Evening I went again out to Ochta — with Mr. Smith — Read some pages in Paley, and Sermons 14 and 15 Vol. 8 of the English preacher — On the Story of Joseph; and on the Lord's Supper.
7. I called again upon Madame de Stael this morning, and had a second long Conversation with her upon politics — She is one of the highest enthusiasts for the English Cause that I have ever seen — But her sentiments appear to be as much the result of personal resentment against Bonaparte, as of general views of public affairs — She complains that he will not let her live in peace any where — merely because she had not praised him in her works — She left the City this day for Stockholm — Dr. Galloway went with me again to Ochta before dinner. The Child grows weaker from day to day; and this day has symptoms of convulsions — In the Evening however she appeared better and slept quietly. Mrs. Krehmer spent the Evening there — I staid untill past eleven at Night myself.
10. Dr. Galloway and Dr. Simpson now attend upon the Child together — They both consider her case as very alarming, and I am endeavouring to prepare my mind for the will of Her and my Creator. The agitation of mind occasioned by her illness, is so great that I have neither time for the ordinary occupations of my life, nor recollection of its common incidents. I have had in the course of the few last days several visitors, but have hardly the remembrance of their names, or of the occasions of their visits.
14. The last Night and this day passed over without terminating the sufferings of my poor Child; whose mother could not keep herself long absent from her. She returned this Morning to her Cradle, and would not leave it again, farther than to the adjoining chamber. Renewed blisters, warm baths, and injections of Laudanum and Digitalis have been tried during the last two days, with no favourable effect. Dr. Simpson ordered the night before last, the hair to be cut off from her head; and this day as a last resource a blister was applied on the back of the head — a gleam of involuntary hope was kept alive this day from an apparent relaxation of the extreme rigour of the symptoms — It continued untill about eight this Evening; from which time, no possibility remained of upholding a sentiment of hope — As the last moments of the sweet sufferer drew near, their terrors overpowered the strength of Catherine Johnson, who for the preceding forty-eight hours had scarcely for an instant moved from the side of the Cradle — She had a fainting fit; but in half an hour resumed her place by it again — Mr. Smith also attended there at my request — I was there myself as frequently as I could for a few minutes my dear wife, who was suffering little less than her Child.
15. The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away — Blessed be the name of the Lord — At twenty-five minutes past one this morning, expired my daughter, Louisa-Catherine, as lovely an infant as ever breathed the air of Heaven — It becomes me not to murmur at the dispensations of Divine Providence — Believing in the existence of another and a better world than this, I humbly trust in the hope, that her agonies, long and severe as they were atoned here for all the imperfections of her nature, derived from earthly Parents, and that her transition from the pangs of death to the bliss of Heaven was instantaneous, and complete. Her last moments were distressing to me and to her mother, beyond expression. Catherine Johnson was beside the Cradle, but unconscious of the moment of her departure — She was immediately seized with violent illness herself, which continued the whole Night — My dear wife to whom it was my lot to communicate the bitter knowledge of the Event fainted for a few minutes, but received the shock with a resignation and fortitude, which manifested that her strength had been proportioned to her trial — I sent immediately for the physicians and for the surgeon — none of whom came however untill the morning. Catherine was then bled, but was confined to her bed the remainder of the day — Mr. Smith at my request called upon Dr. Pitt and Mr. Gray, the Clerk of the English Church, to whom I gave the directions necessary for performing the last sad offices to the remains of my Child — Mr. Harris called on me twice in the course of the day, and obligingly offered me every assistance in his power — I sent out to request Mrs. Krehmer to come and see my distressed wife and her Sister — She came, and passed the day in acts of kind and soothing Consolation. — The latter part of the day, my wife was very ill — Mr. Smith watches this Night — I sent in the Evening to Mr. Fisher and Mr. Harris, but neither of them was at home.
17. At eleven O'Clock this morning the funeral service was performed by Dr. Pitt, over the remains of my beloved child, in the presence of Mrs. Krehmer, the Chevalier Bezerra, Mr. Harris, and Mr. Smith: with Charles and myself — Mrs. Krehmer, Mr. Harris and Mr. Smith accompanied me with her to the grave, in the Church-yard of the British factory, on the Wasili-Ostrof — I saw her deposited in her last earthly mansion; on an elevated spot of ground, immediately behind the tomb of poor Blodget — After returning home, I took a walk to the Summer-Gardens with Charles; and in the Evening read a few pages of Miss More's Coelebs and of Dr. Clarke's Travels in Russia — I endeavour to collect my scattered Spirits, and to seek consolation for the heavy Calamity that has befallen me, by reflecting on the mercies of divine Providence — Perhaps an affectionate parent feeling only for the happy existence of his child could wish no better for it, than that it might be transported to the abodes of blessedness, before it has lived to endure the pangs and sorrows inseparable from existence in the body — As life is the gift of God, and is obviously given for enjoyment, it becomes us not to say that the gift is without value — It is our duty to be grateful for it, as given to ourselves and to those who are dear to us — Yet in the fallen Condition of Man, so much of unavoidable bitterness is mingled up in the cup of human being upon Earth that we ought perhaps to be no less grateful to God for the Death of a tenderly beloved Child than for its life — Thus much reason may suggest though Nature relucts at the conclusion — Had it pleased God to prolong the life of my darling infant, to what miseries, distresses and sufferings might she not have been reserved? How often, and how cruelly might the ills inevitable which would have befallen her have rent her own heart as well as mine? In the bosom of her Father and her God, she has no more suffering to endure, and I may hope is in the fruition of immortal bliss — These are soothing thoughts — But the bereavement of joy and comfort, to her mother and to me! how keen and severe it is! She was precisely at the age, when the first dawn of intelligence begins to reward the Parents pains and benefits — When every gesture was a charm — every look delight, every imperfect but improving accent, at once rapture and promise — To all this we have been called to bid adieu! And in renouncing all those expectations of exquisite enjoyment of which we had fondly looked forward to the prospect, we are stung by the memory of what we already enjoyed in her beaming intelligence and angelic temper — Let us bow with humility, reverence and resignation to the chastening hand of God; and pray that he would sanctify to our improvement, in piety and virtue, an affliction, which for the present is not joyous, but inexpressibly grievous.
21. ≈ At seven this Evening I called by appointment upon Count Romanzoff, who told me that he had asked to see me by the Emperor's command; That having made peace, and re-established the relations of amity and commerce with England, the Emperor was much concerned and disappointed to find the whole benefit which he expected his subjects would derive commercially from that event defeated and lost by the new War which had arisen between the United States and England — That he had thought there were various indications that there was on both sides a reluctance at engaging and prosecuting this War, and it had occurred to the Emperor, that perhaps an amicable arrangement of the differences between the parties might be accomplished more easily and speedily by indirect than by a direct Negotiation — That His Majesty had directed him to see me and to enquire, whether I was aware of any difficulty or obstacle on the part of the Government of the United States, if he should offer his Mediation for the purpose of effecting a pacification. — I answered that it was obviously impossible for me to speak on this subject, any otherwise than from the general knowledge which I had of the Sentiments of my Government. That I was so far from knowing what their ideas were with regard to the continuance of the War, that I had not to this day received any official communication of its Declaration — But that I well knew, it was with extreme reluctance they had engaged in the War; that I was very sure, whatever determination they might form upon the proposal of the Emperor's Mediation, they would receive and consider it as a new Evidence of His Majesty's regard and friendship for the United States; and that I was not aware of any obstacle or difficulty which could occasion them to decline accepting it — For myself, I so deeply lamented the very existence of the War, that I should welcome any facility for bringing it to a just and honourable termination — I lamented it, because I thought that the only Cause which had made it absolutely unavoidable, was actually removed at the moment when the Declaration was made. If the course which had been adopted by my Government had been such as I could not in my own mind approve, it would not become me, to censure it — But it was not so — The Declaration of the English Regent in April, and the letter which Mr. Foster had written to the American Secretary of State in communicating it, had as it appeared to me left the American Government no alternative, but an immediate appeal to arms, or a dishonourable abandonment of all the unquestionable rights for which they had contended, and even the essential characteristics of an independent Nation — The blame of the War was therefore entirely on the English side; but the war itself was not the less disagreeable to me — I lamented it particularly as occurring at a period when from my good wishes for Russia, and the Russian Cause, I should have rejoyced to see Friendship and Harmony taking place between America and England, rather than Discord and Hostility. I knew the War would affect unfavourably the interests of Russia — I knew it must be highly injurious both to the United States and England — I could see no good result as likely to arise from it to any one — Nothing but mischief; and gratification to the makers of mischief — The Count said he had considered it altogether in the same light — and so had the Emperor — who was sincerely concerned for it, and who had himself conceived this idea of offering his mediation — He thought an indirect negotiation, conducted here, and aided by the conciliatory wishes of a friend to both parties, might smooth down difficulties, which in direct discussion between the principals might be found insuperable — To a mutual friend, each party might exhibit all its complaints and all its claims without danger of exciting irritations or raising impediments — The part of Russia would only be to hear both sides, and to use her best endeavours to conciliate them. — I said, the Count was aware that there was a third party to be consulted as to the proposal — the British Government — He said the proposal had already been suggested by him to the British Ambassador, and he had yesterday dispatched an account of it to his Court — I asked if I could obtain a Courier's Passport, to communicate the information to my Government — He said it might be furnished in a manner that the person should be dispatched as a Russian Courier — I asked him if he could obtain from Lord Cathcart any paper which should operate as security from capture by British Cruizers — as in that case I presumed I could find an American vessel here to carry the dispatches — He said he would ascertain and inform me in the course of a very few days — And he should write to Mr. Daschkoff to repeat the same proposal to the Government of the United States — The Count dwelt earnestly on the Emperor's regard for the U.S. and added that the Emperor was fully sensible of the great advantage to the interests of his People, resulting from the commercial relations with America — He said it manifested itself even in objects of a light Nature — He, the Count had received from Mr. Daschkoff a picture — a view of Mr. Jefferson's Seat — and upon his mentioning it to the Emperor, His Majesty had insisted upon seeing it himself. — The Count was obliging in his enquiries, and condolence upon my domestic misfortune — His Countenance retains strong traces of the illness he had at Wilna; and he complained of having taken Cold at the funeral of Baron Budberg; one of his predecessors in the Department of foreign Affairs. He read me a note which he received while I was with him from Lord Cathcart, with news from England and Spain — Of the English and Allies having taken Madrid. — After leaving the Count I called on Mr. Kimball, and left with him a letter for my Mother — He and Mr. Haven are going to-morrow morning for Gothenburg.
24. Mr. Montréal called upon me again this morning. The reports that the French are in possession of Moscow continue to obtain credit, and it is said there was a formal capitulation; but nothing has yet been officially published by the Government respecting it.
30. I called at one afternoon upon Mr. Laval — I found Mr. Harris there — Madame de Laval talked much about going to England. ≈ I had some further Conversation with Mr. Laval — He says there are dreadful accounts of the burning at Moscow, since the French entered it. There were two attempts made to burn the houses next to that where he had taken his Quarters — in consequence of which his troops set fire to the City, in many places at once, and it is feared that the whole City may be destroyed — The Emperor Alexander, since the loss of Moscow, has said publicly at his own table "il ny a qu'un coquin, qui puisse prononcer actuellement le mot de paix." His Spirit stiffens with Adversity — The situation of the French army, in the midst of their Triumphs, is considered as absolutely desperate — It is supposed that Napoleon wishes to Negotiate; and this is the strongest reason for the determination not to negotiate here — But the Emperor Alexander is not satisfied with the conduct of his Generals; nor pleased that he made Kutuzoff a Field-Marshal, and gave him 100,000 Rubles, for a victory, the immediate result of which was the loss of Moscow — Kutuzoff says in his last Report that in the Council of War, by advice of which he abandoned Moscow, some of the principal Generals were of a different opinion — There were three — Bennigsen, Konovnizyn, and Doktoroff; for fighting another Battle — Bennigsen has written, that untill and including the Battle of Borodino, his advice was followed in every thing — Since then not at-all. The defensive and Fabian System is certainly painful and costly in its operation; and may perhaps not be calculated for a Country situated like Russia — But it has not yet had its full trial — The time of real danger to the invaders is now but just commencing, and it is a species of warfare to which Napoleon is not accustomed, and for which he may not be prepared.
[October 1812]
19. ≈ Mr. Rapatel told me that he had just left Baron Armfeldt who informed him that a Courier arrived in the Night, who left the Russian great army engaged in a general Battle with the French — He thinks that the French army, are about to abandon Moscow, and retire back into Poland — He himself is going to Sweden — He says the Emperor had intended to send him to the great army; but he had requested to be employed, either upon this expedition from Sweden, or at General Tormassoff's army; which is opposed chiefly to Austrians, and Saxons — He has a scruple against active service in opposition to Frenchmen — Mr. Harris also called upon me — His nephew will be ready to go next Sunday — I mentioned to him my idea, of asking Count Romanzoff, for a Courier's Passport as bearer of his despatches to Mr. Daschkoff; as it might afford him more certain protection from British capture than if he went as an American Courier. — He was gratified with the proposal — Mr. Harris told me that Dr. Creighton had mentioned to him, that Sir Robert Wilson when he was here had said to him at his table, that Mr. Perceval just before his Death had assured him Sir Robert Wilson, that it was his intention to make War against the United States of America, and that he had good grounds for the expectation that it would end in the restoration of the British authority, over the _Northern Provinces_ of the American Union.
24. I called this morning upon Count Löwenhielm at the Hotel de l'Europe, to ask him for a Passport for young Mr. Harris, to go through Sweden; which he promised he would send me. I found the Marquis de Paulucci with him; an Officer who has been of some note the last Spring and Summer. The Count told me the news, which he said was not a little important. Wittgenstein had taken Polotzk by storm — two thousand frenchmen killed — and Winzingerode was at Moscow; and his Cossacks fought with the French in the Streets of Moscow — Wittgenstein would now cross the Dwina and form his junction with the armies of Tormassoff and Tchitchagoff, and then — je prévois des douleurs. (to Bonaparte) The Count is as sangwine as he was last Spring; he thinks the destruction of the Emperor Napoleon and his army _inevitable_. Making every allowance for the exaggerations of prejudice and passion, it is obvious they are in great and imminent danger; and their inaction so long after the occupation of Moscow, is very unlike the former practice of Napoleon. — Paulucci said that he had committed the same imprudence in 1797, and had extricated himself from it by the Peace, which he was compelled to ask, and to which Austria then assented. But for that he was then perdu sans ressource — I have often heard this before — But he had then, and has now his greatest of all resources — a Battle — His fortunes and existence are staked upon that; and he has so long abused the favours of Fortune, that she will certainly finish by jilting him — Or rather Providence, (such is my belief) after using him for the purposes he is destined to answer, will exhibit him like another invader of Russia, "to point a moral or adorn a tale."
26. ≈ Met Mess'rs Willing, Redwood, Fisher and Plummer — who all told me the story of the capture of the British frigate, Guerrière, by our Frigate Constitution — I considered it as a joke, invented by some of the Americans here — and had indeed been told that it was — In the Evening Mr. Harris and his nephew called upon us, and spent a couple of hours with us — They had called upon me in the morning, and I had delivered my own dispatches and letters to young Mr. Harris, together with those of Count Romanzoff for Mr. Daschkoff — Admiral Bentinck offered to take any message from me to Madame de Stael.
27. About Noon this day the Report of Cannon from the fortress, announced that important and pleasing information from the armies, had been received; about half an hour afterwards Mr. Harris, the Consul came in. He had just come from Count Romanzoff's, where he had been with his nephew, upon a visit of taking leave. The news was a great victory of Marshal Kutuzoff, over the king of Naples, Murat, and the retaking of Moscow, by General Winzingerode's Corps. Though in atchieving it, Winzingerode was himself taken prisoner — In the Evening I received from the Grand-Master of the Ceremonies a Notification to attend a Te Deum to morrow morning, at the Kazan Church, on Account of these Events — The City was illuminated at Night — Mr. Harris jun'r came and took leave, and I gave him my last Letters — I walked with Charles to the Summer Gardens and in them, before dinner; and I spent the Evening in amusing, and teaching him. — Mr. Harris lent me an English Courier, of 6 October which he had borrowed from Count Romanzoff, containing a confirmation of the capture of the Guerriere frigate; but with it an account of the surrender of General Hull and his army; and of the taking of Fort Detroit by the British — It would be useless, and the attempt would be vain to express my sensations upon this Event. There are scarcely any details of the affair given — The honour of my Country! — Oh! God! suffer it not to go unredeemed!
[November 1812]
4. Went out with Catherine to Ochta, and dined at Mr. Krehmer's — Mr. Harris was there; Mrs. Pitt, the wife of the English clergyman — and two Mr. Gisborne's, sons of Dr. Gisborne the author, who live with Mr. Krehmer — There was much political conversation, characteristic, as well of the present state of affairs, as of the feelings of the Speakers — The Passions of almost all the politicians whom I now see and hear are concentrated upon the head of one man — It seems almost universally to be considered that the destinies of mankind hang upon his life alone, and in proportion to the force of this sentiment is the ardour for his death — I know not how it has been with former conquerors during their lives, but I believe there never was a human being who united against himself such a mass of execration and abhorrence as this man has done — There is indeed on the other hand, an admiration of him equally enthusiastic, as for every great conqueror there always must be; but I have never yet seen the person, by whom he was regarded with affection. — We returned home late this Evening — The first fall of snow, this Season was this day.
10. ≈ I read the remainder of Gisborne's principles of Moral Philosophy, and his Remarks on a decision in the British House of Commons in April 1792 on the abolition of the Slave-Trade — He is a very zealous advocate for this abolition, which has been since legally decreed in England as well as in America — Whether it will eventually be abolished in fact is yet a problem — The trade is beyond question, an abomination, disgraceful to the human character, but there are so many powerful passions and interests concurring to support it, and the efforts to obtain its abolition are themselves so much composed of fashion and faction that I still doubt whether the abolition will be accomplished. I say the motives of the abolitionists were in a great degree fashion and faction; for the Impressment of Seamen is to all intents and purposes a practice as unjust as immoral, as base, as oppressive and tyrannical as the slave-trade. It is in all its most heinous features identically the same crime — In some particulars it is more aggravated. And yet the same members of the British Parliament who have been the greatest zealots for abolishing the Slave-trade, are not only inflexible adherents to the practice of impressments among their own people, but are now waging a rancorous War against the United States, to support the practice of their Officers in impressing men from American Merchant vessels on the high-seas — Every particle of argument that can bear against the slave-trade bears with equal force against impressment — Dr. Gisborne is at least consistent — He admits that the Impressment of Seamen is a violation of the general principles of the English Constitution — And he speaks of it even as applied to British Subjects with disapprobation — He says nothing of the abuse of extending the practice to Americans, and upon American Vessels — And even his censure upon it as applied only to British Subjects is very faint and cold compared with his fervour of passion against the slave-trade. I also read in Smith's Essays on Philosophical subjects, part of his History of Astronomy.
25. This morning I received a notification from the Grand-Master of the Ceremonies Narishkin, that a Te Deum would be performed at the Cathedral Church of Kazan, at ½ past 11 O'Clock this forenoon, to return thanks for the defeat of the Enemy's Corps under the command of the Marshals d'Avoust and Ney. I went with Mr. Smith accordingly at the hour — It is the greatest victory that the Russians have gained since the War commenced, and is perfectly decisive of the fate of the Campaign, and of the Emperor Napoleon's main army — It is now morally impossible that the remnant of them should escape — In every probability they are at this hour all prisoners of War — He is lost without resource. — The trophies, among which is d'Avoust's Marshal's truncheon were exhibited in the Church. Tchernicheff, who has highly distinguished himself was present, as were General Winzingerode, and his Aid-de-Camp, young Narishkin, the Grand Chamberlain's Son, who were taken prisoners by a most extraordinary accident, when Winzingerode's Corps took Moscow, and were retaken by another accident no less extraordinary, on their way as prisoners to France — A few Cossacks of Tchernicheff's detachment released them — Tchernicheff has been promoted to the rank of a Major-General, and Aid de-Camp General to the Emperor, and appeared in his new Uniform — Joy and Triumph was upon every Countenance; but upon none with such transport as upon that of Madame Naryshkin, who went about with her Son by the hand, presenting him to all her friends, and saying she had nothing more to ask of Heaven — The Emperor and Imperial family performed their prostrations to the miraculous image of the Virgin; and the Emperor on leaving the Church was greeted with loud shouts of the Populace — After returning home I rode out with Catherine and Charles — Countess Colombi and her Sister Frederica dined and passed part of the Evening with us — Mr. Harris visited us at the close of the Evening. — There have been rumours of internal commotions at Paris, in Circulation sometime — They were much exaggerated in the Reports, but accounts from Sweden ascertain that they did take place even before the end of October, and before Napoleon's disasters had commenced — They were then suppressed; but they afford a presage of violent convulsions when the real Events of the last Month shall be sufficiently known to produce their effect — The Crisis is great and awful beyond all example — Almighty God, grant that it may turn to good! to Peace! to the relief of mankind from the dreadful Calamities of unbridled Ambition!
[December 1812]
1. ≈ The Ladies were to have gone to the Theatre, at which a French Opera had been announced — It was changed however for a Russian play — Great efforts have been made to obtain the dismissal of all the French players, and it has been repeatedly said that the Emperor had determined to dismiss them — The Russian public have manifested some uneasiness at their continuance here, and every thing french, even the language, has become an object of their abhorrence.
3. ≈ Within the compass of ten days the Russian armies have taken between forty and fifty-thousand prisoners — with Cannon, baggage, and ammunition in proportion — There is nothing like it in History since the days of Xerxes ≈ Count Romanzoff told me that he had sent the last letter I wrote him to the Emperor, who had been well pleased with it. — I asked him if he had received any answer from England, on the proposal of Mediation — He said it had not been rejected, but they had intimated an opinion, that it would not be acceptable to the American Government — That they expected something might be done after the new Election in America, by which the Count said he understood them to mean that Mr. Madison after being re-elected would be more pacifically inclined than he is at present — I said the English Government were much misinformed concerning American Affairs — I believed the Emperor's proposal would be very acceptable, whatever the Event of our election might be. — Lord Cathcart also said to me that the Elections for the new Parliament in England were now over; but said he they are more anxious there I believe about _your_ Elections than about our own — I said that our Election was of a different description from their's; it being not only of members of the Legislature but also of the head of the Executive Department — He said he was glad to observe that there did not appear to have been anything to excite rancour on either side — I told him, from the complexion of the Newspapers, I thought there was more of that in England than in America.
7. On returning this morning from my walk, I found a Note from Count Romanzoff, proposing a change of the time and place which he had fixed for seeing me; and asking me to call upon him between one and two O'Clock this afternoon at the Hotel of foreign Affairs; which I accordingly did. I told him that my motive for asking this Conversation with him was, that since I saw him last, I had received from my Government official notice of the Declaration of War by the United States against Great-Britain, together with a letter from the Secretary of State dated the first of July — That I had not received any instruction to make an official communication on the subject to this Government; but the Secretary of State had explicitly expressed the views of the American Government at that juncture, on several points, which I thought it important to communicate to him — The first was the desire of the United-States, that this War might be confined to them, and Great-Britain; that no other power might be involved in it — That the United States wished to preserve unimpaired their relations of Amity with all other powers, and that this wish was declared in a particular manner with regard to Russia. — That the War between Russia and France, though it could not then be known in America, to have commenced was anticipated as inevitable, and was a subject of great regret to the American Government. — That the state of our Affairs with France was said to be in an unsettled Condition, and there was not much expectation of any speedy settlement of them satisfactory to us — But that whatever course they might take, the American Government did not contemplate any more intimate connection with France; nor was it aware of any occurrence whatsoever, which could induce them to enter into any such connection — This sentiment I said was expressed in terms as strong as language could employ, and the desire of the United-States to maintain in their full extent the friendly and commercial relations with Russia, was in terms of equal earnestness — The Count said he was obliged to me for the Communication, which he was sure would be peculiarly agreeable to the Emperor, before whom he should lay the substance of it — That the Emperor's desire to maintain the friendly and commercial relations with the United-States were entirely reciprocal to those of the American Government; and it was the apprehension that they might be interrupted by the English, which had made him wish so sincerely the termination of this War ≈ He then asked me whether I had any late Intelligence from America, indicating the determination of the American Government, after the revocation of the orders in Council was known — I said I had not; but that although I was satisfied if that Revocation had been known the Declaration of War would not have been made, yet War being once declared there were other points of collision upon which an accommodation became essential, for the restoration of Peace: and upon the chief of these; the impressment of Seamen from our merchant vessels, it appeared the British Government would listen to Nothing. I then explained to the Count the nature and character of this practice, as exercised by the British naval Officers — the impossibility that any Nation having a sense of independence, and of the protection due to its own citizens should submit to it — or endure it without indignation; and I told him that two several proposals had been made by our Government to the British for a suspension of hostilities — The orders in Council to stand revoked; and they stipulating to discontinue the practice of impressment from American Vessels; the United States prohibiting by Law the employment of British Subjects either in their public ships or in private Merchant service — He said he thought the latter part of the stipulation could not easily be carried into Execution — I told him I did not think it could meet with much difficulty; but that at any rate the American Government having made the proposal would have been responsible for its execution. The British Ministers however had rejected it: and untill they should be willing to come to some accommodation upon this point I saw no prospect of a Peace — I was aware, and did not wish to disguise that there was an inherent difficulty, which made the British adverse to a compromise — The Count asked if they did not complain that they lost great numbers of their Seamen, by their becoming naturalized as Americans — I said it was not exactly that — There were very few British Sailors who ever were or could be naturalized as Americans; and I mentioned to him the Conditions of naturalization by our Laws, and the character of them, which makes it sure that few foreign seamen can avail themselves of them — But I said the American Sea-service, public and private was more attractive than the British — For our common Seamen were better fed, better paid, and better treated than English seamen are wont to be in their own service — It was natural therefore for English Sailors, to prefer our service to their own, and to seize every opportunity they could of entering it — This the English Government consider and complain of as seduction, and they have no other remedy against it than that violent and tyrannical practice of their naval Officers of stealing men from our merchant-vessels. I did not know that it would be possible ever to come to a compromise with them upon it; but I hoped if we could not hit upon any expedient for arranging it, he, the Count would furnish us with one — He said "il faudra travailler à cela" — and concluded by promising to give the Emperor an account of this Conversation, after which he said he would see me again.
24. The Emperor Alexander's birth-day, which for the first time since I have been here, passed over without any celebration; and almost without notice — There was a petty illumination of the Streets for about two hours in the Evening; and nothing more — The Country has suffered so much by the last Summer's invasion, and there have perished such great multitudes of the people and armies, while other multitudes still greater are reduced to ruin and beggary, that the Emperor himself has determined there should be no expensive festivities this winter at his Court; and he particularly forbade the customary celebration of his birth-day. — After passing two hours this Evening with Charles at the grammatical diversion, and reading about two more in Dr. Gisborne's Duties of Men, I was playing at Ombre with the Ladies, when I received a Note from Mr. Harris, with a London Gazette Extraordinary of 27 November, containing the official account (British) of the total defeat of the second American attempt to invade Upper Canada, and the surrender of General Wadsworth and 900 men. — The symptoms disclosed by these repeated shameful terminations, of impotent assaults, are distressing to the feelings of one who loves his Country. The reliance of man in all cases can only be upon Heaven — God grant, that these disasters instead of sinking, may rouse the Spirit of the Nation, and that they may learn, though from adversity, the skill and discipline which will be the pledges of their future prosperity!
31. ≈ I offer to a merciful God at the close of this year, my humble tribute of Gratitude, for the blessings with which he has in the course of it favoured me, and those who are dear to me — And I pray for a continuance of his Goodness — Above all I pray that He who worketh in us both to will and to do, may grant to me and mine that temper of Heart and that firmness of soul, which are best adapted duly to receive all His dispensations, whether joyous or afflictive — It has pleased him in the course of this year to lay his chastening hand upon me, and to try me with bitter sorrow. My endeavours to quell the rebellion of the Heart, have been sincere; and have been assisted with the blessing from above — As I advance in life; its evils multiply — the instances of mortality become more frequent, and approach nearer to myself — The greater is the need of fortitude to encounter the woes that flesh is heir to, and of religion to support pains for which there is no other remedy — Religious Sentiments become from day to day more constantly habitual to my mind — They are perhaps too often seen in this Journal — God alone can make even Religion a Virtue; and to him I look for aid that mine may degenerate into no vicious excess. For the future time may the favour of God, which passeth all understanding rest upon my Parents, my Wife and all my Children; my kindred, friends and Country; nor at this moment can I forbear to include in my petitions the welfare of all Human Kind. — For myself, may the divine Energies be granted to perform fully all my duties to God, to my fellow mortals in all the relations of life, and to my own Soul.
[January 1813]
16. Rose about 5 O'Clock, and was employed untill breakfast time in preparing an Index, to my public letter Book, Vol. 1, but I was twice obliged to leave the work by the coldness of my chamber, and the numbness of my fingers — Mr. Montreal paid me a morning visit — I took my usual walk before dinner. The rest of the day I passed in my wife's chamber, by her bed-side; and the Evening while she slept with Charles and his toys — Mrs. Adams was confined the whole day to her bed; and her sister being alike confined to her chamber, I feel myself called by a duty to devote as much of my time as I can spare to soothe and comfort my wife in her distressed state — Her Condition is the same as that in which repeated misfortunes have befallen her, and she is again threatened in the same manner. Her Spirits are withal deeply affected, and I hope the time which I consume in attending to her and upon her, will not be chargeable upon the score of idleness. It does however in some degree interfere with the due and timely discharge of some other duties, and calls upon me to provide for a sufficient number of morning hours in which I may employ the solitude of my own chamber.
18. This is the Russian festival of the Epiphany, and the day of the benediction of the Waters of the Neva; but the Emperor being absent, and no parade of the troops, the foreign Ministers were not invited to attend the ceremony. — I had a long and very serious conversation with Mr. Smith, who finally avowed a disposition to do right. I received letters from Gothenburg and from England with an account of the capture of the British frigate Macedonian by the American frigate United States. Mr. Lewis and Mr. Dimond shortly after called upon me with the same information. Mrs. Krehmer paid a visit to Mrs. Adams — Mr. Harris called in the morning, and Mr. Brandel in the Evening, but I did not see them — There is very little abatement in the severity of the Cold — I walked before dinner, and spent the Evening with Mrs. Adams, in her chamber, to which she was the whole day confined. Saw Catherine for the first time since last Friday.
[February 1813]
1. ≈ At nine in the Evening I went to Count Romanzoff's, and had with him the conversation I had requested — My object was to ascertain whether any commercial arrangements were making between this Country and Great Britain], which might affect the trade between Russia and the United States ≈ He then asked me some questions with regard to the popularity of the War between the United States and Britain, as well in England as in America — I said that in America the War was popular in some parts of the Country, and unpopular in others — I told him what I had heard concerning the probable issue of the Presidential election, and my belief that Mr. Madison would be re-elected — He said that his information led to the same expectation — As to the popularity of the War in England I said I was afraid it would be too popular with all parties — The only point upon which the war now was continued was that of the impressment of our Sailors — On this point the whole English Nation, or at least all the political parties were unreasonable, and the loss of two of their frigates successively, captured by American frigates had mortified their national pride, and touched their point of honour, in its tenderest part — I was afraid it had embittered them, and would make them think they must now fight not only for their honour but for revenge — He asked me what I thought of the War by Land — I answered that I expected for the present little or nothing from it — We were all too raw and unskilled in War to make much progress in Canada — He asked if the People of that Province itself were not inclined to favour our Cause, and to join the American Union? I answered there might be some of them so disposed, but I placed no reliance upon it — He asked whether I thought there was any disposition in the present British Ministry towards a General Peace, and noticed a remark said to have been made by Lord Castlereagh in Parliament; that the successes of Russia had among other good results that of making it possible to conclude a Peace — I said that observation had been afterwards explained in a Ministerial Paper, not to mean Peace with the Emperor Napoleon — But the English Ministry appeared to think that the late Events had rendered the restoration of the throne of France to the family of Bourbon probable; in which case they suppose Peace may be made without difficulty — The Count said he had not seen this explanation; but he believed this Winter would produce events of the highest importance and the most extraordinary nature, arising from the late occurrences of the War — But it was impossible to foresee precisely what they would be — It was a Chaos, as he had told the Emperor, and no one could yet imagine what system of order would finally arise from it. ≈ As to the Emperor Napoleon, his campaign had terminated in disappointment; and placed him in a situation which I considered as extremely precarious — But he had nobody to thank for it but himself — He was one more example of a head turned by Prosperous Fortune, and he must abide by the consequences of his insanity — True it is said the Count, that he must thank himself for his present condition — How many — many times have I urged upon the Duke de Vicence, sitting on this very Canapé, the preservation of Peace! — I did not repeat the same to Count Lauriston; because although I had every reason to be satisfied with his conduct personally to me, I was not upon the same terms of intimacy with him as I had been with his predecessor. The Duke de Vicence himself, I believe was of the same opinion — His inclinations were pacific; but they were unavailing — He was in a sort of disgrace; but he seems now to have come into favour again; and was the only person who accompanied Napoleon in his late return to Paris. I said I had heard that Count Lauriston was dead — There was such a report, he answered — That he had been found frozen to death in his Carriage; and it was not improbable; as no mention was made of him among the Generals and Ministers who followed Napoleon upon his return to Paris. — It was probable too that Lauriston's death might be hastened by chagrin at the idea of having contributed by his Counsels to the ruin of the army — For it is said to have been by his advice, against the opinion of Caulaincourt and of all the other Generals, [qu'il fit la sottise de Moscou — It was Napoleon's own opinion — and Lauriston flattered him by concurring with it — Not from base motives, but because it was his real opinion — that by pushing on to Moscow, we should be induced to negotiate — and if terms of Peace not too severe should be offered us, we should accept them — It was now scarcely credible how complete the destruction of that immense army had been — And they could no longer disguise it — He had seen a letter from the Duke of Bassano, written at Berlin; to some of the French agents in which were these identical words — "Il faut avouer que les Circonstances ne nous sont pas favorables."
I observed that this was by no means disclosing a secret — The Count replied that it was not — But that it shewed that their acknowledgment of the fact became every day more complete — The details surpassed every thing that imagination could have anticipated. It was remarkable that at Dresden, the very spot which Napoleon had chosen for his point of departure; where in May last he had made such a pompous and ridiculous display of power — where he had assembled Emperors and kings, and distributed their seats at the Elector's table, and published them in all his Gazettes as if he had been there a monarch surrounded by his vassals — that exactly there on his return, he entered the City, in a single sledge; without servants; without guards — His very Mammaluke had been frozen to death; and he was obliged to borrow four thousand Louis of the Elector, to continue his journey, and six shirts from his Minister. — At Weimar, he had passed through without stopping and left an apology behind to the Duke for not having visited him — that he was absolutely not in a _presentable_ condition — (N.B. the Duchess of Weimar is a Russian Grand Duchess — Sister of the Emperor Alexander—) ≈ Thus for my Conversation with the Count; of which as of all the others I have with him I give the most particular relation, omitting only the common chat about weather, my family, and objects of no general or particular interest, which are occasionally mingled with them — The Circumstances which most struck me this time were those which the Count mentioned respecting himself — and which seemed to indicate an apprehension of declining favour — It was near eleven at Night when I came home.
[March 1813]
3. Rose soon after day-light and walked an hour and a half before breakfast — Sir Francis D'Ivernois paid me a long visit, and in return for my Silesian Letters gave me two of his own publications — Les trois Offrandes, and Napoleon Administrateur et Financier — He found Mr. Harris with me, and we had a long conversation together, upon political affairs — He has all the prejudices and all the passions of an English Ministerialist, which was to be expected; but he very stoutly contends that the British Ministers deplore the War with America — Mr. Harris mentioned to him Sir Robert Wilson's assertion at Dr. Creighton's table, that Mr. Perceval had told him a very few days before his death, that he was determined upon a War with America — Sir Francis said he did not believe that Mr. Perceval had ever said any such thing to Sir Robert Wilson — that Mr. Perceval was the only member of the British Cabinet deeply, strongly, inflexibly attached to the Orders in Council; that he probably would not have abandoned them to prevent a War with America — But he did not believe they would produce a War — Sir Francis said that he had been very intimately acquainted with Mr. Perceval, who had been with him, and left him not five minutes before he was murdered. That he had often conversed with him on the subject of America — That Mr. Perceval always expressed himself averse to a War with America — but he did not believe it would come to a War — Sir Francis appeared to hope that the War between America and England would yet be short — he founded his hopes on the expectation that the War would become too unpopular in America to be pursued — On this point as on almost every other I found his opinions at the greatest possible variance from mine. As to the question of impressment he said he did not see how that could be settled unless all the sailors in the British Navy would submit to be tattooed, with a G. R. in indian ink upon the arm — But he doubted whether they would consent to that — This is the strangest expedient that I believe was ever devised — But he mentioned it seriously — We talked about the American Revolution, the War against which he thought had been excessively _impolitic_ in Britain — But as to the Justice of the case he had his doubts — But he said he was one of the small number of persons who believed the loss of the American Colonies to have been the origin of the king of England's Malady — As Sir Francis is under personal obligations to the king of England I did not think it suitable to tell him what I thought — that he had mistaken the Cause for the effect.
17. ≈ I sent for my Landlord, Mr. Strugofshikoff and paid him a half-year's Rent in Advance — He conversed with me, as he always does upon politics and upon the character of the Russian People — He is very well satisfied with the present state and prospect of Affairs; and thinks the Emperor Alexander might now come home and take his ease. He says that of the Petersburg levy of men last Summer, of one Man in ten, the greatest part have perished, and the rest have been or will be incorporated in the regiments — Not one of them will ever come back. He spoke of their lent, of which this is the second week — They keep the first, and last weeks with great rigour, and in them they are not allowed to eat fish — No animal food of any kind — scarcely any-thing but bread, oil, and mushrooms, dry — The common people, he says, consider a violation of the lent, as the most heinous of Crimes — Murder they suppose may be pardoned, but to break the fast is a Sin utterly irremissible — He himself kept the fast last week; not from a religious scruple, but because he thought it a salubrious practice, and an useful one, to form habits of self-denial — I am of that opinion myself, and I have often wished that the reformers who settled New-England had not abolished the practice of fasting in lent — I am convinced that occasional fasting, & particularly abstinence from animal food, several weeks at a time and every year, is wholesome both to body and mind — It is true that fasting is not expressly enjoined in the Scriptures, and therefore cannot be required as a religious observance; but unless prescribed by a principle of religion there is no motive sufficient powerful to controul the appetites of men. — I finished reading the Appendix to the first Volume of Olivet's translation of Cicero de Natura Deorum.
[April 1813]
6. It was a great Russian festival, called the Annunciation to Mary — I rose before five — Walked before Breakfast and after dinner, and employed regularly the rest of the day — Mr. Harris sent me some English Newspapers — Mr. Plummer and Mr. Lewis paid us visits in the Evening. I gave Mr. Plummer his Passports and he left with me Mr. Thorndike's papers respecting the case of the Hector. He and Mr. Proud think of going on Thursday, the day after to-morrow — I finished reading the second Book of Cicero de Finibus — His Dialogues are not so dramatic as those of Plato — He makes one Speaker set forth a philosophical dogma, and another refute it, each in a continued discourse — Plato breaks his subjects up into conversations — Cicero's method is more didactic, but Plato's is more animated.
18. It is Easter-Sunday in the Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Churches; and Palm-Sunday here — The morning was fine, and I took Charles out to walk with me — We went into the Roman Catholic Church where we saw a shrubbery of palm-branches, which were to receive benediction at 11 O'Clock — I read prayers for Easter Sunday, and Sterne's Sermon upon having our Conversation in Heaven — A serious and eloquent discourse — The weather changed to Snow the latter part of the day, and I kept house — In the Evening I read several Chapters of Paley's Natural Theology — He states his argument clearly, by the similitude of a watch, and his reasoning to prove contrivance in the construction of the eye and the ear is ingenious, learned, and impressive — I wanted to consult Ray and Derham; the titles of whose works shew that they took the same basis of argument, but I have not the books at hand — There is great variety and minuteness of knowledge displayed in this work — Of natural History and comparative Anatomy in the descriptions of the eye and ear, and other parts of organized bodies — Of mechanics, in the description of the watch — Of Metaphysics, in the statement of the atheistic arguments — I believe there is not much atheism in the World — But the illustration of the watch, and the Steam-engine, cannot account for Creation — it explains only the intelligence of organization — the materials of which the machine is composed exist independent of the workman — Mere intelligence is not competent to _create_ — The watch is only combination. The creative power is beyond the reach of my Understanding — I believe it, as revealed in Scripture, and I infer it from the intelligence and power manifested in the mechanism of the Universe — But I cannot embrace the idea with any distinctness, and I see no attempt by Paley to prove it — Mr. Smith dined at Mr. Krehmer's — Charles interrupted much my reading in the Evening, and my sluggish drowsiness benumbed my application. I finished the Evening at 9 O'Clock.
[May 1813]
11. ≈ I dined with Mr. Smith at Count Romanzoff's. No other of the foreign Ministers was there — But it was a dinner to a Baron de Tawast, formerly Swedish Minister at Constantinople, and now an Aid de Camp of the Swedish Prince Royal — The young Count Löwenhielm was there; but neither the Minister, nor Mr. Brandel, they being both confined at home by sickness — I called at the Count's after dinner, but saw neither of them. At dinner I was seated between Count Kotschuley and General Betancourt; with both of whom I had some Conversation — That with the Count was chiefly political; on our War with England — My feelings on this subject and some remarks and Questions of the Count's urged me to a degree of warmth bordering at least on indiscretion — Count Romanzoff who was unusually marked in his attention to me, said in a tone of pleasantry; how happens it that you are constantly beating at Sea, the English, who beat all the rest of the World, and that on land, where you ought to be the strongest, the English _do what they please_. I answered him in the same manner, that I knew not how to account for it, unless by supposing that these times were reserved to keep the world in a continual state of wonder; and to prove that there is something new under the Sun — He replied that there had once been a confusion of tongues, and now he believed was the time for a confusion of minds.
[June 1813]
22. I received this morning a Note from Count Romanzoff, requesting me to call upon him at 1 O'Clock afternoon, which I did. I took with me the French Translation of the two Papers containing the Manifesto on our Declaration of War against Britain; which are to be published — I explained to him the reason why the two pieces were to be taken as comprizing the single Manifesto — He said they should be published — that he had written to the Emperor, charging himself with the wrong of having permitted the publication of the Commentary, which had accompanied the English Manifesto, in the Russian and German Gazettes, and informing him that he had promised me the American Manifesto, without Commentary, should be published in the same papers. — I told him I should send him the Russian and German Translations when they should be completed — I also shewed him and left with him the National Intelligencer containing the Article relative to the Appointment of Messieurs Gallatin and Bayard, which I received yesterday; observing that he had judged more correctly than I had on the probability of this fact — He said that he was very sorry to say he had received since he saw me further dispatches from Count Lieven, stating that the British Government with many very friendly and polite assurances that there was no Mediation which they should so readily and cheerfully accept as that of the Emperor of Russia, had however stated that their differences with the United States of America, involving certain principles of the internal Government of England, were of a Nature which they did not think suitable to be settled by a Mediation — I said this was no more than I had expected — That I much regretted the failure of this new attempt at Negotiation, but that I was happy the solemnity which the President had given to the acceptance of the Emperor's offer, by the appointment of two persons so highly distinguished in our Country, would at least manifest the sense which he entertained of the Emperor's friendly sentiments and proposal, as well as the constant desire of the American Government for Peace — He said it was the light in which he had already represented it to the Emperor, and it would now be for consideration, whether after the step thus taken by the American Government, it would not be advisable to renew the proposition to Great-Britain; upon which he should write to the Emperor. Perhaps it might be proper not to be discouraged by the ill-success of the first Advances — After considerations might produce more pacific dispositions in the British Government — Unexpected things were happening every day.
[July 1813]
3. ≈ I received a note from Count Romanzoff enclosing a letter from Mess'rs Gallatin and Bayard, and one from Mr. Speyer at Stockholm — the first informs me of the appointment of those two Gentlemen jointly with me as Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary, to negotiate a Peace with Great-Britain, under the Mediation of the Emperor of Russia — of their arrival at Gothenburg, and their intention to proceed as speedily as possible to St. Petersburg — Also that Mr. Harris is appointed Secretary to the Legation.
21. I had a long morning visit from Mr. Lewis — Just after 4 in the afternoon Mr. Harris came in and told me that Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard had just arrived — I immediately went to see them at the lodgings he has taken for them — I invited them, and Mr. Milligan, Mr. Dallas, and Mr. Gallatin jun'r, who are with them, to go home with me and dine; but they excused themselves, being much fatigued, and having been three Nights without sleep — I sat with them about an hour in which they gave us the latest information from America, and I communicated to them the general state of affairs here. — They gave me a large bundle of letters and dispatches from the United-States, which with the exception of an hour at dinner, I was employed untill ten at Night in reading — I thank Almighty God, for the favours communicated to me by these dispatches, and I pray for the gracious aid of his Spirit to discharge with zeal, integrity, and discretion the new duties required of me.
22. Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard called upon me this morning, and we had some conversation together on the mode of proceeding upon our business — The first object is that they should be presented to the Chancellor, for which some essential preparatory arrangements require a delay of one or two days — I dined at the Count's, mentioned to him the arrival of my Colleagues, and requested an interview with him, for some particular Conversation — He appointed to-morrow 1 O'Clock P.M. ≈
23. ≈ At one I called as by appointment upon Count Romanzoff, and told him that I had received instructions from the American Government to remain here under the Commission which I have hitherto held, and that I had been mistaken in supposing that my Colleagues had other destinations, independent of the mission here — My conjecture had been founded on the doubt whether the President would have appointed this Mission solely, upon the expectation that the mediation would be accepted by the British Government. — But I was now instructed that the President, considering the acceptance by the British as probable, though aware that if they should reject it, this measure might wear the appearance of precipitation, thought it more advisable to incur that risque, than the danger of prolonging unnecessarily the War, for six or nine Months, as might happen, if the British should immediately have accepted the Mediation, and he should have delayed this step untill he was informed of it. And a great object with him was to manifest not only a cheerful acceptance on the part of the United States, but in a signal manner the sentiments of consideration and respect for the Emperor, and to do honour to the motives on which he offered his Mediation — Another Gentleman, Mr. Crawford was appointed Minister to France. The Count said he regretted much that there was such reason to believe the British would decline the Mediation; but on transmitting the copy of our Credential letter to the Emperor, he would determine whether to renew the proposal, as the Opposition in England might make it an embarrassing charge, against the Ministry if they should under such Circumstances reject it — He spoke of the taking of York-town in Upper-Canada, by General Dearborn; and desiring me not to mention him as an Authority, added that he was informed the British Government had determined in consequence of that event to send more troops to America. — I told the Count there were two other objects not connected with either of my public Capacities here, but upon which I found it necessary to speak to him — The first was concerning a payment made to the owners of a Vessel to which a black man belonged, who had entered into the Emperor's service — This payment was made, by way of indemnity for the detention of the vessel — I had been directed by a verbal message from the Minister of the Police Balascheff to offer this indemnity; and I related to the Count the circumstances of the man's having got into the Emperor's service — The Count asked what the amount of the payment was — I said it was about 700 dollars, amounting to more than 3000 Rubles — He said he would write upon the subject to Mr. Balacheff. — The other subject I observed was still more remote from my official functions, for it related to a French Prisoner — My only motives and my excuse for speaking of it to him were humanity and gratitude. General La Fayette had written to me, requesting me to endeavour to obtain a favour for a relation of his, a Mr. de Tracy, now at Tamboff, and taken last Winter with Augereau — On the score of gratitude for General La Fayette's services to my Country, and of a very old personal friendship for him, I was ardently desirous of rendering him any service in my power — What he, and the Senator Count de Tracy, the Prisoner's father wanted was either an exchange, or a release on parole — The Count said he did not think it would be possible — The french had refused to listen to any proposition for exchange — An English Officer named Willoughby had come here last Summer and offered his services — He had been sent to Count Wittgenstein's army, and by lending his horse to a wounded Russian, whom he had even carried some way upon his shoulders, he had fallen into the Enemy's hands — The Emperor had asked to have him exchanged, and had been positively refused — in consequence of which he had resolved he would listen to no applications of a similar Nature — However if I would give him the Officer's name, he would write to the Emperor about it; and although there was no prospect of obtaining an exchange, there might possibly be a permission for his removal — perhaps for him to come to St. Petersburg; that I might then enter into correspondence with him, and his situation might be alleviated — I replied that I would give him the name, and as it was altogether a favour I was asking, I should be grateful for any thing that might be granted — The Count agreed with me to receive my Colleagues with me at 11 to-morrow Morning; and said that at 12 he should set out for Czarsko Zelo, to spend two or three days there — I spoke of the presentation of my Colleagues and myself to the Empresses — He said that the Empresses in the Country had received two or three private Strangers; but that they could not receive persons in such a public character as that of Envoys Extraordinary, unless they had been previously received by the Emperor; or untill the Emperor should give his orders on receiving the copy of the Credential letter — He might perhaps direct that the Gentlemen should be considered as having delivered the letter to him in person — Or if he should return here as it was sometimes said he soon intended, we might then really deliver it. — This is a change of opinion since the Count spoke with me on this subject before — In General there appears a coolness in his manner which leads me to suspect that the Emperor himself is not well pleased at the éclat which this mission will give to the British refusal of his mediation — The Count's politeness is as marked and warm as ever, but there is a reserve and sollicitude in the manner, which I regret to perceive — I went from his house to the lodgings of my Colleagues and informed them of the time fixed for presenting them to the Court — Mr. Gallatin then put into my hands the three Full-powers which contain our Commissions — One to negotiate the Peace with Britain, under the Mediation of the Emperor of Russia — One to negotiate a Treaty of Commerce with Britain given for the contingency that the pacific Negotiation should be successful — In these two Mr. Gallatin is the first Commissioner, and I am the second — the third power is to negotiate a Treaty of Commerce with Russia, in which as well as in the Credential Letter, my name is the first and Mr. Gallatin's the second. This arrangement Mr. Gallatin told me was made intentionally, and I consider it as a mark of delicate attention in the President towards me, though I should have been perfectly satisfied had Mr. Gallatin's name been first in all the papers — I took the Powers for treating of Peace with Britain, and of Commerce with Russia, home with me, and made translations of them and of the Credential letter which I carried to Mr. Harris's, when I went to dinner — We all dined there; together with Mess'rs Lewis, Willing, Redwood, and Calhoun — Mr. Gallatin corrected my translations of the papers, and after dinner we took a long walk over the Isaac Square Bridge, and round by the new Exchange — I came home between 9 and 10 in the Evening.
31. ≈ I close this Volume of my diary, contain four years within four days of my life, with Sentiments of Gratitude to God for all the favours, preservations and blessings received at his hands during that period; of humble Resignation under the afflictions which his wise Providence has mingled in my cup, and with conscious sorrow for the deficiencies and omissions of improvement, of the time which has been indulged me. Imploring at the same time his further blessing upon my wife, my Parents, my children, my friends, and my Country, and the whole world of mankind, and especially asking for the aid of his Spirit that my future life may be more thoroughly devoted to his honour and glory and to usefulness on Earth.
[August 1813]
17. ≈ In the Evening, Mr. Gallatin, Mr. Dallas, and Mr. Harris were here — Mr. Gallatin had received a letter from Mr. Alexander Baring, relating to our mission, which he left with me to read, and requested me to call on him and Mr. Bayard to-morrow Morning. Mr. Baring writes that the British Government have refused the Mediation, but offer to treat with us directly at London, or if we prefer it at Gothenburg.
18. Called this morning on Messieurs Gallatin and Bayard, and returned the letter from Mr. Baring, upon which we had a Conversation of about two hours — We concluded that it was not a foundation upon which any measure could be taken by us. The letter is very well written, and shews the English feelings on the subject of the Mediation clearly enough — The wish to draw us to London is very freely avowed, but nothing other than vague and general expressions to encourage a hope that we should have any prospect of success there. My Colleagues are anxious and uneasy under the responsibility of staying here with the knowledge that England has declined the Mediation. They desired me, if I should see Count Romanzoff, to ask him for an official notification in writing, of his intention to renew the proposal of Mediation to England, and Mr. Bayard intimated the wish that in that Notification the Count would invite them to wait here for an answer ≈ Charles is 6 years old this day. 3 f. 7 i.
[September 1813]
12. I read prayers for the 13th Sunday after Trinity. Dined at Count Romanzoff, with a Company of about sixty persons, the usual anniversary dinner for the Emperor's name day. There was a hand-bill before dinner with the account of General Blücher's victory of 26 August, but with no other particulars than those I had seen last Night in the Papers sent me by Mr. Krabbe — I sat between Count Alexander Soltykoff and the Minister of the Interior Mr. Kosodavleff. The band of music performed in the adjoining chamber, during the whole dinner — After the Emperor's health had been drank, according to the usual custom, in Champaign, the Company all rising, a Court footman came in with a Note from the Empress-Mother to the Count, which he immediately opened and read aloud to the Company — Its purport was — "Thanks be rendered to the most high — Our dear Emperor is in good health — He has won the most compleat victory over our Enemies — 80 pieces of Cannon — Several Generals 2000 prisoners, &c — I am in too great emotion to say more — Praised for ever be the Supreme Being." Immediately afterwards a second Note was read by Count Markoff, which came I believe from the Old Field Marshal Count Soltykoff — It repeated the same tidings of victory; with the addition of Blucher's Victory in Silesia, and another Victory won by the Crown Prince of Sweden — This note added that among the Generals taken Prisoners was Van Damme, who was already sent off to Moscow — That the Victory was decided by the Regiments of Guards, Preobrajensky, and Semenoffsky, and the Regiment of Chasseurs which had highly distinguished themselves. — Count Romanzoff called up the footman who brought the Note, gave him a glass of wine, and embraced him, kissing him on both cheeks. A second glass of Champaign was ordered all round the table, and the Emperor was toasted over again — A tempest of exultation burst forth from all quarters, and it was universally agreed that Bonaparte's Career was now finished — The Empress-Mother's Note was passed from hand to hand; and instead of 2000 prisoners, as Count Romanzoff had read, it was found to be 4000 or 9000. — In the midst of the hurly-burly came a Note to Mr. Kosodavleff, the Minister of the interior, from the Director of the Post-Office, saying nothing more than that the Courier left Töplitz the 18/30th. This Circumstance cast some little damp upon the tumult of joy that was raging. How the Courier should have come from Töplitz occasioned some surprize — It was remarked that there were three Töplitzes, one in Bohemia, one in Saxony, and one in Silesia; and the question was from which of them the Courier came — Then it was noticed that neither the Empresses, nor Marshal Soltykoff's note mentioned either time or place at which the battle was fought — General Armfeldt said that Töplitz was forty Versts from Dresden; but it is at least sixty. It was known that before the battle the Emperor Alexander was at the gates of Dresden, and his troops were bombarding the City. Why the Courier after the Battle should have come from Töplitz was not enquired into nor accounted for. It was said that the Russian Accounts never gave dates either of time or place — It was unanimously concluded however that there was now a total dissolution of the French Army; and the doubt and distrust occasioned by the name of Toplitz was perceptible only on the countenance, and in the eyes of two or three persons — I came from the Count's immediately home.
24. My Landlord Mr. Strugovshikoff came this morning and I settled with him untill next March. An Examination of Collèt's tables engrossed the whole day — I endeavoured to find the method of using his tables of logarithms to 20 decimals, and after a whole day of calculations and of close application partly succeeded — I find it easy to engage my attention in scientific pursuits of almost any kind, but difficult to guard against two abuses — the one of being insensibly drawn from one to another, as I now have from Chronology to Astronomy and from Astronomy to Logarithms — the other of misapplying time, which is essential to the business of life; public and private.
[October 1813]
20. ≈ Read some pages in Goguet's second Volume, and the first Canto of Childe Harolde's pilgrimage by Lord Byron; which Dr. Beresford brought me yesterday — The plan of the Poem is original — the versification spirited — the character of Childe Harolde purposely bad — The sentiments indicate the author's youth — The best thing in the first Canto is the description of the Spanish Bull-baiting.
25. Received a letter from Mr. Speyer, enclosing one for Mr. Bayard, and a packet of National Intelligencers to 5 August — that of the 3d of that month contains the whole proceedings on the Appointments for the Extraordinary Mission to Russia; from the nominations untill the final votes of the Senate upon them — The votes for Mr. Gallatin were 17 against 18 — for Mr. Bayard 28 against 6 — for myself 30 against 4.
28. Received this Morning from Mr. Gallatin, who sent it by Mr. Smith, a Note from Count Romanzoff to the three Envoys, notifying them that the Empress Mother had fixed on next Sunday, at half past one O'Clock to receive them, and immediately after them the persons attached to the mission — I attended again at the sale of Books — Mr. Bayard sent us the American Newspapers which he received on Monday. He and Mr. Gallatin were here in the Evening at tea. He asked me whether I was aware of any objection to Mr. Gallatin's being presented with us to the Empress Mother — I said, none — He said the reason of his asking the question was that he understood [from] Mr. Harris, that I had asked the Question whether he intended to be presented; and did not know but there might be some objection of etiquette — I said I had no recollection of having asked the question, and certainly knew of no objection — The Chancellor's note was explicit, that the Empress had appointed to receive us all three — This was all said in the hearing of Mr. Gallatin who took no part in the Conversation — Mr. Bayard spoke several times to Mrs. Adams in a manner that I could not hear him — As soon as they were gone she informed me of what he had told her — It was the tidings of the decease of my dear and only Sister, Smith — Mr. Bayard said that he had seen it announced in an English Newspaper, a fortnight since — He afterwards sent the letter he received last Monday from Mr. Fosdick at Gothenburg. Mr. Fosdick writes that he had seen it in a New-York Newspaper of 14 August — She died at my father's at Quincy; it must have been between the 5th and 10th of August. I had been in some measure prepared for this severe affliction by my last Letters from my Mother. She was then, 16 July, expecting my Sister at Quincy, and anticipated the Event — Yet I was not aware that it would so soon ensue — May a gracious and merciful God, compensate in a happier world to this excellent woman, the heavy afflictions with which she has been visited on Earth. Her lot has been hard; but she has fulfilled to the utmost all the duties of social life — As a daughter, sister, wife and Mother her conduct has been without blemish and without reproach — She went through many vicissitudes of Fortune, and supported them all with the temperance and the fortitude of a Christian — Her bodily sufferings for the last three years have been of the sharpest and most distressing that human Nature is ever called to endure. She has born them with unbroken Spirit, untill nature sunk under the conflict — And oh! may divine Providence give strength and energy to her Parents and mine to meet this new dispensation, and afford them consolation under it — Her son William had taken suspicion, or heard more of what Mr. Bayard had said to Mrs. Adams than I had; and she told him what it was — May it be profitable for good to him, to his father, brother and sister! — May no lesson of the great teacher, Death, be lost upon any one of us. May we all learn, to be also ready!
31. Just after one O'Clock, I went to the lodgings of Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard, and accompanied them, together with Mr. Harris, Mr. Milligan, Mr. Todd, and young Gallatin to the palace; where we were presented, first to the Empress Mother, then to the Grand Dukes Nicholas and Michaël, and lastly to the Grand Duchess Ann — There had been some question whether according to the Etiquette we should be presented in mourning — to solve which, Mr. Harris had written to the Grand Master of the Ceremonies, and had received for answer from Mr. Swistounoff that we should — We accordingly wore crapes round the arm, at the sword-hilt, and in the hat. Mr. Swistounoff also mentioned as points of etiquette the three bows on advancing to the presence of the imperial personages, and the three on retiring from it, with the precaution of stepping backwards without turning round — The Empress Mother however on our entering her apartment immediately advanced towards us, and scarcely gave time for the three bows — She expressed very courteously her satisfaction at my new appointment, and her hope that it would prolong my stay at her Son's Court; and she was equally polite in her addresses to Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard — Spoke of America, of the long voyage, of this City, the river, the Climate &c. — On her enquiring whether my Colleagues had visited the places in the vicinity of the City, Mr. Gallatin mentioned that they had seen with great admiration the beneficent Institutions under her patronage. This was a favourite topic for her, and she conversed upon it, several minutes. She said that she did not approve the principle of the foundling hospitals, because she thought it was encouraging immorality; but as they had been instituted by the Empress Catherine, it was just to respect her intentions, and carry them as far as possible into effect. The late Emperor had always had it much at heart, and her Son had never ceased to take great interest in it. She mentioned it as a great evidence of the morality of the Russian People, that when in consequence of the last years disasters, when the Enemy penetrated to the very capital of the Empire, and the children under the care of these Institutions had been dispersed all over the Country, yet the people into whose hands they had fallen had generally taken so good care of them, that out of seven thousand, to which their numbers amounted there were only eighteen of whom there was yet no account what had become of them — And the mortality among the rest had scarcely been greater than in ordinary years. — She spoke also of our benevolent Institutions in America; and particularly those relating to the management of Prisons — She had read with great pleasure the accounts of them, and she admired the idea of aiming at the reformation rather than the punishment of offenders — She said she had heard there was a great similarity between the Russian and the American People for which reason she rejoyced the more in the good qualities of her Countrymen. — The Grand-Dukes, and the Grand-Duchess Ann, spoke only of the common topics of weather, climate, the City and the Country — Our Audiences were all over and I returned home in the space of an hour.
[November 1813]
18. I was confined to the house by the weather, excepting an hour's walk before dinner. We have now a long succession of rains and gloomy darkness which makes it difficult to write at Noon day, and which wearies the eyes with long morning and Evening Candle-light — I this day discovered a new particular of my own ignorance of things which I ought to have known these thirty years — One clear morning about a fortnight since I remarked from my bed-chamber windows a certain group of stars forming a Constellation which I had not before observed and of which I knew not the name — I marked down their positions on a slip of paper with a view to remember them hereafter and to ascertain what they were — This day on looking into the Abridgment of La Lande's Astronomy, one of the first figures that struck my eye in the plates was that identical Constellation — It was Orion — That I should have lived nearly fifty years without knowing him, shews too clearly what sort of an observer I have been — This Evening was clear, and I saw him rise from the roof of the house on the other side of the Street from ours — With the aid of La Lande's Abridgment, I found in the directions from him, Aldebaran, Procyon, and the Bulls Horns, between which the Ecliptic passes — But I am ashamed at my age to be thus to seek for the very first Elements of practical Astronomy.
20. At Noon, I attended with Mr. Smith at the Palace, and after waiting about an hour, the Empresses held their Court — After which, the Grand-Duke Michael separately held his Circle. The topic of discourse as usual was the weather — Mr. Bayard engaged Lord Walpole in Conversation; in which Lord Walpole, apparently with intention spoke loud enough to be heard by all the Circle — He said that he left England on the 9th of July — That the last thing Castlereagh said to him was that the British Government had never had one hint of a Russian Mediation, untill a dispatch from Borlase Warren, informed them that he had given a Passport for the vessel in which Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard came — That this did really embarrass them; as it was a very unpleasant thing for them to reject the Mediation — That having found it however absolutely necessary, they had immediately given notice of their determination to the Emperor — That he had received this notice first verbally at Bautzan — That it had been repeated in writing on the 6th of July, and afterwards by an official Note dated 13 July and sent to Count Nesselrode; of which he Lord Walpole had among his papers a copy — He spoke of it in a style of complaint, and said that Russia might have had the civility to make the offer of Mediation to both parties at once; or at least to have given the British Government _notice_ , of the offer to America — I had heard before that Lord Walpole had said the British Government had not been informed of the offer of Russia to mediate untill last Summer, which appeared extraordinary, and now hearing him say so expressly, to be sure of not mistaking his meaning, I asked him if I had understood it correctly — He said I had — repeated over again what he had said to Mr. Bayard, adding that they were the last words Castlereagh said to him when he left England. — Lord Walpole has an apparent frankness, and some coarseness in his manners.
30. ≈ _Day_. I rise on the average about 6 O'Clock, in the morning, and retire to bed between ten and eleven at Night — The interval is filled as it has been nearly two years, more particularly, as since I placed Charles at school — The four or five hours that I previously devoted to him I now employ in reading books of Science — These studies I now pursue, not only as the most delightful of occupations to myself, but with a special reference to the improvement and education of my children — I feel the sentiment with which Tycho Brahe died, perhaps as strongly as he did — His "ne frustra vixisse videar" was a noble feeling, and in him had produced its fruits — He had not lived in vain — He was a benefactor to his species — But the desire is not sufficient — The spark from Heaven is given to few — It is not to be obtained by intreaty or by toil — To be profitable to my Children, seems to me within the compass of my powers — To that let me bound my wishes, and my prayers — And may that be granted to them!
[December 1813]
2. Half-past five. The incidents of the day are so like the general tenor of my time, that they need not be noticed — Mr. Bayard spent the Evening with us — The remainder of the day I was engaged in reading — Finished the Book of Job — I believe this to be a moral tale — a fictitious history; nor do I perceive any article of faith, necessarily depending upon its reality. — The Book is supposed to have been written by Moses; which may very possibly be true; but its whole tenor — narrative — dialogue — and personages has to me the appearance of a story adapted to a doctrine, and not of a doctrine resulting from a Story. — The appearance of Satan, among the sons of God, before the Lord in the first Chapter, and the Conversation between the Lord and him, has not the air of History — The four Messengers who come to Job, to announce his disasters in one identical form of words — The three friends who come to comfort him, and sit down with him seven days and seven Nights without speaking a word — The incidents at the conclusion of the story; every incident, as well as every discourse betokens the work of the Imagination, and not the record of facts — The doctrine which they teach is the purest and sublimest morality — The question which they discuss the most difficult in the whole compass of moral philosophy. — Job, the perfect and upright man, is permitted by the divine will to be visited with the severest afflictions, to be plunged in an instant from the summit of prosperity to the lowest depth of wretchedness, as a trial of his integrity — His wife advises him to renounce it, which he indignantly refuses — His friends, infer from his misfortunes, that he is punished for his iniquities — or that he complains unjustly for sufferings which arise merely from the lot of humanity. — He vindicates his own integrity; but he dwells too confidently upon it — He complains that there is no distinction of Heavenly favour to reward him for it — That God destroyeth the perfect, and the wicked — He is righteous in his own eyes — Elihu first blames Job, for justifying himself rather than God — and he blames his friends, for condemning him without proof — At last the Lord, out of the whirlwind, confounds the reasoning of Job, by recalling to his mind, his impotence, even to conceive the purposes, and the infinite extent of the divine power — Job is instantly convinced of his error, and repents with the deepest humility — He is restored to the divine favour; and his friends are commanded to atone for their uncharitable sentiments concerning him, by sacrifices — The moral doctrines taught by this Story are — 1. The omnipotence and the Justice of the divine Government, 2. That the afflictions of the righteous, are trials of their Integrity, 3. The frailty and infirmity of man, and 4. The duties of resignation to God's will, and of humility under affliction — These are all Hebrew doctrines — They are in no antient system of mythology, and in none of the philosophical systems of the Greeks — They are inculcated with great ingenuity and energy; and the story is framed to present them in their greatest possible force — I lament being unable to read this Book in the original — All the translations are defective, and the English one particularly and greatly incorrect — Many passages present to my mind no distinct sense — many such disjointed and incoherent ideas, as could never be put together by a man of genius like the author of Job. Sentences, one half of which have no apparent relation to the other — Violent and unnatural transitions of thought; and obscurities which it is vain to attempt bringing to light. — There is scarcely any difference between the discourses of the three friends, in point of substance — Their phrases and imagery are varied; but they all dwell upon the same leading ideas — There is nothing but the names, to discriminate the one from the other — There is no individuality among them, as there is in all the historical personages of the Bible: and this is one of the reasons upon which I believe the narrative fictitious — Compare it with the Stories of Ruth, or of Esther — with those of any of the Patriarchs, Judges, Kings, or Prophets, and how clearly you see the difference between a portrait from the life, and a fancy-piece! — Job is a philosophical Romance, full of profound and admirable instruction; nor do I suppose it more necessary to believe it a history of facts, than to believe the Parables of the prodigal son, or of the good Samaritan to have been so. — I also read this day in Schubert's Astronomy, on the size and figure of the Earth, and its daily and annual Revolutions. — He explains very fully the modern method of measuring a degree of the meridian, and refers to Bradley's discoveries of Nutation and aberration; where he was seeking the yearly parallax of the fixed Stars.
[February 1814]
4. ≈ Mr. Bayard and I had formerly been in strong opposition to each other in the Senate of the United States — When he came here one of my most earnest wishes was to harmonize with him — I had uniformly treated him with respect and attention — There had been no misunderstanding or variance between us; but he had repeatedly made attempts to injure Mr. Gallatin in my opinion; and I had now reason, since their departure to believe that he had made similar attempts against me upon the mind of Mr. Gallatin — I should feel a stronger resentment against him for this, had I not found that tale-bearing and strife-stirring was so congenial to Mr. Bayard's character that he applied it to others as well as myself, and exerted it impartially against all his acquaintance — That he was addicted to intemperate habits, and when his wine worked upon his natural temper its uniform operation was to set his tongue to mischief-making. — Harris said it was all too true ≈ I observed to Harris that I hoped never again to be placed in relations which would make it necessary to associate with Mr. Bayard.
[March 1814]
8. ≈ Dr. Galloway was here this morning and prescribed for me a vial of Sacred Elixir — I am very unwell and have strong Symptoms of the Jaundice — A lassitude which has almost, but not yet quite suspended all my Industry — A listlessness which without extinguishing the love of life, affects the mind with the Sentiment that life is nothing worth. An oppression at the heart which without being positive pain is more distressing than pain itself — I still adhere however to my usual occupations — I feel nothing like the tediousness of time — Suffer nothing like _Ennui_ — Time is too short for me, rather than too long. If the day were of forty-eight hours instead of twenty-four I could employ them all, so I had but eyes and hands, to read and write.
20. VII:15. Mrs. Adams was so unwell the whole of this day that we were obliged to omit the reading of prayers; but I read Massillon's Sermon for Easter-day; on the Triumph of Religion — The Sermon like all the others in this collection of the Petit-Carême, has no reference, and scarcely an allusion to the festival upon which it was delivered — They are all Moral and Political Discourses, preached in the presence of Louis 15 when he was a boy, of nine years old — They are all upon the duties, the temptations, the Vices and the Virtues of the great — Whether Louis was of an age to understand them, I know not — His life proved that if he did it was to little purpose. Instruction is lost upon fools — Mr. Lewis sent me this morning a letter he had just received by the way of Holland, from Mr. Diamond, in London; dated 15 February. It says that the Fair American Cartel had arrived at Liverpool, with letters from New-York to 22 January, and with Nath'l H. Strong as Consul at Gothenburg who was bearer of dispatches for Mr. Bayard and me — That we together with Mr. Henry Clay of Kentucky and Mr. Jonathan Russell had been appointed, to treat with the British Government, upon the invitation of Lord Castlereagh, at Gothenburg — That Mess'rs Clay and Russell would not sail from the United States untill the 1st of April, that I might have time to reach Gothenburg as soon as they — That Mr. Strong was to embark in the next Packet for Holland or for Gothenburg, as he should find most advisable to meet me with diligence. Thus opens upon me a new prospect of futurity, and a new change in the Scenery of life — Upon this change it becomes me to implore the blessing of Heaven which can turn to good the most unpromising appearances, and above all, which can preserve integrity, and inspire Wisdom, whatever turn it may have destined that the Event should take.
[April 1814]
1. V:45. Mr. Nath'l H. Strong this morning brought me dispatches from the Secretary of State; one addressed to Mr. Bayard and myself — the other to me alone — Letters from Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard, at Amsterdam, and one from Mr. Bourne, enclosing one from Mr. Beasley. — The despatch to Mr. Bayard and me, of which Mr. Bayard retained the original, and enclosed to me a Copy, directs us both, to repair immediately upon the receipt of it to Gothenburg, there to enter upon a Negotiation for Peace with England, conformably to a proposal made by the British Government, and accepted by that of the United-States. Mr. Monroe intimates that there will be other American Commissioners, but his letter is dated 8 Jan'y, before the Nominations were made — Mr. Henry Clay and Mr. Jonathan Russell were the persons ultimately appointed. Mr. Gallatin is not in the Commission. Mr. Monroe directs me to leave the Affairs of the United States here, in my absence, in the charge of Mr. Harris.
28. VI. I had finally fixed upon this day for my departure on the Journey to Gothenburg; and was employed from the time of my rising, untill half past One P.M. in finishing my preparations. I had visits during the morning from Mr. Hurd, Mr. Norman, and Mr. Montreal, the last of whom informed me that a Courier had this morning arrived from the Emperor, with the news that Napoleon Bonaparte, on having the Decree of the French Senate notified to him declaring that he was cashiered, had immediately abdicated the throne, and thus that the War is at an end. With this prospect of a general Peace in Europe, I commenced my Journey, to contribute if possible to the restoration of Peace to my own Country — The weight of the trust committed though but in part to me; the difficulties to all human appearance insuperable, which forbid the hope of success; the universal gloom of the prospect before me, would depress a mind of more sanguine complexion than mine — On the Providence of God alone is my reliance — The prayer for light, and vigilance, and presence of mind and fortitude, and resignation, in fine for strength proportioned to my trial is incessant upon my heart. The welfare of my family and Country, with the interests of Humanity, are staked upon the Event — To Heaven alone it must be committed — That my duty may be performed in sincerity, with fervent zeal, and unsullied integrity is my heart's desire and prayer to God. — And let his will be done!
# CHAPTER V 1814–1815
## Ghent — Paris
[June 1814]
22. IV. ≈ I can scarcely account to myself for the Sensations which I felt on approaching the Hague; where I resided at several of the most interesting periods of my life — I saw it first at the age of thirteen years, in July 1780 when I came from Paris to Holland with my father, and my brother Charles — In 1783 on my first return from Russia, I lived with the family of C. W. F. Dumas from April to the last of July — In 1784 from January to May, and again June and July — It was the precise time of my change from boy to man, and has left indelible impressions upon my Memory. — From November 1794 to October 1795 and from June 1796 to June 1797 I dwelt at the Hague on my first public Mission from the United States, and at that time commenced the regular Diary, which I have continued without interruption to this day. It was here that the social Passion first disclosed itself with all its impetuosity in my breast — It was here, that ten years later, I made my entrance on the political Theatre as a public man. It is not in my command of language to express what I felt on passing through the Yard of the House in the wood, and thence through the town, along the road between the Canal and Ryswick to Delft. — It was a confusion of Recollections so various, so tender, so melancholy, so delicious, so painful, a mixture so heterogeneous and yet altogether so sweet, that if I had been alone I am sure I should have melted into tears.
29. V. Soon after I rose this morning I saw the troops again under arms in front of my chamber windows; and an extraordinary activity among them indicated the approach of the Emperor of Russia. The Bells and the Carillon, began soon afterwards to ring — About 11 O'Clock I went out and followed the crowd to one of the Streets through which he was to pass. — He passed just at Noon, on horseback, with a Suite of fifteen or twenty Officers. He was distinguished from them only by the greater simplicity of his dress; a plain Green Uniform, without any Decoration, and even without facings — Very few of the crowd knew him as he passed — He stopped about ten Minutes at one of the Squares, while a Prussian Regiment, drawn up there defiled before him. He afterwards stopp'd again while a French Regiment, of the Garrison of Hamburg passed. But he went through the City, and immediately proceeded on his Journey to Antwerp. — It rained almost the whole day, and there was a heavy shower while he rode through the City — He had entered it however in an open Caleche, that every body might have an opportunity of seeing him — His condescension and affability were as usual conspicuous — The Bells & Carillon rang several times in the course of the day — In the Evening, Mess'rs Bayard, Clay, Shaler and Milligan and myself went to the Ball at the Hotel de Ville — There were two or three hundred persons at the Ball — The Ladies not remarkable, either for beauty or Elegance. We stayed about two hours, and returned to our Lodgings before Midnight. — This afternoon Mr. Clay gave me the papers, addressed to the Mission, which he had received by the Chauncey at Gothenburg; and as there are now four of the five Commissioners here, it was agreed that we should have a meeting in my Chamber at 11 O'Clock, to-morrow Morning.
30. V:30. At eleven O'Clock this Morning the American Commissioners now here had a meeting at my Chamber. Mr. Bayard, Mr. Clay and Mr. Russell attended it. The Conversation was desultory, and came only to the result of determining to send the John Adams home as soon as may be convenient, and of writing to Mr. Beasley to obtain a Passport for her from the British Admiralty — We agreed also to order two English Newspapers to be sent us, and several other Articles of Necessity — We proposed to have regular Meetings, and to keep a Journal of our proceedings when we shall all be assembled — We received information that Mr. Gallatin had arrived in Paris.
[July 1814]
8. IV:30. The weather has changed suddenly from the heel of Winter to the heart of Summer. For a full week after our arrival here, Mr. Russell had a fire in his chamber, and principle rather than inclination prevented me from having one in mine. The heat is now, and the last four or five days has been oppressive — Prince Henry left this City about Noon. I dined again at the Table d'Hote, at one — The other Gentlemen dined together at four. They sit after dinner, and drink bad wine, and smoke Cigarrs, which neither suits my habits nor my health, and absorbs time which I cannot spare — I find it impossible even with the most rigorous economy of time, to do half the writing that I ought — The heat affects my hand as much as the cold. I write with pain and very slow, and this infirmity constantly increases — I wrote however almost the whole of this day; and took a solitary walk of two hours in the Evening.
9. V. The American Ministers had this day a meeting in my chamber from 12 O'Clock, Noon, untill 4. All the members were present, and we had a general conversation upon a variety of objects relating to our own situation here, and to our present mission. We agreed to have in future daily meetings, and to meet again in my chamber at 12 O'Clock on Monday. I proposed the question whether we should make an official communication to the British Government of our being here, waiting for their Commissioners — This was not agreed to; but it was determined that a Letter to our own Government should be written to inform the Secretary of State that we are here, and transmit copies of the correspondence relating to the removal of the seat of Negotiation from Gothenburg to Ghent — There was much discussion, but no final determination with regard to our personal arrangements during our Residence here — I think it will be very short; but the other Gentlemen are all of a different opinion. They calculate upon passing the Winter here. It is impossible to form a decisive opinion upon the subject untill the British Commissioners arrive. There was also much conversation respecting the manner of keeping the Books of the Mission, and the obligations of the Secretary. It was finally understood, that in the Books were to be copied only the Papers of which there is but one copy — that the individual members of the mission must provide for the keeping of their own books. That they have a right to ask the Secretary for copies of particular papers which they may want; and that Mr. Shaler is to assist Mr. Hughes in the copying which may be found necessary. We adjourned at 4 O'Clock, and I dined with my Colleagues, as I propose to do hereafter — Mr. Clay having expressed some regret that I had withdrawn from their table yesterday.
11. V. I am this day forty-seven years of age. Two thirds of the period allotted to the life of man, are gone by for me — I have not improved them as I ought to have done — I pray God that of the remainder, so large a portion may not be lost; that my children may all survive me; and all be in their day and generation wiser and better men than their father.
[August 1814]
7. IV:30. The British Commissioners arrived last Evening, and are lodged at the Hotel du Lion d'Or. Mr. Baker the Secretary to the Commission called this morning first upon Col'l Milligan, who lodges at the Hotel des Pays-Bas, and where Mr. Baker supposed we were yet all lodged — He afterwards came, and called on Mr. Bayard, and notified to him the arrival of the British Commissioners, with a proposal from them that we should meet them to-morrow at 1 O'Clock afternoon at their lodgings, and exchange our full-powers, and arrange the mode of proceeding between us for the future — Mr. Bayard received this notification, which he agreed to communicate to his Colleagues, and promised that we would send an answer this Evening. — We had a meeting at Noon, and were all of opinion that this first step of the British Commissioners was advancing on their part an offensive pretension to superiority — I referred my Colleagues to Martens, Book 7, Chap. 4, Section 3 of his Summary, where the course now taken by the British Commissioners, appears to be precisely that stated there to be the usage from Ambassadors to Ministers of an inferior order. I proposed that Mr. Hughes should call in the Evening on Mr. Baker, and say that we should be happy to meet and confer with the Commissioners and exchange full-powers with him, at any time which they would indicate, and at any place other than their own lodgings — Mr. Bayard and Mr. Clay made other propositions and, after deliberating upon them about 2 hours, on Mr. Bayard's proposal we adjourned to meet again at half-past three. At this meeting Mr. Bayard produced the case in Ward's History of the Law of Nations Vol. 2, chap. 16 of the Commissioners, between Spain and England, at Boulogne in 1600 which in almost every particular resembles the present, and at which the Spanish Commissioners made and the English resisted the pretension now advanced by the English — Mr. Bayard & Mr. Gallatin were reluctant at taking any notice of this matter, not that they felt it differently or doubted that it was intended on the part of the British Commissioners, but from an aversion to clog the Negotiation with any question of mere ceremony — We adjourned the meeting again to dine, and finally concluded to send Mr. Hughes with the message I had proposed, substituting at Mr. Gallatin's suggestion, instead of the expressions "at any place other than their own lodgings" — the milder terms "at any place which may be mutually agreed upon"; and authorizing Mr. Hughes to name the Hotel des Pays-Bas — Mr. Hughes performed his Message, and about ten in the Evening Mr. Baker came, and informed Mr. Bayard, and afterwards all the Mission assembled in Mr. Clay's chamber, that the British Commissioners agreed to meet us at the appointed hour and at the Hotel des Pays-Bas — Mr. Bayard to sound and ascertain their feelings had proposed to Mr. Baker that the meeting should be at our house — and offered to shew him an excellent Room for the purpose; but Baker declined even looking at the Room — After dinner I walked with Mr. Bayard, and Mr. Carroll out to Mr. Meulemeester's seat in the Country, where we passed the Evening. Madame Meulemeester, and her Sister Madame Greban were there. Mr. Meulemeester walked back with me to the City. Letters were received by some of the Gentlemen this Evening informing of the return of the French Corvette which went out after the Restoration of Louis 18. we have Letters and Dispatches by this Vessel, which have not yet come to hand.
8. VI:15. We had a meeting of the Mission at Noon in which we had some deliberation concerning the manner in which it would be proper to proceed with the British Commissioners — At one O'Clock we went accompanied by Mr. Hughes to the Hotel des Pays-Bas, and found the British Commissioners already there. They are James, Lord Gambier, Henry Goulburn Esquire, a Member of Parliament and Under Secretary of State, and William Adams Esquire, a Doctor of Civil Laws; the Secretary to the Commission is Anthony St. John Baker — Mr. Russell was absent, not having yet returned from Dunkirk — After the first ordinary civilities had passed, we produced on both sides, the Originals, and Copies of our full-powers — The Copies, attested by the Secretary of each Commission respectively, were exchanged — Lord Gambier then addressed us, with Assurances on the part of the British Government of their sincere and earnest desire that this Negotiation might terminate in a successful issue; and the ardent hope of the British Commissioners that we might all have the satisfaction of restoring the blessings of Peace to our respective Countries — This I answered by making similar assurances on our part; expressing the high satisfaction with which we received theirs, and the promise for myself and my Colleagues to bring to these discussions the disposition to meet every sentiment of candour and conciliation with the most cordial reciprocity — concurring as we did with the utmost earnestness and sincerity in the hope that we might eventually have the happiness of reconciling two Nations, whose true interests could best be promoted by Peace and Amity with each other — Mr. Goulburn the second British Commissioner then replied. He renewed the professions of the sincere desire of the British Government for Peace, and added the most explicit declaration that nothing that had occurred since the first proposal for this Negotiation, would have the slightest effect on the disposition of Great-Britain with regards to the terms upon which the pacification might be concluded. He proceeded to say that the British Government thought it would be most conducive to this end to discard all retrospective Considerations with regard to any thing that had taken place, and had instructed them in relation to certain points, which they supposed would naturally arise for discussion upon this Negotiation. These points he was charged by his Colleagues to state; with request to be informed whether they were such as by our Instructions we were authorized to discuss, and that we would also on our part state] any other points, upon which we also might be instructed to propose for discussion — Those which he was directed to present, were 1. The forcible seizure of Mariners, on Board of American Merchant Vessels, and connected with that subject the claim of the king of Great-Britain to the native born Allegiance of all the native born Subjects of Great-Britain. 2. The including of the Indian Allies of Great-Britain; and for the purpose of obtaining a permanent pacification the drawing of a boundary line for the Indians. And it was necessary to observe that on both parts of this point, Great-Britain considered them as a sine qua non to the conclusion of a Treaty — 3. The partial Revision of the Boundary Line between the United States and the British Possessions in North America — upon which on a question asked by Mr. Bayard, he explained that in such revision Great-Britain did not contemplate an acquisition of Territory — He then said that besides these three points it was thought proper in candour to state that in relation to the fisheries, although it was not intended to contest the right of the United States to them, yet so far as respected the concession to land and dry fish within the exclusive Jurisdiction of the British it was proposed not to renew that without an equivalent. I said that I would confer with my Colleagues, and at our next Meeting would report our answer upon the Points proposed by them; which I recapitulated; and also the statement of such further points as we should present for discussion. Mr. Goulburn urged an immediate answer upon the question whether we were instructed, particularly upon the point which they were directed to make a sine qua non; but I declined answering on any point without first consulting with my Colleagues. — We agreed to meet again to-morrow at 11 O'Clock — I mentioned the offer made to us by [the Mayor, and afterwards repeated by the Intendant, immediately after our first arrival here. They are now both absent, at Bruxelles. It was preferred however, both by the British Commissioners and ourselves, to have the Meetings alternately at our own houses; and, Lord Gambier said that as they were not now very well accommodated; if it was agreeable to us the meeting to-morrow should be at our house; to which we readily agreed — We then returned home, and about an hour afterwards, we went and paid them a visit at their Lodgings — On returning from thence we met to consider of the answer to be given them, and the points to be proposed on our part. — We sat untill dinner time, and again immediately after dinner — while we were sitting we received the dispatches and Letters from America, brought by the French Corvette and forwarded to us, by Mr. Crawford — Mr. Gallatin, Mr. Hughes and myself, sat decyphering the despatches from the Secretary of State, untill nearly one O'Clock of the Morning.
9. VI. We had agreed upon a meeting of the Mission at half past 9 O'Clock this morning, and we actually met in Mr. Bayard's chamber at ten — We agreed upon the answer to be made on the points, presented for discussion by the British Commissioners; and on those to be presented by us — The British Commissioners came at eleven — And in the name of the mission, I stated, that we were instructed upon the first and third points presented by them, and that on the second and fourth points we were not. I then proceeded to state the points proposed on our part. 1. A Definition of Blockade, and, as far as may be mutually agreed, of other neutral and Belligerent Rights. 2. Certain claims of indemnity to individuals for captures and seizures preceding and subsequent to the War. 3. I added that we were instructed upon a variety of other Points, which might with propriety be subjects for discussion either upon a Negotiation for Peace, or upon that of a Treaty of Commerce, which in the Event of a propitious termination of this Negotiation we were also authorised to conclude — That in order to simplify and facilitate as much as possible the great object of Peace we had discarded every point, which did not more peculiarly belong to that, and were not immediately relevant to it — They replied that their Powers extended only to the conclusion of a Peace, but that they did not mean to say, or wish us to understand that there would be any objection on the part of Great-Britain to treating upon commercial objects in the Event of a successful issue to this Negotiation — I said that it readily accounted for our not being instructed on the two Points of the Indian Boundary and the Fisheries, that they had not been objects of controversy between the two Governments heretofore — That they were points entirely new, and that it was a matter of course that our Instructions should be confined to the subjects of difference in which the War originated, and to the topics of discussion, known by the American Government to exist. It was further remarked by Mr. Clay that the American Government could have anticipated no propositions of this Nature from the Letter of Lord Castlereagh proposing the Negotiation; to which Mr. Goulburn replied, that it could not be expected Lord Castlereagh would in the proposal for the Negotiation enumerate the points which would become subjects of discussion in the course of it; as they would naturally depend upon Events occurring after the proposal, and untill the commencement of the Negotiation. I said it was our wish to receive from the British Commissioners the views of their Government upon all the points, and that we were willing to discuss them all. Mr. Goulburn asked whether if they should enter into the discussion we could give them an expectation that it would terminate in our agreeing to a provisional Article, which we would sign subject to the ratification of our Government — I answered that having no specific Instructions upon the Subject, whatever Article we could agree to must of course be unauthorized, and we could not say previous to discussion whether an article could be formed to which we should feel ourselves under our discretionary Powers justified in acceding — this related especially to the point of the Indian Boundary, the British Sine qua non — Mr. Gallatin said that so far as respected the including of the Indians in the Peace, the United States would have neither interest nor wish to continue the War with the Indians when that with Great-Britain should be terminated. That Commissioners had already been appointed to treat of Peace with the Indians, and very probably the Peace might already be made — He said that the Policy of the United States towards the Indians, was the most liberal of that pursued by any Nation; that our Laws interdicted the purchase of Lands from them by any individual, and that every precaution was used to prevent the frauds upon them which had heretofore been practised by others — He stated that this proposition to give them a distinct boundary, different from the boundary already existing, and by a Treaty between the U. States and Great-Britain, was not only new, it was unexampled. No such Treaty had been made by Great-Britain, either before or since the American Revolution; and no such Treaty, had to his knowledge ever been made by any other European Power — Mr. Goulburn said that they were certainly treated as in some respects Sovereigns, since Treaties were made with them both by Great-Britain and the United States. — Treaties with them, Mr. Gallatin admitted; but Treaties between European Powers, defining their boundaries, there were to his knowledge none — Mr. Bayard asked what was understood by Great-Britain to be the effect and operation of the boundary line proposed — Was it to restrict the United States from making Treaties with them hereafter, as heretofore? from purchasing their Lands, for instance? was it to restrict the Indians from selling their Lands? Was it to alter the Condition of the Indians such as it has hitherto existed — Mr. Goulburn answered, that it was intended as a Barrier between the British Possessions and the Territories of the United States — That it was not to restrict the Indians from selling their Lands, although it would restrict the United States from purchasing them. Dr. Adams, said that both G. Britain and the United States would be restricted from purchasing the Lands, but the Indians would not be restricted from selling them to a third party. As to further discussion upon the point Dr. Adams said that however desirous they were of getting over the difficulty, they thought it would be an unprofitable discussion, unless they could see some result to which it was likely to lead — They proposed to adjourn for an hour to give us time to consult together, whether we could say that we might eventually agree to a provisional Article; but we were not desirous of such consultation — Mr. Gallatin said that the difficulty which we had suggested was stated merely on a principle of candour; that it would have been easy for us to have said at once that there might be an article formed on the subject to which we might agree, and afterwards to break off upon the details of any such Article; but that the proceeding was more frank and explicit to avow at once the full extent of our objection. The British Commissioners then proposed to suspend the Conferences, untill they could consult their Government on this state of things. They proposed to send off a Messenger this Evening— And it was proposed by them, that a Protocol of the two meetings, should be drawn up by the two Secretaries separately, and that we should meet and compare them together and make a final record from the two, of the proceedings on these days— To this we agreed — As they went away, I told Lord Gambier that I hoped in their communication to their Government, they would express how much we had been gratified at the candid and conciliatory manner which the British Commissioners had adopted with us — Mr. Clay added that upon this subject they could not express themselves in too strongly — They answered that they should be altogether deficient in their duty, if they omitted to express their sentiments in these respects — They agreed to meet again at our house to-morrow, at 12 O'Clock Noon — I was immediately charged by my Colleagues to make the rough draft of the Protocol, for Mr. Hughes — I drew it up accordingly. It was corrected by Mess'rs Bayard, Gallatin and Clay; and given to Mr. Hughes, to make out a fair copy of it for to-morrow morning. — I wrote to my wife, and walked an hour and a half in the Evening. Mr. Russell and his Son, George returned this afternoon from Dunkirk.
10. V:30. At twelve O'Clock we met the British Commissioners, and compared the two Reports which had been drawn up, on their part and on ours, to make the Protocol of the two former Conferences — There was no material difference between the two on the proceedings of the first day — But the British Commissioners objected to various parts of our Report of those of the second day — particularly to those parts which stated the explanation they had given of the point respecting the proposed Indian Boundary, and to the reasons assigned by us, why our Government had not provided us with Instructions, on that point, and the one concerning the Fisheries. Their objection was that these things were argumentative, and that the Protocol should contain a mere statement of facts. Dr. Adams observed that if it contained our Reasons, for the omission of the two Points from our Instructions, it should also contain their Reasons for supposing that our Instructions might have provided for them. I admitted this, if in fact any such Reasons had been assigned by them — but they had not. Mr. Goulburn stated that he thought this assignment of reasons, and the explanatory paragraphs, were more proper to be inserted in a dispatch to our Government than upon the Protocol, which is a mere record of facts. He said if matter of argument were admitted on one side it must also be admitted on the other and must eventually contain every thing said at the Conferences, which if we should have many would swell it up to an excessive Volume — We replied that the explanatory paragraphs were material to unfold the full import of their proposals — Mr. Bayard put it pointedly to them that they had not disclosed their full meaning. He said their proposition respecting the Indian Boundary, as put by themselves, was not intelligible to us — Did they mean to take a portion of our Territory, and assign it to the Indians? did they mean in a word to alter the Condition of the Indians, in relation to the United States? — The British Commissioners manifested here a slight movement [of] impatience at these questions, and of regret at having answered so explicitly those that Mr. Bayard had put to them yesterday — They said they could not be expected to develope at this stage of the business if at any, the ultimate views and intentions of their Government in this proposal. But they assented to an alteration in their own statement of the point. Dr. Adams said that it could not be said there was a Territory _assigned_ to People, which was already in their Possession. Mr. Goulburn used the words Dominions, and Territories of the Indians — I remarked to them that they must be aware the Terms Dominions, Territories, and Possessions as applied to Indians were of very different import, from the same terms as applied to civilized Nations — That this difference was well known and understood, and in the same manner hitherto by all the European Nations — Mr. Goulburn said it was however necessary to use one or the other of those words, and finally preferred that of Territory.
18. ≈ We had a meeting of the Mission at 2 O'Clock, when we signed the Dispatch to the Secretary of State N. 2 containing the Account of our first Conferences with the British Commissioners — I was charged also to make the draught of another dispatch, accounting for the detention of the John Adams, and to serve as a justification for Captain Angus — After dinner I walked on the Ramparts without the town, and on the Place d'Armes.
19. V. ≈ On returning home, I met my Colleagues at 2 O'Clock. I had the draught of a Dispatch, accounting for the detention of the John Adams — Mr. Gallatin objected to a passage stating that the first cause of this was the transfer of the Negotiation to this City — and was supported in the objection by Mr. Bayard and Mr. Russell — It was struck out — Mr. Baker had been here from the British Commissioners, requesting a Conference at their house at 3 O'Clock — We went as requested — On taking their seats at the table, Mr. Goulburn had a dispatch from their Government before him, which he informed us was the answer to that which they had sent by their Messenger. He proceeded to state its contents. The British Government expressed some surprize that we had not been instructed on the points of an Indian pacification, and boundary, as it might naturally have been expected that Great-Britain could not consent to make a Peace and leave her Allies at the mercy of a more powerful Enemy — She might therefore justly have supposed that the American Government would have furnished us with instructions to agree to an Article on this subject; but the least she can demand is that the American Commissioners should sign a provisional Article, subject to the ratification of their Government, so that if it should be ratified, the Treaty should take effect and if not that it should be null and void — And we were desired to understand that if unfortunately the conferences should be suspended by our refusal to agree to such an Article, Great-Britain would not consider herself bound upon a renewal of the Negotiations to abide by the terms which she now offers. — As we had requested to be explicitly informed of the views and intentions of Great-Britain in proposing this Article, we were to know that the Indian Territories were to be interposed as a barrier between the British Dominions and the United States, to prevent them from being conterminous to each other, and that neither Great-Britain nor the United-States should acquire by purchase any of those Indian Lands. For the line, Great-Britain was willing to take the Treaty of Greenville for the Basis, with such Modifications as might be agreed upon — With respect to the other boundary line, that of the British Territories, Great-Britain still adhered to the principle of asking for no conquests — But as Great-Britain on the side of Canada was the weaker of the two Nations, and had no designs of Conquest there, and as it had been stated that the United States had on their part had the design of conquering Canada, it was required by Great-Britain that the United States should stipulate to have no naval force upon the Lakes, from Ontario to Superior, and neither to build any forts in future, nor to preserve those already built upon their borders. It would also be necessary for Great-Britain to obtain a communication between the provinces of New-Brunswick and Canada; a mere road from Halifax to Quebec; which would take off a small corner of the Province of Maine. These Propositions must be considered as proofs of the Moderation of Great-Britain, since she might have demanded a cession of all the borders of the Lakes to herself — She would also require a continuance of the right of navigating the Mississippi as secured to her by the former Treaties — Mr. Gallatin asked what was proposed to be done with the inhabitants, Citizens of the United-States, already settled beyond the line of the Treaty of Greenville — the Territories of Michigan, of Illinois, and part of the State of Ohio; amounting perhaps to one hundred thousand; many of whom had been settled there with their ancestors an hundred years — Mr. Goulburn said that their case had not been considered by the British Government — That it might be a foundation for the United States to claim a particular modification of the line; and if that should not be agreed to, they might remove — Dr. Adams said that undoubtedly they must shift for themselves. Mr. Bayard asked whether the proposition respecting the Indian pacification and boundary was still presented as a sine qua non; to which they answered, that undoubtedly it was — He asked whether that relating to the Lakes was of the same character — Dr. Adams answered, one sine qua non at a time is enough — It will be time enough to answer your question, when you have disposed of that we have given you. I observed that for my own part I should not wish for another Conference before we should have received from the British Commissioners a written statement of their propositions — This was agreed to on all sides; and they suggested that they should also expect our written answer to their Note, prior to the next Conference — I observed there might be in their Note itself some things susceptible of verbal explanation, which we might desire before we should send the answer, in which case I presumed they would have no objection to our asking another Conference — To this they assented, though not without some objection from Dr. Adams, which he finally gave up — They promised to furnish us the written Note as soon as possible — Lord Castlereagh himself arrived in this City last Night, and proceeds in a day or two to Bruxelles. — Our Conference lasted about an hour — On our return home we found Mr. Astor of New-York, and a Mr. Camberlin, just arrived from Paris, who dined with us — After dinner we had a meeting of the Mission, and determined to write another Dispatch to the Secretary of State, but not to wait for the written Note of the British Commissioners, nor to delay the departure of the John Adams an hour longer — Mr. Gallatin made minutes for this dispatch and agreed to make the draft of it, to be ready to-morrow morning. ≈ In my account of our Conference with the British Commissioners this morning, I omitted to state the following facts. — Mr. Gallatin adverting to the late Account in the English Newspapers of their having taken possession of Moose Island in the Bay of Passamaquoddy, enquired whether the statement which had been published was correct; that they meant to keep it — They said it was — That it was a part of the Province of Nova-Scotia — that they did not even consider it a subject for discussion; Mr. Goulburn said he could demonstrate in the most unanswerable manner that it belonged to them; and Dr. Adams said we might as well contest their right to Northampton-shire. Mr. Gallatin asked whether in requiring us to keep no naval force on the Lakes, and no forts on their shores they intended to reserve the right of keeping them there themselves, they said they certainly did — After the Conference was finished Mr. Bayard, said to Mr. Goulburn, that if the conferences were suspended, he supposed Goulburn would take a trip to England — Goulburn said, yes; and I suppose you will take a trip to America — In general their tone was more peremptory and their language more overbearing than at the former conferences — Their Deportment this day, was peculiarly offensive to Mr. Bayard — Mr. Clay has an inconceivable idea, that they will finish by receding from the ground they have taken.
21. IV:30. I began the first draught of an Answer to the Note of the British Commissioners, which gave me occupation for the day, and which I did not finish — Mr. Clay had written something on his part, and Mr. Gallatin, according to his custom of composition had taken minutes of the subjects to be treated, and the ideas to be contained in it. All these were read at our Meeting at 2 O'Clock this afternoon. I found as usual that the Draught was not satisfactory to my Colleagues. On the general view of the subject we are unanimous, but in my exposition of it, one objects to the form, and another to the substance of almost every paragraph in my draught — Mr. Gallatin is for striking out every expression that may be offensive to the feelings of the adverse party: Mr. Clay is displeased with figurative language which he thinks improper for a State Paper — Mr. Russell, agreeing in the objections of the two other Gentlemen, will be further for amending the construction of every Sentence, and Mr. Bayard even when agreeing to say precisely the same thing, chuses to say it only in his own language. It was considered by all the Gentlemen that what I had written was too long, and with too much argument about the Indians — It is however my duty to make the draught of the dispatch, and they usually hold me to it — Mr. Valvyn the Public Librarian called on me this morning, and proposed to go with me to-morrow to see a collection of antient medals, to which I agreed — In the Evening, we had three opera's at the Theatre — L'Opéra Comique — Haine aux femmes, and Le Diable en Vacances; all very indifferent pieces, the music not so bad — Mr. Dallas, and Mr. Emlin left the City at 5 O'Clock this morning, for the Texel. Mr. Connell returned this morning from thence and called upon me— We received invitations to dine next Saturday with the British Commissioners — the chance is that before that time the whole Negotiation will be at an end.
25. V. We had a meeting this morning, when the answer to the Note of the British Plenipotentiaries was finally agreed to, and signed. It was carried to them by Mr. Hughes, and will bring the Negotiation very shortly to a close. I was engaged the greatest part of the day in copying, and writing Letters.
[September 1814]
1. IV. This morning I paid a visit to the British Plenipotentiaries and to Mrs. Goulburn — I did not however see her, but only her husband. Lord Gambier and Dr. Adams, with Mr. Baker, went yesterday to Bruxelles, to return on Saturday. Mr. Goulburn told me that after having prepared their note in reply to ours, from the great importance of the subject, they had thought best to transmit it to their Government for approbation before they sent it in to us. He said he expected their messenger this Evening; and I enquired whether he expected to receive by him the answer to their last reference — He said that would depend on the time which it took their dispatch to arrive in England; but he thought it more probable that the answer would come next Sunday. That their Messengers came regularly twice a week, on Thursdays and Sundays — I told him I hoped his Government would reconsider some parts of their former propositions before they sent their final instruction — He did not think it probable; and I found the more I conversed with him, the more the violence and bitterness of his Passion against the United States disclosed itself. His great point in support of the Indian boundary, was its necessity for the security of Canada. — He said that the United States had manifested the intention and the determination of conquering Canada — That "excepting us", he believed it was the astonishment of the whole world, that Canada had not been conquered at the very outset of the War — That nothing had saved it but the excellent dispositions and military arrangements of the Governor, who commanded there — That in order to guard against the same thing in future it was necessary to make a barrier against our settlements, upon which neither party should encroach. That the Indians were but a secondary object; but that as being the allies of Great-Britain, she must include them, as she made Peace with other Powers, including Portugal, as her ally — That the proposition that we should stipulate not to arm upon the Lakes, was made with the same purpose — the security of Canada — He could not see that there was any thing humiliating in it — That the United States could never be in any danger of invasion from Canada — The disproportion of force was too great — But Canada must always be in the most imminent danger of invasion from the United States, unless she was guarded by some such stipulations as they now demanded — That it could be nothing to the United States to agree not to arm upon the Lakes; since they never had actually done it before the present War. Why should they object to disarming there, where they had never before had a gun floating? I answered that the Conquest of Canada had never been an object of the War on the part of the United States. That Canada had been invaded by us, in consequence of the War, as they themselves had invaded many parts of the United-States. It was an effect, and not a Cause of the War — That the American Government never had declared the intention of conquering Canada — He referred to Hull's Proclamation — I answered that the Government was not answerable for that; any more than the British Government was answerable for Admiral Cochrane's Proclamation, which had been disavowed — He said that the American Government had not disavowed Hull's Proclamation; and that no Proclamation of Admiral Cochrane's had been disavowed by the British Government. — I replied that the American Government had never been called upon either to avow or disavow Hull's Proclamation; but that I had seen in a printed Statement of the debates in the House of Commons that Lord Castlereagh had been called upon to say whether Admiral Cochrane's Proclamation had been authorized or not, and had answered that it was not. He said that Lord Castlereagh had been asked whether a Proclamation of Admiral Cochrane's, encouraging the negroes to revolt, had been authorized by the Government, and had answered in the negative; that is that no proclamation, encouraging the negroes to revolt, had been authorized — but the Proclamation of Admiral Cochrane as referred to gave no such encouragement; there was nothing about negroes in it — It merely offered employment or a settlement in the British Colonies to such persons as might be disposed to leave the United States — I referred him to the term free used in connection with that of settlements, and observed that it was true the word negroes was not used in it, but that no person in America could mistake its meaning — That it was unquestionably intended to apply to the negroes, and that the practice of many of their naval commanders corresponded with it — That it was known some of them under such inducements had taken away blacks, who had afterwards been sold in the West-India Islands. Upon this he manifested some apparent agitation, and said that he could undertake to deny it] in the most unqualified terms — That the character of British naval officers was universally known; their generosity and humanity could not be contested; and besides, that since the Act of Parliament of 1811, the act of selling any man for a Slave, unless real Slaves from one British Island to another was felony without benefit of clergy. I replied that without contesting the character of any class of People generally, it was certain there would be in all Classes, individuals capable of committing actions, of which others would be ashamed — That at a great distance from the eye and controul of the Government, acts were often done, with impunity, which would be severely punished nearer home — That the facts I had stated to him, were among the objects which we were instructed to present for Consideration, if the Negotiation should proceed, and he might in that case find it more susceptible of proof than he was aware — He thought it impossible; but that it was one of those charges against their officers, of which there were many, originating only in the spirit of hostility and totally destitute of foundation — With respect to the Indian allies I remarked that there was no analogy between them and the case of Portugal — That the stipulation which might be necessary for the protection of Indians, situated within the boundaries of the United States, who had taken the British side in the War, was rather in the nature of an amnesty, than of a provision for allies — It resembled more the case of Subjects who in cases of invasion, sometimes took part with the enemy, as had sometimes occurred to G. Britain in Ireland — He insisted that the Indians must be considered as Independent Nations, and that we ourselves made Treaties with them; and acknowledged boundaries of their Territories — I said that wherever they would form settlements and cultivated Lands their possessions were undoubtedly to be respected, and always were respected by the United States. That some of them had become civilized in a considerable degree, the Cherokees for example, who had permanent habitations and a state of property like our own. But the greater part of the Indians could never be prevailed upon to adopt this mode of life — their habits, and attachments, and prejudices were so averse to any settlement that [they] could not reconcile themselves to any other condition than that of wandering hunters. It was impossible for such People ever to be said to have Possessions — Their only right upon Land was a right to use it as hunting grounds, and when those Lands where they hunted, became necessary or convenient for the purposes of settlement, the system adopted by the United States was by amicable arrangement with them, to compensate them for renouncing the right of hunting upon them, and for removing to remoter regions better suited to their purposes and mode of life — This system of the United States was an improvement upon the former practice of all European Nations, including the British. The original settlers of New-England had set the first example of this liberality towards the Indians, which was afterwards followed by the founder of Pennsylvania. Between it, and taking the Lands for nothing, or exterminating the Indians who had used them there was no alternative — To condemn vast regions of territory, to perpetual barrenness and Solitude, that a few hundred Savages might find wild beasts to hunt upon it, was a species of game-Law, that a Nation descended from Britons would never endure — It was as incompatible with the moral as with the physical nature of things — If Great-Britain meant to preclude forever the People of the United States from settling and cultivating those Territories she must not think of doing it by a Treaty — She must formally undertake and accomplish their utter extermination — If the Government of the United States should ever submit to such a stipulation which I hoped they would not, all its force, and all that of Britain combined with it, would not suffice to carry it long into execution — It was opposing a feather to a torrent. The Population of the United States in 1810 passed seven Millions — At this hour it undoubtedly passed eight — As it continued to increase in such proportions, was it in human experience or in human power to check its progress by a bond of paper purporting to exclude posterity from the natural means of subsistence which they would derive from the cultivation of the soil? Such a Treaty instead of closing the old sources of dissension would only open new ones. A War thus finished would immediately be followed by another, and Great-Britain would ultimately find that she must substitute the project of exterminating the whole American People, to that of opposing against them her Barrier of Savages. — "What, said Mr. Goulburn, is it then in the inevitable nature of things that the United States must conquer Canada?" — "No" — "But what security then can Great-Britain have for her Possession of it?" If Great-Britain does not think a liberal and amicable course of policy towards America would be the best security, as it certainly would, she must rely upon her general strength, upon the superiority of her power in other parts of her relations with America; upon the power which she has upon another element to indemnify herself, by sudden impression upon American interests, more defenceless against her superiority, and in their amount far more valuable than Canada ever was or ever will be — He recurred again to our superior force, and to the necessity of providing against it — He said that in Canada, they never took any of the Indian Lands, and the Government (meaning the Provincial Government) was prohibited even from granting them — That there were among the Indians, very civilized People, and there was particularly one whom he knew, Norton, who commanded some of those engaged with them in this War, and who was a very intelligent and well-informed man — That this removing of the Indians from their Lands to others, was the very thing they complained of — That it drove them over into their Provinces and made them encroach upon the Indians in their Provinces — This was a new idea to me; I told him I had never heard any complaint of this kind before; and I supposed a remedy for it, would very easily be found. He made no reply, and seemed as if in the pressure for an argument he had advanced more than he was inclined to maintain — It was the same with regard to the proposal that we should keep no armed force on or near the Lakes of Canada. He did not admit there was any thing humiliating or unusual in it; but he evaded repeatedly the question how he or the English Nation would feel if the proposition were made to them of binding themselves by such a Stipulation — I finally said that if he did not feel that there was any thing dishonourable to the party, submitting to such terms, it was not a subject susceptible of argument — I could assure him that we and our Nation would feel it to be such — That such stipulations were indeed often extorted from the weakness of a vanquished enemy; but they were always felt to be dishonourable, and had certainly occasioned more Wars than they had ever prevented — After changing the subject of the Conversation to the pictures, which we and they had drawn at [the Lottery, I took my leave and returned home — In reflecting upon it I remark 1. The inflexible determination to adhere to the Indian Boundary and Barrier. 2dly. The avowal of Cochrane's proclamation to the negroes, and the explanation of Lord Castlereagh's disavowal. 3. The bitterness, and rancour against the Americans, and the Jealousy at their increasing strength and population. 4. The irritability at the statement of facts, relative to the sale of the Blacks, enticed away, and at the comparison between their employing our Indians against us, and Irish Subjects, aiding a French invader — Goulburn is personally the most inveterate of the three Plenipotentiaries, and the most in the Confidence of his Government.
5. IV:30. I have been copying Mr. Clay's private Journal of the Conferences, which it may be useful hereafter to compare with my own. This morning the British Commissioners sent their reply to our last Note; which was received by Mr. Gallatin; and by him brought in to me. — We had shortly after a meeting of the Mission, when it was read and considered — Mr. Bayard pronounced it a very stupid production. Mr. Clay was for answering it by a Note of half a page — I neither thought it stupid, nor proper to be answered in half a page — Each of the Gentlemen wanted it for some hours, and Mr. Gallatin proposed to make an analysis of its contents, to minute what would deserve to be noticed in our answer; to which we all agreed. After dinner, Mr. Meulemeester and Mr. Bentzon called upon us, and we went with them to the private Theatre at "La Rhétorique." The performance was in Flemish, and before it was half over I found myself falling asleep. I therefore came away and walked half an hour on the Place d'Armes — The house was crowded again, and chiefly with women.
8. III:45. Just before rising, I heard Mr. Clay's company retiring from his chamber. I had left him with Mr. Russell, Mr. Bentzon, and Mr. Todd, at Cards. They parted as I was about to rise — I was up nearly half an hour before I had day-light to read or write. From that time until ten, I was employed on the draft and minutes of Mr. Gallatin, Mr. Bayard and Mr. Clay — I struck out the greatest part of my own previous draft, preferring that of Mr. Gallatin upon the same points. On the main question, relative to the Indian boundary, I made a new draft of several paragraphs, comprizing the principal ideas of them all, and introducing an additional view of the subject, of my own. I had also prepared a paragraph concerning the employment of Savages. I was not a little gratified to find that Mr. Bayard in his draft had taken the true and strong ground respecting Indian rights, and had even quoted the very passage of Vattel, which I had produced to him, at our meeting on the 25th of last Month, and at which he had then appeared to be a little nettled — I read my new draft to Mr. Gallatin, in his chamber; and at 11 O'Clock, gave the papers to Mr. Russell. At Noon, we met, and sat untill dinner time, preparing from all our sketches a final draft to be copied by Mr. Hughes. My new paragraph, respecting Indian Rights, was adopted without much alteration — That against the employment of Savages, was fully adopted in substance, but with a multitude of amendments — I retired from the dinner table, and made a second fair draft of it, to be copied by Mr. Hughes. The concluding paragraph, and one or two others were left to be finally settled, to-morrow Morning.
20. V. I was closing my copy of four Pages, when the third Note from the British Plenipotentiaries was brought to me; together with some late English Newspapers that they had sent us. After reading the Note, and the two Proclamations of General Hull, and General Smyth, enclosed with it, I took them immediately in to Mr. Gallatin — They were shortly after read by our other Colleagues, and we had at One O'Clock a meeting of the Mission — The British Note is overbearing and insulting in its tone like the two former ones; but it abandons a great part of the sine qua non, adhering at the same time inflexibly to the remainder. The effect of these notes, upon us all, when they first come is to deject us all — We so fondly cling to the vain hope of Peace, that every new proof of its impossibility operates upon us as a disappointment — We had a desultory and general conversation, upon this Note, in which I thought both Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard shewed symptoms of despondency — In discussing with them, I cannot always restrain the irritability of my temper — Mr. Bayard meets it with more of accommodation than heretofore, and sometimes with more compliance than I expect — Mr. Gallatin having more pliability of character, and more playfulness of disposition throws off my heat with a joke. Mr. Clay and Mr. Russell, are perfectly firm themselves, but sometimes partake of the staggers of the two other Gentlemen — Mr. Gallatin said this day that the Sine qua non, now presented, that the Indians should be positively included in the Peace, and placed in the state they were in before the War, would undoubtedly be rejected by our Government, if it was now presented to them — But that it was a bad point for us to break off the Negotiation upon — That the difficulty of carrying on the War, might compel us to admit the principle at last, for now the British had so committed themselves, with regard to the Indians, that it was impossible for them further to retreat. Mr. Bayard was the same opinion; and recurred to his fundamental idea of breaking off upon some point which shall unite our own People in the support of the War. In this sentiment we all concur — But as its tendency is to produce compliance with the British claims, it is necessary to guard against its leading us in that career too far — I said it was not more clear to me that the British would not finally abandon their present Sine qua non, than it had been that they would adhere to their first — That if the Point of the Indians, was a bad point to break upon, I was very sure we should never find a good one — If that would not unite our People, it was a hopeless pursuit — Mr. Gallatin repeated with a very earnest look that it was a bad point to break upon — Then, said I, with a movement of impatience, and an angry tone, it is a good point to admit the British as the Sovereigns and protectors of our Indians — Gallatin's countenance brightened, and he said in a tone of perfect good humour, "that's a non sequitur." — This turned the edge of the argument into mere jocularity — I laughed, and insisted that it was a sequitur, and the conversation easily changed to another point.
25. IV:45. I found it impossible to make a suitable revision of the Papers for the draft of our Note, without attempting to make a new draft of great part of it, which I accordingly attempted. Before I had finished it Mr. Gallatin came into my chamber, and shewed some impatience for a meeting — I was prepared about Noon — Mr. Russell was gone out to Breakfast. We found in Mr. Clay's chamber some English Newspapers, among which the Times of the 21st containing the British Lieut't. General Drummond's official account of the Battle of 25 July; the first of our defeats of which a long and heavy series is before us. There was a Mr. Mifflin last from Hamburg, and lately from England in Mr. Clay's chamber — We met at one O'Clock, and sat until past five debating the new draft of our answer to the British Note — I had proposed to leave out a large part of Mr. Gallatin's draft; but he insisted upon retaining most of what he had written and it was retained — In this debate I had continual evidence of two things — One that if any one member objects to any thing I have written; all the rest support him in it, and I never can get it through — The other that if I object to any thing written by Mr. Gallatin, unless he voluntarily abandons it, every other member supports him, and my objection is utterly unavailing — They supported him thus this day in a paragraph respecting Florida, directly in the face of our Instructions, which I produced and read. I was reduced to the necessity of declaring that I would not sign the paper with the paragraph as he had drawn it — He objected to mine because it said that the proccedings of the American Government could be completely justified with regard to Florida — Gallatin said that he did not think they could — That he had opposed for a whole year, what had been done before he could succeed in stopping the course they had taken — Mr. Bayard said that he was very much committed on the subject of Florida too; and Mr. Clay though he thought the Government perfectly justable, did not perceive any necessity for saying so. Mr. Russell was of the same opinion. — I had no alternative but to say I would not sign the paper with the paragraph as Mr. Gallatin had written it — for that pointedly said that we would not discuss the subject of Florida with the British Plenipotentiaries, though our Instructions had expressly authorized us to bring it before them — Mr. Gallatin finally consented himself to take my paragraph with no alteration — On the other hand, in repelling an insolent charge of the British Plenipotentiaries against the Government of the United States of a system of perpetual encroachment upon the Indians under the pretence of purchases, I had taken the ground of the moral and religious duty of a Nation to settle, cultivate and improve their territory — a principle perfectly recognized by the Laws of Nations, and in my own opinion the only solid and unanswerable defence against the charge in the British Note — Gallatin, saw and admitted the weight of the argument; but was afraid of ridicule — Bayard too since he has been reading Vattel agreed in the argument, and was willing to say it was a duty — But the terms God, and Providence and Heaven, Mr. Clay thought were canting, and Russell laughed at them. I was obliged to give them up, and with them what I thought the best argument we had.
[October 1814]
9. V. From which time untill our meeting at 2 in the afternoon I was engaged in copying the Note yesterday received from the British Plenipotentiaries — At the meeting we had some desultory Conversation on the subject of the answer to be given to the British Note — We came to no determination; but agreed to meet at 11 to-morrow morning — Mr. Bayard suggested the propriety of asking for a conference, before we should answer the Note — He thought we could not break off on the refusal to accept the Article proposed; but that we might demand before we accepted it their whole project of a Treaty — Yet if they should eventually refuse to give their project until we should formally have admitted their Article, he was still not for breaking off. Mr. Clay was for rejecting any proposition to disarm upon the Lakes if we admitted the present Article; because he considered that the two Articles together would deliver the whole Western Country up to the mercy of the Indians. The inconvenience and danger of admitting any preliminary Article thus dictated was distinctly perceived by us, but none of us was prepared to break off upon it.
12. VI. I made a draft of an answer to the last Note from the British Plenipotentiaries, but had not finished it when the time of our meeting came — At the meeting Mr. Gallatin produced his draft, and I read parts of mine. They differed much in the tone of the composition. The tone of all the British Notes is arrogant, overbearing, and offensive. The tone of ours is neither so bold nor so spirited as I think it should be — It is too much on the defensive, and too excessive in the caution to say nothing irritating. I have seldom been able to prevail upon my Colleagues to insert any thing in the style of retort upon the harsh and reproachful matter which we receive. ≈ Mr. Bayard and myself sat after dinner, untill past ten O'Clock, conversing upon Subjects of American politics, and of our present Negotiation — He was extremely friendly, and confidential in his manner, and spoke with an open-heartedness which I very cordially returned. He appears very anxious for the acceptance of the Article offered us by the British Plenipotentiaries, and dwells with the greatest earnestness on the project of accomplishing the Peace, or of uniting our whole Country in support of the War against our eternal and irreconcileable foe.
14. V. I wrote to my wife before breakfast, intending to employ the rest of the morning in copying papers; but the British Ministers sent us the Times of the 10th and 11th containing the official accounts of the taking of Machias and other towns in Passamaquoddy Bay, and the destruction of the Frigate Adams, by the expedition from Halifax under Sir J. C. Sherbrooke; together with the failure of our attempt to take Michillimackinac, and the taking of Plattsburg by the British Canadian army. — At Noon we met in Mr. Clay's chamber and signed our answer to the Fourth Note from the British Plenipotentiaries which Mr. Hughes immediately took to them — Captain Bates and Mr. Boyd dined with us — Mr. Clay, who was determined to foresee no public misfortune in our affairs, bears them with less temper now they have come than any other of us — He rails at commerce, and the people of Massachusetts, and tells what wonders the People of Kentucky would do, if they should be attacked.
18. ≈ I had some conversation with Mr. Russell, who read me a letter he was writing to Mr. Crawford, and who now told me he was much dissatisfied with our last Note to the British Plenipotentiaries — I reminded him that I had not only declared myself dissatisfied with it, but had offered another draft and of a totally different character — I asked him why, he had not supported me? He said he had expected Mr. Clay would have been the most stubborn of us all, upon the point relative to the Indians, and finding him give way, and being himself the youngest member of the Mission, and being from a State that cared nothing about Indian affairs, he had not thought it was his business to be more stiff about it than others — I told him of the long conversation I had with Bayard and how powerfully Bayard had operated upon me in it — I added that he had previously had a similar conversation with Clay, and I believed had worked still more forcibly upon him — Russell said that Bayard always talked about keeping a high tone, but when it came to the point he was always on the conceding side.
22. IV. ≈ We received this day the fifth Note from the British Plenipotentiaries; it has the same dilatory and insidious character as their preceding notes; but is shorter.
24. V. We had a meeting of the mission this morning in my chamber, at which Mr. Gallatin's draught of the answer to the last Note from the British Plenipotentiaries was considered, with some alterations proposed by Mr. Bayard and Mr. Clay. It was finally agreed to as altered, then copied fair by Mr. Hughes, signed by us, and taken by him to the British Commissioners. ≈ Mr. Hughes returned with the _Times_ Newspapers to the 21st containing numerous Articles of American News. Armstrong's assignment of reasons, for retiring from the War Department. The President's Proclamation of 1 September on the taking of Washington, the Capitulation of Alexandria, and the incendiary declaration of Admiral Cochrane. We had them all read while at dinner. ≈ I passed an hour of the Evening at Mr. Smith's lodgings; and shewed Mrs. Smith a letter I received this morning from my wife.
25. V. The day of Jubile, of the marriage of my Parents — They have this day been married fifty years. I wrote to my Mother on the occasion — Wrote also a letter to the Secretary of State, and made a draft of a joint dispatch to him and of a short Letter to Mr. Crawford — We had a meeting of the mission at 2 O'Clock, when these drafts were agreed to.
29. VI — All this morning I was occupied in retrieving the arrears of my Journal, which I accomplished. Wrote only one short Letter, to Mr. Bourne — At two O'Clock, we had a meeting of the Mission — Mr. Russell was not present — We had some further desultory conversation concerning the drawing up a project of a Treaty — Mr. Gallatin had made some minutes; upon which we had much loose conversation — I urged the propriety of making out at once the project in the form of a Treaty; both for the sake of saving time, and of being fully prepared to deliver it immediately to the British Plenipotentiaries, whenever they shall consent to the exchange of projects. This was at last agreed to — Mr. Gallatin undertook to draw up the Articles respecting the boundaries and Indians, and I promised to prepare those respecting impressment, blockade, and indemnities — I took a short walk before dinner, and one turn in the Place d'Armes, in the Evening. After which I called at Mr. Smith's until ten — He came in shortly before from the Theatre.
30. VI:15. I began making a draft for the project of a Treaty. Mr. Gallatin was employed in the same manner. At 2 O'Clock we had a meeting of the Mission, but Mr. Clay was not present untill the meeting was over, and Mr. Russell not at-all. We looked over the Articles drawn by Mr. Gallatin and myself, which being unfinished we agreed to meet every day at 2 O'Clock, until the whole project shall be prepared — Mr. Gallatin proposes to renew the two Articles of the Treaty of Peace of 1783, stipulation our right to fish, and dry and cure fish within the waters of the British Jurisdiction, and the right of the British to navigate the Mississippi. To this last Article however Mr. Clay makes strong objections — He is willing to leave the matter of the fisheries as a nest-egg for another war — but to make the Peace without saying any thing about it; which after the notice the British have given us, will be in fact an abandonment of our right — Mr. Clay considers this fishery as an object of trifling amount, and that a renewal of the right of the British to navigate the Mississippi would be giving them a privilege far more important than that we should secure in return — And as he finds as yet no member of the Mission but himself taking this ground he grows earnest in defence of it — He now recurs to our Instructions forbidding us to permit our right to the fisheries to be brought into discussion — But I observed to him that those Instructions were drawn without a knowledge of the question as it now stands — This is a point upon which Mr. Clay will evidently have great reluctance, in assenting to what will, I believe, be found necessary. ≈
31. VI:15. All the morning I was preparing the draft of an Article for the project of a Treaty, on the subject of indemnities. I was much embarrassed by not being able to find one of the papers referred to in our instructions — I however, finally got the Article ready. At 2 O'Clock we had the meeting of the Mission. We had much conversation upon the delays of the British Government, in furnishing us Passports for dispatch vessels — Mr. Clay was for making a strong remonstrance on the subject, and for breaking off the Negotiation upon that point if they did not give us satisfaction — As I was beginning to read my draft of Articles for the project of a Treaty a packet was brought to us from the British Plenipotentiaries, together with the Times Newspaper to the 28th inclusive — The dispatch contained their sixth Note — dilatory and evasive as heretofore ≈ We had little deliberation and came to no result upon the contents of the sixth Note — for we all fell to reading the Newspapers until dinner time — Mr. Clay is losing his temper; and growing peevish and fractious. I too must not forget to keep a constant guard upon my temper; for the time is evidently approaching when it will be wanted.
[November 1814]
24. VII. ≈ While we were at the Redoute, Mr. Gallatin told me that our Landlord Mr. Ducobu had sent him word that Mr. Shaler had arrived from Paris, with dispatches for us — At ten O'Clock we came home, and sent immediately to Mr. Shaler for the dispatches — Mr. Clay & Mr. Russell, had walked there from the Redoute and opened them. They were sent to us, by Mr. Gallatin's black Servant Peter, and were open. Mr. Shaler sent us word that he would call upon us to-morrow Morning — There were three Dispatches from the Secretary of State; one from the new Secretary of the Treasury Mr. Dallas, and Letters from Mr. Crawford — There were scarcely any private Letters, but I had one of 16 October from De Grand at Boston. The last dispatch from the Secretary of State is dated 19 October, after the receipt of ours by the John Adams. It declares the President's entire approbation of our determination to reject the first proposals of the British Government. And it expressly authorizes us if the Negotiation should not be broken off, to conclude the peace on the basis of the Status ante Bellum — precisely the offer which we have made in our last Note, and of which I found it so difficult to obtain the insertion — We sat up reading the dispatches, letters and newspapers until one in the Morning.
27. VI:30. I wrote part of a Letter in answer to that I have received from Mr. De Grand — About 11 in the morning and before I had finished it, Mr. Gallatin came into my chamber, with a Note received from the British Plenipotentiaries. They have sent us back with this Note, the Project of a Treaty which we had sent them, with marginal Notes and alterations, proposed by them — They have rejected all the Articles we had proposed on impressment, blockade, indemnities, amnesty, and Indians — They have definitively abandoned the Indian boundary, the exclusive military possession of the Lakes, and the uti-possidetis, but with a protestation that they will not be bound to adhere to these terms hereafter; if the peace should not be made now. Within an hour after receiving these papers we had a meeting of the Mission at my chamber, when the Note, and the alterations to our project, proposed by the British Plenipotentiaries were read, and we had some desultory conversation upon the subject — All the difficulties to the conclusion of a Peace appear to be now so nearly removed, that my Colleagues all considered it as certain — I think it myself probable — But unless we take it precisely as it is now offered, to which I strongly incline, I distrust so much the intentions of the British Government, that I still consider the conclusion as doubtful and precarious — It was agreed that we should meet at eleven O'Clock to-morrow Morning; and in the mean time that the Note and project should be taken successively by each of us, to make minutes for the reply to it — Mr. Gallatin suggested the propriety of asking a Conference; to which I expressed some objection, but without insisting upon it — Mr. Bayard and Mr. Clay took the Note and Project, and returned it to me with their minutes just before dinner — Mr. Gallatin took it this Evening with the promise to send it to me at six O'Clock to-morrow Morning — We went in the Evening to the Theatre, and saw Romeo et Juliette, a French Opera, founded upon Shakespear's play, and Lodoïska. The music of the first is by Steibelt, and like all his compositions mere musical pedantry. Lodoïska is by Kreutzer, and very pleasing.
28. V:30. Mr. Gallatin's Servant, Peter, brought me this morning as the Clock struck six the British Note and Project, with Mr. Gallatin's minutes upon them — I kept them until nine; made my own Minutes upon them; and then sent all the papers excepting my own minutes, which were of no importance, to Mr. Russell — As Mr. Gallatin understands the British Project there are still some things in it so objectionable that they ought on no consideration to be admitted. At eleven O'Clock we met and continued in Session until past four, when we adjourned to meet again at eleven to-morrow Morning — Our principal discussion was an Article proposed by the British Government, as a substitute for the 8th of our project — And they have added a clause securing to them the Navigation of the Mississippi, and access to it with their Goods and Merchandize through our territories — To this part of the Article Mr. Clay positively objected. Mr. Gallatin proposed to agree to it, proposing an Article to secure our right of fishing and curing fish within the British Jurisdiction. Mr. Clay lost his temper, as he generally does whenever this right of the British to navigate the Mississippi is discussed. He was utterly averse to admitting it as an equivalent for a stipulation securing the contested part of the Fisheries — He said the more he heard of this the more convinced he was that it was of little or no value — He should be glad to get it if he could, but he was sure the British would not ultimately grant it. That the Navigation of the Mississippi on the other hand was an object of immense importance, and he could see no sort of reason for granting it as an equivalent for the fisheries — Mr. Gallatin said that the fisheries were of great importance in the sentiment of the Eastern Section of the Union — That if we should sign a peace without securing them to the full extent in which they were enjoyed before the War, and especially if we should abandon any part of the territory, it would give a handle to the party there now pushing for a separation from the Union, and for a New England confederacy to say that the interests of New-England were sacrificed, and to pretend that by a separate confederacy they could obtain what is refused to us. Mr. Clay said] that there was no use in attempting to conciliate people who never would be conciliated. That it was too much the practice of our Government to sacrifice the interests of its best friends for those of its bitterest enemies — That there might be a party for Separation at some future day in the Western States too. I observed to him that he was now speaking under the impulse of passion; and that on such occasions I would wish not to answer any thing — That assuredly the Government would be reproached, and the greatest advantage would be taken by the party opposed to it, if any of the rights of the Eastern States should be sacrificed by the Peace — That the loss of any part of the fisheries would be a subject of triumph and exultation both to the enemy, and to those among us who had been opposed to the War — That if I should consent to give up even Moose Island, where there was a town which had been for many years regularly represented in the Legislature of the State of Massachusetts, I should be ashamed to shew my face among my Countrymen. That as to the British right of navigating the Mississippi, I considered it as nothing, considered as a grant from us — It was secured to them by the Peace of 1783. They had enjoyed it at the commencement of the War; it had never been injurious in the slightest degree to our own People, and it appeared to me that, the British claim to it was just and equitable — The boundary fixed by the Peace of 1783, was a line due west from the Lake of the Woods to the Mississippi, and the Navigation of the river was stipulated for both Nations. It has been since that time discovered that a line due west from the Lake of the Woods will not touch the Mississippi, but goes North of it — The boundary therefore is annulled by the fact — Two things were contemplated by both parties in that compact — one that the line should run west from the Lake of the Woods; the other that it should touch the Mississippi — In attempting now to supply the defect, we ask for the line due west, and the British ask for the shortest line to the Mississippi — Both demands stand upon the same grounds — The intention of both parties at the Peace of 1783. If we grant the British demand, they touch the river and have a clear right to its Navigation — If they grant our demand, they do not touch the river; but in conceding the territory they have a fair and substantial motive for reserving the right of navigating the river — I was not aware of any solid answer to this argument — I believed the right to this navigation, a very useless thing to the British, especially after they have abandoned all pretence to any territorial possessions upon the river — But the National pride, and honour were interested in it — The Government could not make a peace which would abandon it — They had the same reasons for insisting upon it that we had for insisting on the fisheries and the entire restoration of territory — Mr. Clay said that by the British Article now proposed they demanded not only the navigation of the river, but access to it through our territories generally, from any part of their dominions, and by any road — And without any guard even for the collection of our duties — That this might be an advantage to the People of Kentucky; for it was the shortest way to them for all imported merchandize — Goods could in that manner be sent by the St. Lawrence river, from Europe to his house, with a land carriage of not more than fourteen miles — But it would give the British access to our Country in a dangerous and pernicious manner — It would give them the trade with the Indians in its full extent, and enable them to use all the influence over those Savages, which had already done us so much harm. I observed that with regard to the trade with the Indians, I had no doubt the British Government meant and understood that to be already conceded, in the Article to which we had agreed — That I understood it so myself — That by restoring to the Indians all the rights they had in 1811, we had restored to them the right of trading with the British, and of having the British traders go among them for the purposes of trade — That if there could at any time have been a doubt that such would be its operation, [the explanatory Article after Mr. Jay's treaty, and the Greenville Indian Treaty would remove it — How could we possibly be said to restore to the Indians the right of trade, if we debarred those who carried it on from trading with them? — As to the duties, undoubtedly provision must be made for collecting them; and no doubt that would be agreed to. Mr. Gallatin declared himself of the same opinion with me that the grant of the mere right of the Navigation of the Mississippi; but he asked me why I had then hesitated so much about offering it as an equivalent for the fisheries? Mr. Clay on the other hand, thought there would be a gross inconsistency in asking a specific stipulation for the fisheries after the ground we had taken that no Article was necessary to secure us in the enjoyment of them. I said that my reluctance at granting the Navigation of the Mississippi arose merely from the extreme interest that Mr. Clay and the Western people attached to it — That as to the ground we had taken upon the fisheries, I believed it firm and solid — I had put my name to it, and considered myself as responsible for it — But when some of my own Colleagues who had also put their names to it, told me in this chamber among ourselves that they thought the ground untenable, and that there was nothing in our principle, I found it necessary to mistrust my own judgment — particularly as the enemy after having given us notice that they meant to deprive us of the fisheries in part, unless a new stipulation should secure them. If our principle was good for the fisheries, on our part, it was good to the British for the Navigation of the Mississippi — The Plenipotentiaries had made no reply to our remarks concerning the fisheries — That silence might be taken for acquiescence, and if there was nothing more I would rest it upon that — But they asked for a new stipulation of their right to navigate the Mississippi — This implied their opinion that they had lost the right as agreed to in the Treaty of 1783 — It became necessary therefore for us to ask a similar stipulation for the fisheries within their jurisdiction; but I would not accept it even for the rights of fishing on the Banks. I would not sign a Treaty containing such a Stipulation — for it would be a sort of admission that the right would be liable to forfeiture by every War we might have with Great-Britain — I would not take therefore a stipulation for any thing recognized in the Treaty of Peace as a right — No more, (said Mr. Gallatin) than an Article acknowledging again our Independence — I said, certainly. Mr. Bayard thought there was a material difference between the rights secured by the Peace of 1783 to us, and the British right of navigating the Mississippi in the same Treaty — The rights recognized as belonging to us were certainly permanent, and not to be forfeited by a subsequent War — But we had nothing to grant — We recognized no new rights to the British — The Mississippi was not then ours to grant. It was held by Spain, and the aspect of the subject was entirely changed by our subsequent acquisition of Louisiana — Our argument for the fisheries might therefore be sound and yet not apply to the British for the Navigation of the Mississippi — It became necessary to determine by a vote whether Mr. Gallatin's proposal to offer an Article, making the Navigation an equivalent for the fisheries should be adopted; and it was determined that it should. At the meeting to-morrow he is to produce it, and the draft of a Note to the British Plenipotentiaries — While we were in Session we received a Note from them; with Passports for the Herald, and for Mr. Smith and his family to go by the Neptune, as they had been requested in our late application — In the Evening I went to the Theatre, and saw the Travellers benighted, or the bleeding Nun, with Of Age to-morrow, performed by the English Company of Players. After I came home, Mr. Gallatin brought me a letter respecting the loan, brought by an American named Strong.
29. V:30. I had barely time to finish my Letter to my wife to go by this day's post, when the meeting of the Mission began. Mr. Gallatin had prepared his draft of a Note to the British Plenipotentiaries; closing with the request of a conference; and his proposed Article, offering the Navigation of the Mississippi, as an equivalent for the fisheries within the British Jurisdiction — This renewed our discussion of the whole subject; but it was now on all sides good humoured. I had some doubt whether it would be perfectly safe to ask a Conference, while we were so far from being agreed among ourselves. Mr. Clay said he could put the subject of the Mississippi Navigation upon principles to which it was impossible we should not all agree — I said that nothing like that had been apparent from our discussion hitherto — That he certainly [would] not be willing that I should be the spokesman of his sentiments, and I did not think it likely that he would very accurately express mine — He said he did not think there was so irreconcileable a difference in the structure of our minds, and that it was remarkable there was so exact a coincidence of views on this point, between persons at a great distance from each other as there was between Mr. Crawford and him — Mr. Russell had received a letter from Mr. Crawford, in which he had urged in very strong terms objections against granting the Navigation of the Mississippi as an equivalent for the fisheries; and had used the same arguments against it, as those he had adduced — Mr. Gallatin brought us all to unison again by a joke — He said he perceived that Mr. Adams cared nothing at all about the Navigation of the Mississippi, and thought of nothing but the fisheries — Mr. Clay cared nothing at-all about the fisheries, and thought of nothing but the Mississippi — The East was perfectly willing to sacrifice the West, and the West was equally ready to sacrifice the East — Now he was a western man, and would give the Navigation of the river for the fisheries — Mr. Russell was an Eastern Man, and was ready to do the same — I then told Mr. Clay that I would make a Coalition with him of the East and West. If the British would not give us the fisheries, I would join him in refusing to grant them the Navigation of the river. — He said that the consequence of our making the offer would be that we should lose both — Upon the rest of Mr. Gallatin's draft there was no difference of opinion and little discussion — It was admitted that if the Navigation of the river was granted, and access to it through our territories, provision must be made for collecting the duties, and their access must be limited to particular points of departure and a mere road — Or if general access like that which they demand should be granted, they ought to grant in return to our People access through their territories to the St. Lawrence, and the Navigation of that river — I then suggested that I wished to make an addition of one or two more paragraphs to Mr. Gallatin's draft of a Note, the object of which would be to shew our sense of the importance of the concessions we had made, and intimating our determination to make no cession of territory, and to sacrifice none of the Rights or Liberties which we enjoyed at the commencement of the War — There was an adjournment from two to three O'Clock, for me to make the draft of the additional paragraphs that I proposed — I had them ready at the adjourned meeting — They were read and discussed until past four, our dinner time — It was finally concluded to meet again to-morrow Morning at eleven; and in the mean time that all my Colleagues, should successively revise my draft. — Mr. Russell, and Mr. Strong, the person who brought us a letter last Night from Mr. Crawford, dined with us — The English company of players, sent a petition to us to permit them to perform to-morrow Evening under our _patronage_ , and to command the play. We agreed to take several boxes, but not to be advertised as their patrons — Mr. Bayard and Mr. Clay had some sparring about it while we were at dinner; which passed off by their drinking a glass of wine together — I passed the Evening partly in my chamber, writing, and the rest at Mr. Smith's, where I found Mr. Todd.
30. V:30. I have insensibly run several days in arrears with this Journal; at a time, when it has become important to keep close to the current of time — I began therefore this morning to retrieve it. But at eleven O'Clock came again the time for the Meeting of the Mission, which was in my Chamber — Mr. Gallatin had very much shortened and very materially altered my paragraphs. Mr. Clay had brought a draft of his own — My draft as originally written, and as amended; and his were all read — Mr. Bayard was for omitting the whole — I objected to Mr. Clay's as having altogether departed from what I had wished to say — Mr. Gallatin's amendments had very much altered the character of my draft, but I acquiesced in them; and it was concluded to admit them, and adopt my draft thus amended as part of the Note ≈
_Day_. I rise usually between 5 and 6, but not so regularly as heretofore; my hour for retiring at Night being more irregular — I begin the day with reading five Chapters in the Bible, and have this day finished in course the Old Testament. I then write until 9 O'Clock when I breakfast alone in my chamber — Write again after breakfast, until we have the meeting of the mission; and when there is none, until three, afternoon — Walk an hour — We dine at four, and sit at table usually till six — In the Evening, I attend the Theatre, Redoute or Concert, or pass an hour or two at Mr. and Mrs. Smith's lodgings — Between ten and eleven, I return to my chamber, and immediately betake myself to the Night's repose — There are several particulars in my present mode of life, in which there is too much relaxation of self-discipline — I have this Month frequented too much the Theatre, and other public amusements — Indulged too much conviviality; and taken too little exercise — The consequence is that I am growing uncomfortably corpulent, and that industry becomes irksome to me. May I be cautious not to fall into any habit of indolence or dissipation!
[December 1814]
11. IV:15. And the morning, until our Mission meeting, employed on the Journal of yesterday. Mr. Carroll arrived from London, and brought me a letter from Beasley, with Purdy's map for which I had written to him by Mr. Bentzon, and a pamphlet by Mr. Reeves. The meeting was in my chamber, and it was near Noon before we were all assembled — The questions were resumed what should be done with the present British proposals, and in what manner — whether by another conference or by a written Note — Mr. Russell was averse to the Conference — He thought it much safer for us that the discussions should be in writing rather than verbal — It is evident that the British Plenipotentiaries can do nothing of themselves — They have no discretionary powers — They must refer every thing we propose to their Government — When we write they refer our propositions in our own words and supported by our own reasoning — When we merely confer, we leave the statement of our arguments entirely to them — They give them their own colouring, and naturally make their case as favourable to themselves as they can — I was of the same opinion — with the additional motive of hastening to a conclusion of our business — We have not advanced a step in our conferences; nor shall we advance a step until we come to writing — Mr. Gallatin said the British Government was now evidently desirous of Peace, and of concluding as soon as possible — The two new Articles were proofs of that; for they were merely to make the Peace palatable to their Nation. I said I entertained still great doubts of their intentions. That my anxiety was much greater than it had been at any period of the Negotiation — Infinitely greater than when their demands had been so extravagant that we were sure of being supported by our Country in rejecting them — When I saw them abandoning every thing of any value in their demands, and stubbornly adhering to hairs, merely as it seemed to me to keep the Negotiation open, I could not but deeply distrust their intentions — They clung to atoms, involving principles which they had abandoned as applied to every thing important — Mr. Gallatin said that was the course of all Negotiations — That Bonaparte had broken off with Austria at Prague, merely upon a question whether he should keep or give up Hamburg, and Triest — That he had made war with England merely for Malta — But I said in those cases there was the determination of War, on both sides, and if they had not broken on one point they would on another — Mr. Gallatin said Bonaparte had on the contrary been very unwilling at that time to go to War with England — But England did intend the War — That is precisely what I apprehend now, and that she keeps these points open merely to gain time, to break off at last, and then to have the pretence that the blame of breaking off upon a trifle was on our side. Mr. Gallatin said it was an extraordinary thing that the question of Peace and War, now depended solely upon two points in which the people of the State of Massachusetts alone were interested, Moose-Island, and the fisheries within British Jurisdiction — I said that was the very perfidious character of the British Propositions — They wished to give us the appearance of having sacrificed the interests of the Eastern Section of the Union to those of the Western — to enable the disaffected in Massachusetts to say, the Government of the United States has given up _our_ territory, and _our_ fisheries, merely to deprive the British of their right to navigate the Mississippi — Mr. Russell said it was peculiarly unfortunate that the interests thus contested were those of a disaffected part of the Country — Mr. Clay said that he would do nothing to satisfy disaffection and treason; he would not yield any thing for the sake of them — But said I, you would not give disaffection and treason the right to say to the People, that their interests had been sacrificed — He said No — But he was for a War three years longer. He had no doubt but three years more of War would make us a warlike people, and that then we should come out of the War with honour — Whereas at present even upon the best terms we could possibly obtain we shall have only a half-formed army, and half retrieve our military reputation — He was for playing _Brag_ with the British Plenipotentiaries — They had been playing _Brag_ with us throughout the whole Negotiation. He thought it was time for us to begin to play Brag with them — He asked me if I knew how to play _Brag_ — I had forgotten how. He said the art of it was to beat your adversary by holding your hand with a solemn and confident phiz; and out-bragging him — He appealed to Mr. Bayard, if it was not — Aye said Bayard — but you may lose the game by bragging until the adversary sees the weakness of your hand — And Bayard added to me — Mr. Clay is for bragging a million against a Cent. — I said the principle was the great thing which we could not concede; it was directly in the face of our Instructions — We could not agree to it, and I was for saying so positively at once — Mr. Bayard said that there was _nothing_ left in dispute but the principle — I did not think so — Mr. Clay said I, supposing Moose-Island belonged to Kentucky, and had been for many years represented as a District in your Legislature; would you give it up as Nothing? Mr. Bayard, if it belonged to Delaware, would you? — Bayard laughed and said Delaware could not afford to give up territory — Mr. Gallatin said it made no difference to what state it belonged. It was to be defended precisely in the same manner, whether to one or to another. — It was agreed positively to object to the British proposals on both points — the first as inconsistent with the admitted Basis of Status ante Bellum; and the second as unnecessary, contrary to our Instructions, and a new demand since we had been told that they had brought forward _all_ their demands — We also determined to ask one more conference before we resorted to writing — at Mr. Bayard's suggestion; and because it would be expected by the British Plenipotentiaries, that they should have notice of our wish to recur to writing. It was asked by Mr. Gallatin, whether we should at this conference, in rejecting the British proposals, offer the general status ante Bellum, by which the renewal of the Treaties of 1783, and 1794 would both be included — He was for making it, because he thought it would be for our advantage — I was for repeating it, and dwelling upon it, because it was that from which alone I think we can obtain peace, and because I consider it as already made by us. Mr. Gallatin makes a distinction that we only offered the Status ante Bellum upon all the subjects of _difference_ between the parties, and not upon subjects about which there was no difference — I have uniformly disclaimed this distinction; though it was upon it alone that Mr. Clay was prevailed upon to sign the Note containing the offer. Mr. Clay now said that he would not propose the general status ante Bellum, and we were not authorised to it by our Instructions — Mr. Russell thought the authority in our Instructions limited to the restoration of territory — Mr. Gallatin answered that we had needed no new Instruction for that; we had always had that authority. — I produced the Instruction of 19 October. It is unlimited. Mr. Clay said that the Instruction was drawn without knowledge of the Indian Article to which we had agreed — That in assenting to that Article he had declared that was the utmost extent of the sacrifice, in that quarter to which he would consent; and with that Article, he would never sign a Treaty on the general status ante Bellum, including the British right to trade with the Indians, so help him God . . . to keep him steady to his purpose — He said this in the harsh, angry, and overbearing tone, which I, perhaps more than others, ought to excuse as the involuntary effusion of a too positive temper — It always offends me in him; but I took no notice of it this day. Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard, said that every one of us must act according to his own sentiments — But Clay stalked to and fro across the chamber repeating five or six times "I will never sign a Treaty upon the Status ante Bellum, with the Indian Article, so help me God!" — Mr. Russell declared himself against proposing it to-morrow, and I again urged to propose it — Mr. Clay then said he should object to the Conference altogether — We came to no express decision but Mr. Bayard and Mr. Gallatin did not support me in the resolution to make the proposal, so that Mr. Clay actually beat again a majority by out-bragging us — We sent Mr. Hughes to ask a conference with the British Plenipotentiaries at their house to-morrow. I told Mr. Clay it was rather late for him to come out with his violent opposition to the Indian Article, when I had at the time offered him to break upon it, and neither he nor Mr. Russell would support me, though both of them had since been so much against it — He said I had been the first to say we must admit it, and that it was even advantageous to us, by securing Peace with the Indians — I denied ever having said we must admit it — I had said I considered it advantageous to us in _that_ _respec_ _t_ ; as it secured to us Peace with the Indians — and I still continue of that opinion — But I thought it otherwise so objectionable, that I appealed to his recollection and to that of all my other Colleagues, if I had not offered to reject the Article, though at the hazard of breaking off the Negotiation? Mr. Clay said that I had on the first day when the Article was received said so much in favour of admitting the Article that he had reflected, and made up his mind to admit it; declaring that he would make no further sacrifice in that quarter — But however said he, with a laugh — you will not deny that you _signed_ the Note first, and so you must be responsible for the Article — Bayard said, aye but Mr. Clay there was no majority for it, till you had signed; you made the majority, and so you must alone [be] responsible for the Article — Clay said, and I agreed with him that at any rate the Peace would be bad enough — As for him, he believed it would break him down entirely; and we should all be subject to much reproach for it — Bayard thought it would on the contrary be highly creditable to us — It would relieve the Country from such an immense pressure — twenty-one millions of taxes — Commerce restored, and substantially nothing given up — I told him that when the People were secure in the enjoyment of all we should obtain, they would count it for nothing, and only look at what we had yielded — and the very people now the most clamorous against the War, would then be equally clamorous against the concessions made by us for Peace. Mr. Gallatin said that almost all Treaties were unpopular, and ours if we made one would share the common fate.
21. V:30. Resumed my copying, but could not this day finish the project of the Treaty, as sent to us by the British Plenipotentiaries. Mr. Forbes called on me to say that he had changed his plan, upon a Letter he received this morning from his brother; and he now intends to go to Hamburg and Copenhagen — I wrote until near three in the afternoon, and then took my usual walk — This is the day of the Winter Solstice, and the Sun is here eight hours above the horizon — I have for this time escaped the endless Night of a Russian Winter, and hope never to have to pass through it again. ≈
22. IV:15. Continued the copying of papers; finished the altered project of the Treaty, and began with the Protocol of the first of this Month. Mr. Cornelissen called upon me at eleven this morning, and I went with him to see the manufactory of cotton thread of Mr. Rossiell. The carding and spinning of the cotton is done by the operation of a steam engine. The works are extensive in one large building of five Stories. Mr. Rossiell regrets the French Government, and is abhorrent of the English, whose competition ruins the manufactures of this Country — His among the rest — Not half of his machines are now employed — He says he told the Prince of Orange — "When we were French, they were all at work, night and day" — I went afterwards with Mr. Cornelissen, and saw the Library of a Mr. Lammens, who lives in the house of one of the old suppressed Convents, the Dominicans — The collection of books is large and valuable, but with scarcely any modern books — After returning home, I walked round the Coupure, and as I was coming back met in the Street Mr. Bayard, who told me that the answer from the British Plenipotentiaries, to our last Note had been received — That it accepted our proposal to say nothing in the Treaty about the fisheries or the Navigation of the Mississippi, and indeed placed the remaining points of controversy at our own disposal. As soon as I came in to my chamber, Mr. Gallatin brought me the Note. ≈ Mr. Clay soon after came into my chamber, and on reading the British Note, manifested some Chagrin — He still talked of breaking off the Negotiation, but he did not exactly disclose the motive of his ill-humour, which was however easily seen through. — He would have much preferred the proposed 8th Article with the proposed British paragraph, formally admitting that the British right to navigate the Mississippi, and the American right to the fisheries within British Jurisdiction were both abrogated by the War. I think his conversation with Lord Gambier on the subject last week, at their dinner the day before we sent our Note, had the tendency to induce the British to adhere to their paragraph, and that Clay is disappointed at their having given it up — And he has so entire an ascendancy over Mr. Russell, though a New-England man, and claiming to be a Massachusetts-Man, that Russell repeatedly told me last week, when I assured him that I would not sign the Treaty, with an Article admitting that our right to any part of the fisheries was forefeited, that he should be sorry to sign a Treaty without me; but that he did not think that part of the fisheries an object for which the war should be continued — That he was for insisting upon it as long as possible, but for giving it up at last if the British would not sign without it — We agreed to meet at half-past seven O'Clock this Evening — Mr. Cornelissen dined with us — At half-past seven in the Evening we met, and Mr. Clay continued in his discontented humour — He was for taking time to deliberate upon the British Note — He was for meeting about it to-morrow Morning; he was sounding all round for support in making another stand of resistance at this stage of the business — He evidently thought himself, sure of Russells vote — He said that as to Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard he knew they were too eager, for Peace — At last he turned to me and asked me, whether I would not join him now, and break off the Negotiation — I told him no — It was now too late — I had offered to break off on the Indian Article, which he had not chosen to do — There was nothing now to break off upon — Well! said he; will you be of the same opinion to-morrow? — perhaps not, said I; but you can easily ascertain; by asking the question again to-morrow — Gallatin and Bayard, who appeared not to know where it was that Clay's shoe pinched him, were astonished at what they heard, and Gallatin shewed some impatience, at what he thought mere unseasonable trifling — He said at last that he had no objection to Mr. Clay's amusing himself in that way, as long as he thought proper — But as soon as he should chuse to be serious, he Gallatin would propose that Mr. Hughes should be requested to call this Evening upon the British Plenipotentiaries, and ask a conference with them for to-morrow — Clay was still for taking time, and Mr. Russell, called for the vote — He put the question himself, I suppose to avoid voting himself — Mr. Bayard, Mr. Gallatin and myself voted to ask for the Conference, and Clay voted against it.
24. IV:30. I wrote Letters to the Secretary of State, and to my Mother, to be prepared for Mr. Hughes; and took my last Letter to the Secretary of State to Mr. Smith, for a duplicate to be made. Engaged much of the morning in preparing the copies of papers to be transmitted by Mr. Hughes. Mr. Clay was not ready with his copy of the Treaty at three O'Clock, and Mr. Hughes, called upon the British Plenipotentiaries to postpone the meeting until four. At that hour we went to their house, and after settling the Protocol of Yesterday's Conference, Mr. Baker read one of the British Copies of the Treaty; Mr. Gallatin and myself had the two other Copies before us, comparing them as he read. Lord Gambier, Mr. Goulburn, and Dr. Adams had our three copies comparing them in like manner — There was a variation between the Copies, merely verbal, which arose from the writing at full length on both sides the dates which in the drafts were in arithmetical figures. All our Copies had the Treaty of Peace of seventeen hundred and eighty-three — All the British Copies had it one thousand seven hundred and eighty-three — There was the same difference in the date of the signature of this Treaty. It was not thought necessary to alter either of them — A few mistakes in the Copies were rectified and then the six Copies were signed and sealed by the three British and the five American Plenipotentiaries — Lord Gambier delivered to me the three British Copies, and I delivered to him the three American Copies of the Treaty, which he said he hoped would be permanent; and I told him I hoped it would be the last Treaty of Peace between Great-Britain and the United States.
27. VII. It was within half an hour of daylight when I rose; and I was employed the greatest part of the day, in writing to my wife, and to Mr. Harris. We had a meeting of the Mission in my Chamber at one O'Clock — Mr. Gallatin had suggested last Friday, immediately after we had come to the agreement to sign the Treaty of Peace, that we ought to make the British Government an official communication of our full-power, to negotiate a Treaty of Commerce. The proposition was now renewed, and after some discussion it was agreed that Mr. Gallatin should make a draft of a Note for that purpose. ≈ The subject of an answer to the Note from the British Plenipotentiaries of the 7th instant respecting the Sale of Negroes taken from the Southern States, in the West-Indies was further considered. I proposed that the Peace being now made, we should send a copy of the affidavit furnished us by the Secretary of State — This was opposed by Mr. Clay, and he engaged to make a draft of an answer, referring it to the American Government to give or to withhold the proof requested. — Mr. Gallatin had made a minute of the objects still to be determined upon by the mission; and among them was the disposal of the Books, Maps, other effects and Papers — Mr. Gallatin proposed that the Books and other Articles except the papers should be packed up and sent to Mr. Beasley for the use of the Mission to London hereafter — Mr. Clay thought they ought to be sent by the Neptune to the Department of State — Then came the question about the Papers — Mr. Clay was very earnest, to have them with him in the Neptune, because he had no copies of them at-all, and he thought they ought to be deposited in the Department of State, where he could have access to them hereafter — He said they might hereafter be interesting as historical records, and the Department of State was the proper place for them — I said that according to the usage in similar cases, and the precedent in the case of the former mission I considered that the custody of the papers, would at the termination of the mission devolve upon me, subject to the orders of our Government — And I should take charge of them accordingly — Mr. Clay immediately kindled into a flame, and said that he should both physically and morally revolt at any such pretension — that because I happened accidentally to be in possession of the papers, I should assert a right to keep them — I said it was not because I was in possession of the papers; for I would instantly or at any other time put every one of the papers into his possession if he desired it; but I should still consider myself entitled to the keeping of them. Mr. Gallatin declared himself to be of the same opinion.
[January 1815]
5. VI:30. On rising this Morning, instead of diplomatic papers, and Letters concerning the loan, of which I have a large file to copy; instead of the arrears with my Correspondents, which I have to bring up, and the still more urgent arrears of this journal, which are increasing every day, the fancy struck me of answering the Couplets yesterday sung by Mr. Meulemeester's daughter — So, farewell for this day all grave and reverend occupation — I could think of nothing but my Couplets. ≈
6. VI. At length the feasting is finished, and I can return with less interruption to serious occupations. I wrote again to my wife, which employed the morning. We had at length the meeting of the Mission, in Mr. Gallatin's chamber at two O'Clock. It was much hurried, Mr. Bayard and Mr. Clay being in the midst of the preparations for their departure to-morrow Morning ≈ Mr. Clay then asked if I had come to a final determination concerning the papers; that if I had and determined to keep them it might be proper to transmit to the Secretary of State a copy of the letter from the three members to me, and of my answer. I said certainly, it had always been my expectation and intention that copies of these letters should be transmitted to the Secretary of State — That I had not come to a final determination concerning the papers — I had wished to state at this Meeting of the Mission that the time was premature for a final disposal of them — That with a written demand from three members of the Mission, to have the papers packed up and sent away, I should be reluctant at keeping them; but unless the papers were specified I knew not which to send away, nor which to reserve; and unless the person were named to me, I knew not to whom to deliver them — I knew not where nor how to send them to the Neptune — The mission was not terminated — We had just communicated to the British Government that we were empowered to conclude a Treaty of Commerce — It was probable they would accept the proposal after the ratification of the Peace. In that case the effects and Papers would be wanted again — I considered myself entitled to the custody of the Papers and if they were to be taken out of my hands the person must be named to whom I should give them, and must give me a receipt for them. Mr. Clay said there was the principle and the modus — As to any right of mine to keep the papers, he could not reason about it — He could not think or speak of it with Patience — There was nothing in the Nature of our Government, nothing in the nature of the Mission, that gave any colour to it — If it had been asked as a matter of courtesy, he was willing to shew all suitable respect to the first named member of the Mission — But a privilege! a prerogative! he could never acknowledge or submit to it. That as to specifying the papers, that could not have been done by him because they were in my possession. That there was no necessity for naming the person to whom I should deliver them — I might take them on with me to Paris and give them to any other member of the mission who would return by the Neptune — Or I might send them by Mr. Smith, who would probably go to the Neptune from hence — He was desirous of parting in friendship with every body; we had here transacted our business together, he hoped to the Satisfaction of our Country; and he did not wish to go away with any heart-burnings between any of us. All this was said in an acrimonious and menacing tone — I said it was not improbable, I should return to the United States in the Neptune, myself — I had brought a list of all the books and other effects except the papers, which was on the table — I should pack them up and leave them here to be sent where and how the mission should direct. The copying press and the Papers I intended to take with me to Paris, and would deliver them ultimately to any person named and authorized to receive them, according as I had offered, by a majority of the Mission — The paper I had received was not an act of the majority — It was the act of three members — "And although (said Mr. Clay) those three members form a majority!" Certainly said I; an act of the greater number, without consulting the other members, is not an act of the majority — Clay now lost all the remnant of his temper — and broke out with "you _dare_ not, you _cannot_ , you SHALL not insinuate that there has been a cabal of three members against you; no person shall impute any thing of the kind to me with impunity" ≈ I replied "what I _dare_ say, I have dared to say in writing. Gentlemen may draw from it what inferences they please; I am not answerable for them — I am perfectly satisfied that your letter and my answer should be transmitted to our Government, and I assure you that if you do not transmit them, I shall."
26. VI. Bruxelles. I had ordered my horses at ten O'Clock this Morning — Having yet partly to pack my trunks. — Antoine came to my chamber, just after I had kindled my fire, and we were both busied until eleven in finishing the preparations ≈ At a quarter past eleven O'Clock I entered my Carriage, and left the Hotel des Pays-Bas, and the City of Ghent, probably never to see them again. My residence in the City has been of seven Months and two days, and it has been the most memorable period of my life. I left it with the Sentiments suitable to the occasion, of grateful regard for its Inhabitants, who have taken a strong interest in our success and have shewn us many civilities and attentions; but above all with gratitude to Heaven for the signal favour to my Country in which I have participated at this place.
[February 1815]
4. III:30. _Paris_. At a quarter past four in the Morning I took my departure from Gournay-sur-Aronde, and reached Pont Sainte Maxence, the second Stage, just after day-light. — On starting from this Stage, I found a Bridge over the river Oise, which had been blown up last Winter to stop the passage of the Cossacks, and which they are now rebuilding. This was the first and only trace of injury to the Country from the late War, that I perceived on the road. The Bridge is already sufficiently restored for foot-passengers but not for Carriages — I crossed it myself and waited on the South side of it for my Carriage, which went over in a ferry boat, about two hundred yards below. ≈ I heard the name of the Cosacks mentioned only one other time upon the road; and that was by a Postilion whose horse was restive and threw him off. He called the horse a Sacré Cosaque in Revenge — As I approached Paris the drivers became more alert in their movements — My Carriage was not stop'd at-all for the examination of baggage at the entrance of the City, and at one O'Clock in the afternoon I alighted at the Hotel du Nord Rue de Richelieu, a house which had been recommended to me by Mr. Gallatin. I took the only vacant Apartments in the house; which are two small chambers in the second Story, upon the Street. There is a Restaurateur or Cook in the house.
7. VI:30. At half-past eleven O'Clock I called at Mr. Crawford's house, where Mr. Russell, Mr. Clay, Mr. Jackson, Col'l Milligan and Mr. Todd soon after assembled, and we all proceeded together just at twelve to the Thuileries. Most of these Gentlemen had already been presented a fortnight ago, and now went again — Mr. Bayard did not now attend — We waited only a few minutes in the introductory hall — where I found an old acquaintance of mine; the Chevalier Brito, Charge d'Affaires from Portugal; whom I had known at the Hague — I was introduced to General Waltersdorf the Danish Minister, who told me he had been in America, and had known my father there — And I also was recognized by Gen'l Fagel whom I had known at Berlin, and who is now the Dutch Minister here — I was introduced to Mr. Dargainaratz the king's Secretary à la conduite des Ambassadeurs, and to Mr. Laline, introducteur des Ambassadeurs — We were presented first to the king, and then successively to the Duchess and Duke d'Angouleme, and then to Monsieur, Comte d'Artois and lastly to the Duke de Berri — We were presented by Mr. Crawford, as according to the etiquette of this Court, Strangers are presented by the Ministers of their respective Countries — The king, Princes, and Princess seldom speak to any person presented to them — The king however asked me, if I "was any related to the celebrated Mr. Adams." Mr. Crawford answered for me that I was son to the former President of the United States — The Princes also spoke to me each a few words; all in English, excepting the Duke d'Angouleme who spoke in French — The Duchess d'Angouleme did not speak to any of the persons presented — The Ceremonies were all over in the course of an hour — Lord Fitz-Roy Somerset had been previously presented at a private Audience, and delivered his Credentials as British Minister Plenipotentiary since the departure of the Duke of Wellington the Ambassador — He presented several English Gentlemen at the Circle — Count Nicholas Pahlen was presented by Mr. Laline: there being only a Russian Chargé d'Affaires, at this Court; who according to the etiquette does not present. I returned home about two O'Clock; changed my dress and went to pay visits to Madame de Stael and to Count Marbois — Madame de Stael was still in bed; but sent by her son requesting me to come and see her to-morrow Evening; and to dine with her next week on Wednesday — I was received by Count Marbois whom I had not seen since the year 1785, and with whom I had a long and interesting political Conversation — Dined at home and went in the Evening to the Opera-Comique. Saw Les deux Jaloux, Jean de Paris, and l'Habit de Grammont. The house was excessively crowded.
12. VII. The tendency to dissipation at Paris seems to be irresistible — There is a moral incapacity for industry and application; a mollesse against which I am as ill-guarded as I was at the age of twenty — I received on Friday a letter from Mr. Smith, requesting me to look out for lodgings for him, and Mr. Todd promised me yesterday, to call upon me this day at noon, and go out with me for the purpose. He came accordingly and we walked — Among the houses to which I went was the Hotel de Valois, the same house where I lodged with my father in 1778, April the first time I ever was at Paris — It was then a magnificent and elegantly furnished Hotel — It is now altogether in decay, and scarcely furnished at all — Yet the price of the Apartments is as high as at the best Hotels.
15. V:30. ≈ I had received on Monday a note from General La Fayette, mentioning that he would come to the City this day, and remained at home expecting him all the morning, until Mr. de Tracy informed me that he would be at the dinner at Madame de Stael's. I went to see Mr. Smith at the Hotel de L'Europa — On returning to my lodgings I waited until half past five, for Mr. Clay, who was to have called to take me up — I then took a Carriage, and on arriving at Madame de Stael's found Mr. Clay there. He had called for me after I left my lodgings — General Lafayette, Mr. Victor de Tracy, and Mr. Le Roy de Chaumont dined there, with the Duke de Broglie, who is to marry Madame de Stael's daughter, several other Gentlemen, and one Lady — Mr. Benjamin Constant was of the party. There were seventeen persons at the table. The Conversation was not very interesting. Some discussion between the Lady & Mr. Constant, who appeared to consider it as a principle to contradict her — At one time there were symptoms of a Conversation, arising upon a subject of political economy, upon which she said, j'interdis tout discours sur l'economie politique — Ah! je crains l'economie politique comme le feu. — Immediately after dinner she left us, saying, je vous laisse mon fils, qui est très aimable, and went to the Theatre François to see the Tragedy of Esther — She invited me to come and see her again, and said she was at home almost every evening. She also apologized for being obliged to leave her company so soon, pour aller au Spectacle. I went myself with Mr. Le Roy de Chaumont to the Odéon, and saw le Nozze de Figaro, with the Music of Mozart — They were about the middle of the second Act, when we went in — The music is charming, but not equal to that of the Matrimonio Secreto.
[March 1815]
7. V:45. ≈ I called to see Mr. Bayard, at the Hotel de l'Empire, and found him very ill, with a severe cough and some fever— His throat is much ulcerated — While I was there, Mr. Clay, Col'l Milligan, and Mr. Speyer came — Also Mr. Gallatin and his Son who had just arrived from Geneva — They had stopped at the Hotel du Nord, but there was no room there to receive them — Mr. Bayard first mentioned to me that Buonaparte was in France. The Proclamation of the king declaring him a rebel and traitor is in the Moniteur of this morning. In walking the Streets afterwards I found the Hawkers had got it, and cried it as the Ordonnance du Roi concernant Napoleon Buonaparte — He landed on the first of this Month near Cannes in the Department of the Var; they say with 1200 men and 4 pieces of Cannon — I called at Mr. Smith's; but neither he nor Mrs. Smith was at home — Mr. Todd paid me a morning visit — In the Evening I went to the Opera, where they performed Quinault's Armide, with the music of Gluck — The French Grand Opera, is to me as it always has been dull and heavy. The dancing and singing are far inferior to what they formerly were.
11. VI:30. Morning visit from the Baron de Bielfeld, who told me there was news in the Moniteur that Bonaparte was within 8 leagues of Lyons — My neighbour at the Hotel du Nord, the Count de Sant Antonio, whose wife is an English woman left the City this day; having intended to remain here two Months longer — At three O'Clock I walked out and went to several Booksellers to complete the collection which I yesterday purchased of the Bibliothéque des Théatres — I saw in various parts of the City, a great number of Post-Horses apparently going to take travellers leaving Paris — After dinner just as I was going out I met Mr. Erving, who told me he would call another day — He told me the British had been totally defeated before New-Orleans, and forced to reimbark, with the loss of their General Pakenham — And he says the game is up with these People. ≈
12. VI:15. I answered Count Laval's letter early this morning, and at 3 O'Clock in the afternoon called at his Hotel to see him, but he was already gone — They went about one — On returning home, I found Letters from my wife — One dated 12 February at St. Petersburg just at the moment of her departure, and the other begun at Riga 17 February and finished at Memel the 20th. Also a Letter from Mr. Harris of 15 Feb'y. Mr. Smith was here in the morning; and afterwards Mr. Beale, who sat with me in Conversation about an hour. He was under some alarm at the Circumstances of the present moment — I met Mr. Speyer under the arches of the Palais Royal — Alarmed still more — I purchased a Post map of the last year. Evening at the Théatre François. Ariana, by Thomas Corneille, and Moliere's George Dandin — The house very thin ≈ On returning home I found numerous patroles of Soldiers, National Guards, and Sentinels as the corner of the Streets — News placarded upon the Pillars and clusters of people collecting, and attempting to read them, by the light of the lamps — I stopp'd a moment at one of these clusters, when a patrole came up, and the soldier at their head said in a low voice, dispersez vous Messieurs, dispersez vous — Another patrole, meeting two Soldiers in a red uniform, made them stop and all cried Vive le Roi. a Handbill of news très satisfaisantes from Monsieur was circulating — promising the speedy deliverance of Lyons — The agitation in the City has much increased within these two days.
14. V:30. I wrote a Letter to the Secretary of State, and enclosed a Packet of Newspapers to my father ≈ Evening at the Opéra — Tamerlan, and the Ballet of Telemaque — The Opera is the same fable as Voltaire's Orphelin de la Chine. I met the Baron Bielefeld, who concurred in the opinion prevailing that the Government will be maintained — A strong Spirit to support it has yesterday and this day appeared — the moment of consternation has passed away, and that of confidence and energy has succeeded. The number of volunteers who have offered themselves at Paris to march against Buonaparte is greater than the government could accept. ≈
15. VI:15. ≈ Evening at the Theatre Feydeau. Saw L'Opera-Comique, Le Calife de Bagdad and Maison a vendre — The house almost empty — The contrast between the crowds at every Theatre when I arrived here, and the deserted walls since the middle of last week, is remarkable — Some of my neighbours in the Parterre this evening took notice of it; and I heard a discussion between two of them, whether it was occasioned by the state of public affairs or not — The public spirit in Paris now is confident and sanguine — It does not appear that Napoleon has advanced from Lyons — He is undoubtedly there very weak; and formidable forces are marching from all quarters against him. It is ascertained that a part of the troops as well as of the highest officers are faithful to the king; and Napoleon's soldiers will probably desert him in the end. — There is but one sentiment to be heard in Paris — After the performance of the Calife this Evening, one of the Actors came forward and sung some couplets of encouragement and praise to the volunteers — The words and Music were indifferent, but there was the Lys, and the Bourbons, and Henry Quatre, and Ventre saint-gris, in every couplet, and they were received with rapturous applause, and loud cries of Vive le Roi — On returning home, I found a letter from my wife, dated at Berlin the 5th instant — She expected to be here in ten or fifteen days from that time.
18. VI:15. I wrote this morning to my wife, and sent the Letter in duplicates to Bondy and to Bourget the first stages from Paris, on the two roads by one of which my wife must arrive here — I addressed them to the Office of Post-horses, and requested on the superscription the Postmasters respectively to deliver the Letter when she arrives at the Station. The Letters went before noon, and must regularly be at their destinations this Evening. After making some enquiries in the City concerning the hire of horses and Carriages by the day and the Month, I went to the Hotel de l'Empire, and at length succeeded in seeing Mr. Bayard. I found him very much reduced, but evidently much better than when I had last seen him — He had the Morning Chronicle of the 13th and 14th on his table, which Mr. Crawford had sent him — I took up that of the 14th and the first Article that met my eye was one stating that the Ratification of the Treaty with America had been received the night before — I then called upon Mr. Gallatin, and found General Turreau with him: I did not immediately recognize the General. He offered us his Congratulations upon the ratification of the Treaty, and also upon the brilliant defence of New-Orleans. ≈ Mr. Gallatin said he had heard that it was expected Bonaparte would be last night at Auxerre; and he supposed there would be a Battle to-morrow — Turreau smiled, shrugged his shoulders, and said — une battaille — allons donc — sufficiently indicating his opinion that there would be no battle ≈
19. VI:30. Wrote part of a Letter to my Mother; but I was employed almost the whole morning in changing my apartments — Removed one Story higher in the same part of the house, where I have lodged hitherto — The lodgings I now take are for the accommodation of the family — Mr. Smith and Mr. Beale called upon me — Beale is in much anxiety from the fear of events here — He says that Marshal Ney, with all his troops has gone over to Napoleon, who will be here to-morrow, because it is the king of Rome's birth-day — I went out half an hour before dinner, and walked round by the Tuileries and the Place du Carousel, where a great concourse of People was assembled. The king was going out to review the troops, who are to march out to-morrow Morning to meet Napoleon. No appearance of any thing like defection to the royal cause was discernible, but the countenances of the attendants at the Tuileries marked dejection — Mr. Crawford told me yesterday that a person of our acquaintance assured him that when the Officers of the garrison of Paris attempted to prevail upon the troops to cry Vive le Roi, the soldiers would say — Oh! yes! Vive le Roi — and laugh. — They had not a hope that the soldiers would fight for the king — There was an address from the king posted up on the walls to the army — dated yesterday — Stated to be printed from the original in the king's own hand-writing — Telum imbelle, sine ictu. It begs the soldiers to consider that if the enemy should succeed, there would be a civil war, and that three hundred thousand foreigners would immediately rush upon France, and he could no longer restrain them — He promises pardon, oblivion, and rewards to all those who will return to their duty, and desert the Standards other than his — The walls of the Palais Royal are covered with the most violent and furious addresses and declamations against Bonaparte; and at the Opera this Evening the calls for Henry Quatre and the Shouts of Vive le Roi were as boisterous as ever — The performances were Œdipe à Colonna, and the Ballet of Nina.
20. VI:15. I was finishing my Letter to my Mother, when Mr. Beale came in and told me that the king and royal family were gone — They left the Palace of the Tuileries at one O'Clock this Morning, and took the road to Beauvais — It was but last Thursday that the king at the Seance Royale, talked before the two Legislative Chambers, of dying in defence of the Country — Between one and two O'Clock I went out, first to Mr. Smith's — Most of the shops in the Street were shut; it being the Monday of Passion week. There was a great crowd of People upon the Boulevards; but the cries of Vive l'Empereur had already been substituted for those of Vive le Roi — I had received a Letter from Mr. Beasley, with the account of the arrival in England of the Ratification of our Ghent Treaty. The Favourite Corvette, in which Mr. Carroll, and Mr. Baker went out has returned. She arrived on the eleventh instant at Plymouth after a passage of 17 days from New-York — She had a passage of 37 days from Plymouth to that place, and arrived there the 9th of February — The Treaty was received at Washington the 14th and was ratified the 17th of February — The President's Proclamation was issued on the 18th and the Favourite sailed from New-York with the Ratification the 22d — The Ratifications were exchanged at eleven O'Clock at Night on the 17th — The American Ratification received by Lord Castlereagh in the Evening of 13 March, and the event was immediately communicated by him to the Lord Mayor of London, and received after ten at Night. — Lord Fitz-Roy Somerset, the British Minister here wrote a Note to Mr. Crawford on Saturday Morning, to inform him that he had received an official communication of the Event — Mr. Beasley enclosed to me a slip of an American Newspaper with General Jackson's Report of the defence of New-Orleans, and the defeat of the British in their attack upon that place on the 8th of January — I went to the Hotel de l'Empire to shew Beasley's Letter and the enclosures to Mess'rs Bayard and Gallatin — But Mr. Bayard was asleep and Mr. Gallatin was gone out; I then took the papers to Mr. Crawford, and there met a Mr. Lormery, a Frenchman, who had been a fellow-passenger with him from America — Mr. Crawford had the Moniteur of this day, containing the king's proclamation upon leaving Paris. He says that divine Providence after restoring him to the throne of his ancestors, now permitted it to be shaken by the defection of a part of the army, who had sworn to defend it. That he had determined to avoid the calamities which might result from an ineffectual attempt to defend the Capital, and to retire to a part of the kingdom more favourably situated for defence — The Session of the two Legislative Chambers is declared to be closed, and they are convoked anew to meet at the time and place to be hereafter notified. The king is satisfied with the attachment and devotion to him, of the immense majority of the People of Paris, and promises to return very shortly to them again — Mr. Crawford told me that he had received an official notice that the Court was to be removed to Lille, whither any of the foreign Ministers who should think fit, might repair; but those to whom that would be inconvenient, would be at liberty to return to their own respective Governments — Mr. Crawford said he understood the foreign Ministers had for the last week had meetings together every day — That this morning they were to meet at the Turkish Minister's and General Waltersdorf, the Danish Minister had promised to communicate to him the result of their meeting; but he said he had determined for himself what to do — He should answer the notice he had received by saying that he had already received permission to return to the United States, and had been for some time determined to embark this Spring. He should not go to Lille — I left Mr. Crawfords after 4 O'Clock. It was said that Napoleon was to enter Paris by the Porte St. Antoine at that hour — I walked on the Boulevards until half past five — The crowd waiting for him there was very great — Two or three troops of horse of his company came in before him — The cries of Vive l'Empereur were repeated wherever they passed; but the general Conversation of almost all the persons whom I overheard consisted of remarks upon the inconstancy of the populace, and the facility with which they shouted in favour of whoever was the ruling power of the day — There was a printseller who had spread on the ground the prints of the king and Royal family, and was crying allons Messieurs — A dix sols la pièce — The faces of Napoleon, Marie-Louise and the king of Rome had taken the place at all the Print shops of the family of Bourbon — I heard a man call out to one of the troopers to enquire how long it would be, before he (Napoleon) would come in; he said it would be three-quarters of an hour. I then came home and dined and immediately returned to the Boulevards — The People were all dispersing, and there was no expectation of his entering Paris by that way — I went to the Theatre Français; first into the Parterre, but seeing Mr. Gallatin in the Balcon I went and joined him there — They had announced Le Cid & La fausse Agnès — They performed L'ecole des femmes and l'Esprit de Contrediction — The house was almost empty — the performances languid and spiritless — Firmin one of the Actors appeared with the three-coloured cockade in his hat, and was clapped by two or three persons — There was no other manifestation of public Sentiment — Mr. Todd who came into the box for a few minutes told me that the Emperor was to make his entry at Noon to-morrow — As I came home I found the columns of the Palais Royal covered with Napoleon's Proclamations, one to the French People and the other to the army; issued on the first of this Month at the Gulph Juan, the day of his landing at Cannes. And in the Garden of the Palais Royal there was a great Bonfire burning, of all the addresses, proclamations, appeals to the People, and inflammatory hand-bills which have been loading every column for the last fortnight; many of which had been posted up this Morning — The crowd of People in the Arches and garden was considerable, and the cries of Vive l'Empereur frequent; and sometimes accompanied by cries of à Bas les Calottins — But although the Palais Royal is not a quarter of a mile distant from the Tuileries, I did not know that Napoleon had actually arrived while I was at the Theatre.
21. VI:15. Mr. and Mrs. Smith having determined to go to-morrow to embark for the United States in the Fingal at Havre I employed this morning, in writing to my father; about 2 O'Clock I walked out on the Boulevards, and saw some of the troops, entering the City. — I had found by my Newspaper, which was brought me this morning with the title of Journal de l'Empire, that the Emperor had arrived between eight and nine O'Clock last Evening at the Palace of the Tuileries, at the head of the same troops, which had been sent out in the morning to oppose him — I went round by the Place Vendome, and through the Garden of the Tuileries, to the Place du Carousel, where there were several regiments of Cavalry passing successively in review before the Emperor — I mixed with the crowd of People, heard their cries of Vive l'Empereur, and heard their Conversations among themselves. The troops were the same garrison of Paris which had been sent out against Napoleon, and who entered the City with him last Evening — The front of their Helmets and the clasps of their belts were still glowing with the arms of the Bourbons, the three flower de luces — There appeared to be much satisfaction among the soldiers — But among the People I saw scarcely any manifestation of sentiment, excepting in the cries of Vive l'Empereur, in which a very small part of the people present joined their voices — There was a man passing among the throng, with a basket of three-coloured cockades, and crying Voici Messieurs les Cocardes de la bonne couleur — La couleur qui ne se salit pas — The crowd were laughing and joking, and talking of the Rhine, the natural boundary of France, and swearing vengeance against the Prussians — Between four and five O'Clock I returned home without having obtained a sight of the Emperor. He did not leave the Palace — Evening at the Opera — La Caravane du Caire, with the Ballet of Venus et Adonis. The house was very thin; and the Parterre chiefly consisted of persons who came for the purpose of making a cry of Vive l'Empereur — There were several passages in the Opera, which this audience chose to understand as applicable to the present juncture and which were boisterously applauded — One song particularly, sung by Madame Albert, and then in Chorus, beginning La victoire est à nous, was most absurdly applied, and occasioned great shouting. She was required to repeat it, and immediately complied. — The royal arms were removed from the Curtain and the royal box, and the Imperial Eagle had taken their place. Even the title page of the Opera, had an Eagle over the flower de luces which the boys who sell them had not had time to paste over — All the theatres have taken the title of Imperial instead of Royal. The Emperor Napoleon has already appointed most of his Ministers, and all the Gazettes of Paris which were yesterday showering upon him every execration, this day announce that his Majesty has arrived at _his_ Palace of the Tuileries.
23. VI:30. ≈ Evening at the Théatre des Varietés. — Mr. Credule — Mr. Crouton. — Le Savetier et le Financier and Jé fais mes farces. All the performances at this Theatre, are samples of low and vulgar humour — It is the Dutch School of the Drama. Low life, vulgar manners and language in defiance of grammar — But it is the favourite Spectacle of Paris. ≈ When I returned home I expected to have found my wife's carriage in the yard, and was disappointed; but had scarcely got into my chamber when she arrived — It was eleven in the Evening — She and Charles are both well, and I was delighted after an absence of eleven Months to meet them again — They have been exactly forty days in coming from St. Petersburg.
29. VI:30. The day was remarkably fine — The trees are putting fully forth their leaves — At Noon I went to the Hotel des Relations Exterieures, and had an interview of half an hour with Mr. de Caulaincourt, Duc de Vicence — He apologized to me for my having been delayed, and said he should have called upon me, if he had known I was in Paris. I told him that although sensible he could at the present juncture have no time to spare, I could not resist the temptation of requesting to see him; to offer him my congratulations on the change which had just taken place, with which I had been gratified in general, and more especially as it related personally to him. He said that a Revolution had been rendered unavoidable by the misconduct of the Bourbons — That with the exception of a handful of emigrants who had been twenty years carrying on a War against their Country, the dissatisfaction had been universal. If the Emperor had not returned there would have been in less than six Months an insurrection of the People, the operation of which would have been dreadful — That by the Emperor's return it had been effected without a drop of blood shed. His Government was now established throughout France more completely and effectually than it was eighteen Months ago — He, the Duke had last Evening enquired of Fouché (the new Minister of the Police) who received Reports from every part of the Country — He had assured him that there was not one Report made to him from any quarter, of any act of violence or resistance — The return to the present order of things accomplished itself every where; without an effort — It was inconceivable — Nothing like it was to be found in history — But so it was.
[April 1815]
9. VII:15. My hoarseness was troublesome in the Night and continued so the whole of this day. — The oppression upon my breast is considerable, but as yet without a cough — My voice is much affected — I do not however confine myself — I paid visits to Mr. Crawford, Mr. Bayard, and Mr. Erving, but found neither of them at home — Then went to the Place du Carousel where the Emperor was reviewing troops — It was impossible from the concourse of people to approach near enough to the Court of the Tuileries to see any thing of the review. Afterwards I walked in the Garden of the Tuileries, which was throughout, crowded with people — Under the Emperor's windows the throng was very great. He came and stood about five minutes at one of the windows and was hailed with loud and general acclamations of Vive l'Empereur. — I had a more distinct view of his face than when I had last seen him — On my return home, I purchased in one of the shops at the Palais-Royal a volume just published, entitled One year of the life of the Emperor Napoleon, with which I amused myself until dinner-time — Evening at the Theatré Francais — Le Tartuffe, and Les fausses Confidences, both performed in the highest Style of excellence.
[May 1815]
11. VI:30. All the morning we were engaged in making preparations for our departure — Mr. Petry called upon us with news, which proved to be only a groundless rumour. The Duc de Vicence called immediately afterwards, and told me that the firing of the Cannon, had been for a visit which the Emperor was making to the hospital of Invalids ≈ In the Evening we paid a visit at the Count de Tracy's to take leave — The Count himself was abroad — We saw Madame de Tracy and Mr. and Madame de l'Aubépin — They told us that General La Fayette was elected a member of the Representative Assembly — And had been President of the electoral college at Melun. That the General would be in Paris next Saturday to dine— I had determined to leave Paris at 4 O'Clock afternoon, on Saturday — But having a strong wish to see the General before I go, I now concluded to postpone our departure until the next morning. The Ladies and Mr. de l'Aubepin, made many enquiries as to the manner of living in America. This family too has had, and perhaps may have again the project of removing to America — After our visit we finished our Evening by a walk upon the Boulevards.
14. VI:15. We walked out this morning on the Boulevards to see the procession of the Confederates of the fauxbourgs St. Antoine and St. Marceau and saw them pass — They were going to the Tuileries to be presented to the Emperor — There were about 3500 men and boys of the Fauxbourg St. Antoine, and 1600 of the Fauxbourg St. Marceau — All Labourers of the most indigent Class. They marched in ranks of 20 holding one another arm in arm, and shouting incessantly vive l'Empereur — After returning I went and paid visits to take leave at Mr. Hottinguer's, Mr. Hubbard's, and Mess'rs Carrette and Minguet's — We then went to the Champ de Mars, and saw the buildings preparing for the Assembly of the Champ de Mai — Thence to the Garden of the Tuileries, through which we walked, and the Place du Carousel to the Musée Napoleon, where we entered and took a final view of the Antique Statues and Marbles on the ground floor — We came home and dined; after which we rode out to the heights of Montmartre where the entrenchments for the defence of Paris are now carrying on — As we returned home we stopped at the Count de Tracy's, where we saw the Ladies, and General La Fayette. The Count himself was gone out — The General promised he would call at my lodgings, and see me, to-morrow Evening at seven O'Clock. He said he was glad of having been elected a member of the Assembly of Representatives; because it gave him a reason for declining to be one of the Peers, as had been proposed to him — I said that if the War should take place as appeared inevitable, I intreated him to use his influence to prevent the repetition of such outrageous acts as the decrees of Berlin, & of Milan — for if such measures should be resorted to I really believed they would produce a War, between the United States & France. He promised me to use his best endeavours to promote a just and liberal policy towards America, and said he would correspond with me through the channel of our Chargé d'Affaires Mr. Jackson — He said he had seen this morning Mr. Constant, who was quite uneasy, under the situation in which he has placed himself, and who has become an admirer of the Emperor Napoleon.
# CHAPTER VI 1815–1817
## London — Little Ealing
[May 1815]
25. V. _London_. We breakfasted this morning at six, and at Seven left Dover with two Post-Chaises, Mrs. Adams and myself in one — Lucy and Charles in the other. ≈ The face of the Country from Dover to London was quite familiar to me — I had travelled the whole way twice, and the greater part of it, many times. Although eighteen years have elapsed since I was last in England, its outward appearance remains much the same, and the ride from Dover to London is one of those which present the Country in its most favourable light. — We met on the road a regiment of soldiers marching to Dover, to embark for Flanders; many beggars, and families of apparent paupers wandering about the Country without shed or shelter — The Cities have all the show of prosperity, but with an extraordinary proportion of Cards upon the houses advertising them for sale. ≈ We stopp'd at the Green-Man, Blackheath, at the six Mile Stone, and found there Mr. Williams, one of Mr. Beasley's Clerks, with a Letter from him, informing me that he had taken lodgings for me, at N. 67 Harley-Street, Cavendish Square, and that we should find there our two eldest Sons, George, and John, who had just arrived from America — Mr. Beasley added that he lived in the same Street, and invited us to dine with him at half past six O'Clock — It was seven however when we received the Note, and eight when we arrived at our lodgings in London. We found our dear sons whom we had not seen for nearly six years — George grown almost out of our knowledge — John yet small for his age. Mr. Sam'l G. Perkins, in whose care they came from America, and Mr. Todd were at the door when we alighted, and promised to call to-morrow Morning — Mr. Beasley, shortly afterwards came in — Mr. Crawford had left the same lodgings last Monday, and our sons came into them the next day. Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Clay, as I expected, are in London — Mr. Bayard, at Plymouth, on board the Neptune; and so ill that he cannot be landed — Mrs. Adams was so much overcome by the fatigue of the Journey, following so immediately upon the Sea-sickness of the Voyage, and by the agitation of meeting so unexpectedly her long absent children, that she was obliged to retire, and twice fainted — She was relieved by a warm bath. There are public baths in the house where we lodge — My Sons gave me many Letters from my father, mother, and other friends, which engaged me until after Midnight.
29. VI. Lord Castlereagh had appointed eleven O'Clock this morning, for me to see him at his house, in St. James's Square — After waiting nearly an hour beyond that time for my Carriage, I took a Hackney Coach and went there — The Duke of Orleans was with him, and I waited about another half hour before he received me. I gave him a copy of my Letter of Credence to the Prince Regent, upon which he said that he would take the Orders of His Royal Highness as to the time when he would receive it. There was some general Conversation upon the subject of the concerns mutually interesting to the two Nations. I assured him of the disposition on the part of the American Government to perform, with the utmost fidelity all their engagements contracted in the late Treaty of Peace, and to adopt every other measure calculated to consolidate the friendship, and to promote the Harmony between the two Countries.
[June 1815]
1. VI:30. Having risen earlier than heretofore since our arrival in London, I was able to write an hour or two this morning, and began the attempt to retrieve the arrears of this Journal — They have run from the day of our sailing from Havre; and I am apprehensive will be slowly brought up. I paid visits to Baron Jacobi the Prussian, and Baron Rehausen the Swedish Ministers, and at Mr. Goulburn's. Neither of them was at home, but I saw Mrs. Goulburn — We also received visits from Mr. & Mrs. W. Vaughan, and from Mr. Grubb — I dined at Earl Grey's — The invitation was for half past six O'Clock — I went at Seven, and found Mr. Clay and Mr. Gallatin just there. We were the first of the Company — Lord Rosslyn, Sir James and Lady Mackintosh, Sir John Newport, Mr. Horner, Mr. Kinnaird, and a Mrs. Clements were of the party. The Ladies withdrew after dinner, but the men sat not more than half an hour after they were gone — The Conversation was partly about Buonaparte, and partly about the business before Parliament. Lord Grey said something to me about America, and strongly expressed his hopes that we should continue on terms of friendship with this Country. But with regard to the impressment of Seamen, he spoke like other English Statesmen — It was between eleven and twelve O'Clock when I came home.
7. VI. Immediately after Breakfast this Morning, I called upon Count Lieven the Russian Ambassador, to enquire into the diplomatic forms and usages of the Court, of which he gave me the information that was necessary for me. Before two O'Clock I called upon Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Clay, and we went to the Office for trade — We found there, Mr. Frederic John Robinson, the Vice President of the Board of Trade, Mr. Goulburn, and Dr. Adams, who produced to us a Commission authorizing them to negotiate with us on the subject — On reading over this Commission there were in its recital of our authority to treat, two mistakes, one of which was noticed by Mr. Clay, and the other by me — The first was merely in the arrangement of our names, those of Mr. Clay and Mr. Gallatin being placed before mine — This was immaterial, and Mr. Gallatin remarked that in the British full-power for treating with us for Peace, in the recital of our power, his name had been placed first. The other mistake, I observed was more material — It recited our powers as having been given by the President of the United States with the consent of the Senate and House of Representatives. I referred to our Constitution, by which appointments are made by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, without the co-operation of the House of Representatives. Mr. Robinson said that the form had been copied from that of the Negotiation with Mr. Monroe and Mr. Pinkney. Dr. Adams said that it was not material — It was the mere recital of our Powers, and was no more than if in our recital of theirs it was stated that they had been appointed with the approbation and consent of the Lords and Commons in Parliament — Mr. Goulburn said it would however be as well to make a minute of it, which he did. ≈
8. VII:30. The assistant Master of the Ceremonies, Robert Chester Esq'r. called upon me this Morning, and gave me the information, concerning the forms, and usages of Court presentations, for which I had yesterday enquired of Count Lieven. Mr. Chester's report was however different in some particulars from that of the Count ≈ He promised to come again at a quarter past One O'Clock, and accompany me to Carleton-house; which he accordingly did ≈ It was almost three when the Prince Regent began to give private Audiences — The first was to Lord Grenville, who as Chancellor of the University of Oxford presented to him a Book containing an Account of the visit of the allied Sovereigns there last Summer. The second was to me — Lord Castlereagh, as the Minister of foreign Affairs introduced me into the Prince's closet, where he stood alone; and as I approached him, speaking first, said, "Mr. Adams, I am happy to see you." — I said — "Sir, I am directed by the President of the United States to deliver to your Royal Highness this Letter; and in presenting it, I fulfil the commands of my Government, when I express the hope, that it will be received as a token, of the earnest desire of that Government, not only faithfully and punctually to fulfil all its engagements contracted with that of Great Britain, but for the adoption of every other measure, that may tend to consolidate the Peace and Friendship, and to promote the harmony between the two Nations" — The Prince took the Letter, and without opening it, delivered it immediately to Lord Castlereagh; and said in answer to me, that the United-States might rely with the fullest assurance upon his determination to fulfil on the part of Great-Britain, all the engagements with the United States — He then asked me if I was related to Mr. Adams, who had formerly been the Minister from the United States here — I said I was his Son. He enquired whether I had ever been before in England? — I had — with a public mission? — Once, with a special Mission during the absence of the Minister then accredited here — He said he had known two of the former Ministers of the United States here, who were Mr. Pinckney, and Mr. Rufus King — very gentlemanly Men — Mr. King was very much of a gentleman. — Where was Mr. Pinckney now. I said there had been two Mr. Pinckney's here as Ministers from the United States — Ah! said he — but I mean the Mr. Pinckney who was here before Mr. King — I said he was now a General in the Army — In the Army? said he. I did not know that — Had he ever been in the army before? — I said he had — and where is Mr. King? — I said he was now a member of the Senate of the United States. — And, how did you like living there, at Bruxelles, said the Prince — Your Royal Highness probably means Ghent, said I — Ay! Ghent! so it was, said he — and how did you like Ghent? — I said we liked it very much for the result of what was done there — Oh! Yes! said he, but I mean did you find any Society there? — I said we had found Society — That Ghent was a very antient and venerable City, with proud recollections — That its inhabitants thought and talked much of Charles the fifth, and that it was now illustrated again as the Residence where a great Sovereign holds his Court. — Ay! said the Prince; there are a number of those great Old Cities there — Lord Castlereagh commented in a few words, upon the large Cities and the populousness of the Netherlands; and we then withdrew from the Prince's Closet. ≈ Mrs. Adams and I dined at Lord Carysfort's, where we met Earl and Lady Fortescue, Lord and Lady King, Mr. Thomas Grenville, Lord Proby, and Lord Carysfort's three daughters, neither of whom is yet married — Lady Fortescue is Lady Carysfort's Sister, and Lady King is a daughter of Lord Fortescue — I should not have recognized Mr. Thomas Grenville, nor did he recollect me, although we were well acquainted with each other at Berlin — After dinner there was a numerous party of both sexes who came, but there were no cards — Sir Humphrey Davy, who has very lately returned from Italy, talked much upon his travels there; much upon agriculture and farming; much upon the Art of Sculpture and the Laocoon and the Venus, and much upon his own chemical discoveries — If Modesty is an inseparable companion of Genius, Sir Humphrey is a prodigy — Lord King and Lord Fortescue went down to the House of Peers, to give their votes upon the Catholic question, which was discussing there — Lord Carysfort had given his proxy to the Marquis of Buckingham — Lord King returned, having found the question decided — I had some conversation with him on the prospects of War in Europe — He told me he believed Napoleon would beat them all — in which opinion I did not concur. It was about 12 at Night when we came home.
11. V:45. ≈ I called this morning upon Mr. Clay and Mr. Gallatin — At seven in the Evening I went and took up Mr. Todd at his lodgings at the Blenheim Hotel, and we went and dined at Lord Castlereagh's — Mr. Clay and Mr. Gallatin were of the Company — As were the Earl of Liverpool, first Lord of the Treasury, Earl of Westmorland, Lord Privy-Seal, the Marquis of Camden, Mr. Wellesley-Pole, Mess'rs Robinson, Goulburn, Adams, Bagot, Planta (Lord Castlereagh's Private Secretary) Morier, Hamilton, and some others — There were no Ladies — Lord Castlereagh treated us with the politest attention — He seated me at his right hand, and Mr. Clay at his left. Lord Westmorland was at my Right — Lord Liverpool between Mr. Clay and Mr. Gallatin — The Conversation at table was here as every where else about Napoleon. Lord Castlereagh had a miniature picture of him on a snuff-box, which he said he had bought of Isabey at Vienna — It was the general opinion of all the Noble Lords present that Napoleon would shortly take refuge in America; for as to another Island of Elba, that was out of the question. That experiment would not be tried a second time — Lord Castlereagh spoke of him with studious moderation — Said he thought his speech to the Legislative Assembly this day received was a very good speech — That it noticed in moderate terms the late capture of a French frigate in the Mediterranean; but _pretended_ that it was hostility in time of Peace — He said that last year at the time of the Fontainebleau Treaty Buonaparte had expressed the wish of coming to England, to which he, Lord Castlereagh had objected, as he could not have been answerable for the safety of his person here — That while he was going from Fontainebleau to embark for Elba, he had been at several places in great personal danger from the honest indignation of the People; but he Lord Castlereagh had much rather that he should have come back and be as he now is, than that he should have lost his life, while under the protection of the allies — Lord Castlereagh said he had never seen him, though he had felt a curiosity to see him; but the only opportunity that he had ever had for it was at the time of the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and then he had abstained, from delicacy.
22. V:15. Shortly after rising this Morning I received a Note from Lord Castlereagh's Office announcing the splendid and complete victory of the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blucher, over the French Army commanded by Buonaparte in person, on Sunday last the 18th. In the course of the day, I received from the same Office two copies of the Gazette Extraordinary, containing the Duke of Wellington's dispatch of the 19th. ≈ After dinner Mrs. Adams rode out with the Children — I took a walk in Hyde Park, and was overtaken by a shower of rain, which hastened me home.
[July 1815]
2. VI:30. I took a warm bath, in the house on rising this Morning, and then postponed the usual writing of my Journal, to prepare the draft, for our copy of the Treaty. The changes in the order of the parties were in the Preamble, in the first, second, and fifth Articles — I made the draft of them myself, and gave them to Mr. Grubb, to be copied, with the draft received from the British Plenipotentiaries — He called between ten and eleven, and I requested him to have the fair copy made out, and to bring it to me at the latest by eleven O'Clock to-morrow Morning. While he was with me, Mr. George Joy came in, and after Mr. Grubb went away, remained about two hours here in Conversation — As my opinions differ much from those of Mr. Joy, and as I am by nature impatient of contradiction I permitted this Conversation to become too warm on my part — It was interrupted by the coming of Mr. Clay, soon after which Mr. Joy withdrew. I shewed Mr. Clay the note received with the Draft of the Treaty yesterday, from the British Plenipotentiaries — In this Draft I told him, they had placed the marks for the Seals (L.S.) three and three in parallel lines by which it appeared that they meant to accede to our proposal as to the order of the signatures — They had also named the British Government and Plenipotentiaries first in the Preamble and throughout the Treaty, which was right for _their_ copy — But at the close they had put, done in _Duplicate_ , which was improper as the Counterparts of a Treaty are never called duplicates, and which might be, for the sake of insisting that there should be no variation between the two Copies — I had however directed that our Copy should be made out taking the alternative throughout the whole Treaty; always naming the American Government and Plenipotentiaries first, but without any change either of substance or in the words. ≈ I then shewed Mr. Clay the Instructions from the Department of State to me of 13 March — He said he thought it a matter of no consequence — That Mr. Monroe's argument in the dispatch was a bad one — It was no good reason why we should make a point of such a formality because the European Powers thought it so important — For the most insignificant Powers, such as Spain, for instance, were those that insisted most upon these punctilios — I said this was a point to which all the European Powers always adhered — That I had always regretted that the United States had ever admitted a variation from it — That I had mentioned it to Mr. Gallatin at Ghent, and had then forborne to make a point of it, only because we had no Instruction to warrant us in so doing, and because I thought all the Precedents of our Treaties were the other way — This conversation on both sides was perfectly temperate, and good-humoured; and Mr. Clay left me — Within half an hour after, Mr. Gallatin came in — He shewed me a Note that he had written this morning to Mr. Robinson, requesting, that the term Convention might be inserted instead of the term Treaty, so that the American Plenipotentiaries jointly, or I as one of them, might be at liberty to bring forward the other objects of discussion, which we had agreed for the present to postpone — He also shewed me the draft of the dispatch to the Secretary of State, to go with the Treaty; and in which he had made all the alterations that I had proposed — It was a sort of argument in favour of the Treaty which I had requested him to omit, for two reasons — one because if the Treaty was a good one, it needed no argument from us to prove its merits; and the other that in assigning our motives for admitting objectionable parts we referred to circumstances which it would be unnecessary to make known here; which they would be if the dispatch should be published. Mr. Gallatin had made the alterations accordingly, though he said they never published the dispatches, when the Negotiation succeeded — I then told him that I had given the Treaty to be copied, and had taken the alternative throughout the whole Instrument — Upon which he said in a peremptory and somewhat petulant manner — "Oh! that is entirely wrong — it will throw the whole business into confusion — Why, you yourself said yesterday it was not necessary in the body of the Treaty" — I said I had observed that _it was not so material_ , in the body of the Treaty — but if the British Plenipotentiaries gave up the point in the Preamble and ratifying clause it was impossible that they should object to the admission of the same principle in the body of the Treaty — I then shewed him the copy of the Treaty of Paris, which I have; printed in France, and in which the King of France is first named in the first Article as well as in the Preamble — He was yet however not satisfied, and asked me if I had told Mr. Clay, of the directions I had given for making out our fair copy, and what Mr. Clay had said to it — I told him that I had — That Mr. Clay disapproved the directions that I had given, as he did, and thought the whole point of no importance — Mr. Gallatin then said that I must give the transcriber orders to make out the copy, without any alteration in the body of the Treaty — which I peremptorily refused; and added in a heated and angry manner: "Mr. Gallatin, you and Mr. Clay may do as you please, but I will not sign the Treaty, without the alternative, observed throughout" — "Now don't fly off in this manner," said Mr. Gallatin — Indeed Sir, said I, I will not sign the Treaty in any other form — I am so far from thinking with Mr. Clay that it is of no importance that I think it by much the most important thing that we shall obtain by this Treaty — The Treaty itself I very much dislike, and it is only out of deference to you and Mr. Clay that I consent to sign it at-all — I should infinitely prefer to sign no Treaty at-all, being perfectly convinced that we obtain nothing by it, but what we should obtain by the regulations of this Government, without it — Mr. Gallatin said that was entirely a different ground, which I admitted to be true. ≈
3. VI:30. ≈ It was now twelve O'Clock, and we had agreed to meet the British Plenipotentiaries at half past eleven. I went down with Mr. Gallatin in his Carriage — Mr. Clay whom we overtook in Cavendish Square followed us — At the board of Trade we found only Mr. Robinson. He told Mr. Gallatin that they agreed to substitute the term Convention instead of that of Treaty ≈ Mr. Robinson took our Copy as made out by my direction — I took and read the British Copy — Not a word of objection was made by the British Plenipotentiaries to any of the transpositions in our Copy — There were in the British Copy several errors in the Copy — Mr. Ellis the Clerk who had made it out was called in, and made the corrections as the errors were noticed — Our copy was correct having been previously collated by Mr. Grubb and me this morning — The two copies were then signed and sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on both sides. The three signatures on each side in succession — and those of the two Parties on a line. The American signatures and Seals being first in our Copy — And the British Signatures and Seals first in the British Copy.
10. VI. ≈ Mr. Wilberforce paid me a visit, and expressed to me his high satisfaction at the restoration of Peace between our two Countries — He spoke about an abusive Article in the quarterly Review against America, concerning which he had received from America, letters from two Gentlemen, one of them enclosing an Answer to it which he had not had time to read. He found the Article was ascribed to Mr. Canning; he thought erroneously; and he should write to Canning about it — I said the _Review_ was represented as being under the Patronage of Mr. Canning — but the _Article_ , in two pamphlets answering it, which I had received from America, was ascribed to Mr. Southey, who had however denied being the author of it, in a Letter, published in a late Courier. I explained to Mr. Wilberforce the manner in which the friends of Great-Britain in America were affected, by such publications as that Article in the Quarterly Review — He said that he lamented it — but that those were not the general sentiments of this Nation, and that the Quarterly Review itself was a work of limited Circulation — Much more limited than that of the Edinburgh Review — I had Conversation with Mr. Wilberforce upon various other topics, and proposed to call upon him; but he said he was going into the Country for the Summer — The day was thus consumed until half an hour before dinner time; when I took a short walk; and a longer one after dinner with my three sons in the Regent's Park.
11. VI:15. The forty-eighth year of my life has closed; and I this day enter upon the forty-ninth. It has in relation to Public Affairs been the most important year of my Life, and in my private and domestic relations one of the most happy years. May I be duly sensible of the hand from which the blessings have flowed; duly humble in prosperity, duly prepared for adversity, and enabled more fully and faithfully to discharge all my duties than I have been hitherto. ≈
12. V:45. ≈ I went to the House of Lords, and was there at a quarter before two ≈ I came home about three, and wrote until dinner time — In the Evening we rode to Kensington Garden, and left the Boys to play bat and Ball in the Park while we walked round the Garden — The walk was so much longer than we had expected, that Mrs. Adams was excessively fatigued, when we got back.
[August 1815]
10. V:45. I received this Morning a number of Letters, and in the course of the day wrote several short ones — Read with George and examined his Latin Translations — Returned the visit of Col'l Clitherow, which he made while I was in town, on Monday — Saw the Col'l, Mrs. Clitherow his Lady, and Miss Clitherow his Sister. They were all, and particularly the Col'l very much occupied — I made my visit short — Afterwards I took George with me, and went to Dr. Nicholas's School, and saw John and Charles. The Dr. left them with me, and I found them both greatly discontented. They have never before been accustomed to the restraints of an English School; and both of them have been several Months released from all study, so that a return to it is irksome. They complain that the school is excessively numerous, and that they can learn Nothing — I did not however discover that there was any solid ground of complaint — We took a short Evening walk.
20. VI. Mr. Grubb left us this morning after breakfast and returned to town. I received a Letter from Mr. Bagot, to communicate the postponement of his departure for the United States — We all went to Church, and heard a Charity Sermon, preached by a Dr. Crane, before the Duke of Kent, for the benefit of the Charity School in the Parish of Ealing. The boys were catechised by the junior Parson of the Parish — Dr. Carr was not there — The text was from Hebrews xiii. 16 — "But to do good and to communicate forget not: for with such sacrifices God is well pleased." The Sermon was tolerably well written, and very indifferently read. Though a Charity Sermon, it was not free from the tinge of an uncharitable Spirit — For among the excellences of the Institution for which the preacher was begging he did not fail to enumerate its tendency to preserve the boys, from the infection of methodism, or dissent from that most excellent, and perfect Church — the Church of England. There is something in the dress, in the gait, in the deportment, in the expression of countenance, and above all in the eye, of these Clergymen of the most excellent Church, that imports arrogance, intolerance and all that is the reverse of Christian humility — They will quote the words of the Publican with the tone of the Pharisee, and say God be merciful to me a Sinner, with an air as if they meant to take the kingdom of Heaven by violence — In this Church there is inscribed in gilded characters on the Pannels of the Gallery pews, all the donations for more than two Centuries, made to the Church or to the Parish, for charitable purposes — This is an excellent practice; well deserving of imitation — It is at once a testimony of gratitude for benefits received, and an excitement to others to like charitable deeds. — After Church we took a ride over Castlebar Hill, where the Duke of Kent resides, and on returning, I alighted with George, and walked home. I spent the remainder of the morning, in finishing the Journal of last Wednesday, which has occupied me two or three days, and in bringing up the arrears to this day. I was not in a disposition for close application. The dissipation of a day of entertainment always encroaches upon the Industry of the next day. I walked with George again after dinner; and Mrs. Adams, took John and Charles back to Dr. Nicholas's School.
26. V:30. At seven, the Coachman came with the Curricle, and I returned home to Ealing, to Breakfast. But as I have not acquired the faculty after a day of dissipation of settling my Spirits down to a steady occupation, this day was in a great measure wasted — I wrote scarcely any thing. I paid a visit to General Dumouriez, who is almost my next door neighbour, and returned to him the Letters which were left with me about a fortnight since, with several Letters from the Post-Office. The Letters had given me some insight into the views and present situation of the man, and I had now a long conversation with him which gave me more — Dumouriez was at one time an important personage in the world — It is now more than twenty years since he was obliged to fly from the army which he had led to victory, and seek refuge among the enemies whom he had vanquished — He is now seventy five years of age, burning with ambition to return to France, and recommence a Career, in which by a confession more true than sincere, in one of the letters he said he had done nothing but de brillantes sottises. The uneradicable vices of his character are Vanity, Levity and Insincerity — They are conspicuous in his writings and were not less remarkable in his Conversation with me — Like all vain people his greatest delight is to talk of himself. He told me that he had been twelve years in the service of this Country — That he had first been sent for, to assist in a plan of defence for this Country against a French invasion — He had made his bargain with the British Government — They had offered him terms which he had accepted, and he lived upon them, comfortably, though not in opulence.
[October 1815]
10. V. As the Clock struck I left my bed. I am half an hour dressing, and at half past five I roused George — At six he began his French reading, which takes from half to three quarters of an hour — He has a mile to walk to School, and must be there at seven O'Clock. After writing a Letter to Mr. Russell at Stockholm, I called and paid a visit to General Dumouriez. He began by asking me, if we were quarreling again with England, and asked what they meant by their proceedings with the Creek Indians — I said that one of their officers had been endeavouring to make mischief, by a pretended Treaty offensive and defensive with the Creek Indians; but that the Government here had disavowed his conduct to me — He asked if it was not such a disavowal, as that of 1755. I said that was what I could not tell — He thought we should not be long without another War with England; and that there would soon be a separation of the United States. As our population increased he said, with such an immense territory, it would be too large for one Government — I said that as our Government is federative, I did not see any necessity for a separation, which would be contrary to the interests of us all. He said that mankind seldom pursued the system of their interest, and he thought our Union could not hold together long. He also thought we should soon be encroaching upon the Mines of New Mexico; and asked something about our establishment on the Columbia River. He spoke also of Canada, and the danger of the British possessions in North America, by their vicinity to the United States — Of the fur trade, and the diminution of the Indian hunting grounds. On all these Subjects he had some information; but it was all partial, and such as he had apparently imbibed from those with whom he converses concerning them here. In combating his prejudices, I did not expect to alter his opinions; nor would it that I know, have been of any use if it had.
13. V. ≈ I have purchased a pair of Pistols, for George and John to learn the practice of firing them; of their fencing Master, Mr. Barberi — As a trial of them was to be made, I chose rather to make it myself than that it should be made by either of them — Barberi had been running some balls, for them — I asked him to load the Pistols, and said I would fire one of them myself. He mistook the quantity of the powder, and put in a full double charge — I fired the pistol at a tree in the Garden, at twenty paces distant, but did not hit it — The pistol flew out of my hand, and fell at least ten feet distant from me in a diagonal line to my left, and backwards. It wounded my hand and fingers in four places. A lesson of Caution for the children in the use of the Pistols which I hope will not be lost. ≈
14. — V. On the fourteenth of November after the interval of an entire month, I am for the first time enabled to resume the pen. My whole course of life has been changed, and I am yet uncertain how far I shall be able to return to my occupations. Mrs. Adams has kept short minutes of the occurrences from day to day, from which I shall endeavour to preserve unbroken the chain of this journal. One of the wounds in my hand, festered in the Night, and was this morning quite sore. I wrote a few lines, but the principal hurt is on the fore finger of the right hand; and I must consequently drop the pen for some time.
23. V:30. Mr. Grubb and his Son, spent the Night here, and returned to London early this Morning — The weather was so bad the whole day, that I only found half an hour before dinner to walk as far as Brentford — I read in the Light of Nature all day — Finished the second, and began upon the third Volume. The incessant reading to which by losing the use of my right hand I have been reduced, has produced an inflammation in my left eye, which was noticed the day before yesterday by my wife, but to which I have myself paid no attention, until this Evening on going to bed I observed that it was considerably blood-shod. My hand has been slowly healing, and I expected to have been able to recommence to-morrow my ordinary course of occupations, and to have employed the usual portion of my time in writing. — Oh! blindness to the future!
25. George's reading is necessarily suspended — I had a Night entirely sleepless; the inflammation and swelling of my eye continuing to increase, attended with severe and almost continual pain — This morning I could scarcely open the eye, and could not bear the light of day upon it — I was still in bed when Dr. Cook called here, about ten in the Morning — He expressed his opinion that it was the Egyptian Opthalmia, with a purulent discharge of acrimonious matter, and intimated the opinion that the vision itself was in imminent danger. I had better hopes, and told him that I had once before, between five and six years since had a very similar attack, the course of which I described to him — He still adhered to his opinion, and advised an immediate application of leaches — He said however that he wished me not to be alarmed. I was however so averse to the use of leaches that he consented to wait a day or two longer to see if the inflammation would not subside without them. We tried the effect of physic, diet, or rather almost total abstinence; a hot foot-bath, and elder flower tea.
[November 1815]
10. ≈ Dr. Cook paid me his last visit for the present. I am to cease henceforth the use of medecines, and only to wash my eyes often with the Collyrium; and to return gradually to my customary diet — After eighteen days of confinement from walking in the open air, I this day took a walk for a quarter of an hour in the garden, wearing a pair of green eye glasses, and a green silk shade over them — Afterwards I rode out with Mrs. Adams and John — We went over Kew Bridge, to Richmond Hill, and through the Park — Mrs. Adams finished writing for me, the Letter to my Mother, begun last Tuesday — Continued also the minutes for the Journal, down to last Evening — George recites to me, every Evening, fifty lines of Homer.
[December 1815]
18. VI. ≈ At the Office I found Letters from William Parry, Thomas Cook of Georgetown, J. S. Cogdell of South Carolina, and Mr. Maury — Parry is a manufacturer of fire-arms or Ordinance, who has been to me several times and who wants to go to America. He is, or fancies himself, a great inventor or improver, and has written several volumes about gunnery, and the composition of Gunpowder, which he wishes the American Government to buy — He is moreover like all the other disappointed projectors, who have come to me in this Country a malcontent and a republican. I have been much upon the reserve with them all. This man however found out Commodore Barney when he was here, who as he says promised to recommend him to the Government. He now sends me a letter for the Commodore, with a box containing the four important volumes of manuscript, to be forwarded to him, and by him to the City of Washington — The Letter to me is merely to request me to transmit them, which I some time ago promised Parry that I would. Mr. Cook's letter, enclosed one for my wife, and one for Mr. Murdoch, which I sent him by the two-Penny Post. The purport of them all was to inform us of the Death of our friend and brother in Law, Mr. Walter Hellen, of the City of Washington — He had been many years in a very infirm state of health, most of the time confined to his house, and scarcely expected to live from week to week. He had successively married Nancy and Adelaide Johnson, the eldest and the youngest sister of my wife; the latter of whom survives him; with one daughter of her own, and three children of the first wife. ≈ In our walk into the City this day, I was struck with the Gaz-lights which are introduced in the Streets, and most of the shops in the neighbourhood of the Mansion House — They are remarkably brilliant, and shed a light almost too dazzling for my eyes — They are also attended with an inconvenience of offensive smell, which I thought perceptible even in the Streets — and they are thought to be unhealthy. For lighting Streets however and open places, it is probable they will supersede the use of Oil.
[February 1816]
20. IX. I found myself utterly unhinged for writing of any kind, and I abandoned the day to reading Niles's Register ≈ This Evening's Post, brought several Letters ≈ And a Packet from Mr. Grubb, enclosing Letters from my father and mother, to myself, and my three Sons — dated in December, and to 12 January — They communicate information of the decease of Dr. Tufts; an Event which has much afflicted them. He was, excepting my Uncle Peter Boylston Adams, the only remaining friend and relation of the family of that Generation. They both write, and especially my Mother in a depression of Spirits which distresses and alarms me. My Mother at the latest date had been herself very dangerously ill, and was yet confined to her chamber — May it Please God to spare their lives, and to grant me the mercy of beholding them once more in this world!
[March 1816]
13. VII. Wrote a Letter to the Secretary of State, and made up the weekly packets to send to America. We sent for George to come home from school, and dined at three O'Clock. Went immediately after dinner into London, with Mrs. Adams and George. ≈ We went to the Oratorio at Drury Lane, and heard Israel in Egypt. The principal singers were Braham, Bellamy, Pine, Wulfingh, Mrs. Salmon, Mrs. Dickons, Miss Burrell, and Barnett, a boy about twelve years old — Braham, Mrs. Salmon, and Barnett were the best. Israel in Egypt was in two parts — to which were added a third part consisting of several foolish Ballads, and a Grand Battle symphony composed by Beethoven, to shew the triumph of Rule Britannia and God Save the King, over Marlbrook — Bad Music, but patriotic.
[April 1816]
4. VI. ≈ I dressed, went again to Conduit Street, where I took up Mrs. Adams, and we went to the Queen's Drawing-Room at Buckingham-House. It was announced for two O'Clock, and precisely at that hour the Drawing-Room commenced — The forms of this presentation are different from those of the Circles on the Continent, and of those held by the Prince Regent at the Levees — The Queen does not go round the Circle. She takes a stand, before a Sopha — The persons attending the Drawing Room, go in from the adjoining Hall; go up to her and are spoken to [by] her in succession, after which they pass on to the Princesses and Princes who stand at her right hand, each of whom speaks a few words, and then the person files off by another door, and goes down Stairs to go away. Privileged persons however, among whom are the foreign Ministers, may remain in the Drawing Room, after having been presented. All the foreign Ambassadors and Ministers were there, excepting Baron Jacobi. I spoke to Count Munster the Hanoverian Minister, about my old friend Bussche, and bore testimony to the Sentiments he had always avowed to me. He said he had already taken some steps in Bussche's favour, but there were reports in circulation much to his disadvantage — Especially of his having been too intimate with Mr. Caulaincourt, and even to have served him as a spy — I told him I was convinced Bussche never did act, and never would have acted as a Spy — That he was by his situation placed in a state of necessary intimacy with Mr. Caulaincourt, but that he always spoke to me of it, as a situation which he had been forced to accept, and that it had been invariably repugnant to his own feelings and inclinations — I mentioned that I had spoken upon this subject to Count St. Julien, while he was here with the Archdukes, and had entreated him if he should see Count Munster, to bear his testimony concerning Baron Bussche; and he had assured me that he would testify to the same facts as myself — The Count proposed to call upon me to converse further with me on this matter, but I observed to him that I resided out of town, and that I would call again upon him, to give him any more particular statement that he might desire — I spoke to Count Lieven, concerning my Letter of recall from the Court of Russia — He said that at the time when I had given him notice, last Summer that I had it, he had immediately written to take the Emperor's orders concerning it — That Count Nesselrode, had replied it would be best to wait until the Emperor's return to St. Petersburg, to make the official arrangements suitable to the occasion, and for transmitting to him the customary present to be given me, on his receiving from me the Letter, which he expected now to be very shortly authorized to do — I told him I was sorry there had been any delay on that account. That by the Constitution of the United States, their Ministers abroad were not permitted to accept Presents, from foreign Sovereigns, and that I had made this fully known to Count Romanzoff while I was in Russia, and when he was Chancellor; I regretted not having thought of it when I informed him last Summer that I had the Letter of Recall; but it was only because the idea had not at-all occurred to me, that any offer of a Present would be made. — The Count asked me, whether my distance from town was such that he could without indiscretion invite me to his house; to which I could only answer how much I was obliged to him — For one of my strongest reasons for remaining out of town, is to escape from the frequency of invitations at late hours, which consume so much precious time, and with the perpetually mortifying consciousness of inability to return the civility in the same manner. When the Drawing Room opened, the Corps Diplomatique first entered it, and went up and paid their Respects to the Queen. Mrs. Adams went with Princess Castel-Cicala, and Mrs. Bourke. The Ambassadors and Ministers afterwards succeeded, and Prince Esterhazy, presented his father — Mr. Chester accompanied me, as it was my first presentation at the Drawing Room, and after the Queen had spoken to me, he presented me to the Princesses Elizabeth and Mary, to the Duke of Gloucester, and his Sister the Princess Sophia — The Queen and Princesses Elizabeth and Mary, have a topic to speak to me about — My health — the Climate, and my residence in Russia — The Princess Sophia of Gloucester told me she was glad to see an American Minister here again, and she hoped we should long continue friends. I thanked her for the wish, and said it was the first duty of my station and the first inclination of my heart to promote the friendship between the Nations — The Duke of Gloucester said he was happy to renew the acquaintance he had made with me last Summer at Earl Grey's — The Dukes of Kent and Sussex, also spoke to me; the latter came late, because he said he thought proper to take his time. The Duke of Clarence was there, but I had not the opportunity of speaking to him. After passing through all the presentations we stood and saw the succession of others pass through theirs for about an hour. The Duke of Sussex and Lord Graves came up and conversed with my wife, with whom they remembered their antient acquaintance at Berlin. We left the Drawing Room between three and four O'Clock.
11. VI:30. Wrote to Mr. Luke, the Consul of the United States at Belfast in Ireland — Remainder of the Morning I was employed upon this Journal; walked only to Ealing, and Brentford — Heard the boys speak their pieces which they are to deliver at the approaching exercises at the school. This morning I received a Letter from Col'l Aspinwall the Consul; and this Evening a Note from Lord Castlereagh, concerning the Slaves carried away from the United States after the Ratification of the Treaty of Peace. There is nothing further to be done at present — This Evening I finished reading Mr. Worcester's third Letter to Mr. Channing on the Trinitarian controversy. Whether from an original bias; from a preconceived prejudice against Mr. Channing, whose political violence and factious preachments had disgusted me, or from the real superiority of his adversary in this argument, I find myself growing more strongly Trinitarian every new pamphlet that I read on either side of this dispute. I believe I shall never be converted to the Unitarian faith.
17. IX:15. We had just finished Breakfast, when Mr. Joy came in, and took my three Sons with him, upon his party to Hampton Court; but it was too late to go in a day to Windsor and Eton College; so that that part of the Expedition was postponed for another opportunity — I had hoped and intended to have written industriously part of this day; but the reading of the New-York Papers lent me by Mr. Moses absorbed much of the Morning, and I had barely time to answer General Mina's Note appointing 3 O'Clock next Friday for seeing him at Craven Street, when Mr. Prince Sanders, the Black Gentleman, came for the purpose of spending the day with my Sons; and being disappointed by not finding them at home, he stayed and spent it with me — Mrs. Adams was very unwell the whole day; She rose between three and four in the afternoon; and sat down to dinner with us; but was obliged immediately afterwards to leave the table again and return to bed. She had this Evening a very smart fever. Mr. Sanders took a short walk of half an hour with me before dinner, and dined with me — I had much Conversation with him upon the subject of his visit to Hayti, as he calls it, or St. Domingo, and found he was in the highest degree delighted with his new connection there, with king Henry (Christophe) of whom he spoke in high terms of praise and admiration; but he was very reserved, with me, in speaking of his own present Mission, and of his future views — He gave me to understand however that his mission had reference to religious affairs — That King Henry was determined to admit no more Roman Catholic Priests into the Country; but that his intention was to introduce religious worship there according to the rites of the Church of England. Sanders says that King Henry was displeased with the State Coach that was built in this Country and sent out to him — It was too tawdry for him; and he sent word to the maker, that he supposed he had taken him for a king of Congo, who was to be caught with show. — Sanders was just going away, when Mr. Joy came in with the boys from their tour to Hampton Court — He then stopped an hour longer, and returned to town with Mr. Joy — He also persuaded me to give permission to the boys to go in to Town to-morrow to see him, and Captain Bronson of the New Packet who is now in London — It was with him that George and John, and Mr. Sanders, came to England.
[May 1816]
16. VI:15. ≈ We reached the Palace at Buckingham house, in very good season, at half past one O'Clock ≈ The crowd and the heat were so great that several of the Ladies fainted — I introduced Mr. Smith to Lady Castlereagh, who invited him to her evening parties on Saturdays after the Opera — She told me she had mentioned them to Mrs. Adams; but supposed it might be inconvenient to us, to come in, so far from the country — I spoke to Lord Castlereagh, about the Algerine affairs — Mentioned the motion said to have been lately made in the French house of Peers, by the Vicomte de Chateaubriand — which was, that the king of France should be requested to instruct his Ambassadors at the different Courts of Europe, to propose that they should all unite in the endeavour to prevail upon the Barbary Powers, to abolish their practice of making slaves of Christians — I enquired if any proposal of that sort had been made by the French Ambassador here — He said there had not; and, with a sneering smile, added that he thought it was only a project of Sir Sidney Smith's, which would not meet with much encouragement — We came away just before the Drawing-Room closed. It was with the utmost difficulty that we made our way down the Stair-case; and at the door we were stopped to make way for the Princess Charlotte and her husband; and after them, for the Duchess of York to go.
[June 1816]
2. VI:30. This Morning I wrote Lord Castlereagh a Note, asking a permission from this Government for the exportation of rollers, and any Other Articles which may be wanted for the use of the Mint of the United States — Attended Church with my three Sons. Dr. Nicholas read the Church Service for Whitsunday, including the Creed of St. Athanasius — Mr. Millman preached from 1 Corinthians XII—10, 11, "To another divers kinds of tongues; to another the interpretation of tongues. But all there worketh that one and the self-same Spirit, dividing to every man severally as he will." I know not whether it be his fault or mine, but I can never give attention to Mr. Millman's Sermons — They are at once flashy and flat. I can hardly sit and hear them — Notice was given again that he had applied to be ordained as a Priest by the Bishop of Oxford on Trinity Sunday; that is next Sunday. There was also notice that to-morrow and the next day were to be kept as Holidays, and there would be religious service at the Church — Mr. Bourke the Danish Minister and his Lady came out and paid us a morning visit — Three of the Schoolmates of our Sons, Chichester and two Drury's came and dined with them. I dined with Lord Holland, at Holland House, his Country Seat. It is about midway between the Brentford and Acton roads, and the entrance gate is at the side of the Kensington Turnpike — A very large Brick House, built in the Gothic Style, and four or five hundred years old. The library is in a central Hall which extends through the whole breadth of the house, nearly two hundred feet long, but not more than thirty wide. The company were, Count and Countess Lieven, with whom there came a young English Lady — Count Beroldingen the Minister from the king of Wurtemberg — the Earl and Countess of Jersey, the Earl of March, eldest Son of the Duke of Richmond, Lord and Lady Granville, Sir James M'Intosh, and some other Gentlemen — eighteen sat down to table — The dinner was elegant; the wines choice; the dessert excellent, and might have seemed to me better; but that Madame Bourke an accomplished epicure had forewarned me that Lord Holland had the best Confectioner in London. The tone of Society was easy and agreeable — Lady Holland, was perfectly well bred; and by several unaffected marks of maternal attachment to her Son, Henry, a boy about twelve years of age who was present, bespoke a favourable opinion of her domestic character — Lord Holland introduced the Earl of Jersey to me, at his request. I sat between Count Lieven and Sir James M'Intosh at dinner, and had much Conversation with the latter. I had much also with Lord Holland after dinner; and was pleased with every part of the Conversation except my own. I offended Count and Countess Lieven, by bluntly saying, that I had never known such a thing as hot weather in Russia — I said two or three silly things to Sir James M'Intosh, and was altogether stiff and dull, beyond my usual measure — I asked Sir James M'Intosh if he was engaged upon a History of England — He told me he was — from the Revolution of 1688. He asked me, if I thought Dr. Franklin had been sincere in the professions which he made here that he lamented the Revolution which was to separate the Colonies from Great Britain, which he said he did, the day before he last left London; even to tears — I told him I did not believe Dr. Franklin wished for the Revolution — Nor Washington — He asked me if any of the leading men had — I said, perhaps my father — Samuel Adams — and James Otis — He asked me if we had any popular writers in America — I said none — Any good History of the Revolution? I mentioned Gordon, Ramsey, and Marshall's life of Washington. He said he had met in India, several masters of American Merchant Vessels; particularly from Salem; and found from them that America had two strong characters of English descent. A multitude of Newspapers and Stage Coaches — He also told me that he had last year introduced Walter Scott to Mr. Clay — the first of his admirers that he had ever seen from Kentucky. He spoke of Scott's three Novels, as admirable delineations of Scottish Manners and of characters — The construction of the Stories, to which I objected, he said was good for nothing — I thought there was in the last of the three no new picture of manners peculiarly Scottish. That is, nothing which had not already been painted in Waverley and Guy Mannering. He mentioned The Antiquary himself — I said the character was well drawn; but I did not perceive it to be peculiarly National. He said there was its pedantry; altogether Scotch — He was himself a Scotchman, and he understood that whatever contest there might be about other qualities, the palm of Pedantry was universally awarded to his Country. I observed, that there must be something very powerful in the principle of legitimacy, which made the Scotch nobility and gentry now proud of their rebellions in favour of the Stuart's, and instanced the late addresses to Louis 18 in presenting him the Gaelic Ossian, and to the Prince Regent, also in Gaelic — He said there was a sort of concession — "even in their _error_ _s_ " — I told him that I had great admiration for the principle of legitimacy, but I hoped he would give it the finishing stroke in his History — It was to me, like Octavius to Cicero — ornandus and tollendus — He said he should certainly not think it laudandus — It was merely the fashion of the day — Hume himself, in speaking of this principle said it was admirable; inferior only to the more exalted principle of the rights of the People. Hoadley was made a Bishop in the reign of George the second; and Horsley, who somewhere called Hoadley the Republican Bishop, was made a Bishop in the reign of George the third — the first for preaching against the principle of legitimacy, and the second for preaching in favour of them — My conversation after dinner with Lord Holland, turned much on a comparison between the political Institutions of this Country, and of the United States. He enquired about our forms of Representation, of which I gave him an account; and told him that the result of them was that the very great proportion of our public men were lawyers — He said it was precisely the same here — The theory of their Representation in the House of Commons was bad, but perhaps no theory could produce a more perfect practical Representation of all Classes and interests of the community — Even the close boroughs, often served to bring in able and useful men, who by a more correct theory would find themselves excluded — Men of property could always make their way into Parliament by their wealth. Men of family; such a man as the Earl of March, might go into the house of Commons for a few years in youth; to get experience of public business, and employ time to useful purpose; and there was no man of real talents who in one way or another could fail of obtaining sooner or later, admission into Parliament — But a great proportion of the House of Commons were lawyers; and most of the business of the house was done by them — In the house of Lords, all that was of any use was done by Lawyers. The great practical use of the House of Lords, was to be a check upon mischief that might be done by the Commons. Many Bill pass through that house, without sufficient Consideration — The Chancellor is under a sort of personal responsibility to examine, and stop them — His character depends upon it — He is at the head of the Nobility of the Country, and all that _judg_ _e_ ; and his Consideration depends upon his keeping this vigilant eye over the proceedings of the Commons — All the ordinary business of the house therefore rest upon a lawyer — Lord Holland observed that from what he had heard, the most defective part of our Institutions in America was the judiciary; which I admitted — Count and Countess Lieven went away immediately after dinner. The Countess had an Evening party at her own house, to which we were invited — Mrs. Adams was to come with the Carriage for me, about eleven, and I had specially directed the servants to send me in word when the Carriage came — But this was neglected, until I had stood waiting until past Midnight. There still remained there The Earl and Countess of Jersey, Lord and Lady Granville, and Sir James Macintosh, who sat round the fire in the Library conversing upon the Methodists, Foster's Essays, the Church, the Athanasian Creed, and other miscellaneous subjects — Sir James Macintosh and Lady Granville had been this morning to Church, where Sir James said they had heard a mild and moderate Sermon; . . . But, said I by way of atonement for his moderation he gave you the Athanasian Creed . . . . . Sir James said yes — to be sure — . . . they had that — Lord Holland said there were many Church Clergymen, who at their peril took it upon them to omit reading it; and that the Duke of Grafton always got up and went out of Church, when it was begun to be read — Lady Jersey said she wished she could go to a Methodist chapel, without being known. — About half past twelve a Servant came, and told me that my Carriage was at the door; and on going down I found Mrs. Adams had been waiting there ever since eleven — I had been all the same time waiting for the Carriage, and had thoughtlessly neglected to enquire of the Servants if it had come — It was too late to go to Countess Lieven's, and we returned home; which we reached soon after one in the Morning.
5. VI. The arrears of my Journal are a continual pressure upon me. I shall probably be very soon compelled to change my plan, and to notice the Events of every day in the most summary manner; and in a very few lines. This morning I rose earlier than has of late been usual with me, but it brought me only to the 12th of last Month — Soon after breakfast I went in to London — I had appointed to meet Mr. Couling at my Office at three O'Clock — I returned him his Letter of proposals; and he engaged to furnish me with another next Saturday — There was a Mr. Conan whom Mr. Smith introduced to me, and who mentioned the accounts from America, of the Death of Mr. S. Dexter of Boston. Received a Note from Lord Castlereagh enclosing a copy of an Order from the Lords of the Treasury to the Commissioners of the Customs, to repay all extra Tonnage duties, levied upon American Vessels — Three Letters from my Mother, one to George, and two to my wife. A Letter from Thomas Pride, a Land Surveyor and Draftsman in Monmouthshire; wanting to go to the United States — A pamphlet — the Account and Plan of the Society of Friends of Foreigners in Distress; sent by the Treasurer, Mr. William Vaughan — Mr. J. A. Smith went with me to the City of London Tavern, in Bishopsgate Street, where we dined with this Society. ≈ Count Lieven and Prince Esterhazy, before dinner hinted to the Duke of Kent, that if their Sovereigns should be toasted or themselves, they could not make speeches — He said laughing that if they would tell him in three words what to say he would speak for them — But that I could speak English very fluently, and I must speak for them all — The hour appointed for the dinner was precisely half past five O'Clock, and the company actually sat down about six — The dinner was good, and the toasting began early ≈ after which the Duke of Kent gave, the Foreign Ambassadors and Ministers present, prefacing it with remarks upon his personal satisfaction, at seeing so large a number of them, Ministers of Peace, from Countries with whom this Nation but a few years since, had unfortunate differences — The Hall he said in this respect, exhibited a contrast, most auspicious to this Country to the aspect which it would have had, only four years since — The Duke then, with the assent and request of all the Ambassadors present, called upon me to answer the toast; which I did nearly to this effect — "Gentlemen — Deeply sensible as I am, to the honour done me, by my illustrious and excellent colleagues, in calling upon me to make our common acknowledgments for that which you have done us in the toast just given by His Royal Highness from the Chair, I feel myself no less at a loss for words than they can be, suitably to make this return for your goodness to them and to me — For although I am indebted for this distinguished charge, to the accidental advantage of speaking the same language as most of you; yet I must intreat your indulgence when I say that expressions suitable to convey the sense of their gratitude and mine, are at this moment as little at my command as at their's. ≈ Gentlemen, to give utterance to the feelings which fill the bosoms of my noble colleagues, and my own, in return for the notice bestowed upon us by such an Association, is beyond the powers of language possessed by us all. We can only say in the honesty and simplicity of our hearts, we thank you." — This address was very well received — Lord de Dunstanville, Mr. Villiers, and the Russian and French Consuls complimented me civilly upon it. Mr. Villiers asked me if I had been prepared for it — I told him I had not had a conception until the moment when we sat down to dinner, that I should be called upon to answer for the whole Corps Diplomatique — But the truth is, I was not gifted by nature with the talent of extemporaneous speaking; and on this and all the other similar occasions, I have felt myself in much embarrassment, and have got through without discredit, only by revolving during the dinner time, what to say; a process not remarkably favourable to the enjoyment of the conviviality of the table — My awkwardness was this day aggravated, by an observation of a Gentleman, who sat opposite to me at the table, that he had heard at one of these same dinners, some years ago, a Speech from Mr. Pinkney, which he should never forget, and of which he spoke in an extasy of admiration — I confess the eulogy might have come at a more acceptable moment — But this Table-Cloth Oratory, is one of the duties of an American Minister in this Country, which I had not anticipated.
[July 1816]
12. VI:15. After the Journal of yesterday and finishing the despatch to the Secretary of State, I had time for no more writing at home, and soon after breakfast went with Mrs. Adams, who took Lucy with her, to London. ≈ At seven O'Clock, I went and dined at Lord Castlereagh's with a Company somewhat curiously composed — Part of the Diplomatic Corps, in full Court dress, and the rest, English nobility and gentry, most of them in frocks, and undress — The Marquis d'Osmond was the only Ambassador — and the Ministers of Portugal, Denmark, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemberg, and Hanover were there; and Baron Nicolai — The Dukes of Beaufort and Rutland, Lords Poulett, and Clanwilliam, Mess'rs Arbuthnot, Hamilton, Planta, and nearly an equal number of persons whom I did not know — in all, a company of thirty persons — no Ladies — The company were received before dinner in Lord Castlereagh's Cabinet — They were more than half assembled when he appeared. — The varieties of dress made a motley appearance, and before dinner was announced, Mr. Planta went round among the Diplomatic guests, and requested that they would not all sit together, but would scatter among the others; to avoid the appearance of two distinct companies — Lord Castlereagh told me that they had just received despatches from Mr. Bagot, by the Packet from New-York; but he had not yet read them — I mentioned to him that I had received instructions from the Government of the United States to propose an additional commercial Treaty or Convention — I should soon address a Note to him on the subject, and should be glad to have some previous conversation with him, when it might suit his convenience — He said he should go out of town to-morrow for some days and appointed next Thursday at one O'Clock to see me at the foreign Office — He enquired what were the objects upon which the American Government were desirous of treating — I said, in the first place, the old subject — Seamen — The President had at two successive Sessions of Congress recommended the passing an act for excluding foreign Seamen from our naval Service — An act to that effect would probably have passed at the last Session, but it was thought best to make the proposal to establish the principle with this Country, by Treaty, which would make the arrangement reciprocal. — It was thought by the American Government that the present time was peculiarly favourable for such an arrangement, as by a mutual exclusion of each others Sailors at present during peace, the questions upon which there was a difference of principle between the two Governments, would be altogether avoided, and a system might be concerted which in the Event of a future maritime War would prevent the collisions which were so strongly to be deprecated by both Nations — He said, they would be ready to receive our proposals, and to agree to any thing which might tend to _diminish_ the inconveniences heretofore experienced — Another subject of the proposed Negotiation, I said was the commerce between the United States and the British Colonies in the West Indies, and in North-America. By the operation of the Commercial convention of 3 July 1815, connected with the regulations subsequently adopted by the British Government, the whole of that trade was exclusively carried on by British Vessels — the operation of which was so injurious to the United States, that it could not continue long in its present State — The American Government were desirous that it should be regulated by an amicable arrangement, and had therefore instructed me to propose this negotiation, in preference to adopting in the first instance legislative measures to counteract the exclusive British measures — He said that those exclusive measures arose, from the long-established colonial system. It was the essential character of that system to confine the trade of the colonies to the mother Country — To admit foreigners therefore to trade with them was an indulgence, for which it would be necessary to expect some equivalent; and as the United States had no Colonies it did not appear how any arrangement of that nature could be made reciprocal — He enquired as with an air of doubt, whether there was any considerable Commerce between the United States, and the British Colonies in the West-Indies? — I told him there was a great deal, and that its present condition was such, as left the United States no alternative but either the regulation of it, by concert with Great-Britain or by internal measures of legislation — He said we would converse further upon the subject at our meeting — I enquired of Mr. Planta, whether any Press-warrants had recently been issued — He said no; at least not to his knowledge — Col'l Aspinwall had written me that there were rumours to that effect in circulation, and requested me to make the enquiry, as if it should prove true, some measures of precaution would be necessary for the protection of American Seamen — The dinner at Lord Castlereagh's was very light — Served upon Plate and Porcelain of many different kinds, looking as if they had been collected from a pawn-broker's shop. The Servants were all out of livery. I sat at table between the Chevalier de Freire the Portuguese Minister and Lord the latter of whom spoke French to me half the dinner time; for which he apologized when he finally discovered that I could speak English — The hour appointed for the Prince Regent's Ball was ten O'Clock, at which time, I went to Carlton House, by the entrance at the Horse Guards — Happening to arrive just at the time when the Queen was passing, the Carriage was stopped some time, before it could obtain admission. I was shewn immediately into the building where the Ball was given — a Rotunda, adjoining Carlton House, and connected with it, by a covered Stair-case — A large Rotunda in the form of a Marquee, with a Roof in the Umbrella-form — It was erected two years ago, for the purpose of entertaining the Emperor of Russia, the king of Prussia, and the other Imperial and Royal Guests of that time. It is upwards of 100 feet in diameter; and would easily contain one thousand persons — There were not more than seven hundred present this Night — Mrs. Bourke, and Mrs. Adams were there already when I arrived. The company in general were not so punctual to the hour, and it was past eleven when the Queen went round the circle, arm in arm with the Prince Regent — The Princess Charlotte of Wales was not there, having been confined the whole week to her chamber by indisposition — The dancing, Waltzes and Cotillions began about twelve O'Clock, and at half past one the party went to supper — There were special tickets for the Queen's table, to about one hundred and fifty persons, including the Ambassadors, but not the foreign Ministers of the second order. They were generally dissatisfied at this, and agreed to go away without waiting for the supper — We assented the more readily to this, not being in the habit of supping. Mr. and Mrs. Bourke, the Chevalier de Freire, Mr. Pfeffel, Mrs. Adams and I came away together; but were obliged to wait a full half hour, before our Carriages could be brought up — While there, we walked to and fro about the Hall, occasionally meeting, and having scraps of Conversation, with almost all our courtly acquaintance. The most extraordinary attentions were shewn to Countess Lieven, who was seated at the Queen's right hand, and with whom Lord Castlereagh danced a Waltz — He introduced Col'l Gordon to me, and Mr. Bourke in the Antichamber as we were going away introduced Lord Morley to us — After some difficulty and delay, we obtained our Carriage went and took up Lucy at Craven Street, and reached home at four in the morning just before Sunrise.
18. VII:30. The journal of yesterday employed me until breakfast time. Immediately after, I went to town with my wife, who took Lucy with her. I went immediately to Downing Street, and was there precisely at one. Lord Castlereagh was not there, and the Servants, attending there told me that he had sent a Note to me last Evening, to Craven Street — I went there and found the Note, which stated that the Prince Regent had directed Lord Castlereagh to attend him this day between twelve and one O'Clock, and as he might be detained, requested me to call at the Foreign Office at half past one O'Clock, instead of One. After returning to Silvester's, and looking at the Seal upon which he is to engrave my device, which he says will be ready in three weeks, I returned to Downing Street — It was forty minutes past one, but Lord Castlereagh had not come in. I waited until two when he arrived, and received me. I told him I had mentioned at his house last week, in general terms, the subject upon which I had requested this conference. I shewed him the Letter from Mr. Monroe, Secretary of State, to me, of 21 May last, containing the authority and Instruction from the President to negotiate a new Commercial Convention, if the British Government should be disposed to such a Negotiation — I said that the first and most urgent subject to be treated of, in the View of my Government, was that of the trade, between the United States, and the British Colonies, in North America, and the West-Indies — He enquired, and said he did not recollect how that had been left, by the Convention of 3 July 1815 — I said that the British Government, had at that time declined to include it, in the Negotiation. But said Lord Castlereagh, was there not then some discussion concerning it? — A. "There was — But it was before I arrived in England. The conferences, your Lordship will recollect had commenced by Mess'rs Clay and Gallatin; and they had proposed that there should be an Article in the Convention, to regulate this part of the trade; but it had been declined by the British Plenipotentiaries, so that after my arrival nothing was said about it — The state of things however in relation to the trade between the United States and those Colonies was however, very different then, from its state now — The Commerce then was allowed in the vessels of both Nations — The Convention, equalized the duties upon British and American vessels in the intercourse between Europe and the United States, and thereby admitted British Vessels, into the Ports of the United States, upon terms of equal competition with American vessels — But since that time, the exclusive system of colonial regulations had been resumed in the West-Indies, with extraordinary rigour — American Vessels had been excluded from all the Ports; and some Seizures have been made with such severity, that are cases upon which, I shall be under the necessity of addressing this Government in behalf of individuals who have suffered and who consider themselves entitled to the restitution of their property. The consequence of these new regulations, as combined with the operation of the Commercial Convention is, that British Vessels being admitted into our Ports upon equal terms with our own, and then being exclusively received in the British West-India Ports, not only thus monopolized the trade between the United States and the West-Indies, but acquired an advantage in the direct trade from Europe to the United States, which defeated the main object of the Convention itself, of placing the shipping of the two Countries upon equal terms of fair competition — In North America, the same system is pursued, by the Colonial Governments, and I was specially directed to notice the measures of the Government of Upper Canada — An Act of the Colonial Legislature was passed at their last Session, vesting in the Lieutenant Governor and Council of the Province, the power of regulating their trade with the United States; and immediately afterwards a new Tariff of duties was issued, by an order of the provincial Council dated the 18th of April, laying excessively heavy duties upon all Articles, imported into the Province from the United States, with the exception of certain articles of provisions of the first necessity; and a tonnage duty of twelve and sixpence per Ton, upon American vessels, which is equivalent to a total prohibition" — C. "I have not been in the way of following the measures adopted in that quarter; and was not aware that there had been any new regulations, either in the West-Indies or in North America. In time of war, I know it has been usual to open the Ports of the West-India islands, to foreigners, merely as a measure of necessity, and it was not until your attempt to starve them, by your embargo acts, that they were driven to the resort of finding out resources from elsewhere. But in time of Peace it has been usual to exclude foreigners from them — What is the nature of your trade with them? and is it very considerable"? — A. "It is, my lord; and even in time of Peace; highly necessary to the Colonies — in respect to some of the imports, indispensible to their subsistance; and by the exports extremely advantageous to the interests of Great-Britain by furnishing a market for articles which she does not take herself and which could not be disposed of elsewhere — At the very time of which your Lordship speaks, during our Embargo, the Governors of the Islands, so far from adhering to the principle of excluding our vessels issued proclamations, inviting them, with promises even that the regular papers should not be required for their admission, and encouraging them to violate the laws of their own Country, to carry them supplies — I mention this now only to shew how necessary to the Colonies this trade was felt to be then — In time of Peace, it is undoubtedly not so necessary — Still however it is so in a high degree. The mother-Country can supply them in part — But she does not produce some of the most important articles of their importation. Rice, for example and indian corn which are the best and cheapest articles for the subsistence of the Negroes — Even wheat and flour, and provisions generally were much more advantageously imported from the United States than from Europe, being so much less liable to take damage, in those hot climates, by the comparative shortness of the voyage — Their other importations from us, are of lumber; which is necessary for buildings upon the plantations, and which after the hurricanes to which the islands are frequently exposed, must be had in large quantities — But it is not now on the usual ground of your necessities, that the American Government propose that those Ports should be opened to American Vessels — Neither do they ask for a participation of the British trade with them — Great-Britain may still prohibit the importation from the United States, of such articles as she chuses to supply, herself — But they ask that American vessels, from the United States may be admitted, equally with British vessels, to carry the Articles which can be supplied only from the United States, or which are supplied only to them — The effect of the new regulations that I have mentioned, has been so injurious upon the shipping interest in America; and was so immediately felt, that the first impression upon the minds of many, was that they should be immediately met, by counteracting Legislative measures of prohibition — a proposal to that effect was made in Congress; but it was thought best to endeavour in the first instance to come to an amicable arrangement of the matter with the British Government if possible — immediate prohibitions would affect injuriously the British Colonies — They would excite irritation in the commercial part of the British community — The consideration therefore of enacting Legislative regulations was postponed, and I was instructed by the Government to make this proposal of a new Convention" — C. "The subject shall be taken as soon as possible into Consideration, and you may be sure it shall be with the most earnest disposition in this Government, to concur in the general purpose of promoting the harmony, between the two Countries — But I cannot be now prepared to enter upon the particular points of the question, owing to the absence of Mr. Robinson" — A. "There is no immediate urgency, to enter upon the details of the Negotiation; and my object now is merely to give your Lordship, a general outline of the general objects which the American Government is desirous of embracing in the Negotiation — That the determination may be taken, whether the British Government is disposed to the discussion of those objects or not — This subject of the trade with the British Colonies is the most pressing of any; but the great anxiety of the American Government, to guard against the recurrence of those causes of dissension which heretofore unfortunately terminated in hostility, makes them extremely desirous of settling if possible, by Treaty all the points of collision between neutral and belligerent rights, which in the event of a new maritime War in Europe might again arise — Blockade — Contraband — Visits and Searches at Sea — Colonial Trade; and that between the Ports of Enemies — But most of all, the case of the Seamen — The proposal is that each party should stipulate, not to employ in its merchant or naval service, the Seamen of the other" — C. "But how shall we avoid falling into the old difficulty of the disagreement between us, who we are to understand by the Seamen of the other? — do you propose to include in the stipulation, only native Citizens and Subjects, and if not how is the question to be escaped, whether any act of naturalization can avail to discharge a man from the duties of his original allegiance?" — A. "It is proposed to include in the arrangement only natives, and those who are on either side naturalized, already — so that it would not extend to any person hereafter naturalized — The number of naturalized persons included in it would of course be very small; for our Laws respecting naturalization [are such] that there are excessively few British Sailors, who have taken or could take the benefit of them — So few, that it could be no object to Great-Britain to except them." — C. "But by what regulation would you propose to carry the stipulation into effect?" — A. "If the principle be agreed to, there can be no difficulty in concerting regulations which would carry it into execution. I can now only say, that I shall be ready to agree to any regulations which Great-Britain may think necessary to secure the bona fide fulfilment of the engagement, and consistent with individual rights." — C. "Is it expected by the American Government, that by agreeing to this stipulation, we should abandon the right of search which we have heretofore used; or is the stipulation to stand by itself; leaving the rights of the parties as they were before?" — A. "It is undoubtedly the object of the American Government, that the result of the Stipulation should ultimately be the abandonment of the practice of taking men from American Vessels." — C. "But then, how shall we escape the old difficulty — The People of this Country consider the remedy which we have always used hitherto, as the best and only effectual one — I am not sure that it is so — With all its advantages and all its inconveniences, I am not myself certain that it would not be better to substitute something else. But such is the general opinion of the Nation, and there is a good deal of feeling connected with the sentiment. If we give up that how will it be possible to devise any regulation depending upon the performance of another state, which will be thought as efficacious as that which we have in our own hands?"* A. "I am not prepared to say that an Article could not be framed, by which the Parties may stipulate the principle of mutual exclusion, without at all affecting or referring to the rights or claims of either Party — Perhaps it may be accomplished, if the British Government will assume it as one of the objects to be arranged by the Convention" — C — "In that case there will not be so much difficulty — If it is a mere agreement of mutual exclusion, tending to diminish the occasion for exercising the right of search; and undoubtedly if it should prove effectual; it would in the end operate as an inducement to the forbearance to exercise the right entirely" — A. — "There is one point, upon which there has been much discussion between the two Governments, and upon which Notes have passed, between me and Lord Bathurst, as well as between your Lordship and me — It relates to Slaves carried away from the United States, by British Commanders after the Peace."
{*N.B. The following part of the dialogue should come immediately before the asterisk in the [22nd] line [above], after the word "hands" — C. continues: "I am for myself convinced that in this respect the policy of the American Government has changed — That its policy formerly was to invite and encourage our Seamen to enter your service; but that at present their policy is rather to give every encouragement to your own Seamen; and I was in hopes that the effect of their internal, Legislative measures would be to diminish the necessity of our resorting to the right of Search" — A — "Your Lordship has made a similar observation to me, on a former occasion; and as it is now repeated, it is my duty to take particular notice of it — I do not know that any thing I can say will have the effect of removing the impression from your mind — I am nevertheless under the most perfect conviction that it is erroneous. The American Government never did in any manner invite or encourage foreign Seamen generally, or British Seamen in particular to enter our Service" — C — "I meant only to say, that their policy arose naturally from the circumstances, from the extraordinary, sudden and almost unbounded increase of your commerce and navigation, during the late European Wars, you had not native seamen enough to man your ships, and the encouragements to foreign seamen of which I spoke followed from that state of things" — A. "I understand your Lordship perfectly; but what I assert is, my profound conviction that you are mistaken on the point of fact — That without knowing whether any thing I can say will change your opinion, I must in the most earnest manner assure you that it never was the policy of the American Government to encourage British Seamen to enter our Service. I know not how the policy of any Government can be manifested otherwise than by its Acts — now there never was any one Act, either of the Legislature, or of the Executive, which could have even a tendency to invite British Seamen into the American service" — C. — "At least then, there was nothing done to prevent them." — A. "That may be, My Lord — But there is a very material distinction, between giving encouragement, and doing nothing to prevent them — Our naturalization Laws certainly hold out to them nothing like encouragement. You naturalize every foreign Seaman, by the mere fact of two years service on board of your public ships — Ipso facto, without cost or form of process. — We require five years of residence in the United States — Two years of notice in a Court of Record before the Act of naturalization is granted, and a certificate of character — Thus far only may be admitted, that the great and extraordinary increase of our commerce, to which you have alluded, had the effect of raising the wages of seamen, excessively high — our government certainly gave no encouragement to this — neither did our merchants, who would surely have engaged their seamen at lower wages if possible — These wages no doubt operated as a strong temptation to your Seamen to go into the American Service; your merchant service could not afford to pay them so high. — The wages in the king's ships were much lower, and numbers of British Seamen accordingly find their way to America, and into American Vessels; but encouragement from the American Government they never had, in any manner. — They were merely not excluded — and even now, in making the proposal to exclude them; it is not from any change of policy, but solely for the purpose of giving satisfaction to Great-Britain; and of stopping the most abundant source of dissension with her — It proves only the earnestness of our desire, to be upon good terms with you." — C — "In that general disposition, it is impossible for the American Government, to be more desirous to promote the harmony between the Countries than we are." — A — With regard to the proposal for excluding each other's Seamen, I am not prepared to say &c.}
C. "After the Peace? you mean between the signature of the Treaty of Peace, and the ratification of it, do you not?" — A — "No, My Lord, I mean Slaves, which had been taken during the War, and which after the ratification of the Peace, were carried away by the British Commanders, contrary, as the American Government conceive, to the first Article of the Treaty — But as the British Government appear to be decidedly of a contrary opinion I am directed to propose that the question be referred to the determination of a third party, to a sovereign the common friend of both; a mode of arrangement already agreed upon, by the Treaty of Ghent, in the Event of a final difference between the parties upon other questions" — C. — "By an Arbitration? — I was not aware that there had been any Slaves carried away from the United States, after the Peace; and as to the supposed sales by our Officers, of those that were taken, there are several answers of Officers, who have been referred to, of which I have requested Mr. Hamilton to send you copies. They are indeed expressed in very strong terms; but you will consider them as having been addressed to their own Government only. To the Admiralty, in answer to Letters sent them for their Reports upon the complaints. They all deny the charges in the most positive manner." — A. My Lord, the charges were of a nature to be denied; but in the papers which I transmitted to you, several officers were signalized by name, the statements implicating them were attested upon Oath; and so long as they are not brought to trial, their denials however positive, are no more than the denial of any other men. — C — I cannot help thinking, that by our Laws, it was impracticable that they could have effected such sales as were alledged. — A — I lately addressed to your Lordship, a Note, I am sorry to say a very long one, which perhaps you have not had time to read, but in which, I think it is proved that the Law for the abolition of the slave trade were neither applicable, nor applied to the slaves taken in America — And the copy of the decree of the Vice-Admiralty Court in Jamaica, which I likewise sent you proved not only an actual sale, but a mode by which real sales of any numbers might be effected — C — I do not recollect any such decree of the Vice-Admiralty Court; what decree was it? — A. It related to several American Slaves, taken at Sea. They were libelled in the Admiralty Court, with the vessel in which they were captured — They were delivered upon a Bail-Bond, to certain persons who presented themselves as Claimants, and when afterwards condemned as prize, the sentence of the Court directed that the penalty of the Bail-bond should be paid, and the Slaves were of course left in the possession of the claimants — that is they were substantially sold to them. — C — I have no recollection of this case; and I think it cannot be so — for if it were, our Philanthropists would have seized, and sounded it forth, that we should have no end of it. — A — Perhaps not — Your philanthropists might not chuse to notice transactions, connected with the operations of Government in a War, with America — They might not wish to appear to take part, against Officers of the Navy — C — Oh! that would not have restrained them! War or Peace; Navy or no Navy, the moment the slave trade became concerned, they would have had neither scruples, nor respect for Persons — A — But, as it was, My Lord, the philanthropists at the late Session of Parliament, did press you very hard, to account for the increase of the black population in the island of Jamaica; and this Evidence to which I now refer you was not in their possession — It has never been published — But this is not the subject which the American Government proposes to refer to a friendly Sovereign — The whole correspondence since the Peace, on this subject, has been very reluctantly entertained by them, nor do I see that it can lead to any useful result — The impression in the United States with respect to some individual Officers, is indelible; and all the evidence hitherto collected tends to confirm the allegation originally made — It is not therefore the disposal of the slaves after they were carried away, but the carrying them away after the Peace; which it is proposed to refer. And these are all the subjects comprized in my instructions relative to a new Convention — There are other topics which I was desirous of noticing at this interview — Your Lordship was good enough to communicate to me for the information of my Government, the proceedings of Lord Exmouth upon his first visit to Algiers; and until his arrival at Tunis. You also informed me that he was to return to Algiers, and make a protest there against one Article of the Algerine Treaty with us — Since that time, the Public Newspapers have announced the return of Lord Exmouth to England — that he had made his second visit to Algiers — that circumstances of a hostile nature had subsequently occurred; and that a new expedition under Lord Exmouth is now fitting out, and soon to sail for the Mediterranean — C — I have not the least hesitation in telling you every thing that has occurred since our last communication to you — Lord Exmouth returned after having been to Tunis and Tripoli, to Algiers — He made then the protest against that Article of your Treaty — The Dey fully admitted the validity of the prior Treaty with us, and said that he could easily settle that matter with you — He said that Treaty with you was suspended, on account of some Ship that had not been sent to him — But what is the state of your relations there now? — A. The Treaty, as he said, is suspended — The ship, of which he spoke, was an Algerine Brig, taken by an American Squadron off Carthagena last Summer — There was a frigate and a brig taken; and both were sent into Carthagena — At the peace it was agreed that they should be restored; precisely in the state, in which they were, at Carthagena. They were restored, but the Spaniards for some time detained the Brig, on the allegation that she had been taken within the Spanish Jurisdiction — They did however afterwards give her up. — C. Well, but if he has now got the vessel, what difficulty can remain? — A. I suppose the pretence of delay — But after the first visit of Lord Exmouth to Algiers, the Dey, thinking his Treaties had settled him on Peace, with Great-Britain, Naples and Sardinia, concluded that it was time to put an end to his Treaty with the United States, and it was accordingly the very next day that he first refused to acknowledge it — C — Well — He acknowledged the validity of the Articles in our Treaty, and said that he would settle it accordingly with you — That transaction therefore was all finished. — But afterwards, Lord Exmouth, having obtained from the Beys of Tunis, and of Tripoli those declarations that they would not in future make Slaves of Christian Prisoners, demanded a similar declaration of the Dey of Algiers — This was entirely a new and unexpected thing, and the Dey said that he could not make such an engagement without the consent of the Grand Seignor, whose interests as well as those of the Dey's Government would be deeply affected by it — After this the Dey appears to have had the impression that Lord Exmouth intended to enforce his demand by measures of hostility — perhaps because the English Consul had gone on board the fleet — Some English Officers were insulted and exposed to ill-treatment at Algiers — Orders of hostility were sent to Oran and to Bona — But Lord Exmouth thought he had gone as far as his Instructions would warrant — That he could not commence hostilities without further authority from his Government. He therefore renewed the Negotiation at which it was agreed that the Dey should have time to consult the Sultan at Constantinople upon the proposal for abolishing Christian Slavery — He made many apologies for the orders sent to Oran and Bona — Counter-orders were immediately sent. The vessels taken a Oran were immediately restored — But Bona, being more to the Eastward, the counter order unfortunately arrived too late — The first order had been to secure the persons of the Christians, and it is said their resistance to it, produced the unfortunate Event, of which you have seen the account — Since that Lord Exmouth has returned to England — We are now fitting out an expedition for the Mediterranean, under his command — We expect he will soon sail; it is not in my power to communicate at present the precise tenour of his Instructions, but from all these circumstances that have occurred our regard for the general interest, and the cause of the other European States has been manifested in the clearest manner — A. — I have mentioned this subject, My lord, because the former proceedings of Lord Exmouth having had an immediate and powerful effect upon the state of our Relations with Algiers, and supposing that his future Operations there may again have an effect upon them no less powerful, I thought it proper to suggest to you, that the Government of the United States would take it as a mark of good-neighbourhood, if you would communicate to me from time to time so much of his movements and of the measures of this Government directing them, as there may be no particular motive for withholding. — N.B. To this Lord Castlereagh made no reply, but drew up his feet, as if he was about to rise from his chair — The servants had told me that he was to attend a Cabinet Council, ordered at two O'Clock; and it was now near three — One of the red-morocco despatch-boxes, had been brought to him by a servant a few minutes before, which he had opened, and taken a paper from it, at which he had frequently cast his eyes while we were talking. I saw his impatience, and rising from my Chair; said — I have received a Letter from Liverpool, complaining that there are still levied upon Merchandize sold at Auction, when imported in American Vessels a duty of five per Cent which is not levied when the Goods are imported in British Vessels — C — I agreed with Mr. Robinson, before he left town, that is, six days ago, that this should be remitted, and he was to write to the Treasury accordingly — If not, send me a Memorandum of it, and I will attend to it — We consider that and the matter of the Iron, as standing much on the same foundation, and we are determined to do everything on our part, to give the Convention its full effect on the most liberal principles, trusting that the same disposition exists on the part of the American Government — A. — What does your Lordship particularly refer to, concerning Iron. — C — a discrimination of duties in the United States, between hammered Iron, and rolled Iron. — The preparation of the Iron in Sweden, it seems is usually by hammering; in this Country it is performed by rolling — The duty upon rolled iron, being heavier than upon the hammered iron, falls therefore upon the locality more than upon the Article; and operates to the disadvantage of the British Manufacture, and to favour that of Sweden — A. I had one thing more to mention — Your Lordship recollects the case of an American, named George Cook (C. A very bad fellow, I believe) whose Establishment in Africa, was broken up by an English Military party from Sierra Leone, and concerning whom; at the instance of his agent, a Mr. Page, I addressed you a note — C. Yes. — A. I received an answer from your Lordship, that this Government had determined to leave him to his remedy at Law, against the Governor of Sierra Leone — C — You did — A. A process was accordingly served upon Governor Maxwell in the month of April, and Mr. Page now applies again for my Offices — He says there is a British Officer named Appleton now at the Island of Guernsey, whose Evidence is material to Mr. Cook's cause, and who he apprehends is going away. Page therefore has written a letter to Lord Bathurst to ask that Appleton may not be permitted to go, until Cook can have had an opportunity to obtain his testimony, and he requests me to support him in this demand — C — I shall see Lord Bathurst immediately and will speak to him on the subject. — A — And with regard to the proposal for negotiating a new commercial Convention, I shall take it as a favour, if your Lordship will let me know the determination of his Majesty's Government, as soon as it may be convenient — C. You may rely upon having it, without one moment of unnecessary delay. — I took my leave, and on passing through the entry of the Office, saw by the Clock that it was just upon the stroke of three — I returned to Craven Street, where I found a Letter from J. Maury, Consul at Liverpool, enclosing an account for postage. — The Carriage was to come for us at a quarter past four — I went and paid a visit to Dr. Bollmann at N. 16 Buckingham Street, intending to walk from thence, and expecting the Carriage would overtake me in Hyde Park — I found Dr. Bollmann with one of his daughters whom he introduced to me. By his Conversation I found that he was mortified and soured by the disappointment of the projects with which he went to the United States last Autumn. He spoke of the dreadful state of Affairs in the United States, in relation to the finances, the circulating medium, and the overwhelming floods of depreciated bank paper; in which he concurs too well with all the other accounts that I have heard of late — but he considers the evil as irretrievable, which I hope it is not — He says that Mr. Dallas, the Secretary of the Treasury, was foiled in the principal object of his Bank, which was a Secret design to introduce Treasury Notes, as the circulating medium of the Country — But Congress took the alarm, and struck out that part of the plan, by which he would have accomplished that, the consequence of which will be that the Bank, when organized will be able to do no business, and then will come with a petition to Congress to have their powers enlarged — But a redemption from the depreciated paper, he holds to be utterly impracticable. He said the Government had declined the offer from Austria about the ships at Trieste — preferring to build 74 gun ships at an expence of 500,000 dollars each, to purchasing them at 100,000. He told me he had now come here, upon some new project of a manufacture; and that he should stay at least two years in Europe — I doubt whether he intends ever to return to the United States again — On leaving him I walked nearly to the Hammersmith Turnpike, when concluding that the Carriage must have started before me, I mounted upon the Dicky of a Windsor Stage, and rode to Kew-Bridge — From thence I walked again, reached home at half past six; found Mrs. Adams had got home, and that our Company for dinner were all arrived — They were Mess'rs Prescott, Cowell, Bryden, Prince Sanders, and J. A. Smith, who came from town with Mrs. Adams — Mr. Cowell is a new acquaintance, introduced by Mr. Sanders — We sat late at table and our company left us, little before Midnight.
[August 1816]
8. VI. ≈ Dined at the Mansion House with the Lord Mayor — It was a dinner to the Duke of Wellington, and for the purpose of presenting to him a Resolution of thanks from the Common Council of London, voted shortly after the Battle of Waterloo, and upon that occasion. The party was small. A single table of about thirty-six persons. The Duke of Cambridge and Prince Leopold had been invited but sent excuses — The Duke of Sussex had engaged to attend, but the Queen sent for him to dine with her; a summons that he was of course obliged to obey. He came before the company left the table after dinner — The Lord Mayor received an excuse from Prince Esterhazy the Austrian Ambassador just before going to table. He said he had not expected him — I had called upon Mr. Bourke, partly to enquire if he had been invited to the dinner. He had not — I was the only foreign Minister present; a favour, for which I have more than once been indebted to the present Lord Mayor; without precisely knowing why — Probably because he is a whig; and friendly to liberal principles with regard to America — I had been doubtful whether to go in full Court Dress to this party, or in Frock-Dress. On consulting Mr. Bourke, he advised me to go in Frock — I accordingly went so, but found the Lord Mayor, and most of the Company in Full-Dress — The Duke of Kent, however, the only person of the Royal family who attended, came in Frock — As did the Earl of Darnley and his Son Lord Clifton — The Duke of Wellington himself, and his Aids de Camp, Lord Arthur Hill, and Colonels Percy, Harvey and Freemantle, were in Military Uniform — Lord Erskine, and the Alderman were in Court dresses — I apologized for being in Undress — Before dinner the Lord Mayor introduced me to the Duke of Wellington — I observed that I had already been introduced to him — Oh! yes! said he — at Paris — No — at the Prince Regent's last Levee, at Carlton-House, by your Grace's brother, Mr. Wellesley-Pole — Oh? Aye! Yes! said the Duke, who had obviously forgotten me and my introduction — This is one of the many incidents from which I can perceive how very small a space my person or my station occupy in the notice of these persons, and at these places — The Lord Mayor intimated to me that I was to take my place at table after Lord Darnley and Lord Erskine, and before Lord Clifton, who he observed was not a Peer. — But as in handing the Ladies down, I took the Lord Mayor's eldest daughter, Miss Wood, it happened that I found myself at table next above Lord Darnley, with Miss Wood between us — There were no Cards as on former occasions in the Plates — Before we were seated, the Lord Mayor repeatedly told Lord Darnley that he was not high enough; but there was no higher place that he could have taken except mine, and I did not take the hint of offering it to him. We kept our seats therefore as we had taken them — The Lord Mayor and Lady Mayoress sat as usual at the head of the Table side by side. The Duke of Kent at the right of the Lord Mayor, and the Duke of Wellington at the left of the Lady Mayoress — The Dinner was of Turtle and Venison, and otherwise luxurious as usual. At the dessert the loving Cups of Champagne Punch, and the Basons of Rose water went round — The Steward at the passing of the Cups, and at the first toast — The king — went through the nomenclature of the company, according to custom; naming the American Minister immediately after Lord Erskine — The Lord Mayor gave us the toast immediately after the King — the Queen and female branches of the Royal Family — forgetting the Prince Regent; of which he was immediately reminded by the Duke of Kent — He corrected his mistake; but this forgetfulness led me to inferences similar in principle to those I had drawn from the Duke of Wellington's oblivious faculties, at the introduction to him by his brother of an American Minister — The routine of standing toasts followed. The Duke of York and the Army — The Wooden Walls of Old England, and better health to the Duke of Clarence — He was it seems yesterday suddenly seized with an illness so violent that he was last Night in the most imminent danger — But had been relieved, and the danger entirely removed. — Next came the personal attacks. The Lord Mayor gave every toast with a Speech. ≈ Every toast, excepting the first (the King) was drank standing; with what they call three times three — hip — hip — hip — and nine huzza's — for the Lord Mayor observed that it was impossible to do any thing in the City without noise — With all this, the dinner was inexpressibly dull — The company was obviously not well assorted — The Duke of Wellington yawned like L'Eveillé in the Barbier de Séville, and his aids occasionally laughed in the Sardonic manner, as if it was at themselves for being in company with the City — Wellington has no lively flow of Conversation; but he bore the daubing of flattery spread over him at every toast with moderate composure. The general aspect of his countenance is grave and stern, but sometimes it opens to a very pleasing smile — The City Resolutions elegantly written and illuminated upon parchment were read by a City Officer, and delivered to him in the Drawing Room before dinner. After dinner a drawing of the Silver Column, with a shield covering its base, which is to be presented to the Duke, by a subscription raised in the City, was exhibited, and freely criticised by the Duke's Aids. I had conversation with Lord Erskine before, and with the Earl of Darnley after dinner. Lord Erskine said it was very well for us to come and dine there upon Turtle and Venison, but the Country was ruined. He told me again of his determination to go and travel in the United States — Lord Darnley seemed to be under apprehensions of a new War with the United States which he deprecated. He thought also that the British Government ought to furnish assistance to the South-Americans, to accomplish their emancipation — One of the Aldermen disclosed to me his consternation that the Stocks had fallen this morning full one per Cent, which he attributed to the manœuvering of certain Jew Stock-brokers, and to Lord Cochrane's assertion at the late meeting in the City to relieve the poor, that the interest upon the national debt must be reduced. Mr. Sheriff Thorpe, made enquiries of the health of Mrs. Adams. — I told him she had been long intending to go and pay his father a visit — The Duke of Sussex told me that he intended in the course of three or four weeks to make me a visit at Ealing, and to ask me for a joint of Mutton — He said he would give me notice beforehand, and I asked him to bring his Son Captain D'Esté with him, which he promised. I spoke to the Captain himself about his expedition to New-Orleans, where he was Aid de Camp to General Pakenham; but he said it was a shocking affair and did not incline to talk much about it. He said it was a foolish thing ever to attempt an invasion in America. It was half past eleven when I left the Mansion House, and there was still such a crowd of People at the door, that it was with difficulty the Carriage could come up — When I went there had been a similar crowd. The Lord Mayor said they had been there from nine O'Clock in the morning — They shouted on the arrival of the Royal Dukes, and of the Duke of Wellington — I stopped a moment at Craven-Street, and got home, at half past one in the Morning.
25. VII. ≈ I went into London and dined at the Marquis d'Osmond the French Ambassador's. — It was St. Louis's day, and a great Diplomatic dinner. But as "Full dress," had not been marked upon the invitation-Cards, as is usual on such occasions, and as was done upon the Count de la Chatre's Cards on the same occasion last year, I went in frock undress, but found all the rest of the Company in full dress; excepting the Marquis de Grimaldi, the Sardinian chargé d'Affaires, who had made the same mistake, and two French Bishops, who could not appear in their full dress conveniently. The Company consisted of the Cabinet Ministers, the Earls of Liverpool and Bathurst, and Mr. Canning the new President of the Board of Controul; most of the foreign Ambassadors and Ministers; the two French Bishops above-mentioned, and a number of French Officers, with the Consul Seguier. One of the Officers, next to whom I was seated at table, told me that he had married a Sister of de Cabre's, and spoke in handsome terms of the Duke de Vicence. Mr. Canning came late, after the company had sat down to Table — He made acquaintance with me, by asking me to help him to a dish that was before me, and to take a glass of wine with him — After dinner, at his request the Earl of Liverpool formally introduced him to me. This Gentleman, whose celebrity is great, and whose talents are perhaps greater than those of any other member of the Cabinet, has been invariably noted for the bitterness of his inveteracy against the United States, and I suppose considers it as a rule of personal courtesy to make up by an excess of civility, for the rancour which he has so constantly manifested against us. Mr. Russell, more than once mentioned to me that such had been his conduct towards him — He and Lord Liverpool both talked about the great and rapid increase of the population of the United States. They enquired when the next Presidential election would take place, and who would probably be elected — I told them Mr. Monroe. Lord Liverpool said he had heard, Mr. Monroe's election might be opposed on account of his being a Virginian — I said that had been made a ground of objection to him, but would not avail.
[September 1816]
7. V:30. ≈ I took my Seal to the engraver Silvester's in the Strand and went to Leslie's where I sat two hours for my picture, to send to T. B. Johnson — I asked Leslie if he could introduce the device of my Seal into the Picture; but he did not incline to it. We left the question however, for future consideration. Just as we finished the sitting, Col'l Aspinwall came in to ask of me a certificate to enable him to receive his pension; he had it already drawn up and I signed it. Returning home I walked from the turn of the road to Gunnersbury — The Ladies came in from their fishing party, a few minutes after me. In the Evening I read to them the first Book of the Dunciad, and the first Canto of the Lady of the Lake. The weather has been this day fine, and although cool, needed no fire. It was the first evening since the month came in, that we had none —
In the Grecian Mythology, Orpheus is said to have charmed Lions and Tygers, the most ferocious wild Beasts, and to have drawn after him the very trees of the forest and the Rocks of the desert by the harmony of his Lyre. Its power was said to have triumphed even over the tremendous deities of the infernal regions, over the monster Cerberus, the Furies, and Pluto himself. The meaning of this Allegory is explained by Horace, De Arte Poetica, v. 390. Orpheus was a Legislator whose eloquence charmed the rude and Savage men of his age, to associate together in the State of civil Society. To submit to the salutary restraints of Law, and to unite together in the worship of their Creator — It was the Lyre of Orpheus that civilized Savage Man. It was only in Harmony that the first human political institutions could be founded. After the Death of Orpheus, his Lyre was placed among the Constellations — And there according to the Astronomics of Manilius; still possesses its original charm, constituting by its concords the Music of the Spheres, and drawing by its attraction the whole orb of Heaven around with its own revolution. It is the Application of this Fable, and of this passage of Manilius to the United States, the American political Constellation, that forms the device of the Seal. The following is the passage in Manilius with a translation.
The modern Astronomers have connected a Vulture with the Constellation of the Lyre, and it is marked upon the Charts of Bode's Uranographia, by the name of Vultur et Lyra. Instead of that bird, by a slight poetical license I have assumed the American Eagle as the bearer of the Lyre. The thirteen original Stars form a border round the Seal. The Stars marked upon the Lyre and on the wings of the Eagle are placed in the relative positions as they may be seen by the naked eye in the Constellation of Lyra. The motto from Manilius is upon the Lyre itself. The moral application of the emblem is, that the same power of harmony which originally produced the institutions of civil government to regulate the Association of individual men, now presides in the federal association of the American States — That Harmony is the Soul of their combination. That their force consists in their Union; and that while thus United, it will be their destiny to revolve in harmony with the whole world by the attractive influence of their Union — It is the Lyre of Orpheus that now leads the Stars, as it originally drew after it rocks and trees. It is harmony that now binds in its influence the American States, as it originally drew individual men from the solitude of Nature, to the assemblages which formed States and Nations. The Lesson of the emblem is _Union_.
16. VI. From breakfast time until five in the afternoon I was engaged in making out a copy of my note to Lord Castlereagh, upon the proposal to negotiate a Treaty of Commerce; which I did not finish — The Ladies went upon a fishing party, and by mistaking the way, came late home. It was past eight when we sat down to dinner. In the Evening I read the first Act of Sheridan's Comedy of the Rivals; but my hoarseness prevented me from reading more. The newspapers of this morning, contain the Official dispatches from Lord Exmouth announcing the complete success of his expedition against Algiers. The attack was on the 27th of August, and the whole Algerine fleet was destroyed; with the Arsenal, Storehouses, and part of the batteries on the shore. He gives the loss of the Turks as between six and seven thousand men. The returns of his own loss including that of the dutch Squadron co-operating with him are 141 killed and 742 wounded. The next morning the Dey submitted to all the terms prescribed. Delivered up all the Christian Slaves in and near Algiers — repaid all the money which had been paid for the ransom of the Neapolitans and Sardinians, under Lord Exmouth's former Treaties in April, and stipulated the formal abolition of Christian Slavery in Algiers forever — This is a deed of real glory.
[October 1816]
16. VI:15. My wife went to London with Ellen Nicholas to look out for a house. I lost some time in making a Copy of my Ode, which no longer pleases me so well as it did yesterday. Could I have chosen my own Genius and Condition I should have made myself a great Poet — As it is, I have wasted much of my life in writing verses; spell-bound in the circle of mediocrity. In my walk this day, I endeavoured to strike out a Subject, upon which to undertake a work of Patience and Perseverance; but in vain — My time was utterly lost.
[November 1816]
8. VII:15. ≈ There was a sharp frost last Night and all this day was very cold. Much of my time was wasted, I scarcely know how. The day was fine; and I walked to Ealing, Acton, Gunnersbury and Brentford. In the lane from Gunnersbury down to the Brentford road, I saw a man, decently dressed, lying stretched upon the ground by the side of the Road; his face downward, and apparently asleep or dead. There was in the adjoining field a man trimming the hedge, of whom I enquired whether he knew any thing of this person. He said he had found him lying there; had attempted to raise him up, but could not get him to speak. I asked him if the man was in liquor — He did not know — I requested him to come and repeat the attempt to raise him up. I then spoke to him and he answered. Said he was not in liquor; but had a bad leg, had walked from near Windsor going to Lambeth to try and get into the Hospital, for which he had a Certificate from a physician. He had found himself faint and laid down there. I asked him if he was in want. He said he had eaten nothing for two days. By this time two other persons had come up. I gave him a shilling and advised him to stop at the public house at Turnham Green, and take some nourishment — The number of these wretched Objects that I meet in my daily walks is distressing. Many of them beg — They are often insolent, and sometimes exhibit figures that seem prepared for any thing — It is not a Month since a man was found dead, lying in a field by the side of the road, between Dumouriez's house and Dr. Goodenough's. Not a day passes but we have beggars come to the house; each with a different hideous tale of Misery — The extremes of opulence and of want are more remarkable, and more constantly obvious, in this Country than in any other that I ever saw.
[December 1816]
23. VI. Fahrenheit at 32 and rising to a thaw. By the second Post; after twelve at Noon, I received a Note from Lord Castlereagh dated on Saturday and requesting me to call on him at eleven O'Clock this Morning. I immediately went into London, and at three O'Clock when I reached his house found him still at home. He told me that as he was going out of town for two or three days, he had sent for me to tell me that he had not forgotten the promise that he had made me before he went to Ireland, that the subject of my Note of 27 September, proposing the Negotiation of a Commercial Treaty, should be taken up by this Government immediately after his return ≈ From this topic he passed immediately to that of the Slave trade, which he said was now carrying on to a very great extent, and in a shocking manner — That a great number of vessels for it, had been fitted out in our Southern States; and that the barbarities of the trade were even more atrocious than they had been before the abolition of it had been attempted. The vessels sailed under the flags of the Nations which still allowed the trade, Spain and Portugal; they were very small and sailed like lightening. One vessel of 120 tons taken by Sir James Yeo, had six hundred Slaves on board. She had been out three days and there were thirty of them already dead. These vessels escape capture, by the rapidity of their operations. They have agents on the slave Coast, who purchase and collect the slaves together on the shore. The vessels occasionally approach, until they see on the shore the flag flying which is the signal that the Agents are ready with the slaves. Then they go and take them on board, and disappear again in the course of a very few hours. If on approaching the land they do not see the flag, they immediately go off again and remain some time out of sight of land. The slaves when taken are carried to Brazil, the Coast of South America, and the Havanna. Neither Spain nor Portugal, even if they favoured the total abolition of the traffic have a force adequate to the suppression of it, as thus practiced ≈
24. VI. I intended to have gone to London this Morning; but the weather proving bad, and the necessity of writing pressing upon my time, I made up my Packet for the Secretary of State; with despatch N. 64, and sent William with them to London. I also wrote to W. T. Franklin, thanking him for the copy that he has sent me of his Grandfather's Correspondence. ≈ In September 1815 I received a Letter from H. G. Spafford, of the State of New-York, dated 8 August 1815, in which he says he had been the preceding Winter at Washington, where the President had told him they were intending to reserve for me the best Office in the gift of Administration, as long as possible without injury to the public service. As this referred to a period previous to my appointment for the mission to England, I did not understand what was meant by it; but supposed it was an intention contingent upon my return home immediately after the Peace of Ghent — After this, the first intimation that I had on this subject was from G. Boyd, who when last here told me there was a talk about the Offices at Washington, that the place of Secretary of State, would be offered to me, by Mr. Monroe. — The next was from Mr. John Winthrop, on the 5th of this Month. Since then it has been announced in all the Newspapers here, as extracted from American Newspapers, that it is settled. I am to be recalled, and to be Secretary of State — Lastly my Mother in her Letter of 26 November last, mentions a message from the President, by the Secretary of the Navy, that if Mr. A. returned, that Office would be offered to him — Spofford's Letter had entirely escaped my recollection until within these few days. I had no expectation or belief that the Office would be offered to me, until the receipt of my Mother's Letter, and now I consider it still as a matter of great uncertainty. The question whether I ought to accept the place if it should be offered is not without difficulties in my Mind. A doubt of my competency for it, is very sincerely entertained, and ought perhaps to be decisive. At all Events, if I could be rationally justified in accepting it, if offered, I perceive no propriety in taking any step whatever to seek it. The person who is to nominate for the Office will be Mr. Monroe, and from him I have received no such intimation — Nor any from the present President, with an express authority to ask me for an answer — If Mr. Monroe's real intention be to propose to me the acceptance of the Office, I think it but consistent with what is due to my own character, as well as conformable to my own doubts whether I am fitted to discharge the heavy and laborious duties of the Office, to wait for a direct communication from him, signifying his intention, before I take any step, on the presumption that it will be carried into effect.
[January 1817]
28. VII:45. ≈ Mr. Chester's Note informed me that the Prince regent would open the Session of Parliament at 2 O'Clock ≈ Mr. Smith and myself were dressed to be present at the Ceremony. Mrs. Adams and John went with us, to stay in the Carriage and see the show — But the crowd of People and of Carriages was so excessive, and the passage was so much obstructed, that the Clock at the Horse Guards as we passed it was within three minutes of two, and it was near half an hour later before we reached the door of the Parliament-House — The Prince had nearly finished his Speech, and the doors of the House of Lords were closed so that it was impossible to obtain admission. My error had been in not ordering my Carriage at one, instead of half-past one — We turned round and moved slowly up Parliament Street, till the Prince passed by us on his return. As we turned round we saw Viscount Hampden, in his Robes as a Peer, in his Carriage next behind ours, and in like manner belated — The Prince passed us within ten minutes after we returned. A mixture of low but very audible hissing; of faint groaning, and still fainter attempts to raise a shout among the populace, contrasted with the heavy magnificence of the gilded, but tasteless and clumsy State Coach, the gorgeous splendor of the golden harnesses, and the sky-blue silk ribbons, with which the eight cream-coloured royal horses were bedizened. The populace manifested no symptoms of riot, but a troop of horsemen preceded the Carriage, with drawn swords pressing back the crowd, preventing their approach to the Carriage, and urged by leader constantly repeating in a tone of extreme earnestness "keep them back! keep them back!" There were among the crowd, great numbers of very wretched and ill looking persons — They talked with more or less freedom — We heard one man say "he is gone into a strong hysteric" — another said "throw mud at him" — He has been so long accustomed to this sort of treatment from the populace, that he may perhaps have grown callous to it; but I did not envy him his feelings. ≈
29. V:30. The humours of the populace yesterday were, it seems not confined to the hissing, groaning, mock-shouting and evil-speaking which we heard. The Prince Regent's Carriage entered St. James's Park at the Horse Guards. He returned to St. James's Palace, and on his way thither after passing by Carlton House, the window at the left hand was broken by bullets shot from an air gun, or stones thrown by the rabble. The Duke of Montrose, Master of the Horse, and Lord James Murray, a Lord of the Bedchamber were in the Carriage with the Prince. Lord James Murray was examined before both houses of Parliament, and declared that he had not the least doubt that the first fractures were made by two bullets, shot from above, it might be from a tree; but no report was heard, no bullets found, in the carriage; and the opposite window, though up, was not broken, and immediately after, a large stone was thrown, which shattered the glass to pieces — The two Houses voted a dutiful address to the Prince, expressing their horror at this outrage, and requesting him to take measures to discover the perpetrator. The debate in the House of Commons upon the Address in answer to the Speech, was interrupted by this episode, and adjourned to this day — We came through St. James's Park on our return home last Evening, about five. The crowd were then entirely dispersed.
[April 1817]
16. VI:30. Soon after rising this Morning, I received four Letters. One from James Monroe, President of the United States, dated the sixth of March, last; informing me that he had with the Sanction of the Senate committed to me the Department of State. He requests me in case of my acceptance of the Office to return to the United States with the least possible delay to assume its duties, and mentions that he sends a special messenger with the Letter, and copies, by various conveyances. That which I received is a quadruplicate, and came by a vessel from Boston to Liverpool. ≈
17. VIII. I answered the Letter from the President of the United States, and accepted the appointment of Secretary of State. Mr. Monroe's injunction to me to return home as soon as possible brings a pressure of business upon me to be done in a short time.
26. VII. Our Sons John and Charles by a special permission from Dr. Nicholas were allowed to come home this day. I took before dinner, for the last time a short walk round by Ealing Dene Common; and all the remainder of the day was so constantly occupied with packing up books and papers, that I had no time left for writing any thing. The accumulation of Books, pamphlets and Papers in the course of eight years that I have been in Europe, becomes on occasion of such a removal, inconvenient, and troublesome — Among the arts which are very useful to a person in a diplomatic career, is that of avoiding all superfluous incumbrance of baggage — I have had all my life a passion for collecting Books, of which I now feel the vanity. I have not sufficiently considered that a great library requires a great house for keeping it; which it has always been probable, and is now quite certain that I shall never possess. My library has scarcely ever been of much use to me; for I have no sooner made a valuable collection of Books than I have been separated from them — It is probable that this will be my last removal from Europe; at least it is my wish to pass the remainder of my days in my own Country; but I shall have at least one more great removal in prospect before the last. In the mean time I shall continue to be separated from almost all my books, and deprived of all time for seeking either instruction or entertainment from any books — We passed the Eve at Cards with the children.
28. V:45. _London_. We finally removed this day from Little Boston House, otherwise called Nightengale-Hall, at Little Ealing, where we have resided since the first of August 1815. We finished packing up our baggage and furniture, and I had a considerable part of the day for writing. ≈ It was 9 in the Evening when we arrived at the House in Craven-Street — I have seldom, perhaps never in the course of my life resided more comfortably than at the house which we now quit, and which I shall probably never see again.
29. VII:30. Visit this morning from Jeremy Bentham, on occasion of some correspondence he has had with Mr. Madison, the late President of the United States; to whom Bentham in the year 1811 made a proposal to prepare for the use of the United States, or of any one of them, a digest of the Common Law, to embrace in a very small compass the whole system of legislation. Mr. Madison answered the Letter last Summer, of course, though with very obliging expressions of acknowledgment and regret, declining the proposal. Last Evening I found on the table a note from Mr. Koe, to Smith, mentioning that Mr. Bentham would call here this Morning, and there were copies of Mr. Madison's Letter to him, and of a message from Governor Snyder to the Legislature of Pennsylvania, respecting Mr. Bentham's proposal. Mr. Bentham came this morning; but told me his only object now was to arrange a time for seeing me again: he engaged me to dine with him next Tuesday. He said he wished to have much conversation with me, and particularly concerning family Relations of my own. I did not understand what he meant by this. He left me the pamphlet containing his Letter of 1811 to President Madison; and promised me the second part of his Chrestomathia, which I have not been able to procure at the Bookseller's. Mr. Bentham is a man of 70 somewhat eccentric in his deportment, but of great ingenuity and benevolence. He told me that he was a radical reformist, and should in a few days publish a Book on the subject. Sir Francis Burdett's motion for reform he said would not be brought forward until some days after the publication of his Book, which was written for Sir Francis, and at his request. ≈ On my walk before dinner I procured at a shop in the Strand a couple of Box-Opera tickets. Mr. Grubb dined with us; after dinner I went with my wife to the Opera, where we saw Mozart's Il Don Giovanni, with the Ballet of L'Amour et La Folie. I had not been to the Italian Opera in London before since the year 1783 — nor then I think more than once. It was then a heavy, dull kind of entertainment, and has acquired additional perfection in those qualities since. The Theatre is enormous, with six rows of boxes and a Gallery proportionably large — The greater part of the boxes belong to individual proprietors — The tickets for all the boxes and for the Pit, are at half a guinea; but the owners of the boxes let them often for a Night, and there are shopkeepers in various parts of the town who act as brokers for the disposal of such tickets. They are usually to be had below the regular theatre price; but this Opera of Don Juan has been just brought out and is in its run, so that the tickets sold at their full price — Each box is fitted up to contain only six persons; and the partitions between them are made so as to prevent the people in any box from seeing their neighbours. They look like so many pigeon-holes — As this is an Entertainment which the people of Rank and Fashion affect to keep confined as much as possible exclusively to themselves, they have established it as a rule that every body must go dressed as for an Evening party; and gentlemen are not admitted in boots — But the Establishment has still more than the two National Theatres the marks of mingled extravagance and decay. The whole property has been lately sold twice over for insolvency by decrees of the Court of Chancery. The performers, both singers and dancers, are not of the highest order. Madame Fodor-Maïnvielle is the Prima Donna, and Crivelli, whom I had also seen at the Odeon is the best male singer here. Angrisani, who was scarcely suffered on that Theatre, now appears in considerable parts, and there is a Signora Hughes, absolutely not fit, either to be seen or heard — Don Juan is a sort of mongrel Tragi-Comedy, half seria, half buffa. The music partakes of this character — It is neither pathetic, nor gay, nor tender, with the exception of one song of Zerlina, which is a little of all this — There is, as in most of Mozart's Music something delicious to my ear, while I hear it; but nothing that strikes at the time, and vibrates upon the memory afterwards — With true genuine first rate Italian singers and performers there might be some comic humour in Leporello and Zerlina; but Naldi and Madame Fodor cannot move a risible muscle — Don Juan was tolerably performed by Ambrogetti; but the music of his part is little, and as a singer he is not equal to Crivelli — The Ballet was miserable. Mr. and Madame Batiste are the principal dancers. No Vestres — No Duport — No Madame Gardel — No Mlle. Bigottini — decayed french pirouette-makers, and clumsy English jumpers formed the composition — The dresses were all shabby, and the scenery barely tolerable — It was over about one in the Morning.
[May 1817]
3. VII. Our Sons John and Charles came home from the school at Ealing. A Mr. Kollock, a Clergyman of Savannah came for a Passport. He told me he had been introduced to me, by Dr. Waterhouse, while I resided at his house in Cambridge, in the year 1806. I was engaged great part of the Morning in settling accounts: and with visitors. L. Harris was here and proposes to go for Liverpool next Tuesday. Mr. John Winthrop, returned from his tour to Scotland, came to state his views and wishes with regard to an appointment as Consul. My morning walk was late and short. In Hyde Park I met Count Fernan Nuñez, who stop'd his Curricle and spoke to me. He told me he had had his audience to take leave of the Prince Regent yesterday, and was no longer Ambassador here. He should proceed for Paris to-morrow morning. He assured me that I should be très content, with Onis, and that our affairs with Spain should be settled entirely to our satisfaction. That we should have what we wanted, and secured to us in the most effectual manner. Seulement — de l'autre coté — les voisins — He himself had lately received instructions upon the subject, and was glad to let me know it before my return to America. Spain was resolved to give us full and entire satisfaction — It might not suit at all the views of some others — but I might depend upon it, Spain was firmly resolved to settle all affairs amicably with us — There was much nodding of the head, much significance of look, and much show of mysterious meaning in all this, but nothing specific or precise. What he meant me to understand him as saying was that Spain would cede to us the Florida's, although England was taking all possible pains to prevent it; but that we must satisfy Spain about the South-American Insurgents. Neither the time nor place would admit of my asking further explanations, and it was evident he meant to raise expectations in me, without saying any thing explicit. I answered him in general terms, with strong assurances of our earnest desire to settle every thing amicably with Spain; with my thanks for his communication; the great pleasure which I took in learning from him that the policy of Spain towards the United States was thus decidedly pacific and friendly, and my best wishes that he might have a prosperous negotiation at Paris.
14. VI:45. The time appointed for my attendance at Carlton House was half-past two O'Clock; at which time I was there. I found there Mr. Chester the assistant Master of the Ceremonies, and the Swedish Minister Baron Rehausen. Half an hour later Lord Castlereagh came, and we waited then an hour longer before it was announced to us that the Prince Regent was ready. Lord Castlereagh first went in with Baron Rehausen who took leave, upon a permission of absence. He is going to Sweden upon that profession, but does not expect to come back again — While he was with the Prince, Chester remarked with a smile that it was a singular kind of life that the Regent led — That we had waited so long, because he had not risen when we came, and that he was scarcely ever out of his bed till three in the afternoon. Chester also enquired of me in what manner I should chuse to receive the usual present given to foreign Ministers on the termination of their Missions; which he said was for Ambassadors one thousand Pounds, and for Ministers of the second order, five hundred. I told him that by the Constitution of the United States no person in their service was permitted to accept a present from any foreign Sovereign; and I must therefore decline any one that might be offered me here. He said that having had some idea of the existence of such a regulation in America he had made enquiries at the Office how the fact had been in the cases of former American Ministers, and had found the present had been in some instances accepted, and in others declined. I told him I supposed the cases of acceptance were prior to the Constitutional prohibition; that I must for my part decline it, and would explain to Lord Castlereagh my motives for so doing. He acquiesced in this with apparent cheerfulness though probably not without reluctance — The prohibition of the Constitution of the United States in this case has my hearty approbation, and I wish it may be inflexibly adhered to hereafter. The usage itself as practised by all the European Governments is in my judgment absurd, indelicate, with at least very strong tendencies to corruption — On the part of the United States there is a peculiar reason for prohibiting their Servants from taking such gifts, because as they never make presents to the Ministers of foreign powers, who have been accredited to them there is not even the plea of reciprocity to allege for allowing it — For American Ministers to be receiving gifts from foreign Princes, whose diplomatic agents in America, never receive any thing in return, would exhibit them rather as beggars receiving alms, from opulent Princes than as the Independent Representatives of a high minded and virtuous Republic. The Governments of Europe are themselves becoming ashamed of this despicable custom. Count Romanzoff since his Resignation as Chancellor of the Russian Empire, has made up a fund from the value of all the presents of this kind that he had ever received, and made an appropriation of the whole, together with an additional sum from his own property to the publick service of the state; in aid of the pensions granted to invalid and wounded soldiers. I have a strong impression that the peculiar propriety of this patriotic sacrifice was suggested to him by the example of the principle established by this regulation in the Constitution of the United States. Lord Castlereagh in the course of his Negotiations at the Vienna Congress, and at Paris, received twenty-four snuff-boxes, each worth one thousand Pounds Sterling, besides other articles equally costly; but even there, they at least found it necessary to put a check upon this market of snuff-boxes, and dispensed with the presents in concluding some of the Treaties. The practice here is to give money, which has not even the palliation of sentimentality to plead in its favour; but as by the standing usage, ten per Cent from the Minister's present, is deducted, as a douceur to the Master of the Ceremonies. Mr. Chester was probably not so fully convinced of the propriety of the American principle as I was. — Immediately after Rehausen came out from the Prince's Cabinet, I went in accompanied by Lord Castlereagh, and delivered the Letter of Recall. At the same time I told him I was especially instructed by the President of the United States to assure His Royal Highness of the earnestness of his desire that the relations between the two Countries, and the intercourse between the Governments should continue upon the most friendly terms. I was further ordered to say that an uncertainty in the President's mind whether I should immediately return to the United States was the only cause which had deferred the appointment of a Minister to succeed me at this Court; and that such an appointment would be made with as little delay as possible. The Prince returned the assurances of his disposition to continue and promote the harmony between the two Nations, which he said was required by the true interests of both. There was no formality in the discourse on either side; and the generalities of friendly assurances were much alike, and estimated at their real value, on both sides — The Prince immediately passed to Conversation upon other topics, and enquired who were the persons that would compose Mr. Monroe's Cabinet. I mentioned the names of the Secretaries of the Treasury, of War, and of the Navy. He did not know either of them; but spoke in handsome terms as he had done at my first presentation to him, of Mr. Thomas Pinkney and of Mr. King. He said Mrs. Patterson had told him that Mr. Pinkney was now a General in the Army. He asked also various questions respecting the organization of the American Government, and made his remarks upon it, which were neither profound, ingenious, nor complacent — The character of this person is a composition of obtundity and of frivolity. He is a Falstaff without the wit, and a Prince Henry without the compunctions. His only talent is that of mimicry, which he exercises without regard to dignity or decorum, to the fitness of his own character or to the feelings of others. His supreme delight is to expose persons dependent upon him to ridicule, and to enjoy their Mortification. He seemed not to comprehend how it was possible to manage a Government where the members of the executive Government could not sit as members of the Legislature: and he thought the mode of communication between the Legislative and executive departments by the means of Committees was a sucking of brains on both sides which must encumber all public business, and increase all its difficulties. He spoke however in perfect good humour, and dismissed me as graciously as he had received me.
22. VIII. I took a walk this morning with J. Bentham through Hyde Park and Kensington Garden in the course of which I had much conversation with him, upon his political opinions, and views, and upon the situation and Prospects of this Country. I mentioned to him the notice taken in the House of Commons of his Catechism of Reform, the Evening before last — The quotations and Comments of Mr. Ward, and the remark upon it of Sir Samuel Romilly — Bentham writes in a very peculiar style, and uses a multitude of words of his own coining — Ward said it was a sort of Lingua Franca; no language of itself, but a compound from various tongues, in which however an approximation of meaning was to be obtained — Bentham said that was a fair joke; with which he was very well pleased; but he always took the privilege of coining words when they were necessary to express his ideas. He was much obliged to Mr. Ward, both for the respectful manner in which he had spoken of his personal character, which from him he had no right to have expected, and for the quotations which he had read from his book; because that would bring it more immediately into public notice — It was singular that the reference to the Book, should have been made from that quarter, which was totally unexpected to him; while it had not been even mentioned by Sir Francis Burdett, from whom he had expected that something of it would have been said — But Sir Francis himself was not an efficient reformer. He was rich; his education had been bad. He was above all indolent — There was no steady reliance to be placed upon him. As to Sir Samuel Romilly, who was his intimate friend, he, Bentham, knew that he would not be pleased with the book. Romilly was a whig; and the whigs as a party were just as corrupt, and just as averse to reform as their adversaries. I told him with how much keenness and severity they had been characterized by Mr. Ward; and he said they deserved it all. I then remarked to him upon the force with which Mr. Ward argued that the real object of the radical reformers was Revolution; and intimated to him my impressions that it was so. And recurring particularly to the passage of the Book, where the Reformers are exhorted to be satisfied with nothing short of democratic ascendency, I asked him how he could reconcile that even with the sound theory of the British Constitution, which I conceived to be a balance between the Monarchical, Aristocratical and democratical branches forbidding the ascendancy of either of them. I was aware that he had ridiculed the idea of the balance, by referring his reader for it to mother goose or Mother Blackstone; still it was the theory of the English Constitution; and how could the ascendancy of the popular part of it be established without subverting the whole? He said the ascendancy of one part did not necessarily imply the destruction of the others. That in regard to religious affairs Protestant ascendancy was established by Law. Yet the Roman Catholic Religion was tolerated. As to ascendancy of one branch of the government over the others that existed in the present state of things; or rather the combination of the crown and the aristocracy overpowered the democracy to such a degree that the popular check upon them was a mere name — The Liberties of the Country were utterly gone — Gone forever, unless the ascendancy of the democracy could be substituted for that which now predominated — I told him I thought this neither demonstrated, nor necessary to the cause of reform — That the only principle upon which reform could be pursued distinctly from Revolution, appeared to me, to be that of restoring democracy to its equal share of power — of removing the existing ascendancy, but without substituting the other in its stead. I asked him whether he thought it possible for the monarchy & aristocracy to subsist at-all, with his democratic ascendancy? He said he had provided for them in his book. The principle of the uti possidatis was a common basis for negotiation in international Law; he was willing to assume it as a principle of municipal Government. He would touch none of the privileges of the Peerage, and none of the prerogatives of the Crown, excepting that of creating new Peers at its pleasure. He would leave every one in possession of his own. I said that was very well, so far as his opinion, and conduct were concerned — But whatever might be the advantages of Reform, it must on the most favourable of all possible contingencies, be introduced by intrenching upon the principle of uti possidatis. It must take franchises or property from somebody. The disfranchisement of Old Sarum itself could not be effected, without violating the principle of uti possidatis — He to be sure would stop at the point where democratic ascendancy should be established; and then would let in the principle of uti possidatis to guard the remnant of power left to the Crown & the Peers — but let him suppose a Parliament assembled, with a reformed house of Commons possessing the ascendancy which his Book recommends — Did he think that house of Commons would feel themselves restrained from encroachments upon their co-ordinate but not co-equal authorities by his international principle of the uti possidatis? He did not maintain that they would — And what if they should put down the Crown and the Peerage said he? Is your Government in America the worse, for having neither king nor Lords? Or are you exclusively entitled to the enjoyment of good Government, and must you begrudge it to others? I said he was joking to escape from the consequences of his own argument. The question was not between the comparative merits of the British and American Governments but whether a radical reform in England does or does not involve an inevitable Revolution. I considered him now as having conceded that reform with his democratic ascendancy would lead to the abolition of the Crown and the Peerage. But these Institutions were too powerful and too deeply rooted to perish without a struggle; and what would be the consequences of that? He said probably a civil war; upon the whole it was likely that no great and real reform could be effected in England without a civil war. Corruption had so pervaded the whole Mass of the Government, and had so vitiated the character of the people, that he was afraid they could be purified only by fire. But any thing was better than the present state of things and that in which it must terminate, unless a vigorous effort on the part of the People should rescue them from that absolute despotism under which they are sinking — From this conversation the inference is tolerably clear that Mr. Ward has not mistaken the views of the radical reformers.
[June 1817]
6. VII:30. ≈ Mr. Wilberforce had called at Craven Street the day before yesterday while I was out, and left a Note requesting to see me. I answered him yesterday Morning that I would call at two this day at his lodgings, 8 Downing Street — I went at the time, but he had missed of receiving my Note and was not at home — Lord Castlereagh had also by a Note requested me instead of calling at his house, yesterday morning as we had agreed, to come this afternoon at four O'Clock to the foreign Office — But when I went at the time he was not there. I went twice to the House of Commons to see if I could find either of them there. Lord Castlereagh came at last, and with an apology for missing his appointment asked me to call at his house to-morrow Morning — Mr. Goulburn and Mr. Sharp came under the Gallery and took leave of me. Sir John Cox Hippisley whom I met in the lobby did the same, & charged me with a message of his kind remembrance to his old friend H. Cruger at New-York. I finally found Mr. Wilberforce at his lodgings, with his friend Mr. Babbington, also a member of the House of Commons. The suppression of the Slave trade was the subject of Mr. Wilberforce's wish to see me, and we had an hours Conversation relating to it — His object is to obtain the consent of the United States and of all other maritime Powers, that ships under their flags may be searched and captured by the British Cruizers against the Slave Trade: a concession which I thought would be liable to objections — Mr. West and Zerah Colburn with his father spent the Evening with us. Received a Letter from John, on board the ship, and many others; among which one from Mr. and Mrs. W. Wellesley-Pole, inviting my wife and me to pass the Evening there to-morrow.
7. VII. Mr. Bentham came to ask if I could walk with him this Morning, but I was obliged to call upon Lord Castlereagh, with whom I had a last interview, which was short. I left with him a minute of the Notes which I have addressed to him, and to which answers are yet desirable. We had some further Conversation upon the state of Relations between the United States and Spain; and examined the ground upon a Map. He asked whether if the Floridas were ceded to the United States, what objection they would have to the Mississippi for a boundary. I shewed him the whole range of Territory marked upon his own Map, "Louisiana" — and said that would be the objection — But that if Spain would but for one moment be rational with us we could easily come to an accommodation with her. He said smiling that he must admit Spain was not the easiest of parties to concede; and he might say the same of the United States — I answered in the same tone, that there could be no better judge of stubbornness and compliance than a party so very easy and accommodating as Great Britain.
10. VI. Tuesday. London, Farewell! ≈ At a quarter before one we took leave of J. A. Smith, of Mrs. Wood our Landlady, of Mary Pain our Housekeeper and Cook, Mary Beach housemaid, Benjamin Jobbarn Coachman, Robert Martin, Footman, the Servants whom we had kept till this day and left London, in a Post Chaise and pair of horses with my wife and Lucy Houel her chambermaid — For my own part I bade adieu to London in all probability forever.
# CHAPTER VII 1817–1821
## Secretary of State
[July 1817]
31. IV:30. It was the most tempestuous Night we have had upon the passage; of which I had some expectation from the dark clouds flashing with lightening to the leeward of the ship, the brightness of the Stars above the horizon, and the shooting of several of those atmospheric meteors commonly called falling Stars. Great part of the Night the ship was scudding under close reefed top-sails with the wind baffling between S.W. and W — By the tossing and pitching of the vessel, my bed was sliding under me, so that I scarcely slept an hour the whole Night. When I rose I found the weather had moderated. The air was at 64, but feeling rather cool. Water at 70, importing that we are yet within the verge of the gulph-stream — A brig Eastward bound passed within sight of us before Noon. Our latitude was 41:36, Reckoning Longitude 69:40, but really about 64. The day was moderate and cool, but a heavy swell all the Morning, and the weariness which always succeeds a sleepless night prevented me from writing more than the journal of yesterday. I passed the afternoon from dinner till dusk as usual at Chess with Mr. Otis, and had various success. Read the Preliminaries of the Treatise De Augmentis Scientiarum — As the tediousness of our voyage increases with its length the recourse of the other passengers to card playing becomes more frequent. Yesterday they had loo all the afternoon; and this day, they had it morning afternoon and evening — I find my passion for these encroaching upon me in the same manner. Towards Evening the wind, came round, a very light breeze at N.E. and our Steering Sails were set. It soon became too cool for the deck, and I turned in, shortly after nine
[August 1817]
6. IV. New-York — I rose immediately after day-light this Morning. The ship was within three miles of the highlands of Neversink, and the new Sandy Hook Light-house in full sight, as well as the two old ones; all the lights were still burning. The morning was fine, and almost all the passengers soon came upon deck. The Sun rose clear, and Venus was visible more than a quarter of an hour after he had risen — Air and Water both at 67. There were a number of vessels in sight and among the rest a Pilot-Boat Schooner from which a Pilot, named Bird, came on board at six. we had a fair and light breeze, which took us up to the wharf at New-York, where we landed at one in the afternoon, immediately from the Ship. Several persons from the Custom-House came on board just before we reached the City, but they had been preceded by persons from the Newspaper Printing-Offices, who came for news. I gave Lang the Copy of the British Treasury Order which I had received from the Collector at Cowes. The approach to New-York, was slow, and the termination of the Voyage as agreeable as could be wished — The Sentiments with which after an absence of eight full and eventful years I touched once more, my native Land were of a mingled nature — Of the deepest gratitude to the Supreme disposer, for all the enjoyments and preservations of that long period, and particularly for the safe and happy close of the voyage just completed; together with an anxious forecast of the cares and perils of the new Scene upon which I am about to enter. The latter of these feelings was greater and more oppressive than it had ever been on returning to my Country heretofore. So keen indeed was the emotion of contemplating the probabilities of the future time that nothing but a firm reliance upon him who has ever been my preserver and the dispenser of every blessing, supported me from despondency.
15. IV. By some negligence of mine, which I should think inexcusable in another, I mistook the hour of the morning as indicated by my watch, and after rising thus early, instead of rousing the rest of the family, and packing up with all possible expedition, I sat down to write at this Journal, and continued thus employed till the boys came knocking at the door and announcing that it was close upon seven O'Clock. We then made what despatch we could, but the Clock struck seven before we left Mrs. Bradish's house, and just as we came to Fulton Street Captain Forman met us and informed us that the Steam-Boat had been about five minutes gone — For the next opportunity by the Steam Boat we must have waited until Monday. I therefore went immediately to Crane-wharf and found the Packet Fame, Captain Gardiner, bound to Newport and Providence, and prepared to sail at five O'Clock this afternoon — I engaged our passage on board this vessel.
18. V. Quincy. I had engaged the Stage to come directly to this place, without going into Boston. We left Walpole at seven O'Clock, and after stopping at Dedham to change horses, arrived here between ten and eleven, and had the inexpressible happiness of finding my dear and venerable father and mother in perfect health. Louisa Smith is with them, and her Sister Mrs. James T. Foster, with her son are here upon a visit. Within half an hour after our arrival my uncle Peter B. Adams my father's brother came in to see me — My Son John immediately went to my brother's house and he came with his wife to dinner. The heat of the day was as great as at any time since we landed at New-York — My brother's Children all came after dinner. They are five — Elizabeth, Abigail, Thomas B., Isaac Hall, and John Quincy — Mr. T. Greenleaf jun'r called to see us — In the Evening Mr. Barney Smith came with his Son in Law, our late fellow passenger Mr. G. A. Otis. Mr. Marston likewise an inhabitant of Quincy paid us an Evening visit — Charles's birthday. 10 years old — George 5 f. 7½ i. John 4 f. 9½ i. Charles 4 f. 4 i.
[September 1817]
20. V. Washington — We departed from the Indian Queen Tavern at Baltimore, at six O'Clock this Morning; in the Stage; with three fellow travellers unknown to us. Breakfasted at M'Coy's formerly Spurrier's, twelve Miles from Baltimore, and arrived at Mr. Frye's house in Washington-City at four in the afternoon — Mr. Frye has lately married my wife's Sister, the widow Buchanan, and they invited us to stay at their house, until we can go into that which has been taken for us by G. Boyd — After dinner we went first to W. S. Smith's. He lost yesterday his second child, a daughter 19 months old. They had already lost the first, which was born at St. Petersburg. We had found Mr. Frye just returned from the funeral of this second child. I then went to Mr. Rush's lodgings at O'Neal's tavern; but he was not there. then to Mr. Boyd's house, but he was gone to meet his wife at Smith's. I returned there, and found with Mr. and Mrs. Boyd Mrs. Hellen, once Adelaide Johnson, my wife's youngest Sister, and now the widow of my old friend Hellen, whom in March 1809 I had left here the husband of her eldest Sister — Mrs. Smith, distressed by the loss of her child was confined to her chamber and I did not see her. I returned with my wife and Mrs. Greentree to Mr. Frye's. Mr. Rush had already been there to find me. He soon after came and requested me to go with him to the President's, which I did — The President, James Monroe, returned last Wednesday from a tour of nearly four Months to the Eastern and Western parts of the United States. He is in the President's House, which is so far restored from the effects of the British visit in 1814, that it is now for the first time again inhabitable. But he is apprehensive of the effects of the fresh painting and plaistering, and very desirous of visiting his family at his Seat in Virginia. He is therefore going again to leave the City in two or three days, but said his absence would be only for a short time. He told me that Mr. Rush was to be my Successor at the Court of Great-Britain, and directed me to make out Instructions for him — He also entered largely upon the motives of the Mission which he had contemplated sending to South-America, which has however failed for the present; and upon which he said he should converse further with me, before his departure. After some general conversation upon the state of the public Relations with Great-Britain, Spain and France; I left him and returned to Mr. Frye's. Mr. Rush gave me some account of the present situation of the Department of State; a subject to be hereafter resumed.
21. V:30. Sunday.
Oh! God, my only trust wast thou,
Through all life's Scenes, before!
Lo! at thy Throne again I bow,
New Mercies to implore.
Thy aid, Oh! Father, wilt thou lend?
My thoughts wilt thou inspire?
My heart, to do thy pleasure bend?
My breast to virtue, fire?
Thy gracious wisdom to fulfil
My constant aim incline;
Grant, for my feeble, faltering will,
Th' unerring strength of thine!
Grant active powers, grant fervid zeal;
And guide by thy controul;
And ever be my Country's weal
The purpose of my Soul.
Thine be the purpose; thine the deed,
Which thou alone canst bless.
From thee all perfect gifts proceed;
Oh! crown them with success!
Extend, all-seeing God, thy hand;
In mercy, still decree;
And make, to bless my native Land,
An instrument of me!
These lines, dictated by the new situation upon which I am about to enter, served me for the devotions of the day. At the Church where Mr. Frye usually attends there was this day no public service, and I accidentally missed attending at any other. W. S. Smith and D. P. Cooke were here in the course of the morning. The heat of the Sun was so intense that it confined me all day to the house. I employed it in writing. After bringing up this journal to this day, I also brought up to the present time my account of family expenditures, and wrote a Letter to my Mother. After Sunset I walked out, and meeting Mr. Frye walked with him to Mr. Boyd's. Saw there his four Sons, John, Thomas, Joshua, and George — Boyd & his wife were in the meantime gone to Frye's, where we found them and Mrs. Hellen upon our return. From the information given me by Boyd, the path before me is beset with thorns, and it becomes more doubtful than ever whether I shall be able to continue long in it — At two distinct periods of my life heretofore my position has been perilous, and full of anxious forecasts but never so critical and precarious as at this time.
22. VI. Mr. Rush called upon me this Morning immediately after breakfast, and accompanied me to the Office of the Department of State, where the official Oath, faithfully to execute the trust committed to me, prescribed by the act of Congress, establishing the Department of foreign Affairs, and the Oath to support the Constitution of the U. States, were administered to me by Robert Brent a Justice of the Peace for the District of Columbia. ≈ I received from Mr. Rush and Mr. Brent some information with regard to the transaction of business at the Office — Brent says it is much in arrear, but without any accumulation of it since Mr. Rush has been at the head of the Department. The Office hours are from nine in the morning to three in the afternoon. Mr. Rush mentioned to me several affairs upon which the President, who left Town this morning for Virginia, desired me to proceed immediately to business.
[October 1817]
7. IV. Finished the first draft of Instructions for Rush. Letter to the President. Mr. A. R. Levering of Baltimore came to the Office, to solicit the appointment of Marshal for the district of Maryland, vacant by the death of Mr. Rutter the day before yesterday. There was a Letter from Commodore Barney, yesterday received, also asking for the Office. Excepting the visit of Mr. Levering I had the morning at the Office uninterrupted. I read the Letters from Mr. Silsbee of Salem, Mr. William Irving of New-York, and Gen'l Smith of Baltimore in answer to questions addressed to them by Mr. Rush for their opinions on the four proposed commercial Articles of Lord Castlereagh. And I likewise read Mr. Jefferson's Report upon Weights and Measures made to the House of Representatives in January 1791 — This is a subject which weighs much upon my mind.
10. III. Began this morning the first draft of a Report upon weights and measures. Called at the Bank, and took an order on the U. S. Branch Bank at New-York in favour of H. Hughes to pay for the freight of my furniture from New-York to this place. Tyler the Calligrapher called at the Office and we compared his copy of the Declaration of Independence with the fac-similes of the signatures, with the original. I found the copy very good, but the signatures not so exactly imitated, as Mr. Rush's certificate upon Tyler's copy attests. Mr. Bailey also a candidate for the Marshal's Office in Maryland was at the Office. Pleasonton brought me a Statement of my vouched and unvouched charges in my Accounts. I was much busied with enquiries about weights and measures. Walked after dinner with Frye in Georgetown. W. S. Smith and his wife spent the Evening here. I read De Pradt's pamphlet on the first restoration of the Bourbons, which my father has sent me to be returned to Mr. Jefferson.
11. III:15. The weights and measures absorb most of my time. Elias B. Caldwell paid me a visit at the Office, and had some Conversation with me concerning the Society formed for sending a Colony of free Blacks and people of Colour. It was a Mr. Mills who gave me the pamphlet upon the subject in the Steam-Boat between New-Haven and New-York. The intentions of the Society are benevolent, but I believe their project to be impracticable and dangerous. I received a Letter from the President, informing me that he has determined to return here as soon as his Carriage, which he has sent for to this place, arrives. I have found it necessary to keep a minute from day to day of all the Letters received. Mr. Brent says it was the constant practice of Mr. Jefferson when he was in the department. This day there were fourteen received, with sundry Packets.
[November 1817]
20. VI:30. The thermometer was this Morning at 34 and this Evening at 26. The day, clear Sunshine and warm. At the President's I met Mr. Meigs of the Land-Office with a map of the Army lands in the Illinois Territory. I received yesterday a letter from the Chevalier Correa de Serra the Portuguese Minister asking in what manner he could pay his personal Respects to the President, and communicating the change of title of the Prince of Brazil. The President who has determined to have in future no familiar intercourse with the foreign Ministers, directed me to answer him that if he wished to communicate in person the change of title, of the Prince of Brazil, the President would fix a time for admitting him to a private Audience for that purpose; and simply adding an assurance of the President's sensibility to his mark of personal respect. Mr. Wirt the Attorney General called at the Office, and had some Conversation with me on the cases referred to him for his opinion. He asked for copies of the Papers; intending to keep an Official Record of all the Opinions that he shall give; which has not hitherto been the practice in the Attorney General's Office — My time this Evening, was in some measure idled away.
21. VI:15. On calling at the President's this morning with the draft that I had made of an answer to Mr. Correa, according to his directions yesterday, I found it did not exactly suit his ideas, and I was obliged to make an alteration of the draft. The President went again into the subject of the intercourse between him and the foreign Ministers, which he wishes to restore to the state in which it was under the Administrations of President Washington and my father, and which has been departed from in those of Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Madison; but in this retrograde movement he is anxious to avoid every thing that may run counter to the popular feeling, and every thing that may displease the foreign Ministers themselves. The case of Mr. Correa is peculiarly embarrassing because his intimacy with Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Madison was great, and had existed before his appointment as Portuguese Minister. He has also been in considerable intimacy with Mr. Monroe, who however now as President cannot discriminate between him and other foreign Ministers.
[December 1817]
6. VI:30. As I was going out this Morning, Mr. Holmes and Mr. Tallmadge, members of the House of Representatives called at my house, and kept me nearly an hour in Conversation — I called at Mr. Anderson the Comptroller's Office, and found Pleasonton with him. ≈ I called next at Mr. Nourse the Register's Office and conversed with him on the Affairs of the Indians — Thence I went to the President's — Mr. Calhoun was there, and the President introduced him to me — Mr. Crawford came in. There was conversation upon various subjects. Mr. Clay has already mounted his South-American great Horse. Mr. Robertson of Louisiana follows him non-passibus aequis — Clay's project is that in which John Randolph failed. To controul or overthrow the Executive, by swaying the House of Representatives. He intends to bring forward his motion to acknowledge the Government of Buenos-Ayres, and perhaps Chili, and Mr. Crawford came with proposals from him to the Executive, professing a wish to harmonize with the Executive as to the manner of bringing it forward — Mr. Calhoun pronounced himself most decisively against the measure; I had done the same before; and the President now, after some little hesitation did the same — I have no time to give the details — It was near three when I reached the Office — Furstenwerder, the Indians, Herrick and Hunt, of Ohio, and Blount of Tennessee occupied me, so that I had not a moment to read the Letters that came by the Mail — Dined with my wife at Commodore Decatur's.
24. VII. At the President's this morning I met Mr. Crowninshield, who shewed me a plan very well drawn of the harbour of Boston — The President gave me for perusal, a statement from the Department of War, of a question between that Department and General Andrew Jackson — A Letter from the President to Jackson, of 5 October, and Jackson's answer of the 22d. The Department issued an order to a subordinate Engineer Officer within Jackson's Division, directly to the officer and not through Jackson as the Commander in Chief in the District. Jackson afterwards issued a general order throughout his district, forbidding his Officers to obey any order from the Department of War, not sent through him — The President's Letter is very kind and conciliatory, but urges Jackson that he was wrong. The answer is moderate in language and acknowledges the conciliatory character of the President's Letter, but adheres to the principle of Jackson's order, and proposes a compromise of withdrawing his Order on condition that the Order from the Department of War, which occasioned his should be withdrawn first — Mr. Aguirre came to me, at the Office at two; and I had with him a Conference of nearly two hours — He gave me a copy of the Declaration of Independence of Buenos Ayres, of 9 July 1816, and read to me in English a Paper, urging the acknowledgment of that Government by the United States — I asked him if it was in consequence of any new Instructions; he said no; but in consequence of what had passed in Congress on the subject — His instructions were to urge the recognition of Buenos Ayres, (and he had no Commission as public agent from any other Government) as circumstances might occur to favour the demand; but he was expressly instructed not to urge it, at the hazard of embroiling the United States with any of the Powers of Europe — He told me there were three public Agents of Buenos Ayres in Europe — One at London, one at Vienna, and the third had been under the guarantee of the British Minister at Madrid; but he believed was now gone to Paris — The proposals that he had made to Spain were that the King of Spain's brother the Infant Don Carlos should be the Sovereign of Spanish South-America; but upon two Conditions: one, the absolute Independence of South-America, and the other that Don Carlos should go over alone, without any troops. Spain rejected these proposals, and would hear of nothing but unconditional submission — upon which the Declaration of Independence was made — I told him that all due weight and consideration should be given to his suggestions — I dined with my wife at Mr. Crawfords. Mr. Gaillard, Mr. and Mrs. Clay, Mr. and Mrs. Calhoun, Mr. Macon, Mr. Troup, Mr. Roberts and a Miss Vail were the company — Clay came out with great violence against the course pursued by the Executive upon South American Affairs, and especially in relation to Amelia Island. Clay is as rancorously benevolent as John Randolph — He has taken his stand of Opposition from the first day of the Session and his object is evidently to make grounds for it. There has been a strong expectation that he would hold this course, and he has not held the public or the Government in suspense concerning his intentions.
25. VII. Christmas day. My wife went with Mr. D. Brent to the Catholic Church; and I went to the Hall of the House of Representatives, and heard a woman of the Society of Friends, Elizabeth H. Walker, pray, and discourse about three hours. The house was well filled — I had a morning visit from Mr. Sanford a Senator from the State of New-York — Mr. and Mrs. Frye; his brother Frederick, and her Son, Robert Buchanan dined with us. After dinner we had a game of Loto. In the Evening, I was suddenly and severely seized with the rhumatism in my shoulder and left side. I went to bed in sharp pain, and threatened with a rhumatic fever.
26. VII. After a restless and painful night I rose this morning with a slight remnant of rhumatism in my shoulder, and with a severe Cold in the head. Received a Note from the President, asking me to call at his house at twelve O'Clock, to meet the other Heads of Departments, and consult upon the War, with a Southern tribe of Indians; the Seminoles. As I had other papers to lay before the President, I went to him at eleven, and reported to him the substance of the Conversation that I had with Mr. Aguirre the day before yesterday. He told me that it was the practice of the Government to communicate in Confidence to all the heads of Departments, every important circumstance occurring in our foreign concerns, and also to the Chairman of the Committee of Foreign Relations; and he desired me to send to Mr. Forsyth, and request him to call at my Office, and communicate with him very freely upon the posture of our foreign affairs — This had heretofore been the practice and had been found very useful to the Government. Mr. Forsyth was friendly to the Administration; and any confidence might with perfect safety [be] reposed in him — At twelve O'Clock, Mess'rs Crawford, Calhoun and Crowninshield came in, and there was a deliberation upon the measures to be pursued, with the Seminole Indians, who have commenced actual hostilities; and cut off a detachment of fifty men going with a boat and provisions for a part of the troops under General Gaines — It was determined to send an order to Gaines to assemble all the disposable regular force within his reach, with the Addition of Militia from the State of Georgia, and to reduce them by force, pursuing them into East Florida, if they should retreat for refuge there, and that an order should be sent to General Jackson to repair immediately to the seat of the War and take the command. The question recurred whether if possession has been taken of Amelia Island; after dispersing the unauthorised freebooters, and privateersmen who have taken it, our troops should retain possession of it, or abandon it to be occupied again by the Spanish Authorities from Florida. Mr. Crawford was for giving it up; and the President evidently inclines also to that course — It was however determined to postpone that question.
30. VI:30. Rain. I rode to the President's where I found Mr. Crawford and Mr. Calhoun. They had agreed and the President determined to receive the foreign Ministers at half-past eleven, on New-Year's day; half an hour before the general company, and I sent Notifications to the foreign Ministers to that effect — Also to Mr. Ten Cate the Chargé d'Affaires of the Netherlands that I would then introduce him as Chargé d'Affaires of the Netherlands, and to Mr. Greuhm the Prussian Minister, that he might then introduce Mr. Sasse, his Secretary of Legation. At the Office, there came a Mr. W. W. Morris of New-York, a son of Lewis Morris, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and himself an Officer of our Army, in the War of Independence; he came to solicit office and brought Letters from the Governor of New-York, and Judge B. Livingston to the President. He also brought me a letter from H. J. Knox, renewing a solicitation for money — There was also a Mr. Sidney Burrough, a solicitor for the appointment as agent at Cape Henry-Hayti — Mr. Middleton, Chairman of the Amelia Island Committee was also with me, and I gave him all the additional information that I possessed concerning it — I shewed him the _secret_ Laws, those singular anomalies of our system, which have grown out of that error in our Constitution, which confers upon the Legislative Assemblies the power of declaring War; which in the theory of Government, according to Montesquieu and Rousseau, is strictly an Executive Act. But as we have made it Legislative, whenever secrecy is necessary for an operation of the Executive involving the Question of Peace and War, Congress must pass a secret Law to give the President the power — Now secrecy is contrary to one of the first principles of Legislation; but this absurdity flows unavoidably from that of having given to Congress instead of the Executive the power of declaring War. Of these secret Laws there are four, and one Resolution; and one of the Laws that of 25 June 1812 is so secret that this day it could not be found among the Rolls at the Department. Another consequence has also followed from this clumsy political machinery — The injunction of secrecy was removed on the 6th of July 1812 from the Laws previously passed, by a vote of the House of Representatives, and yet the Laws have never been published. — Mr. Middleton said he would see me again, before he should make his Report to the House. I was engaged all the Evening in writing an answer to C. Collins — The thermometer Fahrenheit's was at 5 below 0 at Salem, and 5 above 0 at Baltimore.
31. VI:30. ≈ Madame Plantou came with a Print of her allegorical picture of the Peace of Ghent; for which she laid me under a contribution. It is a bombastic and foolish thing, but Madame Plantou gives herself out for a native of Philadelphia, and is a Painter. This is one of her works — There is an America in a triumphal Car, and a Britannia, upon her knees, submitting to terms of Peace dictated by Minerva and Hercules — Oh! the voracious maw, and the bloated visage of National vanity — If it were true that we had vanquished or humbled Britannia it would be base to exult over her, but when it is so notorious that the issue of our late War with her was at best a drawn game, there is nothing but the most egregious National vanity that can turn it to a triumph.
[January 1818]
5. VII. My wife who for some days has been troubled with a bad cold and cough, was bled this morning by Dr. Hunt. Cardelli was here, and told me of the arrival of Mr. C. Bulfinch, the Architect of the Capitol. At eleven O'Clock, I called at the President's, where I found Mr. Crowninshield, and nine or ten of the Members of the House of Representatives from the Districts of Massachusetts interested in the fisheries, consulting upon the subject of the proposal to be made to the British Government. After examining the map, and some Conversation several of the Members asked for time to write to their districts for information, and I undertook to reconcile Mr. Bagot to wait until the February Packet for the proposal. Crowninshield had received despatches with information of the surrender to us of Amelia-Island, on the 23d of last Month. Mr. Calhoun afterwards came in with the same despatches, and the President appointed a Cabinet Meeting for eleven O'Clock to-morrow Morning, to determine what should be done with Amelia-Island. At the Office I had visits from Mr. Gaillard, the President pro Tempore of the Senate, and his Colleague Judge Smith; and had conversation with them on various topics. Mr. Gaillard, finally asked me, if there had been any new System of Etiquette established with regard to visiting; to which I answered, certainly none to my knowledge — I was myself determined to make no question of etiquette with any one — But I had been negligent in paying visits from absolute want of time — They said there had been a rule adopted by the Senators so long ago as when Mr. Burr was a member of the body, and drawn by him, that the Senators should visit only the President of the United States — and Mr. King had lately referred them to a Book, in which it was recorded — I told them this was the first intimation I had ever received of the existence of such a rule — I had been five years a member of the Senate, and at the commencement of every Session had invariably paid the first visit to all the heads of Departments, excepting Mr. Gallatin, who never having returned my first visit, I never afterwards visited him, except upon business at his Office; and I understood he had neither paid, nor returned any visits, while he was Secretary of the Treasury — I had always supposed the universal practice to be that the Senators paid the first visit to the heads of Departments, though since I had now arrived here, I had heard the practice was different — I was ready to conform to any arrangement that might be proper, but I supposed the rule that Senators would visit only the President, did not extend to a requisition that the heads of Departments should first visit them — We parted in perfect good humour on the subject — I met Mr. Bulfinch and his Son, as I was going to the President's, and they afterwards called upon me at the Office — Judge Cranch spent the Evening with us.
6. VII. I wrote the Answer to W. Lowndes, Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, to a Letter from him asking explanations concerning the Estimates. Attended at eleven O'Clock the Cabinet Meeting at the President's, concerning Amelia-Island — M'Gregor's proclamation, upon taking the Island being wanted, I went for it to the Office. ≈ I returned to the Cabinet Meeting at the President['s], which was fully attended — The President had partly drawn up a Message to Congress stating the taking of Amelia Island, and concluding that the troops which took it would be withdrawn — It seems that when the Orders for taking the Island were sent; those from the War Department directed that the persons to be expelled, should not carry away any public Spanish property taken by them upon the Island — These Orders I never saw; the President says he has no doubt, they were shewn to, and, authorised by him, but now comes the embarrassment what to do with that property consisting of two or four Cannon. The President is apparently determined, to withdraw the troops from the Island, but he asks the opinions of the Cabinet, to take the measure with deliberation. Mr. Crawford, Crowninshield and Wirt are with the President, for withdrawing the troops — Calhoun and myself are for keeping possession of the Island, subject to negotiation for it with Spain — If I understand the characters of my Colleagues, Crawford's point d'honneur is to differ from me, and to find no weight in any reason assigned by me. Wirt and Crowninshield will always be of the President's opinion — Calhoun thinks for himself, independently of all the rest, with sound judgment, quick discrimination and keen observation. He supports his opinions too with powerful eloquence — The discussion of this day was adjourned, for the President to finish preparing his draft of the Message to Congress.
8. VI. The President is so much, and so constantly engaged that having nothing of indispensible urgency to call upon him for, I omitted going this day to his house — I received two Notes from the Spanish Minister Onis; one with a strong remonstrance against the occupation of Amelia Island, and the other a third long Memoir upon the Negotiation pending. ≈
9. VI. I prepared the draft of a Letter to W. Shaler — When I called at the President's I found N. Biddle of Philadelphia with him. He directed a Cabinet Meeting on the Amelia Island Affair at one O'Clock — I went to the Office, and returned to the President's at One — The draft of the Message to Congress was again discussed; and it still persisted in the paragraph announcing that the troops would be withdrawn. I presented for consideration the doubt whether having taken possession under the act of January 1811, the Executive had a right to withdraw the troops and abandon the island, unless authorised thereto by a new Act of Congress. This question was again discussed with great earnestness till past four O'Clock — Calhoun urged retaining it with great force and effect. I repeated the arguments of the former day, and added new ones as they occurred to me now — The President without giving up his opinion was very apparently affected by the conflict of Sentiment among his advisers — Crawford was staggered, and maintained his ground more feebly than the former day. Crowninshield candidly told me that the argument was decidedly with us, but that he thought the best _policy_ would be to give the island up. Mr. Wirt who came in very late and heard little of the debate, was still of the President's opinion, and if he changes, will I believe change with him. We parted leaving the question yet undetermined, and the President, not a little embarrassed — These Cabinet Councils open upon me a new Scene and new views of the political world. Here is a play of Passions, Opinions and characters different in many respects from those in which I have been accustomed heretofore to move. There is slowness, want of decision and a Spirit of procrastination in the President which perhaps arises more from his situation than his personal character. ≈
10. VI. ≈ At the President's I found Mr. Fromentin, one of the Senators from Louisiana, who has just returned from a tour to France. When he went away, I was about to give the President an account from the despatches of Mr. Sumter; but I found his mind was intent upon another object — He said Mr. Biddle had told him that some person of the family of Mr. Onis had in the most positive terms affirmed that Spain was in a desperate and desponding condition, and Onis had very lately received a despatch ordering him to dispose as soon as possible of the Florida's to the United States, upon the best terms he can obtain. The President therefore wished me to see Onis this day, and ask him simply what Spain would take for East-Florida; that is to say for all Spain's possessions East of the Mississippi — I told him I would see Onis as he desired; but that I knew he would beat about the bush, and not make any proposition at-all — I sent for Onis to come to me at the Office, and he came — I urged him for a full hour to make me a proposition, what they would ask for all their Territories East of the Mississippi; but he absolutely declined — He said Pizarro had made a proposition to Erving; and he had repeated it here. It was now our turn to make our proposition, and he would receive it with a most earnest desire, which was that of the king of Spain, that we should agree — And not only agree; but Spain wished for an Alliance with the United States, at least defensive — He urged strongly for an answer to his remonstrances against the occupation of Amelia Island — I told him we could easily justify that — I had no doubt to his satisfaction. But it might be necessary to say things which it would be disagreeable for Spain to hear, and for us to say. We had not taken the possession from Spain, nor committed any hostility against her — We had been obliged in our own defence, to take the place, in defence of our Laws, of our Commerce, and that of Nations at Peace with us, Spain included — But all this it would be useless to say, if he would make me a proposition upon which we could in a few days agree. All discussion about Amelia Island would then be superseded — He still refused to make any proposition about Amelia-Island. But said he wanted an answer. I might assign what motives for the act, I thought proper — He wanted something to say to the Governor General of the Havanna, to the Governor of St. Augustine, and to his Court — I asked him what guaranty he could give that if we should withdraw from the Island it should not again be immediately occupied by freebooters to the annoyance of all lawful Commerce — He said that we might require that the Governor of the Havanna should send there a garrison of 400 men. I asked him if he could engage that they should be sent — He said, no, but he could write to the Governor of the Havanna about it; and if it should take six, nine or twelve Months, he could tell him it was a subject for Negotiation between the Governments — I reported the substance of this Conversation to the President, who said he should perhaps modify his Message to the House of Representatives in consequence of it — He thought he would have another cabinet meeting upon it on Monday.
22. VII. My wife received this Morning notes from Mrs. Monroe requesting she would call upon her this day at one or two O'Clock, and she went — It was to inform her that the Ladies had taken offence at her not paying them the first visit — All Ladies arriving here as strangers it seems expect to be visited by the wives of the heads of Departments and even by the President's wife — Mrs. Madison subjected herself to this torture, which she felt very severely, but from which having begun the practice, she never found an opportunity of receding from it. Mrs. Monroe neither pays nor returns any visits — My wife returns all visits but adopts the principle of not visiting first, every stranger who arrives, and this is what the Ladies have taken in dudgeon. My wife informed Mrs. Monroe that she should adhere to her principle, but not on any question of etiquette; as she did not exact of any Lady that she should visit her.
[March 1818]
18. V:45. ≈ At the Office, I had as visitors, Gen'l John Mason, W. Lee and Mr. Hyde de Neuville the French Minister, and Mr. Calhoun. ≈ Lee came to give me a hint on a very ridiculous affair; but which shews how I am situated in my office as Secretary of State; makes it the interest of all the partizans of the Candidates for the next Presidency, to say no more, to decry me as much as possible in the public opinion. The most conspicuous of these Candidates, are Crawford, the Secretary of the Treasury, Clay, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and DeWitt Clinton, Governor of New-York. Clay expected himself to have been Secretary of State, and he and all his creatures were disappointed by my appointment. He is therefore coming out as the head of a new Opposition in Congress to Mr. Monroe's Administration, and he makes no scruple of giving this tone to all his party in running me down. On the publication of the concluding part of my late Letter to Onis, he went about the House of Representatives, shewing and sneering at a passage where it is said that the United States, after waiting thirteen years for justice from Spain, could without much effort wait somewhat longer. Clinton's party operate in another way — There was published lately in the National Advocate, a New-York Newspaper in opposition to Clinton, a Letter purporting to be from an agent of Clinton's to another named Asahel Clark, and detailing a journey of intrigue in the State of Vermont, to secure partizans in favour of Clinton. The Letter is signed E. W. Robinson — Clark who is a real personage and now at Washington, has published repeated disavowals of having ever been engaged in any such transactions, and certificates that there is no such person in Vermont, as E. W. Robinson — The Letter appears therefore to be a forgery, and the Clintonian's turn it back as a battery against the National Advocate and its Editor M. M. Noah. Lee's visit to me, was to tell me, that it was whispered about that Noah had received a Letter franked by me; and that it was to advise him to say no more about the Robinson Letter. The remarkable part of this affair, is that Noah did actually receive lately a Letter from me, which was to call upon him to refund to the Government of the United States, a sum of 1000 dollars, which Noah, upon being recalled from Tunis as Consul of the United States there, had left due for two years house rent, and which Mr. Shaler upon his late visit to Tunis, found himself bound to pay, from the public monies — On these facts I observe three things. 1. The espionage of Clinton's partizans, discovering the fact that Noah had received a Letter, franked by me. 2. Their suspicious inference that a letter to Noah franked by me, must relate to the Robinson Letter. 3. Their policy in circulating a report founded on this false inference, that I am intriguing underhandedly against Clinton, and had some concern in the publication of the Robinson Letter — Of Crawford's rivalry, I have yet had no other evidence than what has seemed to me a sort of effort to differ from me in opinions concerning the important measures to be pursued by the administration; as a disposition to impress upon my Mind, every particular of Clay's operations against me — When Everett was here he asked me, if it would not be advisable, to expose Clay's conduct and motives in the Newspapers, to which I answered very explicitly in the negative — He also asked me if I was determined to do nothing with a view to promote my future election to the Presidency as the successor of Mr. Monroe — I told him I should do absolutely nothing — He said that as others would not be so scrupulous, I should not stand upon equal footing with them — I told him that was not my fault. My business was to serve the public to the best of my abilities, in the station assigned to me, and not to intrigue for further advancement — I never by the most distant hint to any one ever expressed a wish for any public Office; and I should not now begin to ask, for that which of all others ought to be most freely and spontaneously bestowed.
21. VII. Mr. Walsh called upon me this Morning. He proposed to me, to write further on the South-American and Amelia-Island questions: but his views do not exactly accord with mine — He is one of the ablest, and most powerful writers in this Country; but like many other ingenious men, has annihilated his own influence, by the prejudices that he has adopted and maintained.
28. V:30. At the President's this Morning, I had the voluminous despatches from G. W. Erving, at Madrid, and from Worthington and Halsey at Buenos-Ayres to read, but the President though convalescent is yet so weak, that he declined hearing them wholly read, and asked me to state the substance of them to him — When I told him that Worthington, one of the informal agents sent to South America, to collect information had been concluding a Treaty there; he said with quick and irritated tone — Dismiss him instantly — Recall him — Dismiss him! Now, to think what recommendations that man had! Dismiss him at once! and send him the notice of his dismission, by every possible channel — Send it to Halsey; though Halsey himself is recalled — However the Commissioners when they arrived there will have set all right — He then spoke to me of the Pennsylvania Militia–fines; upon which he had adopted the opinion of the Attorney-General Mr. Wirt, though opposite to that which he had formed before — He said he had misapprehended the facts. He desired me to examine particularly the question, and if I should come to a conclusion different from that of Mr. Wirt, to delay the answer till further consideration. But the subject which seems to absorb all the faculties of his mind, is the violent, systematic opposition that Clay is raising against his Administration. Clay appears to have made up his Account to succeed Monroe in the Presidency, and supported his Election, in the expectation of being appointed Secretary of State. In this he was disappointed, and though offered the War Department declined accepting it, and from that moment formed the project of rising upon the ruin of the Administration — He therefore took opposition ground upon all the cardinal points of Policy, taken by the President, but most especially upon the Constitutional question concerning internal improvement, and upon South American Affairs — On the Amelia-Island Affair, at the very outset of the Session of Congress he pronounced himself against it, and as one of his own Kentucky papers stated, broke ground within battering distance of the Message — From that day to this he has been indefatigable in every private company where he has been, in expressing disapprobation of that transaction, and of the mission to South America — The President told me that last Evening a Member of the Senate came to him and asked him, if at the Cabinet Meetings before the Commencement of the Session of Congress, the determination was taken not to acknowledge the Government of Buenos Ayres, professedly to the end that Congress might take the lead in the measure — And this was now enquired, obviously with a view to justify the present conduct of Mr. Clay. The President answered that at that time the Questions were proposed, whether the Executive was competent to acknowledge the Independence of Buenos Ayres, and if so, whether it was expedient. That it had been concluded the Executive was competent. But that it was not expedient to take the step, without the certainty of being supported in it by the public opinion; which if decidedly favourable to the measure would be manifested by measures of Congress. Mr. Monroe added, that if Mr. Clay had taken the ground that the Executive had gone as far as he could go with propriety towards the acknowledgment of the South Americans; that he was well disposed to go further, if such were the feeling of the Nation and of Congress; and had made his Motion with that view, to ascertain the real Sentiments of Congress, it might have been in perfect harmony with the Executive. But between that and the angry, acrimonious course pursued by Mr. Clay, there was a wide difference.
[April 1818]
8. VI. ≈ At the President's he spoke to me again of the projected missions to Constantinople and to Russia — He said Mr. Crawford had suggested a doubt, whether it would be advisable to appoint more than one Minister for the Turkish Mission; and that both Crawford and Calhoun, thought G. W. Campbell, preferable to either Jackson, Harrison or Johnson for the Mission to Russia. He said he had also spoken confidentially of Mr. Campbell to the two Senators from Pennsylvania, with both of whom he the President had long been intimate; and who though plain men, were sound and judicious men. Both approved and strongly urged the appointment of Campbell — He said also that when in Virginia last Autumn, he had enquired of Mr. Jefferson, how it would suit to appoint Gen'l Jackson to the Russian Mission — His answer was; why, Good God! he would breed you a quarrel, before he had been there a Month! — I told the President that as the other persons whom he had consulted personally knew all the characters much better than I did, I should press no further the objection to Mr. Campbell — The President said that there was another difficulty in the way of appointing Jackson. He was second in command, and such a distinction conferred upon him, might seem an undue preference shewn him over his superior Officer, Brown. But as it would not be in the military line, I did not think much of that.
10. VI. At the President's this Morning, I met Mr. Crawford and Mr. Wirt. There was some Conversation upon the claim of Mr. Silsbee and others for the Algerine Money. Crawford was for huffing the demand, and refusing to be teazed about it. Crawford would not act so in his own Department; but such are the mazes of the human heart. This is not the first time, I have seen the drift of Crawford's advice — While he is assiduously making friends to himself, he has no objection to my making as many enemies to myself as circumstances will admit; he has not pursued this course so far as Clay; who with all his ardour urged the President to let Russell go back to Sweden, as Minister, and now in his last Speech for the Buenos-Ayres appropriation blames the administration for keeping Ministers at Stockholm, and in the Netherlands. ≈ The President told me he had been astonished at Mr. Clay's attack upon the administration, for the Swedish Mission, Mr. Clay having himself been the cause of Russell's going back — Russell had come home with a sort of avowed determination not to go back — But he first through Clay, solicited some employment at home, and finding that was not attainable he then was anxious to go back, and Mr. Clay became again his solicitor, on the ground that he was the only member of the Ghent Commission, who had not been specially noticed by distinctions and as there was to be further negotiation about the Treaty that Russell had made with Sweden, Mr. Madison consented that he should go back for that service — This Evening I drafted a Note to Onis, on the papers left with me by Mr. Middleton.
[May 1818]
4. V. The President sent me word this morning that he had returned from his short tour to Virginia. When I called at his house I found there Mr. Calhoun and Mr. Crowninshield, Mr. Crawford came in shortly afterwards — The despatches from General Jackson were just received, containing the account of his progress in the War against the Seminole Indians, and his having taken the Spanish Fort of St. Mark's in Florida, where they had taken refuge. They hung some of the Indian prisoners, as it appears without due regard to humanity, a Scotchman by the name of Arbuthnot was found among them, and Jackson appears half inclined to take his life. Crawford some time ago proposed to send Jackson an order to give no quarter to any white man found with the Indians. I objected to it then, and this day avowed that I was not prepared for such a mode of warfare.
21. IV:45. Prepared a despatch for Jonathan Russell, Minister at Stockholm — For which purpose I found it necessary to read over eleven despatches received from him since his return there — All received since the adjournment of Congress. Several of these referred to his prior correspondence, which it became necessary to have looked up at the Office — As however the despatch must be forwarded as soon as possible, I made the draft; leaving the subjects upon which my information is incomplete to be taken up hereafter in another Letter — On reading my draft to the President, he wished it to be made more explicit, in letting Mr. Russell know that his mission must terminate in the course of the present year; and that he must not expect at present any further employment by the Executive in Europe. And in doing this, he wished me to express to him, the satisfaction of the President, with his conduct while he was in the Public Service in Europe — I suggested to the President that Mr. Russell was a man, who would consider that such a conclusion should not flow from such premises. That he had a high opinion of his own merits and services, and was by no means disposed to quit his hold upon Diplomatic employment — That in short he would not easily get rid of him — I observed that Mr. Russell had very explicitly told me that he considered himself _entitled_ to a better mission than that of Sweden — _Entitled_ , said the President! — no man in this Country is entitled to any appointment from the Executive — I said that was my own opinion; but it was not Mr. Russell's, and assuredly in whatever way he should discover that the President did not intend to employ him any further it would give him great offense, which he would take care should not remain unknown — The President said I might leave my despatch to him as I had written the draft.
[June 1818]
9. V:30. Continued the draft of Instructions to G. W. Campbell in the course of which I find myself expatiating upon subjects not strictly within the scope of the paper I am writing. It grows too desultory and too minute. I nevertheless suffer my pen to run on; and shall probably leave most of the pruning to the President. ≈ We spent the Evening at the French Minister, Hyde de Neuville's — A small musical party — Mr. Bagot spoke to me of certain publications in the Newspapers, mentioning the execution by sentences of Court Martial under the orders of General Jackson, of two Englishmen, named Arbuthnot and Ambrister, taken with the Seminole Indians in this War. These publications say that the Evidence against them proved the greatest perfidy on the part of the British Government — Mr. Bagot was very much hurt by this charge of perfidy, for which he said there was not the slightest foundation — I told him that I had seen none of Gen'l Jackson's despatches giving an account of these transactions. That I knew not from whom or whence the newspaper publication came — That I was very sorry that any white men, and especially Englishmen, had been found with these Seminoles — That I did not know how long the British Government had continued or when they had closed their connection with the Seminoles formed by Col'l Nicholls during the late war — But Nicholls had made what he called a Treaty Offensive and defensive with them after the Peace — That I had by orders from this Government remonstrated against it, both verbally and in writing, to Lord Bathurst and Lord Castlereagh, who had verbally disavowed Nicholls's Treaty; but never in writing, which I had much regretted — He renewed the assurance that the charge of perfidy against his Government was entirely without foundation — I played part of a game of Chess with Commodore Decatur — Home about eleven.
18. V:30. Change of weather, and very cool. I had a very good Morning Bath in the Potowmack with an opportunity of diving from a Raft, now near the spot. At the President's he told me he had written to Mr. Pinkney at Baltimore requesting him to come here before Mr. Campbell goes. The President hesitates appointing F. C. Gray as Secretary of Legation to Russia; though Campbell himself strongly inclines in his favour. The President spoke also of the taking of Pensacola by General Jackson, contrary to his orders, and, as it is now reported, by Storm. This and other events in this Indian War, makes many difficulties for the administration.
21. V:30. The weather has grown warm again. I received yesterday two anonymous Letters, one warning me to beware of the Ides of March, and of South-American emissaries; and the other disclosing a pretended conspiracy of another kind against me. I put them on my file, and wait to see if any Event will disclose the real motives of the writers, which are manifestly different from their apparent purport. I wrote several private Letters, and received despatches from Mess'rs Gallatin and Eustis. Also a remonstrance from the Spanish Minister Onis against General Jackson's late proceedings in Florida — In my walk before dinner I went to the mouth of the Tiber, and in the Evening accompanied Mrs. Adams and Mary Hellen to Mr. Thos. Peter's at Georgetown, where they took tea. We came home about ten.
25. ≈ Mr. Bagot sent me a note asking an interview, for which I appointed 3 O'Clock. He came, and said that as he was about sending a Messenger to England it would be expected that he should say something about the Execution of the two British subjects Arbuthnot and Ambrister, and the occupation of Pensacola by General Jackson. He asked if copies of the proceedings of the Court-Martials had been received — I told him they had not; nor any official account of the taking of Pensacola — I could without hesitation tell him however, that this measure was not authorized by the Government, and was unexpected. General Jackson's despatches would no doubt disclose his motives, of which it was not possible to judge by anticipation — He said he had never for a moment believed that General Jackson, had been authorised to take Pensacola — As to the case of the two men, he could not undertake to say before hand that there were no possible circumstances which would warrant their execution; he could not indeed imagine any; but the proceedings of the Court-Martial, might shew them. — As I was willing to change the subject of Conversation, I asked him if he had any late intelligence from England — particularly with regard to Spanish and South American Affairs — He had none — I said I wished that in writing to his Government he would remind Lord Castlereagh of his promise, made through him Bagot last January, to communicate to us very shortly, what the allies were doing about South-America — He said he was convinced there was no other cause for the delay than that Lord Castlereagh knew nothing further himself — that nothing further had been done. I mentioned Rivadavia's Letter to Lord Castlereagh, and the Moscow Memoir, both of which we had received from other sources, and which he might have communicated; and I desired him to urge upon his Government the necessity of communicating freely with us, of their acts and intentions, if they expected from us a course harmonizing with theirs — I then entered at large upon the question what the allies would and what they could do — And declared the conviction that there could be no rational interference of foreign powers in that quarrel, but on the basis of the Independence of the South-Americans — to which he opposed nothing as argument — He finished by requesting me to ascertain whether British vessels would under our new Navigation Act, be admitted from Bermuda? — I received several despatches from Buenos Ayres, Chili, and Spain, which I immediately sent over to the President. After dinner I took my usual walk, and Mrs. Adams her usual ride — Heat overpowering.
[July 1818]
14. IV:30. Bath in the Potowmack alone. Rode on horseback to my Office, and in the Carriage home. Great part of the day was cloudy; but the heat was nearly as oppressive as yesterday, and the thermometer at 90. Towards Evening there was again a thunder shower very moderate in comparison with those of last Night. I called upon the President at his house, and gave him the translation of Onis's last Note, on the capture of Pensacola, and other papers of importance. I find him very much embarrassed what course to pursue in this transaction. He directed a Cabinet Meeting for to-morrow at Noon — Mr. John Graham, one of the Commissioners to South America, called at the Office; and I had much Conversation with him on their expedition — It is somewhat singular that they have not yet made up their report— My weakness and inaptitude of labour still continues and I took to my bed again at the dusk of Eve.
15. IV:30. Bath in the Potowmack, and took Antoine with me. Attended the Cabinet Meeting at the President's, from Noon till near five O'Clock — The subject of deliberation was General Jackson's late transactions in Florida; particularly the taking of Pensacola. The President and all the members of the Cabinet except myself are of opinion that Jackson acted not only without, but against his Instructions — That he has committed War upon Spain, which cannot be justified, and in which if not disavowed by the Administration, they will be abandoned by the Country. My opinion is that there was no real though an apparent violation of his instructions; that his proceedings were justified by the necessity of the case, and by the misconduct of the Spanish commanding Officers in Florida. The question is embarrassing and complicated, not only as involving that of an actual war with Spain; but that of the Executive power, to authorize hostilities without a declaration of War by Congress — There is no doubt that _defensive_ acts of hostility may be authorized by the Executive; but Jackson was authorised to cross the Spanish line in pursuit of the Indian Enemy. My argument is that the question of the Constitutional authority of the Executive is precisely there — that all the rest, even to the order for taking the fort of Barrancas by Storm, was incidental — deriving its character from the object, which was not hostility to Spain, but the termination of the Indian War — This is the justification alledged by Jackson himself; but he also alledges that an imaginary line of the 31st degree of Latitude, could not afford protection to our frontiers, while the Indians could have a safe refuge in Florida, and that all his operations were founded on that consideration. Calhoun the Secretary at War generally of sound, judicious and comprehensive mind, seems in this case to be personally offended, with the idea, that Jackson has set at nought the Instructions of the Department — The President supposes there might be cases which would have justified Jackson's measures, but that he has not made out his case. Some of the newspapers, especially in Georgia and Virginia, without waiting for the Evidence of facts, have commenced attacks, both upon the Administration, and upon General Jackson, and the fear of charges of usurpation, of duplicity and of War, operate to such a degree, that there is not vigour to bear out the bold energy of Jackson, and there seems a wish not only to disavow what he has done, but to depreciate even the strong reasons, which he alledges for his justification. Standing alone in my opinions, and finding that they necessarily had little weight, while counteracting feelings as well as opinions, I developed them not so fully as I might have done, but obtained an adjournment of the question and meeting till to-morrow — We remained and dined at the President's. Col'l Love was the only other company. Walked home; and found Mr. Hyde de Neuville, and Mr. Bailey at my house. Mr. de Neuville who is very anxious to preserve Peace between the United States and Spain is to call at my Office to-morrow at three O'Clock.
16. V. Bath in the Potowmack alone. Second Cabinet Meeting at the President's, and the question of the course to be pursued with relation to General Jackson's proceedings in Florida recurred. As the opinion is unanimous against Jackson, excepting mine, my range of argument now is only upon the degree to which his acts are to be disavowed. It was urged that the public dissatisfaction at the taking of Pensacola, is so great, that the Administration must immediately and publicly disclaim having given any authority for it; and publish all the Instructions given to him, to throw the blame entirely upon him. There was a violent attack upon him and his measures in the Richmond Enquirer, which came this morning, and which Wirt said he had no doubt was written by judge Roane — I did not conceive it necessary to make of this affair an immediate newspaper negotiation for public opinion. Crawford said that if the Administration did not immediately declare itself and restore Pensacola, it would be held responsible for Jackson's having taken it, and for having commenced a War in violation of the Constitution. That the People would not support the Administration in such a War. That our Shipping, Navigation and Commerce would be destroyed by Privateers from all parts of the world under the Spanish flag, and that the Administration would sink under it — I thought it would be quite in time if all the documents relating to the subject should be communicated to Congress at their next Meeting, by which means they would naturally become public — That to disavow and publish now, would look like a disposition entirely to put down Jackson in the public opinion — That he would immediately resign, and turn the attack upon the administration, and would carry a large portion of the public opinion with him. That Pensacola might be restored, and its capture by him still justified. That I did not believe War would follow from this measure, though I admitted it might — That if it should, it would seriously injure but not destroy our shipping and commerce — That the only privateering against us to be apprehended would be from English people; and that to no very great extent. That the administration would stand or sink under the War according to its Success, and that in this and in all other cases the Event must rest with the disposer of Events — In the interval of the discussion I went to my Office and received Hyde de Neuville. He is extremely anxious for the preservation of Peace, and desirous of contributing to it. He looked over the map, and I marked out the boundary which it had been agreed at the President's that I should be authorized to offer. The Trinity from its mouth to its source; then a line North to the red river; following the course of that to its source, then crossing to the Rio del Norte, and following the course of it, or the summit of a chain of mountains northward and parallel to it. There stop, or take a line west to the Pacific — De Neuville said he would himself go and propose this line to Onis at Bristol — But Onis would probably not dare to conclude, without first having an answer, to his Note complaining against Jackson, and the capture of Pensacola — I told him, I should answer Onis's Note, that he would be told that Jackson had taken Pensacola, without orders and upon his own responsibility — That the place would be restored, but that no blame could be admitted as attaching to General Jackson; and strong charges would be made against the Governor of Pensacola, and the Commandant of St. Marks — He asked if I could not write a note passing lightly over the conduct of the Officers on both sides and stating that Pensacola would be restored with the expression of regret at what has taken place — If I could, he would himself take the Letter to Mr. Onis at Bristol; and if on conversing with him he found him prepared to agree to the terms of a Treaty which would be satisfactory to us, he would deliver the Letter to him — if not he would bring it back — I returned to the President's and, after consideration of this proposal it was determined to accept the offer of Mr. de Neuville, if he thought fit to use his influence with Mr. Onis, to prevail upon him to agree to our terms, but that the answer to Onis's Note, must be totally disconnected with the success of the Negotiation, and delivered to him at all Events. We dined again at the President's. Mr. Rodney and Mr. Brackenridge were there — I walked home with Mr. Calhoun, and afterwards found at my own house Mr. ten Cate, who agreed to meet me at the river to-morrow Morning to bathe.
17. IV:30. Bathed in the river alone, ten Cate having missed of finding the spot behind the Mansion house. Cabinet Meeting at the President's — the discussion continued, upon the answer to be given to Onis, and the restoration of Florida to Spain — The weakness and palsy of my right hand makes it impossible for me to report this discussion, in which I continue to oppose the unanimous opinions of the President, the Secretary of the Treasury, Crawford, the Secretary at War, Calhoun; and the Attorney General, Wirt. I have thought that the whole conduct of General Jackson was justifiable under his orders; although he certainly had none to take any Spanish Fort — My principle is that every thing he did was _defensive_ — That as such it was neither War against Spain, nor violation of the Constitution — The development of this principle in its application, first to the facts, then to the Laws of Nations and lastly to the Constitution; and the defence of it against the objections of the President, and of all the other members of the Cabinet present engaged us again till five O'Clock; and deeply do I lament that I cannot record it. I at first contended that we should keep Pensacola upon the principles on which Jackson had taken it, till Spain should give us a guarantee that she would fulfil her engagement by restraining the indians from hostilities. But I see difficulties in holding Pensacola without an Act of Congress, and now urge that the taking may be justified, and yet the place restored, on the express Condition that hereafter Spain shall fulfil her Treaty — The President had this day made a draft for a Note from me to Onis, which was taken as a text, to be debated — I finally took with me this draft of the President, and am to make one out from it for further Consideration — We dined with the President again. Mess'rs Rodney, Graham, Brackenridge, Duval of Kentucky, Mason, and Col'l Love were there. After dinner I had a long walk with Mr. J. Graham, and returning home, met Mr. de Neuville, at whose house Mrs. Adams passed the Evening. I received a Note from Mr. Bagot, asking an Audience of the President to deliver a Letter from the Prince Regent of England, announcing the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth.
18. IV:30. Superseded my daily baths for the present. Made the draft of a Note to Onis for consideration, and prepared an amendment, going to the entire justification of Jackson's operations. ≈ Cabinet Meeting at the President's. My draft and Amendments were discussed; and every part of the Letter which imported a justification of Jackson's proceedings struck out. The Letter was modified so as to be made exactly, conformable in substance to the President's original draft. The language only is mine. I placed in every point of view that could occur to me the principle justifying the proceedings of Jackson, but without producing any impression — It was however determined that the President, should write a friendly Letter to Jackson, communicating to him a copy of the answer to Onis, and mentioning the Constitutional grounds upon which Pensacola would be restored. Mr. Wirt had also prepared the draft of an Article upon the subject to be published in the National Intelligencer, the discussion of which was continued until dinner was announced.
20. V:30. Received this Morning a Note from the President requesting me to insert some additional paragraphs in the Letter to Mr. Onis; of which I accordingly prepared a draft — Looking over General Jackson's Letters, it struck me there was a new point of view in which his conduct in taking Pensacola was defensible, and at the Cabinet Meeting I presented it again; and argued it with all the force I could — It appeared to make some impression upon Mr. Wirt; but the President and Mr. Calhoun were inflexible — My reasoning was that Jackson took Pensacola, only because the Governor threatened to drive him out of the Province by force, if he did not withdraw. That Jackson was only executing his orders when he received this threat — That he could not withdraw his troops from the Province consistently with his orders and that his only alternative was to prevent the Execution of the threat. I produced as Authority Martens, Book VIII, Ch. 2, §. 226, and Ch. 6, §. 267. — I insisted that the character of Jackson's measures was decided by the intention with which they were taken; which was not hostility to Spain but self-defence against the hostility of Spanish Officers. I admitted that it was necessary to carry the reasoning upon my principles to the utmost extent it would bear to come to this conclusion — But if the question was dubious, it was better to err on the side of vigour than on the side of weakness — On the side of our own Officer who had rendered the most eminent services to the Nation, than on the side of our bitterest enemies, and against him — I glanced at the construction which would be given by Jackson's friends and by a large portion of the public to the disavowal of his Acts. It would be said that he was an obnoxious man: that after having the benefit of his services, he was abandoned and sacrificed to the enemies of the Country. That his case would be compared with that of Sir Walter Raleigh — Mr. Calhoun principally bore the argument against me; insisting that the capture of Pensacola was not necessary upon principles of self defence, and therefore was both an act of War against Spain and a violation of the Constitution. That the administration by approving it would take all the blame of it upon themselves. That by leaving it upon his responsibility they would take away from Spain all pretext for War, and for resorting to the aid of other European powers. They would also be free from all reproach of having violated the Constitution. That it was not the menace of the Governor of Pensacola that had determined Jackson to take that place. That he had really resolved to take it before; that he had violated his orders, and upon his own arbitrary will, set all authority at defiance. The President heard with candour and good humour all that I said, but without any variation from his original opinion, and my draft of a Note to Onis, with all its amendments was finally fixed precisely on the grounds of the President's original sketch. I received this day a Note from Mr. Bagot, requesting an interview. I had not answered that of last Thursday in which he had asked for an Audience of the President, to deliver a Letter from the Prince Regent announcing the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth — The President fixed one O'Clock to-morrow to receive the Letter, and I appointed the interview at Noon — Heavy Thunder Shower this Evening.
21. V:45. The pressure of business, anxiety of mind, and the heat of the weather combining, affect my health, and especially the repose of the Night. I was the last Night quite unwell. At Noon I had an interview at the Office with Mr. Bagot, when he again enquired if I could furnish him with copies of the proceedings of the Court Martial, upon the two British Subjects executed by General Jackson — These papers have not yet been received. I promised him when they should come, to give him immediate notice of them. He complained of the manner in which Arbuthnot had been taken, as treacherous, and repeated to me the story that Onis had told me before, and which he doubtless had from the Commandant of St. Marks — I avoided discussion with him on the subject as much as possible; but I saw that he felt strong resentments against Jackson — He asked if he could introduce an English gentleman to the President a Mr. Rattenbury late from Florida — I undertook to engage that he might. Met them at one at the President's — I first introduced Mr. Bagot, who delivered the Letter from the Prince Regent, announcing the Marriage of the Princess Elizabeth: after which we retired, and Mr. Bagot returned to the President and introduced Mr. Rattenbury. These ceremonies occupied not more than half an hour; after which there was a Cabinet meeting, at which the second draft of my Letter to Mr. Onis was read, and finally fixed — Mr. Wirt read what he called a second Edition of his Articles for the National Intelligencer. I strenuously reurged my objections, especially to a paragraph declaring that the President thought he had no Constitutional power to have authorized General Jackson to take Pensacola; and to another holding out a hope to the Public that, notwithstanding this collision between the officers of the two Governments in Florida, yet we shall soon have an amicable settlement of all our differences with Spain, and obtain the cession of the Florida's too. But I could make no more impression upon either of these points than upon those in the Note to Onis — To all my objections, offers were made to vary the phrase, or to strike out, parts of sentences; but still adhering to the disclaimer of Power — I finally gave up the debate, acquiescing in the determination which had been taken — The Administration were placed in a dilemma from which it is impossible for them to escape censure by some, and factious crimination by many. If they avow and approve Jackson's conduct; they incur the double responsibility of having commenced a War against Spain, and of warring in violation of the Constitution, without the authority of Congress. If they disavowed him, they must give offence to all his friends, encounter the shock of his popularity and have the appearance of truckling to Spain — For all this I should be prepared. But the mischief of this determination lies deeper. 1. It is weakness, and a confession of weakness. 2. The disclaimer of power in the Executive is of dangerous example; and of evil consequences. 3. There is injustice to the Officer in disavowing him, when in principle he is strictly justifiable. These charges will be urged with great vehemence on one side, while those who would have censured the other course will not support or defend the Administration for taking this — I believe the other would have been a safer as well as a bolder course — Calhoun says he has heard that the Court-Martial at first acquitted the two Englishmen; but that Jackson sent the case back to them — He says also that last winter there was a company formed in Tennessee, who sent Jackson's nephew to Pensacola, and purchased Florida Lands; and that Jackson himself is reported to be interested in the Speculation — I hope not.
25. IV. Bath in the Potowmack with Antoine. At the President's, I found he had determined to leave the City and return to his farm, at little river, near Aldie, in Loudoun County, Virginia. ≈ Two days ago, he had very abruptly asked me to see Mr. Bagot, and propose through him to the British Government, an immediate co-operation between the United States and Great-Britain, to promote the Independence of South-America — I asked him what part of South-America? — All South-America — and Mexico; and the islands included — I told him I thought Great-Britain was not yet prepared for such a direct proposition; and entering into details I immediately found it was a crude idea, which he immediately abandoned. But I conjectured that either Rodney and Brackenridge, or the Richmond Enquirer had put it into his head. For the Richmond Enquirer, which Clay's Kentucky Reporter calls the President's domestic paper, is on the contrary the Paper by which Virginia works upon the President. Its influence is much more upon him than for him, and it is excessively impatient for the acknowledgement of Buenos Ayres.
28. V. ≈ The Article for the Intelligencer was published yesterday Morning — Nothing said about unanimity in the Cabinet. The disclaimer of power in the Executive to have given Jackson authority to take Pensacola entirely struck out; and the restoration placed on the footing of the President's incompetency to retain it — There is in the Country a great Mass of desire to be in opposition to the Administration — It is a sort of instinctive impression that Mr. Monroe's administration will terminate by bringing in an _adverse_ party to it — This of itself engages all the newspapers not employed by public patronage, but desiring it, and many of those possessing it, against the administration. This propensity to blame, is still increased by an affectation of shewing their Independence, and escaping the charge of subserviency to the executive — All the restless and uneasy Spirits naturally fall into the ranks of opposition; and Clay who has seen all this has from the time of Mr. Monroe's election squared his conduct accordingly — He has been constantly looking out for positions upon which to erect his batteries against the Administration — And this affair of Florida appears so favourable to him, that in his newspaper the Kentucky Reporter, there is a piece which the President told me was said to be written by him, and where he takes ground against the Administration, upon both the alternatives; if they should have authorized Jackson's proceedings, or if disavowing them they should return Pensacola — The truth is, that there is in this, and perhaps must be in every administration in this Country, a perpetual tendency to fall, as well as leaders of opposition always on the watch to trip them up, or pull them down. Whatever their management may be, nothing but success can keep them up. Success is undoubtedly the effect partly of judicious management, and partly of good fortune. The points upon which important interests in this Country are depending, and upon which success or failure will affect the issue of the Administration, are the relations with Spain; those with Great-Britain; and Indian Affairs. The Spanish include those with South-America — Now upon neither of these points is any great and signal successful Event to be expected, if even possible, and while opposition will be recruiting and mustering forces from every quarter, the Administration will be upon a perpetual defensive, and constantly losing ground. Virginia is already lukewarm to the President, and shews a disposition to dictate to him his measures without scruple or delicacy — The Richmond Enquirer which is the voice of Virginia, speaks to him like a Master to his Slave — As there is no present prospect that a Citizen of Virginia, can be raised to the next Presidency, the _pis_ _aller_ of Virginia, will be to put in a native of that State, residing in another, for which either Clay or Crawford will serve the turn. An anonymous Letter-writer has asserted that the intention of Virginia, after Mr. Monroe's turn will be to set up John Randolph, which I doubt; but that nothing less than a Virginian will satisfy Virginia is to me perfectly demonstrated — These reflections may be pursued hereafter. I told Calhoun, I was convinced the course taken by the Administration was the safe course, and would be approved by the great majority of the People — Its safety consists in this, that in every event, it throws off the blame of commencing War, and it takes away all possible complaint in or by Congress.
[October 1818]
12. VII:15. ≈ We dined and spent the Evening at Mr. W. Jones's; the President of the Bank of the United States. Ingersoll, Dallas and Connell were there, and some other company with whom I was unacquainted — I was not satisfied with myself this day, having talked too much at dinner — I never take a large share in conversation, without saying things which I afterwards wish were unsaid — Yet in the estimation of others, I pass off, on the whole better when I talk freely, than when silent and reserved — This sometimes stimulates me to talk more than is wise or proper, and to give to the conversation of mixed companies, a tone of discussion which becomes irksome and tedious. Nor can I always, (I did not this day) altogether avoid a dogmatical and peremptory tone and manner, always disgusting, and especially offensive in persons, to whose age or situation others consider some deference due.
13. V. ≈ At nine O'Clock Mr. Vaughan called, and I went with him to the apartment of the American Philosophical Society. He shewed me a collection of maps of America, published within these two years at Paris; coloured apparently with a view to confine the territories of the United States within the narrowest limits left them by the pretensions of all or any other Power whatever — distributing the whole western Coast of America between Spain, Russia and Great Britain — Bordering us upon Spain to the South at the line from the Mermentau to Natchitoches, and stopping us Westward at the Rocky Mountains. At this apartment I met Mr. Duponceau, Professor Pearson of Andover, and Mr. John Winthrop; the same I had seen last year in England. Mr. Vaughan lent me from the Books of the Society the third narrative of La Salle's discoveries, by father Hennepin — the other two being at the Library of Congress at Washington — I went to Perkins and saw his machinery, and his copper-plates taken by pressure from steel-plates. The invention is ingenious, and must be effectual to preserve Bank-Bills from being forged, so far as relates to the engraved parts — The imitation appears to be scarcely possible. I met there Mr. Charles Harrod, brother of Mrs. T. B. Adams, and settled at New-Orleans — On returning to my lodgings I found there, Mr. Prince Sanders the black man; who has returned from his establishments in the kingdom of king Henry of Hayti. I asked him if he intended to return thither, to which he did not think proper to give a direct answer; but said if he did it would be contrary to the advice of his friends. He appeared to be labouring however with the project of colonizing Hayti from the free people of colour in the United States. He admitted that the Government of King Henry was of rather an arbitrary character, and in respect to personal liberty and security was susceptible of some improvements. He spoke however very guardedly and with great reserve. I gave him my opinion of king Henry's government very freely. Our conversation was interrupted by the arrival of the hour for my departure.
[November 1818]
1. VI. Sunday. I was compelled reluctantly to devote this day to the duties of my Office — to prepare the draft of a despatch with Instructions to A. Gallatin and R. Rush, conformably to the decisions of the late Cabinet Meetings. It occupied the day, with the exception of an hour and a half before dinner, in which I took a long solitary walk, and another hour in which I was engaged in reading the Letters that came by the Mail. none from Boston or Quincy! not even that promised by Harriet Welsh! As the scene closes she is too constantly occupied to find a moment for writing, and how can she take the pen to dissolve that last hope, which she had led us still to cherish? My Mother was an Angel upon Earth — She was a Minister of blessing to all human beings within her sphere of action. Her heart was the abode of heavenly purity. She had no feelings but of kindness and beneficence — Yet her mind was as firm as her temper was mild and gentle. She had known sorrow — but her sorrow was silent. She was acquainted with grief; but it was deposited in her own bosom — She was the real personification of female virtue — of piety — of charity, of ever active, and never intermitting benevolence — Oh! God! could she have been spared yet a little longer! — My lot in life has been almost always cast at a distance from her. I have enjoyed but for short seasons and at long distant intervals the happiness of her Society — Yet she has been to me more than a Mother. She has been a Spirit from above watching over me for good, and contributing by my mere consciousness of her existence, to the comfort of my life — That consciousness is gone; and without her the world feels to me like a solitude — Oh! what must it be to my father, and how will he support life without her who has been to him its charm? — Not my will, heavenly father, but thine be done!
2. III:45. Sleep short and interrupted. I could find no repose in bed, and rose at that early hour. ≈ The mail had brought me too fatal a confirmation of my apprehensions, in a Letter from my Son John, dated at Boston last Wednesday the 28th of October, informing me that between 11 and 1 O'Clock of that day, my Mother, beloved and lamented more than language can express, yielded up her pure and gentle Spirit to its Creator! — She was born on the of November 1744 and had completed within less than a month of her seventy-fourth year. Had she lived to the age of the Patriarchs, every day of her life would have been filled with deeds of goodness and of love. There is not a virtue that can abide in the female heart, but it was the ornament of hers. She had been fifty-four years the delight of my father's heart; the sweetener of all his toils — the comforter of all his sorrows; the sharer and heightener of all his joys — It was but the last time when I saw my father that he told me, with an ejaculation of gratitude to the giver of every good and every perfect gift, that in all the vicissitudes of his fortunes, through all the good Report, and evil Report of the World; in all his struggles, and in all his sorrows the affectionate participation, and cheering encouragement of his wife, had been his never failing support; without which he was sure he should never have lived through them — She was the daughter of William Smith, Minister at Weymouth, and of Elizabeth Quincy his wife — Oh! God! may I die the death of the righteous and may my last end be like her's! On receiving this deeply distressing intelligence I immediately left my Office and came home — After indulging the weakness of nature, I wrote Letters to my father and to my Son John ≈
3. V. I omitted this day my usual attendance at the Office. Dr. Freeman of Boston called, but I could not see him. took a solitary walk of near two hours, before dinner; and spent the remainder of the day, and the Evening at home. I expected with some anxiety by the Mail, Letters from Quincy; but was disappointed — None came — Alas! what could they have told me? — If there is existence and retribution beyond the grave, my Mother is happy — But if Virtue alone is happiness below, never was existence upon Earth more blessed than hers — She was married on the 25th of October 1764 at the age of twenty, and had five children; three sons and two daughters — Two only of the Sons have survived her — Never have I known another human being, the perpetual object of whose life, was so unremittingly to do good — It was a necessity of her nature — Yet so unostentatious, so unconscious even of her own excellence, that even the objects of her kindness, often knew not whence it came. She had seen the world — its glories without being dazzled; its vices and follies without being infected by them — She had suffered often and severely, from fits of long and painful sickness, always with calmness and resignation — She had a profound but not an obtrusive sensibility — She was always cheerful; never frivolous — she had neither gall nor guile. Her attention to the domestic economy of her family was unrivalled — Rising with the dawn, and superintending the household concerns with indefatigable, and all-foreseeing care. She had a warm and lively relish for literature; for social conversation; for whatever was interesting in the occurrences of the time, and even in political affairs — She had been during the war of our Revolution, an ardent patriot, and the earliest lesson of unbounded devotion to the cause of their Country that her children received, was from her.
8. VI. After finishing the Journal of yesterday, which employed a great part of the morning, I began the draft of a despatch to G. W. Erving, in which I propose to give a succinct account of the late Seminole War, from its origin, and to trace the connections between Arbuthnot, Ambrister, Woodbine, Nicholls and M'Gregor with that War, in such a manner as to justify completely the measures of this Government relating to it, and as far as possible the proceedings of General Jackson. The task is of the highest order; may I not be found inferior to it! I made some progress in the draft but it must be the work of several days.
10. VI:45. ≈ I was at the President's and urged him to obtain authority from Congress to keep hold of the Posts in Florida till Spain resumes her negotiations with us. Mrs. Adams spent the Evening at her Sister Frye's — I at home, writing.
16. IV:45. Still engaged in writing private Letters — to De Grand, and to Mr. Colman, which I was obliged to leave unfinished. This was the day on which commenced the second Session of the fifteenth Congress. Going to the Office I met Col'l R. M. Johnson, the member of the House from Kentucky — The President had sent back my draft of a Letter to G. W. Erving, requesting me not to close it till after seeing him. There were two or three words which he thought it would be best to omit, and which I accordingly struck out; but there was a passage which I thought it highly important to retain and to which he objected from the apprehension of its giving Offence to the British Government; by referring too directly to their policy in relation to our Indian Affairs — It was precisely in the kernel of the vindication of Jackson's execution of Arbuthnot and Ambrister, and if left out would very much weaken the case made. I defended the passage so strenuously, that the President finally directed me to shew it to Mr. Crawford and Mr. Calhoun, and if they should agree with me in opinion to retain it.
[December 1818]
17. VII:30. The winter is setting in with much severity. Mr. Hopkinson called this morning, and I had a conversation of two hours with him upon the subject of the state of our affairs with Spain, the Seminole War, and General Jackson's proceedings in Florida — With all these concerns political, personal and electioneering intrigues are intermingling themselves, with increasing heat and violence. This Government is indeed assuming daily more and more a character of Cabal, and preparation not for the next Presidential election but for the one after that is working and counter-working, with many of the worst features of elective monarchies. Jackson has made himself a multitude of friends, and still more enemies. The course pursued by the Administration has satisfied neither party; but neither can find much to attack in it — Hopkinson is ardent against Jackson; and no admirer of the Administration, but is in profession, and to a certain extent in reality, personally friendly to me — Hopkinson moved the call for my late Letter to Erving; he told me he was very much satisfied with his Conversation this Morning with me; but I wait to see what he will say in the house, when my Letter comes out — At the President's I met Mr. Crawford, who was reading to him a violent attack upon himself, in a Letter from Nashville, published in the Aurora, of the day before yesterday — Jackson's friends now appear to suppose Crawford has been his enemy in the administration — He has been less so in appearance than Wirt, or Calhoun — Crawford had this morning the Journals of the old Congress of 22 October 1782 containing a declaratory Resolution, that the commanding General of a separate army has by virtue of his office the right of exercising retaliation. Mr. R. King called at my Office; and I shewed him a Letter from St. Thomas, describing the effect already produced in the British West-India Islands, by the Navigation Act of Congress of the last Session — It was six O'Clock before I got home to dinner, and the Evening so cold that I could not write.
24. VIII. Fourth anniversary of the signature of the Treaty of Ghent; a day that ought never to pass without recollections of my gratitude to divine Providence, for that great blessing to my Country and myself — A blessing, great in itself — greater in its consequences, and which affords me a continual source of pleasure in the remembrance. I met Mr. Calhoun at the President's — Mrs. Monroe continues extremely ill. The Copies of my Letters to G. W. Erving with the Documents, were this day sent to the President's to be sent to Congress, in answer to separate Calls from each House — But they had both adjourned over Christmas, and until next Monday, before they were received. The President desired me to read over again all the papers in the case of the claim of bounty for captured Slaves; in which his opinion is in favour of the allowance, and mine against it. Christiani the Music-Master dined with us — Weather again very cold.
25. VII. Christmas day. Fahrenheit this Morning at 6 — The weather afterwards moderated; and the day was fine. I left Cards at Col. R. M. Johnson's and Mr. Talbot's (Senator from Kentucky) and paid visits to R. J. Meigs Post-master General, Hopkinson, Sergeant, and Mr. Tallmadge, a member of the House of Representatives from N. York. The Seminole War, and General Jackson's proceedings in Florida, are subjects upon which there is much agitation, misapprehension, and conflict of opinion, in the public mind, and in Congress. Parties are rallying round the questions involved in these transactions; and connecting themselves with the views of individuals upon the next Presidency. There is a considerable party disposed to bring forward Jackson as a Candidate, and the services of his late Campaign, would have given them great strength, if he had not counteracted his own interest, by several of his actions in it. But he wrote an inconsiderate Letter to the Governor of Georgia, and by that and other imprudences, turned the whole of that State against him — He had all Kentucky against him, upon something of a similar cause before — He has also turned against him all the Governors of the States, and the high sticklers for State rights — All Virginia is against him for this and sundry other causes. Crawford's partizans in Congress, are endeavouring to turn the whole affair to his account; first by running down Jackson; and then by implicating the President, and the rest of the administration except Crawford, in Jackson's faults. But as this does not suit the views of the Clintonians, they appear disposed to rally in support of Jackson, and even of the administration upon this occasion. Mr. Tallmadge told me he had thoughts of bringing forward a series of specific, terse, discreet and firm resolutions, declaring the approbation by Congress of the principal contested measures of Jackson, and of the course pursued by the administration. He said he was sure of the support of Mr. King in the Senate — of Sergeant in the House, and of 22 or 23 votes out of the 27 of the New-York Delegation. His only doubt was whether he should immediately offer these Resolutions, or wait for the attack from the other side, and then offer them as a substitute for any Resolutions of censure that may be proposed. He said he would further consult with me upon the subject before he would move.
[January 1819]
5. VII:30. ≈ I went this Evening with Mrs. Adams and Mary Buchanan to a dancing party at the Spanish Minister's, on the invitation of Madame de Heredia his daughter — None of the English legation there — news having been yesterday received that the Queen of England died on the 17th of November — The party was numerous — about 200 persons ≈ I had conversation with several members of Congress — Some of them gave me notice, that a formidable and concerted attack upon my Letter to Erving, is to be brought forward in the House of Representatives next week. Clay has already commenced his attack upon it, in convivial companies out of doors — Last Winter Clay's principal attack was levelled against the President himself, but finding that this only injured himself he has this winter confined his hostilities to me. My Letter to Erving has been so well received in Congress and by the public that it has redoubled his rancour against me, and among all the knots of intriguers in Congress, by the partizans of half a dozen Candidates for the next Presidency (including Gen'l Jackson) there is one common object, of decrying me — There is not in either house of Congress an individual member, who would open his lips to defend me, or move a finger to defeat any combination to injure me — and as I am not there to defend myself, Clay has a free swing to assault me, which he does, both in his public speeches and by secret machinations, without scruple or delicacy. It was hinted to me that he was now using C. F. Mercer for his purposes, but of this I have doubts. But all public business in Congress now connects itself with intrigues; and there is great danger that the whole Government will degenerate into a struggle of Cabals. The Ball broke up about 11, and I came home with a severe Cold.
7. VI. Attended the Cabinet Meeting at the President's — Mr. Thompson the new Secretary of the Navy was there, and the Meeting fully attended. The President proposed again for consideration the question whether it would be proper to submit to Congress the expediency of their passing an Act, authorizing the Executive to hold possession of Pensacola, if Spain should not send any person authorized to receive it; and also under certain contingencies to take possession of Spanish Florida. The subject was discussed with much earnestness till near five O'Clock — Mr. Holmes the Chairman of the Committee of Foreign Relations proposed to report a general review of the Seminole War, and to close with presenting a Bill authorizing the Executive to hold the places taken, in Spanish Florida, until Spain shall resume possession of conformably to the terms prescribed in my Letters to Onis and Erving, and to take possession again, in case of the future failure of Spain to restrain the hostilities of her Indians; and, if taken again, to hold, subject to the adjustment of all our differences with Spain, by negotiation. Mr. Crawford and Mr. Calhoun, were averse to proposing any measure to be adopted by Congress at present — In preference to any measure of Congress, Crawford proposed that notice should be immediately given to Onis the Spanish Minister, that if within a given time, possession of Pensacola should not be resumed; orders would be given to the American garrison to withdraw and abandon it. Mr. Calhoun thought that with such notice to the Spanish Minister, a message might be sent to Congress, informing them of it, and leaving any further legislative measure to their discretion. In the course of the discussion Crawford betrayed his inveteracy against General Jackson, more than he had ever done before, and even let out as a justification for the very extraordinary proposal of abandoning Pensacola, even if not redemanded by Spain, that it would shew to the world that it had been taken _contrary to orders —_ That Crawford has been all along deeply inveterate against Jackson, as is asserted in a letter from Nashville lately published in the Aurora, I have not seen adequate proof — But since the publication of that Letter it is impossible to avoid perceiving that he is so. It happens unfortunately that Crawford's interest and stimulus of personal ambition prematurely roused by his having been started as a Candidate for the Presidency against Mr. Monroe at the late election; now pushes him, not only to contribute in running down Jackson, as a formidable rival; but even to counteract, as much as is in his power, the general success of the Administration; and particularly that of the Department of State. He occasionally interferes with the proper business of the Department; and not to the advantage of the public business. De Neuville, the French Minister often insinuates to me that Crawford expresses to him sentiments upon subjects of diplomatic discussion, different from those maintained by me — To specify — He intimates that Crawford countenances the claim of France to special commercial privileges in Louisiana — and that he encourages indirectly Onis, in insisting upon a boundary West of the Mississippi, more favourable to Spain than that which I have offered — The first of these suggestions I have no doubt is true; for Crawford has repeatedly said something of the same kind to me — But that he should spur Onis to hold out upon the Western boundary, can arise from no other source than the fear that an arrangement of our differences with Spain, which should be satisfactory to this Nation, would redound to the credit of a Department other than his own. Oh! the windings of the human heart! Possibly Crawford is not himself conscious of his real motives for this conduct — But in this day's discussion it was abundantly apparent that his object is to disgrace Jackson, and that he is now confident of success. Calhoun so far coincides with him, that although there was this day no decision it is clear to me that the President will not ask for any new power from Congress; and consequently that we shall do nothing with Spain. Mr. Wirt entered little into the debate, but rather manifested the wish that an Act of Congress should pass. Mr. Thompson, the Secretary of the Navy did the same, and made several very judicious observations. The President inclined the same way. But the apprehension of the temper shewn in Congress and in the public at the proceedings of Jackson in Florida, will prevent any thing from being done — After breaking up at the President's I went to my Office and found four despatches from A. Gallatin; two of which were long, and in cypher — I took them home, and with the exception of a couple of hours of the Evening that J. Sergeant came and spent with us, I was employed till past midnight in deciphering without getting through them.
12. VI. Morning calls from Mr. W. Lowndes, Member of Congress from South Carolina, from Major Jackson and from Mr. Bailey of the Department — Major Jackson's visit was to mention that he is a Candidate for the Office of Marshal for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, and to ask my influence in his favour. I received a Note asking me to attend a Cabinet meeting at the President's at Noon — I found all the other Heads of Department there. The President submitted two questions for their Consideration — One was upon a Report from the Secretary of War, Calhoun; prepared in obedience to a resolution of the House of Representatives passed at the last Session of Congress, for the application of the means within the power of Congress, for making roads and Canals, for Military purposes — Mr. Calhoun read the report. The President's question was, whether it could be made to the house consistently with his declaration in the Message at the commencement of the last Session, that in his opinion Congress had not the power by the Constitution to make Laws, and to incur expence for purposes of internal improvement — The President expressed an opinion that the call of the House, directly upon the Secretary of War for this Report was itself irregular and not conformable to the Spirit of the Constitution of the United States, the principle of which was a single executive. The Laws constituting the Departments were also founded upon the same principle, with the exception of the Treasury Department, the Law to establish which was drawn up by A. Hamilton, who was himself to be the Secretary, and whose object was to establish a direct intercourse between the Members of the Legislature and himself for his own purposes. The practice of calling directly from either house of Congress upon the other Heads of Departments for Reports was irregular and had grown up, within these few years. And as the Heads of Departments were Executive Officers under the President, it was to be considered whether the President himself was not responsible for the substance of their Reports — I thought there would be an obvious incongruity and indecency that a Head of Department should make a Report to either House of Congress, which the President should disapprove; but observed that the practice of direct Calls from either House of Congress upon all the Heads of Departments for Reports was not of recent origin, having existed ever since the establishment of the Government — of which I gave Mr. Jefferson's Report upon Weights and Measures, and General Knox's Report upon a Militia-system as instances. It was said that the Senate were very scrupulous about direct Calls, but I remarked that I had now a Report, upon Weights and Measures to make, upon such a Call from the Senate, passed on the 3d of March 1817 — In this case the difficulty is that the Secretary of War, Mr. Calhoun, is of opinion that Congress have by the Constitution the power of appropriating money for internal improvement, and of making roads and canals for that purpose. He was an ardent supporter of this doctrine in Congress, and in his Report had introduced strong expressions of the _duty_ of Congress to apply all the means in their power to the object. The majority of both Houses of Congress are of the same opinion. The President in his Message at the Commencement of the last Session of Congress declared his opinion to the contrary, and the real object of this call upon Calhoun was to embarrass the President, and excite division in his Councils. Mr. Calhoun however at the close of his report had expressly stated, that he did not enter into the question of the Constitutional right, and he readily agreed to omit the passages in which there were intimations of a duty in Congress to make internal improvements. The second question proposed by the President was upon the appointment of Marshal for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. Who should be the man? Four Candidates. Major Jackson, a revolutionary Officer, who served through the whole War — with strong testimonial's from Washington and Lincoln — but a federalist; high-toned, and somewhat obnoxious to the other side. Reuben Etting; with many respectable recommendations, but chiefly from Baltimore. Mr. Kearsley; most earnestly, and anxiously recommended by the two Senators from Pennsylvania; an Officer in the late War, mutilated by the loss of a leg, at Chippaway — but an active federalist, and ardent opponent of the present Governor of Pennsylvania, and Daniel Moore; recommended by the late Marshal Smith ≈ It was finally determined this day that D. Moore should be the person to be nominated as Marshal.
22. VI:30. Mrs. Adams had a very indifferent Night, and in the course of this day was again twice extremely ill. I was both times absent from home. They sent for Dr. Hunt, who came and made two attempts to bleed her, but without effect. She was indeed exceedingly weak and exhausted. ≈ I dined at Mr. Pleasanton's with a mixed company — Mr. Barbour a Senator from Virginia with his wife and daughter were there. He is a man of affected pomposity of Speech; handsome of person; full of prejudices and dogmatism; and of common-place exaggeration of Republicanism — Through some remark of Col'l Tayloe's I became entangled with him in a conversation, in which he maintained that an American Minister at European Courts, ought to present himself in a plain frock coat, with metal buttons (he was thinking of the one he had on), and demand admission; and if they would not let him in, go away; renounce all his attendance at Court, and transact all his business in writing. He made a Speech about it, as if he was in the Senate, but luckily his Carriage was called and I had not the opportunity to reply to him; for I should have put him in anger to no purpose, and have made him at once ridiculous and implacable. ≈
23. V:30. I slept in the small bed, and had a very restless Night, through the whole of which my wife was very ill; suffering severe pain and almost sleepless — On rising, I made a fire in the chamber, as well as in my own room below. Mr. Brent, brought me the copy of my draught of a Report to the President, which I took with me, and left for his consideration. As I was going in to the President's General Jackson with his Suite were going out. The President called him and Col'l Butler back, and introduced them to me — The General had arrived this Morning, from his residence at Nashville, Tennessee, and had already called at my Office — Among the rumours which have been circulated by the cabal, now intriguing in Congress against Jackson, it has been very industriously whispered that Mr. Jefferson, and Mr. Madison, had declared themselves in very strong terms against him. I had mentioned this report a few days since to the President, who told me that he was convinced there was no foundation for it. This morning he shewed me, in Confidence a Letter which he had just received from Mr. Jefferson — It not only expresses full satisfaction with the course pursued by the administration, but mentions my Letters of 12 March last to Onis, and of 28 November to Erving, in terms which it would not become me to repeat. He advises that they, with others of my Letters to Onis, should be translated into French, and communicated to every Government in Europe, as a thorough vindication of the conduct and policy of this Government. He also suggests a question whether Onis's Letters in which he gives the President the title of His Excellency, ought not to be returned to him, as insulting the President by a title beneath his dignity.
25. V:30. Successive visits at my house from Mr. Holmes, Chairman of the Committee of Foreign Relations, Robertson, Member of the House from Kentucky, de Onis the Spanish, and Daschkoff the Russian Minister. Holmes came to make an extract from Niles's Register of a passage that he had quoted in his Speech on the Seminole War. Robertson brought a Letter from Mr. John Pope, to Mrs. Adams, and had some Conversation with me upon the local politics of Kentucky. ≈ Pope's Letter to Mrs. Adams was more explicit electioneering than Robertson's. These overtures would afford opportunities, and hold out temptations to intrigue, of which there is much in this Government, and without which the Prospects of a public man, are desperate — Caballing with Members of Congress for future contingency has become so interwoven with the practical course of our Government, and so inevitably flows from the practice of caucussing by the Members to fix on Candidates for President and Vice-President, that to decline it is to pass upon myself a sentence of total exclusion — Be it so! — Whatever talents I possess, that of intrigue is not among them — And instead of toiling for a future election as Pope recommends, my only wisdom is to prepare myself for voluntary, or unwilling retirement.
[February 1819]
3. VI. General Jackson came to my house this morning, and I shewed him the boundary line which has been offered to the Spanish Minister, and that which we propose to offer, upon Melish's Map. He said, there were many individuals who would take exception to our receding so far from the Boundary of the Rio del Norte which we claim, as the Sabine, and the enemies of the Administration would certainly make a handle of it to assail them; but the possession of the Florida's, was of so great importance to the Southern frontier of the United States, and so essential even to their safety, that the vast majority of the Nation would be satisfied, with the Western boundary, as we propose, if we obtain the Florida's. He shewed me on the map the operations of the British force during the late war; and remarked that while the Mouths of the Florida Rivers should be accessible to a foreign Naval force there could be no security for the Southern part of the United States — He also entered into Conversation, upon the subject of the discussion now pending in the House of Representatives, on his proceedings in the late Seminole War; upon that which is preparing in the Senate, under the auspices of Mr. Forsyth of Georgia, and upon the general order, given by Jackson in 1817, which was considered as setting at defiance the War Department. He imputed the whole to Mr. Crawford's resentments against him, on account of his having at the last Presidential Election supported Mr. Monroe against him — Said there was not a single Officer in the army known to have been at that time in favour of Monroe, whom Crawford had not since insulted. That Mr. Monroe was of an open, fair unsuspecting character; amiable in the highest degree; and would not believe human nature capable of the baseness which Crawford, while holding a confidential office under him was practising against him — I told Jackson, that Mr. Crawford had never in any of the discussions on the Seminole War said a word which led me to suppose he had any hostile feeling against him — He replied that however that might be, Crawford was now setting the whole delegation of Georgia against him; and by intentional insult, and the grossest violation of all military principle had compelled him to issue the order of 1817. Crawford, he said, was a man restrained by no principle, and capable of any baseness. The first act that brought him into notice, was a conspiracy between him as a lawyer, and Tait the Senator from Georgia, taking clandestinely a false affidavit, charging a General George Clarke, as a speculator in the Yazoo Lands, while a member of the Georgia Legislature — Clarke proved the falsehood of the charge — challenged Crawford and broke his arm, and wore out a cow-hide on Tait's back — Crawford was now canvassing for the next Presidential election, and actually wrote a Letter to Clay, proposing a coalition with him to overthrow Mr. Monroe's administration. Mr. Clay had declared in a public speech that he would not make any systematic opposition to this administration — but he certainly had received such a Letter from Crawford; for a person of high standing here at Washington, had told him Jackson since he has been now here, that he had seen it — And whenever Crawford's name shall be brought forward as a Candidate for the Presidency, the whole transaction should be unveiled to the public — It would not be worth while to disclose it now — As to Forsyth, what motive he could have for his present conduct, other than that of subserviency to Crawford, he could not imagine — But he carried his inveteracy to such lengths that he was to make it a new charge against Jackson, that in the late campaign, he had accepted the aid of mounted Volunteers, instead of Militia; and yesterday his Committee had sent for Captain Call and examined him, to make out a charge that he, Jackson had speculated in a purchase of lands at Pensacola, which was utterly false — A man of his name (no relation of his, for he had not a relation in the world,) an irishman, had gone from Nashville and made some speculation in lands at Pensacola, but in which he himself had no interest or concern. The bitterness with which Forsyth is pursuing this attack upon Jackson has become notorious, and the more extraordinary, as Forsyth has already been notified that he will be nominated as Minister to Spain, before the close of the Session of Congress. That Crawford has written such a Letter to Clay as Jackson has been informed is to the last degree improbable; he has too much discretion to have put himself so much in Clay's power. But that all his conduct is governed by his views to the Presidency as the immediate successor to Mr. Monroe, and that his hopes depend upon a result unfavourable to the success, or at least to the popularity of the administration is perfectly clear. The important and critical interests of the Country, are those the management of which belongs to the Department of State — Those incidental to the Treasury are in a state which would give an able financier an opportunity to display his talents, but Crawford has no talents as a financier. He is just and barely equal to the current routine of the business of his Office — His talent is intrigue — And as it is in the foreign Affairs that the success or failure of the Administration will be most conspicuous, and as their success would promote the reputation and influence, and their failure would lead to the disgrace of the Secretary of State, Crawford's personal views centre in the ill success of the Administration, in its foreign Relations, and perhaps unconscious of his own motives, he will always be impelled to throw obstacles in its way, and to bring upon the Department of State especially, any feeling of public dissatisfaction that he can — I have felt this even in the Negotiation of the late Convention with Great-Britain; in the course of which he took ground of disapprobation, of which he certainly would have made a handle if the negotiation had terminated unsuccessfully; and of which I have no doubt he avails himself as it is, in his private Conversations, to hint that the success might have been greater. I feel him continually in the Negotiation with Spain, and in the transactions with Hyde de Neuville, and always in the way of increasing difficulties. Crawford is not a worse man than the usual herd of ambitious intriguers. Perhaps is not so bad as many of them — I do not think him entirely unprincipled; but his ambition swallows up his principle. His position is a bad one. Having been a caucus Candidate for the Presidency, against Mr. Monroe, he feels as if his very existence was staked upon his being his successor — And although himself a member of the Administration, he perceives every day more clearly, that his only prospect of success hereafter depends upon the failure of the Administration, by measures, of which he must take care to make known his disapprobation — This forced and unnatural position is one of the numerous evils, consequent upon the practice which has grown up under this Constitution, but contrary to its Spirit, by which the members of Congress meet in Caucus, and determine by a majority upon the Candidate for the Presidency to be supported by the whole Meeting. A practice which places the President in a state of undue subserviency to the members of the Legislature; and which connected with the other practice of re-electing only once the same President, leads to a thousand corrupt cabals between the Members of Congress and the Heads of the Departments, who are thus almost necessarily made rival pretenders to the succession. The only possible chance for a Head of Department to attain the Presidency, is by ingratiating himself personally with the Members of Congress, and as many of them have objects of their own to obtain, the temptation is immense to corrupt coalitions, and tends to make all the public offices objects of bargain and sale — That there has been intercourse of this kind, more or less explicit, between Crawford and Clay can scarcely be doubted — But a Coalition between them would be liable to many difficulties. They are both native Virginians — Clay's ambition has been so pampered by success, that he has evidently formed hopes of coming in as the immediate successor of Mr. Monroe. He refused both the War Department, and the Mission to England. Last winter he aimed at the unlimited controul of the House of Representatives, and at the formation of a Western party. His prospect of coalition then was with Governor Clinton; and it was positively, but I think erroneously said to have been effected. It has this winter much more the appearance of being concluded with Crawford; but the Georgian attack upon Jackson has scarcely any support from the West, though an immense effort has been made to engage Virginia in the cause; and with partial success. Clay's opposition has hitherto been so unsuccessful, that he sees I believe the necessity of contenting himself with a secondary Station under the next Presidency; and this may bring him back to a coalition with Crawford or Clinton, as the chances may arise — His opposition to Jackson now is involuntary and merely counteractive. At the Office ≈ Mr. Bourqueney, Secretary to the French Legation, brought me a long Note, in English, from Mr. De Neuville, upon the present Negotiation with Spain, and said Mr. De Neuville himself would call upon me to-morrow. I received a Note from Mr. Bagot asking an Audience of the President, to present a Letter from the British Prince Regent, announcing the demise of the Queen. The President fixed one O'Clock to-morrow for receiving him. The President also asked me this Morning, whether I thought there would be any impropriety in General Jackson's attending this Evening at the Drawing-Room. I said surely not. He has declined receiving any public attentions, while motions of censure upon his conduct are in discussion before Congress; but his attendance at the Drawing-Room, is a mark of Respect from him, which the President not having censured him, has no reason for declining — Jackson did attend the Drawing Room, which was more crowded than any former one this Winter; and from the earnestness with which the company pressed round him, the eagerness with which multitudes pushed to obtain personal introductions to him, and the eye of respect and gratitude which from every quarter beamed upon him, it had as much the appearance of being his drawing-Room, as the President's.
6. VI:45. ≈ A Shocking incident occurred this day; which occasioned a general sensation of horror and disgust. Armistead Thompson Mason, late a Senator in Congress from Virginia, son of Stephens Thompson Mason, also formerly a Senator, was this morning at Bladensburg shot through the heart, in a duel fought with Muskets, at six paces distance, by John M'Carthy, his Cousin by blood, and nearly related to him by Marriage. The Muskets were loaded each with three balls, and M'Carthy escaped with life, only because the balls struck the butt end of his musket, glanced off and wounded him in the arm. The cause of the quarrel was political, and originated from M'Carthy's having voted against Mason at the last Election of Members of the House of Representatives in Congress for Loudoun County, Virginia. This is one sample of the violence of political passions in this Country — Mason was of course an ardent partizan, and as he was a man of very promising talents, he is much regretted — But he had been raving to fight a duel, ever since he had lost his Election. He posted his successful rival C. F. Mercer, as a liar, coward and scoundrel, for refusing to fight him more than a year ago; and the newspapers of last Summer were filled with his charges of cowardice against M'Carthy for hesitating as to the time, and place, and form of meeting him. The duelists here consider this as quite an illegitimate battle, and almost murder, because it was fought with muskets — but if it had been with pistols, though Mason had practiced pistol-shooting, till he could thread a bullet on a cambrick needle at twelve paces, and M'Carthy was so near sighted that at the same distance he could scarcely discern his man, it would have been quite in order.
8. VI. ≈ Mr. De Neuville came to tell me that he had conferred, since our interview last Saturday with Mr. Onis; and had used every possible argument with him to prevail upon him to meet us so far as to render a Treaty practicable — That Mr. Onis's dispositions and ardent wishes were as favorable as possible to an adjustment — That his powers were unlimited, and his Instructions gave him a great Latitude — And that he would call upon me himself to-morrow, at any hour that I should appoint and deliver to me a projet for a Treaty. What it would be, he De Neuville did not know in all its details, and it was proper that we should receive it from Mr. Onis himself; but he hoped and believed it would contain no insuperable obstacle to a final and amicable adjustment of our differences ≈ The questions upon the proposed Resolutions in the House of Representatives to censure General Jackson's proceedings in Florida, were this day taken, and all decided against the Resolutions and in his favour.
9. V:15. As I was going to the Office this Morning, I met General Jackson, who stopped and told me that he was going to my house; to apologize to me, for having declined accepting my invitation to dinner, and afterwards having dined with Mr. Calhoun, the Secretary of War — He had in the first instance declined accepting his invitation also, but Mr. Calhoun having assured him it was only to meet a few military friends, who were occasionally here he had been prevailed upon to accept — He added that as the question concerning him was now decided, he was going to assure me of the sense which he entertained of the part that I had taken in this affair, and of the support given him by the Executive Government — I told him I was happy that the decision of the house of Representatives, had confirmed the correctness of the view taken of his conduct by the President. That my share in these transactions had been dictated entirely by a sense of duty and a conviction that his conduct had been correct and proper, and that I hoped yet to have the pleasure of seeing him at my house.
22. V:45. I made a Certificate for Captain Barron; but had not time to get a copy of it written, before I was obliged to go to the Office — Mr. Onis came at eleven, with Mr. Stoughton, one of the persons attached to his Legation — The two copies of the Treaty made out at his house were ready; none of ours were entirely finished — We exchanged the original full powers on both sides, which I believe to be the correct course, on the conclusion of Treaties; though at Ghent, and on the conclusion of the Convention of 3 July 1815 the originals were only exhibited, and copies exchanged. I had one of the copies of the Treaty, and Mr. Onis the other — I read the English side which he collated, and he the Spanish side which I collated. We then signed and sealed both copies, on both sides; I first, on the English, and he first on the Spanish side: some few errors of copying, and even of translation were discovered, and rectified. It was agreed that the four other copies should be executed in two or three days, as soon as they are all prepared. Mr. Onis took with him his executed copy of the Treaty, and I went over with ours to the President's. The Message and Documents to be sent with it to the Senate, were all prepared; but the President's brother, and private Secretary Joseph Jones Monroe, was gone to the Capitol, with another message to Congress, and Mr. Gouverneur Mrs. Monroe's nephew, who also resides at the President's and acts occasionally as his Secretary was likewise abroad. The President requested me to ask Mr. D. Brent, to take the Message with the Treaty to the Senate, which he did — Dr. Ingalls of Boston called at the Office, and had some conversation with me — He brought me Letters from Degrand. I sent him an invitation to dine with us next Thursday; but he leaves the city to return to Philadelphia to-morrow. As I was going home from my Office, I met Mr. Fromentin, a Senator from Louisiana, and asked him if the Treaty had been received by the Senate. He said it had — was read; and as far as he could judge had been received with universal satisfaction. I dined with Eldred Simkins, a member of the House of Representatives from South-Carolina, at Dawson's Hotel — many of the members of both houses of Congress lodge there, and among them General S. Smith of Baltimore, with his wife, and her sister, Miss Spear, who were at table. There was much conversation upon the subject of the Treaty this day signed, as well as upon the arguments now delivering before the Supreme Court of the United States, and the debates in the House of Representatives on the subject of the Bank — I attended this Evening by invitation, a Ball at Georgetown in celebration of Washington's Birthday — Otis went with Mrs. Adams and Mary Buchanan, and sent his Chair for me to Dawson's — I went in it alone. The President was at the Ball — I introduced Dr. Ingalls to him — We remained till after supper, and Mrs. Schuyler was assigned by the managers to me, to lead down to the supper room — She is the wife of a member of Congress from the State of New-York, and a daughter of my old acquaintance Dr. Sawyer of Newbury-Port — We came home immediately after the Ladies had supped, but it was near one in the Morning when I closed the day; with ejaculations of fervent gratitude to the giver of all good — It was perhaps the most important day of my life. What the consequences may be of the compact this day signed with Spain, is known only to the all-wise, and all beneficent disposer of Events; who has brought it about in a manner utterly unexpected, and by means the most extraordinary and unforeseen. Its prospects are propitious and flattering in an eminent degree — May they be realized by the same superintending bounty that produced them! May no disappointment embitter the hope, which this event warrants us in cherishing; and may its future influence on the destinies of my Country be as extensive and as favourable as our warmest anticipations can paint it! Let no idle, and unfounded exultation take possession of my mind, as if I could ascribe to my own foresight or exertions any portion of the Event — It is the work of an intelligent, and all-embracing cause. May it speed as it has begun; for without a continuation of the blessings already showered down upon it, all that has been done will be worse than useless and vain — The acquisition of the Florida's has long been an object of earnest desire to this Country — The acknowledgment of a definite line of boundary to the South Sea, forms a great Epocha in our History. The first proposal of it in this Negotiation was my own; and I trust it is now secured beyond the reach of revocation — It was not even among our claims by the Treaty of Independence with Great Britain — It was not among our pretensions under the purchase of Louisiana — for that gave us only the range of the Mississippi and its waters — I first introduced it in the written proposal of 31 October last, after having discussed it verbally both with Onis and De Neuville. It is the only peculiar and appropriate right acquired by this Treaty, in the Event of its Ratification. I record the first assertion of this claim for the United States as my own; because it is known to be mine, perhaps only to the members of the present Administration; and may perhaps never be known to the public; and if ever known will be soon and easily forgotten. The provision by the acquisition of the Florida's of a fund for the satisfaction of claims held by Citizens of the United States upon the Spanish Government has been steadily pursued through a Negotiation, now of fifteen years standing. It is of the whole Treaty, that which in the case of the ratification, will have the most immediate and sensible effects. The change in the relations with Spain, from the highest mutual exasperation and imminent War, to a fair prospect of tranquility and of secure peace completes the auspicious characters of this transaction in its present aspect; which fills my heart with gratitude unutterable to the first Cause of all. Yet let me not forget that in the midst of this hope there are seeds of fear — The ratification of Spain is yet uncertain, and may by many possible events be defeated — If ratified, many difficulties will certainly arise to clog the execution of the Treaty. There is some discontent at the acceptance of the Sabine as our boundary from the gulph of Mexico to the red river — The amount of claims upon Spain which we have renounced and cancelled will prove five times greater than the sum which we have assumed to pay; and that, when finally ascertained will leave all the claimants dissatisfied — For although our scale of comparison is between what they will obtain under the Treaty, and what they would have obtained from Spain, without it; that is, absolutely nothing; yet theirs will be between their entire _right_ which we cancel, and the very imperfect indemnity which we secure for them. The Florida's will be found in all probability less valuable in possession than when merely coveted — Most of the lands will be found to have been granted, and it may be doubted whether enough will be left to raise from their proceeds even the five Millions to be paid for the claims. A watchful eye; a resolute purpose, a calm and patient temper, and a favouring Providence will all be as indispensable for the future, as they have been for the past in the management of this Negotiation. May they not be found wanting!
[March 1819]
12. VII. At the President's this morning, he mentioned that he wished shortly to have a meeting of the members of the Administration, to consider the effect of the Acts passed at the late Session of Congress against Piracy, and the Slave-trade, and he intimated that the Committee of the Colonization Society had applied to him, to purchase a territory on the Coast of Africa, to which the Slaves who may be taken under the late Act may be sent. The President said there had been only an appropriation of one hundred thousand dollars; which could not be sufficient for purchasing a territory, but perhaps Congress would appropriate more hereafter. I told him I thought it impossible that Congress should have had any purchase of territory in contemplation of that Act, and that I had no opinion of the practicability or of the usefulness of the objects proposed by the Colonization Society: which object professes to be, to establish a Colony in Africa; where all the free blacks and people of Colour of the United States may be sent and settled — This project is professed to be formed 1. without intending to use any compulsion upon the free people of colour, to make them go. 2. To encourage the emancipation of Slaves by their Masters. 3. To promote the entire abolition of Slavery — and yet 4. Without in the slightest degree affecting, what they call a certain species of property — that is the property of Slaves. There are men of all sorts and descriptions concerned in this Colonization Society; some exceedingly humane, weak-minded men, who have really no other than the professed objects in view; and who honestly believe them both useful and attainable. Some speculators in official profits and honours which a colonial establishment would of course produce — Some speculators in political popularity, who think to please the abolitionists by their zeal for emancipation, and the Slaveholders by the flattering hope of ridding them of the free coloured people, at the public expence — Lastly some cunning Slaveholders who see that the plan may be carried far enough to produce the effect of raising the market price of their Slaves. But although the plan obviously imports the engrafting of a Colonial Establishment upon the Constitution of the United States, and thereby an accession of power to the National Government, transcending all its other powers; and although this tremendous machinery would be introduced under an ostensible purpose comparatively so trivial, and in a captivating form which might bring it in unperceived, I do not believe that is the actuating motive of any one member of the Society — For it would only be the motive of a man whose magnificence of design, and depravity of principle, would both go beyond my opinions of any man belonging to the Institution. The President said this subject had been recommended by a Resolution of the Virginia Legislature — And then he enlarged upon the great earnestness there was in Virginia, for the gradual abolition of Slavery; and upon the excellent and happy condition of the Slaves in that State — upon the kindness with which they were treated, and the mutual attachment subsisting between them and their Masters — He said that the feeling against Slavery was so strong that shortly after the close of our Revolution, many persons had voluntarily emancipated their Slaves; but this had introduced a class of very dangerous people, the free blacks, who lived by pilfering, and corrupted the Slaves; and produced such pernicious consequences, that the Legislature were obliged to prohibit further emancipation by Law — The important object now, was to remove these free blacks, and provide a place to which the emancipated Slaves might go — the legal obstacles to emancipation might then be withdrawn, and the black population in time be drawn off entirely from Virginia — At the Office the Committee from the Society, General John Mason, Walter Jones, and Francis S. Key came and renewed the subject. Jones argued that the late Slave-trade Act contained a clear authority to settle a Colony in Africa, and that the purchase of Louisiana, and the settlement, at the Mouth of Columbia river, placed beyond all question the right of acquiring territory, as existing in the Government of the United States — I treated these Gentlemen with all possible civility; but gave them distinctly to understand that the late Slave-trade Act, had no reference to the Settlement of a Colony; and that the acquisition of Louisiana, and the establishment at the mouth of Columbia river, being in territory contiguous to and continuous with our own, could by no means warrant the purchase of Countries beyond the Seas, or the establishment of a Colonial system of Government subordinate to and dependent upon that of the United States. To derive powers competent to this from the Slave trade act, was an Indian Cosmogony — It was mounting the World upon an Elephant, and the Elephant upon a Tortoise, with nothing for the Tortoise to stand upon. They took leave of me with good humour; but satisfied I believe that they will have no aid from me — A politician would have flattered them.
[April 1819]
5. VI. Mr. Crawford sent me a Message this morning, requesting me to call at his Office. He there read me Letters from Mr. Cheves, President of the Bank of the United States, and from General S. Smith of Baltimore, representing the distressed state of the Bank, and of the commerce of the Country generally. The Bank is so drained of its specie, that it is hardly conceivable they can go to the month of June without stopping payment. The measure which Cheves now represents as indispensable is the refusal to receive in payments for public account the Bills of the several Branches of the Bank at any other Branch than that from which they issued. This rule was adopted last August in respect to payments on private account, but has not hitherto been assumed for the public payments. Crawford said that if it should be adopted, the public must also refuse to receive the bills of one branch at another in payment of the duties, and he had some doubts whether this could be done legally. He thought at least there was danger that the merchants whose bonds should become due, might tender payment in the bills of distant branches, and then wait the Event of a lawsuit; which would embarrass and delay the receipts of the revenue with great inconvenience to the Public. I thought the Law would warrant the refusal to receive such Bills, by the Government; but as to the Bank itself it is not a question of expediency or even of legality — They cannot make the payments for the Bills of one branch at another; nor can they without calling in two thirds of the Bills that they have in circulation, even every branch pay its own Bills. The state of our currency, circulation and exchange, connected with Constitutional questions, and the widespread corruption of the numberless State Banks throughout the Union, is perilous in the highest degree, and threatens to terminate in a national convulsion.
14. V:45. Wrote to the President, which occupied all the Morning, and again broke in upon the execution of my Resolution to redeem the arrears of my Journal. At the Office, I received a note requesting my attendance, and that of my family, to-morrow morning at eleven O'Clock, at the funeral of T. C. Clarke. He died at eight this Morning. Mr. Alexander Scott of Georgetown came and spent half an hour at the Office. I did not very distinctly understand what he came for, and found his Conversation dull — He certainly found mine very much so. Mr. Bagot the British Minister came and took leave and presented Mr. Crawford Antrobus as Chargé d'Affaires during his absence — Bagot goes the day after to-morrow to Annapolis, with his family; expecting there the Forth Frigate, in which they are to embark for England. As this was in all probability the last time I shall ever see him, and as he is returning immediately to his Government, I took the opportunity to have a long conversation with him, reviewing all the principal subjects of discussion between the two Governments which yet remain unsettled. ≈ Mr. Bagot is a younger brother of Lord Bagot, a Peer of Great-Britain — and his wife a very discreet, amiable and lovely woman, is daughter of Mr. William Wellesley Pole, Master of the Mint, and brother to the Duke of Wellington. Bagot is about thirty five; tall well proportioned, and with a remarkably handsome face. Perfectly well-bred and of dignified and gentlemanly deportment. The principal feature of his character is discretion, one of the most indispensable qualities of a good negotiator, but neither his intellectual powers, nor his acquisitions are in any degree striking. His temper is serious, but cheerful. He has no depth of dissimulation, though enough to suppress his feelings when it is for his interest to conceal them. He has resided here three years, and though coming immediately after a War, in which the National feelings here were highly exasperated against his Country; has made himself universally acceptable. No English Minister has ever been so popular, and the mediocrity of his talents has been one of the principal causes of his success. This is so obvious that it has staggered my belief in the universality of the maxim, that men of the greatest talents ought to be sought out for Diplomatic Missions — Bagot has been a better Minister, than a much abler man would have been. Better for the interest of England — better for the tranquility of this Country; better for the harmony between the two Nations; for his own quiet, and for the comfort of those with whom he has had official intercourse here. For a Negotiation that would require great energy of mind, activity of research or fertility of expedients such a man would not be competent; but to go through the ordinary routine of business, and the common intercourse of Society to neutralize fretful passions, and sooth prejudices; a man of good breeding, inoffensive manners and courteous deportment, is nearer to the true diplomatic standard, than one with the Genius of Shakespear, the learning of Bentley, the philosophical penetration of Berkley, or the wit of Swift.
24. V:30. Eclipse of the Sun, as he rose. I saw its beginning, but after a few minutes the Sun passed under a Cloud and the Eclipse was no longer perceptible. It was of about 4½ digits and terminated about half past six O'Clock — This morning completed the task of bringing up the arrears of Journal, which on the 11th of March were of a full Month — From this moment I take a new start. Called on Mr. Crawford at his Office. ≈ I asked Mr. Crawford how the Treasury stood at this time; it being a period of great pecuniary pressure and embarrassment. He said there were in the Months of February and March, great deficiencies in the receipts from Norfolk in Virginia, but none considerable, from the other Sea Ports — But from the Western Country the receipts from the Sales of Lands had very greatly fallen off, and were dwindling down to nothing — The situation of the United States at this time in regard to, their commerce, revenue, manufactures, agriculture, banking Institutions, and political economy generally is such that the most special attention to it is due from those who are in the public service, and most especially from the members of the Administration — I deeply lament that my time is so much absorbed by other, and more immediate and indispensible duties that I have scarcely any left for thoroughly investigating this — In the midst of Peace, and of partial prosperity, we are approaching to a crisis which will shake the Union to its centre — I see violent and threatening symptoms of the disease, without knowing where to look for the remedy. ≈ Mr. Hyde de Neuville the French Minister came to ask for an order to the Collector at Baltimore, for the restoration of certain French property, piratically captured, and libelled by the French Consul — A parcel of the same property he said had been thus restored to the French Consul at Alexandria, and Mr. Crawford thought it could be done in like manner at Baltimore — but de Neuville thought it would require a short Letter from me to the District Attorney, or to the Judge — I told him that according to our Institutions, it would be improper for any Member of the Executive administration, to write to the Judge; but if he would write me setting forth the facts, I would then, if there would be any propriety in the measure write to the district attorney concerning it ≈ We had also some Conversation respecting the new Treaties of Great Britain with Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands, allowing a mutual right of search to armed vessels, and joint Courts for trying Slave traders. I told him I was glad that France and Russia at Aix La Chapelle had refused acceding to this principle of mutual search in time of Peace — But he thought it would not be inadmissible for the purpose of abolishing effectually the Slave-trade. He said he was sure there would be no Slaves in the United States in forty years from this time — There would be to be sure in Louisiana; but then Louisiana would not form a part of the United States — I said that Civil War would then be substituted, instead of the Union.
26. V:30. Benjamin Owen Tyler was here this morning. He is a sort of itinerant writing Master, and consanguineous with me. He writes a good hand, with the further talent of imitating very exactly the hand-writing of others. He has published a copy of the Declaration of Independence engraved with fac similes of the signatures. I propose to employ him to take an exact fac simile of the whole Declaration, including the signatures; to be kept separate from the original, and as an accurate likeness of it, in case of any accident happening to it. I called at the Patent Office to make enquiry of the principle of an invention for which A. W. Foster and a person named Hugus are taking a patent — Foster has written me a Letter in which he speaks of it as a desideratum in mechanics: expects that within five years it will be navigating the Wolga and the Caspian, and applies to me for information how he is to obtain Patents for it, all over Europe. I found Dr. Thornton making out a Patent for it, and describing it as a mode of obtaining rotary, by rectilinear motion — It is one of the innumerable progeny of the Steam engine; a machine almost as pregnant of Power, as the element by which it operates — Fulton's Steam-Boats have turned all the projecting heads in that direction — Fulton himself invented little or nothing; but with the aid of Chancellor Livingston's fortune he made the inventions of others practically useful — Fulton's patent privilege from Nature was enterprize, and Perseverance. He was doubtless ingenious too; but I believe not more so than many ordinary mechanics. This improvement of Mr. Fosters, is a simplification of Fulton's Machinery; but differs nothing in principle, and very little in mode from several other models of Patents to produce the same effect which the doctor shewed me. He also told me the whole Story of his own Steam-boat, which actually ran upon the Schuylkill several years before Fulton's, but which failed of ultimate success, merely by his want of Perseverance and pecuniary means — I went over the whole Office with the Doctor, and examined many of the Models — I thought how useful and profitable an occupation it might be for a young man with a competent fortune, and having no other necessary pursuit in life, to take up this collection of models; to examine and make himself thoroughly master of the principles and of the peculiar invention, or new idea with its physical application, in each of them — then to classify them; to mark all those if any there be, which contain a new principle — to examine the differences in the modifications of the same principle — then to observe and compare them with reference to their ultimate _results_ — what effect they produced upon the enjoyments or conveniences of human life — distinguishing those of which the _ends_ are comprehensive and important from those which terminate in trifles — A Steam-Engine, or a Cork screw. Finally to make a History of these Inventions, with reference to the characters of the Inventors, and the character of the Nation by whose citizens they were invented. It would lead to inferences, developing the moral and intellectual character of the Nation itself, and might with a good natural capacity, and industrious, sober and persevering habits lead to inventions and discoveries as useful and important as any of those accumulated in the Office — There might be danger unless he had a well ballasted mind of its making him a mere projector — Would it not be worth while among the public institutions of a Nation to have a school for the education of a certain number of civil Engineers? — Would it not be worth the while of a Secretary of State to reflect and examine, whether it is not among his duties to devise means of rendering this Patent Office more conducive to the Public service, and of more extensive usefulness? — This last question I am afraid I shall never solve — Every day starts new game to me, upon the field of my duties; but the hurry of the hour leaves me no time for the pursuit of it, and at the close of my Career I shall merely have gone helter skelter through the current business of the Office, and leave no permanent trace of my ever having been in it behind.
29. V. Mr. S. A. Eliot, a son of Mr. Samuel Eliot of Boston came yesterday and left a Letter of recommendation from Mr. Quincy. I called this morning at his lodgings at Strother's to see him, but he was gone out. At the Office I found Mr. George Hay, who borrowed a parliamentary pamphlet containing papers relating to the Slave-trade, received with the last despatches from R. Rush. Hay said he had a great avidity for all papers concerning the project for abolishing the Slave-trade; a project which he believed would ultimately fail; which had already produced incomparably more mischief than good, and which he had no doubt would continue to be pernicious. For he had no doubt that the Insurrection in Saint Domingo, and the total destruction of the white powers there were the legitimate offspring of Mr. Wilberforce's first abolition plans, and our colonization Society here, whatever pretences they may put forth, and whatever some enthusiastic people among them might believe and intend, could have no other ultimate object than a general emancipation. — I said that the Colonization Society were pushing their objects with so much zeal and importunity, that I very much wished their memorials might be taken up by Congress, and fairly discussed; for under the colour of colonizing black people, I was afraid they would smuggle in upon us a system of establishing Colonies beyond Sea, of the consequences of which the People of this Country were little aware; while in England, under the mask of abolishing the Slave trade, they were introducing, and had already obtained the consent of Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands, a new principle of the Law of Nations, more formidable to human liberty, than the Slave trade itself — A right of the Commanders of armed vessels of one Nation, to visit and search the merchant vessels of another in time of Peace. I observed that the Colonization Society had derived great strength from the part which the Virginia Legislature had taken in their favour — He said the Virginia Legislature had been tricked into that Resolution — That there was no such weak and absurd Reasoner in the world as humanity. It never looked but at one side of a question. That the resolution of the Virginia Legislature had been obtained by Mr. Mercer; who was the father of the Colonization Society and of all their projects. That he himself had inconsiderately voted for it under the impulse of humanity; and three hours after, and ever since, had bitterly repented his vote — The subject had afterwards been brought up again upon some correspondence between Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Monroe, which had been discussed in both Houses of the Legislature with closed doors. Afterwards the House had removed the injunction of secrecy; and the Correspondence was to have been published, but Mercer lost the copies which had been before the house. And subsequent application was made to the Senate, for their copies, for publication — A motion that the copies might be given was made in the Senate; which he, Hay, had opposed — and he took the occasion to review the whole subject — When the vote was taken only two Members of the Senate voted for granting the copies, and now, if a vote of the Virginia Legislature could be taken, it would be any thing but in favour of the Colonization Society and its projects — Mr. Jefferson he said had favoured them, because it was he who many years since had introduced and carried through the Law of the State, for partial emancipation of the Slaves; and after witnessing the pernicious consequences that had followed from it he was desirous of finding another remedy for it. But the friends of emancipation had a memorable example before them, of which it was surprizing that they would not avail themselves as an admonition — The Negro Slave-trade itself was the child of Humanity — The contrivance of Las Casas to mitigate the condition of the American Indians — Mr. Hay's opinions upon the Colonization Society, and its projects were unexpected to me — There are so many considerations of difficulty and of delicacy mingling with this subject, that I would gladly keep aloof from it altogether. But I apprehend the Society, which like all fanatical Associations is intolerant, will push, and intrigue, and worry, till I shall be obliged to take a stand, and appear publicly among their opponents. Their project of expurgating the United States, from the free people of Colour, at the public expence, by colonizing them in Africa, is so far as it is sincere and honest, upon a par with John Cleves Symmes's project of going to the North Pole, and travelling within the Nut shell of the Earth. I finished the draught of General Instructions to J. Graham. Mrs. Adams spent the Evening at her Sister Smith's — Evening without fire in my cabinet.
30. V:30. I had not a thought when writing my Journal of yesterday that I should so soon be brought into direct collision with the Colonization Society — But this morning, Mr. Laurie the Presbyterian, and Mr. Hawley the Episcopalian Clergyman, came to my Office, as deputies from the Society, with a Subscription paper, to raise money to send to Africa the Slaves which have been advertised for sale for the benefit of the State of Georgia. The Legislature of Georgia, authorized the Governor to deliver over these Slaves to the Colonization Society, if they would take upon themselves the whole expence of sending them to Africa or elsewhere; and pay back to the State all the charges and expences occasioned to them by the smuggling in of these Negroes. The Society have accepted this offer, and are now soliciting subscriptions to collect the money — They have been for some days addressing the public, and soliciting in the Newspapers; and now these Clergymen are going round as their deputies, with the subscription paper — Mr. Crawford's name was down for 50 dollars. I declined subscribing, and told Mess'rs Laurie and Hawley, that on full deliberation I had with regret made up my opinion; that the object of the Society was impracticable to any considerable extent; and that as far as it would be practicable, it would be productive of evil more than of good — That without answering for the feelings or the fortunes of individuals one or more, I believed that the mass of coloured people who may be removed to Africa, by the Colonization Society, will suffer more and enjoy less than they would if they should remain in their actual Condition in the United States — That their removal will do more harm than good to this Country, by depriving it of the mass of their industry — and thus that the result of the whole to both parties will be evil and not good — Mr. Laurie argued the subject with me for near an hour, but Mr. Hawley took no part in the conversation. Laurie observed that the Society would greatly regret not having the weight and countenance of my name, but would hope I should hereafter be convinced by the experience of their success. I told them I would certainly not throw impediments in their way. I had the highest respect for the motives of the Society, and for the characters and opinions of many of its members. My deference for those opinions made me distrustful of my own — Yet by my own, I must necessarily abide. I wished not to appear or be thought an adversary to the Society, but I could not with my present opinions give it any countenance — I was willing their experiment should be fairly made. I had no faith in its success. So far as my refusal to subscribe might operate against the Society, I should wish what had passed between us might not be made known — but so far as it concerned only myself, I had no wish that it should be kept private — Their deportment was entirely proper; and Hawley, looked assent to almost all that I said.
[May 1819]
6. V:30. Thermometer this morning at 84. Mr. Crawford had summoned a meeting of the Commissioners of the sinking fund, at one O'Clock; which I attended; with the Attorney General Mr. Wirt. Two Resolutions were past; one to redeem 27 per Cent, of the Louisiana Loan, and to apply the residue of the ten Millions of Dollars appropriated by Law for the annual redemption of the Public Debt, after provision for the interest payable in the year, to the purchase of three per Cent Stocks — There was a desultory discussion of various questions relating to these payments; and conversation upon various other topics; a violent thunder gust having detained us there, a half an hour, after the business of the Meeting was finished. Wirt was groaning about the pressure of the Banks upon the People; and from the manner in which he spoke I conjectured that he had feeling of his own in the affair — The transactions of the Baltimore Branch Bank, are still in confusion, and not likely to be soon adjusted. Crawford had a National Advocate which he was reading, and he remarked with great apparent satisfaction, that the recent Elections in the State of New-York, had, as he said blown up De Witt Clinton. The Election of Governor in that State will not take place till the next year; but the elections to the Legislature appear to be going against his friends and supporters. Crawford and Wirt both gave it as their opinion that this would put Clinton down, never to rise again — which will depend very much upon circumstances. De Witt Clinton's political fortunes have been more marked with starts of good and evil Fortune than those of any other man in the Union. He has been taken up, and lain aside, at least half a dozen times; and was never more low and discredited in public opinion than immediately before he was elected Governor of New-York without opposition. He is in fact a man of great talents, and has magnificent purposes of public service — He has comprehensive views, and great designs. But with these high and honourable materials of ambition he employs those of a baser sort; the Charlatanery of popular enticement — He affects to be a man of universal science; and smatters in agriculture, the arts, manufactures, antiquities, and every thing that smacks of combination, and vote-making — He has been labouring all his life, in combinations and Coalitions; and political intriguing with individuals and with parties. He began his political life as a furious republican, and rose with the downfall of the federal party in New-York. — He then made common cause with Burr and his partizans, afterwards quarreled with them and then coalesced with them again — Till the commencement of the late War with England, he had continued however through all his changes an ardent republican; but no sooner was that War declared than he veered about, thrust himself forward as head of a Peace party — Negotiated for and obtained the support of the federalists, as a Candidate for the Presidency in opposition to the re-election of Mr. Madison in 1812 and had agents travelling about the Country, and bargaining with individuals of influence, to obtain their support to secure his election — George Blake the District Attorney at Boston, told me last September, that in 1812 Clinton's Ambassador came to him, and explicitly assured him that as Mr. Clinton was a Candidate for the Presidency with a fair prospect of being elected, his, Blake's continuance in his Office, would depend upon the part he should take in the Election — That if Mr. Clinton should succeed he would of course favour those who favoured him — He did the same with others; and the New-England federalists actually gave him their support. This manoeuvre however did not succeed. His forecast failed him, in regard to the effect and result of the War; and his versatility threw him back instead of advancing him in the progress of his ambition. At the close of the War he was so unpopular that he was removed from the Office of Mayor of New-York, and turned over to private life: but only two years afterwards Tompkins the Governor of New-York, being transferred to the Vice-Presidency of the Union, a sudden and unaccountable coalition of all the parties in New-York, fixed upon De Witt Clinton, and he was elected Governor without opposition. Since then his public measures have been generally good; and his Speeches to the Legislature of the State have been much admired; but his appointments to office have not given satisfaction — The last year he lost much of his influence in the Legislature, and he will probably lose more by the issue of those now made. The chance is against him for his own re-election the next year — But ups and downs are the natural characters of such a man's history. His abilities rank him among the first men in the Union — he is the most eminent though not the ablest man in the State of New-York, and as he is yet not more than fifty years old another fall will by no means be decisive of his fate for life. Crawford however, obviously considers him now, as a rival removed; and evidently reckons upon the support of New-York for himself at the proper time. That he had electioneering intelligences with some of the New-York Members of the late Congress, at the last Session was manifest; and he spoke this day of the men of political consideration in New-York, with an intimate knowledge of all their party views, bearings and connections. He spoke too in a tone, that shewed a confidence that all Clinton's losses in that State would be his gains.
10. VI. ≈ I received the package of Books which I have been expecting from Boston. The Cicero and Tacitus given me by Wells and Lilly, in return for the Ernesti Edition of mine which they had to print their Cicero from. I cannot indulge myself in the luxury of giving two hours a day to these writers, but to live without having a Cicero and a Tacitus at hand, seems to me, as if it was a privation of one of my limbs. This Edition of Wells and Lilly, is a very handsome one. I opened a volume of the Tacitus, and by a kind of sors Tacitina, fell upon the passage, " _Fidem, libertatem_ _, amicitiam_ , praecipua humani animi bona, tu quidem eadem constantia retinebis" — (Hist: Lib. 1. Cap. 15.) More than thirty years ago, my father selected the three emphatic words of this passage for a motto; and I have had them these 25 years as the motto upon my cypher seal. I opened the eleventh volume of the Cicero. It was at a Letter from Brutus and Cassius to Mark Anthony. An admirable Letter. The heroic sentiment in it is "Nulla enim minantis auctoritas apud liberos est," of which the whole Letter is an expanded illustration. The threat of Anthony was no empty menace, and soon proved fatal to both the writers at Philippi — Yet the Sentiment is not the less magnanimous for that — I was obliged immediately to lay aside my books, to ramble over the waste of daily newspapers — Mrs. Adams spent the Evening at her Sister Smith's.
24. VI:30. Another wasted day; by which I understand those days consumed by interruptions of visitors, and by necessary reading, so that I write little or nothing. As soon as I reached my Office, Mr. Homans came and introduced to me, Captain Oliver H. Perry, who is to go upon a mixed naval and political mission to South-America. He arrived this morning; and is to sail from Annapolis in the John Adams; to be followed afterwards by the Constellation Frigate — I had a conversation of an hour with him upon the objects of his mission, and gave him a copy of my Letter to the Secretary of the Navy, upon which Perry's Instructions are to be founded, and which with all the accompanying documents was despatched yesterday morning to Mr. Thompson — also the paper written by the President, which formed the basis of the Instructions — Perry mentioned several other points, upon which perhaps a supplementary Instruction for him may be necessary — Forbes came in from Baltimore with the news that the houses of Smith and Buchanan, Hollins and M'Blair, Didier and D'Arcy, four Williams's and many others this day failed — Smith and Buchanan have been for many years the greatest commercial house in Baltimore; the others have all been in immense business, but Bank Speculation is what has broken them down — They will undoubtedly drown numberless others with them — In truth the Commercial, manufacturing and agricultural interests of this Country are in a very distressed situation; and their prospects are still worse — The revenue and even the tranquility of the Union will be most seriously affected by it, and as always happens, the disorder of things will produce discord of opinions, and bitterness of political oppositions. The greatest danger is of the application of remedies worse than the disease — Paper money; and prohibitions — The political empyrics are already as busy as Spiders in weaving their tangles for Congress and the National Executive. ≈ Immediately after dinner, Mr. Poletica, who arrived this day came and paid a visit to Mrs. Adams — At Noon I had received a Note from him, announcing his arrival and asking when I would receive him; for which I had appointed to-morrow at one O'Clock — He was this Evening soon followed by Mr. Hyde de Neuville, and with these visits the Evening passed away — Poletica says, that he has nothing to trouble us with — that he is charged only with the most cordial and earnest assurances of the Emperors regard and friendship for the United States — That the Emperor was extremely solicitous to be on the best terms with us, and said to him just before he left him at Aix la Chapelle, — "Je crains que nous n'ayons perdu un peu de terrain la-bas" — I assured him, that we retained all our respect, and friendly disposition for the Emperor, and should do every thing in our power to promote the best Harmony with his Government — We had much conversation upon the general state of European Politics; and upon the Affairs of France. Both Poletica and De Neuville discovered their principles — De Neuville's hobby horse is a democratie royale — universal suffrage and the Charter — Poletica's is a Gouvernement paternel — A wise and good absolute Sovereign and a happy and submissive people — "Tout pour le Peuple; et rien par le Peuple," is his maxim — Such are the compromises which the partizans of despotism, are compelled to make with the prevailing Spirit of the age. Poletica says the new Ministers in France, are well pleased with de Neuville, and wish him to remain here — I urged him again, not to go this year; but he said he must persist in his resolution — chiefly on account of personal and family affairs.
25. V:30. Among the newspapers that I received yesterday was one called the Courier, printed at Murfreesborough, Tennessee, of the 16th of April, containing a paper of five columns, to be continued, and purporting to be an extract of a Letter from me to the Editors of the National Register, and addressed to the American People — a miserable thing, full of censorious reflections upon the proceedings of Congress, and insinuations against Clay. It is a defence of General Jackson, against the objections to his conduct in the Seminole War, upon Constitutional principles. It is an imposture — I never wrote any such paper. I had seen before some allusions in several other Western Newspapers to this piece, and in which it is considered as genuine. I wrote a paragraph to be published in the National Intelligencer and Washington-City Gazette, declaring it spurious. ≈
26. V:15. Finished the first draught of an advertisement to be prefixed to the publication of the Journals of the Convention of 1787 and the list of the members — On the way to the office I met Mr. Wirt, the Attorney General, who made some enquiries as to the state of our Negotiation with Spain — Paragraphs are creeping into the newspapers, hinting that the Government of the United States, were imposed upon in the Florida Treaty; that after it was signed, it was discovered that eight Millions of Acres of Lands had been granted by the king of Spain, which were confirmed by the Treaty — That after the discovery I called upon Don Onis, for an explanation of such conduct; when the crafty Don answered that a bargain was a bargain — that all the grants were confirmed by the Treaty; and that the grantees did not let him into their Secrets — That this was the cause of despatching the special Messenger immediately after the bearer of the Treaty, and that the Government at Washington hope, the Treaty will not be ratified in Spain — This first appeared, about this day last week, in the Boston Centinel, and is now circulating in the newspapers throughout the Continent — The real facts, of which this is a malignant distortion, have been known to so many persons, nearly three Months, that I have been surprized to see nothing about it in the newspapers before. Where it came from now, I cannot tell — I told Wirt the facts, as they are — I have little apprehension with regard to the ultimate result; and am not without hope it will eventually prove more advantageous to my Country, than if no such incident had occurred. But in the mean time, I expect it will prove extremely troublesome, and especially to me.
[June 1819]
4. IV. A man by the name of Jenkins, a writing master, who said he originally came from Dorchester, but belonged now to New-York came this morning with a printed sheet of texts of Scripture, prayers, verses and pious admonitions against duelling, which he had the project of having reprinted — He had also a printed certificate signed by all the Clergymen of this place, and some others recommending this device as exceedingly useful. He came to obtain my approbation and signature to the same certificate — I declined signing it, and told him I made it a general rule not to give certificates of recommendation, for any thing which if useful, must carry its recommendation with itself. He then entered into a long argument to convince me that it was the duty of men whom Providence had placed in high situations, to patronize and recommend poor and ingenious persons, who for want of countenance in the world, were often robbed of their most useful inventions, as to his knowledge a Mr. Smith had been, and was consequently starving with a large family of children, and as indeed he himself had been, of his system of hand-writing — I gave him, I thought very temperately my reasons for declining generally to give certificates of recommendation, and he went away — My wife who was present thought I had treated him harshly, and no doubt he thought so still more himself — I thought the man's anti-duelling printed sheet of bible texts and prayers, a devise worse than useless — liable to the derision of Scoffers, and utterly inadequate ever to prevent a single duel — To have recommended it, would with my opinions have been to countenance an imposition upon the public — I felt it an impertinence in a man a total stranger to me, to come and ask my certificate of recommendation to such mummery, and still more to open upon me a lecture of half an hour upon the duty of a man in high office to patronize and recommend poor and ingenious persons like him. I bore all this with composure — answered his allegations upon the duty of Patronage; and said nothing passionate, or personally offensive to him: but my wife says that I looked all the ill temper that I suppressed in words — The result is that I am a man of reserved, cold austere and forbidding manners; my political adversaries say a gloomy misanthropist, and my personal enemies, an unsocial savage — With a knowledge of the actual defect in my character, I have not the pliability to reform it — At the Office came Mr. Baptis Irvine, and gave me some further particulars from Venezuela — He is a fanatic to the South-American cause, and sees every thing through the medium of his prejudices — Such a person is always a bad observer — He, and Worthington and Rodney and Brackenridge, all stand looking in extatic gaze at South-America; foretelling liberty, to South America, as the Jews foretell the Messiah — Graham and Poinsett have not only seen more clearly, but in secret Reports, which they are afraid of having published, have told the Government much of the naked truth — Bland alone, though he went out perhaps as great an enthusiast as any of the rest, saw the whole truth, and did not shrink from telling it out. His report contained more solid information, and more deep and comprehensive reflection than all the rest, put together; but he is now attacked for it.
10. VI. The weather has moderated, and Fahrenheit's thermometer was about 75 all this day, which was generally cloudy; but it did not effectually restore an aptitude to labour; but I was overpowered the greater part of the day with a lethargic drowsiness, which continued the disqualification. Yet I was much of the morning grubbing into the yeas and nays of the federal Convention of 1787. At the Office, I found Mr. Crawford, the Secretary of the Treasury, had been there, with a Letter from M'Culloh the Collector of Baltimore to him, and a list of the Cargo, of a vessel now fitting out there, to be sent to St. Thomas, and sold for a Slave-trader, or privateer — She was originally a prize to one of the South-American privateers — Sold to a Baltimore Merchant who is now fitting her out for this laudable purpose — One hundred sets of manacles and fetters form a part of the Cargo. M'Culloh under these Circumstances refused to clear out the vessel, until he could receive the orders of the Secretary of the Treasury, to whom he wrote this statement of the facts; and Crawford as he has done in many other cases involving an invidious responsibility, referred the papers to me, though the Department of State had no more to do with them than the Land-Office. A Mr. Murray, sent by the owner of the vessel to hurry an immediate answer, came and Crawford referred him to me. I went over to Crawford's Office, returned him the papers, and gave him my opinion upon them; which was that the equipment of the vessel was without doubt in violation of the Law of 1818. Upon which Crawford asked me to write to the District Attorney, and direct him to commence a Prosecution. This I declined, because the Law contemplates no such interference by the Department of State, and I see no reason for volunteering it. Crawford is enormously sensitive to this two edged responsibility, which brings invective, whichever side the decision is made — I find no fault with him for that; and when the responsability falls properly to my own Department, I never shrink from it — But Crawford's attempts to shift off his proper share of it upon me are not so well; and he has repeated them till they are as transparent as crystal. I advised him to write to the Collector, that as the Law did not make it his official duty to seize and prosecute vessels in this situation, he must act upon his own responsability, and prosecute or clear the vessel as he should think proper — Crawford also told me much of the information which he is receiving with respect to the operations of the Banks, and the gigantic frauds practising upon the People by means of those Institutions — The Banks are breaking all over the Country; some in a sneaking, and some in an impudent manner, some with sophisticating evasions, and others with the front of highwaymen. Our greatest real evil, is the question between debtor and creditor, into which the banks have plunged us deeper than would have been possible without them — The Bank debtors, are every where so numerous and powerful, that they controul the Newspapers, throughout the Union, and give the discussion a turn extremely erroneous, and prostrate every principle of true political economy. Crawford has labours and perils enough before him in the management of the finances for the three succeeding years.
[July 1819]
5. IV:45. Morning Bath in the river. The Night and morning cool — At eleven O'Clock there was a procession from the Washington Hotel, to the Congress Hall on the Capitol Hill, where the Declaration of Independence was read by Mr. Anderson, the Comptroller of the Treasury, and an Oration delivered by Mr. Richard Bland Lee, formerly a Member of Congress. The procession was very small, and the Oration reasonably dull — At four O'Clock, I went to the Hotel on the Capitol Hill, where there was a subscription dinner, at which the late Mayor of the City, B. G. Orr presided. The dinner and management were very bad; and the company very small — Less than forty persons including the invited guests, the old revolutionary Officers — There were twenty-one toasts, but the State of Alabama being now the twenty-second State, I gave it as a volunteer; upon which Crawford who seems to have thought I was encroaching upon his territories, gave — "the admission of new States on the principles of the federal Constitution — that they should be _Republican_." — This toast glanced at the failure of the Territory of Missouri, to become a State, at the last Session of Congress, owing to a restriction introduced by the House of Representatives, excluding Slavery from the State, and declaring free all persons to be born there after a certain period — The Senate struck out the provision, and the Bill failed by the disagreement between the two Houses. The attempt to introduce the restriction produced a violent agitation among the Members from the Slave-holding States, and it has been communicated to the States themselves; and to the Territory of Missouri. The Slave drivers, as usual, whenever this topic is brought up, bluster and bully, talk of the white Slaves of the Eastern States, and the dissolution of the Union, and Ocean's of blood — And the Northern men, as usual pocket all this Hectoring; sit down in quiet, and submit to the Slave-scourging Republicanism of the Planters. Crawford who sees how this affair will ultimately go, and who relies on the support of the Slave Drivers, is determined to shew them that he is on their side; and gave this toast to exhibit himself as their champion — On this particular question I did not approve of the attempted restriction upon the State of Missouri, because I believed it not compatible either with the Constitution of the United States or with the Louisiana Treaty — But I think Crawford's toast not remarkable for delicacy towards the Legislature; while the question is pending before them, and he an Officer of the Executive Government. — As he also flatters himself with support from New-York and Pennsylvania, I doubted a little whether this Toast was altogether judicious, in reference to its possible effect upon them. It may however pass unnoticed in that quarter. I was diverted at perceiving how it was brought out by my Toast of Alabama; the simplest thing in the world; originating in the oversight of the Managers, in preparing only twenty-one toasts — I withdrew immediately after these volunteers were given — Mr. and Mrs. W. S. Smith were here, in the Evening — There was a Comet visible, which sat about nine in the Evening; nearly in the North-West.
17. IV. The time of tide is returning at which I can again bathe in the Potowmack, before breakfast; which I did this Morning. Mr. Thomas Law called this day on a visit — I sat two hours to Mr. King. Received a Letter from the President of the United States, dated the 5th of this Month at Lexington Kentucky; he shortens his tour and returns by the nearest road, to his Estate in Albemarle County, Virginia. Received also Letters of 1 May from G. W. Erving at Madrid — Forsyth had not then arrived there — These Letters leave no doubt that the Treaty of 22 Feb'y will not at present be ratified; and that everything concerning our relations with Spain is again afloat under circumstances of greater difficulty than ever.
24. V. There was a little rain in the Night, and the Morning being cool and lowering, I omitted my usual bath in the river. I was swallowed up in calculations and meditations upon Coins, Currency and Exchange, the only excuse for which that I can devise is the connection of the subject with weights and measures; upon which I am called to report to the Senate. Sat again to King; another noisome encroachment upon my time. There were several light showers in the course of the day. Mr. and Mrs. Middleton, with their two daughters were here, this Evening; and W. S. Smith. Mrs. Adams and Mary Hellen spent the Evening at Mrs. Smith's.
25. V. A very heavy thunder shower in the Night, but without clearing or cooling the atmosphere. I bathed in the river, the last time for this Series of tides. When I came home, I found Cardelli; still complaining that he has not received Mr. Jefferson's Bust, nor an answer from Mr. Jefferson to a Letter, which he wrote to him about it — I plunge deeper and deeper into my enquiries, concerning Coins, Currencies and Exchange — the deeper I go, the deeper, and the darker appears the deep beneath, and although the want of time will soon force me to break away from the subject without even finding its bottom; yet it now fascinates and absorbs me to the neglect of the most necessary business, and even of my daily diary. W. S. Smith and his wife dined with us — The Ladies rode out after dinner, and I had a long Evening visit from Mr. Poletica — A late Evening Shower.
[August 1819]
5. V. ≈ Called at Crawford's and Calhoun's Offices to shew them the Presidents Letter, and had a long conversation with them, on the state of affairs, with a view of ascertaining their opinions what is to be done with Spain — My own is for measures of the most decisive character. They appear to be not quite prepared for them, particularly Crawford. Indeed our Relations with Spain, and the Peace of the Country are thrown into a more dangerous and fearful Crisis than they ever have been. Who can foresee the consequences of any political measure? A responsibility is again cast upon me, under which all my natural powers would sink, and the issue of which may be the worst possible — Mrs. Adams spent the Evening at her Sister Smith's and came home very ill.
[September 1819]
1. V. Wednesday. Quincy. I had anticipated some difficulty in obtaining a conveyance directly from Dedham to my father's house; but it happened that the usual daily Stage from Dedham to Boston, has an exception on Wednesday's, and I engaged it to take us to Quincy; where we arrived at ten this Morning. My Sensations on approaching the paternal mansion, and on Meeting my father, are inexpressible. The world, and life itself, are no longer the same to me that they were while my Mother lived, but here it is that I feel in all its desolateness, the privation of the blessing which her presence always diffused around her. We were all deeply and painfully affected with the change of Scene.
[October 1819]
3. IV. ≈ I become daily more and more aware of the necessity which is approaching for me, to provide for myself some permanent employment, to be substituted for the public duties which now absorb my time. Some employment which may engage my feelings, and excite a constant interest, leaving as few hours as possible for listlessness, repining or discontented broodings. Farming may perhaps answer the purpose; but my ignorance of it, and of every thing connected with it will prove a great, if not an insuperable obstacle to my success in this plan — Meanwhile I must leave all such things to be managed by others; my brother in particular, with the advice of my father and of Mr. Quincy. It will be impossible for me to give attention to it after my return to Washington.
24. VI:15. Attended public worship at Mr. M'Cormick's Church. He read the Morning service for the 20th Sunday after Trinity, and a Sermon from Psalm 150. 6. "Let every thing that hath breath praise the Lord. Praise ye the Lord." Since I have now resided at Washington, I have not regularly attended at any Church — Partly because I have permitted the week to encroach too much upon the Sabbath, and have not been sufficiently attentive to the duties of the day, but chiefly because, although the Churches here are numerous and diversified; not one of them is of the Independent Congregational Class to which I belong, the Church to which I was bred, and in which I will die — And although I can frequent without scruple the church of any other sect of Christians and join with cheerfulness in the social worship of all, without subscribing implicitly to the doctrines of any; yet here at Washington, none of the preachers has had an attraction powerful enough to draw me permanently to his Church. I have at last given the preference to Mr. M'Cormick, of the Episcopal Church; and spoke to him last week for a pew. I this day however went with Charles into the first that I found empty.
[November 1819]
10. V:30. ≈ I called at the President's; and he read to me the first sketches, of the Message he is preparing for the Commencement of the ensuing Session of Congress — They relate to Spain and the South-American Affairs; state the Circumstances of the failure of Spain to ratify the Treaty — the measures since taken by him; and recommend for the Consideration of Congress, whether we ought not to proceed, as if the Treaty had been ratified — The present state of the contest in South America, was spoken of in general terms, with the remark that success had generally attended the Patriots, who had maintained their cause in Buenos-Ayres, Chili and Venezuela, with increasing prospects of its ultimate establishment. These paragraphs were not finished; but he said he proposed to add that as it could not be expected that the struggle would be much longer protracted, the probability of its terminating in favour of the Independents had been considered, and proposals had been made to the British Government, for a recognition of the Independence of Buenos-Ayres, in concert; a proposition which might be offered at a suitable time to the other principal European powers. He said as the British Government had made known this proposition to Spain, it was no secret; and he thought it would be best to avow it explicitly; as it would take from those who wished to make a handle of the South-Americans against the administration, the ground from under them — I saw no adequate motive for objecting to this communication.
16. V:30. ≈ At Noon, after a mere call at the Office, I attended at the President's where Mr. Crawford and Mr. Wirt soon afterwards came — The President read to us, the portion of his Message that he has prepared, and which was very little more than what he read to me last week — It must in all probability undergo, an entirely new modification on its principal topic, our relations with Spain, upon the arrival of the Hornet, which I still hope will be before the Meeting of Congress — The recommendation of the President is to consider the Treaty as if it was ratified, and to carry it into execution in the same manner — He had drawn two concluding paragraphs referring to the contingency that Spain should assume a hostile attitude; one of which was in general terms; and the other more explicit; glancing at the propriety of occupying the territory between the Sabine and the Rio Bravo — Crawford preferred the general expressions, and told a Story about old Governor Telfair of Georgia, who having got into a sharp correspondence with some Officer, and looking over a draft of a Letter which his Secretary had prepared for him to the Officer, pointed to a paragraph which struck him as too high toned, and told his Secretary he would thank him to make that passage " _a little more mysterious_." We all laughed very heartily at the joke, which so pleased Crawford that he told the Story over again in detail — but it was good upon repetition — He said he had been conversing with Mr. Lowndes, who told him that both in England and France, every body with whom he had conversed, appeared to be profoundly impressed with the idea, that we were an ambitious and encroaching people; and he thought we ought to be very guarded and moderate in our policy to remove this impression — I said I doubted whether we ought to give ourselves any concern about it — Great Britain after vilifying us twenty years as a mean, low-minded, pedlaring Nation having no generous ambition, and no God but gold, had now changed her tone and was endeavouring to alarm the world at the gigantic grasp of our ambition — Spain was doing the same; and Europe who ever since the commencement of our Government under the present Constitution had seen those Nations intriguing with the Indians and negotiating to bound us by the Ohio, had first been startled by our acquisition of Louisiana, and now by our pretension to extend to the South Sea; and readily gave credit to the envious and jealous clamour of Spain and England against our ambition — Nothing that we could say or do would remove this impression, until the world shall be familiarized with the idea of considering our proper dominion to be the Continent of North America. From the time when we became an independent people, it was as much a Law of Nature that this should become our pretension as that the Mississippi should flow to the sea. — Spain had possessions upon our Southern and Great Britain upon our Northern border — It was impossible that centuries should elapse without finding them annexed to the United States — Not that any spirit of encroachment or ambition on our part renders it necessary; but because it is a physical, moral and political absurdity that such fragments of territory, with Sovereigns at fifteen hundred miles beyond sea, worthless and burdensome to their owners should exist permanently contiguous to a great, powerful, enterprizing and rapidly growing Nation. Most of the Spanish territory which had been in our neighbourhood, had already become our own; by the most unexceptionable of all acquisitions; fair purchase, for a valuable consideration. This rendered it still more unavoidable that the remainder of the Continent should ultimately be ours. But it is very lately that we have distinctly seen this ourselves; very lately that we have avowed the pretension of extending to the South-Sea; and until Europe shall find it a settled geographical element that the United States and North-America are identical, any effort on our part to reason the world out of a belief that we are ambitious, will have no other effect than to convince them that we add to our ambition, hypocrisy — Crawford spoke of an Article in the last Edinburgh Review, defending us against this charge of Ambition; but if the world do not hold us for Romans, they will take us for Jews, and of the two vices I had rather be charged with that which has greatness mingled in its composition.
26. VI:45. Morning visits from Mr. Return Jonathan Meigs the Post-master General, Josiah Meigs the Commissioner of the Land-Office, and his Son Henry Meigs a member of the House of Representatives from New-York. At twelve O'Clock I went to the President's where I found Mr. Crawford. I read as well as I could from the Spanish the Letter from the Duke of San Fernando to Mr. Forsyth, finally declaring the determination of the King of Spain to delay the ratification of the Treaty, and to send a minister to the United States to ask for explanations. I found that Mr. Crawford, who at the last meeting was wavering upon the policy of taking possession of Florida, was now very decided in favour of it, and urged all the considerations that recommend it very forcibly. As the President has appeared to hesitate, and as the despatches from Europe have produced in my own mind a disposition to pause and review, before the decisive step is taken, I suggested all the reasons that occurred to me in favour of a recommendation to Congress to wait until this new Minister shall arrive and demand his explanations — As I am still doubtful myself whether the boldest course is not also the safest, my argument was not very strong, nor very ardent — Crawford objected altogether to the idea, of delaying to act, from deference to the wishes of France and Russia; which he said was inviting them to interfere, and assuming the appearance of being dictated to by the Powers of Europe. He said that by hesitating to act now the Government would lose character and the enemies to the administration would take ground to charge it with want of vigour and energy. This I readily admitted; but observed it was one of those cases in which no course which the administration could steer would be free from censure — If the President recommended delay, he would be charged with weakness and pusillanimity — If he proposed immediate action, he would be accused of rashness and violence — Crawford said Congress and the Country would be unanimous for the immediate occupation — I thought on the contrary there would be more opposition both in Congress and the Country to that course than to the other; but there would undoubtedly be great opposition to either — I declared that entertaining my present views of the subject with diffidence, I should cheerfully concur in whatever determination the President shall finally take — Crawford referred to the proposals last winter for a Law to authorise the occupation of Florida; and to the wish then expressed for such a Law by Holmes, Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means; but the object of that was to legalize what had been done by authorizing the Executive to hold Pensacola, and Amelia Island. The President said it was an exceedingly difficult question, and he would think profoundly upon it, before coming to his final determination — I told him, that I had the more freely given him all my present impressions from a consideration that it was by our Constitution the President himself, who was responsible for all the great national measures recommended by him — The heads of Departments are responsible only as his subalterns — The measure now to be adopted, will be in itself an act of War — It may very probably involve us in a real and very formidable War. I would not have it said that by my advice we had crossed the Rubicon without looking before or behind us — And there are strange workings in the human mind. Until yesterday I had invariably thought and advised the President as Crawford did this day — until this day Crawford without directly advising otherwise had constantly hinted doubts, and thrown dampers in the way — lately, and particularly yesterday I saw that my advice had become irksome to the President — That he was verging to a suspicion that I was spurring him to rash and violent measures — I fell therefore entirely into his own views of the subject, and Crawford having discovered this, immediately took the ground I had abandoned, and is for at once assuming the offensive with Spain. The enemies of Mr. Monroe's administration and my enemies have been continually labouring with the industry and venom of Spiders, to excite in his mind a jealousy of me — They have so far succeeded, that whatever I earnestly recommend, he distrusts — If I had persevered in recommending the immediate occupation of Florida, I am sure he would have ended by striking out that part of his Message. Crawford would have continued to blow cold upon it, and nothing would have been done — This day as I have taken the white flag, and have discarded all warlike humour, the President appears to like it much better — I should not be surprized, if he should return now to the spirited and vigorous course — He will however certainly not conclude upon it unadvisedly. After the Meeting at the President's I had scarcely half an hour at the Office. Mr. and Mrs. W. S. Smith passed the Evening here.
27. VI. ≈ On reaching my Office I found a Message from the President requesting me to call at his house, and immediately went. D. Brent was there — The President was preparing a new draft for his Message, and his object was to let me know that he now inclined to recommend to Congress the immediate occupation of Florida — He said that hitherto the opinion of all the members of the administration had been unanimous upon the course to be pursued with Spain; and that this unanimity had produced the happiest effects throughout the Country — That my concurrence in particular had been of great importance; not only by its influence upon the Eastern Section of the Union, but upon the Western Country. That a difference of opinion in the administration, immediately got abroad; advantage was instantly taken of it by its enemies; other objects and other views immediately connected themselves with it, and embarrassments multiplied upon the administration. — He then went again all over the ground of argument in favour of the two courses to be pursued, and one of which must be recommended to Congress; said it was a question of extreme difficulty upon which he should decide; but on the whole he inclined to recommend that of the immediate occupation — I told him that the opinion which I had intimated yesterday and the day before had rather been given from a desire to concur, in what I thought I had perceived was a change of his own opinion, than an original thought of mine — He immediately admitted that he had felt such a change — I then said that I had offered my present views founded upon the last despatch from Mr. Gallatin, with great diffidence, and with a full determination to give all the support in my power to any course that he should conclude to recommend — His embarrassment is very great; and has been encreased by the difference of opinion yesterday manifested by Crawford and me — He sees, and I see with pain that upon all subjects of eminent importance Crawford's opinion is becoming whatever is not mine — I lament this, because its tendency must be to weaken and distract the public Councils; but the seeds of this discord are sown in the practice which the Virginia President's have taken so much pains to engraft upon the Constitution of the Union — making it a principle that no President can be more than twice elected; and that whoever is not thrown out after one term of service, must decline being a candidate after the second. This is not a principle of the Constitution, and I am satisfied that it ought not to be. Its inevitable consequence is to make every administration a scene of continual and furious electioneering for the succession to the Presidency. It was so during the whole of Mr. Madison's Administration, and is so now — Crawford was made a candidate against Monroe, and in the Legislative Caucus very nearly outvoted him. — He therefore considers himself as the natural successor, and has made all his arrangements accordingly — During the first year of the administration, seeing that I had no personal friends, or at least no political partizans, and numerous inveterate opponents in Congress, he probably took it for granted, that I should in no event be an obstacle in his way. — Within the last eighteen Months he has begun to fear that I might; and although he sees that I have gained nothing of electioneering force in Congress, but that on the contrary strong new electioneering force will be brought to bear against me, he has seen some indications of popular sentiment in my favour, in quarters where he did not expect them; and feels a necessity of working against my influence with the President, and with the public — Now in all important questions of public-policy it is difficult to choose the best and safest part, and where two present themselves with nearly an equal advantage and nearly equal objectionable points, the mind in suspense upon their respective merits is easily determined by extraneous circumstances; in such cases Crawford's ambition is the sword of Brennus, and turns the Scale against my opinion. The President's opinion is now the same as mine — But he thinks we should both concur with that of Crawford, for the sake of union, in the administration; and to this I have agreed — The President said something of stating both the courses to Congress, and leaving it for them to decide — I remarked that he, or Mr. Calhoun on a former occasion had observed that Congress would do nothing without an opinion directly expressed by the Executive — He said it was so; and during Mr. Madison's administration he had had constant proofs of it; among which he related one, peculiarly striking — when towards the close of the War, he read to Committees of the Senate and of the House his plan for raising men by levies as in the Revolutionary War; Giles who was on the Committee of the Senate after hearing the plan, refused to do any thing, until the Report explaining, and recommending it was produced, and when it was, utterly opposed the plan and said it was a conscription.
[December 1819]
3. VI:30. ≈ I went to the President's at Noon, where there was a Cabinet Meeting — Crawford, Thompson and Wirt were present. The President read the draft of his Message, which is nearly prepared — It is less pleasing, and will I think be more criticised, than either of his former Messages, at the Commencement of the Sessions of Congress — It presents a situation of public affairs less auspicious, and a variety of topics, upon which there will probably be vehement debates. The question with Spain is drawn out more into detail, and yet is not shewn in so clear a light as I could have wished it might be. The recommendation is however as I had suggested that Congress should pass an act authorising the Executive to carry the Treaty into effect as if it had been ratified by Spain; but the authority to be contingent, and to be used at the discretion of the Executive, in case there should be no satisfactory result to the Negotiation, during the Session of Congress. The paragraph's respecting the South Americans, which the President told me he had drawn with modifications of the first draft were still so strongly expressed and so partial in their favour, that I was strongly apprehensive that they would produce ill effects not only in Spain, but throughout Europe. As I was aware that the only way to obtain any mitigation of the passage, was to make at once an objection to the whole — I asked after it had been read, whether it would not be advisable to omit the whole; in this, as I had expected I was opposed from all quarters; particularly from Mr. Thompson, the Secretary of the Navy. He said if the Message should not express favourable sentiments of the South-Americans, the administration would be charged with having become hostile to them, and with insincerity towards them — I observed that this charge had already been made, and urged with all the ability and all the animation that the enemies of the administration could bring to it — That they had been harping upon it two years without intermission, and I thought there never was a topic upon which the strings of popular feeling had been touched with less success — A disposition sufficiently favourable to the South-Americans had been manifested in the Messages of the two preceding years. It was useless to repeat now what had been said before — it was not yet proposed to recognize their independence; and as we knew this to be the precise point upon which the obstacle to the ratification of the Treaty turned, I thought it highly inexpedient that any thing should be said in the Message, upon which Spain could fasten, as a departure from neutrality, and which France and Russia might consider as at least tending to justify Spain in persisting to withhold the ratification — Mr. Wirt asked if the expression of opinions and wishes could be considered as a departure from neutrality — I said that in a Message from the chief magistrate to the Legislature, if not a positive breach of neutrality it was a very near approximation to it; and asked him how it would be viewed, if sentiments and wishes equally strong were expressed against the Colonies, and in favour of Spain — The President said we had made to Great-Britain and France, the proposal for a joint acknowledgment of Buenos-Ayres; which neither of them had accepted. But Britain had immediately made it known to Spain, and to all the rest of Europe, while it was not known to our own People. He thought it would be proper to avow it in the face of the world, and to assign reasons in justification of it, which could only drawn from exhibiting the Colonies, as having just claims to be recognised as independent — At the same time he wished by shewing to the People of this Country what had been done for the South-Americans, to take away from the enemies of the administration the pretence that it was not friendly to the Independent cause. Crawford said that all the rest of the world knew we had made this proposal to the French and English Governments; our own People did not know it. He thought it would be proper to inform them of it — I did not press the total omission of the paragraph; but then objected successively to its details, urging the general objection, to each part of a sentence, and making special question upon the principal statements contained in it — The President consented to strike out several of the strongest expressions, and softened down the whole as much as the other members would approve, and when it was brought to the point which they all thought acceptable, the President asked me again what I thought of it — I said in a tone of good humour which produced a general laugh — "Sir, to be quite candid with you, I have brought my mind to the conclusion, that the less there is said in _this_ Message, upon South-America, the better it will be — Whatever therefore you will consent to strike out will in my judgment be an improvement; and whatever you conclude to retain, I must put up with, and make the best of it that I can — I have no ill will to the cause of the South-Americans. I have no doubt they will ultimately maintain their Independence; and that at a proper time it ought to be acknowledged — But at this moment I think we should avoid any thing, of which Spain might make a handle, and which would dispose France and Russia against us" — The paragraph was in fact expurgated, until I hope it will be harmless; unless the President should restore the obnoxious passages, or at least some of them, as I apprehend he may — I had as he desired drawn a short sentence, stating that France, Great-Britain and Russia were favourable to the Ratification of the Treaty. He had been promised by Mr. Wirt a draft of a paragraph recommending a revision of the Laws against Piracy; but it was not produced — He adopted mine with some alteration — The statements respecting the Survey and Fortifications, the Yellow-Stone expedition, the condition of the Navy, and the Finances drew forth few observations — On the pecuniary embarrassments of the Country, the distressed and decayed state of the manufactures, and the aspect of the Treasury Department, little was said, and I think the Message will be found meagre, by the Public. There was an introductory paragraph speaking of the reassembling of Congress at the Capitol, as an Event far more important than it deserves. Crawford advised to let it down to a very brief and unassuming notice, or even to strike it out altogether — In the allusion to the State of the Treasury, the sums were announced in Millions of Dollars and so many _Cents_ — Crawford proposed to strike out the Cents, and the dollars under hundreds of thousands; justly observing that round numbers, and general expressions were more suitable to an Executive Message; and that units and fractions of dollars might be left to the Report from the Treasury Department — When the rest of the Message, a very long one, was gone through, the President said, that was all, except one subject, which as this was a new Congress he thought it his duty to recommend to their consideration. He then produced a manuscript long enough itself for two moderate Messages, recommending the proposal by Congress of an Amendment to the Constitution, authorising them to make internal improvements by Roads and Canals; with an elaborate argument to prove that the authority has not been given by the Constitution — It is a paper which he drew up last winter, and was then anxious to communicate in some way to Congress. He then read it at a Cabinet Meeting, but finally postponed producing it to the public at that time. After he had now read it through a general silence ensued, until I remarked that when the Message at the commencement of the first Session of the last Congress was prepared I had taken the Liberty of suggesting some Considerations upon which it had appeared to me desirable that the whole paragraph should be omitted. — I now retained the same opinion, and the course pursued by Congress on that subject since the former Message had in my mind added new motives for the omission of it at present — The debates in the House of Representatives on that part of the former message had been full of irritation and not altogether respectful to the Executive — It had been asserted that the expression of his opinion had not been given at the proper time, a large portion, perhaps a majority of the House of Representatives had voted for Resolutions in opposition to that opinion — There is a moral certainty that if the President now recommends the proposal of an amendment to the Constitution, it will be without effect — The argument will be encountered by argument, and a conflict between the Executive and the Legislature, always to be deprecated in the administration of this Government will not only be established, but appear to have been invited and provoked by the President, and under circumstances in which no useful purpose could be effected by it — I was however on this as on the former occasion without support from any other member of the Administration — The President admitted as usual that there was great weight in my suggestions, but said as this was a new Congress whose opinions might be supposed not pre-occupied on the question he thought it his duty to give them explicitly his opinions on the subject — Crawford was more wary than candid in his remarks — He balanced the reasons pro and con; admitted that it was an affair of great delicacy, and that this part of the message would be sharply criticised; but still flattered the President with the hope that there might be a majority of Congress agreeing in opinion with him, sufficient to carry an Amendment to the Constitution, which a competent number of the State Legislatures would ratify — Crawford knows better — But dans les malheurs de nos meilleurs amis nous trouvons toujours quelque chose qui ne nous déplait pas — Crawford is not unwilling to see this disagreement between the President and Congress, fester and inflame — It will all turn to his account — Wirt hinged much upon the _right_ of the President to recommend an amendment of the Constitution; and said Clay last winter had denied it — Crawford said Clay was heated — But that he was very likely to start such an objection — I observed that I had no doubt of the right; though as by the Constitution, Amendments are the only acts of the Legislature in which the President has no participation, there may be some colour for the question; but it was upon the expediency of the recommendation that my doubts were founded. However, the President had determined, I have no doubt upon long determination, to send it, and he has probably motives for this measure which he has not disclosed. It is to all apparent purposes so injudicious, that the President who is a man of strong judgment, and great discretion would certainly not produce it, without objects to answer, adequate to balance the ill effects which he cannot but see it will be attended with in Congress — He has been brought into mortifying dilemmas, by his declaration of faith on the internal improvement question, for Congress have passed acts to all appearance in the face of his opinions, which acts, he has with great reluctance approved — This has given the appearance of inconsistency between his doctrine and his conduct which he has severely felt, and he draws nice distinctions to reconcile them together, which will be sharply sifted in Congress and by the public — The Cabinet Meeting broke up between four and five O'Clock.
10. VII. ≈ There was a Cabinet Meeting at the President's at Noon. Mess'rs Crawford Thompson and Wirt, present. The Act of Congress against the Slave trade of the last Session, and the questions of Construction arising from it were under consideration. The Colonization Society are indefatigable in their efforts to get hold of the funds appropriated by that act; and having got the ear of the President, and Crawford for purposes of his own being one of them, they have already got their fingers into the purse; the Government is to pay 1500 dollars for half the freight of a vessel they are about sending to Africa — Their Colony is to be formed at the Island of Sherbro on the Coast of Guinea, about five degrees North of the Line; so perfect a desert, that they are to send out even the timber to build the huts in which their Colonists are to dwell. And with all the multitudes of their members and auxiliary Societies and newspaper puff's, they have no funds, and they are ravenous as Panthers for the appropriation of 100 000 dollars of the last Session. Crawford's construction of the Law, would deliver up to them the whole of it, without reserve, though he professes to be very much upon his guard against them, and to have no belief in their success — This agent with a discretionary credit of twenty thousand dollars upon London is a clear forecast of what is to follow — Wirt in the first instance construed the Law, still more strictly than I did — He was brought over, by the arguments of Crawford, who is ready to make a Colony, out of the law of the last Session; and Mr. Thompson, who thinks the law very loosely worded and that it ought to be explained, still thinks it will admit of a liberal construction, to give effect to the President's power of spending the money. Crawford urges the most liberal construction, because the object of the act is beneficent, and affects no rights. I objected that there was no authority given by the Law to spend money to maintain the blacks in Africa at all. That if the authority is to be assumed constructively I see no limit to it but the amount of the appropriation, which will be soon expended if we are to maintain the Colony, and which will plunge us deep enough, into the plan to bind the honour of the Nation to further appropriations. The money is to be entrusted to the discretion of an Agent under little responsibility; and from the tendency of all such expenditures to swell, exemplified in the application of similar funds to the relief of distressed American Seamen, and in the army pensioner Law, this would soon become a drain upon the Nation — Then would come complaints of extravagance and waste — Then enquiries in Congress how the money has been spent, and then by what authority. Then too would come the temper, not so well disposed to construe the law liberally, or to regard it as exclusively beneficent — And the time for the Executive to think of all this, is now — The President finally concluded to pay half the freight of this ship now, and then to send a Message to Congress, informing them how the Law has been understood and acted upon; and then if Congress do nothing to explain the Law, it will give the sanction of their tacit assent to the liberal construction, and the discretionary expenditure.
13. VI:30. ≈ As Mr. Gallatin has asked to be recalled and proposes to return to the United States next Spring, I asked Calhoun whether he would accept the Mission to France — He said it would suit him in every other respect but the expence. He could not afford it. I said it was not easy to reply to that objection, the Salaries of our Ministers abroad being so excessively inadequate to their necessary expences that they could not remain long in Europe without drawing upon their private resources — But as I expected more from him than from any other man living, to the benefit of the public service of this Nation, I wished from purely public motives that he could go and spend some time in Europe, because I was convinced it would much enlarge his sphere of usefulness, by familiarizing him with facts and a description of knowledge, which could in no other way be acquired — He said he was well aware that a long and familiar practical acquaintance with Europe, was indispensable to complete the Education of an American Statesman; and regretted that his Fortune would not bear the cost of it. We had not time to continue the discussion, but I told him I should speak to him about it again.
18. VI. ≈ I stopped at Mr. Calhoun's to enquire for his Report on the enquiry of the Committee of Foreign Relations; Mr. Lowndes had called this Morning at my house to ask when I should be ready to answer his Letter. Calhoun desired me in order to make the information formal, to send him a note requesting it — And he agreed to meet at the President's on Monday, at one O'Clock about the visiting question — I went to the Treasury Office and saw Mr. Crawford; and afterwards Mr. Wirt the Attorney General. Shewed them my draft of an answer to the question of the Committee — They made several observations upon it; suggesting modifications of several of the expressions in it — Mr. Wirt thinks Congress will not approve the course recommended by the President of proceeding to execute the Treaty as if it had been ratified — Lowndes suggested a day or two since that the course of the Missouri Slave question might materially affect the disposition of the Northern people in regard to the acquisition of Florida — Every species of intrigue is working, and the result of their combinations is not yet easily to be seen.
27. VII. Mr. Mark Langdon Hill, a Representative in Congress from Maine, and a member of the Committee of Commerce, called this morning at my house to enquire concerning the papers relative to the late negotiation with Great-Britain, upon the commercial intercourse between the United States, and the British Colonies in the West-Indies and in North-America. I had directed that all the papers should be sent to the Committee. Mr. Hill appeared to incline to a total prohibition of intercourse with the British Colonies and he shewed me Letters from Mr. William King, and William Gray of Boston expressing the same opinion — He was very desirous of knowing what were the views of the Executive Government on this subject; and I promised to mention it to the President — I had much conversation with Mr. Hill upon various topics; particularly upon our commercial relations with Russia, and the political transactions while I was there — He also shewed me a Letter from Mr. Jefferson to the late John Langdon of New-Hampshire, written in the year 1810, full of his political Shandyism; a mixture of profound and sagacious observation with strong prejudices, and irritated passions. It is a sort of epitome of his political opinions and feelings — Jefferson is one of the Great Men whom this Country has produced, one of the men, who has contributed largely to the formation of our national character — to much that is good, and to not a little that is evil in our sentiments and manners — His Declaration of Independence is an abridged Alcoran of political doctrine; laying open the first foundations of civil Society — but he does not appear to have been aware that it also laid open a precipice into which the Slave-holding Planters of his Country, sooner or later must fall — With the Declaration of Independence on their lips and the merciless Scourge of Slavery in their hands, a more flagrant image of human inconsistency can scarcely be conceived than one of our Southern Slave-holding Republicans — Jefferson has been himself all his life a Slave-holder; but he has published opinions so blasting to the very existence of Slavery, that however creditable they may be to his candour and humanity, they speak not much for his prudence or his forecast as a Virginian Planter — The seeds of the Declaration of Independence are yet maturing — The Harvest will be what West the Painter calls the terrible sublime.
[January 1820]
2. VII. Sunday — Dominical Letter B. George was unwell with a hoarse cold and cough — With my Sons John and Charles I attended public worship at the Capitol, and heard Mr. Obadiah Brown preach from 23 Deuteronomy; last clause of the tenth verse — "Let me die the death of the righteous and let my last end be like his." A Sermon upon the character and History of Balaam; an ingenious discourse, well delivered though without notes; but Mr. Brown had attentively read Butler's Sermon upon the same Story, and freely availed himself of it — The divisions of his Discourse were according to rhetorical rule; but not well adjusted to one another; nor assorted to the unity of the subject. They were three 1. That we must all die, 2. That there is such a character as the righteous, and 3. that it is desirable to die like the righteous — The subject would naturally lead to a contrasted picture of the death of the righteous with that of the wicked — but Mr. Brown did not soar so high. After the Church was over I called at Mr. Calhoun's to give him notice of the Meeting at the President's at one O'Clock to-morrow — I had also an hour of conversation with him upon various topics of great public interest, in which we were interrupted by his being called to dinner — There are several Subjects upon which the public mind in this Country is taking a turn which alarms me greatly for the continuance of this Union — The Bank — the Currency, the internal improvement Question — The extension or repression of Slavery The conflicting ambition of the great States of New-York and Virginia; and the workings of individual ambition mingling with all these controversial topics. It seems to me that we are at the eve of a great crisis of which scarcely any one is yet aware — I spent the Evening in my chamber at home — The Baltimore Patriot Newspaper of last Evening says the weather was colder there yesterday morning than it had been for twenty years — It moderated here in the course of the day, and the thermometer last Evening was at 24 — This morning at 22, and this evening it is at 29.
3. VI. Mr. Livermore a member of the House of Representatives from New-Hampshire called this morning at my house to ask for certain certificates, which are evidences of claims upon the Mississippi Stock, and which are deposited under a Law of Congress at the Department of State — I told him I was not authorised to give up any of those papers, and had invariably declined complying with applications for any of them. He said he had expected it would be so — At one O'Clock I attended a Cabinet Meeting at the President's — All the members of the Administration were there — The question was discussed what should be communicated to the Committee of Commerce as the opinion of the Executive concerning further prohibitions upon the commercial intercourse with the British Colonies in America — It was concluded to recommend prohibition, both of the intercourse and of the importation of Articles the produce of the British Colonies — Mr. Calhoun pleaded hard for the exception of Plaister of Paris — as quite necessary to carry the remainder of the prohibition into effect by assent of the House of Representatives. The discussion was exceedingly languid; and no one appeared to take any interest in it — The final conclusion was to recommend additional prohibition generally, but to leave the extent of it, entirely to the discretion of the Committee — The question concerning our affairs with Spain, appears to be much more agitated among the members of Congress. Wirt says they will do nothing — That the Proposition in the Message, to carry the Treaty into Execution as if it had been ratified is producing a very great fermentation in the House of Representatives, and is very much censured — The objection is, that there is no precedent for it — Wirt himself made that objection at the time when the Message was preparing; and it is a natural County Court objection. The Barbours are taking it up in both houses, and as it is apparently now the interest and the policy of all the intriguers that the Treaty should not be ratified, nor Florida taken possession of, it is quite apparent that nothing will be done — The real motives operating to produce this effect will be altogether different from those disclosed — There will be a difficulty in resuming the negotiation with Spain, without disgracing the Country in its own eyes and in those of other Nations. But the real interests of the Nation will not be otherwise much affected by it — For this and deeper mortifications it behooves me to have my mind prepared — I mentioned that Lowndes had told me the Missouri question, might ultimately affect the vote on Spanish concerns — and I found the observation worked not kindly. The Missouri question thrills in every Southern nerve — It is yet in a state of Chaos in my Mind.
8. VII. ≈ I had a conversation of at least two hours with the President, in which I partly opened to him the anxiety which has long been labouring upon my mind. He said that the two Senators from Georgia had been with him yesterday, and had freely consulted with him on the state of Affairs with Spain, and the affair of the Florida Treaty — As members from Georgia they were apprehensive that their State would become impatient if nothing should be done, and they came to discuss the various measures which are projected in Congress. The predominant disposition in that body is to do nothing upon this subject; and this disposition will certainly prevail. Nothing will be done — But as this will not exactly suit the temper of the People, the object of the opposition is to appear to stimulate Congress to something else than what was recommended by the President. I have ever since the question arose upon the ratification of the Florida Treaty, indistinctly foreseen that it would come to this result. A little more intense thought would have drawn the deduction as irresistible from a few very simple principles. Congress will do nothing; because to do any thing they must assume the responsibility of consequences — because they must incur at least the hazard of a War-taxation upon the people, and after all the Executive would get the principal credit of all that Congress would do — One of the most remarkable features of what I am witnessing every day is a perpetual struggle in both houses of Congress to controul the Executive; to make it dependent upon, and subservient to them — They are continually attempting to encroach upon the Powers and authorities of the President. As the old line of demarcation between parties has been broken down, personal has taken the place of principled opposition — The personal friends of the President in the House are neither so numerous nor so active, nor so able as his opponents. Crawfords personal friends, instead of befriending the Administration, operate as powerfully as they can without exposing or avowing their motives against it — Every act and thought of Crawford looks to the next Presidency. All his Springs of action work not upon the present but upon the future; and yet his path in the Department is now beset with thorns from which he shrinks, and which I think he will not ward off with success — In short, as the first Presidential term of Mr. Monroe's administration has hitherto been the period of the greatest national tranquility enjoyed by this Nation, at any portion of its history, so it appears to me scarcely avoidable that his second term will be among the most stormy and violent. I told him this day that I thought the difficulties before him were thickening, and becoming hourly more and more formidable. In our foreign Relations, we stood upon terms with England, as favourable as can ever be expected, but with a state of things dissatisfactory for the present, and problematical for the future, with regard to our commercial intercourse with her American Colonies. With France our situation was much less pleasing and more unpromising — She is pressing absurd claims, and refusing satisfaction for the most just and unequivocal claims on our part. She is screwing down upon us the most unequal and burdensome Navigation Laws, and leaves unanswered repeated and urgent proposals for a commercial Negotiation. Our affairs with Spain are such that the Administration has lost all the credit and strength which it would have derived from the Florida Treaty, and although no immediate danger from that quarter is to be apprehended the Government is injured by the failure of Congress to adopt the measures recommended by the Executive, and it will be scarcely possible without a disposal of Providence, over which we have no controul, and which we have no right to expect, to come out of that controversy without loss of national character. With the Netherlands, Naples, Sweden and Denmark, we have claims for indemnity or restitution, which there is no prospect of obtaining; with Portugal we have angry discussions upon claims against us, which we cannot admit, but for which too much cause has been given; and although we have done more than any other Nation for the South-Americans, they are discontented because we have not espoused their cause in arms, and with empty professions of friendship they have no real sympathy with us. A prospect thus dark and unpropitious abroad, is far more gloomy and threatening when we turn our eyes homeward — The Bank, the national currency, the stagnation of commerce, the depression of manufactures, the restless turbulence, and jealousies and insubordination of the State Legislatures, the Missouri Slave Question, the deficiencies of the revenue to be supplied; the rankling passions and ambitious projects of individuals, mingling with every thing, presented a prospect of the future, which I freely acknowledged was to me appaling — I asked him whether these apprehensions were visionary; and if not, whether he had contemplated any distinct system of measures to be in preparation, for the embarrassments which it was obvious to foresee as inevitable, at no distant day — He said that as to the Missouri question, he apprehended no great danger from that — He believed a compromise would be found and agreed to, which would be satisfactory to all parties — I did not enquire further, though I was much surprized at this remark — All the public appearances are directly the reverse, and either there is an underplot in operation upon this subject of which I had no suspicion, or the President has a very inadequate idea of the real state of that controversy; or he assumed an air of tranquility concerning it in which there was more caution than candour, more reserve than sincerity. With respect to the Bank, he said no man had a more convincing experience of its absolute necessity than he had during the late War, when he had been obliged to borrow money on his own responsibility wherever he could obtain it, and which at one place was at one stage of depretiation, and another at another — And as to the Constitutional objections, Mr. Madison, and Mr. Jefferson himself had considered them as settled by twenty years of practice and acquiescence under the first Bank — I said that the existence or continuance of the Bank, appeared to me to be a matter of perfect indifference to the Stockholders; and indeed if I were one of them, I should incline to petition Congress to take back their Charter, and restore to the proprietors their Capital; but it was my firm belief that this Union could not hold together, while every State exercised an unlimited power of making paper money under the pretence of incorporating Banks; unless the General Government by such a Bank, substantially under its controul, and always regulating the National Currency, by preserving specie payments inviolate, could preserve the obligations of contracts, and give security to property, against the frauds of paper swindling. I also believed that the present deadly struggle in so many of the States, with all its lumbering machinery of State Legislatures, was nothing more or less than a combined effort of State Bank interests and of desperate debtors, thirsting for a paper spunge to wipe off their debts — And that the very process of purgation against which they so convulsively heaved was the only effectual remedy for the disorders of the currency. He said he was entirely of the same opinion. I asked him whether any plan was matured for meeting the deficiency in the revenue, announced in the annual Report on the finances, of the Secretary of the Treasury; and which deficiency I apprehended would turn out to be larger than he had estimated. He said he did not know — That Mr. Crawford, conformably to a practice which had been observed from the time when Mr. Hamilton was Secretary of the Treasury, had made the annual Report without shewing it to him; and he did not know what Mr. Crawford's views for supplying the deficiency were. I was much surprized to here that Reports so important to the whole system of the Administration, as the annual exposition of the State of the finances should be made to Congress without being first even shewn to the President — I thought it altogether inconsistent with the Spirit of the Constitution, and that the practice ought immediately to be changed. Now this Report of Crawford, after indicating the supposed deficiency, skulks from a specific recommendation of a remedy; for it mentions three or four without marking a preference for either — The President said we had ample resources for covering the deficiency; to which I readily assented. But the necessity was, and I apprehended the difficulty would be to fix upon that particular resource upon which we are to rely — For the principle of opposition tactics is, when they agree with administration as to the end, to differ from them as to the means; and as there is a choice of means it behooves the Administration to select that which they may think the best, and be prepared to support it by their friends in Congress, where it will be difficult enough to get any one through; and where that which they prefer will for that very reason be encountered by all the bickerings of systematic opposition. I added that I thought the best and easiest mode of providing for the deficiency of the current year, was to suspend the purchases of the sinking fund. He said that was his own opinion; but Gen'l Smith of Maryland, Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means had been to him this morning, and told him he had made yesterday a motion to that effect in the House, which had been rejected; because the members entertained the opinion, that the deficiency might be covered by retrenchment of expenses; and thought the retrenchment would be lost, if the means of covering the deficiency should be granted from the sinking fund — I said I thought the project of retrenchment, to the amount of the deficiency would prove fallacious, or if carried into effect, would be more injurious to the public than the saving of the money could do them good. But while these plans were afloat it became still more essential to the administration to have some plan of its own to meet the exigency of the case; for if the drain upon the revenue should remain unprovided for, until it should come to press upon the detail of current business, it would injure the character of the Administration, and the credit of the Country, more than a deficiency of ten times the amount of that now to be provided for could do — The President desired me to look into the Law requiring these Reports from the Secretary of the Treasury to Congress, which he said he would also do; and if it should warrant the measure, he would have a consultation with the members of the Administration, to advise upon what it may be proper to do. He said it had always struck him that this practice of reporting by the Secretary of the Treasury, directly to Congress, without communication with the President was wrong, and the occasion upon which he was first informed of it was itself an instance of its bad effects — It was a Report made by Mr. Gallatin just at the commencement of the late War with England. A report, the tendency of which was exceedingly unfavourable to the measures then contemplated by Mr. Madison. He himself had been so much surprized, upon first reading it that he immediately enquired of Mr. Madison how it had been permitted to appear; he answered that it had been equally unexpected and displeasing to him; but that he had not seen it before it was presented to the house, and that from the practice having originated with Gen'l Hamilton, it was supposed that there were considerations of delicacy, for its being withheld from the President until after having been presented to Congress — I said I could see no reason for such delicacy; but numerous motives for every such paper's being submitted to the President before it goes to Congress — He also told me that Mr. Holmes, a member of the Committee of Foreign Relations, had been to him and told him, that Mr. Lowndes the Chairman had drafted and presented to the Committee a Report, disapproving the measure recommended by the President, of giving him a discretionary authority to take possession of Florida, and proposing a postponement of any measures for the present. It was objected to this Report that if presented to the House, by shewing a disagreement with the Executive it would weaken his hands in any Negotiation with the Minister who may come from Spain; and upon this Consideration it was determined not to report for the present at all — I told the President I thought it quite immaterial, whether they reported against the measure recommended in the Message, or did not report at all — The game was up in either case — We should neither have the Treaty ratified, nor Florida for the present — The Treaty was gone forever; but the ground upon which we stand is safe — Some convulsion may take place in Spain, upon which we may be obliged to occupy Florida, or some chance may again occur upon which we may receive it by Treaty — The advantages of the abortive Treaty and more may be ultimately secured to the Country, but all the benefit which was hoped from it, for the Administration is lost — From the President's I returned for a short time to my Office — Spent the Evening with all the family at the French Minister Hyde de Neuville's. It was a dancing party. Clay and Trimble, both drew me into Conversation upon the Florida Treaty; Trimble to shew his profound sagacity, and Clay, to entrap me if he could into some unguarded speech, which he might hereafter turn against me, in debate at the House — We came home about eleven O'Clock.
10. VI:30. Snow-Storm the whole day, which confined me to the house, and I was occupied in writing the Journal of last Saturday — Cardelli came again and shewed me a petition to the President from his Irishman Wood. We had this Evening Mrs. Forsyth, and her daughter Julia, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Meigs and their daughter, and Dr. and Mrs. Thornton to tea. We had Music vocal and instrumental by the Ladies, and some of Dr. Thornton's buffoonery — The Missouri Question has taken such hold of my feelings and imagination, that finding my ideas connected with it very numerous but confused for want of arrangement, I have within these few days begun to commit them to paper, loosely as they arise in my mind — There are views of the subject which have not yet been taken by any of the Speakers or writers by whom it has been discussed. Views, which the time has not yet arrived for presenting to the public; but which in all probability it will be necessary to present hereafter — I take it for granted that the present question is a mere preamble; a title page to a great tragic volume. I have hitherto reserved my opinions upon it, as it has been obviously proper for me to do. The time may, and I think will come, when it will be my duty equally clear to give my opinion, and it is even now proper for me to begin the preparation of myself for that emergency. The President thinks this question will be winked away by a compromise — But so do not I — Much am I mistaken if it is not destined to survive his political and individual life and mine.
11. VII. Mr. Lowndes came this morning and introduced a young Englishman by the name of Hodgson — I called at the Bank of the Metropolis. At the Office I had visits from Mr. Isaac Munro, Editor of the Baltimore Patriot, and from Mr. Samuel Bacon, the Agent who is to be sent out to Africa, to receive Negroes who may be captured under the Law of the last Session of Congress. Bacon told me that he had been an undergraduate at Cambridge, when I was delivering Lectures there; and that I paid him several very flattering compliments upon his manner of declaiming — Mrs. Adams had her weekly tea-party, which was but thinly attended — about fifty persons.
15. VII. ≈ After I returned to the Office, the Russian Minister Mr. Poletica called there, with a packet of despatches for the Russian Ambassador at Paris. He told me he had given a full account in that despatch of the Missouri, or Slave question, which is beginning to shake this Union to its foundations — Poletica seems already to have taken his side; for he said he considered it a question whether this Country should hereafter be a Colony or an independent Power — I entered not however into conversation with him upon the subject — Evening at home; idle — Mrs. Adams with George and John spent it at the French Minister's, but came home before ten O'Clock.
16. VII. There was no preaching at the Capitol; and I passed the morning not profitably at home. I had some private business to which it was necessary that I should attend, and I wrote according to the President's directions to Mr. Middleton. In my walk for exercise before dinner, I paid several visits and called upon Mr. Lowndes, with whom I had a long conversation upon public affairs — I told him the President wished that the Instructions to the late Commodore Perry, should be communicated to him; but thought there might be some inconvenience in making them public, which they must be, if given to Congress, or even to the Committee — Lowndes said that in that case it would perhaps be better that he should not see them; because it would be difficult to use any information contained in them in debate, without giving rise to suspicions and to allusions, which would rather counteract than promote the views of the Administration. We had also much conversation upon the Missouri or Slave question — Lowndes, who is from South-Carolina, and a large Slave-holder is of course on the Slavery side of the question, which there is now every appearance will be carried by the superior ability of the Slavery party — for thus much is certain that if Institutions are to be judged of by their results, in the composition of the councils of this Union, the Slave-holders are much more ably represented than the simple freemen — With the exception of Rufus King there is not in either house of Congress a member from the free States, able to cope in powers of the mind, with William Pinkney or James Barbour — In the House of Representatives the freemen have none to contend on equal terms either with John Randolph or Clay — Another misfortune to the free party is that some of their ablest men, are either on this question with their adversaries, or lukewarm in the cause — The slave men have indeed a deeper immediate stake in the issue than the partizans of freedom; their passions and interests are more profoundly agitated, and they have stronger impulses to active energy than their antagonists, whose only individual interest in this case arises from its bearing on the balance of political power, between North and South. Lowndes is a member of great weight and influence in the house, which he has acquired, and maintains as much by the urbanity of his manners as by his talents. He is a man of easy fortune, and entire independence, and the winter before last declined the offer of a mission either to Russia, or to Constantinople. Yet, with various acquirements, and a character of perfect integrity, there is a want of energy and of activity in his mind. He has too much love of ease, and aversion to labour — As to the Committee of Foreign Relations, Clay, the Speaker who appoints all the Committees, selected that one, with a view to prevent anything's being done congenial to the views of the Administration.
24. VI:30. ≈ I walked with Johnson to the Senate chamber, and heard Mr. Pinkney close his Missouri Speech — There was a great crowd of auditors — Many Ladies, among whom several seated on the floor of the Senate — His eloquence was said to be less overpowering than it had been last Friday. His language is good — His fluency without interruption or hesitation — His manner impressive but his argument weak, from the inherent weakness of his cause — After he closed Mr. Otis declared his determination to speak to-morrow on the subject. The Senators went into Executive conclave and all Strangers withdrew. I went into the Hall of the House of Representatives, and heard debates there upon a specific appropriation Bill, and upon a motion to postpone a Bill authorizing the People of the Missouri Territory to form a State Constitution. There was some sharp debating, and the question was decided by yeas and nays, against postponement 88 to 87. It was past three O'Clock when I got to my Office, and I was of course but a short time there — Evening at home.
25. VII. Mr. Lowndes, Chairman of the Committee of foreign Relations was here this Morning, to enquire if I should soon be able to answer several calls from that Committee; but they require the collection of many papers, some of which it takes much time to look up — Mr. Worthington came to the Office about his claim for the allowance of his traveling expences in South-America. I was at the President's, and he decided that the expences should be allowed — Dined at Mr. Calhoun's, with a company of twenty Members of Congress, Heads of Departments and others — General Brown, and the Officers who accompany him were there — While we were at dinner Mr. Crawford, the Secretary of the Treasury, asked me, if I had seen a publication addressed to me in the City Gazette of Charleston South Carolina, signed Sagittarius. — I had not seen it — He said that it represented my reputation as a Statesman, as depending entirely upon the ratification of the Florida Treaty; and that I had prevented the ratification, by insisting upon a new Article in the form of a Declaration which Mr. Forsyth was instructed to deliver on exchanging the ratifications. It seemed to me as if Crawford's motive was to throw me off my guard, and provoke me to say something which might expose me to the derision of the Company — I might have turned the laugh upon him, by saying that Sagittarius must think the Florida Treaty as bad a concern for me, as Crawford's Indian Marriages had proved to him. But I avoided all retort, and only said — then Sagittarius admits the Treaty to be a good one. — Oh! Yes! said Crawford. But that, said I, seems to be much of a question now — The topic then passed off. I returned home immediately after dinner, to receive our company, it being the Evening of Mrs. Adams's weekly tea party. It was less numerous than it usually has been — There were about seventy persons.
[February 1820]
4. VII. Mr. Silsbee called at my house this Morning with Horace Gray, youngest Son of Mr. William Gray of Boston. Mr. Sanford also, one of the Senators from New-York was here. — His Colleague Mr. R. King came and passed a couple of hours with me at my Office. He has been returned again to the Senate by the Legislature of New-York, in a manner which is unparalleled in this Union — The choice ought regularly to have been made this time last Winter; but there were three parties in the Legislature, of which that in favour of Mr. King was the smallest. Governor Clinton's influence was all exerted against him; and the republican opposition to Clinton had a Candidate of their own — When the next House of Assembly were chosen, last May, it turned out that the federalists had gained ground, which Clinton's party had lost — He therefore to maintain himself found it indispensably necessary to conciliate the federalists, and besides appointing several of them to important Offices in the State he changed his policy towards Mr. King, to such a degree, that in his Speech to the New-York Legislature he recommended King to their choice, not indeed by name, but designating him in terms not to be mistaken. The republican opposition took also the same direction, and King who after ten trials last Winter could not get so many as twenty votes out of 150 now came in by an unanimous vote of the Senate, and by all but three in the House of Assembly. Shortly before the Meeting of Congress, he published at the request of a Missouri-question Meeting at New-York, the substance of his two Speeches last Winter in the Senate on that Bill, which was then lost by the disagreement between the two Houses on the restricting clause — This publication has largely contributed to kindle the flame now raging throughout the Union, on that question, and which threatens its dissolution. King is strongly affected and agitated by it — Whether he sees the consequences in their full extent and has made up his mind to promote them, even to the separation of the Union I am not sure — but my own opinion is that no man ought to take an active part in that discussion without being first prepared for that and reconciled to it; because it must end in that — Mrs. Adams spent the Evening with the boys at her Sister Smith's.
11. VII. Mr. Hersant, one of the persons attached to the French Legation, came this morning, with a request that I would receive him at a different hour from that which I had appointed; to which I agreed, and named four, instead of one — I went up to the Capitol and heard Mr. King in the Senate, upon what is called the Missouri question — He had been speaking perhaps an hour before I went in — and I heard him about an hour. His manner is dignified, grave, earnest, but not rapid or vehement. There was nothing new in his argument; but he unravelled with ingenious and subtle analysis, many of the sophistical tissues of the Slave-holders — He laid down the position of the natural liberty of man, and its incompatibility with Slavery in any shape; he also questioned the Constitutional right of the President and Senate, to make the Louisiana Treaty; but he did not dwell upon those points nor draw the consequences from them, which I should think important in speaking to that subject. He spoke however with great power, and the great Slave-holders in the house gnawed their lips, and clenched their fists as they heard him — The Senate adjourned to Monday, immediately after he finished, and I went into the House of Representatives, where I found R. C. Anderson of Kentucky speaking upon the same subject, but on the other side of the question — He speaks with fluency, as do almost all the members of Congress — This facility is one of the greatest impediments to our Legislation — In the British Parliament there are about ten or twelve Ministerial Speakers, and as many on the Opposition side who perform almost all the debating part of deliberation. There are never more than two or three long speeches on each side, and the question is always taken before the House adjourns — Here a single question is sometimes debated three weeks, and Members make speeches three days long. ≈ We attended an Evening party at Mr. Calhoun's, and heard of nothing but the Missouri question, and Mr. King's Speeches. The Slave-holders cannot hear of them without being seized with cramps — They call them seditious and inflammatory, when their greatest real defect is their timidity. Never since human sentiments and human conduct were influenced by human speech, was there a theme for eloquence, like the free side of this question now before the Congress of this Union — By what fatality does it happen that all the most eloquent Orators of the Body are on its slavish side? There is a great mass of cool judgment and plain sense on the side of Freedom and humanity; but the ardent Spirits, and Passions, are on the side of oppression — Oh! if but one man could arise with a Genius capable of comprehending, a heart capable of supporting and an utterance capable of communicating those eternal truths that belong to this question, to lay bare in all its nakedness that outrage upon the goodness of God, human Slavery, now is the time, and this is the occasion upon which such a man would perform the duties of an Angel upon Earth.
13. VI:15. Attended the divine Service at the Capitol and heard Mr. Edward Everett, the Professor of the Greek language at Harvard University; a young man of shining talents and of illustrious promise. His text was from I Cor. 7. 29, "Brethren, the time is short" — and it was without comparison the most splendid composition as a Sermon that I ever heard delivered. He had preached it last Sunday Evening, where my Sons had heard him; and George had written to me that it was the finest Sermon he had ever heard, and foretelling that he would preach it again here. Hacknied as this subject, the shortness of time is, I never before saw so forcibly exemplified the truth, that nothing is stale or trite in the hands of Genius — His composition is more rich, more varied, more copious, more magnificent than was that of Buckminster — There were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of Massillon; but the whole Sermon was equal to any of the best that Massillon ever wrote — It abounded in splendid imagery, in deep pathos, in cutting Satire, in profound reflections of morals, in coruscations of wit — in thunder-bolts of feeling — His manner of speaking was slow, and his articulation distinct, perhaps to excess. There was some want of simplicity, both in the matter and manner — A still greater defect was a want of unity in his subject — He gave as one Sermon a cento of Extracts from two or more — There was a description of the destructive operations of Time, absolutely terrific — and a portrait of the blessings and future glories of this Country, wrought up like a work of enchantment. — The house was full but not crowded. The New-England hearers were rapt into enthusiasm. Mr. King told me he had never heard anything like it. The Southern auditors approved more coolly — Mr. Clay with whom I walked after the service to call upon Chief Justice Marshall, told me that although Everett had a fine fancy, and a chaste Style of composition, his manner was too theatrical, and he liked Mr. Holley's manner better — Clay started however immediately to the Missouri question, yet in debate before both houses of Congress, and alluding to a strange Scene at Richmond, Virginia, last Wednesday Evening, said it was a shocking thing to think of; but he had not a doubt that within five years from this time, the Union would be divided into three distinct confederacies — I did not incline to discuss the subject with him — We found Judges Livingston and Story with the Chief Justice. I came home for a moment, after meeting successively in the avenue John Sergeant and Ingersoll — Mr. Otis had invited me to go and dine with him at Crawford's in Georgetown, and I walked there — Mr. King, Judge Story, Mr. Everett, and Mr. Webster of Boston formed the party, with Mrs. Otis, who is in deep mourning for a daughter whom she has lost since she has now been here — The party was quite social, and the Missouri subject was very freely canvassed — King has made a desperate plunge into it, and has thrown his last stake upon the card — It agitates him accordingly with deep and vehement emotion — He has however great self controul; cool judgment; and Spirit breaking experience. There was difference enough of opinion between us, to occasion much, though no angry discussion. I sat with them till after dark, and then walking crossed the Bridge, and met near Poletica's house my Carriage going for me— I called at Mr. Fryes, and took up Mrs. Adams with Mary Hellen and Charles who had all dined there.
17. VII. Dr. Thornton came again to the Office, to re-urge his pretensions for appointment as agent of the United States to Venezuela, or any other part of South-America. Of all the official duties of my Station, there is none that tries the temper so severely as that of conflicting with the stubborn perseverance of unsuccessful candidates for office. To persist in reiterated refusal without ever falling into harshness of manner, is a labour more than Herculean — An unprovocable temper is the first of qualities to be prayed for, in the discharge of these duties — The doctor will not receive this appointment, and this day came to insist upon his claims to it; to hint at the multitude of powerful friends who would intercede for him, among whom he expected would be many of the Senators, and to enquire what were the Reasons why he should not be appointed. I told him that as he had always been a very ardent South-American Patriot, perhaps the President might think a person more cool, would suit better for the impartial observation necessary to such an agency — He thought that very strange; for in his opinion, it was precisely that which made him peculiarly fit for the Agency.
20. VII. Heard at the Capitol a preacher by the name of Russell, in no wise qualified to fill the place occupied last Sunday by Edward Everett. He was of the common-place class of Speakers, whose discourses leave no traces upon the memory. After the service was finished I paid visits to several of the judges, but only saw judge Johnson, who told me he was engaged in drawing up a Bankrupt Act upon an entire new plan — to have neither Commissioners of Bankruptcy nor Assignees, but to allot to the District Judge the duties of the former, and to a single trustee those of the latter. I also called and visited R. Peters jun'r, Captain Biddle, Cadwalader and Hopkinson were not at home. I met there General Bloomfield, who with many others is much alarmed at the dissensions which have arisen in the Nation and in Congress from the Missouri or Slave question. The territory of Missouri, is a part of the Louisiana cession. At the Session of Congress before the last, a Bill was introduced for enabling its inhabitants to form a State Constitution — There was then not time to pass the Bill, which was referred over, and brought forward again at the last Session. When it was under debate at the second reading in Committee of the whole, an amendment was proposed by Gen'l James Tallmadge, seconded by John W. Taylor, both members from the State of New-York, making it one of the conditions of the admission of Missouri that the further introduction of Slavery should be prohibited, and that Slaves hereafter born there should be free at the age of 25. This amendment excited a very angry debate, but was adopted by the House, disagreed to by the Senate, and each house _adhering_ to its views the Bill was lost between them. When the amendment was first presented, its importance and consequences were certainly foreseen by no one, not even by those who brought it forward. Its discussion disclosed a secret, it revealed the basis for a new organization of parties — Clay had been two years labouring, first upon South-American Patriotism, and then upon the Seminole War, first in defiance of Crawford and then as a subaltern to him, to get up a new party. In both instances he had failed — But here was a new party ready formed, but of no pleasing aspect either to Clay or Crawford: terrible to the whole Union, but portentously terrible to the South — threatening in its progress the emancipation of all their Slaves; threatening in its immediate effect that Southern domination which has swayed the Union for the last twenty years, and threatening that political ascendancy of Virginia, upon which Clay and Crawford both had fastened their principal hopes of personal aggrandizement. The failure of the Bill, and the attempt to exclude Slavery from the future State of Missouri, produced great fermentation there; and in the Southern States, but particularly in Virginia. North and East it excited less feeling, but Mr. King who had taken a considerable part in the debate at the last Session in Senate, in the course of the Summer set on foot and organized a concert of measures which have resulted in the struggle which now shakes the Union to its centre — Bloomfield, though a member from New-Jersey took at the last Session the Southern side of this question, and still adheres to it — But he says he received yesterday a Letter from a very sober and respectable neighbour of his, who asks him whether a civil War, would not be preferable to the extension of Slavery beyond the Mississippi — This is a question between the rights of human nature and the Constitution of the United States — Probably both will suffer by the issue of the controversy — When I came home, I found here Mr. Van Brugh Livingston; a young man whom we had seen in England, but of whom I had lost the recollection — Evening at home.
23. VII. A. Livermore and W. Plumer jun'r members of the House of Representatives from New-Hampshire called upon me, and conversing on the Missouri-Slave question, which at this time agitates Congress and the Nation, asked my opinion, of the propriety of agreeing to a compromise. The division in Congress and the Nation is nearly equal on both sides. The argument on the free side is, the moral and political duty of preventing the extension of Slavery in the immense Country from the Mississippi river to the South-Sea — The argument on the Slave side, is that Congress have no power by the Constitution to prohibit Slavery in any State, and the zealots say, not in any territory. The proposed compromise is to admit Missouri, and hereafter Arkansaw, as States without any restriction upon them regarding Slavery; but to prohibit the future introduction of Slaves in all territories of the United States North of 36:30 Latitude — I told these Gentlemen that my opinion was, the question could be settled no otherwise than by a compromise. The regulation, exclusion, or abolition of Slavery in the system of our Union, is among the Powers reserved to the People of the several States, by their separate Governments; though I have no doubt that Congress have Constitutional power to prohibit any internal traffic in Slaves, between one State and another — In the States where Slavery does not exist, neither Congress, nor the State Legislature nor the People have any rightful power to establish it. For the admission into the Union of a State where no Slavery exists, Congress may prescribe as a condition that Slavery shall never be established in it; as they have done, to the States of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; but where it exists, and where there are already Slaves in great numbers, as in Missouri and Arkansaw, the power of extirpating it is not given to Congress by the Constitution. To proscribe Slavery therefore in Missouri or Arkansaw I believe to be impracticable — But if a provision can be obtained excluding the introduction of Slaves into future territories, it will be a great and important point secured — I apprehend however that Livermore and Plumer did not concur with me in opinion. ≈
24. VI. ≈ I had also some Conversation with Calhoun, on the Slave question pending in Congress. He said he did not think it would produce a dissolution of the Union, but if it should the South would be from necessity compelled to form an Alliance Offensive and Defensive with Great Britain — I said that would be returning to the Colonial State; he said yes — pretty much; but it would be forced upon them — I asked him whether he thought, if by the effect of this alliance offensive and defensive, the population of the North should be cut off from its natural outlet upon the Ocean, it would fall back upon its rocks bound hand and foot to starve, or whether it would not retain its powers of locomotion, to move Southward by Land. Then he said they would find it necessary to make their communities all military. I pressed the conversation no farther, but if the dissolution of the Union should result from the Slave question, it is as obvious as any thing that can be foreseen of futurity, that it must shortly afterwards be followed by the universal emancipation of the Slaves. A more remote but perhaps not less certain consequence would be the extirpation of the African race on this Continent, by the gradually bleaching process of intermixture; where the white portion is already so predominant, and by the destructive progress of emancipation, which like all great religious and political reformations is terrible in its means though happy and glorious in its end. Slavery is the great and foul stain upon the North-American Union; and it is a contemplation worthy of the most exalted soul, whether its total abolition is or is not practicable — If practicable, by what means it may be effected, and if a choice of means be within the scope of the object, what means would accomplish it, at the smallest cost of human sufferance — A dissolution, at least temporary of the Union as now constituted would be certainly necessary, and the dissolution must be upon a point involving the question of Slavery, and no other. The union might then be reorganized, on the fundamental principle of emancipation. This object is vast in its compass — awful in its prospects, sublime and beautiful in its issue. A life devoted to it would be nobly spent or sacrificed — This Conversation with Calhoun led me into a momentous train of reflection. It also engaged me so much that I detained him at his Office, insensibly to myself till near five O'Clock, an hour at least, later than his dining time — In the Evening, with Mrs. Adams, I attended a Ball at Col. Tayloe's — Was beaten at Chess by Mr. George Tucker, a member of the House from Virginia. We came home before eleven.
26. VI. Attended a meeting of the Commissioners of the sinking fund, at the Committee room of the Senate, at the Capitol. It was appointed at eleven O'Clock, but it was twelve before Mr. Crawford made his appearance. ≈ The meeting was over in half an hour — I then went into the Hall where the Supreme Court of the United States were in Session; they were engaged in a Prize Cause of no considerable interest; and I soon passed in to the House of Representatives, where John Randolph was speaking upon one of the Missouri Slave questions. I heard him, between three and four hours — His Speech as usual had neither beginning, middle nor end. Egotism, Virginian Aristocracy, Slave-scourging Liberty, Religion, Literature, Science, Wit, Fancy, Generous feelings, and malignant Passions, constitute a Chaos in his Mind, from which nothing orderly can ever flow — The House was in Committee of the whole. Cobb of Georgia in the Chair — Clay the Speaker twice called Randolph to order. The Chairman, pronounced him not in order — he disputed the call and the decision, as long as he could, and then as if yielding, said he would try t'other tack — It was useless to call him to order — He can no more keep order than he can keep silence. It was past four when he sat down. ≈
27. VI. Heard Mr. Rice, the Baptist preacher again at the Capitol. Then called with Mrs. Adams at Commodore Decatur's, to return the visits of Mr. and Mrs. M'Tavish: the Lady was a Miss Caton of Baltimore, sister to Mrs. Robert Patterson, and to Lady Harvey — Her husband is one of the fur-trading Northwest Company Scotchmen of Montreal — They were out — I next paid a visit long due to Mr. Homans the Chief Clerk of the Navy Department, and afterwards called upon Mr. R. King, at his lodgings at Crawford's Hotel, Georgetown. Found him still absorbed in the Missouri Slave question; upon which he has been the great champion of freedom and the Northern interest. The partizans of Slavery have spread abroad the idea, that he has been actuated in this affair by motives of personal ambition — That he is making an effort to get up a new division of parties, and to put himself at the head of half the Union, despairing of ever being able to obtain the highest powers and honours of the whole. It is not easy to account for the course that King has pursued throughout this affair, without allowing something for the instigations of personal expectancy. He has probably been pushed forward, eagerly by his friends and he has been spurred into more violent exertions and has opened his heart to warmer hopes on this occasion than I think the event will justify. He reckons more upon the apparent ardour of the popular Sentiment against Slavery, to the North, than it is worth — The question to the North and in the free States is merely speculative; the People do not feel it in their persons or their purses. On the Slave side, it comes home to the feelings and interests of every man in the community — Hence if this question is ultimately decided as it will be in favour of Slavery in Missouri, the people in the free States will immediately acquiesce in the decision, and it will be impossible to keep the controversy alive. King, however indulges hopes that it may survive the present question — I walked home from Georgetown. Mrs. Adams spent the Evening with a party at Commodore Decatur's — I passed it at home, in my chamber.
[March 1820]
2. VI:30. ≈ The compromise of the Slave question was this day completed in Congress. The Senate have carried their whole point; barely consenting to the formality of separating the Bill for the admission of the State of Maine into the Union, from that for authorising the People of the Territory of Missouri to form a State Government — The condition that Slavery should be prohibited by their Constitution, which the House of Representatives had inserted, they have abandoned — Missouri and Arkansaw will be Slave States; but to the Missouri Bill, a section is annexed, prohibiting Slavery in the remaining part of the Louisiana cession, North of Latitude 36:30. This compromise as it is called was finally carried this Evening by a vote of 90 to 87 in the House of Representatives; after several successive days and almost nights of stormy debate.
3. VI:30. Went with Mrs. Adams, our Son Charles, and Mary Hellen to the Capitol Hill, and viewed Sully's Picture of the passage of the river Delaware by General Washington, 25 December 1776, now exhibited in the building lately occupied by the two houses of Congress. As a picture of men and especially of horses, as large as life it has merit; but there is nothing in it that marks the scene, or the crisis — The principal figure, is the worst upon the Canvas — Badly drawn, badly coloured; without likeness, and without character — While we were there Jeremiah Nelson, a member of the House from Massachusetts came in, and told us of John Randolph's motion this morning to reconsider one of the votes of yesterday upon the Missouri Bill, and of the trickery by which his motion was defeated; by the Speaker's declaring it not in order when first made; the Journal of yesterday's proceedings not having been then read — and while they were reading the Clerk of the House carried the Bills as passed by the House to the Senate; so that when Randolph, after the reading of the Journals renewed his motion, it was too late; the papers being no longer in possession of the house. And so it is that a Law perpetuating Slavery in Missouri, and perhaps in North-America has been smuggled through both houses of Congress. I have been convinced from the first starting of this question that it could not end otherwise — The fault is in the Constitution of the United States, which has sanctioned a dishonourable compromise with Slavery. There is henceforth no remedy for it but a new organization of the Union, to effect which a concert of all the white States is indispensable. Whether that can ever be accomplished is doubtful — It is a contemplation not very creditable to human nature, that the cement of common interest produced by Slavery is stronger and more solid than that of unmingled freedom. In this instance the Slave-States have clung together in one unbroken phalanx, and have been victorious by the means of accomplices and deserters, from the ranks of Freedom. Time only can show whether the contest may ever be with equal advantage renewed. But so polluted are all the streams of Legislation in regions of Slavery, that this Bill has been obtained only by two as unprincipled artifices as dishonesty ever devised; one by coupling it as an appendage to the Bill for admitting Maine; and the other by this outrage, perpetrated by the Speaker upon the Rules of the house. — When I came this day to my Office, I found there a Note requesting me to call at one O'Clock at the President's house — It was then one, and I immediately went over. He expected that the two Bills; for the admission of Maine, and to enable Missouri to make a Constitution, would have been brought to him for his signature; and he had summoned all the members of the Administration, to ask their opinions in writing to be deposited in the Department of State; upon two Questions. 1. Whether Congress had a Constitutional right to prohibit Slavery in a Territory? and 2. Whether the 8th Section of the Missouri Bill, which interdicts Slavery _forever_ in the Territory north of 36½ Latitude, was applicable only to the territorial State, or would extend to it, after it should become a State — As to the first question, it was unanimously agreed that Congress have the power to prohibit Slavery in the Territories; and yet neither Crawford, Calhoun, nor Wirt could find any express power to that effect given in the Constitution; and Wirt declared himself very decidedly against the admission of any implied powers — The progress of this discussion, has so totally merged in passion all the reasoning faculties of these Slave-holders, that these Gentlemen in the simplicity of their hearts had come to a conclusion in direct opposition to their premises, without being aware or conscious of inconsistency — They insisted upon it that the clause in the Constitution, which gives Congress power to dispose of, and make all _needful_ rules and regulations respecting the territory and other property of the United States, had reference to it, only as land, and conferred no authority to make rules, binding upon its inhabitants; and Wirt added the notable Virginian objection, that Congress could make only _needful_ rules and regulations — and that a prohibition of Slavery was not _needful_. Their argument, as Randolph said of it in the House covered the whole ground, and their compromise measured by their own principles is a sacrifice of what they hold to be the Constitution. I had no doubt of the right of Congress to interdict Slavery in the Territories, and urged that the power contained in the term dispose of, included the authority to do every thing that could be done with it as mere property, and that the additional words authorising needful rules and regulations respecting it, must have reference to persons connected with it, or could have no meaning at-all — As to the force of the term needful, I observed it was relative, and must always be supposed to have reference to some end — Needful to what end — Needful in the Constitution of the United States to any of the ends for which that compact was formed — those ends are declared in its preamble — to establish justice for example. What can be more needful to the establishment of Justice, than the interdiction of Slavery where it does not exist. As to the second question my opinion was that the interdiction of Slavery in the 8th Section of the Bill, _forever_ , would apply and be binding upon the State, as well as upon the Territory; because by its interdiction in the Territory, the People when they come to form a Constitution, would have no right to sanction Slavery — Crawford said that in the new States, which have been admitted into the Union upon the express condition that their Constitutions should consist with the perpetual interdiction of Slavery, it might be sanctioned by an ordinary act of their Legislatures — I said, that whatever a State Legislature might do in point of fact, they could not by any rightful exercise of power establish Slavery — The Declaration of Independence, not only asserts the natural equality of all men, and their unalienable right to Liberty; but that the only _just_ powers of government are derived from the consent of the governed. A power for one part of the people to make slaves of the other can never be derived from consent, and is therefore not a just power. Crawford said this was the opinion that had been _attributed_ to Mr. King. I said it was undoubtedly the opinion of Mr. King; and it was mine. I did not want to make a public display of it, where it might excite irritation, but if called upon officially for it, I should not withhold it — But the opinion was not peculiar to Mr. King and me — It was an opinion universal in the States where there are no Slaves — It was the opinion of all those members of Congress who voted for the restriction upon Missouri, and of many of those who voted against it — As to the right of imposing the restriction upon a State, the President had signed a Bill with precisely such a restriction upon the State of Illinois — Why should the question be made now, which was not made then — Crawford said that was done in conformity to the compact of the Ordinance of 1787: and besides the restriction was a nullity, not binding upon the Legislatures of those States. I did not reply to the assertion that a solemn compact, announced before heaven and earth in the ordinance of 1787, a compact laying the foundation of security to the most sacred rights of human nature, against the most odious of oppressions, a compact solemnly renewed by the acts of Congress enabling the States of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, to form State Governments, and again by the Acts for admitting those States into the Union, was a _nullity_ , which the Legislatures of either of those States may at any time disregard and trample under foot. It was sickening to my Soul to hear the assertion; but to have discussed it there would have been useless, and only have kindled in the bosom of the Executive, the same flame which has been raging in Congress; and in the Country — Its discussion was unnecessary, to the decision of the questions proposed by the President — I therefore only said that the Ordinance of 1787 had been passed by the old Congress of the Confederation, without authority from the States, but had been tacitly confirmed by the adoption of the present Constitution, and the authority given to Congress in it to make needful rules and regulations for the territory — I added that in one of the numbers of the federalist, there was an admission that the old Congress had passed the Ordinance without authority, under an impulse of necessity — and that it was used as an argument in favour of the enlarged powers granted to Congress in the Constitution. Crawford said it could therefore have little or no weight as authority — I replied that it was not wanted as authority — That when the old Confederation was adopted the United States had no territory. Nor was there in the Act of Confederation, in which the powers of Congress under it were enumerated, a word about territory. But there was a clause interdicting to Congress the exercise of any powers not expressly given them. I alluded to the origin of the Confederation with our Revolution — To the revolutionary powers exercised by Congress, before the Confederation was adopted — To the question whether the Northwestern territory belonged to the United States or the separate States — To the delays occasioned by that question in the acceptance of the Confederation; and to the subsequent cessions of Territory by several States, to the Union, which gave occasion for the ordinance of 1787. To all which Crawford said nothing. Wirt said that he perfectly agreed with me, that there could be no rightful power to establish Slavery where it was res nova — But he thought it would not be the force of the Act of Congress that would lead to this result — The principle itself being correct, though Congress might have no power to prescribe it to a sovereign State. To this my reply was that the power of establishing Slavery, not being a Sovereign power, but a wrongful and despotic power, Congress had a right to say that no State undertaking to establish it de novo should be admitted into the Union; and that a State which should undertake to establish it would put herself out of the pale of the Union, and forfeit all the rights and privileges of the connection. The President said that it was impossible to exclude the principle of implied powers, being granted to Congress by the Constitution. The Powers of Sovereignty were distributed between the General and the State Governments — Extensive powers were given in general terms; all detailed and incidental powers were implied in the general grant. Some years ago, Congress had appropriated a sum of money to the relief of the inhabitants of Caraccas, who had suffered by an earthquake — There was no express grant of authority to apply the public money to such a purpose — It was by an implied power — The material question was only when the power supposed to be implied came in conflict with rights reserved to the State Governments — He inclined also to think with me, that the Rules and Regulations, which Congress were authorised to make for the territories, must be understood as extending to their inhabitants — And he recurred to the history of the Northwestern Territory. The Cessions by the several States to the Union, and the controversies concerning this subject during our revolutionary War — He said he wished the written opinion of the members of the Cabinet, without discussion, in terms as short as it could be expressed, and merely that it might be deposited in the Department of State — I told him that I should prefer a dispensation from answering the second question; especially as I should be alone here in the opinion which I entertained; for Mr. Thompson, the Secretary of the Navy cautiously avoided giving any opinion, upon the question of natural right, but assented to the Slave-sided doctrine that the eighth Section of the Bill, word _forever_ , and all, applied only to the time and condition of the territorial Government — I said therefore that if required to give my opinion upon the second question, standing alone, it would be necessary for me to assign the reasons upon which I entertained it — Crawford saw no necessity for any reasoning about it, but had no objection to my assigning my reasons — Calhoun thought it exceedingly desirable that no such argument should be drawn up and deposited. He therefore suggested to the President, the idea of changing the terms of the second question, so that it should be, whether the 8th Section of the Bill was consistent with the Constitution? — which the other members of the administration might answer affirmatively, assigning their reason, because they considered it applicable only to the territorial state; while I could answer it, also affirmatively, without annexing any qualification — To this the President readily assented, and I as readily agreed — The questions are to be framed accordingly — This occasion has remarkably manifested Crawford's feelings, and the continually kindling intenseness of his ambition. I have had information from the Governor of the State of Indiana, that there is in that State a party countenanced and supported by Crawford whose purpose it is to introduce Slavery into that State, and there is reason to believe that the same project exists in Ohio and Illinois. This avowed opinion that in defiance of the Ordinance of 1787, and of the Laws admitting those States into the Union, Slavery may be established in either of those States by an ordinary act of its Legislature strongly confirms the impressions of him communicated to me by the Governor of Indiana. It is apparent that Crawford is already aware, how his canvass for the Presidency may be crossed by this Slavery contest — The violence of its operation upon his temper is such that he could not suppress it — After this meeting, I walked home with Calhoun, who said that the principles, which I had avowed were just and noble; but that in the Southern Country, whenever they were mentioned, they were always understood as applying only to white men. Domestic labour was confined to the blacks; and such was the prejudice, that if he, who was the most popular man in his district, were to keep a white servant in his house, his character and reputation would be irretrievably ruined. I said that this confounding of the ideas of servitude and labour, was one of the bad effects of Slavery — but he thought it attended with many excellent consequences — It did not apply to all kinds of labour — not for example to farming — He himself had often held the plough — So had his father — Manufacturing and mechanical labour, was not degrading — It was only manual labour — the proper work of Slaves — No white person could descend to that — And it was the best guarantee to equality among the whites. It produced an unvarying level among them. It not only did not excite, but did not even admit of inequalities, by which one white man could domineer over another. I told Calhoun I could not see things in the same light — It is in truth all perverted sentiment — mistaking labour for Slavery, and dominion for Freedom — The discussion of this Missouri question has betrayed the secret of their Souls — In the abstract they admit that Slavery is an evil; they disclaim all participation in the introduction of it; and cast it all upon the shoulders of our old Grandam Britain — But when probed to the quick upon it they show at the bottom of their Souls, pride and vain-glory in their very condition of masterdom — They fancy themselves more generous and noble-hearted than the plain freemen who labour for subsistence — They look down upon the simplicity of a yankey's manners because he has no habits of overbearing like theirs, and cannot treat negroes like dogs. It is among the evils of Slavery that it taints the very sources of moral principle — It establishes false estimates of virtue and vice; for what can be more false and heartless than this doctrine which makes the first and holiest rights of humanity to depend upon the colour of the skin — It perverts human reason, and reduces men endowed with logical powers to maintain that Slavery is sanctioned by the Christian religion — That Slaves are happy and contented in their condition. That between Master and Slave there are ties of mutual attachment and affection. That the virtues of the Master, are refined, and exalted by the degradation of the Slave, while at the same time they vent execrations upon the Slave-trade; curse Britain for having given them Slaves, burn at the Stake, negroe's convicted of crimes; for the terror of the example, and writhe in agonies of fear, at the very mention of human rights as applicable to men of colour. The impression produced upon my mind by the progress of this discussion is that the bargain between Freedom and Slavery contained in the Constitution of the United States, is morally and politically vicious — Inconsistent with the principles upon which alone our revolution can be justified; cruel and oppressive by rivetting the chains of Slavery — by pledging the faith of Freedom to maintain and perpetuate the tyranny of the master, and grossly unequal and impolitic, by admitting that Slaves are at once enemies to be kept in subjection, property to be secured or restored to their owners, and persons, not to be represented themselves, but for whom their masters are priviledged with nearly a double share of representation — The consequence has been that this Slave representation has governed the Union — Benjamin, portioned above his brethren has ravined as a wolf — in the morning he has devoured the prey, and at night he has divided the spoil — It would be no difficult matter to prove by reviewing the history of the Union under this Constitution, that almost every thing which has contributed to the honour and welfare of the nation has been accomplished in despite of them, or forced upon them; and that every thing unpropitious and dishonourable, including the blunders and follies of their adversaries, may be traced to them — I have favoured this Missouri compromise, believing it to be all that could be effected under the present Constitution, and from extreme unwillingness to put the Union at hazard. But perhaps it would have been a wiser as well as a bolder course to have persisted in the restriction upon Missouri, till it should have terminated in a Convention of the States to revise and amend the Constitution. This would have produced a new Union of thirteen or fourteen States, unpolluted with Slavery, with a great and glorious object to effect; namely that of rallying to their Standard the other States, by the universal emancipation of their Slaves. If the Union must be dissolved, Slavery is precisely the question upon which it ought to break. For the present however this contest is laid asleep — Mr. Connell of Philadelphia spent the Evening with us.
4. VI:30. ≈ At the Office, the Senators Parrott, R. King, Otis and Dana successively called. ≈ King apparently came to talk with me of the compromise, and the Maine and Missouri Bills — There were however so many persons present that he said but little. He is deeply mortified at the issue, and very naturally feels resentful at the imputations of the Slave-holders that his motives on this occasion have been merely, of personal aggrandizement — "Close ambition, varnished oer with zeal" — This imputation of bad motives, is one of the most envenomed weapons of political, and indeed of every sort of controversy — It came originally from the Devil "Doth Job fear God for naught" — The selfish and the social Passions are intermingled in the conduct of every man acting in a public capacity — It is right that they should be so, and it is no just cause of reproach to any man, that in promoting to the utmost of his power the public good, he is desirous at the same time of promoting his own — There are no doubt hypocrites of humanity as well as of religion — Men with cold hearts and warm professions, trading upon benevolence, and using Justice and Virtue as the Stakes upon the turn of a Card, or the cast of a die — But this sort of profligacy belongs to a State of Society more deeply corrupted than ours. Such characters are rare among us. Many of our public men have principles too pliable to popular impulse, but few are deliberately dishonest; and there is not a man in the Union of purer integrity than Rufus King — I dined and spent the Evening, with Mrs. Adams at Mr. Hyde de Neuville, the French Minister's.
5. VI:30. The President sent me yesterday the two Questions in writing upon which he desired to have answers in writing, to be deposited in the Department of State. He wrote me that it would be in time if he should have the answers To-morrow. The first question is in general terms, as it was stated at the Meeting on Friday. The second was modified, to an enquiry whether the 8th Section of the Missouri Bill is consistent with the Constitution — To this I can without hesitation, answer by a simple affirmative, and so after some reflection, I concluded to answer both. Heard Mr. Post, the Chaplain of the Senate, at the Capitol, and after Church I returned several visits. Among the rest to Mr. Daggett of Connecticut, late a Senator, and now here upon business at the Supreme Court — Burrill and Hunter of Rhode-Island, Dana of Connecticut, and Mellen now of Maine lodge at the same house, and were there. Mr. Thompson the Secretary of the Navy came in, while I was there, and Mr. Parrott of New Hampshire — It was said that in the hottest paroxysm of the Missouri Question in the Senate, James Barbour one of the Virginia Senators, was going round to all the Free State Members, and proposing to them to call a Convention of the States, to dissolve the Union, and agree upon the terms of Separation, and the mode of disposing of the public debt, and of the Lands, and make other necessary arrangements of disunion — Dana said he told him, that he was not for calling a Convention to separate; but he had no objection to a Convention to form a more perfect Union — I observed that I thought a Convention might in the course of a few years be found necessary to remedy the great imperfections of the present system; and that it might be called whenever a majority of the People should become convinced of its necessity. I added there were three subjects each of which might produce a state of things issuing in such a necessity — One was the regulation of the currency — Banks and Paper Money — Another the impotence of the National Government to make internal improvements by Roads and Canals, and the third was Slavery. — The idea that a Majority of the People might hold a Convention appeared to startle some of the Gentlemen, and particularly Mr. Thompson — It is nevertheless sound Constitutional doctrine.
12. VII. Mr. Thompson the Secretary of the Navy, left the City this Morning with his family, for New-York. His son, is married to a daughter of Vice-President Tompkins — The Vice-President who for his present Office resigned that of Governor of New-York, has now been induced to stand again as a candidate to be Governor of New-York, in competition with De Witt Clinton, the present Governor, who succeeded him — The election is very sharply contested, and the result is altogether doubtful — The rumour is that Mr. Thompson goes to New-York to canvass for Mr. Tompkins. I heard Dr. Allison, the chaplain to the House of Representatives at the Capitol. His discourse was from Acts XXIV:25 "And as he reasoned of righteousness, temperance and judgment to come, Felix trembled." But this text was too mighty for the Doctor's talent, which does not consist in preaching. The House of Representatives for several years past have annually chosen him their chaplain, rather as a sort of pension for having been a chaplain in the army during our revolutionary War, than for any shining spiritual gifts now in his possession. But he is said to have great skill and ingenuity in mechanics, and is a candidate for the superintendency of the Patent Office if Dr. Thornton should be appointed agent to South-America, and both he and the Doctor, reminded me when they were applying for these places, that he was Vice-President of the general Association of Baptist Ministers throughout the United States, and in that capacity had great political influence over the whole body of Christians of that denomination, amounting as Thornton said to, more than two Millions of people — The Doctor is therefore a better Patentee for this world than for the next. ≈
13. VII. Mr. was here this morning: the person some weeks since introduced to me by judge Story; and one of the claimants upon the Government of Spain — He told me that the principal, if not the sole reliance of those claimants for obtaining eventual indemnity for any part of their losses was upon me. That the Committee of Foreign Relations had reported a Bill for taking possession of Florida, without providing at all for the claims, and that many of the Northern Members were very unwilling to vote for it in that shape. But the Northern Members will not vote for taking possession of Florida at-all. The Missouri question has sickened them of Slave States, and although at the commencement of the Session they were ready to vote for the measures recommended by the President, they would now scarcely accept Florida as a gift — At one O'Clock I attended the Cabinet Meeting at the President's ≈ The second subject discussed, was the application from the Governor of Georgia for Treaties to be held with the Creek and Cherokee Indians — Calhoun had expressed himself to me, very much averse to the measure; he said and now repeated, that those Nations had lately made very extensive cessions, and with great reluctance — That the attempt now to obtain further cessions would certainly not succeed, unless we should bully them, and at great expense — A Treaty would cost fifty thousand Dollars; and we should be obliged to pay very nearly the full value for the Lands if we obtained them — To all this Crawford assented, but said there would be great dissatisfaction in the State, if the application should be rejected — There was an expedient proposed, of holding one of the Treaties — with the Creeks — The Cherokees being still more reluctant at making any further cession. The President finally asked me what was my opinion. I said the United States were bound by compact with the State of Georgia, to obtain the cessions as soon as possible, and my opinion was that we ought to do precisely what the State of Georgia asked us to do. It was accordingly so determined; and that a Message should immediately be sent to Congress recommending that provision be made by Law for holding the Treaty — There is in this affair, among other things, much of Georgia party Politicks. Clark, the present Governor is an inveterate enemy of Crawford, and was chosen in opposition to Troup, who was Crawford's friend, and the candidate of his partizans — Clark now urges the holding of these Treaties, and in his Letter to me, recommends, if the President should think that the Citizens of Georgia, are so much interested in the event, that persons from other States should be selected as Commissioners, that General Jackson should be one of them; adding that two thirds of the people of Georgia would have more confidence in him than in any other man. This is a home thrust at Crawford, whose deadly enmity with Jackson, is now perfectly notorious, and to whom is attributed the whole persecution of Jackson, on account of the Seminole War — Crawford would take no satisfaction in the success of Clark or of Jackson in rendering important and acceptable service to the People of Georgia. This disposition to thwart a personal enemy or rival, even at the sacrifice of the public interest, is a vice so deeply rooted in human nature, that it shews itself in every form of Government, and in none more than in ours. It is I firmly believe the greatest obstacle to the performance of useful service — The meeting broke up about four O'Clock — This and to-morrow Evening were assigned for receiving the visits of congratulation at the President's on the Marriage of his daughter — Lieutenant Monroe called at my house to say, as from the President, that he wished me to notify the foreign Ministers, that they might pay with their Ladies the wedding visit to Mr. and Mrs. Gouverneur and that it would be returned — But that it must stop there. I was not at home, but it seems that Lieutenant Monroe, had mistaken his message. I went with Mrs. Adams this Evening to the wedding party. The message was from the Ladies and to Mrs. Adams — But as she in consequence of the conversation with Mrs. Hay last week had already given notice to the diplomatic corps that they were not to know the President had a daughter married, it was finally concluded by Mrs. Monroe and Mrs. Hay to leave things as they are. Commodore M'Donough was introduced to me this Evening.
14. VI:15. ≈ An account preceding the Mail from New-York, announced the arrival there of a vessel from Liverpool, bringing the intelligence of the death of the British King, George the third, and of the Duke of Kent. It had first been known here yesterday. The papers this day received confirmed it — The Duke of Kent died on the 24th of January, and the King the 29th of the same month — George the third had reigned sixteen years, the Sovereign of this Country — I suppose there are about a half a million of souls in this union who were once his Subjects — Four fifths of that number, born his Subjects — of whom I was one. The forty-fourth year is revolving, since the People of North America cast off their allegiance to him and declared their Independence. Of the 56 signers of that instrument only four are at this day numbered among the living. John Adams, of Massachusetts, my father, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, William Floyd of New York, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Maryland — The last ten years of the Life of George the third he has been kept in confinement at Windsor, in a state of mental alienation; blind and perhaps deaf. Imagination can scarcely conceive a state of existence more calamitous or a contrast more awful of the extremes of human grandeur and debasement in one person. George the third was a man of good but ordinary capacity, possessed of many private virtues, and no vices, but those incident to a royal education. His reign has been a most tempestuous period in the history of the civilized world. His influence over it has been negative and inauspicious. As the great head and champion of the cause of existing institutions, against all innovation, he has contributed to perpetuate abuses of the most pernicious character, to recement with human blood the ruinous and perishing edifice of feudality, and to prolong the deadly struggle between the absurd and artificial distinctions of hereditary rank, and the tendencies of the age to the common level of democracy — The papers this day received give accounts also of a mutiny of troops in Spain, which were destined to South-America, and the consequences of which must be momentous.
18. V:45. G. A. Otis was at the Office. He is proceeding with his translation of Botta's History of the American Revolution and borrows my French translation of it to take with him to Philadelphia. But his main object was to renew and urge his solicitation for a Consular appointment abroad, and particularly for that of Liverpool, from which he wished that Mr. Maury should be removed; not that he Otis would wish to supplant any man, but because Maury is an old man, and that the business of his Office is, and for some time has been transacted by his Clerk, who is an Englishman — There is something so gross, and so repugnant to my feelings, in this cormorant appetite for office, this barefaced and repeated effort to get an old and meritorious public servant turned out of place, by a bankrupt to get into it, that it needed all my sense of the allowances to be made for sharp want and of the tenderness due to misfortune to suppress my indignation. He asked me, if I would advise him to press these Considerations personally upon the President, to which I barely answered no.
[April 1820]
2. VI. Easter Sunday, and Snowed the whole day; so that the ground was entirely covered — I recollected a similar Easter day at Ealing in the year 1816, but that was the 14th of April — twelve days later in the season than this. Mr. D. Brent called upon me to say that Dr. Kenny would preach at St. Patrick's Church, and I went to hear him. He took no text, but the Gospel of the day — which is the same as that of the protestant episcopal Church, and his discourse was an argument upon the credibility of the testimony to the fact of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is a Common-Place topic for a Christian Preacher, and Doctor Kenny handled it with ingenuity — The story of the crucifixion, resurrection and ascension of Jesus, is one thing — His system of doctrines is another. All the facts related of the life and death of Jesus may be disbelieved, and his precepts as a teacher of morals and religion be adopted. The quality of the lesson has no necessary relation to the person of the instructor. The narrative part of the Bible, Old Testament and new, according to all the rules of _human_ evidence, is more fabulous than the metamorphoses of Ovid — It is a perpetual succession of miracles from the first Chapter of Genesis to the last of the Revelations. The resurrection and ascension of Christ is among the most incredible of those miracles because it is among the widest departures from the ordinary phenomena of the material world — It was a resurrection of the body, with the mortal wound which it had received, open. This body eats, drinks and talks; yet suddenly appears in the midst of the disciples, the doors being shut, and finally vanishes from their sight and ascends to Heaven — If in a court of Law, a hundred witnesses of the most unquestioned veracity upon all other occasions should testify upon oath to such a tale of a human being, no intelligent jury would believe them.
6. V:45. ≈ I had proposed to employ this evening assiduously in writing, but found myself overpowered with drowsiness — So frail are all my resolutions — I gave it up — In the National Intelligencer of yesterday, there was a notice, signed by General Samuel Smith, a Representative in Congress from Baltimore, as Chairman of the Caucus in 1816, which nominated Candidates for the Offices of President & Vice-President of the United States, at the election then ensuing. He states that he has been required by numbers of members from various parts of the Union, to call a meeting for consultation whether a nomination shall now be made. He therefore summons a Meeting of Republican and _other_ members of Congress who may think proper to attend at the Representative Hall at the Capitol, next Saturday Evening, at half-past seven O'Clock in the Evening to determine whether it be expedient that a nomination should now be made of Candidates for the Offices of President and Vice-President — This is the result of caballing — There is at present no ostensible intention to oppose the re-election of Mr. Monroe as President, in any part of the Union — Every attempt to form a new fixed opposition party has hitherto failed. But the Vice-Presidency is, to call things by their proper names, in the Market. Tompkins stands as a Candidate for the Office of Governor of New-York, against De Witt Clinton. But the election is strongly contested, and the issue doubtful. The choice is to take place the last week of the present Month. Tompkins has however no thought of relinquishing the Vice Presidency if he should fail in the election as Governor of New-York. But a majority of the New-York delegation in Congress are partizans of Clinton, and disposed even to throw out Tompkins from the Vice-Presidency. At the same time it appears Clay has fixed his eye upon that Office, and as Clinton's ultimate aim is at the Presidency, the aspect of the present moment is of an approaching Coalition between Clay and Clinton. Samuel Smith in the midst of a stupendous ruin of reputation and fortune as a merchant, maintains yet his consideration and influence as a politician; or at least struggles hard to maintain it, and is now baited to this hook by the view of a vacant Speaker's Chair which he is told he has a clear pretension to occupy. So that the object of this Caucus is to announce Clay as the Candidate for the Vice-Presidency, and to make way for Smith as the future Speaker — To prepare the minds of members for this, Clay has given out that he has met with a heavy loss by the failure of a person whose notes he had endorsed, and which he was last summer obliged to pay, to the amount of 25000 dollars. That his private affairs have thus become embarrassed; so that having a family of children to support, he can no longer afford to come to Congress, and intends to resign his Office as Speaker, before the close of the present Session — That his affairs are embarrassed there is no doubt. According to the general rumour he has more than once won and lost an affluent Fortune at the gaming table. The last Winter was an unlucky one, for him, and before he left this City he was said to have met with embarrassing losses. In his Florida Treaty Speech, the other day he made an ingenuous confession that in his youth he had sometimes indulged in a mode of amusement which years and experience had determined him to abandon — This resolution was doubtless formed under similar circumstances to those in which Regnard's Hector concludes that Seneca must have written his philosophical reflections. I am nevertheless incredulous as to his resignation of the Speaker's Office. His political prospects are not so entirely blasted as that measure would indicate his own conviction that they are; and in this Country politicians of desperate private Fortunes, always find the means of keeping themselves above water as public men. In politics as in private life, Clay is essentially a gamester; and with a vigorous intellect, an ardent Spirit, a handsome elocution, though with a mind very defective in elementary knowledge, and a very undigested system of ethics, he has all the qualities which belong to that class of human characters.
9. V:30. ≈ The Caucus which was to have been held last Evening failed. Not more than forty members attended. The delegations from Pennsylvania, and North-Carolina, agreed unanimously among themselves not to attend — From Virginia, only two members Nelson and Strother, and from Massachusetts only one member, Shaw, were present — S. Smith, who called the Caucus, nominated Nelson as Chairman; and Col'l R. M. Johnson, immediately offered a Resolution that it was not expedient then to proceed to nominate Candidates for the Offices of President and Vice-President; which passed without opposition, and the Caucus was adjourned without day — Nelson is the Representative of the District in Virginia which is the permanent residence of the President, and is understood to be in high personal favour with him — Strother has also been considered, as specially attached to the President, and a warm opponent of Clay. But he and Quarles of Kentucky who came into Congress by an interest opposed to Clay have both been nominated within a few days as Receivers of public monies in Missouri. Having gained their objects, they now seem disposed to make peace with Clay; and Quarles has been one of the busiest in getting up the Caucus. Nelson, like Samuel Smith was allured by a glimpse of the Speaker's Chair. But there appeared in the City Gazette yesterday a piece avowedly by a member of Congress, and written by Rogers of Pennsylvania, severely censuring the call of a Caucus, and especially the project of electing both President and Vice-President from Slave-holding States; and warning the President's friends that if persisted in, this plan would finish by exciting an opposition to the election of the President himself. This would not disagree with the views of Clay; but the most remarkable feature of this Caucus, is the countenance given to the project of electing Clay Vice-President, by those who are in the President's most intimate confidence, and those who have just received Offices by his nomination.
13. V:15. Mr. Ruggles a Senator from the State of Ohio called upon me this morning, with a written recommendation signed by five of the six members of the House of Representatives from that State, of a person for the appointment of a judge in the territory of Arkansas — I had some conversation with Mr. Ruggles, with regard to the opinions of the people in the Western Country concerning the Florida Treaty and Mr. Clay's project of setting it aside and taking possession of the Province of Texas — Ruggles said that this project was adverse to the interests of the State of Ohio, who would be well satisfied with the ratification of the Treaty — Mr. David Trimble a member of the House from Kentucky called at the Office, to enquire what would probably be the result of the Negotiation with General Vivés — His ostensible motive was to make up his opinion upon the Report to be made by the Committee of Ways and Means, of which he is a member — But he came with a long argument to convince me, that the only way for me to make myself popular in the Western Country was to set the Treaty aside, and urge the recognition of the South American Revolutionists, and insist upon the Rio del Norte as the Western Boundary — I told him, that I understood the map of the Country rather too well to suppose it would ever be possible for me to do any thing that could make me popular in the Western Country — That as to the Treaty, I had never set the value upon it, that was supposed; and of all the members of the Administration, I was the last who had consented to take the Sabine for our Western Boundary — I had no doubt that if the Treaty should be set aside, we should ultimately obtain more Territory than it would secure to us, but we should get the same territory with the treaty, sooner than we should want it; and even now I thought the greatest danger of this Union, was in the overgrown extent of its territory, combining with the Slavery question — I added as my belief that there would be a majority of the House of Representatives now, who would not accept of the Province of Texas as a gift, unless Slavery should be excluded from it. Since the Missouri debate, I considered the continuance of the Union for any length of time as very precarious, and entertained serious doubts whether Louisiana and Slavery would not ultimately break us up. He said he himself considered the Slavery question as the greatest that can agitate this Union; but that Kentucky would get rid of her Slaves, and would finally not be in the Slave-holding interest. They did not want Slaves for the Articles of their cultivation; but if the Union should break up there would be three Confederacies — Eastern, Southern and Western — I said, so I had heard Clay say — that within five years we should have three confederacies: but why there should be precisely three, I could not see. The Slave question might split us in two — Because this question besides involving the strongest oppositions of interest, involved also the principle of all others the most deeply planted in the hearts of this People — There was no existing opposition of mere interest between any two parts of this Country, which could possibly produce a dissolution of the Union. He said he agreed with me in that. But if the Union should break, the Country between the Sabine, and the Rio del Norte, would become indispensibly necessary for the Western Confederacy — It would be an excellent Country for the cultivation of Coffee, and there was an admirable Seaport there which would be necessary to the command of the Gulph of Mexico — I told him that I did not believe that we should ever find either a good Seaport or grounds for cultivating Coffee in Texas, nor did I believe there was any article of cultivation that needed Slaves — The want of Slaves was not in the Lands but in their inhabitants. Slavery had become in the South and Southwestern Country a condition of existence. They could not live without them. As to the Treaty, we could now very easily disengage ourselves from that — The difficulty would not be in setting it aside, but in obtaining it. He and Mr. Clay were excellent negotiators in theory — They were for obtaining all, and granting nothing — They played a game between their own right and left hands, and could allot with admirable management the whole stake to one hand, and total discomfiture to the other — In the Negotiation with Spain, we had a just claim to the Mississippi and its waters; and our Citizens had a fair though very precarious claim to indemnities. We had a mere colour of claim to the Rio del Norte — No claim to a line beyond the Rocky Mountains and none to Florida, which we very much wanted — The Treaty gives us the Mississippi and all its waters — gives us Florida — gives us an acknowledged line to the South Sea and seventeen degrees of Latitude upon its shores — gives our Citizens five Millions of Dollars of indemnity; and barely gives up to Spain the colourable claim, from the Sabine to the Rio del Norte — Now Negotiation implies some concession upon both sides — If after obtaining every object of your pursuit but one, and that one weak in principle, and of no present value, what would you have offered to Spain to yield that also? Trimble had no answer to this question; but he said he believed Onis had deceived me about the grants — He had no doubt Onis knew the grants were dated before the 24th of January, and assumed that date with the intention that it should confirm them. This was no disparagement to me. Any honorable man, might be thus deceived; but that he believed was the fact. I told him that Onis might very possibly have had such an intention, but the fact was we had never relied upon the date — That the grants were annulled by the terms of the Article, independent of the date; and that we have not only the demonstration that such was the professed intention of the parties on both sides, but that the Article could, without a violent perversion of language bear no other construction. To this Trimble agreed — Trimble is a bustling, talkative, pushing man, professing to be independent of all parties, but in reality a Satellite of Clay's — He made a Speech in the House the other day, upon Clay's Resolutions against the Treaty, in which he said all that he this morning repeated to me, and much more — He is one of the members, who make it a point to keep upon good and friendly terms with me personally, and always to side against me upon public questions involving my opinions, reputation or character. — Mr. George Sullivan also came to the Office, and spoke of the appointment of B. Russell, Editor of the Centinel at Boston, as a Printer of the Laws. Sullivan obtained a promise of this appointment last November directly from the President, at his house in Loudon County — It has given great offence to the republicans in Massachusetts, and to their members in the House of Representatives a majority of whom have addressed to me a remonstrance against it. Sullivan insisted that it was of great importance to conciliate the federalists, but I told him I had little faith in the possibility of conciliating federalists — They abandoned their opposition just so far as they despaired of success, but upon every question that arose, on which the administration needed support they had been and would still be found seizing upon it to bring themselves up again. So they had done with the Seminole War — So they had done with the Slave question, which they had ruined with their assistance, and so they would do whenever the shoe should pinch.
[May 1820]
2. V:15. D. P. Cook, the Representative in Congress from the State of Illinois, and T. Fuller one of the members from Massachusetts successively called at my house this Morning. I returned to Cook a Letter from N. Pope, the District Judge of Illinois, which he had some days since sent me. At the first election for Congress after the admission of Illinois as a State, Cook was a Candidate and lost the election by a few votes; at the next election Cook carried it by a small majority. M'Lean was both times his competitor, and lost the election for the present Congress in consequence of voting on the Slavery side of the Missouri question at the last Session. The election for the next Congress comes on in August, and a person by the name of Kane is to be Cook's competitor. Popes Letter speculates upon the Election, and seems distrustful of the result — It shews how industriously Crawford is working there as well as in every other part of the Union, by the means of his appointments, to promote his own future views, and says explicitly that if I have any future expectations, I must interfere directly with the appointments — John Pope wrote much the same thing two years ago from Kentucky. I have hitherto scarcely interfered with any appointments, and in no instance with a view to provide for a political partizan. At this game I have perfect demonstration that Crawford is an overmatch for me. Fuller gave me further confirmation of it, by assuring me that the State of Maine was sold to Crawford — Sold he said; not for money, but for objects quite as mercenary — He asked me whether as the Slave-holder was buying up auxiliaries in our camp, some assistance against him could not be drawn from his side — How Calhoun and South-Carolina were disposed? I told him, that of Calhoun's dispositions I knew nothing — In South Carolina there would be a party opposed to Crawford, though both the Senators from that State will be in his favour — There is also in his own State of Georgia, a strong party against him, at the head of which is the present Governor — And in Tennessee, all the friends of General Jackson — I added that Crawford's present reliance was chiefly upon Virginia, and New-York — Virginia will support him, because he is a native of the State; and he has hopes from New-York by means of some of the delegation from that State — I know not exactly whom. But he expects to rise there, by the fall of Clinton — Fuller said it was apparent that preparations were making for a violent canvass for the Presidential election of 1824 — I said there had been scarcely any thing but such canvassing since 1816 — He said he hoped I did not intend to withhold myself from the contest — I told him the principle of my life had been never to ask the suffrage of my Country, and never to shrink from its call — If life, and health, and private circumstances admitting of it, and a belief of competency to the Station, not inferior to others who may be competitors for it should be mine, after the vicissitudes of the next four years, I shall adhere to the principle upon which I have always acted — Whether any portion of the Country will think of calling for my services, will certainly depend upon the series of future events — I know the disadvantages on which I now stand, and am conscious of my inability to make interest by caballing, bargaining, place-giving, or tampering with members of Congress — I have been here, three Sessions, with a Colleague in the Executive Administration, who at the Caucus preceding the last presidential election was a candidate against Mr. Monroe, and came very near out-voting him — Who considers himself therefore as quite entitled to the succession; who as a Virginian born is sure of the support of that State against any one, not of the same origin; as a Slave-holder has the first pledge of votes from the South and South-west, and possesses an immense patronage throughout the Union, which he exercises to promote his purposes, without scruple, and without restraint — At the same time the Speaker of the House of Representatives, a very popular man and Speaker, a disappointed rival, openly avowed as a political opponent to me, and exercising against me both publicly and insidiously all his influence; while I had scarcely a single friend personal or political, in the house, and at the first Session after I came here not ten members, with whom I had any acquaintance at all — Then it was contrived to raise a question of etiquette between the Senators and me, and between the wives of members of Congress and mine; a device despicable enough in itself, but which had produced its effect perhaps upon one third of the members of both houses — In the course of three Sessions, I have formed slight personal acquaintances, with most of the members, but have had neither time nor opportunity to become intimate with any of them. My means of acquiring personal adherents therefore are nothing. Upon the foundation of public service alone must I stand; and when the Nation shall be called to judge of that, by the result, whatever it may be, I must abide. Were it in my power I would sink in oblivion the very idea of a Presidential election in 1824 — but forget it as I might, it would be ever present to the minds of my adversaries. The three Sessions of Congress have been three wrestling matches to bring me down by the ruin of Mr. Monroe's administration — The first and second attempts failed — That of the present Session has been favoured by Circumstances — The Missouri question is indeed a flaming sword that waves round on all sides, and cuts in every direction; but the baseness of the King of Spain, has played the game into the hands of Clay; and that which at the close of the last Session appeared to be the most fortunate of Events to me, is now the most powerful engine wielded against me. In Congress and in the Nation the most indefatigable efforts are made, to represent me as singly and exclusively responsible for every thing that can be exhibited as odious, unpopular or unsuccessful in Mr. Monroe's Administration; and efforts not less laborious are made whenever any thing prosperous or popular occurs, to deprive me even of my portion of it — This cabalistic influence is of itself sufficient eventually to put me down — May the blessed Disposer of Events shield me from the calamity of contributing to the same event, by misconduct or incapacity of my own! — Fuller told me that he should wish to have another conversation with me before the close of the Session, to which I agreed.
22. V. Mrs. Adams went this Morning upon a fishing party with our Son Charles, and Mary-Hellen. At ten O'Clock I called upon Mr. Calhoun, and he went with me to Mr. Thomas Law's in Prince George's County. ≈ On the ride with Calhoun we had much Conversation upon various topics — I asked him whether he knew what was the occasion of the President's calling the Cabinet Meeting on Saturday — He said it was a Letter that he had received from Mr. Jefferson, in which though mentioning in terms of high commendation the Florida Treaty, he yet advises that its ratification should not now be accepted, but that we should look to the occupation of Texas — This explains to me, what had been utterly unaccountable, in the call of that Meeting three days after my last Note to Vives, and after the receipt of his answer. It reminded me of O'Brien's shrewd remark that an old Sea-Captain never likes that his Mate should make a better voyage than himself — We conversed upon politics past, present and future. Calhoun's anticipations are gloomy — He says there has been within these two years an immense revolution of Fortunes in every part of the Union; enormous numbers of persons utterly ruined — Multitudes in deep distress; and a general mass of disaffection to the Government, not concentrated in any particular direction, but ready to seize upon any event, and looking out any where for a leader. The Missouri question and the debates on the Tariff were merely incidental to this state of things. It was a vague but wide-spread discontent caused by the diseased circumstances of individuals, but resulting in a general impression that there was something radically wrong in the Administration of the Government — These observations are undoubtedly well founded. The disease is apparent. The remedy not discernable. The primary cause is that which has been the scourge of this Country from its Colonial infancy, Speculations in paper Currency — Now appearing in the shape of Banks — The great multiplication followed by the sudden and severe reduction of fictitious capital. Then the great falling off in the prices of all our principal articles of exportation; the competition of foreign manufactures carried on by starving workmen, with ours loaded with high wages; the diminution of Commerce and the carrying trade, and the accumulation of debt as long as credit could be strained, all this with ambitious and crafty, and disappointed men, on the watch for every misfortune, and welcoming every disaster, together with the elated hopes, the dazzling promise and the mortifying reverses of the Florida Treaty, account too well for the loss of popularity by the Administration within the last year — Yet the dissatisfaction is not general against the Government — The suffering interests have too much disposition to turn against each other — Their oppositions will terminate in struggles to place their respective champions in the next Congress. New-York the most deeply dissatisfied State is so nearly divided against itself that its opposite disaffections will destroy each other — So will the agricultural and manufacturing parties, and I do not expect that the votes in the next Congress upon any great point of internal or national policy will materially differ, from those of the present Congress on the same questions. But whatever the result of the present inauspicious circumstances may be, they must work out their own termination. Government can do nothing; at least nothing by any measure yet proposed but transfer discontents and propitiating one Class of people by disgusting another — Were it possible by wishes or exertions to devise an efficacious remedy they would not be wanting — As it is, the arbiters of Weal and Woe, the Healers and Destroyers Time and Chance, must bring the Catastrophe or the cure — As one of the Agents I have but one formula suited to all occasions — "Thy Will be done". — Calhoun asked me some questions about the transactions at Ghent, and the project said to have been formed there, or immediately afterwards at Paris, for having Mr. Crawford run in 1816 for the Presidency — I told him I had never heard any thing of this, either at Ghent or at Paris; and if any projects upon the Presidency had been there formed I had not been privy to them — He said that Gallatin had been here in the winter of 1815–16 and that from all his movements then he appeared to have two great objects of anxiety — One that Mr. Monroe should not be chosen President; and the other that he Gallatin should be the Secretary of State.
31. VI. ≈ _Day_. I have never been more overcrowded with business than through the course of this Month; nor have I ever more thoroughly felt the essential obstacle to a good Journal; namely the impossibility of transacting and recording much important business at the same time — I rise between half-past four and six: at a usual average of half-past five; and write in this Diary till 9. Give a cursory perusal to the newspapers; this and other casual avocations or visitors detain me till 12 or 1 before I reach my Office. There I stay till 5 or 6 in continual tumult of visitors on business, reading the Letters by the two daily Mails, writing answers by snatches to some, and giving directions for the answers to others — While the President was here, after reading the Letters by the Mails, I took the most important of them to the President, and received his directions concerning them — Occasional Cabinet Meetings have also been held at his house. I have made several attempts without success to go earlier in the Morning to the Office, and return earlier to my house before dinner — I can get earlier to the Office, but when there always get too much entangled in business to return home before five or six — About six I dine; and the weather having been great part of the Month cool, I have often been able to write an hour or two in the Evening — To increase activity, by voluntary aggravation of labour, I continue making the Index to my old Journals from 1795 to 1809. The general impression upon my mind in reviewing the Journal of that time is its extreme inanity. It contains scarcely ever, either observation or reflection — incident or character — grave remark, or sally of humour. It names the persons with whom I dined or played Cards; the walks that I took — the visits that I paid or received, the Books that I read; and sometimes the Letters that I wrote or received. It records no operation of the Mind, and scarcely ever a Sentiment of the heart — Its interest to me consists in the recollections that it brings back; as the scattered single Letters remaining undefaced upon a decayed monument, may serve the practiced antiquary to trace the whole original inscription — I have spent too much of my life in plodding upon the thoughts of others, and too little in cultivating my own — too much in passive study, and too little in active energy — My life has therefore been laborious and unproductive — Until the year 1806 whatever of intellect I did exercise is contained in my Letter-Books; and nothing in my Journals. — The really important period of my life began with the British attack upon our Chesapeake Frigate in the Summer of 1807. Since then my Journal has been a record of events, opinions and important Conversations; but it is only more prolix without being more interesting, and will never be fit for exposure to any eye but my own. There are parts of it, which my Children, should it please Heaven to make any one of them worthy of his Grandsire, may take pleasure in consulting when I shall be in the dust. In coming to this passage, if he too should have spent a large portion of his days in studious idleness, let him solace himself with the conclusion which is my principal comfort, that he can be no other than what God and nature have made him; and that although not gifted with Genius, his mediocrity has not been without usefulness in the World — Not all can have the Wisdom of the Serpent — All can be harmless as the Dove.
[June 1820]
4. V:15. ≈ I received a very large Mail, but no new despatches of importance. There were Letters and Packets enclosed for Mrs. Forsyth, Baron Stackelberg, and Mr. Poletica; which after dinner I rode round with Mrs. Adams, and delivered at their respective houses. Among the Letters received this day was one from Josiah Quincy, corresponding Secretary to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, announcing to me that the Society had at their annual meeting on the 30th of last Month, elected me their President — I answered the Letter and accepted the Office; because I thought there would be an appearance of affectation in refusing it — The Arts and Sciences have been the objects of my admiration through life; I would it were in my power to say they had been objects of my successful cultivation. Honours like these produce in my mind humiliation as well as pride. In this particular instance, I am mortified at being raised to the head of a learned Society, with qualifications so inadequate to the Station — Mortified, that in a Society which ought to include all the distinguished men of Letters and of Science in the State, there was no man so notoriously and conspicuously superior to me, as to have prevented the thought of me from occurring at-all — As the time is fast approaching, when if my life continues, I shall be consigned to retirement from Public life, the idea presents itself to me, that I may still exist for some purpose useful to my Country, by devoting the leisure of my declining days to the duties of this Scientific Office. To promote the taste, the culture and the refinement of Art and Science in my Country — Should my exit from the public theatre be such as to leave me with a competency for the comfortable subsistence of my family, and therefore the choice of employment for my time, this will perhaps offer me the means of filling it with satisfaction and with honour — In the continual bustle and unceasing occupation of my present office, I feel nothing but the want of time — But in looking forward to the moment when discarded from all public concerns, my time will be all upon my hands, and instead of the rapid whirl of successive stimulants to interest, the lifeless languor of indifference to every thing around me will be predominant, what I principally dread is a dejection of Spirits, and atrophy of mind, which will throw me into a desultory, and idle because useless career of reading indolence — I shall want _an_ _object of pursuit_ and may the Spirit of Truth and of all Virtue and wisdom point me to it!
16. V. Cardelli came this morning and I settled with him for the Lessons of drawing that he has given to our Son Charles and Mary Hellen, three Evenings in the week since our return here last October. He has formed his Partnership with the other two Italians, and they are shortly to leave the City. Richard Forrest shewed me this day a Letter from John Jacob Astor, dated at Rome in April. He wished that a hint may be given to the President, that A. Gallatin may not be recalled from the Mission to Paris, and says there are many reasons for his being retained there; but does not explain them. Forrest supposes Astor means that it is the wish of Gallatin himself; and says he has a Letter from another Gentleman, but who did not wish his name to be known, stating explicitly that it is Gallatin's wish — The President therefore understood very exactly the state of mind in which Gallatin wrote the Letter last winter, requesting his recall. Gallatin has been twelve years Secretary of the Treasury and seven years a Minister abroad. His foreign nativity was at the opening of Mr. Madison's administration the insuperable bar to his obtaining the Department of State, and thereby cut off forever his Prospects of coming to the Presidency. There is now no place at home which would be suitable for him, and agreeable to him; and he would live contented in France, if the Salary would defray his unavoidable expences — But it will not; and although he may remain there one or two years longer, he will be compelled to return by want of means to remain. This condition of our Ministers abroad is a very difficult and treacherous one as respects themselves. The foreign Missions are of all the offices of the Country the most coveted, and the most likely to terminate in disappointment.
[July 1820]
15. IV:30. Morning absorbed upon the Journal of yesterday. After breakfast I went to the river with the purpose of bathing, but found the spot occupied by twenty or thirty fishermen and their boats. ≈ I went out this Evening in search of conversation, an art of which I never had an adequate idea. Long as I have lived in the world I never have thought of conversation as a school, in which something was to be learned. I never knew how to make, to controul or to change it — I am by Nature a silent animal, and my dear mother's constant lesson in childhood, that children in company should be seen and not heard confirmed me irrevocably in what I now deem a bad habit. Conversation is an art of the highest importance, and a school in which for the business of life, more may perhaps be learnt than from books — It is indeed, and must be desultory and superficial; and as a school consists more in making others talk, than in talking. Therein has been and ever will be my deficiency — The talent of starting the game. A man who has that need talk but little himself — when once the ball is set in motion, it will roll, and in considering conversation as a school, I mean it as a school to learn, and not to teach.
[September 1820]
7. III. Mrs. Adams with her Sister Smith, went this morning to pay a visit of ten days to their Relations at Frederick. She went at six O'Clock, and Elizabeth had gone off in the Stage at three. Mary Hellen went yesterday to pass this time at her Aunt Frye's. General Parker was at the Office, with another Letter from Byers of New-York concerning the new discovered land South of Cape Horn — He is extremely anxious to have a public ship sent to protect their contemplated settlement and Sealing Ships — The President had written me that he was willing a public ship should be sent, but desired I would consult about it with the Secretary of the Navy; but he is absent even from New-York — Parker said he would go and see B Homans the chief Clerk of the Navy Department concerning it — W. Lee came with a Letter from M. M. Noah, Editor of the New-York Advocate, a Jew, who was once Consul at Tunis, recalled for Indiscretions, and who has published a Book of Travels against Mr. Madison and Mr. Monroe — He has great projects for colonizing Jews in this Country, and wants to be sent as Charge d'Affaires to Vienna, for the promotion of them. He is an incorrect and very ignorant but sprightly writer; and as a partizan Editor of a Newspaper has considerable power. He urges with great earnestness, his merits in supporting the administration as a title to the President's favour. He is like all the Editors of Newspapers in this Country, who have any talent, an author to be let — There is not one of them whose friendship is worth buying, nor one whose enmity is not formidable — They are a sort of assassins who sit with loaded Blunderbusses at the corner of Streets, and fire them off for hire or for sport, at any passenger whom they select — They are principally foreigners but Noah is a native. He is Salaried at a low rate by the Anti-Clintonian Tammanies at New-York, to keep up a constant fire against his Administration, and Noah pretends that this is serving the General Government because Clinton is a standing Presidential candidate and carries on an insidious War against Mr. Monroe.
29. IV:30. I received this morning a Letter from Mr. Stratford Canning, informing me that he had arrived late last Evening in the City with a Credential Letter as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from the King of Great-Britain, of which together with the Letter of recall of Sir Charles Bagot, he enclosed copies; and requesting me to appoint an hour to receive him; and to take the pleasure of the President, when he would give him an audience to deliver the Letters.
[October 1820]
2. V. Mr. Worthington of Ohio, called at my house this Morning. Mr. Canning came by appointment to the Office at two O'Clock, and I had with him a Conversation of more than two hours upon the Slave-trade. He renewed and urged the proposal heretofore made by the British Government, that the United States should accede to the principle of Treaties made by Great-Britain with the Netherlands and Portugal by which the vessels of either Nation are allowed to be searched by the Captains of the armed vessels of another; and two mixed Courts of Commissioners are instituted to try all such captures — We have rejected this proposal on two grounds; one a want of Constitutional authority to establish such a Court, and the other; as disapproving the principle of allowing the search in time of peace, of our merchant vessels, by the armed Cruizers of another Nation. The British Government have been endeavouring to obtain from the members of the European alliance their assent to such stipulations, but hitherto without success. France has been the most decisive in her objections. Mr. Canning re-urged the subject with much earnestness, and endeavoured to answer objections. He suggested that one of the two reciprocal tribunals might be established within the United States — I stated to him that besides the two broad and decisive reasons, which had been alledged, there were others which it was best in candour to mention — The first was the general Extra-European policy of the United States; a policy which they had always pursued as best suited to their own interests and best adapted to harmonize with those of Europe — This policy had also been that of Europe, which had never considered the United States as belonging to her system — The European Alliance consisting of the five principal powers had since the overthrow of the French Revolutionary domination, regulated the Affairs of all Europe; without ever calling the United States to their consultations — It was best for both parties, that they should continue to do so — for if the United States, should become a member of the body, they would even now be a power entitled to great influence, and in a very few years must become a first rate power in the League — They would bring to it some principles, not congenial to those of the other members, and those principles would lead to discussions tending to discord, rather than to harmony. It would also have a tendency to lead them into partial combinations with one or another of the great powers, parties to the alliance — Another objection was the peculiar character of the principle to which it was desired that we should accede — We had had one War with great Britain for exercising what she alone claims of all the Nations of the Earth, as a right, search of neutral vessels in time of War, to take out men — We had endeavoured both at the negotiation for peace and since to come to some agreement of principle with Great-Britain, but had found it impracticable. It was a point upon which more than any other, not only the People but the Government of the United States were sensitive — and which would fix us in the determination, in no case, to yield the right of search, in time of Peace — He said there did not appear to be any analogy between the two cases. By the Treaties the right of search given was entirely reciprocal. It was limited and restricted in the most cautious and precise manner. Portugal and the Netherlands had assented to it; and he thought the objections which we made, might rather have been expected from them, than from France; and rather from the Swiss Cantons than from the United States — That Nations justly conscious of their power had less reason than others to fear the abuse of any concession — I told him that all concession of principle tended to encourage encroachment; and if naval Officers were once habituated to search the vessels of other Nations in time of peace, for one thing they would be still more encouraged to practice it for another thing in time of War — That as to the concessions of Portugal and the Netherlands, they might be supposed to be actuated by a sense of dependence upon, or of obligation to Great-Britain — He thought this was rather imaginary than real; and that neither Portugal, nor the Netherlands were of a disposition at all accommodating to Great-Britain. He said also that the European alliance could hardly be said to have for its object the regulation of European affairs; at least it was only with reference to certain specific objects — He asked if our principle of rejecting the measures as concerted by the European allies, was so general as to induce a refusal to co-operate with them in _any_ measure — I said no — We had formed no such determination — There might be a concert of measures proposed to which our objections would not apply, and that a free and mutual communication of what might be done on either side would contribute much to the attainment of the common object. But I observed that excepting the Communications which we had received from Great-Britain there had been none to us from any member of the European Alliance; and as the objections made principally by France to the British project of reciprocal captures, were much the same as those which we had urged against the thing itself, I thought it right to tell him that this coincidence was not the result of any consultation. There had been between the United States and France no communication whatever relating to the Slave trade — He said that though gratified to learn that we did not reject all concert of operation, he was apprehensive that the expedient which we did reject was the only one that could prove effectual — For so long as hoisting a flag, was sufficient to shelter the Slave trader from search and capture, it was scarcely possible that any vigilance or care should avail. He added that as it was the earnest desire of the British Government to soften the asperities existing in the feeling of the two Countries towards each other, and was convinced that the same disposition existed here, there could be nothing done which would more strongly have that tendency, than our accession to these arrangements — I said that the disposition to conciliate was perfectly reciprocal, and very earnest on our part — That he must take all I had said to him in this Conversation as expressing only my private opinions — As soon as the President should return to the City, I should report to him the substance of it, and should receive his instructions what further answer to give. He asked if I was willing that in the mean time he should report to his Government the purport of our conference this day — to which I answered, certainly.
22. IV:15. ≈ Mr. R. Forrest called at my house this Evening with a servant of Mr. Roth's, the French Chargé d'Affaires. A coloured woman who lives with Roth as his Cook has been taken up, on suspicion of receiving stolen money, and committed to prison, by Timms who is door-keeper to the Senate, and a Magistrate, and member of the City Council — A shopkeeper by the name of Holmead dropped yesterday from his pocket in the Street, a check upon one of the Banks, for 100 dollars, and 150 dollars in bank bills. A mulatto boy of 14 or 15 years of age found the check, and not knowing how to read took it to a shop to enquire what it was. He was then called upon for the Bank-Bills, and denying that he had found them was tortured, thumb-screwed, and hung by the neck (so this man says) to extort confession from him. He finally named several persons to whom he said he gave the Bills, and among the rest the father of Roth's Cook — He denied having received the Bills; but his daughter was imprisoned, on suspicion of having received them from him. This is a sample of the treatment of coloured people under criminal charges or suspicions here — Roth claims the release of the woman from prison on the ground of his diplomatic privilege; though her name is not on the list of the persons attached to the French legation, furnished according to the Law of Congress at the Department of State — I desired Forrest to see or write to Timms informing him that this woman was in the service of a foreign Legation; and requesting him to discharge her immediately for that reason; and if Timms should refuse, I would apply to-morrow Morning to judge Thruston for a Habeas Corpus, to obtain her discharge in that manner.
[November 1820]
12. IV. The distance of Mr. M'Cormick's church from my present habitation being about two miles and a half, I find it scarcely possible to attend public worship there — I went this Morning to the Hall over the bath room, and heard Mr. Little — He is an Englishman, of Unitarian doctrines, who reads both his Sermons and his prayers — They are neat compositions, not without elegance, moral discourses inculcating piety and benevolence; abundantly ethic, but not pathetic — The unitarian Society here consists of a very few English and New England families — They have been endeavouring to raise the funds to build a church here; but without success. This Mr. Little is a shopkeeper on week days, and his wife is a Milliner. His congregation seldom amounts to fifty persons. While there, I received a Note, addressed to the Heads of Departments requesting their attendance at the President's at one O'Clock. I met at Church my old Classmate Cushman, now a Representative in Congress from the State of Maine, and after the service walked with him to his lodgings at Fletcher's — There I found General Solomon Van Rensselaer, one of the Members from the State of New York, and Daniel Pope Cook of Illinois. I then called upon Mr. Calhoun, the Secretary at War, and rode with him to the President's — As we were riding Calhoun spoke to me with great concern at the re-appearance of the question upon the admission of Missouri as a State into the Union. After all the difficulty with which it was compromised at the last Session of Congress, the Convention which made their Constitution has raised a new obstacle, by an Article, declaring it to be the duty of the Legislature to pass Laws prohibiting free Negroes and persons of colour from coming into the State; which is directly repugnant to the Article in the Constitution of the United States which provides that the Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of Citizens in the several States. Calhoun said, that he did not know how this difficulty could be surmounted, unless by considering the Article in the Missouri Constitution as null and void upon the very principle of its repugnancy. And he did not know whether even that could be sufficient — The meeting at the President's was for the final reading of the draft of his Message to Congress. The composition of these Messages is upon a uniform plan — They begin with general remarks upon the condition of the Country noticing recent occurrences of material importance; passing encomiums upon our form of government, paying due homage to the Sovereign power of the people, and turning to account every topic which can afford a paragraph of public gratulation. Then pass in review the foreign affairs — the Circumstances of our relations with the principal powers of Europe — Then looking inwards, adverting to the state of the finances — the revenues, public expenditures, debts and land sales. The progress of fortifications, and naval armaments, with a few words about the Indians and a few about the Slave-trade — This is the analysis of a Session-opening message — Mr. Monroe's messages have always had a long paragraph upon the civil War between Spain and her Colonies, and there is one in the present message — There was some discussion about it — I have always thought these paragraphs exotics to the proper region of the message; which might just as well descant upon the Wars of the English in India, or more suitably upon the Treaties and Congresses of the European Allies — The only difference is that Mr. Clay having attempted to raise an opposition party upon a sympathetic feeling in the people of this Country favourable to the South-Americans, and having insinuated that Mr. Monroe's Administration was partial against the South-Americans, the President has thought it necessary to counteract this party manoeuvering by professions of favour to them repeated at every Session of Congress — This course of policy has perhaps been necessary; it has been hitherto successful — There were some passages in the draft this day, much more favourable to the Colonists than the facts would warrant; objections were made to them by Mr. Calhoun, and the President altered several of them — I raised none of these objections, repeating what I had said at the drafting of a former message, that whatever the President would strike out or soften upon that subject would be so much of improvement to the Message — My objection to it is that our system being professedly neutrality, any avowal of partiality for the South-Americans was inconsistent with it, and liable to raise doubts of our sincerity. I believe that these paragraphs of the Messages have been the principal real cause of the delay of Spain to ratify the Florida Treaty — The paragraph respecting the finances for this message has been of some delicacy — A loan of three Millions of dollars, authorized at the last Session of Congress has not been sufficient to cover the deficiency of revenue in the year — The depression of the agricultural manufacturing and commercial interests would scarcely admit of the proposal of new taxes if there were not other reasons to prevent it. Mr. Crawford has motives of his own for steering clear of any proposal for taxation, and his resource is more borrowing — The paragraph in the message concerning the finances was drawn by him — It presents only the fair side of the subject, dwelling entirely upon what has been done since the peace, and referring for the present state of the Treasury to the annual Report of the Secretary. — The paragraphs respecting foreign Affairs, though first in order in the exposition of the Message, have been delayed, in the expectation of intelligence from Europe — For this part of the Message, the President usually refers to me — The subjects to be noticed were the state of our intercourse with the British West-Indies, that of the commercial negotiation with France; the Slave question referred to the Emperor of Russia, and the present aspects of the Florida Treaty, in Spain — All these affairs excepting the first are in transitu — I have from time to time suggested what I thought should be said of them, and drew up the passages respecting the relations with France and with Russia, which the President adopted with some alterations. The view of Affairs depending on the War and Navy Departments consisted of Statements of the progress made in erecting fortifications and in building a Navy — The last sentence mentioned the capture of several vessels concerned in the Slave-trade — The President said he had been thinking of adding another sentence of a general nature, by way of conclusion, which I told him I wished he would; being quite unwilling to see him close with "disgraceful traffic." These were the last words of the Message — He laughed heartily at the remark. The meeting broke up about four O'Clock, and Calhoun dropped me at my own door.
18. III:30. Members of Congress visitors at the Office occupied again all the hours of business. Col'l Richard M. Johnson, Senator from Kentucky, T. Newton and George Tucker, Representatives from Virginia, D. P. Cook from Illinois, Josiah Butler and Clifton Claggett from New-Hampshire, with some others successively came — This rapid and continual change of persons, and of subjects calling for attention has such an effect upon the memory that the proverbial defect of that quality may be accounted for, without supposing it intentional or pretended. Every man comes with a story demand or solicitation of his own; almost every one comes to ask favours. No sooner has one left the Office than another enters — I have often attempted to keep a minute of the names of the persons who come from day to day but without success. I have not time to write the name of one who retires, before another comes in.
29. VII. I have not for many months risen so late from bed as this Morning; the cause of which was not only the late hour at which our company withdrew last Evening, but the influenza, under the effects of which I am suffering. I returned Mr. Baldwin's visit, and had a long conversation with him on the subject of the Missouri question of the present Session, which he agreed was a totally different question from that of the last. He said however that those who now objected to the admission of Missouri on the ground of the exceptionable Article in her Constitution connected the restriction question of the last Session with it, and wish to re-open the whole controversy. I told him I believed there would be a very small portion of the house for that, and I thought it would be quite unjustifiable, but the Article in the Missouri-Constitution, was directly repugnant to the rights reserved to every Citizen of the Union in the Constitution of the United States. Its purport went to disfranchise, all the people of colour who were citizens of the free States — The Legislatures of those States were bound in duty to protect the rights of their own Citizens, and if Congress by the admission of Missouri with that clause in her Constitution should sanction this outrage upon those rights, the States a portion of whose Citizens should be thus cast out from the pale of the Union would be bound to vindicate them by retaliation — And if I were a member of the Legislature of one of those States, I would move for a declaratory Act, that so long as the Article in the Constitution of Missouri, depriving the coloured Citizens of the State say of Massachusetts of their rights as Citizens of the United States within the State of Missouri, should subsist; so long the white Citizens of the State of Missouri should be held as aliens within the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, not entitled to claim or enjoy within the same any right or privilege of a Citizen of the United States. And I would go further, and declare that Congress having by their sanction of the Missouri Constitution, by admitting that State into the Union, without excepting against that Article which disfranchised a portion of the Citizens of Massachusetts, had violated the Constitution of the United States; wherefore, until that portion of the Citizens of Massachusetts, whose rights are violated by the Article in the Missouri Constitution, should be redintegrated in the full enjoyment and possession of those rights, no clause or Article of the Constitution of the United States should within the Commonwealth of Massachusetts be so construed as to authorise any person whomsoever, to claim the property or possession of a human being as a Slave — And I would prohibit by Law, the delivery of any fugitive Slave, upon the claim of his master — All which I would do not to violate but to redeem from violation the Constitution of the United States — It was indeed to be expected that such Laws would again be met by retaliatory Laws of Missouri and the other Slave-holding States, and the consequence would be the dissolution de facto of the Union; but that dissolution would have commenced by the Article in the Missouri Constitution — That article was in itself a dissolution of the Union. If acquiesced in, it would change the terms of the federal compact — Change its terms by robbing thousands of Citizens of their rights — And what Citizens — the poor — the unfortunate — the helpless — Already cursed by the mere colour of their skin — already doomed by their complection to drudge in the lowest offices of Society, excluded by their colour from all the refined enjoyments of life, accessible to others, excluded from the benefits of a liberal education; from the bed, from the table, and from all the social comforts of domestic life this barbarous Article deprives them of the little remnant of right yet left them — their rights as citizens and as men — Weak and defenceless as they are, so much the more sacred is the obligation of the Legislatures of the States to which they belong to defend their lawful rights — And I would defend them should the dissolution of the Union be the consequence — For it would not be the defence, it would be the violation of their rights to which all the consequences would be imputable; and if the dissolution of the Union must come, let it come from no other cause but this. If Slavery be the destined Sword in the hand of the destroying angel, which is to sever the ties of this Union, the same sword will cut in sunder the bonds of Slavery itself. A dissolution of the Union for the cause of Slavery would be followed by a servile war in the Slave-holding States, combined with a War, between the two severed portions of the Union. It seems to me that its result must be the extirpation of Slavery from this whole Continent, and calamitous and desolating as this course of Events in its progress must be, so glorious would be its final issue that as God shall judge me I dare not say that it is not to be desired — Baldwin said that he entertained different opinions from mine, of this class of our population. That he thought them far more mischievous than useful — That of all the petty crimes committed in the part of the Country where he resided, nine tenths were by free people of colour. That he believed it to be the same throughout the Country, though there might be an exception in the Eastern States — That all the States made Laws for the exclusion of paupers and vagabonds, and persons whose residence within the State would become a nuisance. But that for his part he was willing to admit Missouri, in any form in which it had been proposed; with the condition or without it. — I asked him how he expected to succeed this Session with his Tariff. He said he hoped, better than the last; in which I think he will be disappointed — This evening we attended the first drawing room at the President's. Johnson Hellen came by invitation of Mrs. Adams to reside with us. The cold is setting in, so that I assumed the garments of winter.
[December 1820]
23. VII. There were a succession of members of Congress this morning at the Office — And at one O'Clock, a meeting of the members of the administration at the President's, to consider the proposals in the note of the 20th respecting the Slave-trade received from Mr. Canning. The British proposals are that the several powers which have enacted Laws for the abolition of the Slave-trade, should agree that the Ships of War which each of them may station upon the African Coast, to intercept vessels carrying on the trade under its own flag, should have the right to search vessels sailing under other flags; and if upon such search, Slaves should be found on board the vessel, to seize her and carry her into some port or place in Africa, to be tried by a mixed Court of two judges, one belonging to each of the two Nations, and two arbitrators, one of which also, from each of the two Nations; to be called in, upon any difference of opinion between the judges. The British Government have by treaties obtained the consent of Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands, to this system, and they are using every exertion with unwearied importunity to obtain the assent to it, of all the great European Powers, and of the United States. They pressed it, at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle upon France, Russia, Austria and Prussia, neither of whom however agreed to it. The refusal of France was explicit and very decisive — supported by spirited and cogent reasoning. The present British Ministers, who care little about it themselves, are pressed by the party of the Saints in Parliament, and therefore, wherever they meet resistance to their proposal urge it with the more apparent earnestness — It has been repeatedly rejected by the Government of the United States — It was now considered again. The opinion was unanimous that we could consent to no such tribunal for the trial of Citizens of the United States — That it would be repugnant to the Article in the Constitution, concerning the organization of the judicial power — That there is no authority given by the Constitution to establish such Courts; and that the mode of trial without grand or petit juries would be alike repugnant to the 5th and 6th Articles amendatory to the Constitution — all which I have repeatedly alledged to Mr. Canning. On the question relative to the other point; granting the mutual right of search, Mr. Thompson, the Secretary of the Navy had some doubts — He was not so clear in the principle of persisting to refuse it. He did not think it would give any countenance to the British practice of impressing men from our merchant vessels in time of War — He thought there was very little analogy between the two cases — That this mutual right of search, for the particular purpose of suppressing this trade would undoubtedly be an expedient highly efficacious to the attainment of the end — That by declining it, we shall expose ourselves to the imputation of insincerity, as to our purpose of suppressing the trade, and that the British Government would avail itself of it, to discredit us with the rest of Europe. That there was a strong feeling, and anxious desire among the people of this Country for the suppression of the trade and some discontent at the notorious fact that all the measures hitherto taken have proved insufficient. If therefore the arrangement could be so made that vessels under our flag should be brought for trial into our own jurisdiction, and tried by our own Courts, he inclined to think that the mutual right of search and seizure might be agreed to — Mr. Calhoun the Secretary at War, strongly expressed the contrary opinion — He said he gave no credit to Great-Britain, for her extreme ardour in this cause of abolition — He thought her professions of benevolence merely ostensible — Her real motives, were her own interest, and ambition. After having prohibited the traffic by her own people she had a most powerful individual interest against its being carried on by others. Her Colonial, her commercial, her shipping interests were all deeply affected by it. They could not bear to see a profitable trade enjoyed by rivals, and competitors, in which they were not permitted to share, themselves. Then this right of searching foreign ships was precisely the thing upon which she was at issue with us on the impressment question. It exactly suited her views to devise an expedient under colour of its necessity for suppressing the Slave-trade, which should familiarize other commercial and navigating Nations, to the practice of submitting to the search of foreign armed ships — All this was to pass to the account of benevolence and humanity. At the same time if we accede to this proposal, the credit of it all goes to her — We follow her lead — We appear to the world, as the Satellite, and she the primary planet; a position the more disparaging to us, because in point of fact she was merely following our lead; the first example of prohibiting the trade having been set by us. I concurred generally with these views of Mr. Calhoun, adding that with regard to the motives of the British Government, I was rather more charitable. I believed the Ministers themselves were not very earnest for the abolition of the trade — But there was, a powerful party in Parliament, and in the Nation who had set their hearts upon it. The Ministers were obliged to conciliate them. I believed great multitudes of this party were honestly, and disinterestedly actuated by real motives of humanity — I gave credit even to the Ministers for some part of this motive — The impulses to action in this, as in most other cases, are not simple but compounded — I would not deny the existence of those that are laudable, nor neglect the detection of those which co-operate with them — The President said that whatever the motives of the British Government might be, our refusal to accede in this case to the mutual right of search and seizure, would hereafter strengthen our cause, in any discussion with them upon the question of search for men during war — This alone was he thought a decisive reason for persevering in our refusal — But Mr. Canning's note required proposals to be made on our part, if we declined those presented to us — What should we offer? — Several expedients were proposed — One was a stipulation to keep a certain force constantly on the Coast of Africa, and in the latitudes where the trade is chiefly carried on — But it was concluded that this might become inconvenient, and even useless. It was finally thought best not to propose any formal convention; but to state the fact that we have had for some time a vessel constantly cruizing on that Coast, and that it was intended to keep such force there. That by concert with the British Government, instructions might mutually be given to the Commanders of these Cruizers on both sides, to cruize in company, whenever they might find it useful or convenient, and to furnish one another, every aid and assistance in their power, for the furtherance of the common object — I was directed to prepare the draft of an answer to Mr. Canning's note, conformable to this determination.
25. VII. Christmas day. No Attendance at the Office — I gave the day to relaxation, and with a view to make an experiment upon the taste of the younger part of our present family, after breakfast, I read aloud Pope's Messiah, a poem suited to the day, and of which my own admiration was great at an earlier age than that of my Son Charles, the youngest person now in my family. Not one of them, excepting George appeared to take the slightest interest in it; nor is there one of them who has any relish for literature. Charles has a great fondness for books, and a meditative mind, but neither disposition nor aptitude for public speaking, or correct reading — Charles must teach himself all that he learns — He will learn nothing from others — Literature has been the charm of my life, and could I have carved out my own fortunes, to Literature would my whole life have been devoted. I have been a lawyer for bread, and a Statesman at the call of my Country — In the practice of the Law, I never should have attained the highest eminence, for the want of natural and spontaneous eloquence. The operations of my mind are slow; my imagination sluggish, and my powers of extemporaneous speaking very inefficient — But I have much capacity for and love of labour, habits, on the whole of industry and temperance, and a strong and almost innate passion for literary pursuits. The business and sometimes the dissipations of my life have in a great measure withdrawn me from it — The summit of my ambition would have been by some great work of literature to have done honour to my age and Country, and to have lived in the gratitude of future ages — This consummation of happiness has been denied me. The portion of life allotted to me, is that of my mortal existence — but even in this failure of my highest objects, literature has been to me a source of continual enjoyment and a powerful preservative from vice — It would have been a great comfort to me, if all or either of my children inherited this propensity — George is not entirely without it — The others have it not; and I have found every effort to stimulate them to it, hitherto fruitless — Pope says tis Education forms the _common_ mind; and so it is; but the _common_ mind will be always groveling in common objects — The _uncommon_ mind must form itself — We all dined this day at Mr. Frye's — Mr. and Mrs. W. S. Smith were also there. Some of the incidents of the day were not pleasing to me. After dinner I diverted my thoughts by a game of Chess with Smith.
27. VI:30. Attended the funeral of Mr. Burrill, which proceeded from the Senate chamber at 11 O'Clock this morning — There was a prayer before the procession moved by the chaplain of the Senate Mr. Ryland. I met Mr. Calhoun at the Senate-chamber, and he rode with me — The burying ground at the Navy Yard is the spot where all the members of Congress, dying here, and not removed by their friends are interred — After the ceremony was over, Mr. Calhoun rode with me, and I left him at the War-Office. We were remarking upon the number of members of Congress, already mingling with the dust of this region, among whom are the two successive Vice-Presidents George Clinton; and Elbridge Gerry. There are plain, modest and tasteless marble monuments over their remains, which the lapse of a few short years will demolish — We were remarking how exclusively by the nature and genius of our institutions, we confine all our thoughts and cares to present time — We have neither forefathers nor posterity — This burying yard, is remote from any Church — The funeral is a mere commitment of earth to earth — There is nothing to sooth the afflicted, or to rouse the thoughtless, by the promise, and the warning which a Church would give of the connection between time and eternity — Nothing to remind the attendant at the funeral that death is a transition from this to another world. There is a Resolution of Congress, existing ever since the death of Washington, that a monument in honour of his memory, should be erected. I said to Calhoun, that I thought under that Resolution, Congress ought to build a Church of durable Stone; equal in dimensions to Westminster Abbey, or the Pantheon at Paris — That sheltered under the roof and within the walls of this Church, should be the sepulchral monument of Washington; and around it, suitably disposed, those of the Statesmen and Legislators of this Union, whose lives may from time to time, honourably close during their attendance here on the service of their Country. Mr. Calhoun thought that Congress would not be supported in the expence of such a measure, by the public opinion; of which I am well aware. He observed that it would be of great advantage to this Country, to have Statesmen of a philosophical turn of mind. He is himself of that character and it has brought him to high distinction at a very early age. But he is the only man of the present administration, who does possess it. We are obliged to live from hand to mouth, to provide for the day that is passing over us, and to leave posterity to take care of itself.
[January 1821]
_Washington. 1 January 1821. Monday._ IV:45. I began the year with invocation to the father of mercies, for virtue and wisdom; and if it be consistent with his Providence, for prosperity — I spent the morning in my chamber at my usual occupation of writing — I am yet examining the Laws of the several States of the Union, upon weights and measures, and this has given me the occasion for a cursory inspection of the Edition now in the process of publication of the Statutes at large of Virginia, from the first Settlement of the Colony — A work which I wish should be executed also in Massachusetts — I had some conversation with my son George, concerning his future prospects and intentions — He inclines to the study of the Law; which concurs with my own wishes. As he told me his Class were to study the Federalist, at their next term, I have advised him to read it through here, during the vacation — He is undertaking also to be an early riser, and has good dispositions — Mrs. Adams with Fanny Johnson and Mary Hellen, and I with Johnson Hellen, and my Sons George and John attended at the drawing room, at the President's — It was more thronged with company than I ever saw it on any similar occasion. "Donec eris felix, multos numerabis amicos." Mr. Monroe by a vote, with a single exception unanimous, of all the electoral Colleges of this Union, has just been re-elected President of the United States, for a second term of four years. No such state of things as the present has existed since the establishment of the present Constitution: for although the second election of Washington, like the first, was unanimous; yet the opposition to his administration was more organized and more violent, than it now is to that of Mr. Monroe.
26. VI:45. ≈ Mr. Canning the British Minister called at the Office, and intimating that he came to have some conversation with me in his official character, observed that having been some days since present at a debate in the House of Representatives he had heard some observations made by Mr. Nelson of Virginia, importing a design in the Government of this Country to form some new Settlement on the South Sea — That he should not particularly have noticed this, but that in the National Intelligencer of this morning, a Paper generally considered as partaking in some sort of an official character, there was a publication signed by Mr. Eaton, a member of the Senate, which was a part of the Executive Government, and which disclosed an avowed project for such a Settlement on the pacific Ocean. He had therefore thought it his duty to call upon me and enquire what were the intentions of the Government in this respect — The personal communications between Mr. Canning and me hitherto had all been of a character so conciliatory and friendly, that although much surprized both at the form and substance of this address, I answered him that I had not read the publication of Mr. Eaton; nor had I heard of the remark which he mentioned to have been made by Mr. Nelson — That I was not acquainted with the opinions of those Members of Congress on this subject; but from a prevailing disposition in the Country; it was very probable that our Settlement at the Mouth of Columbia river would at no remote period be increased — He immediately assumed an air widely different from that of the easy familiarity with which the Conversation had commenced and with a tone more peremptory than I was disposed to endure said he was greatly surprized at receiving this answer. With a corresponding change of tone, I told him he could not be more surprized than I was both at the form and substance of his address on this occasion — "And am I to understand this (said he) as the determination of the American Government?" "No Sir (said I) you are to understand nothing as the determination of the American Government, that I say to you, without consultation with, and directions from the President. What I have now said to you is merely an opinion of my own" — He then repeated that he was greatly surprized to hear it as he conceived such a Settlement would be a direct violation of the Article of the Convention of 20 October 1818. I immediately rose from my Seat, to look for the Volume of the Laws of the United States which contained the Convention — While I was looking for it, Mr. Canning said it was not his wish to take me upon this subject by surprize, and that if it would be more agreeable to me he would call upon me some other day — Without replying to this remark, having found the book I resumed my Seat, and after reading audibly the Article of the Convention respecting the boundary, said "now Sir, if you have any charge to make against the American Government, for a violation of this Article you will please to make the communication in writing" — He then said with great vehemence — "and do you suppose, Sir, that I am to be dictated to, in the manner, in which I may think proper to communicate with the American Government?" — I answered, "No Sir — we know very well what are the privileges of foreign Ministers, and mean to respect them — But you will give us leave to determine what communications we will receive, and how we will receive them; and you may be assured we are as little disposed to submit to dictation as to exercise it" — He then in a louder and more passionate tone of voice, said — "and am I to understand, that I am to be refused henceforth any conference with you on the business of my Mission?" "Not at all, Sir, said I — My request is that if you have any thing further to say to me, _upon this subject_ , you would say it in writing — And my motive is to avoid what, both from the nature of the subject, and from the manner in which you have thought proper to open it, I foresee will tend only to mutual irritation, and not to an amicable arrangement." — With some abatement of the tone, but in the same peremptory manner he said — "am I to understand that you refuse any further conference with me, _on this subjec_ _t_?" — I said "No — But you will understand that I am not pleased either with the grounds upon which you have sought this conference, nor with the questions which you have seen fit to put to me — The only foundation upon which you rest your application is a remark made by a member of Congress in a debate; and a publication of another member of Congress in a Newspaper — The Members of the Legislature of this Country are not only perfectly independent of the Executive; but the Executive cannot permit itself to be questioned by any foreign Minister, upon any thing said or done by them — And as little do I admit your right to ask any question of our intentions with regard to the Mouth of Columbia river" ≈ Mr. Canning then again with much warmth asserted his right to be the only judge of the manner of his proceedings — I said that on former occasions, from the great respect which he had avowed for this Government, and the conciliatory disposition which he had manifested, I had perhaps thrown off in conversation with him some of that cautious reserve which in our respective Stations might have been strictly regular. But that he was not to infer from that a right to question me in a manner to which I would not submit from any other foreign Minister. So long as his professions had been supported by his conduct . . . . Here Mr. Canning again stopped me by repeating with great vehemence . . . . "my conduct! — I am responsible for my conduct only to my own Government" — I replied that we understood fully the rights and privileges of a foreign Minister, and meant that he should enjoy them — But we knew also the right of every Government receiving a foreign Minister to judge of the propriety of his conduct towards them, and should not relinquish it. But it was quite unnecessary, and would be worse than useless to pursue this discussion, as a question of personal conduct between him and me — It would be best to confine ourselves in future to the subject which concerned the two Governments, and my own opinion was that the best mode of treating it would be in writing — He said that for his part he was perfectly willing to forget all that had now passed — I told him that I neither asked nor promised him to forget — I could not forbear entertaining my opinions; nor did I wish him to forbear entertaining his — He asked again if he was to understand me, as refusing to confer with him further on this subject — I said no — "Would I appoint a time for that purpose?" — I said now, if he pleased — I was ready to hear any thing that he had to say to me concerning it — But as he appeared to be under some excitement, perhaps he might prefer some other time; in which case, I would readily receive him to-morrow at one O'Clock; upon which he rose, and took leave; saying he would come at that time — Immediately after this Conversation I went over to the President's, and reported the substance of it to him — He said he thought it impossible that the policy of the British Government should at this time be, to seek causes of dispute with us. He supposed that Mr. Canning wished to make a merit with his Government of his zeal, but he thought he would be cooler to-morrow, after sleeping upon it. He must see that he was wrong in questioning the Executive upon what was said or published by Members of Congress, and it was hardly to be expected that his Government would countenance him in it. The President also desired me in the Conference to-morrow, to be perfectly explicit, as to our claim of right, and equally so in denying the right of Great-Britain to contest it — We attended this Evening a party at Dr. Thornton's.
27. VI. It was past noon when I went to the Office, and shortly after, Mr. Eddy a member of the House of Representatives from Rhode-Island called upon some business relating to the Office of U.S. District Attorney in that State — while he was with me the Messenger of the Department announced Mr. Canning — I told the Messenger to say to Mr. Canning that I would receive him in a few minutes. Mr. Eddy remained with me, not more than five minutes longer; and Mr. Canning when he came in, as he sat down took out his watch, and observed that it was forty minutes faster than the Clocks here — While he was speaking the Clock in the Office struck one — I made no answer to his remark, which might be considered either as a complaint that he had been made to wait, or as an apology for having come before the time appointed — He proceeded to say that conformably to the desire expressed by me yesterday he had now come to have some further conversation upon the subject of our interview then — There was in his manner an apparent effort of coolness, but no appearance of cheerfulness or good humour — I saw there was no relaxation from the tone he had yesterday assumed, and felt that none would on my part be suitable. I said he would recollect that our conference of this day was not at my desire — I had yesterday repeatedly expressed to him the opinion that if this discussion was to be further pursued, it should be in writing — He had with some earnestness urged another conference — and when he requested me to fix the time, I had told him that I was ready and willing to hear then, any thing that he had to say on the subject — That perhaps under the excitement which he was then manifesting he might himself prefer to resume the conversation some other day, and if so, I would see him, whenever it should be most agreeable to himself — He had then asked me to name a time, and I appointed this day, at one O'Clock — He said, "well then, be it so" — He then took from his pocket the National Intelligencer of yesterday, folded down to the column in which the proceedings of the House of Representatives were reported, and referring to the statement that Mr. Floyd had reported a Bill for the occupation of Columbia River said that was an indication of intentions in this Government which he presumed would leave no question of the propriety of his application to me — I told him it was precisely that in which its greatest impropriety consisted — But I could only repeat what I had said to him yesterday — that I saw no use in continuing a discussion upon the propriety of his conduct or of mine. He said that he would most cheerfully consent to be the sacrifice if that only was necessary to the harmony of the two Countries; but that nothing could exceed his astonishment at the manner in which I had received his application of yesterday. He could assure me with the utmost sincerity that since the existence of this Country as a Nation, there never had been a time when the British Government had been so anxiously desirous of preserving and cherrishing the most perfect good-understanding and harmony with this — But that at the same time, they would not on that account yield one particle of their rights — I told him I had no doubt of the correctness of his statement in both its parts, and I was happy to give him the same assurance on the part of this Government — It was the earnest wish of the President to preserve the most friendly relations with Great-Britain; but he would maintain all the rights of the United States — And I would add as my individual opinion that any chicaning of our right to the Mouth of Columbia river would assuredly not tend to promote that harmony between the two Countries — Mr. Canning again repeated his surprize at the tone and temper with which his application yesterday had been received — He said he had examined and re-examined himself, and had in vain enquired what could have been the cause of the asperity with which he had been treated by me — Sir, said I, suppose Mr. Rush, should be present at a debate in the House of Commons, and should hear a member in the course of a Speech say something about the expediency of sending a Regiment of Troops to the Shetland Islands, or a new Colony, to New South-Wales — Suppose another member of Parliament should publish in a Newspaper a Letter, recommending the same project; and suppose Mr. Rush should then go to Lord Castlereagh, and formally alledge those two facts as his motives for demanding whether the British Government, had any such intentions? and if answered that very probably they might, he should assume an imperious and tragical tone of surprize, and talk about a violation of Treaties — how do you think it would be received? — He said that _now_ , he fully understood me, and could account for what had passed — this answer was perfectly explicit — but did I consider the cases as parallel? So far as any question of right is concerned, said I, perfectly parallel — Have you, said Mr. Canning, any _Claim_ to the Shetland Islands, or New South Wales? — Have you any _Claim_ , said I, to the Mouth of Columbia river? — Why, do you not _know_ , replied he, that we have a claim? — I do not _know_ said I, what you claim, nor what you do not claim — You claim India — you claim Africa — you claim — perhaps, said he a piece of the Moon — No; said I, I have not heard that you claim exclusively any part of the Moon; but there is not a spot on _this_ habitable globe, that I could affirm you do not claim — and there is none which you may not claim with as much colour of right, as you can have to Columbia river, or its Mouth — And how far, would you consider said he this exclusion of right to extend — to all the Shores of the South-Sea, said I — we know of no right that you have there — Suppose, said he, Great-Britain should undertake to make a settlement there, would you object to it? I have no doubt we should, said I — But surely, said Mr. Canning, proof was made at the negotiation of the Convention of October 1818 of the claims of Great-Britain, and their existence is recognized in it — "There was no proof, I said, made of any claim, nor to my knowledge, any discussion of claim — The boundary to the Stony-Mountains was defined — Westward of them, Great-Britain had no Settlement whatever — We had one at the Mouth of Columbia, which having been broken up during the War, was solemnly restored to us by the British Government, in fulfilment of a stipulation in the Treaty of Peace. We stipulated in the Convention that the Ports and Places on the pacific ocean, should be open to both parties for ten years, and taking all these transactions together we certainly did suppose that the British Government had come to the conclusion that there would be neither policy nor profit in cavilling with us about territory, on this North-American continent" — "And in this, said he, you include our Northern Provinces on this Continent?" "No, said I; there the boundary is marked, and we have no disposition to encroach upon it — Keep what is your's, but leave the rest of this Continent to us."
[February 1821]
4. VIII:15. About one O'Clock this morning I was awakened by a noise stirring in the house, and the light in the chamber was so great that I thought it was day-light — After a few minutes, my Son John opened the door and said there was a fire in the neighbourhood, and he thought it was the War-Office — I immediately started from bed, dressed myself and went out — On coming to the first cross street and looking in the direction of the fire, it appeared to me decidedly to be the Building of the Department of State itself, and I passed two or three of the most distressing minutes of my life. When I got however to the end of the street I found the building of the Department unhurt — The fire was consuming a brick house on the other side of the Street, and immediately opposite the Eastern end of the Public Building — There was nothing but the Street between them, and there might still be danger to the Office. I went to the house of Mr. R. Forrest, and roused him up to be at hand in case of need — I then went to the building of the Department where I found Boyd the watchman — I went immediately to my own chamber which is at the South-East corner of the building, and was directly opposite to the fire, and remained there, till the roof of the house on fire fell in, and the flames became so confined with the walls which remained standing that the building of the Department was entirely free from danger — I then returned home between four and five of the morning and retired again to bed.
11. VI. ≈ We had a small party, consisting of C. J. Ingersoll, N. Biddle, J. Sergeant and W. S. Smith to dine with us; and much conversation upon the merits of Kean the English tragedian, who is now performing at Philadelphia — He is the popular favourite of the day in England; but he is of that Class of Actors, described by Hamlet, as tearing a Passion to tatters. His vice is exaggeration, and it is the vice of almost all the Literature of the Age — I have never seen upon the English Stage a male performer of the highest order — none to compare with what I conceive Garrick to have been. None to compare with what I have seen performed by Mrs. Siddons, Mrs. Jordan, and Miss Farren in female parts. I have seen no more powerful actor than Kean in England, yet in his delineations of Character, I cannot divest myself of the impression produced by the likeness of a caricature — He is a mannerist, and there is consequently great opposition of opinion upon his style of acting — those who like it, are enthusiastic in their admiration; those who dislike it, are disgusted with the actor — There is no neutrality concerning him. ≈
12. VI. General Vives, the Spanish Minister this morning, by Note requested an interview with me, and I answered him by fixing one O'Clock, for the purpose. He accordingly then came and delivered to me the Treaty of 22d February 1819 ratified by the King of Spain, which he declared he was ready to exchange with me for the ratification of the United States.
14. VI:30. ≈ I attended an Evening party at Mr. Brown's, the Senator from Louisiana — Mrs. Adams being unwell could not go — There was much conversation upon the proceedings in the House of Representatives which were said to have been extremely violent and disorderly. The two houses met in convention to open the electoral Votes, and to declare the persons chosen as President and Vice-President for the four years ensuing the third of March next. They met in the Hall of the House of Representatives, and proceeded in regular form, according to the mode prescribed by the Constitution of the United States, the Law of 1 March 1792, that of 26 March 1804 and the joint Resolution reported by the Committee of the two Houses, (which had however been accepted by the House of Representatives only this morning, after sharp debate, and twice taking of yeas and nays) till the votes of Missouri, came to be counted — when Arthur Livermore, a member from New-Hampshire rose and objected to the counting of the votes of Missouri, because Missouri is not a State of this Union — Immediately John Randolph and John Floyd, both members from Virginia started up together ≈ Floyd, and Randolph continued to interrupt the proceedings even after the Senate came the second time into joint meeting, but Clay by mere dint of superior influence with his own which was also their party finally baffled them and put them down — The business of the day was accomplished. The President and Vice-President of the ensuing Presidential term were declared; but if the election had been a contested one, and the reception or rejection of the Missouri votes would have turned the scale, I think there would have been no declaration of a President and Vice-President before the 4th of March, and the whole Union would have been unhinged — This was the ninth Presidential election, since the existence of the present Constitution of the United States, and is already the second instance of a crisis in the election — On the former occasion it happened at the very tug of conflict between two national parties for the mastery. Now it happened, at an aera far more extraordinary — When that party conflict had performed its entire revolution and that unanimity of choice which began with George Washington had come round again in the person of James Monroe. In the survey of our national history this latter unanimity is much more remarkable than the first — To this last unanimity there is the exception of a single vote given by William Plumer of New-Hampshire, and that vote, to my surprize and mortification was for me. If there was an electoral vote in the Union which I thought sure for Mr. Monroe, it was that of Mr. Plumer — I deeply regretted the loss of Mr. Plumer's vote, because it implied his disapprobation of the principles of Administration, and although by giving the vote for me, he obviously exempted my share in the administration from any essential portion of the censure, I could take no pleasure in that approbation, which though bestowed on me, was denied to the whole Administration.
16. VII. William A. Burwell, a member of the House of Representatives from Virginia, died this Morning. He had been once for a short time private Secretary to Mr. Jefferson during his presidency; and soon after, was elected a member of Congress, when little beyond the age necessary for qualification. He was always re-elected, and has been fourteen years a member — He was a man of moderate talents and respectable private character — Full of Virginian principles and prejudices, a mixture of wisdom and Quixotism, which has done some good and much mischief to the Union. Burwell took no lead in any thing — He scarcely ever spoke. Never originated a measure of any public utility; but fancied himself a guardian of the Liberties of the people against executive encroachments. His delight was the consciousness of his own independence, and he thought it heroic virtue, to ask no favours. He therefore never associated with any member of the Executive, and would have shuddered at the thought of going to the Drawing Room — Jealousy of State-rights and jealousy of the executive, were the two pillars of Burwell's political fabric, because they are the prevailing popular doctrines in Virginia. He floated down the stream of time with the current and always had the satisfaction of being in his own eyes a pure and incorruptible Patriot. Virginia teems with this brood more than any other State in the Union; and they are far from being the worst men among us — Such men occasionally render service to the nation by preventing harm; but they are quite as apt to prevent good; and they never do any.
22. V:45. Ratifications of the Florida Treaty, exchanged. General Vivés, came according to appointment, at One O'Clock to the Office of the Department of State, with Mr. Salmon his Secretary of Legation. Our preparations were not entirely completed when he came, but were ready within half an hour. I then took the Treaty with the King of Spain's ratification, myself ≈ I went immediately to the President's — He signed the Proclamation of the ratified Treaty — and the Messages to the two Houses communicating it to them, as proclaimed — The Messages were sent, and that to the House of Representatives, was received while the House were in Session. The Senate had just adjourned when Mr. Gouverneur who carried the Message reached the capital. I sent at the same time to both Houses the Report upon Weights and Measures, prepared, conformably to a Resolution of the Senate of 3 March 1817, and one of the House of Representatives of the 14th of December 1819 — And thus have terminated, blessed be God, two of the most memorable transactions of my life — This day two years have elapsed since the Florida Treaty was signed. Let my Sons if they ever consult this record of their father's life, turn back to the reflections on the journal of that day — let them meditate upon all the vicissitudes which have befallen the Treaty and of which this Diary bears witness, in the interval between that day and this — Let them remark the workings of private interests, of perfidious fraud, of sordid intrigues, of royal treachery, of malignant rivalry, and of envy masked with patriotism, playing to and fro across the atlantic into each others hands, all combined to destroy this Treaty between the signature and the ratification; and let them learn to put their trust in the overruling Providence of God.
25. VII. Attended Church at the Bath-room, and heard Mr. Palfrey, preach from Matthew XXII.29. "Jesus answered and said unto them, Ye do err, not knowing the scriptures, nor the power of God" — The error of misunderstanding, and misinterpreting the Scriptures, is a fruitful topic for a sectarian preacher, but it is a weapon equally accessible to the use of all. The errors signalized by Mr. Palfrey, were only those in which he himself has no faith. After Church I called and paid a visit to Mr. Forsyth. Hopkinson dined with us, and according to his engagement came and sat with me an hour before dinner — The object of his seeking this conversation with me was the next Presidential election. He gave me to understand, that he was disposed to consider me as a Candidate for that occasion — That others were of similar disposition; but that it was necessary there should be a concert and understanding between them, as there already was and long had been between the partizans of Mr. Crawford — He said that the extent and activity of their intrigues was incredible, and unless systematically counteracted, would infallibly be successful. I told Mr. Hopkinson that I was perfectly aware of the exertions making by Mr. Crawford himself and his friends to secure the Presidency at the next election. There were others making exertions not less ardent and persevering for Mr. Clinton of New-York — There was a third party less apparent now, and the struggle of which was eventual, to depend upon the issue of the conflict now raging in that State between Clinton and Tompkins. The State was now about equally divided; and as there is no marked difference of principle to contend for, they are squabbling for men — If either party should obtain over the other such an ascendancy as would carry a large majority of the State, its leader would be the Candidate of New-York, for the Presidency. The only question between them will be, which shall be the man. New-York, at any rate will have a Candidate of her own, and if both these rivals should be out of the way, she would sooner take up Mr. King, than resort to any other State — The politics of Pennsylvania, will be greatly influenced by those of New-York. She too is a divided State, but the scuffle for her Governor is between men neither of whom has any prospects in the general Government — She will probably be an accessary to New-York. Whether any party or any one individual would support or propose me as a Candidate, I could not tell; but even in my own native State of Massachusetts, the predominating party, the federalists had a grudge against me, which they would not lose the opportunity of indulging — To one thing however I had made up my mind — I would take no one step to advance or promote pretensions to the Presidency — If that office was to be the prize of cabal and intrigue, of purchasing Newspapers, bribing by appointments or bargaining for foreign Missions, I had no ticket in that Lottery. Whether I had the qualifications necessary for a President of the United States, was to say the least very doubtful to myself — But that I had no talent for obtaining the Office by such means was perfectly clear — I had neither talent nor inclination for intrigue — I can do nothing, either to canvass for myself, or to counteract the canvassing of others — I will have no stipendiary editor of Newspapers to extol my talents and services, and to criticise or calumniate my rivals — I will devote none of my time to devising laws, to increase my own patronage, and multiply canvassers in my favour — My time is now not sufficient to discharge the duties of my Office; any part of it which I should spend in efforts to make partizans or to pull down competitors would be an abandonment of public for personal aims — For this, if I had the talent I have not the will; and if I had the will I have not the talent. Hopkinson said, that this very abstraction from all intrigues would be my principal recommendation — That Crawford having nothing but intrigue to support him, having manifested utter incompetency to the very Department with which he is charged, having never rendered one signal service to the Country, and having a standing manifesto of charges affecting his honour as a Gentleman, in the pamphlet of Governor Clarke against him, would make no head, unless by mere want of management in opposing him. That Clinton had embroiled himself too much in the turmoil of his own passions, and in his denunciation of the General Government had completely failed of substantiating his charges. The prospects of Tompkins he thought were no better — He was deeply involved in debt, and stood equivocally before the public in relation to the settlement of his Accounts. Mr. King had no chance; and he thought I was mistaken in believing that the Massachusetts federalists retained their animosity against me. And he alluded to the manner in which they had recently conferred distinguished honours upon my father. He said if I should go to Boston next Summer, he hoped I should not entertain this opinion of the federalists nor express it; and he intimated that Webster and Hale had been last Sunday dissatisfied with opinions which I had expressed relative to the trial of the Queen of England; which he noticed only to mark what seemingly trifling incidents affected the opinions of men — We pursued this Conversation no further; but this as well as the Conversations with Allison and some others gives me warning of what I am to expect. If there has ever been an election of a President of the United States without canvassing and intrigue, there has been none since that of my father — There will probably never be another — The materials for canvassing are and for some time have been plentifully offered to me and pressed upon me — I cannot be ignorant of the consequences of declining these offers; but I could not accept them with satisfaction to myself or with that consciousness of right which I never have forfeited, and which is dearer to me than any station to which it is in the power of man, or of Fortune to raise me.
28. VII. ≈ The Senate this day by a vote of 28 to 14 adopted the Resolution for the conditional admission of the State of Missouri into the Union, reported by the large joint Committee, and which had yesterday passed the house of Representatives, and thus this second Missouri question has been compromised like the first. The greatest results of this conflict of three Sessions have been to make John W. Taylor, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and to bring into full display the talents and resources of influence of Mr. Clay. By a singular piece of good Fortune for him, just at the moment of his arrival here, Mr. Lowndes in whose management it had been, was confined by severe illness to his chamber, and is so still. The majority against the unconditional admission was small, but very decided. The problem for the Slave representation to solve was the precise extent of concession necessary for them to detach from the opposite party a sufficient number of anti-servile votes just to turn the majority. Mr. Clay found at last this expedient, which the Slave-voters would not have accepted from any one not of their own party, and to which his greatest difficulty was to obtain the acquiescence of his own friends — The timid and weak-minded dropped off one by one from the free side of the question, until a majority was found for the compromise of which the serviles have the substance, and the liberals the shadow. In the progress of this Affair the distinctive character of the inhabitants of the several great divisions of this Union has been shewn more in relief than perhaps in any National transaction since the Establishment of the Constitution — It is perhaps accidental that the combination of talent and influence has been greatest on the Slave side. — The importance of the question has been much greater to them than to the other side. Their union of exertion has been consequently closer, and more unshakable. They have threatened and intreated, bullied and wheedled, until their more simple adversaries have been half coaxed half frightened into a surrender of their principles for a bauble of insignificant promises. The champions of the North did not however judiciously select their position for this contest — There must be at some time a conflict upon this very question between Slave and free-representation; but this is not the time; nor was this the proper occasion for contesting it.
[March 1821]
3. VI. Close of the sixteenth Congress; and of the first term of the Administration of James Monroe. ≈ Mr. Storrs the Chairman of the Committee upon the expenditures of the Department of State told me that he had made this morning, a Report to the House approving altogether the appointment of Major Delafield, after the close of the last Session of Congress, and declaring generally the correctness of the Accounts of the Department of State, so far as the Committee had examined them. He spoke as if he was ashamed of his motion which was intended as an attack upon me; and ashamed also to make public the justification which he had not been able to withhold. This is the last day of Storrs's present political existence. He has no prospect of being elected to the next Congress. He has considerable talents, and some taste for literature, with which I have always a strong sympathy. But he wants both judgment and firmness. The Missouri question has blasted him, and the loss of his popularity at home, with the loss of all his influence in the House, have driven him to vicious habits, and made his career as a Statesman abortive — Mr. Clay moved a vote of thanks to the Speaker, John W. Taylor, prefaced by a short, studied, but grossly indelicate speech. As however it was quite conciliatory, as to the sentiment, it passed without animadversion — The Clerk of the House put the question, and there was only one voice answered in the negative — That was R. R. Reid of Georgia. About an hour afterwards the Speaker shortly addressed the house in answer to the vote of thanks. His speech was both in matter and delivery much better than Clay's — It was past twelve O'Clock at Night before the business of the two Houses was finished; and a half an hour later before the last Bills were examined and signed by the President, and notified to the two Houses as thus completed. A joint Committee, consisting of Mr. Holmes of Maine and Hunter of the Senate, and Gen'l S. Smith and Joshua Cushman of the House of Representatives came, and informed the President that they were ready to adjourn, unless he had any further communication to make to them; to which he answered that he had none. It was near one in the Morning when they adjourned — And thus finished the sixteenth Congress of the United States — I walked home, in company as far as his house, with Mr. Calhoun — I found him in some degree dispirited by the results of the attacks systematically carried on through this whole Congress but especially through the Session just expired, against his management of the War Department. He thinks that the present embarrassments in the Administration, all originated in two measures of the first Session of Congress under it. The repeal of the internal taxes, and the profuse pension Act — The present falling off in the revenue he says ought to have been foreseen; and also that on the failure of revenue, the War Department would naturally be the first upon which the scythe of retrenchment would fall. He observed also the Coalition of Crawford's, Clinton's and Clay's partizans, though with views quite hostile to each other, in the assaults of this Session, against the administration. The vote of thanks proposed by Clay to the Speaker, Taylor; the appointment by Taylor, of the most violent opponents to the Administration upon Committees. The combinations of the Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, New-York and Vermont members, devoted to their respective leaders, and joining all their forces against the Administration — All this is unquestionably true — There have also been transactions in the War Department, in the Post-Office, and in the Bank of the United States, which have unfortunately given handle to every class of disaffection. Jackson's Seminole Campaign, the Florida Treaty, and the South-American insurgents have all been used in turn as weapons of annoyance — By the practical operation of our Government, the whole system of our Politics is inseparably linked with the views of aspirants to the Presidential succession; and by the peculiarity of our present position, the prospects of _all_ the Candidates in reserve for the next Presidency, excepting the Vice-President, and setting aside the Secretary of State depend upon the _failure_ of the present Administration for their success. The worst of it is, that this applies more forcibly to Crawford, a leading Member of the Administration himself than to any other — Crawford has been a worm preying upon the vitals of the Administration within its own body. He was the instigator, and animating Spirit of the whole movement, both in Congress and at Richmond against Jackson and the Administration. In all the vicissitudes of the Spanish Negotiation, wherever there has been difficulty or prospect of failure, he has been felt, when he could not be seen, and all the attacks against the War Department, during this Congress have been stimulated by him and promoted by his partizans — An essential impulse to this course on his part is the knowledge he has obtained that Calhoun, is not prepared to support him for the next Presidency. At the same time the emptiness of the Treasury, and Crawford's utter inability to devise _any_ other source of Revenue but loan upon loan, very naturally lead him to favour any kind of retrenchment, and especially such as will not bear upon any of his friends — It has been the policy of all the parties, to keep hostilities in reserve against me this Session; and to assail the War Department as an out work. At this Moment standing on the Isthmus between the past and the future, I look back with satisfaction solid and pure at what has been accomplished of public service, with humility and regret, that more has not been effected, and with unbounded Gratitude to the disposer of all results — Forward, the prospect is beset with difficulties and dangers — Let me advance cheerily to meet the dispensations of Time; pursuing with singleness of Soul the path of duty; imploring for the faculty to will and to do — "to move in Charity, to rest in Providence, and to turn on the Poles of Truth."
#### Chronology
1767
Born July 11 in Braintree, Massachusetts, the second child of John Adams, a lawyer and rising patriot leader, and Abigail Smith Adams. (Father, born 1735, Harvard 1755, is the great-great-grandson of Henry Adams, who immigrated to Massachusetts from Somerset, England, in 1638. Mother, born 1744, is the daughter of the Reverend William Smith of Weymouth, and the granddaughter of Colonel John Quincy, a former speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. Parents married October 25, 1764. Sister Abigail "Nabby" born July 14, 1765.) Baptized July 12 and named for his ailing great-grandfather, who dies the next day.
1768
Father declines reelection as a Braintree selectman and moves family to a rented house on Brattle Street in Boston to accommodate increased legal practice and political activities. The first of five British regiments lands at Boston on October 1 to quell unrest arising from newly imposed imperial taxes and trade regulations. Sister Susanna born December 28.
1770
Sister Susanna dies on February 4. British soldiers under the command of Captain Thomas Preston fire on an aggressive crowd on March 5, killing five civilians in what becomes known as the Boston Massacre. Father agrees to defend Preston and eight soldiers after they are indicted for murder. Brother Charles born May 29. After trials in the autumn, Preston and six of the soldiers are acquitted, while the other two are convicted of manslaughter.
1772
Brother Thomas Boylston born September 15.
1773
In Boston, the ongoing imperial crisis escalates when on December 16 a large crowd boards East India Company ships carrying taxed tea—"that bainfull weed," as mother refers to it—and tosses 342 chests worth an estimated £10,000 into the harbor.
1774
In February father purchases his father's homestead (now known as the John Adams Birthplace) and the family again returns to Braintree. In response to the Boston Tea Party, the British Parliament passes Coercive Acts abrogating the Massachusetts colonial charter and closing the port of Boston effective June 1. Massachusetts House of Representatives calls on June 20 for a "Meeting of Committees from the several Colonies on this Continent" to address the crisis and elects father and four others as delegates. First Continental Congress opens in Philadelphia on September 5. In October, father is elected to Second Continental Congress to meet in May 1775. John Quincy, who is principally educated by his parents, also begins to be tutored by his father's law clerks, John Thaxter, a cousin of his mother, and Nathan Rice. During his long absences from home, John Adams writes exhortatory letters to Abigail Adams about the education of "our lovely Babes": "Let us teach them not only to do virtuously but to excell. To excell they must be taught to be steady, active, and industrious."
1775
Parliament declares Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion on February 9. Hostilities begin with skirmishes at Lexington and Concord on April 19. Second Continental Congress convenes on May 10. Father nominates George Washington as commander-in-chief of Continental Army, June 14–15. With mother at Penn's Hill in Braintree, John Quincy observes fires in Charlestown and hears the report of cannons at the battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, and is later grieved to learn of the death that day of the family's friend and "beloved Physician," Dr. James Warren, who has recently saved his badly fractured forefinger from amputation. Father signs Olive Branch Petition to George III, adopted by Congress on July 5.
1776
Father supports resolution introduced on June 7 stating that all political bonds with Great Britain ought to be dissolved and is appointed to committee to draft a declaration. Congress approves independence on July 2 and the Declaration of Independence is adopted on July 4. George III proclaims the thirteen colonies in rebellion on August 23. On July 12 John Quincy travels to Boston with mother and siblings, family servants, and several relatives to receive inoculation against smallpox, returning to Braintree in September. Father obtains leave from Congress, and reaches home in early November.
1777
Father leaves to rejoin Congress in January. On July 11, John Quincy's tenth birthday, mother gives birth to a sister, Elizabeth, who is stillborn. American forces achieve their first major victory of the Revolutionary War at Saratoga, New York, on October 17, bolstering American appeals for financial support from the French. Father again obtains leave from Congress, and in November returns to Braintree intending to resume his law practice; instead he is nominated by Congress to replace Silas Deane as commissioner to France, joining fellow envoys Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee.
1778
France and the United States sign treaties of alliance and commerce in Paris on February 6. John Quincy sails for France with father on February 15; they land at Bordeaux on April 1 and join Franklin at Passy on April 9. He attends Monsieur Le Coeur's boarding school along with Benjamin Franklin Bache, Franklin's grandson, studying French (in which he will become fluent), Latin, dancing, drawing, music and fencing. War begins between Great Britain and France on June 14. Congress abolishes the three-member diplomatic commission and appoints Benjamin Franklin sole minister plenipotentiary to France on September 14.
1779
Father learns of the termination of his mission on February 12 and leaves Passy with John Quincy on March 8, traveling to Nantes and Lorient in search of passage to America. In Nantes, they make the acquaintance of American merchant Joshua Johnson and his family before finally sailing for Massachusetts on June 17 aboard the French frigate _La Sensible_ , arriving in Boston on August 3. Father is promptly named by Congress minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties of peace, amity and commerce with Great Britain. On November 12, John Quincy begins first diary as he prepares once more to accompany his father to Europe, sailing again on _La_ _Sensible_ , this time also with brother Charles, his father's private secretary John Thaxter, and legation secretary Francis Dana. Leaks force the ship to land at El Ferrol, on the northeast coast of Spain, on December 8, and the party travels overland to Paris.
1780
Arrives in Paris on February 8. Father is stymied in his diplomatic efforts by the French court and resolves to leave Paris on July 27 and travel with John Quincy and Charles to the Netherlands in search of support for the American cause. The boys are enrolled at Amsterdam's Latin School on September 30, then withdrawn in December to attend public lectures at the University of Leyden under the supervision of tutors Thaxter and Benjamin Waterhouse, an American medical student at the university. Congress appoints father to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce with the Dutch Republic, December 29.
1781
Formally admitted as a scholar to the University of Leyden, January 10. On July 7, departs Holland with Francis Dana, who has been commissioned envoy to the court of the Russian Empress Catherine the Great at St. Petersburg. Having passed through Berlin and Riga, arrives at St. Petersburg on August 29 and serves as Dana's private secretary and interpreter, French being the official language of the Russian court. (Catherine withholds recognition of the United States.) Brother Charles, desperately homesick, is sent back to the United States on August 12. French and American forces achieve a decisive victory over the British at Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19.
1782
Departs St. Petersburg for The Hague on October 3, traveling through Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Hamburg. On October 8, father signs Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the Dutch Republic, which had earlier recognized American independence, on April 19.
1783
Arrives at The Hague on April 21 and reunites with father there on July 22. Proceeds with him to Paris, where on September 3 John Adams signs definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States of America along with Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and British negotiator David Hartley. Travels with father to England in October where they pass two months in and around London before visiting Bath in December.
1784
Accompanies father to The Hague, arriving on January 12. Mother and sister depart Boston, June 20, and arrive in London July 21. John Quincy is reunited with them there on July 30, carrying a letter from his father to his mother that reads, "I Send you a son who is the greatest Traveller, of his Age, and without Partiality, I think as promising and manly a youth as is in the World." Father arrives in London on August 7, and the family travels to Paris and settles in Auteuil, where John Quincy becomes acquainted with Thomas Jefferson, who like his father has been commissioned by Congress to negotiate commercial treaties with states in Europe and North Africa. (John Adams will recall this period in an 1825 letter to Jefferson in which he refers to John Quincy as "our John": "I call him our John, because when you was at Cul de sac at Paris, he appeared to me to be almost as much your boy as mine.")
1785
On January 1, begins new diary ("Ephemeris. Volume 1.") in which he inscribes Voltaire's maxim " _La mollesse est douce et sa suite est cruelle_ " ("Indolence is sweet, its consequences bitter"). Departs from Lorient for the United States aboard _Courier de l'Amérique_ , May 21; arrives at New York on July 17 and at Boston on August 25. Meets with Harvard College president Joseph Willard on August 31, who grants admission but advises him to wait until the spring to begin classes. Resides with mother's sister Elizabeth and her husband, the Reverend John Shaw of Haverhill, Massachusetts, who have been caring for younger brothers Charles and Thomas.
1786
Matriculates on March 15 as a junior at Harvard, which waives tuition fees for him and his brother Charles, a freshman, in recognition of their father's public service. In London, where father is the first U.S. minister to the Court of St. James's, sister Nabby marries Colonel William Stephens Smith, secretary to the American legation, on June 12. Adams is alarmed in the autumn by reports of the wave of agrarian protests in the western part of Massachusetts that becomes known as Shays's Rebellion.
1787
Graduates from Harvard on July 16 as a member of Phi Beta Kappa. Delivers senior oration on "The Importance and Necessity of Public Faith to the Well Being of a Nation." Dr. Jeremy Belknap publishes the oration in the _Columbian Magazine_ in September. Begins clerkship in the law offices of Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts, in September. Expresses skepticism regarding the proposed U.S. Constitution in October. Parents arrange for the purchase of the Vassall-Borland house in the North Precinct of Braintree, known as the "Old House," in preparation for their return from Europe. (North Precinct reincorporated as Quincy in 1792, in honor of maternal great-grandfather.)
1788
Massachusetts ratifies the U.S. Constitution, February 6. Parents arrive in Boston on June 17, and John Quincy joins them at their new estate in Braintree in October.
1789
On February 4, George Washington is elected president of the United States, receiving the votes of all sixty-nine electors, and John Adams is elected vice president with thirty-four electoral votes; they are sworn in at New York City, the temporary federal capital, on April 21.
1790
Becomes increasingly enamored with sixteen-year-old Mary Frazier of Newburyport. Admitted to the bar on July 15 and opens law office at 23 Court Street in Boston on August 9.
1791
The first American edition of Thomas Paine's _Rights of Man_ is published in May with a prefatory letter by Thomas Jefferson referring to "political heresies which have sprung up among us," an obvious allusion to "Discourses on Davila," a series of newspaper essays (April 1790–April 1791) in Philadelphia's _Gazette of the United States_ highly critical of the French Revolution and unbalanced democracy; though anonymous, the Discourses are widely understood to be the work of Vice President Adams. John Quincy responds by publishing under the pseudonym "Publicola" eleven letters critical of Jefferson and Paine in Boston's _Columbia Centinel_ , June 8–July 27; these are soon reprinted throughout the country.
1792
On December 5, George Washington is reelected as president, again unanimously, with 132 electoral votes, and John Adams is reelected as vice president with seventy-seven votes. John Quincy publishes three essays as "Menander" in defense of theatrical performances, then prohibited in Massachusetts, in the _Columbia Centinel_ , December 19–22. He writes, "no obedience is due to an unconstitutional act of the legislature."
1793
Revolutionary France declares war on Great Britain and the Netherlands on February 1; President Washington issues proclamation of neutrality on April 22. John Quincy writes three essays as "Marcellus" in defense of American neutrality published in the _Columbia Centinel_ , April 24–May 11. Delivers annual Fourth of July oration in Boston, which is published as a pamphlet. Publishes five more essays as "Columbus" in the _Columbia Centinel_ , November 30–December 18, denouncing "the intrusion of a foreign influence into the administration" of American affairs. Like his December "Barneveld" essays, in which he defends the president's right to "receive and dismiss foreign ministers and consuls," these essays are written in response to the controversial mission of Edmond-Charles Genêt, the first minister sent to the United States from the new French Republic; their authorship is widely known, and they bring John Quincy to the president's attention.
1794
Nominated minister resident to the Netherlands by President Washington on May 29 and unanimously confirmed by the Senate the following day. Departs Boston for Philadelphia, June 30. Receives commission from Secretary of State Edmund Randolph on July 11, at Philadelphia. Sails with brother and secretary Thomas Boylston aboard _Alfred_ from Boston to England en route to The Hague, September 15. In London in October, meets with and delivers papers to Chief Justice John Jay, who has been dispatched by the president to negotiate a treaty with Great Britain amid rising tensions over neutral rights and other unresolved issues between the two countries. Arrives at The Hague on October 31. Presents credentials to Stadtholder Prince William V, November 15. Jay's Treaty signed November 19.
1795
William V flees to England on January 18 in the face of a French-supported uprising that results in the proclamation of the Batavian Republic the following day. Brother Charles marries Sarah Smith, sister of William Stephens Smith, in New York, August 29. John Quincy departs for London October 22 to ratify Jay's Treaty in the absence of the U.S. minister to Great Britain, Thomas Pinckney. Regularly visits the family of Joshua Johnson, now American consul at London, and becomes acquainted with his daughters.
1796
Attends audience with George III, January 9. Sits for portrait by John Singleton Copley, begun February 11, which he will regard as one of the few successful likenesses taken of him. Courts and becomes engaged to Louisa Catherine Johnson, born February 12, 1775, daughter of Maryland native Joshua Johnson and Englishwoman Catherine Nuth, but declines to set a wedding date. Departs London on May 28 and arrives at The Hague on May 31. Nominated by President Washington to be minister plenipotentiary to Portugal, May 30. On December 7, John Adams receives seventy-one electoral votes and is elected president of the United States; Thomas Jefferson, leader of the opposition party, receives sixty-eight electoral votes and becomes vice president.
1797
Father is inaugurated as president on March 4. Receives final orders to depart for Portugal. On July 26, marries Louisa Catherine Johnson at the parish church of All Hollows Barking, London. Though many of his belongings have already been dispatched to Lisbon, is nominated by his father to serve instead as minister plenipotentiary to Prussia and is confirmed by the Senate 19–9. Former schoolmate Benjamin Franklin Bache accuses the Adamses of nepotism in the Philadelphia _Aurora_. Johnson family leaves for the United States; Joshua Johnson's bankruptcy is revealed as creditors dun his new son-in-law, who does not receive promised marriage settlement. John Quincy, Louisa Catherine, and Thomas Boylston arrive at Berlin on November 7, just nine days before the king of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm II, dies. On November 30, Louisa Catherine suffers the first of many miscarriages. John Quincy is elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1798
Louisa Catherine loses pregnancies in the spring and summer. Amid ongoing violations of American neutral rights by the warring European powers, the revelation of the "XYZ" Affair stirs American public opinion against France. Congress authorizes the navy and armed merchant vessels to capture armed French ships, July 9. John Quincy devotes much time to the study of German. Louisa Catherine succeeds charmingly at the Prussian court, while John Quincy and his mother Abigail worry that she will be "allured by the splendor."
1799
Signs renewed Treaty of Amity and Commerce with Prussia on July 11 before embarking with Louisa Catherine on four-month tour of Bohemia and Saxony. Begins work on a translation of _Oberon_ , German epic poem by Christopher Martin Wieland; it will be completed the following spring, but remain unpublished until 1940. George Washington dies on December 14.
1800
Louisa Catherine endures another miscarriage in January. President Adams persists in his determination to avert open war with France by dispatching a peace mission to Paris, provoking the anger of Federalists, especially those in the cabinet. Ensuing protests result in the president demanding the resignations of Secretary of State Timothy Pickering and Secretary of War James McHenry. In June, Alexander Hamilton meets with New England Federalists to persuade them to support Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for president rather than Adams. From July 23 to September 24, John Quincy and Louisa Catherine tour Silesia. Hamilton publishes pamphlet on October 24 calling John Adams "unfit for the office of chief magistrate." Brother Charles dies of complications from alcoholism in New York on November 30. Presidential electors meet December 3. Aaron Burr and Thomas Jefferson each receive seventy-three electoral votes, defeating John Adams who receives sixty-five votes. John Quincy publishes translation from the German of Friedrich von Gentz, _The Origin and Principles of the American Revolution_ , which argues that the American and French Revolutions had nothing important in common.
1801
"Letters from Silesia" and a translation of "The Thirteenth Satire of Juvenal" are published in the inaugural issue of _The_ _Port Folio_ , January 3, 1801; the former will be reprinted as a book in 1804. Jefferson is elected president by the House of Representatives after thirty-six ballots and Aaron Burr becomes vice president. Recalled by father from Prussia. Jefferson is inaugurated March 4; John Adams does not attend. In Berlin, on April 12, the Adamses' first child is born, and named for George Washington: "I know not whether upon rigorous philosophical principles it be wise to give a great and venerable name to such a lottery-ticket as a new-born infant." The family departs Berlin June 17 and sails from Hamburg to Philadelphia aboard _America_. While Louisa Catherine and George proceed to her family in Washington, John Quincy continues on to Quincy, where on September 21 he is reunited with his parents for the first time in seven years. In October dines at Executive Mansion with President Jefferson and visits Martha Washington and family at Mount Vernon, October 27–28. Moves to Boston to reestablish law practice in November. Louisa Catherine travels to Boston later, and meets the Adams family for the first time on November 25.
1802
Joins Society for the Study of Natural Philosophy and attends his first meeting on January 7. Elected to the Massachusetts state senate as a Federalist in April. Writing in the guise of Thomas Paine, publishes in the October 30 edition of _The Port Folio_ a mock-Horatian ode ridiculing Thomas Jefferson's relationship with Sally Hemings. Publishes _An Address, to the Members of the Massachusetts Charitable Fire Society_ and _An Oration, Delivered at Plymouth, December 22, 1802, on the Anniversary of the First Landing of Our Ancestors_. Loses election to U.S. House of Representatives for the Boston district by fifty-nine votes in November.
1803
Appointed United States senator by the Massachusetts senate on February 3 to fill an unexpired term lasting until 1809, joining fellow senator Timothy Pickering in the Massachusetts delegation. Son John Adams II born July 4. After his parents lose $13,000 in the failure of a London bank, Adams works tirelessly to compensate against these losses, selling various family properties in installments. Great Britain declares war on Napoleonic France on May 18, once again bringing the issue of American neutral rights to the fore. Senator and Mrs. Adams arrive at Washington, October 20, and board with Louisa Catherine's sister Ann and her husband, Walter Hellen. Supports House bill funding the necessary bonds to purchase Louisiana in November, breaking with Pickering and other Federalists.
1804
Sides with Federalists against Republican efforts to impeach federal judges. Spends the summer in Quincy reviewing the record of U.S. laws enacted since 1789, while Louisa Catherine and children remain in Washington near her Johnson and Hellen relations. Writing as "Publius Valerius," publishes "Serious Reflections, Addressed to the Citizens of Massachusetts," a series of articles in the Boston weekly _The Repertory_ , October 26–November 16, critical of the three-fifths clause of the Constitution and the resulting disproportionate power of southern slaveholders in the federal union.
1805
Family moves with Louisa Catherine's sister Eliza to Quincy when the Senate goes into recess. Brother Thomas Boylston marries Ann Harrod of Haverhill, May 16. Adams becomes first Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard, June 26.
1806
Sons George and John remain in Quincy with grandparents. Member of committee that presents, on February 5, three resolutions to the Senate protesting British captures and condemnations of American vessels, calling on President Jefferson to demand restoration and indemnity and recommending nonimportation of British goods. Supports Non-Importation Act of April 15. Begins lectures at Harvard during the long congressional summer recess (May to October). Louisa Catherine, pregnant, remains in Washington; on June 22 she delivers a son, stillborn. Adams receives honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the College of New Jersey (Princeton).
1807
Proposes resolution for a national plan of internal improvements in February. Again as "Publius Valerius," publishes a series of articles in _The Repertory_ concerning the _Chesapeake_ - _Leopard_ affair of June 22, when the USS _Chesapeake_ , in international waters having just departed from Norfolk, Virginia, was fired upon and four of its crew were seized by HMS _Leopard_ ; he is the sole Federalist to participate in a meeting at the Massachusetts State House that resolves to support the Jefferson administration in response to the affair, which, he will later recall, marks the beginning of "the really important period of my life." Son Charles Francis born, August 18, named for his deceased uncle, and for Francis Dana. Departs, with Louisa Catherine and infant Charles for Washington in October. Professing to place the country's welfare over partisan or sectional interests, Adams is the sole Federalist to vote for the administration's Embargo Act, December 18.
1808
Attends the Republican party caucus in Boston, January 23. Discusses foreign affairs with President Jefferson, March 15. On June 3, six months ahead of schedule, the Federalist-controlled Massachusetts state legislature elects James Lloyd to replace Adams at the end of his term, and forwards positive instructions to vote to repeal the Embargo; faced with this clear repudiation, Adams resigns from the Senate, June 8. Publishes _A Letter to the Hon. Mr._ _Harrison Gray Otis . . . on the Present State of our National_ _Affairs_ , explaining his support of the Jefferson administration. Continues lectures at Harvard.
1809
Leaves for Washington to represent clients before U.S. Supreme Court. In March, serves as one of three chief lawyers for the appellee in _Fletcher v. Peck_ , a dispute over the validity of the Georgia law abrogating the Yazoo Land Act of 1795, by which the state legislature had previously granted some 54,000 square miles in present-day Alabama and Mississippi. The case results in a landmark decision in which the Court strikes down a state law for the first time. Attends the inauguration of James Madison on March 4; meets with the new president two days later and learns he will be nominated minister to Russia. Publishes _American Principles. A Review of the Works of Fisher Ames_ in the _Boston Patriot_ in April and as a pamphlet in June; its vigorous critique of Federalism, as embodied in the career and writings of the deceased Massachusetts senator, marks his final break with the party that had elevated him into national politics. Appointment as the nation's first minister plenipotentiary to Russia confirmed by Senate, June 27. Departs for Russia aboard _Horace_ on August 5, accompanied by his wife, youngest son Charles, sister-in-law Catherine "Kitty" Johnson, and nephew and secretary William Steuben Smith; his two oldest sons, George and John, remain in Massachusetts in the care of relatives. The party arrives at St. Petersburg, October 23. Begins cordial diplomatic relationship with Russian chancellor Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumiantzov. Has first audience with Czar Alexander I on November 5.
1810
As Adams settles into the diplomatic routine in Russia, a two-volume edition of his _Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, Delivered to the Classes of Senior and Junior Sophisters in Harvard University_ is published in Cambridge. (John Adams will send a set to Thomas Jefferson as a kind of peace offering on January 1, 1812, renewing their correspondence after years of estrangement.)
1811
At mother's behest, Adams is appointed by President Madison an associate justice of the Supreme Court on February 22, and confirmed by Senate. But he declines the appointment when he learns of it, preferring to remain at his post in St. Petersburg. Daughter Louisa Catherine Adams born August 12.
1812
Over united Federalist opposition, the Republican majority in Congress votes to declare war on Great Britain, June 17, citing impressment of American sailors under the British orders-in-council as the principal grievance, and President Madison signs the act the following day. Napoleon invades Russia, June 24. An American army invades Upper Canada, July 12, but is repelled by British forces and their Indian allies, who in turn take possession of Detroit and other key posts in the Old Northwest. Undersupplied French forces occupy Moscow on September 14, and shortly after are forced to begin a disastrous retreat. Daughter Louisa Catherine dies, September 15. Last French troops depart Russia, December 14.
1813
In March, the Madison administration embraces a Russian offer of mediation with Great Britain and dispatches Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin and Federalist senator James A. Bayard of Delaware to St. Petersburg to join Adams for negotiations; the pair are en route before news arrives that British cabinet has declined the mediation. Sister Nabby dies of cancer at the Old House on August 15. In the autumn another major American offensive into Canada, this time aiming for Montreal, ends in failure.
1814
When Britain signals its willingness to enter into direct talks, Adams is appointed in January as chief negotiator of a five-member commission comprising Gallatin, Bayard, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and Jonathan Russell of Massachusetts. Travels alone from St. Petersburg to Ghent, April 18–June 24. Negotiations begin on August 8, and the British plenipotentiaries lay down aggressive terms reflecting their stronger military hand. On August 24 and 25, British forces occupy Washington and burn the capital's public buildings. A similar assault on Baltimore is repulsed by American defenders, September 13–14. That same month, British naval and land forces take control of more than a hundred miles of the Maine coast, from Eastport to Castine, but a large British invasion of northern New York is turned back at Plattsburg. By early December, pressed by bad news from North America and by demands for tax relief at home, the British government resolves to extricate itself from the American war. The Treaty of Peace and Amity between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, signed on December 24, does not address the issue of impressment and restores the status quo between the two nations prior to the war. Federalists convene in Hartford, Connecticut, December 15–January 5, to protest the war and a decade of Republican policies, and dispatch a delegation to Washington to present their grievances.
1815
On January 8, American forces led by General Andrew Jackson overwhelmingly defeat a British invasion force at New Orleans in the last major action of the War of 1812. Word of Jackson's victory and of the signing of the peace treaty at Ghent reach Washington in the second week of February, at the same time as the delegation from Hartford arrives, a coincidence that serves to greatly discredit Federalist opposition to the war. Adams is appointed minister plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James's in February. He is reunited with Louisa Catherine and Charles Francis, who have made a hazardous overland winter journey from Russia, in Paris, March 23, and witnesses Napoleon's brief return to power (the Hundred Days). On May 7, receives word of his new commission. The family departs Le Havre for London, May 23; two days later they are reunited with sons George and John, just arrived from America, who have not seen their parents in almost six years. Presents credentials to Prince Regent, June 8. With fellow commissioners Clay and Gallatin, concludes commercial convention with Great Britain, July 3, the first accord between the two nations signed on the principle of diplomatic equality. Settles family at Little Ealing, a village outside London. Suffers a near-fatal injury while instructing George and John how to handle a pistol in October. In December, nephew John Adams Smith arrives in London to serve as private secretary.
1816
Begins negotiations with British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh on northern borders and armaments, January 25. Brother-in-law William Stephens Smith dies, June 10.
1817
Named secretary of state by new president James Monroe, March 6. Nomination confirmed by the Senate with only one dissenting vote. Receives notification of his appointment in a letter from the president, April 16. The Rush-Bagot agreement, limiting naval armaments on the Great Lakes, signed in Washington on April 29. Sails from Cowes on the Island of Wight aboard _Washington_ on June 15 and arrives at Sandy Hook Lighthouse on August 6. Louisa Catherine suffers final miscarriage while at sea. Passes a month in Quincy before setting forth for Washington on September 9. Son George enters Harvard in August. Arrives at Washington on September 20 and swears oath of office two days later. Begins service in President Monroe's cabinet along with Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Crowninshield, and Attorney General William Wirt. In December, Monroe orders General Andrew Jackson to subdue Seminole and Creek Indians in Georgia. American forces occupy Amelia Island, on southern border of Georgia, December 23.
1818
The new secretary of state and his wife become embroiled in a "visiting controversy" when members of Congress and their wives insist upon being called on at home before accepting invitations to parties at the Adamses' residence. Eventually, Louisa Catherine will become a leading hostess and serve effectively as her husband's "campaign manager" in Washington. Begins negotiations with Luis de Onís y González-Vara, Spain's envoy to the United States, to set- tle status of Florida and boundaries in the West. Andrew Jackson pursues his Indian targets into Florida, occupying Pensacola, St. Augustine, and St. Marks, and executes two British subjects, James Armbrister and Alexander Arbuthnot, believed complicit in fomenting Seminole attacks on American interests. In a July 15 cabinet meeting, Adams is alone in his defense of Jackson's actions. Instructs Richard Rush and Albert Gallatin in negotiations with Great Britain resulting in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which settles disputes relating to the status of enslaved people who escaped to the British during the War of 1812, American access to Canadian fisheries, and transatlantic commerce, and which establishes free and open access to the Oregon Country for both nations for ten years. Mother dies of typhoid fever on October 28. In November, sends and publishes letter of instruction to U.S. envoy George W. Erving in Spain, justifying Jackson's actions in Florida and demanding that Spain police Florida or sell it to the United States. In his diary, Adams begins to record emerging intrigues in the cabinet surrounding which of the officers will be put forward to succeed Monroe.
1819
Signs Transcontinental Treaty with Spain, alternatively known as the Adams-Onís Treaty, February 22, acquiring Florida for the United States and defining the boundary between the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain and the United States. Treaty is ratified unanimously by the Senate, but Spain's King Ferdinand VII withholds ratification to pressure the United States not to recognize the revolutionary states of South America. Son John enters Harvard in August. Controversy over admission of Missouri with slavery erupts in Congress. In cabinet, Adams declares the restriction of slavery in the territory to be constitutional, but avoids the issue in public. The young nation experiences its first major financial crisis, now known as the Panic of 1819, when, as foreign demand for American agricultural goods wanes with a return to normalcy in Europe, the postwar land boom collapses, and the country's overleveraged banking system follows suit. The poorly managed Second Bank of the United States has contributed to the situation first through inflationary lending and then by initiating a severe credit contraction in the summer of 1818.
1820
January to February, debates in Congress over admission of Missouri continue. Missouri Compromise admitting the district of Maine as a free state, the state of Missouri with slavery, and banning slavery north of 36°30′ passes March 2. Purchases house on F Street in Washington in April. King Ferdinand VII ratifies Transcontinental Treaty on October 24. James Monroe, who is effectively unopposed, is reelected with 228 of 229 electoral votes. The sole dissenting vote, cast by New Hampshire elector William Plumer, is for Adams.
1821
On February 19, the Senate ratifies Adams-Onís Treaty for a second time, this time after rejecting a proposal by Henry Clay demanding that Spain cede Texas. Treaty proclaimed on February 22. Submits his exhaustive "Report Upon Weights and Measures" to the Senate on the same day, and it is later published. Asserts the justness of colonial revolutions for independence in a Fourth of July oration delivered in the House, later published as _An Address, Delivered at the Request of a Committee of the Citizens of Washington . . . on the Fourth of July, 1821_ , while warning of British designs and defending policy of neutrality against calls by Clay and others for the United States to involve itself in liberal movements in South America and Europe. Son George graduates from Harvard in August. On September 16, Czar Alexander issues an ukase restricting to Russian subjects whaling, fishing, and all other industry in Russian territory on the northwest coast of America, and prohibiting the approach of foreign vessels within one hundred Italian miles of Russian claims, at a degree of latitude farther south than the United States or Great Britain has ever conceded.
1822
On March 8, President Monroe signals to Congress his desire to recognize the independence of South American states. Congress appropriates funds for missions therewith, May 4. Treaty of commerce signed with France, June 24. Through spring and summer Adams engages in a newspaper controversy with fellow Ghent commissioner Jonathan Russell, a political ally of presidential aspirant Henry Clay; the exchange culminates in September with his publication of _The Duplicate Letters, the Fisheries, and the Mississippi_ , which reveals that Russell has faked a letter purporting to show that Adams had sold out the interests of the West in favor of New England during the Ghent negotiations.
1823
On February 23, House of Representatives passes resolution calling upon President Monroe to negotiate with maritime powers for the abolition of the African slave trade. Congress also passes resolution calling American ships to be granted equal standing in British colonial ports, after the British impose a discriminatory tax on U.S. tonnage. Adams sends a proposal to London for convention to discuss freedom of the seas, July 29, which the British government rejects. Attempting to make provision for a return to private life after the coming presidential elections, purchases Columbian Mills, a grist and flour mill in the District of Columbia, from wife's cousin George Johnson. At the request of President Monroe, Adams draws up general instructions for American ministers to South America directing them to uphold republicanism against monarchy, to support their separation from Europe, to be open to discussing a Pan-American congress, and to offer them favored-nation status in commercial treaties, April 30. Son John is expelled from Harvard for participating in a student rebellion. In August, Thomas Jefferson expresses his preference for William H. Crawford in the next presidential election. Crawford suffers a debilitating stroke in September. Adams receives on November 17 a note from the Russian government announcing its resolution, shared by other members of the Holy Alliance (Austria and Prussia), to strive against republican movements worldwide. In a series of cabinet meetings in November he outlines the principle that European powers must abstain from interfering in the independent states of the Americas, which the president incorporates into his December 2 addresses to Congress and which becomes known as the Monroe Doctrine.
1824
The Adamses host a ball in honor of General Andrew Jackson on the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans. Anglo-American Convention on the African slave trade concludes on March 13 with both parties agreeing to punish slave traders as pirates, to allow a reciprocal right of visit and search of merchant ships, to render captured ships to their home country, to leave individuals belonging to crews on accused vessels, and to hold ships' officers responsible for the prevention of resistance to the right of search and visit. William Crawford leads opposition to the convention, successfully attaching an amendment stipulating that ships on the American coast be exempt from search. Great Britain is unwilling to accept this amendment and the convention fails. Russo-American Convention signed on April 17. Russia agrees to abandon its claims in the Pacific Northwest south of 54°40′N and the United States agrees to prohibit sale of alcohol and firearms to native peoples in the region, a point first raised by Count Rumiantzov during Adams's residency at St. Petersburg. Negotiates new commercial treaty with France, June 24. In the November presidential election Andrew Jackson receives ninety-nine electoral votes, Adams eighty-four, Crawford forty-one, and Clay, now Speaker of the House, thirty- seven. No candidate receiving a majority, the election is sent to the House of Representatives, where members will vote by state for one of the top three candidates. John C. Calhoun is elected vice president.
1825
Clay, whose support as Speaker is widely seen as decisive in the forthcoming presidential election in the House, calls on Adams in Washington, January 9. Representative George Kramer anonymously accuses Adams and Clay of having struck a bargain in the January 28 edition of Philadelphia's _Columbia Observer_ , and the _National Intelligencer_ quickly picks up the story. Adams is elected president of the Unites States on February 9, receiving the votes of thirteen of twenty-four state delegations in the House of Representatives. Illinois, Maryland, and Louisiana defect from Jackson and Clay brings the votes of Kentucky, Ohio, and Missouri to Adams. On March 3, Senate consents to Treaty of Indian Springs, signed by two United States commissioners and a rump group of Creek leaders; it stipulates the exchange of all Creek lands in Georgia for equal acreage west of the Mississippi, plus a bonus of $400,000 and annuities. Adams is inaugurated on March 4 and appeals for national unity and the final extirpation of the "baneful weed of party strife." Cabinet consists of Secretary of State Henry Clay, Secretary of the Treasury Richard Rush, Secretary of War James Barbour, Attorney General William Wirt, Postmaster General John McLean, and Secretary of the Navy Samuel L. Southard. Son John serves as private secretary. Ratifies the Treaty of Indian Springs despite charges by Creek leaders that it is unjust and fraudulent. Sends orders to Major General Edmund P. Gaines, already in Georgia to investigate, to impose a moratorium on the survey of Indian lands. Georgia Governor George Troup demands the recall of Gaines. After meeting with a delegation of Creek leaders, Adams determines that a new treaty must be negotiated to supplant the previous. Almost drowns while taking morning swim in Potomac River, June 13. First of several acts passed by Parliament nearly shuts down U.S. trade in the British Caribbean, June 27. Spends part of the summer with father in Quincy. Charles Francis graduates from Harvard in August. Sends message on State of the Union to Congress, December 5. "Liberty is power" he tells Congress, recommending, among other measures, the establishment of a Department of the Interior, the founding of a national naval academy and a national university, a uniform national bankruptcy law, more effective patent laws, and a vigorous system of internal improvements. Nominates a mission to attend the Congress of Panama, December 26. Congressional opposition delays confirmation of appointments; in the end, one U.S. delegate arrives after the conclusion of discussions, while the other dies en route.
1826
Creek leaders sign Treaty of Washington on January 24. This second treaty cedes all Creek lands east of the Chattahoochee River and guarantees to the Creeks lands not ceded. Resolution introduced by Senator Martin Van Buren condemns Adams for accepting invitation to Panama Congress without consulting Senate, February 15. Nominates Robert Trimble of Kentucky to the Supreme Court, April 11. Son George, who struggles with alcoholism and depression, is elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, and serves only one year. Both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson die on July 4, the fiftieth anniversary of independence. Adams spends part of summer and early fall vacation arranging father's estate in Quincy. Governor Troup ignores the Treaty of Washington and sends surveyors to Creek lands immediately after September 1, the date prescribed in the Treaty of Indian Springs. In a cabinet meeting, Adams is advised to order troops to Georgia, but demurs in the face of Troup's pledge to resist. William Morgan, a disgruntled Mason from Batavia, New York, is abducted and likely murdered by a band of Masons on September 18. The Masonic Order fails to condemn the act and an anti-Masonic movement begins in western New York. Adams becomes a communicating member of the Congregational Church of Quincy, October 1. Convention signed with Great Britain to pay for enslaved people "carried off" during War of 1812, November 13.
1827
On February 5, Adams sends a message to Congress explaining his desire to avoid violent conflict in Georgia and calling upon Congress to enact expedient legislation. Congressional committee proposes to purchase title to all Indian lands in Georgia and to maintain the Treaty of Washington in the interim. Governor Troup declares Georgia will fight federal troops if sent to Georgia. Controversy over the administration's tariff bill, which increases the schedules in place since 1816, ends with a tie-breaking vote by Vice President Calhoun in the Senate against the tariff, March 1. On May 5, Andrew Stevenson of Virginia is elected Speaker of the House, cementing the loss of pro-administration majorities in both houses of Congress.
1828
On February 25, son John marries his cousin Mary Catherine Hellen, who had previously been engaged to older brother George. On April 8, delivering documents to Congress in his capacity as his father's secretary, John has his nose pulled by journalist Russell Jarvis, an assault that nearly precipitates a duel. Signs into law on May 19 a protective tariff initiated by Van Buren and anti-tariff Democrats, called the "tariff of abominations" because its schedule was designed to be so prohibitive as to ensure its defeat. Breaks ground for Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, July 4. Presidential election is held from October 31 to November 5. Andrew Jackson receives 178 electoral votes, while Adams receives 83. Granddaughter Mary Louisa, first child of John and Mary Catherine, born December 2. Engages in public controversy with Virginia senator William Branch Giles over his actions as a senator during Jefferson's administration. Letters between Adams and his antagonists in New England are published by Federalists as _Correspondence Between John Quincy Adams, Esquire . . . and Several Citizens of Massachusetts_ early the next year. Writes but withholds from the press a lengthy review of the actions of Massachusetts Federalists before and during the War of 1812; it is eventually published with the correspondence by grandson Henry Adams as _Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1808–1815_ (1877).
1829
Charles Francis is admitted to the Massachusetts bar in January. The Adamses move from the Executive Mansion to a residence on Meriden Hill, a mile to the north. Drafts the beginning of history of political parties in the United States and commences work on a biography of John Adams, both left incomplete. Traveling from Boston to Washington to join the family, son George disappears from a steamship in New York harbor on August 30, an apparent suicide. His body is discovered on City Island, New York, on June 10. Adams returns to Quincy. Charles Francis marries Abigail Brooks, daughter of wealthy Massachusetts merchant Peter Chardon Brooks, September 3. Returns to Washington, joining Louisa Catherine, John, Mary Catherine, and Mary Louisa, December 5.
1830
Elected to Board of Overseers of Harvard University. Writes lengthy essays on the Russo-Turkish War and on Greece for _The American Annual Register_. Returns to Quincy with Louisa Catherine in May. Granddaughter Georgiana Frances, John and Mary Catherine's second child, born September 10. Nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives at a National Republican convention in Halifax, in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, October 12. Election is held on November 1. Adams receives three fourths of all votes cast and is elected to represent Massachusetts's Eleventh District in the Twenty-Second Congress.
1831
Publishes epic poem _Dermot Mac Morrogh, or The Conquest of Ireland; An Historical Tale of the Twelfth Century. In Four Cantos_ in April. Attends an Anti-Masonic Convention at Faneuil Hall in May. Responding to the national crisis that has arisen from South Carolina's stated intention to nullify the Tariff of 1828 as unconstitutional, delivers Fourth of July address at Quincy in which he refutes the doctrine of state nullification. Arguing that the Union began with the Declaration of Independence, which codified a previously existing Union and never granted sovereignty to the separate states, he declares "Independence and Union Forever!" From August through September, writes a series of letters to various correspondents confirming his anti-Masonic leanings. Louisa Catherine, first child of Charles Francis and Abigail Brooks, is born August 13. Delivers a eulogy to James Monroe at Boston, August 25, subsequently published, in which he further defines his nationalist interpretation of the Constitution. Has an interview in September with William H. Seward in which he expresses his willingness to accept the Anti-Masonic nomination for president, though he later declines the nascent party's nomination for governor of Massachusetts. Meets twice in October with Alexis de Tocqueville and Gustave de Beaumont on their investigative tour of America. In November, Adams sells his shares in the Bank of the United States to divest himself "of all personal interest in it" before entering Congress, where he will argue for the renewal of its charter. Twenty-Second Congress begins, December 5. Reluctantly accepts appointment as chair of the Committee on Manufactures and uses position to advance a balanced solution to the emerging sectional crisis over the tariff dispute. Presents fifteen petitions from citizens of Pennsylvania calling for the abolition of the slave trade and slavery in the District of Columbia, December 12.
1832
Brother Thomas Boylston dies, March 13, the second sibling to succumb to the effects of alcoholism. Serves on special committee to investigate the Bank of the United States. Writes supplement to committee's minority report defending the Bank against charges of usury and other violations of its charter. President Jackson signs compromise tariff bill on July 14; drafted by Adams, it becomes known as the Adams Tariff. On December 10, Jackson issues proclamation denouncing the doctrine of nullification and declaring acts of disunion treasonous.
1833
Speaking on February 4 against efforts to revise the 1832 tariff, Adams decries the "protection" of Southern interests inherent in the Constitution's three-fifths and fugitive slave clauses and in the safeguards provided by the federal army against servile insurrection and hostile Indians. "My constituents possess as much right to say to the people of the South, 'We will not submit to the protection of your interests,' as the people of the South have the right to address such language to them." Writes minority report on the President's annual message, later published as the _Report of the Minority of the Committee on Manufacturers, Submitted to the House of Representatives of the United States, February 28, 1833_ , in which he examines the philosophical underpinnings of the tariff debates and those on other controversial issues, including internal improvements, the management of federal lands, and the national bank. He warns that continued acquiescence to Southern control over the federal government threatens "not only the prosperity but the peace of the country" and will lead to "the most fatal of catastrophes—the dissolution of the Union by a complicated, civil, and servile war." At the urging of President Jackson, Congress, with Adams voting in the affirmative, passes the Force Bill on March 1, empowering the president to compel South Carolina to comply with federal law; South Carolina repeals its Nullification Ordinance on March 15, defusing the constitutional crisis for the moment. Adams is reelected to Congress on April 1, now from Massachusetts's Twelfth District, which he will represent in the Twenty-Third through Twenty-Seventh Congresses, increasingly aligning himself with the Whig caucus. John Quincy II, second child of Charles Francis and Abigail Brooks, is born on September 22. Adams survives derailment on the Camden and Amboy Railroad without injury, November 8. Stands as Anti-Masonic nominee for governor of Massachusetts. After no candidate receives a majority of votes, Adams withdraws to support the National Republican candidate, John Davis.
1834
Publishes a speech critical of President Jackson's intention to withdraw public deposits from the Bank of the United States in the _Daily National Intelligencer_ , April 12. By the summer, John Adams II's descent into alcoholism has become painfully evident to the family. Under his mismanagement the Columbian Mills is an increasing drain on his father's finances. When John dies, October 23, Adams becomes guardian of his two daughters. Delivers an address to Congress on December 31 in honor of the recently deceased Marquis de Lafayette.
1835
Grandson Charles Francis Adams Jr. is born on May 27. In December, Adams is appointed chairman of a special House committee established to make provision for the $500,000 bequest of Englishman James Smithson to the United States government "to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." For several years following Adams will play a leading role in ensuring that the United States applies the legacy to Smithson's desired end.
1836
On January 22, in a three-hour speech on the House floor, defends Andrew Jackson's policy toward France regarding reparations for spoliations that occurred during the Napoleonic Wars and criticizes Daniel Webster and the Senate for their unpatriotic opposition. This speech earns Adams the sobriquet "Old Man Eloquent." On March 2, Texas declares independence from Mexico. On May 25, in remarks later published as _Speech of John Quincy Adams on the Joint Resolution For Distributing Rations to the Distressed Fugitives from Indian Hostilities_ , again raises the possibility of wartime slave emancipation and denounces the Second Seminole War and the threat of a war with Mexico in defense of Texas as manifestations of a larger proslavery agenda. Also in May, Henry Laurens Pinckney of South Carolina proposes three resolutions denying the constitutional power of Congress to interfere with slavery in the states, suggesting Congress ought not interfere with slavery in the District of Columbia, where its power to do so is acknowledged, and advocating that all petitions, memorials, and resolutions relating to slavery be peremptorily tabled and not acted upon. Denied an opportunity to speak against these proposals, Adams demands "Am I gagged or am I not?" During a roll call vote on the third resolution Adams protests, "I hold the resolution to be a direct violation of the Constitution of the United States, of the Rules of the House, and of the rights of my constituents." For each of the next four Congresses, despite his efforts and over his protests, the House will successfully reintroduce what becomes known as the gag rule. Delivers at Boston, September 27, and later publishes a much longer version of _A Eulogy on the Life and Character of James Madison_. In the presidential elections, Vice President Martin Van Buren, a Democrat, easily defeats Whig candidates William Henry Harrison and Hugh L. White.
1837
On February 6, Adams presents an abolitionist petition from nine ladies of Fredericksburg, Virginia, and asks Speaker James K. Polk to consider another petition "purporting to come from slaves" before presenting it; outraged Southern members seek a motion of censure. When Representative John Mercer Patton of Virginia claims that the Fredericksburg petitioners were free blacks or mulattoes of "infamous character," Adams, observing "great resemblances between the progeny of the colored people and the white men who claim possession of them," levels the charge of infamy "on those who made it, as originating from themselves." On March 3, in the last act of the Jackson presidency, the United States recognizes the Republic of Texas. Gives _An Oration Delivered before the Inhabitants of the Town of Newburyport_ on July 4, expanding on his interpretation of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Writes and publishes a series of letters to his constituents defending his introduction of antislavery petitions. On August 4, Texas presents the Van Buren administration with a formal offer to annex itself to the United States. With the nation once again in the throes of a financial crisis, Congress convenes in special session on September 4 to consider a measure, known as the Sub-Treasury bill, to remove government funds from state banks, which were widely seen as contributing to the ongoing economic panic, and assign control of these monies to designated federal agents. In the autumn, involves himself in the controversial slave auction of Dorcas Allen and her children, and eventually contributes fifty dollars toward the purchase of their freedom; for Adams the episode exposes with new clarity the byzantine cruelty of slavery. Delivers an anti-Texas annexation speech in the House on December 13, describing the Texas revolution as in reality a revolt against Mexico's abolition of slavery in 1829, and prods the president to accept arbitration with Mexico.
1838
Grandson Henry Brooks, fourth child of Charles Francis and Abigail Brooks, is born on February 16. Overcoming long-held suspicions of the movement, Adams grows closer to abolitionists; Louisa Catherine corresponds with abolitionist Sarah Grimke. By parliamentary strategy, Adams seizes control of the House floor during the morning hour for committee business for three weeks from June into July, delivering a speech in which he describes a plot to annex Texas, upholds the propriety of women petitioning Congress, and declares slavery to be a sin.
1839
Introduces and sponsors an anti-dueling law for the District of Columbia originated in the Senate by Samuel Prentiss of Vermont. The Prentiss-Adams law is enacted on February 20. On February 25, asks leave of Speaker Polk to present resolutions for three constitutional amendments outlining his preferred program of emancipation: (1) to end hereditary slavery and for every child born after July 4, 1842, to be born free, (2) with the exception of the Territory of Florida, to henceforth never admit a slave state, and (3) to prohibit the slave trade in the District of Columbia after July 4, 1845. Writes and presents _The Jubilee of the Constitution. A Discourse Delivered at the Request of the New-York Historical Society_ on April 30. In May and June, publishes letters explaining why he presents petitions on behalf of the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia but will not support legislation for its immediate effect, citing the dictates of "justice, the Constitution, and prudence." On August 26, Thomas R. Gedney, commander of the USS _Washington_ , boards and captures _La Amistad_ , a Spanish schooner under the control of Mende captives (forty-nine adults and four children) recently transported from Africa, who have seized the ship and killed the captain and crew, sparing only José Ruiz and Pedro Montes so they could navigate the ship back to Africa. The ship is interned in New Haven, Connecticut, and the Mende captives are placed under court jurisdiction. Louisa Catherine and Mary Hellen continue to read, record, and file the large number of petitions directed to Adams. Elected to the American Antiquarian Society on October 23. Granddaughter Georgiana Frances dies November 20. In December, serves as Speaker of the House for ten days during a controversy over the organization of the House for the session.
1840
District Court trial of the _Amistad_ case is heard in New Haven and results in a January 23 ruling that the majority of the captured Africans be freed. Decision is appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, scheduled to convene in January 1841. Suffers fall in the House chamber on May 18, dislocating his shoulder and badly wounding his head. In October, Adams agrees to help argue the _Amistad_ case before the Supreme Court. In November, Charles Francis is elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives. In the presidential election, the Whig candidate William Henry Harrison easily defeats the incumbent Martin Van Buren. The Whigs also gain control of the House of Representatives and the Senate for the first time.
1841
_United States v. The Amistad_ begins on February 22. Adams closes for the defense on February 24 by focusing on the underlying issue of whether the Africans were slaves under Spanish law. Adams is set to conclude his argument the following day but Justice Philip Barbour dies that night. The Court reconvenes on March 1 and Adams concludes by arguing that rendering the Africans to Spanish authorities would "disable forever the effective power of _habeas corpus_." On March 9, Supreme Court rules in favor of the captured Mende and frees them. Just a month after his inauguration, President Harrison dies of pneumonia on April 4 and for the first time in the nation's history the vice president assumes the presidency. After the euphoria of Harrison's election, the unexpected advent of John Tyler of Virginia to the presidency, and his subsequent repudiation of Whig principles, leave the Whig Party in disarray. Grandson Arthur Adams, fifth child of Charles Francis and Abigail Brooks, is born on July 23. On September 4, Adams defends the British position in the extradition case of Alexander McLeod, a Canadian who participated in the sinking of the _Caroline_ , an American vessel, during a cross-border action related to the 1837 rebellion against British rule in Upper Canada (Ontario). When the House rejects the British demand for McLeod's repatriation, Adams warns his colleagues not to allow a point upon which the United States is wrong to be entangled with one upon which it is right, the Northeast boundary. Publishes poem, _The Wants of Man_.
1842
Speaks, January 4–6, against the bellicose rhetoric aimed at Mexico and Great Britain regarding the Texas question and again warns that slave emancipation could come by martial law. Presents a petition, January 25, from forty-six citizens of Haverhill, Massachusetts, requesting that Congress adopt "measures peaceably to dissolve the Union of these States" so that they might no longer be complicit in the perpetuation of slavery. An attempt is once again made to reprimand Adams, who vigorously defends the right of petition over several days of intense debate. Finally, on February 9, the motion of censure is tabled. This most recent effort to silence Adams draws national attention to the gag rule and to the right of petition as a matter of constitutional principle. Debates possibility of congressional emancipation during wartime with Henry Wise and Charles Jared Ingersoll, April 14. Elected to the Twenty-Eighth Congress as a Whig nominee in November, now representing Massachusetts's Eighth Congressional District; in the House as a whole, the Whigs lose their majority in dramatic fashion, with the Democrats gaining forty-nine seats. Publishes _The Social Compact, Exemplified in the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts_ , laying out his beliefs about democracy and his opposition to women's suffrage.
1843
Delivers address to the Massachusetts Historical Society on the seventeenth-century confederation of New England colonies on May 29. Tours western New York and Ohio in July to September on trip to lay cornerstone at the new observatory of the Cincinnati Astronomical Society; celebrated by crowds at many towns en route and also on return trip through Kentucky and Pennsylvania, October to November.
1844
In February, Adams proposes, as he had in 1838, resolution denying the power of the government to annex a foreign state or people, and to declare any attempt by "act of Congress or treaty" to annex Texas unconstitutional. On March 3, Adams and twelve other antislavery congressmen sign a public circular of protest, written by Adams, against Texas annexation. World Antislavery Convention of June 1843 in London adopts a resolution in his honor, citing "the moral heroism with which he has thrown himself into the breach." On October 7, Adams delivers an antislavery and anti-Texas address at a Whig rally at Tremont Temple in Boston and refutes the long-standing charge that he gave away Texas in the 1819 treaty with Spain. Adams's speech is reprinted around the North on the eve of the national election. Charles Francis is elected to the Massachusetts state senate. In the presidential election, Democratic candidate James K. Polk defeats the Whig Henry Clay. On December 3, Adams introduces a resolution to rescind the 25th Standing Rule (the gag rule), which the House adopts by a vote of 105 to 80. Writes in his diary that night, "blessed ever blessed be the name of God!"
1845
Granddaughter Mary Gardner, sixth child of Charles Francis and Abigail Brooks, is born February 19.
1846
Grandson Arthur Adams dies from diphtheria on February 9. On February 19, Texas is formally annexed to the United States. Adams votes for the Wilmot Proviso, August 8, an attempt to ban slavery from any territory gained in the war with Mexico, which has begun in April. On August 27, he presides over a civic meeting protesting the rendition of a fugitive slave at Faneuil Hall. Is reelected to Congress in November. Suffers a stroke on November 20 that leaves him partially paralyzed.
1847
Speaks in the House against proposal to provide indemnity to the owners of the _Amistad_ in March and the proposal is defeated 94–28. On May 11, Adams is one of only fourteen congressmen to vote against a bill authorizing President Polk to pursue war with Mexico. Presents two petitions for peace with Mexico on December 20.
1848
Suffers a cerebral hemorrhage and collapses in the House of Representatives on February 21. He is carried to the Speaker's chamber where he dies on February 23. His last words are variously reported as "This is the last of earth. I am content." and "This is the end of earth, but I am composed." His remains are interred temporarily in a vault in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington before being removed in March to Quincy, to be buried next to his parents. Brooks Adams, seventh child of Charles Francis and Abigail Brooks, born June 24. In November, Charles Francis runs as vice presidential candidate of the Free-Soil Party, an alliance of antislavery Whigs and Democrats.
#### Note on the Texts
This volume presents selections from thirty-one manuscript volumes of the diaries of John Quincy Adams, beginning with the first recorded entry, made on November 12, 1779, and concluding with the entry for March 3, 1821, the final day of the first term of the administration of James Monroe. (A companion volume presents selections from 1821 to 1848.) Adams recorded his diary in a total of fifty-one manuscript volumes, amounting to almost 15,000 pages, which are housed today in the offices of the Adams Family Papers at the Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston. Some of these volumes are bound journals or repurposed almanacs; others are pinned or stitched collections of loose sheets. Thanks to careful preservation by the author and his descendants, the editors of the Adams Family Papers conclude that all but a very few loose leaves of the diaries have survived. Collectively, they form an unrivaled personal record of historical events from the Revolution to the Mexican War by a figure prominently involved in them. As his son Charles Francis Adams, the editor of the first published edition of Adams's diary, rightly observed, "It may reasonably be doubted whether any attempt of the kind has ever been more completely executed by a public man."
Adams was a prolific diarist throughout his long life, but the degree of faithfulness with which he made entries varied over time, as did the manner in which he recorded them. Adams began his first journal on November 12, 1779, at the age of twelve, as he embarked on his second journey to Europe, carrying the record into a second journal that ended on January 31, 1780. He briefly kept a third from July 25 to September 30 of that year, while traveling from France to Holland, and again from June 9 to August 27, 1781, when he arrived in St. Petersburg, Russia. He resumed writing brief entries in early 1782, with significant gaps, and continued into December 1783. From December 6, 1783, to early 1785 there are only a few brief diary entries, during August 1784. He made mostly single-line accounts of the weather and short entries in almanacs from 1790 to June 1794, when he traveled to New York to receive his commission as minister to the Netherlands, the first major public office of his extraordinary career. It is from this period that the diary begins to assume the regular character that it retained for the remainder of his life. There are full entries for each day from January 1, 1795, to May 6, 1821, a remarkable feat that testifies to Adams's extraordinary discipline and dedication. This accomplishment is more noteworthy still when one considers that he found writing physically difficult because of a hand injury suffered in his youth.
Adams often composed his diary "in arrears," as he called it, especially during the busy years of his service as secretary of state from 1817 to 1825, using memoranda and abbreviated draft entries to help him reconstitute longer entries some days afterward. As he suggests more than once in the diary, the burden of bringing the record up to date in this way could be overwhelming. In 1816, he also began to compose, both retroactively and moving forward, a volume of line-a-day entries that acted as a monthly index to the larger work. So, for many dates there exist three different diary records: a detailed long-form entry fully composed in polished prose; a draft or short-form entry written in a more telegraphic style for future elaboration; and a highly abbreviated, single-line recap. The present edition generally presents Adams's long-form entries, though some draft entries are included for dates for which a long-form record does not exist.
The diary served several purposes for Adams. Most practically, it was a resource to which he could return to confirm his own recollections and to substantiate, refine, or refute the claims of others about political events he witnessed or participated in. On January 15, 1831, for example, Adams wrote in his diary that "on further examination of my Diary of 1818, I thought it advisable to have extracts from it made of all those parts of it relating to the Seminole War, and the cabinet meetings concerning it. As the copy must be made by an entirely confidential hand, my wife undertook the task; she has often assisted me in the same manner before." Confidentiality was required because observations and expressions of a frank and personal nature are interspersed throughout the diary. These were not meant to be read by anyone, at least not anyone outside of the immediate family.
After Adams's death in 1848, his massive papers, including the diaries, were left to his sole surviving child, Charles Francis Adams, who at first granted limited access to the diaries to scholars and biographers, but who grew increasingly cautious about doing so as controversial entries began to circulate. Over time, as he began to conceive plans to prepare a published edition, further restrictions were imposed. It was not until his own public career ended in 1873 that Charles Francis Adams was able to turn to editing the diaries full-time, and when he did he adhered to a protective distinction between the public and the private. In the preface to the resulting twelve-volume edition, _Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848_ (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874–77), Adams laid out his editorial philosophy:
After careful meditation over the materials of this great trust . . . [i]t was very clear that abridgement was indispensable. Assuming this to be certain, it became necessary to fix upon a rule of selection which should be fair and honest. To attain that object I came to the following conclusions: 1st. To eliminate the details of common life and events of no interest to the public. 2d. To reduce the moral and religious speculations, in which the work abounds, so far as to escape repetition of sentiments once declared. 3d. Not to suppress strictures upon contemporaries, but to give them only when they are upon public men acting in the same sphere with the writer. . . . 4th. To suppress nothing of his own habits of self-examination, even when they might be thought most to tell against himself. 5th. To abstain altogether from modification of the sentiments or the very words, and substitution of what might seem better ones, in every case but that of obvious error in writing.
"Guided by these rules," Adams concluded, "I trust I have supplied pretty much all in these volumes which the most curious reader would be desirous to know."
Curiosity is inherently subjective, of course, and susceptible to change over time. Charles Francis Adams Jr., for one, found that his grandfather's diary from the late 1780s, when John Quincy Adams was a young law clerk in Newburyport, Massachusetts, "greatly interested" him, notwithstanding his father's decision to exclude it from the _Memoirs_ because it "contains little of, so-called, historical value." This led the younger Adams to publish _Life in a New England Town: 1787, 1788. Diary of John Quincy Adams, While a Student in the Office of Theophilus Parsons at Newburyport_ (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1903). Charles Francis Adams Sr.'s selection of John Quincy Adams's diary was by any standard generous—the twelve volumes present, in terms of word count, roughly half of the entire diary manuscript—but its excision of his father's private and family concerns ("the details of common life") can be said to have resulted in a one-dimensional picture of the man in the public mind, one that would predominate for a century or more.
By returning directly to the manuscript diaries and incorporating entries and passages excluded from the _Memoirs_ , the current edition seeks to present a more rounded portrait than has heretofore been available to the general reader. The previous reader's edition of the diary, prepared by the historian Allan Nevins in 1928, arose from his concern that the _Memoirs_ , this "unrivalled treasury for the social and political history of the time, has long been out of print and is now rather rare and extremely costly. Its ponderous bulk, moreover, makes it forbidding to the general reader, and difficult of use by the ordinary student." To remedy this, Nevins "selected from it those passages which seem of the greatest permanent worth, giving emphasis to the materials which throw light on the social background of the period, on J. Q. Adams's character, and on the more dramatic political and diplomatic events of the time." _The Diary of John Quincy Adams, 1794–1845: American Political, Social and Intellectual Life from Washington to Polk_ (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1928), his 600-page volume of selections from the _Memoirs_ , was reissued in 1951 by Charles Scribner's Sons. Excerpts from the _Memoirs_ were also included in Adrienne Koch and William Peden, eds., _The Selected Writings of John & John Quincy Adams_ (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946).
When Charles Francis Adams died in 1886 he left his papers, and those of John and Abigail Adams, and of John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams, to his four sons, one of whom, the aforementioned Charles Francis Adams Jr., later became president of the Massachusetts Historical Society. In 1902 Charles Francis Adams Jr. had the family papers moved from the Stone Library, a separate fireproof building his father had built on the grounds of the family estate in Quincy, to the Massachusetts Historical Society building in Boston, and in 1905 he created the Adams Manuscript Trust to ensure continued family ownership and control of the papers for the next fifty years. In 1954 the Adams Manuscript Trust entered into an agreement with the Massachusetts Historical Society and Harvard University Press to publish the family's papers through the year 1889. The Adams Manuscript Trust was dissolved in 1956 after it transferred ownership of its papers to the Massachusetts Historical Society, which began to identify and photocopy Adams documents in repositories outside of the family archive. The collection was microfilmed from 1954 to 1959. Publication of the Adams Family Papers began in 1961 and has proceeded in several series since, including a letterpress edition, _Diary of John Quincy_ _Adams_ , David Grayson Allen, Robert J. Taylor, Marc Friedlander, and Celeste Walker, eds., 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), which presents Adams's diaries from November 1779 to December 1788.
In 2005, the microfilm of the entire diary was scanned and published online as _The Diaries of John Quincy Adams: A Digital Collectio_ _n_ : http://www.masshist.org/jqadiaries/php/, the source for texts used here. The present edition replicates as closely as possible the manuscript original in ways that depart slightly from the approach taken in the 1981 letterpress edition, and substantially from that taken in the _Memoirs_ and the works derived from it. Judging by his own editorial guidelines, Charles Francis Adams found many instances of "obvious error in writing" in the diaries, for he systematically emended his father's more idiosyncratic eighteenth-century style, characterized by capitalization of common nouns, liberal use of dashes, and British spellings, to bring it into conformity with the prevailing Victorian style. The current edition, by contrast, retains John Quincy Adams's spelling, capitalization, and punctuation, including his use of dashes to separate sentences or sentence fragments. These dashes, which in the manuscript can vary in length, have been standardized as em-dashes. The editors of the 1981 edition chose to interpret the combination of a period and a dash as a paragraph break; this edition does not. It has been necessary in certain instances to supply punctuation for clarity, as for instance with Adams's casual and inconsistent use of quotation marks when rendering dialogue. The end of the page often served for Adams as a marker of medial or terminal publication, and commas and periods have been added accordingly. To minimize hand lifts, Adams sometimes incorporated commas into the preceding words, as slight dots, bulges, or, if the word ends in an r, overhangs. When it is unclear whether a comma was intended, one has been added only if it improves clarity. Commas and periods are often indistinguishable in the manuscript and are rendered here in the way most conducive to clarity. Except for the suffixes to numerals, and Mr., Mrs., and Dr., superscripts have been converted to contractions (Coll. becomes Col'l). Other contractions, such as altho' and return'd, have been retained, as have ampersands. Given the length and complexity of Adams's diary, it is remarkable how rarely he crossed out or otherwise corrected his manuscript. On the rare occasions when he did, the current edition silently adopts his correction. It also silently omits inadvertent repeated words and adds dropped words in brackets, in the latter case only if the omission affects clarity.
For more on the diaries and their history, see _Diary of John Quincy Adams_ , David Grayson Allen et al., eds., 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), I:xvii–l and David Waldstreicher, "John Quincy Adams: The Life, the Diary, and the Biographers," in Waldstreicher, ed., _A Companion to John Adams and John Quincy_ _Adams_ (Malden, MA, and Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), 241–62.
#### Notes
In the notes below, the reference numbers denote page and line of this volume (the line count includes headings, but not rule lines). No note is made for material included in the eleventh edition of _Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary_ , except for certain cases where common words and terms have specific historical meanings or inflections. Biblical quotations and allusions are keyed to the King James Version; references to Shakespeare to _The Riverside Shakespeare_ , ed. G. Blackmore Evans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974). For further historical and biographical background and references to other studies, see _Diary of John Quincy Adams_ , edited by David Grayson Allen et al. (2 vols. to date, Cambridge: The Belknap Press Harvard University Press, 1981– ); David Waldstreicher and Matthew Mason, _John Quincy_ _Adams_ _and the Politics of Slavery: Selections from the Diary_ (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Samuel Flagg Bemis, _John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy_ (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949); George Dangerfield, _The Era of Good Feelings_ (1952, Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1989); Fred Kaplan, _John Quincy Adams: American Visionary_ (New York: Harper, 2014); Phyllis Lee Levin, _The Remarkable Education of John Quincy Adams_ (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).
## CHAPTER I: 1779–1793
1.10 Mr. Thaxter] John Thaxter Jr., Harvard 1774, a cousin of Abigail Adams, had clerked in John Adams's law office and was traveling as his private secretary. He also tutored the Adams boys.
1.25 Capt'n tucker] Samuel Tucker, captain of the twenty-four-gun Continental frigate _Boston_ , on which John and John Quincy Adams had traveled to Europe the year before.
2.15 Ben. Bache] Benjamin Franklin Bache, grandson of Benjamin Franklin and future scourge of the Adamses as publisher of the staunchly Democratic-Republican _Philadelphia Aurora_.
2.19 Mr. Hartley] British negotiator David Hartley had opposed the American war in Parliament as a Rockingham Whig. With American negotiators John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay he concluded the Treaty of Paris, signed September 3, 1783.
3.32 _Beverlei_ and le _Français a Londres_ ] _Béverlei_ (1768), five-act play in free verse by French playwright Bernard-Joseph Saurin, modeled on Edward Moore's _The Gamester_. _Le Français à Londres_ (1727), one-act comedy by French playwright Louis de Boissy.
3.34 Barnwell] George Barnwell, main character in _The London Merchant_ (1731), five-act tragedy by English playwright George Lillo.
4.5 Mr. de Chaumont] Jacques Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont, a wealthy French merchant and enthusiast for the American cause, was deeply involved in war contracts. He provided Franklin's accommodations at Passy free of charge.
5.11–12 the Citizen] Farce (1763) by Irish playwright Arthur Murphy.
5.19 "Angels & ministers of Grace defend us,"] _Hamlet_ , I.iv.39.
5.31 Hamsted] Hampstead, then a village roughly four miles from London.
6.1 Mr. Vaughan's] Referring either to Samuel Vaughan, a London merchant who had married a New England wife, or to one of his sons, Benjamin or William; all were supportive of the American cause.
6.2–3 _Isabella_ . . . & _the Irish Widow_ ] Plays (1757 and 1772) by English actor and playwright David Garrick.
6.3 Mrs. Siddons] Sarah Siddons was the leading tragic actress of her time.
6.15 Mr. Copley] Painter John Singleton Copley had left Boston in June 1774, just as the Coercive Acts went into effect, though the move was primarily for professional rather than political reasons.
6.18 Mrs. Wright's waxwork.] Life-size wax models of William Pitt and other famous personages by American-born sculptor and sometime spy Patience Lovell Wright.
6.19 Mr. Bingham's.] Philadelphia financier William Bingham and his socialite wife Anne Willing Bingham lived in Europe from 1783 to 1788.
6.32 the Apprentice] Two-act farce (1756) by Arthur Murphy.
7.35 _Variétés_ ] Established in 1778, the Théâtre des Variétés-Amusantes had recently relocated to the Palais-Royal on rue Saint-Honoré and been renamed Variétés du Palais-Royal.
7.36–37 _le nouveau parvenu_. . . . _Le mensonge excusable_.] _Le nouveau parvenue_ (1782), _Le palais du bon goût_ (1785) and _Le mensonge excusable_ (1783), one-act comedies by French playwright Charles Jacob Guillemain. _La fête de campagne, ou, l'intendant comédien malgré lui_ (1784), one-act comedy by M. Dorvigny, stage name of French actor and playwright Louis-François Archambault.
7.37–38 _Volange_ ] Stage name of French actor Maurice François Rochet.
8.10–11 O tempora, O mores!] "Oh such times! Such customs!" An exclamation used by Cicero in orations against Verres and Cataline.
8.12 Capt'n Paul Jones] John Paul Jones was in Paris as an agent of Congress trying to secure prize money due to the officers and crew of the American squadron he had commanded during the Revolutionary War.
8.13 Marquis de la Fayette was arrived.] Lafayette had just returned from a successful tour to America, where he had visited George Washington at Mount Vernon, spoken before the Virginia House of Delegates, and received an honorary degree from Harvard.
8.13–14 _Vrais Principes_ . . . _Synonimes François_ ] Grammars (1747 and 1718) by French cleric Gabriel Girard.
8.14–15 _Abdir_ , a new piece] By French playwright Edme Louis Billardon de Sauvigny.
8.16 Mr. Blanchard] Frenchman Jean Pierre Blanchard, who at Philadelphia in 1793 would make the first successful balloon flight in the Americas.
8.18 Dr. Jeffries.] John Jeffries, a loyalist from Massachusetts, who a few months later became the Adamses' family physician in London.
8.24 Montgolfier, Pilâtre de Rozier] Brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier launched the first hot air balloon on June 4, 1783. Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier made the first manned flight on November 21, 1783.
8.27–28 the death of one of his daughter] Two-year-old Lucy Elizabeth Jefferson.
9.14 Mr. B–g–m] See note 6.19.
9.18 Mess'rs Roberts] Brothers Anne-Jean and Nicholas-Louis Robert (Les Frères Robert) constructed the first manned hydrogen balloon in 1783. In September 1784, they became the first individuals to travel more than a hundred kilometers in a single flight.
9.26–27 Chevalier de la Luzerne] Anne-César, chevalier de la Luzerne, had been French minister to the United States, 1779–84.
9.29 Mrs. B.] See note 6.19.
10.31 _pour voir accoucher la Reine_.] French: to see the Queen give birth.
10.33 Col'l Humphreys] David Humphreys, an aide-de-camp to George Washington during the Revolutionary War, served with John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin on a commission to negotiate commercial treaties with European and North African nations.
11.5 Mr. Williamos] An Englishman who had traveled extensively in America, Charles Williamos was a frequent companion of the American commissioners in Paris, until they grew concerned that he might be a spy in the pay of the British government.
11.12 Mr. Gerry] Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts was a delegate to the Continental Congress, 1776–80, 1783–85, and a friend of John Adams.
11.31–32 Oh! How wretched . . . Princes favours.] _Henry VIII_ , II.ii.366–67.
13.5–8 A State where liberty . . . sloth dissolv'd.] Cf. _Britannia_ (1729), ll. 195–98, by Scottish poet James Thomson.
13.20 Col'l Monroe, and Mr. Hardy] James Monroe and Samuel Hardy of Virginia, delegates to the Continental Congress, which met in New York City from 1784 to 1788.
13.24–25 Mr. King . . . Mr. Smith] Massachusetts delegate Rufus King and, probably, New York delegate Melancton Smith.
13.25–26 the president's Carriage, to general Knox] Richard Henry Lee was president of the Continental Congress, November 1784–November 1785. Major General Henry Knox had been appointed Secretary at War by Congress on March 8, 1785 a post he would retain under the new federal government.
13.31 Mr. Wythe] George Wythe, a judge on Virginia's High Court of Chancery, had been professor of law and policy at the College of William and Mary since 1779.
14.17 McFingal] _M'Fingal: A Modern Epic Poem, or, The Town-meeting_ by John Trumbull, first published in part in the _Connecticut Courant_ in 1775, and in full in book form in 1782. The character Honorious is thought to be modelled on John Adams.
14.20 Hudibras] Mock epic poem (first published in full in 1684) by English poet Samuel Butler.
14.22 my old fellow scholar, Deane] In 1778, thirteen-year-old Jesse Deane traveled to France with John and John Quincy Adams to join his father, Silas Deane, whom John Adams was to replace as American envoy to France. The three arrived at Paris just days after the elder Deane had departed to return to America, and Benjamin Franklin assumed custody of his departed colleague's son. Jesse Deane was tutored at Passy together with John Quincy and Benjamin Franklin Bache.
15.4–5 A tous les couers . . . je revois ce séjour.] From Voltaire, _Tancrède_ (1760), III.i.1–2. Dorothea Celesia adapted Voltaire's play for the English stage as _Almida_ in 1771, rendering these lines as "Hail to these native shores! Immortal powers! How my heart glows with rapture at their sight!"
15.12–13 my uncle Cranch.] Richard Cranch emigrated from England to Massachusetts in 1746 and married Abigail Adams's older sister Mary in 1762.
15.15 the Marquis.] Lafayette.
15.27 Mr. Wibird's meeting] The Reverend Anthony Wibird had been minister to the Congregational church at Braintree since 1754.
16.1 Mr. Tyler] Boston-born Royall Tyler, Harvard 1776, was lodging with the Cranches. He and Adams's sister Nabby were engaged shortly before she and her mother departed to join John and John Quincy Adams in London. He is best known today for his play, _The Contrast_ , first performed in New York in 1787.
16.20 Deacon Storer.] Boston merchant Ebenezer Storer was married to Hannah Quincy, a distant relation of Abigail Adams (and the first romantic interest of John Adams.) He was deacon of the Brattle Street Church and treasurer of Harvard College.
17.8 Grapple to my heart with hooks of steel.] From _The Pupil of Pleasure_ , 1776 novel by Samuel Jackson Pratt (under pseudonym Courtney Melmoth) satirizing Lord Chesterfield's _Letters to His Son_.
17.14–15 one subject] Adams was keen to learn about his sister's romantic affairs. As the family grew increasingly concerned about reports of indiscretions on the part of Royall Tyler, to whom Nabby had become engaged before departing for England, they were charmed by Colonel William Stephens Smith, John Adams's secretary in London, whom Nabby would marry on June 12, 1786.
17.21 Mr. Thaxter] John Thaxter Jr. had returned from Europe in 1783 and established a law practice in Haverhill.
17.23 Nancy] Seventeen-year-old orphan Nancy Hazen was also boarding with the Shaw family in Haverhill. Adams's attraction to her was the "Passion" to which he refers in the entry for November 3, following.
17.27–30 C'est en vain . . . ne l'a formé Poete.] The opening lines of Nicholas Boileau-Despréaux's _Art poétique_ (1674): "Rash author, 'tis a vain presumptuous crime / To undertake the sacred art of rime; / If at thy birth the stars that ruled thy sense / Shone not with a poetic influence, / In thy strait genius thou wilt still be bound, / Find Phœbus deaf, and Pegasus unsound." Translation from John Dryden, _The Art of Poetry_ (1683), based on an earlier version by William Soame (1680).
17.33 the lecture of a neighbouring brother] That is, the sermon of a minister in a nearby town.
18.15 The forenoon discourse] It was still the practice in this period in New England's churches to attend both a morning and an afternoon sermon on the Sabbath.
19.1–2 Xenophon's Cyropaedia . . . the book of Matthew] Adams was reading these works in the original Greek. The former, a common text for students in the eighteenth century, tells the life of Cyrus the Great, ruler of Mesopotamia in the sixth century B.C.E.
19.3 my N: 9 to my Sister.] Because of the vagaries of posting letters in this period, correspondents often numbered them to make it easier to identify and replace from a letterbook copy those lost in transit. John Adams had strongly impressed the importance of this precaution upon his sons.
19.37–38 Mr. Stoughton] Adams described him in his N: 11 letter to his sister as "an Englishman, who has lately settled in this Town, and expects, his Lady here soon, from England. A Man of easy and agreeable manners, though an Englishman, but it must be observed that he has been a great traveller."
20.28 the first book of the Satires] Of Horace.
22.7 αλληλομϚ. . . . παραβληδην] The first word, from _The Iliad_ , Bk. 4, l. 4, is an accusative form meaning "one another." The second, from Bk. 4, l. 6, may be translated as "maliciously."
22.8 Watts's Logic] _Logic; or, the Right Use of Reason, in the Enquiry After Truth; with a Variety of Rules to Guard Against Error in the Affairs of Religion and Human Life, as well as in the Sciences_ (1724), by the English scholar and hymn writer Isaac Watts.
22.34 Doctor Tufts] Cotton Tufts, Harvard 1749, a physician in Weymouth and a member of the Massachusetts state senate, was both a first cousin once removed of John Adams and an uncle by marriage of Abigail Adams. He often served as the couple's adviser and agent in financial matters.
22.35 Mr. Dana's] Francis Dana had traveled to Europe in 1779 as diplomatic secretary to John Adams. Later he was unsuccessful in his attempt to achieve formal recognition of the United States by the Russian court at St. Petersburg, where a fourteen-year-old John Quincy had accompanied him as secretary and translator (French being the language of the Russian court). Dana had returned to Boston in December 1783 and been chosen as a delegate to the Continental Congress. In 1785 he was appointed to the Massachusetts supreme court and would become chief justice in 1791.
24.7–8 λαβων . . . γομνϖν.] Greek: "far-shadowing" and "spear," from _The Iliad_ , Bk. 6, l. 45. Translation by A. T. Murray (1924).
25.35–36 Doddrige] Phillip Doddridge, _A Course of Lectures on the Principal Subjects in Pneumatology, Ethics and Divinity_ (1763).
27.3 these Riots.] The wave of agrarian unrest known as Shays's Rebellion began in Northampton, Massachusetts, on August 29, 1786, when a mob protesting the state's fiscal policies prevented the Court of Common Pleas from convening and imposing notices of seizure against area farmers for nonpayment of taxes.
30.1 Mystic] Present-day Medford, Massachusetts.
30.16–17 Mr. Parsons] Theophilus Parsons, with whom Adams would study law in Newburyport.
31.18–19 Vanity! Vanity! all is vanity] Cf. Ecclesiastes 1:2.
31.23 Stedman & Thompson] William Stedman, Harvard 1784, and Thomas W. Thompson, Harvard 1786, law clerks in the Newburyport office of Theophilus Parsons.
33.14 Townsend] Horatio Townsend, Harvard 1783, was another clerk in Parson's office.
33.18 Little at Dr. Swett's.] Harvard classmate Moses Little was studying medicine with Newburyport physician John Barnard Swett.
35.3–4 I shall never get through Gibbon.] Adams had begun reading _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ ("with the stile of which I am extremely pleased") almost a year earlier, on February 25, 1787.
35.17 my lord Coke] Adams complained two months later of the difficulties of reading Edward Coke's _Institutes of the Lawes of England_ (1628–44): "such an incoherent mass that I have derived very little benefit from it."
35.35 Sullivan's Lectures] Francis Stoughton Sullivan, _Lectures on the Constitution and Laws of England_ (1776).
37.22–23 Mrs. Hooper's] Mary Harris Hooper, in whose home Horatio Townsend had boarded.
37.27 the Governor's] John Hancock was governor of Massachusetts, 1787–93.
37.30 (v. Vol. 2. p. 27.)] Adams here refers (v. is short for vide) to an earlier volume of his diary, in which, on August 11, 1786, he described Mrs. Edwards as an "antiquated Coquet."
37.30–31 Dr. Waterhouse] Physician Benjamin Waterhouse had boarded with John Adams and been a tutor to his sons while pursuing his medical studies at Leyden.
38.11 judge Sewall] David Sewall of York, in the district of Maine, was a justice of the Massachusetts supreme court, 1777–89. He and John Adams had been classmates at Harvard.
39.36 uncle Toby Shandy] Character in Laurence Sterne's _The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman_ (1759–67).
40.12–13 "Labour and Toil . . . the sacred place."] Cf. "The Judgment of Hercules" (1743), xii.7–8, by Oxford poet Robert Lowth. Oft-anthologized in the eighteenth century, this popular poem was sometimes called "The Choice of Hercules."
41.32 Edes] Adams's oration was soon published in pamphlet form by Boston printer Benjamin Edes.
42.13 Minaci pendentem scopulo] From Virgil, _The Aeneid_ , Bk. 6, l. 668: "High o'er their heads a mold-ring rock is plac'd." Translation by John Dryden.
## CHAPTER II: 1794–1801
46.14 the Houynhms.] The race of talking horses who rule over primitive humans called Yahoos in Jonathan Swift's _Gulliver's Travels_ (1726).
46.20 _fides punica_ ] Latin: treachery, referring to the proverbially bad faith of the Carthaginians.
47.31–32 Milton's mask of Comus] _Comus_ , a masque written by John Milton, first performed in 1634 and published anonymously three years later.
47.34–35 He wrote a book in defence of . . . beheading Charles the 1st.] _The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates_ (1649).
48.3 on prétend que non.] French: they claim not.
48.6–7 the Stadtholder's Court at Breda.] William V, Prince of Orange and the last stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, would be forced into exile in 1795.
49.10–11 the Governor of Massachusetts] Samuel Adams was governor of Massachusetts, 1793–97.
49.16–17 the late actions in Flanders.] French forces had launched a major offensive in the spring, straining the coordination among their allied foes (Britain, Austria, Prussia). The French victory at the battle of Tourcoing (May 18, 1794) led to the end of Austrian rule in Flanders and the withdrawal of British forces under Frederick, the Duke of York, toward the Scheldt.
49.18–19 the late proceedings in England] Fears of the spread of revolutionary ferment to Britain led to Parliament's passage of the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act in May 1794 and the British government's subsequent crackdown on radical groups in London. The suspension was in effect through June 1795.
49.34 my brother and a servant. Dr. Welsh] Adams was accompanied by younger brother Thomas Boylston Adams, acting as his secretary, and by family servant Tilly Whitcomb. Boston physician Thomas Welsh was married to Abigail Kent Welsh, a first cousin of Abigail Adams. Their son Thomas would serve as Adams's secretary in Berlin after Thomas Boylston returned to America in 1798.
50.22–23 Mr. Walker] Dudley Walker, Boston merchant and fellow passenger on _Alfred_.
51.35–36 the perils of the voyage.] _Alfred_ had been a leaky vessel. "Such a ship," Adams wrote in the previous day's entry, "will I think induce me to avoid ever embarking in an egg-shell again to cross the atlantic."
53.27 Col'l Trumbull] John Trumbull, American painter best known today for his large-scale historical scenes, especially _The Declaration of Independence_ (1819).
53.39 _Glorious_ _1_ st _of June_.] _Songs, Duetts, Choruses, &c. in a New and Appropriate Entertainment, called The Glorious First of June, performed, for the first time, by His Majesty's Servants, at the Theatre Royal, Drury-Lane, on Wednesday, July 2nd. 1794 for the benefit of the Widows and Orphans of the brave Men who fell in the late Engagements under Earl Howe_ (1794). Attributed to playwrights Richard Brinsley Sheridan and James Cobb, this work celebrated the largest naval action of the French Revolutionary wars, when a British fleet under Admiral Sir Richard Howe captured or sank seven French vessels without losing any of its own.
55.9 _Oscar and Malvina_ ] Ballet-pantomime (1791) composed by William Shield and William Reeve.
55.25 Powell's company] The Federal Street Theatre, Charles Stuart Powell manager, opened in Boston on February 3, 1794, in the face of a 1750 Massachusetts law against theatrical performances. (See Chronology for 1792.)
56.21 The delivery of the Posts] That is, the evacuation of forts in the Old Northwest still held by the British in contravention of the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1783.
57.17 _the disabilities of alienage_.] Referring to the restrictions imposed on noncitizens related to property, suffrage, and the right of petition. The clause in the U.S. Constitution that Adams alludes to is likely from Article 1, Section 8, which grants to Congress the exclusive power of establishing a uniform rule of naturalization.
59.19 Mr. Willink] Either Willem or Jan Willink, brothers who led one of the Dutch banking firms that had negotiated American loans with John Adams in 1782 and had since served as financial agents for the Adams family.
60.28–29 _tout à fait_ as a _visite fraternelle_ ] French: _entirely_ as a _brotherly visit_.
61.24 Mr. Monroe's reception] James Monroe, an ardent republican known to be sympathetic to the French Revolution, resigned his seat in the Senate to become U.S. minister to France, August 15, 1794–December 9, 1796.
61.25–26 " _parbleu_ . . . _plus fameuses séances_ ] " _By God_ said one, it was a _touching scene_. It was _one of the most memorable moments_ of the convention.
61.28–29 c'etait aussi bien de quoi faire pleurer."] "It was enough to make one cry as well."
61.33 Mr. Morris] Gouverneur Morris of New York had been U.S. minister to France from 1792 to 1794 before being recalled at the request of the French government as a quid pro quo for the dismissal of French minister Edmond Genêt by President Washington. He remained in Europe until 1798.
61.36–37 "La France, sait parfaitement qu'il est en Suisse."] "France knows perfectly well that he is in Switzerland."
62.14–15 the Stadtholder's departure.] William V took formal leave of the States-General on January 16. His wife was Princess Frederica Sophia Wilhelmina of Prussia. Their daughter, Frederica Louise Wilhelmina, was married to Karl George August, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Prince Frederick was the stadtholder's younger son.
64.18 the late Western Insurrection] The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794.
65.5 M. de Ternant] Jean-Baptiste, chevalier de Ternant, had served in the Continental Army and been French minister to the U.S., 1791–93.
66.7–8 "Disguise thyself . . . a bitter draught!"] From Laurence Sterne, _A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy_ (1768).
66.29 Mr. Randolph's resignation] Virginian Edmund Randolph resigned as secretary of state (effective August 20, 1795) after an intercepted French communiqué revealed that he had been overly candid with the French minister Fauchet, even to the point of denigrating the Washington administration's policy of neutrality. He was replaced by the staunchly pro-British Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.
67.21–22 their capture of Toulon] On December 19, 1793, Revolutionary forces successfully concluded a four-month siege of Royalist-controlled Toulon, which had been protected by the British navy. As British forces withdrew, they set fire to the French vessels anchored in Toulon's harbor to prevent their falling into the revolutionaries' control.
68.16 mauvais sujet] French: firebrand.
69.13 "Your Government seem to think otherwise"] See note 49.18–19.
69.21–22 "I do see to the bottom of this Justice Shallow."] Cf. _2 Henry IV_ , III.ii.302.
72.16–17 the Minister of the Elector Palatine] Benjamin Thompson was a Massachusetts-born Loyalist who left America and became a prominent administrator, scientist, and essayist in Europe. He was knighted by George III in 1784, and in 1792, after years of service at the court of the Bavarian elector Charles Theodore, ruler also of the Electorate of the Palatinate, he was made Count Rumford in the nobility of the Holy Roman Empire.
74.3 I shall accordingly persist.] Contrary to the Johnsons' wishes and expectations, Adams refused to commit to an early wedding date, arguing that his current salary could not support a family. The engagement would last more than a year.
75.7 Luzac's Richesse de la Hollande.] Dutch writer and bookseller Elie Luzac edited and provided commentary for _Hollands Rijkdom_ (1782–83), a two-volume translation of _La Richesse de la Hollande_ (1778) by French economist Jacques Accarias de Sérionne.
75.20 Pitt] English poet Christopher Pitt published a translation of the _Aeneid_ in heroic couplets in 1740.
75.20–21 Memoires . . . of Gorani] Count Guiseppe Gorani, a Milanese diplomat who served in posts in Portugal and Switzerland before undertaking a tour of the Italian courts in 1787. His _Memoires_ were published in 1793.
75.28 The Life of Dumouriez] Charles François Dumouriez was a general in the French army during the French Revolutionary wars, before defecting to the allies in April 1793, eventually going into exile in England. He published his memoirs in Hamburg in 1794. A three-volume English edition appeared in 1796. Years later Dumouriez and Adams would be neighbors in Little Ealing.
77.8–9 the Rambler.] A twice weekly periodical published by Samuel Johnson from 1750 to 1752.
77.35 Mr. King] Rufus King of New York had resigned his seat in the Senate in May 1796 to become U.S. minister to Great Britain.
77.37–78.1 They direct me, not to proceed to Lisbon] See Chronology for 1797.
78.14 Mr. Hewlett] Louisa Catherine Johnson had spent part of her childhood under the care of forward-thinking Anglican minister John Hewlett and his wife Elizabeth.
79.3 the misfortune] A miscarriage, the first of several the couple would endure before the birth of their first child in 1801.
80.9 young Marshall] James Marshall, younger brother of future Supreme Court chief justice John Marshall, had been dispatched to Berlin in 1796 by President Washington to seek Lafayette's release.
80.11 joli garçon.] French: bonny lad.
80.16 his yet greater brother.] Friedrich II (Frederick the Great).
80.16–17 Mirabeau has done him great injustice.] Honoré-Gabriel de Riquetti, comte de Mirabeau, in _Histoire Secr_ _è_ _te de la Cour de Berlin_ (1789).
81.8 vieille Cour.] Prussian palace at The Hague.
81.33 the Casino] A Berlin gentleman's club with rooms for reading newspapers, dining, card-playing, and billiards.
82.23 Dr. Brown.] English physician Charles Brown. The Browns and Adamses were neighbors in Berlin and Louisa Catherine very much enjoyed the family's company.
84.5–6 The two billets] German translation by Anton Wall (pseudonym of Christian Lebrecht Heyne) of Claris de Florian's _Les deux billets_ (1779).
84.14 Wieland's Oberon] Epic romance (1780) by German poet Christoph Martin Wieland.
84.33 Bülow's book.] _Der Freistaat von Nordamerika in seinem neuesten zustand_ (1797), by Prussian writer Dietrich von Bülow. Adams's translation ("Interesting Travels in America") was serialized in _Port Folio_ in the winter of 1802–3.
85.6 Minna von Barnhelm] Comedy (1767) by German playwright Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. His _Emila Galotti_ premiered in 1772.
88.10 Louisa Smith] Louisa Catherine Smith, daughter of Abigail Adams's deceased brother William.
88.24 Mr. Johnson] Joshua Johnson and family had returned to America in 1797, and eventually settled in Washington.
90.2 Mair's Book-keeping] John Mair, _Book-keeping Methodised: or, a Methodical Treatise of Merchant-Accompt, According to the Italian Form_ (1736; ninth edition, 1772).
## CHAPTER III: 1802–1809
91.5 Park . . . the British Critic] James Allen Park, _A System of the Law of Marine Insurances_ (London, 1789). _The British Critic: A New Review_ , a conservative monthly launched in 1793.
91.6–7 Studying G. Adams on air and chimney fire places] In _Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy_ (5 vols., 1794) by George Adams Jr., mathematical instrument maker to George III.
91.7 the mall] A popular concourse in the Boston Common, running along Tremont Street. Englishman Joseph Bennett described it in 1740: "What they call the Mall is a walk on a fine green common adjoining to the south-west side of town. It is near half a mile over, with two rows of young trees planted opposite to each other, with a fine footway in between, in imitation of St. James's Park."
92.3 Commissioners] Adams briefly served as a commissioner of bankruptcies for Boston in 1802.
92.4–6 Locke on . . . true and false ideas] Adams was reading John Locke's _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_ (1689).
92.6–7 Branch Bank] The Boston branch of the First Bank of the United States.
94.11 the _Junto_ ] The Essex Junto, epithet (possibly coined by John Adams) for a group of arch-Federalists centered in Essex County, Massachusetts, who supported Alexander Hamilton.
94.12 Mr. Pickering] Since being ousted as secretary of state by John Adams in 1800, Timothy Pickering had been seeking support among New England Federalists for secession. He was elected to the Senate from Massachusetts in 1803.
94.36–37 His volunteering an answer to an address from Princess Ann County] Probably referring to an incident during the Quasi-War with France, when many communities sent formal addresses to President Adams in support of his call for military preparations.
98.8–9 the New Bank] The recently incorporated Boston Bank, a highly leveraged venture that, like the Union Bank (chartered 1792), contributed to a rise of both speculation and bankruptcy in the Commonwealth. Though supportive of the national bank, Adams was, like his father, deeply distrustful of banks in general.
98.31 Mr. Parsons's office] Theophilus Parsons had moved from Newburyport to Boston in 1800. He became chief justice of the Massachusetts supreme court in 1806.
99.1 Mr. Murray the clergyman] Possibly Boston Universalist John Murray.
99.12 Sevigne] Considered one of the finest letter-writers in any language, Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné, was a French aristocrat whose letters to her daughter and others were published in numerous multivolume editions throughout the eighteenth century.
100.1–2 Secretary of State's Office . . . Mr. Randolph] James Madison was secretary of state from 1801 to 1809. Adams was seeking the help of David Meade Randolph, formerly U.S. marshal for the eastern district of Virginia, in resolving unsettled accounts from his time in Europe.
102.15–16 Mr. Smith's view . . . on the Romans.] William Smith, _A Comparative View of the Constitutions of the Several States with Each Other, and with that of the United States_ (1796), and Montesquieu, _Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence_ (1734), ( _Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans_ ).
102.18 Mr. Coles] Possibly Isaac A. Coles, personal secretary to President Jefferson.
102.25–26 The failure of a commercial house in London] John Adams lost $13,000 when Bird, Savage, and Bird, the London merchant banking firm in which John Quincy Adams had invested his funds, collapsed in February 1803. Since 1799, the firm had been represented in New York by the affiliated mercantile firm of Robert Bird & Co.
103.31 "Smith's nephew, the first Consul's brother"] Napoleon Bonaparte's youngest brother Jerome had traveled to the United States in 1803 and married Elizabeth Patterson, daughter of Baltimore merchant William Patterson and his wife Dorcas Spear Patterson, whose sister was Samuel Smith's wife Margaret.
104.19–20 Mr. Nicholas, who he believes also married a Spear] Virginia senator Wilson Cary Nicholas was married not to a Spear sister, but to Margaret Smith, sister of Samuel Smith.
104.26–27 fit them for the discipline of Dr. Willis.] British physician Francis Willis, famous for his treatment of George III's madness, which included restraint among other methods.
104.33–34 the Treaty that binds our national faith.] Adams was concerned in particular that plans to tax the inhabitants of Louisiana without provision for a representative assembly in the territory violated Article III of the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, which guaranteed:
The inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incorporated in the Union of the United States and admitted as soon as possible according to the principles of the federal Constitution to the enjoyment of all these rights, advantages and immunities of citizens of the United States, and in the mean time they shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property and the Religion which they profess.
104.37 Court of Impeachment opened] John Pickering, U.S. district court judge for New Hampshire, was the first of fifteen Federalist judges to be impeached by the Republican-controlled House of Representatives, and one of eight to be convicted by the Senate and removed from office.
105.2 Spanish Convention] Concluded on August 11, 1802, establishing a commission to address claims for indemnification arising from "the excesses of individuals of either nation during the late war contrary to the existing treaty of the laws of nations."
105.7–8 Mess'rs Wells . . . and Thatcher] Federalist members of Congress all.
107.2 Vattel] Emmerich de Vattel, _Le droit des gens_ (1758; _The Law of Nations_ , 1759).
108.2 Arnotto.] Annatto, a yellow-red dye made from pulp surrounding the seeds of a tropical American tree ( _Bixa_ _orellana_ ).
108.7 totis viribus] Latin: with all his strength.
109.14–15 T. B. Johnson and three of the young Ladies] Brother-in-law Thomas Baker Johnson and three of his sisters.
109.29 Patty] Family servant Patty Walin.
110.18 Marbury and Madison, in Cranch's Reports] Adams's cousin and friend William Cranch was the official reporter of Supreme Court decisions from 1801 to 1815. He was also a judge on the U.S. circuit court for the District of Columbia. Like William Marbury, of the famous court case that established the principle of judicial review, Cranch was one of the Federalist "Midnight Judges" appointed by John Adams under the Judiciary Act of 1801.
110.19 Thucydidies, in Smith's translation] _The History of the Peloponnesian War_ (1753), a two-volume translation by English clergyman William Smith.
110.25 the Blacks at St. Domingo] The Haitian Republic had been proclaimed on January 1, 1804. Jefferson reversed the policy of engagement with the revolutionaries that the Adams administration had pursued, cutting off aid to the island in hopes of preventing the spread of "servile" revolution to the southern United States.
113.11 Mr. Brent] Either Robert Brent, the first mayor of Washington D.C., or his brother, Treasury Department clerk Daniel Brent.
113.11 the President's two Sons in law] Thomas Mann Randolph Jr., husband of Martha Jefferson, and John Wayles Eppes, husband of Mary Jefferson.
113.24 _ebranlement_ ] French: upheaval.
116.4 the one last appointed] Associate Justice William Johnson of South Carolina, Jefferson's lone appointment to the Court to that date.
117.4–5 "above all things afraid of being too much in the right."] From Edmund Burke's Speech to the Electors at Bristol, November 3, 1774.
121.13 the President] Aaron Burr, as vice president, was president of the Senate.
124.8 the house in which I was born] In 1803 Adams bought the Penn's Hill farm from his father, intending to use it as a summer home. Including the two houses known today as the John Adams Birthplace and the John Quincy Adams Birthplace, it is approximately a mile south of the Old House, or Peacefield, where his parents lived.
125.25 Mrs. Decharms's] Philadelphia boardinghouse, near the corner of Market and Fifth Streets.
129.19–20 the Tunisian Minister] Sidi Soliman Mellimelli toured the United States from November 1805 to September 1806.
131.24–25 The _good man_ . . . could not live much longer.] George III would live another fourteen years, though the Prince of Wales ruled as regent from 1811 on.
132.25 the appointment of Mr. Armstrong] John Armstrong Jr., that is, as special envoy to Spain. He had been U.S. minister at Paris since 1804.
135.25 Marmontel] French dramatist and historian Jean-François Marmontel, perhaps best known for his posthumously published _Mémoires d'un père_ (1804).
136.3 Dr. Waterhouse's] On his return to the United States in 1782, Benjamin Waterhouse helped to found the Harvard Medical School, where he taught for more than fifty years.
138.34 12th Rule] Which required that a bill be read on three different days prior to being passed, unless unanimously directed otherwise.
139.27–28 the decree of the French Emperor of 21 November last] The Berlin Decree, announcing a prohibition of the import of British goods into Europe. Most problematic for neutral nations like the United States were articles stipulating that the "trade in English merchandise is forbidden; all merchandise belonging to England, or coming from its manufactories and colonies, is declared lawful prize," and that "no vessel coming directly from England, or from the English colonies, or having been there since the publication of the present decree, shall be received into any port."
140.10–11 it is good . . . that I might learn thy Statutes] Psalm 119:71.
141.1–2 Mr. Whitman, Mr. Morse . . . sons at College] Boston jurist and politician Benjamin Whitman, father of Zechariah Gardner Whitman (class of 1807); Watertown merchant Eliakim Morse, father of John Morse (1808); Cambridge merchant Thomas English, father of George Bethune English (1807); and Boston developer Samuel Parkman, father of Francis Parkman (1807) and George Parkman (1808).
141.3–4 difficulties between the . . . College, and the Students.] The so-called Cabbage Rebellion, the latest in a series of student protests over the poor quality of the food on offer at Harvard's dining hall.
144.29–30 remove one . . . removed the other] Uriah Tracy of Connecticut died on July 19, 1807. William Plumer of New Hampshire had not been a candidate for reelection, and left the Senate on March 3, 1807.
145.10 Massachusetts Historical Society] The nation's oldest historical society, founded by Jeremy Belknap and others in 1791 to preserve documents and items of historical interest.
145.38 Lewis and Barlow] Poet Joel Barlow had written a panegyric for a January 14, 1807, reception in Washington celebrating Meriwether Lewis's return from his explorations of the American West.
146.23 Gun-Boat Bill] Samuel Mitchill of New York had introduced a measure on November 20, 1807, to build an additional 188 gunboats to protect the nation's harbors and ports. Jefferson favored the construction of these small coastal vessels over the larger seafaring frigates that John Adams had commissioned, believing such a naval buildup only served to increase the likelihood of conflict with the European powers.
148.18 her Treaty with us] The Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine.
148.24 Gen'l Wilkinson's conduct] Brigadier General James Wilkinson, the army's senior commanding officer, had provided the crucial evidence that led to the arrest of Aaron Burr. But the evidence also raised questions about Wilkinson's own conduct, and after his self-serving and contradictory testimony at Burr's trial he was nearly indicted himself. Two separate congressional investigations were launched in the wake of the trial. It later emerged that Wilkinson had in fact been on the Spanish payroll while serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory.
151.7 in the case] Nantucket commercial agents Joseph Chase and Jared Gardner had petitioned Congress on behalf of the owners of the ship _Manila_ , which had been seized by the Nantucket port collector after a trading voyage to Haiti, undertaken during a period when the ship's owners believed the federal act banning such trade had lapsed. Writing for the Senate committee charged with investigating the appeal, Adams recommended that relief be granted.
152.5–6 a threat which has appeared from Mr. Monroe, of publishing another Book] James Monroe, minister to France from 1794 to 1796, had been recalled by President Washington because he was thought to have become overly supportive of the French Revolutionary cause, and by extension that of the Jeffersonian Republicans at home. He returned to America in the spring of 1797 and the following December published _A View of the Conduct of the Executive, in the Foreign Affairs of the United States_ , a five-hundred-page pamphlet defending his actions.
152.7 to defeat Madison's Election & promote his own] After returning to the United States in 1807, his pride wounded by the Jefferson administration's disavowal of the treaty he had negotiated with Great Britain, Monroe allowed a faction of Republicans to advance him as an alternative to Madison to succeed Jefferson in the presidential election of 1808.
152.18 the Yazoo Claimants.] The Yazoo land fraud, a scheme by which Georgia legislators had been bribed to sell the state's western lands in present-day Alabama and Mississippi (an area including the Yazoo River) in 1795 to a consortium of land companies, only to rescind the sale a year later. Individuals who had purchased land through the companies were forced to seek redress from the federal government. Their claims were finally resolved by the Supreme Court in _Fletcher v. Peck_ (1810), which ruled the 1796 Rescinding Act unconstitutional. See Chronology for 1809.
152.35 Il faut voir venir] French: One must wait and see.
153.20–21 These letters contain a test for my firmness] The letters from his parents had questioned Adams's judgment in attending the Republican caucus. That from his mother, dated February 15, 1808, began without ceremony or sentiment: "I take it for granted that you will neither in public or private Life do any thing which you are unwilling to own, or to affix your Name. I write to ask you if uninvited you attended the Caucus at Washington of which mr Bradley was President?" "If you was present," she added, "I can only say, thinking as I do, I can never cease to regreet it."
154.12 the Governor of Nova-Scotia] Sir John Wentworth was governor of Nova Scotia from 1792 to 1808. He had previously been the last royal governor of New Hampshire.
154.34 my letter to H. G. Otis] _A Letter to the Honourable Harrison Gray Otis, a Member of the Senate of Massachusetts, on the Present State of Our National Affairs, with Remarks upon Mr. Pickering's Letter to the Governor of the Commonwealth_ , a thirty-two-page pamphlet, published in Boston, in which Adams defended his support of the Embargo.
158.25–26 Mr. Wheaton's Resolutions] Massachusetts state representative Laban Wheaton's resolutions attacking the Embargo as unconstitutional and, in any case, unlikely to achieve any good effect were passed five days later by the Massachusetts senate.
158.35–36 the Athenaeum] Founded in 1807 by the Anthology Club of Boston, the Boston Athenaeum is one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States.
159.27 the Sun with "farewell sweet"] Cf. _Paradise Lost_ , II.492.
160.21 Mrs. G. Payne, and Miss Buckminster.] The identity of the former is not known. The latter may be budding writer Eliza Buckminster, daughter of Boston Unitarian minister Joseph Buckminster.
## CHAPTER IV: 1809–1814
169.4–15 Eternal Spirit! . . . may delight to tell.] This is Adams's own verse.
171.38 the French had defeated the Austrians in a battle] Napoleon's decisive victory at the battle of Wagram (July 5–6, 1809) would lead to the Treaty of Schönbrunn, effectively ending the allies' Fifth Coalition against France.
176.19–20 Monsieur, je suis charmé d'avoir le plaisir de vous voir ici] Sir, I am charmed to have the pleasure of seeing you here.
181.35 un pays bien sage] French: a wise country.
183.1–2 the Cincinnati Society] Founded in May 1783 and named for the Roman hero Cincinnatus, the Society of the Cincinnati was formed to raise funds to support veterans of the Continental Army and their families facing hardship and to promote closer ties among the states. Membership in the society was restricted to former officers and their descendants, raising fears that it might become the seedbed of an American aristocracy.
185.3–4 the questionable Passport and its bearer Graham] Because Americans were generally accorded commercial privileges on the Continent, British merchants sometimes used forged papers to pass as U.S. citizens. Adams had grounds to suspect that Archibald John Graham, claiming to be an American and bearing a passport signed by the mayor of New York City, was one such impostor, and when Graham presented Adams his passport for authentication so that he could do business in St. Petersburg, Adams delayed and sought corroboration. He eventually learned that Graham, a Scotsman, was in fact an agent of a Liverpool trading house, and, as he concluded, "had probably never set his foot in America."
185.12–13 je dois vous prévenir que nous sommes ici de Grands Anglomanes] French: I must tell you that we are great Anglophiles here.
186.17 en fait de Commerce ce n'est qu'un Etourdi] French: in matters of trade he is scatterbrained.
187.16–17 "mais grandement,"] French: "but hugely."
187.25 "il a la galle rentrée."] French: literally, "he has gall return," probably referring to biliary reflux or a similar gastrointestinal disorder.
187.30–31 Rusalka, the Nymph of the Dnieper] _Lesta, ili Dneprovskaya rusalka_ , 1805 opera by Stepan Ivanovich Davïdov.
189.6 what Burr's project had been] Burr's alleged efforts to form parts of the Louisiana Territory into a separate country, for which he was charged with treason, tried, and acquitted.
189.24–25 M. de Laval] In her journal Louisa Catherine Adams described M. de Laval de Montmorency ("of which family it was said he was a Scion") as a "Frenchman who had married a Russian Lady whose beauty had certainly not kindled the flame of love in his heart."
189.31 (Charles 2 f. 10 inches)] Adams regularly recorded his youngest son's height in his diary.
190.34 the marriage of the Emperor Napoleon] To Marie Louise, Archduchess of Austria, in a ceremony performed by proxy on March 11, 1810.
193.5–6 "C'est d'abord un trés galant homme"] French: "First of all, he is a gentleman."
195.4–5 Ostervald's french Translation] Swiss Protestant theologian Jean-Frédéric Ostervald published his French Bible in 1724.
199.11 the Adventure of General Hitroff] Adams described this contretemps four days later in a letter to Secretary of State Robert Smith:
About two months since a General Hitroff, an aid de camp of the Emperor Alexander, was taken by an order from the Minister of Police at the moment when he was going to a ball at the French Ambassador's, with whom he and his family were particularly intimate, and was transported either to Siberia or to some other place of banishment or of imprisonment; a circumstance, which in the unexampled mildness of the present reign could not fail to excite an extraordinary degree of attention. Of the offense which produced an act of such unusual rigor no other public notice has been taken, but the report which has been circulated in connection is, that the General had furnished to the Ambassador himself statements of the military forces of the Empire, too detailed and too confidential to be consistent with his duty.
199.32–34 et il avait raison . . . et nous avions tous deux raison] French: and he was right . . . and we were both right.
200.7 des ridicules très saillans] French: the extraordinarily ridiculous.
200.8–9 notre chevalier là . . . sans les savoir.] French: our knight over there, who dances the allemande [a baroque precursor to the waltz] without knowing the steps.
200.18 Ukaze] Ukase, an imperial edict.
202.9–10 The Duke of Oldenburg, and the commercial system were the causes] Napoleon annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg in the northwest of Germany on January 22, 1811, offending Alexander I, whose sister Catherine was the wife of Duke Georg. For the commercial system, see note 139.27–28.
202.13 _par une sottise_ ] French: _with complete nonsense_.
203.22 J'espere que tout cela _se_ _civilisera_ ] French: I hope everything will _settle down_.
204.30 Fontanka] The left branch of the river Neva, in central St. Petersburg.
205.21–22 our Minister there had taken leave] As relations with Great Britain deteriorated in the early months of 1811, U.S. minister William Pinkney broke off talks and returned to America, where he was soon appointed attorney general by President Madison. To fill the diplomatic void, Jonathan Russell was transferred from Paris to London as chargé d'affaires early in 1812.
205.23–24 a new Minister to the United States] Augustus John Foster, who had earlier served a tour as British legation secretary at Washington, returned as minister plenipotentiary in July 1811.
205.35 you have lately made an acquisition] Concerned that either Britain or France might seize parts of Florida from a weakened Spain, President Madison issued a proclamation on October 27, 1810, annexing Spanish West Florida between the Mississippi and Perdido Rivers. He based this action on the contested claim that the region was part of the Louisiana Purchase.
206.12 "On s'aggrandit toujours un peu, dans ce Monde"] French: "One always grows a little, in this world."
207.18 "Iliad of woes"] A metaphor of ancient origin, from the Latin _Ilios malorum_.
207.20 Non nobis, Domine!] From a Latin prayer of humility and thanksgiving — Non nobis domine, sed nomini tuo sit Gloria — derived from Psalm 115:1: Not unto us, O Lord, but unto thy name give the glory.
207.28 il y a cent ans que je ne vous ai vu] French: I haven't seen you for a hundred years.
207.37–208.1 "Peut-être sont ce des considerations de Finance."] French: "Financial considerations, perhaps?"
208.3–5 Mais, Sire, Elles . . . à la recette] French: Yes, Sire, in large measure. Well enough, said he — you are quite right — One must always balance income and expenses.
208.16 au reste] French: moreover.
210.25 The Count . . . the Ambassador] Rumientzev and Lauriston.
212.17–18 Robinson's character of Christ] Adams had been for several months reading _Scripture Characters: or, A Practical Improvement of the Principal Histories in the New Testament_ (1792), a two-volume collection of sermons by English clergyman Thomas Robinson.
212.19 the English preacher] William Enfield, _The English Preacher: or, Sermons on the Principal Subjects of Religion and Morality, Selected, Revised, and Abridged from Various Authors_ , 9 vols. (1773).
214.4 Auditeur's] To consolidate his control of the French diplomatic corps, Napoleon mandated in 1806 that all _secrétaires d'ambassades_ should henceforth be drawn from those who had served at the Conseil d'État in Paris, called _auditeurs_ because there they would have had the opportunity to attend upon the Emperor himself.
215.30–31 Protagoras, of Grou's translation . . . Dacier] _Dialogues de Platon_ (1770), translated by French Jesuit Jean-Nicolas Grou. _Les oeuvres de Platon_ (1699), translated by French classical scholar André Dacier.
218.6–7 one of our Ministers for instance was a Genevan] Referring to Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, who had emigrated to America as a young man in 1780.
218.12 the Itinéraire] François-Auguste-René de Chateaubriand, _Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem et de Jérusalem à Paris_ (1811).
221.3–7 was scarcely beyond . . . the very meridian of life] Catherine Nuth Johnson was fifty-three or fifty-four at the time of her death. Andrew Buchanan was just forty-five.
225.38 an _affranchi_ ] A French legal term for an emancipated serf or slave.
228.12 Paucton] _Métrologie ou Traité des mesures, poids et monnoies des anciens peuples & des modernes_ (1780) by French mathematician Alexis-Jean Paucton.
228.38 (cette lute,)] Quoting the Czar's French for "this struggle."
229.6–11 "Mais tous les indices . . . sans nous attaquer."] French: "But all signs point to war . . . and then . . . he's always advancing . . . he begins by taking Swedish Pomerania . . . and voila he comes to occupy Prussia . . . he cannot advance much farther without attacking."
229.12–13 j'espère bien quil ne viendra pas jusqu'ici] French: I hope that he will not come too far.
229.27 a Projet pour un Code de Commerce by Boucher] _Institutions Commerciales . . . et d'un projet de Code de commerce_ (1801) by French political economist Pierre Boucher.
229.30–31 Rayneval's Book de la Liberté des Mers] A two-volume treatise on maritime law, published in 1811 by French diplomat Joseph Mathias Gérard de Rayneval. His son Maximilien was Adams's diplomatic colleague in St. Petersburg.
230.24 our Secretary of State, Mr. Monroe] In March 1811, Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin threatened to resign if President Madison did not remove Secretary of State Robert Smith from the cabinet. Madison acquiesced, and appointed Virginia governor James Monroe to replace Smith. At the same time he offered Smith Adams's post at St. Petersburg, which he declined.
231.6–7 A bill for raising 25000 men had been passed] Congress had passed this provision on January 19, 1812, authorizing five-year enlistments in the regular army and enabling the president to organize as many as 50,000 additional volunteers.
231.20 the Catholic question] Parliamentary debates leading up to and following a general election in the autumn of 1812 would result in passage in July 1813 of an act to relieve many of the long-standing civil restrictions on Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom.
231.23–24 un homme a ce me parait, assez Mediocre] French: a man who seems to me pretty mediocre.
231.32 the Spaniards at Cadiz] As the Peninsular War fell into stalemate in 1811, relations between the Spanish Cortes in Cadiz, the stronghold in the extreme southwest of Spain, and their British allies in Portugal were strained by miscommunication and mutual suspicion. Cadiz had been under siege by French forces for more than a year, and would not finally be relieved until August 1812, in the wake of Wellington's victory at the battle of Salamanca.
233.14–15 the late trial at Paris] Russian officer Alexander Chernyshyov, an aide-de-camp to the Czar who had been dispatched to Paris in early 1811 to convey letters to Napoleon, remained in Paris where he cultivated the favor of the Emperor. He appears also to have bribed a member of Napoleon's general staff ("Michel") to share military secrets. Chernyshyov returned to Russia in February 1812, shortly after his residence was searched by French police. In early May, with his preparations for the invasion of Russia largely completed and seeking a casus belli, Napoleon had Michel and three others publicly tried and executed as Russian spies.
233.27 les folliculaires] A French epithet for the press.
237.9–10 "Oh, mais a présent c'est autre chose"] French: "Oh, but the present is quite another thing."
237.36 "un peu interessantes"] French: "of some interest."
238.7 Kammenoi ostrof] Kammenoi Ostrow ("The Stone Island"), located in the Neva River in St. Petersburg.
238.10–11 thou shalt not follow a Multitude to do evil] Exodus 23:2.
238.34–35 a Fame and Trumpets] That is, an allegorical representation of Fame.
239.6 the Battle of Pultawa] Fought on July 8, 1709, in what is today eastern Ukraine, the battle of Poltava resulted in a decisive Russian victory over the forces of Sweden.
240.34 Sterne's Vindication of human Nature] Sermon, first published under a pseudonym in 1760, by the novelist and Anglican clergyman Laurence Sterne.
240.36 Watt's Logic] See note 22.8.
242.38 his exploit at Copenhagen] General William Cathcart had commanded the British expeditionary force that captured Copenhagen on September 5, 1807, after a controversial bombardment in which many civilians were killed. As a young officer, Cathcart had served in the American war, distinguishing himself at the battle of Monmouth in 1778.
243.12 English honour had become a standing jest] Cf. Samuel Johnson, _London: A Poem, in Imitation of the Third Satire of Juvenal_ (1738), l. 30.
243.34 my father's Book] Probably referring to _A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America_ , 2 vols. (1787–88).
246.7 poor Blodget] In a November 30, 1811, letter to his sister Adams had described Blodget's fate:
We had the pleasure of seeing him often — He had formed a commercial connection and establishment in this City, and had a fair prospect of success — About a month ago he was seized with a Typhus fever, and died after a fortnights illness — He was but a little turned of thirty, and among the Americans in this place was highly distinguished both by the excellency of his character and by his Understanding. He is sincerely lamented by all who knew him.
246.9–10 Miss More's Coelebs and of Dr. Clarke's Travels in Russia] _Cœlebs in Search of a Wife_ : _Comprehending Observations on Domestic Habits and Manners, Religion and Morals_ , 1809 novel by British moralist Hannah More. _Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa_ (1810) by British naturalist and traveler Edward Daniel Clark.
250.1–2 "il ny a qu'un . . . le mot de paix."] French: "that man is a knave, who can talk of peace now."
250.25 Mr. Rapatel] In the diary entry for September 29, 1812, Adams described Rapatel as "formerly an aid-de-camp of General Moreau, lately arrived from America. He has entered the Russian service, and said he should . . . go to join the army in about eight days. At table he talked much and without reserve."
251.15 Polotzk] The second battle of Polotzk, fought October 18–20, 1812, in what is today eastern Belarus.
251.19–20 je prévois de douleurs.] French: I foresee grief.
251.29 perdu sans ressource] French: lost without resource.
251.36 "to point a moral or adorn a tale."] Samuel Johnson, _The Vanity of Human Wishes: The Tenth Satire of Juvenal Imitated_ (1749), l. 222.
251.38–252.1 the capture of the British frigate, Guerrière, by our Frigate Constitution] After a single-duel action in the North Atlantic on August 19, 1812.
252.36 Ochta] Approximately ten miles northeast of central St. Petersburg.
252.38 two Mr. Gisborne's, sons of Dr. Gisborne] Anglican clergyman Thomas Gisborne was the author of numerous works, including _The Principles of Moral Philosophy Investigated, and Briefly Applied to the Constitution of Civil Society_ (1789), a rejoinder to William Paley's _Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy_ (1785). His son, Thomas John Gisborne, married Sarah Krehmer, daughter of J. A. Krehmer, in St. Petersburg in 1814. The other Mr. Gisborne refers to one of Thomas John's five brothers.
258.29 "il faudra travailler à cela"] French: "we'll have to work on it."
259.5 Dr. Gisborne's Duties of Men] Thomas Gisborne, _An Enquiry into the Duties of Men of the Higher and Middle Classes of Society in Great Britain_ (1794).
259.10 the surrender of General Wadsworth and 900 men.] General William Wadsworth led the Seventh Brigade of New York militia at the battle of Queenston Heights, fought in and around present-day Queenston, Ontario, on October 13, 1812. The battle was lost when large numbers of his poorly trained militiamen refused to cross the Niagara River under fire.
260.32–33 Mr. Smith, who finally avowed a disposition to do right.] Adams had been pressuring his nephew William Steuben Smith to marry Louisa's sister Catherine Johnson. Kitty, as she was known, was ill and may have been pregnant, though the diary does not record a miscarriage. The couple would have their first child a little over a year later.
260.34–36 the capture of the British frigate Macedonian by the American frigate United States.] After a single-duel action in the central Atlantic five hundred miles south of the Azores on October 25, 1812.
262.40 qu'il fit la sottise de Moscou] French: that he committed the folly of Moscow.
263.10–11 "Il faut avouer . . . sont pas favorables."] French: "One has to admit that the circumstances do not favor us."
264.4 my Silesian Letters] See Chronology for 1801.
264.5–6 Les trois Offrandes, and Napoleon Administrateur et Financier] _Offrandes à Bonaparte, par trois étrangers_ (1810) and _Napoléon Administrateur et Financier_ (1812), works of economic and political analysis published in London by Sir François d'Ivernois, a Swiss émigré who had been knighted by George III.
264.21–22 Mr. Perceval . . . was murdered.] On May 11, 1812, British prime minister Spencer Perceval was shot and killed as he entered the House of Commons by John Bellingham, a former commercial agent for a Liverpool export firm. Bellingham had been detained in Russia for alleged default on a debt in 1804 and imprisoned for nearly five years. Since his release and return to England in 1809 he had been petitioning the British government for compensation without success.
265.34–35 Olivet's translation of Cicero de Natura Deorum.] _Entretiens de Cicéron sur la nature des dieux_ (1721), by French scholar Pierre-Joseph Olivet.
266.5 the case of the Hector.] Massachusetts merchant Israel Thorndike had been seeking compensation from the Russian government for damages arising from the 1807 seizure by Russian vessels off Smyrna of the merchant brig _Hector_ , commanded by his nephew Luke Thorndike. Not until 1828 would Czar Nicholas I approve a final settlement of the case.
266.7 Cicero de Finibus] _De finibus bonorum et malorum_ ("On the ends of good and evil"), Cicero's most extensive philosophical work, composed in 45 B.C.E.
266.22 Paley's Natural Theology] First published in 1802, with the full subtitle _Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature_.
266.26 Ray and Derham] English naturalists John Ray and William Derham, authors, respectively, of _The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation_ (1691) and _Physico-Theology, or a Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God from his Works of Creation_ (1713).
268.11–12 the Appointment of Messieurs Gallatin and Bayard] See Chronology for 1813.
270.27–28 the taking of York-town in Upper-Canada, by General Dearborn] On April 27, 1813, forces led by Major General Henry Dearborn, U.S. commander-in-chief on the northern frontier, captured York, the capital of the province of Upper Canada (now Toronto). Over the following two days, American troops set fire to York's public buildings and plundered many private homes. These actions would be cited by the British as a justification for the burning of Washington in 1814.
271.9 a Mr. de Tracy] French officer Victor Destutt de Tracy, brother of Lafayette's daughter-in-law Emilie, had been captured while serving in the French rear guard under Field Marshal Pierre Augereau, and was being held at Tambov, three hundred miles south of Moscow. His father was the philosopher Count Antoine Destutt de Tracy, most famous for coining the term _idéologie_.
271.35 Czarsko Zelo] Imperial palace approximately fifteen miles south of central St. Petersburg.
274.2–3 General Blücher's victory of 26 August] At the battle of the Katzbach, fought in Silesia. Prussian field marshal Gebhard Blücher commanded a large Russo-Prussian army against French forces under French marshal Jacques MacDonald.
274.24–25 Preobrajensky, and Semenoffsky] Russian regimental names.
274.38 18/30th.] Indicating both the Old and New Style dates.
275.7 Versts] A Russian unit of distance measuring roughly two thirds of a mile.
275.31 Goguet's second Volume] For some months Adams had been reading _De l'origine des loix, des arts, et des sciences; et de leurs progrès chez les anciens peoples_ , 3 vols. (1757; _The Origin of Laws, Arts, and Sciences, and Their Progress Among the Most Ancient Nations_ , 1761) by French historian Antoine-Yves Goguet.
275.33 Dr. Beresford] The Reverend Benjamin Beresford was minister of the Dutch Reformed church in St. Petersburg, the first Briton ever to hold the position. He had officiated at the wedding of William Steuben Smith and Catherine Johnson.
279.9 the Abridgment of La Lande's Astronomy] _Abrég_ _é_ _d'Astronomie par de Lalande_ (1795), a one-volume distillation of a four-volume work by French astronomer Joseph-Jérôme de Lalande first published 1771–81.
280.22 "ne frustra vixisse videar"] Latin: "Let me not seem to have lived in vain."
282.27 Schubert's Astronomy] _Populäre Astronomie_ , 3 vols. (1808–10), by German astronomer Friedrich Theodor von Schubert, chief astronomer at the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.
283.28 VII:15.] Adams in this period begins the practice, which he will continue for the remainder of his life, of opening each entry with his time of waking, indicating the hour with a Roman numeral.
283.30 Massillon's Sermon for Easter-day] One of the _Petit Carême_ (literally "little Lent"), a sermon series delivered by the French prelate Jean-Baptiste Massillon before the boy king Louis XV in 1718 and first published in 1745. Massillon was admired by Catholics and Protestants alike for his preaching style.
## CHAPTER V: 1814–1815
288.20 the Chauncey] American schooner with a special passport to carry diplomatic dispatches.
290.27 Martens] _Recueil de traites d'alliance, de paix, de trêve_ , a multivolume edition begun in 1761 by German diplomat and legal scholar Georg Friedrich von Martens.
291.1–2 Ward's History of the Law of Nations] _An Enquiry into the Foundation and History of the Law of Nations in Europe from the Time of the Greeks and Romans, to the Age of Grotius_ , 2 vols. (1795), by English barrister Robert Ward.
293.28–29 the Mayor . . . the Intendant] Philippe de Lens was appointed mayor of Ghent shortly after it was recaptured from the French. Jean-Baptiste d'Hane de Steenhuyse was the intendant, or interim governor, of East Flanders.
299.31 the Treaty of Greenville] Signed on August 3, 1795, at Fort Greenville in the Ohio country, ending hostilities between the United States and the major Indian tribes of the region and establishing a line of demarcation between the two peoples, one bisecting the present-day state of Ohio roughly along a northeast-southwest axis.
301.4 Mr. Astor of New-York, and a Mr. Camberlin] Possibly William Backhouse Astor, who had been studying and traveling in Europe since 1808 and whose father, John Jacob Astor, was deeply interested in the negotiations at Ghent, which he hoped would result in the restoration of Fort Astoria, his trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River. The identity of Mr. Camberlin is not known.
302.21–22 L'Opéra Comique . . . Le Diable en Vacances] _L'Op_ _é_ _ra Comique_ (1798), vaudeville opera in one act with music by Dominique Della Maria and text by Emmanuel Dupaty and Joseph-Alexandre de Segur. _Haine aux femmes_ (1808), one-act comedy by French playwright Jean-Nicolas Bouilly. _Le Diable en Vacances, ou la Suite du diable couleur de rose_ (1805), opera composed by French singer Pierre Gaveaux.
303.22–23 the Governor, who commanded there] George Prevost, Governor-General of British North America.
304.7 Hull's Proclamation] At the outset of the War of 1812, President Madison appointed William Hull, a distinguished veteran of the Revolutionary War, to command the Army of the Northwest, which was mobilized to invade Upper Canada from Detroit in July 1812. After crossing the border and occupying the town of Sandwich (Windsor, Ontario), Hull on July 13 issued a proclamation promising to liberate the people of Canada and pledging that "I come to _find_ enemies not to _make_ them, I come to _protect_ not to _injure_ you." Canadian, British, and Indian forces soon repulsed Hull's ineffectual invasion, and in turn occupied Detroit.
304.10 Admiral Cochrane's Proclamation] On April 2, 1814, Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane, newly installed as commander of the British North America Station, issued a proclamation widely interpreted as an incitement to American slaves to escape. It promised to all "who may be disposed to emigrate from the UNITED STATES . . . a choice of either entering into His Majesty's Sea or Land Forces, or being sent as FREE Settlers, to the British Possessions in North America or the West Indies."
307.38 the Lottery] Adams later lost the painting he had won in the lottery to Clay in a card game.
309.22 General Smyth] On November 17, 1812, U.S. Army Brigadier General Alexander Smyth issued a blustery proclamation to his troops on the Niagara frontier that betrayed a clear intention to annex Upper Canada: "The time is at hand when you will cross the streams of Niagara to conquer Canada and to secure the peace of the American frontier. You will enter a country that is to be one of the United States. You will arrive among a people who are to become your fellow citizens. It is not against them that we come to make war. It is against that Government which holds them as vassals."
310.39–311.1 the Battle of 25 July] The battle of Lundy's Lane, fought in present-day Niagara Falls, Ontario.
313.14–15 the taking of Machias and other towns in Passamaquoddy Bay] From September 1 to September 11, 1814, a British expeditionary force from Halifax under the command of Lieutenant General John C. Sherbrooke, the governor of Nova Scotia, seized control over a hundred miles of territory along the coast of Maine (then part of Massachusetts) from Eastport to Castine. At Hampden, on the Penobscot River, the U.S. frigate _Adams_ was scuttled and torched on September 3 to prevent its capture by the British.
313.17–18 the failure of our attempt to take Michillimackinac] From July 26 to August 4, 1814, American troops waged an unsuccessful attempt to retake Fort Mackinac, located on Mackinac Island in the straits between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan.
313.18 the taking of Plattsburg] On August 31, the British launched one of their biggest operations of the war, invading New York from Montreal with some 10,000 men under the command of George Prevost. By September 10, when the dispatches that brought this news to Europe must have been sent, the British were on the verge of overrunning the American defenses at Plattsburg; the next day, however, after Commodore Thomas Macdonough's defeat of the British naval squadron on Lake Champlain rendered the invaders' lines of supply and retreat vulnerable, Prevost elected to turn back.
314.18 Articles of American News.] The dispatches in _The Times_ of London brought the American commissioners the humiliating news of the British occupation of Washington, August 24–25, 1814, and Alexandria, Virginia, August 29, as well as transcriptions of Vice Admiral Cochrane's August 18 letter to Secretary of State James Monroe, declaring his intention to "destroy and lay waste such towns and districts upon the coast as may be found assailable" in retaliation for American depredations in Canada, and President Madison's plaintive September 1 proclamation "exhorting all the good people [of the United States] to unite their hearts and hands" to defend the homeland. In the wake of the British assault, Madison asked for the resignation of Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr., who took to the newspapers in his own defense.
316.25 the Redoute] In a November 15, 1814, letter to his wife, Adams describes attending "a concert and _redoute_ (meaning thereby a ball) in the evening, which the younger part of our company attended. It is by subscription once a week, on Mondays; alternately a simple concert, and this mixed entertainment of last evening, half concert, half ball."
317.19 the uti-possidetis] That is, the principle that the belligerents would retain any enemy territory in their possession at the termination of hostilities.
320.35 the explanatory Article after Mr. Jay's treaty] Appended to the treaty's third article:
As this Article is intended to render in a great Degree the local advantages of each Party common to both, and thereby to promote a disposition favourable to Friendship and good neighbourhood, It is agreed, that the respective Governments will mutually promote this amicable Intercourse, by causing speedy and impartial Justice to be done, and necessary protection to be extended, to all who may be concerned therein.
322.16–17 the Travellers benighted . . . Of Age to-morrow] _Raymond and Agnes: The Traveler's Benighted, or The Bleeding Nun of Lindenberg_ (1810), a two-act melodrama by English playwright Henry William Grossette. The play was an adaptation of _The Monk_ (1796), a novel by Matthew Gregory Lewis, who was often credited as the author of the play as well. _Of Age Tomorrow_ (1800), a musical entertainment composed by Irish singer Michael Kelly.
322.19 the loan] On March 24, 1814, Congress authorized President Madison to borrow up to $25 million to sustain the operations of the federal government, which consisted principally of the war effort. Securing the actual funds proved to be difficult. Gallatin was charged with seeking a loan in Amsterdam, while Crawford was to explore possibilities in Paris. In the letter conveyed by Mr. Strong, Crawford reported that he had "made sufficient enquiry to ascertain that no loan can be obtained in France upon terms which can be accepted."
325.10–11 Purdy's map] _A Map of Cabotia; Comprehending the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, New-Brunswick, and Nova-Scotia, with Breton Island, Newfoundland, &c. And Including also the Adjacent Parts of the United_ _States_ , published in London October 12, 1814, by English cartographer John Purdy.
325.11–12 a pamphlet by Mr. Reeves.] _Two Tracts shewing that Americans, born before the Independence, are by the Law of England, not Aliens_ (1814), by the high Tory British historian and magistrate John Reeves.
330.19 the Coupure] A canal dug in 1751 along the outskirts of Ghent.
335.37 Antoine] While in Ghent Adams met Michael Antoine Giusta, a veteran of Napoleon's army, who became his valet and later steward of his household.
338.1–2 Les deus Jaloux, Jean de Paris, and l'Habit de Grammont.] _Les deux Jaloux_ (1813), one-act work composed by French singer Sophie Gail. _Jean de Paris_ (1812), two-act work by French composer François-Adrien Boieldieu. _L'habit du chevalier de Grammont_ (1804), one-act work with music by André-Frédéric Eler and text by Jacques-Benjamin Saint-Victor.
338.26–28 Duke de Broglie . . . Mr. Benjamin Constant] Victor, duc de Broglie, was made a peer upon the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne and would marry Madame de Staël's daughter Albertine on February 20, 1816. It is considered likely that Albertine's father was Madame de Staël's longtime companion, the Swiss-French writer and activist Benjamin Constant.
338.34–35 j'interdis tout . . . comme le feu.] French: I forbid any talk of political economy — Ah! I fear political economy like fire.
338.36–37 je vous laisse mon fils, qui est très aimable] French: I leave you with my son, who is very amiable.
338.38 the Tragedy of Esther] Three-act play (1689) by Jean Racine.
339.3 pour aller au Spectacle.] French: to go to the show.
339.7 Matrimonio Secreto.] Two-act opera (1792) with music by Domenico Cimarosa and libretto by Giovanni Bertati.
339.25 Quinault's Armide, with the music of Gluck] Five-act opera first composed 1685–86 with music by Jean-Baptiste Lully and libretto by Philippe Quinault. Rescored by German composer Christoph Willibald Gluck in 1777.
339.36 Bibliothéque des Théatres] Sixty-three-volume collected edition of French plays and libretti, published 1783–88.
340.2–3 the British had been totally defeated before New-Orleans] The battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1815) was the most lopsided of the War of 1812. General Edward Pakenham, in overall command of the British invasion force, was one of some two thousand British casualties on the day, against perhaps seventy total for the American defenders, led by Andrew Jackson.
340.33 Tamerlan, and the Ballet of Telemaque] _Tamerlan_ (1802), opera in three acts by German composer Peter von Winter. _Télémaque dans l'île de Calypso_ (1790), ballet-pantomime by French ballet master Pierre Gardel.
341.5 Le Calife de Bagdad and Maison a vendre] One act _opéra comiques_ composed in 1800, the first by Boieldieu, the second by Nicolas Dalayrac and Alexandre Duval.
342.12 une battaille — allons donc] French: A battle? Come now!
342.22 the king of Rome's birth-day] Echoing forms of the now-defunct Holy Roman Empire, Napoleon's son Napoleon François Charles Joseph Bonaparte (born March 20, 1811) was dubbed the King of Rome to indicate his status as the heir apparent to the French imperial throne.
342.37 Telum imbelle, sine ictu.] A Latin proverb for a poor argument, from Virgil, _The Aeneid_ , Bk. 2, l. 544, where aged Priam throws _a feeble weapon, without thrust_.
343.8–9 Œdipe à Colonna, and the Ballet of Nina.] _Œdipe à Colone_ (1787), opera in three acts by Italian composer Antonio Sacchini. _Nina ou la Folle par amour_ (1813), by French ballet master Louis Milon.
343.34 the Lord Mayor of London] Whig politician Matthew Wood was lord mayor of London from 1815 to 1817.
345.6 A dix sols la pièce] A bargain price: ten sols, or sous, were the equivalent of half a franc.
345.16 Le Cid & La fausse Agnès] _Le Cid_ (1636), five-act tragicomedy by Pierre Corneille. _La fausse Agnès, ou Le poète campagnard_ (1759), three-act comedy by French playwright Philippe Néricault Destouches.
345.17 L'ecole des femmes and l'Esprit de Contrediction] Respectively, a five-act comedy (1662) by Molière and a one-act comedy (1700) by French playwright Charles Rivière Dufresny.
345.34–35 à Bas les Calottins] French: down with those black-capped rascals, referring to the clergy.
346.24–25 Voici Messieurs . . . ne se salit pas] French: Here, gentlemen, are cockades of the good color, the color that does not get dirty.
346.30–31 La Caravane du Caire, with the Ballet of Venus et Adonis.] _La caravane du Caire_ (1783) three-act _opéra-ballet_ composed by André Grétry with a libretto by Étienne Morel de Chédeville. _Les amours de Venus et Adonis ou la vengeance de Mars_ (1808), three-act work by French ballet master Louis Duport.
347.10–11 Mr. Credule — Mr. Crouton.] Farces in the regular repertoire of the Théâtre des Variétés, featuring stock characters representing callow youth and crusty old age.
347.11–12 Le Savetier et le Financier and Jé fais mes farces.] Two one-act vaudeville shows premiering in 1815, the first by Jean-François Merle and Nicolas Brazier, the second by Marc-Antoine Madeleine Désaugiers, Michel-Joseph Gentil de Chavagnac, and Brazier.
348.31–32 Le Tartuffe, and Les fausses Confidences] Respectively, a five-act comedy (1664) by Molière and a three-act comedy (1737) by Marivaux.
## CHAPTER VI: 1815–1817
351.6 Lucy] Lucy Houel, Louisa Adams's new French chambermaid.
354.37 there had been two Mr. Pinckney's here] Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina was U.S. minister to Great Britain, 1792–96. William Pinkney of Maryland served as joint U.S. minister with James Monroe, 1806–7, and sole minister, 1807–11.
355.11 Charles the fifth] Charles V, Habsburg ruler of both the Spanish Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, was born in Ghent in 1519.
355.12–13 the Residence where a great Sovereign holds his Court.] Louis XVIII had relocated to Ghent when Napoleon returned to power.
355.17–18 Lord Carysfort's] The Adamses had known Whig statesman John Joshua Proby, 1st Earl of Carysfort, and his wife Elizabeth (née Grenville) at Berlin, where Carysfort was British minister from 1800 to 1802; so well, in fact, that Lord and Lady Carysfort were George Washington Adams's godparents. Lady Carysfort was the daughter of the late George Grenville, a Whig statesman who had been prime minister during the Stamp Act crisis of 1765, and the sister of Lady Fortescue and of Thomas Grenville.
361.21 Dr. Nicholas's School] The Great Ealing School, George Nicholas headmaster, one of the premier private schools in England.
362.13–14 the Publican . . . the Pharisee] Cf. the parable of Jesus in Luke 18:9–14.
363.11 brilliantes sottises.] French: brilliant nonsense.
363.30–31 one of their officers had been endeavouring to make mischief] During the War of 1812, from his base at the mouth of the Apalachicola River, Edward Nicholls, an Irish-born major in the Royal Marines, had organized resistance to the United States among the southeastern Indian tribes. In the summer of 1815, outraged by what he saw as U.S. manipulation of the terms of the Treaty of Ghent to displace the Creek Indians, he concluded a separate treaty with the Creeks on behalf of the British government, and returned to London to deliver and defend it. The British government renounced his treaty.
365.4 in the Light of Nature] _The Light of Nature Pursued_ (1768–78), seven-volume work of philosophy by English moralist Abraham Tucker.
366.10 William Parry] In an April 25, 1818, letter to Adams, Richard Rush described Parry as "an ingenious and respectable mechanic in the shipbuilding line." He eventually settled in Norfolk, Virginia, and offered his services, and his manuscript, to the U.S. Navy.
367.27 Israel in Egypt.] Oratorio (1739) by George Frideric Handel.
367.28 Wulfingh] Wülfingh, a German basso, had made his London debut a year earlier in a performance of Handel's _Messiah_ at the Theatre Royal on Drury-Lane on March 1, 1815.
367.33–34 the triumph of Rule Britannia and God Save the King, over Marlbrook] Beethoven's Opus 91 ( _Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria_ ), best known simply as the Battle Symphony, quotes "Marlbrough s'en va-t'en guerre," a French folk song satirizing a century-old British defeat, but in a minor key to signify the recent French defeat.
370.18–19 Mr. Worcester's . . . on the Trinitarian controversy.] _A Third Letter to the Rev. William E. Channing on the Subject of Unitarianism_ (Boston, 1815), by Salem, Massachusetts, Congregational minister Samuel Worcester.
372.5 the French Ambassador here] René-Eustache d'Osmond—the marquis d'Osmond from 1817—was the French minister at London from November 1815 to January 1819.
372.7 a project of Sir Sidney Smith's] Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith, who had seen extensive service in the Mediterranean, campaigned at the Congress of Vienna for a concerted effort on the part of the European powers to end slaving in North Africa.
372.27–28 applied to be ordained . . . by the Bishop of Oxford] Milman was ordained by Edward Legge, bishop of Oxford, in 1816 and served in numerous posts over his career, ultimately as dean of St. Paul's Cathedral. Along the way he wrote works of poetry and history and several tragedies, which Adams would have occasion to criticize in his diary.
373.37–38 Gordon, Ramsey, and Marshall's life of Washington.] _The History of the Rise, Progress, and Establishment of the Independence of the United States: Including an Account of the Late War; and of the Thirteen Colonies, from Their Origin, to That Period_ , 4 vols. (London, 1788), by William Gordon, a dissenting English clergyman who settled as a Congregational minister in Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1772. _The History of the American Revolution_ , 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1789), by South Carolina physician David Ramsay. John Marshall's five-volume _Life of George Washington_ (1804–7) includes accounts of Revolutionary War battles in which Marshall had himself seen action as an officer in the Continental Army.
374.20 the Gaelic Ossian] A legendary third-century Irish warrior-poet whose writings, most notably the epic poem _Fingal_ , were "discovered" and published by Scottish poet James Macpherson in 1762. The publication inspired interest in Gaelic language and culture but angered many Irish because Macpherson's "translations" identified Irish heroes as Caledonian in origin.
374.25–26 ornandus and tollendus . . . laudandus] In the wake of Caesar's murder, Cicero, playing with the double meaning of _tollendus_ , was said to have suggested that young Octavian _laudandus_ , _ornandus_ , _tollendu_ _s_ : should be praised, honored, and elevated/removed.
375.36 Foster's Essays] _Essays in a Series of Letters to a Friend_ (1805), by dissenting minister John Foster.
378.22–23 the Ministers of Portugal . . . and Hanover] Respectively, Cipriano Ribeiro Freire of Portugal, Edmund Bourke of Denmark, Hubert Freiherr von Pfeffel of Bavaria, Baron Just of Saxony, Joseph Beroldingen of Württemberg, and Ernst Herbert Münster of Hanover.
390.22–23 the proceedings of Lord Exmouth upon his first visit to Algiers] The bombardment of Algiers on August 27, 1816, by British admiral Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth, was part of a continuing campaign against piracy and slaving by North African states.
391.24–25 the Grand Seignor] Mahmud II, sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 to 1839.
394.4–5 the projects . . . last Autumn.] Hanoverian physician Erich Bollman had traveled to America to advocate for a national bank and the introduction of a national paper currency for the United States. He published his _Plan of an Improved System of the Money Concerns of the Union_ as a pamphlet in Philadelphia in January 1816.
395.4–5 Prince Leopold] The future Leopold I of Belgium had married Princess Charlotte of Wales, the only child of the Prince Regent, on May 2, 1816.
399.14 Dunciad] Satirical poem (1728) by Alexander Pope.
399.14–15 the Lady of the Lake.] Narrative poem (1810) by Walter Scott.
399.33 the Astronomics of Manilius] The _Astronomicon_ , a poem in five books by first-century B.C.E. astrologer Marcus Manilius.
400.29 Bode's Uranographia] Celestial atlas (1801) by German astronomer Johann Elert Bode.
401.15 Sheridan's Comedy of the Rivals] _The Rivals_ , a five-act play (1775) by Irish playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
404.12 Mr. John Winthrop] John Winthrop of Boston, Harvard 1796, scion of the famous New England family, traveled much in Europe.
404.17 Secretary of the Navy] Benjamin W. Crowninshield of Salem, Massachusetts, was secretary of the navy from January 1815 to September 1818.
408.15–16 the pamphlet . . . to President Madison] The letter to Madison is included in Jeremy Bentham, _Papers Relative to Codification and Public Instruction: Including Correspondence with the Russian Emperor, and Divers Constituted Authorities in the American United States_ (London, 1817).
408.17 Chrestomathia] Jeremy Bentham, _Chrestomathia: Being a Collection of Papers, Explanatory of the Design of an Institution, Proposed to be Set on Foot, Under the Name of the Chrestomathic Day School, Or Chrestomathic School, for the Extension of the New System of Instruction to the Higher Branches of Learning, for the Use of the Middling and Higher Ranks in Life_ , published in two parts in 1816.
408.28–29 L'Amour et La Folie.] Three-act _opéra comique_ (1782) by French playwright François-Georges Desfontaines.
410.15 Seulement — de l'autre coté — les voisins] French: Only — on the other side — the neighbors.
413.4–5 the names of the Secretaries of the Treasury, of War, and of the Navy.] William H. Crawford, John C. Calhoun, and Benjamin W. Crowninshield.
413.8 Mrs. Patterson] Marianne Patterson and her husband, Baltimore merchant Robert Patterson, had been the toast of London society since they first traveled from America in 1814. By 1815 she had become a mistress of the Duke of Wellington, whom the couple had first met in Lisbon, and whose brother, after she was widowed, she would wed.
413.33 his Catechism of Reform] Jeremy Bentham, _Plan of Parliamentary Reform, in the Form of a Catechism, with Reasons for Each Article, with an Introduction, shewing the Necessity of Radical, and the Inadequacy of Moderate, Reform_ (1817).
415.26 Old Sarum] This once-flourishing medieval city in Wiltshire was abandoned when its cathedral was relocated to Salisbury in the thirteenth century, becoming the most notorious of the so-called rotten boroughs, depopulated communities that nonetheless retained customary representation in Parliament. It still had two MPs in 1830 when _The Times_ of London reported that the borough "consists at present of a large circular mound of earth, surmounted in the centre by a smaller mound. Some bushes grow upon the top, and a flourishing crop of wheat and barley occupies the situation of the former rampart, but there is no house nor vestige of a house."
416.39 H. Cruger at New-York.] The American born Henry Cruger had moved to England in 1754 to manage the family's mercantile business, and in 1776 was elected to Parliament from Bristol as a Whig. He returned to America in 1790, and later served a single term in the New York state senate, as a Federalist.
417.8–9 Zerah Colburn with his father] Adams recorded meeting this child prodigy in his diary entry for March 2, 1815:
Zerah Colburn came this morning, with his father and another man, whose name was not mentioned to me. The boy was born 1. September 1804, and has it would seem a faculty for the composition and decomposition of numbers, by inspiration. His father says he discovered it in him in August 1810, when he was not quite six years old and had never learnt the first rules of Arithmatic — Even now he cannot do a common sum in the rule of three, but he can by a mental operation of his own, extract the roots of any power and any number; name the factors by which any given number is produced — I asked him what it was that had first turned his attention to the combination of numbers; he said he could not tell.
## CHAPTER VII: 1817–1821
419.22–23 the Treatise De Augmentis Scientarium] A work of natural philosophy (1623) in Latin by Francis Bacon, included in translation in _Of the Advancement and Proficience of Learning; or, The Partitions of Sciences_ (1640).
420.37 Mrs. Bradish's house] Boardinghouse, located on State Street, just opposite the Battery in lower Manhattan.
420.38 Captain Forman] Jacob Forman, captain of the ship _Washington_ , on which the Adamses had sailed from London in a journey of fifty-four days.
423.21 D. P. Cooke] Twenty-three-year-old Daniel Pope Cook, soon to be elected a congressman from Illinois, had served as a diplomatic courier to London and had accompanied the Adamses on their return to America.
424.8 Mr. Brent] State Department chief clerk Daniel Brent, brother of Robert Brent, the D.C. magistrate who administered the oath of office to Adams.
425.1 Mr. Bailey] Unsuccessful in his bid to become U.S. marshal for Maryland, John Bailey would become one of Adams's clerks at the State Department.
425.7 De Pradt's pamphlet] _Recit Historique sur la Restauration de la Royauté en France_ (1816), by French cleric and diplomat Dominique Georges Dufour de Pradt.
425.12–13 a Mr. Mills] In his diary entry for September 12, 1817, Adams had written: "a gentleman without naming himself entered much into conversation with me, upon the projected plan for sending a Colony of Free People of Colour to Africa; gave me a pamphlet containing the proceedings at Washington, upon the subject, and said he had been himself applied to to go upon a mission connected with the plan." Samuel J. Mills of Connecticut traveled to West Africa to purchase land for the Society in 1818.
426.34 non-passibus aequis] Literally, with unequal steps, that is, from behind, from Virgil, _Aeneid_ , II.724.
427.7 Furstenwerder, the Indians] From Adams's diary entry for the previous day: "At the Office I had Mr. Bagot, Mr. Ten Cate with Baron Fürstenwerder, and the two Indians Kusick and Longboard. . . . Fürstenwerder is a young man sent by his uncle the Baron da Gagern, Minister from the king of the Netherlands at the Germanic diet at Frankfort, to collect information of all kinds concerning the German emigrants to this Country — The Indians brought me the papers relating to their Lands in North-Carolina."
428.18 Amelia Island.] Located on the border with Georgia, this island in Spanish Florida was the site of recurring conflict and unrest. In June 1817 a group of filibusters led by Scottish mercenary Gregor MacGregor, and later by French privateer Louis-Michel Aury, seized the island's fort and proclaimed a revolutionary republic, one annexed to the Republic of Mexico. The island quickly became a base for predation on neutral shipping, including that of the U.S., and President Monroe resolved to intervene. U.S. naval and military forces assumed control over the island on December 23, 1817, the day before Adams wrote this entry.
428.24–25 My wife went . . . to the Catholic Church] Louisa Catherine Johnson spent much of her childhood at a Roman Catholic boarding school in Nantes, France, where her father was the American consul. Though herself a Protestant, married to a man who preferred more austere forms, she retained an affinity for High Church ceremony throughout her life.
428.31 Loto.] A kind of bingo.
429.10 Mr. Forsyth] Congressman John Forsyth of Georgia was chairman of the House Committee of Foreign Relations until being elevated to the Senate in 1818.
432.23 M'Gregor's proclamation] Issued June 30, 1817, from Amelia Island, and soon published in U.S. newspapers. In his proclamation MacGregor styled himself "brigadier-general of the armies of the United Provinces of New-Grenada and Venezuela, and general-in-chief of the armies for the two Floridas, commissioned by the supreme directors of Mexico and South-America."
436.17–18 my late Letter to Onis] _Letter: to Luis de Onis, Envoy extraordinary from Spain_ , concerning Amelia Island and the borders of Louisiana, published first in _Niles Register_ and then in pamphlet form.
436.33 M. M. Noah.] A politician, playwright, journalist, and leader of New York's Jewish community, Mordecai Manuel Noah had been U.S. consul at Tunis before being recalled by Secretary of State Monroe in 1815 on grounds that his religion was "an obstacle to the exercise of [his] function." His _Travels in England, France, Spain, and the Barbary States, in the Years 1813–14 and 15_ (New York, 1819) was in part a defense of his conduct as consul.
438.13 the Pennsylvania Militia-fines] Pennsylvania was disputing the federal claim to delinquency fees charged to its citizens for failure to report for militia duty during the War of 1812. The commonwealth's large Quaker population made these fees considerable. Pennsylvania argued that it had nonetheless exceeded its required manpower contributions, and that the revenue from any fines was due to it.
442.23–24 Col'l Nicholls during the late war] See note 363.30–31.
442.37 Mr. Pinkney at Baltimore] William Pinkney had recently returned from a yearlong stint succeeding Adams as the U.S. minister at St. Petersburg.
443.2 the taking of Pensacola] An American force of regular and volunteer troops led by Andrew Jackson captured the Spanish forts at St. Marks (April 6, 1818) and Pensacola (May 29).
443.18 Mr. Thos. Peter's] Thomas Peter was the husband of Martha Parke Custis, granddaughter of Martha Washington. They resided in a large mansion, known as Tudor Place, which still stands in the Georgetown Heights section of Washington, D.C.
444.21 our new Navigation Act] Passed by Congress on April 18, 1818, closing U.S. ports to "vessels owned by British subjects, arriving from a colony which, by the ordinary laws, is closed against vessels owned by citizens of the United States."
444.36–37 Mr. John Graham] John Graham of Virginia had been chief clerk at the State Department from 1807–1817, serving Secretaries James Madison, Robert Smith, and James Monroe. He was one of three members (with Caesar Augustus Rodney of Delaware and Theodorick Bland of Maryland, and Secretary Henry Marie Brackenridge of Pennsylvania) of the South American Commission, which had been dispatched to the Spanish colonies in the summer of 1817 to assess the progress of the revolutions there and their chances of success.
446.10–11 Col'l Love] Robert Love of North Carolina, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, was one of his state's presidential electors in 1816, and would cast his vote for Monroe again in 1820.
447.25 Onis at Bristol] Like Adams, most officials, both foreign and domestic, fled sweltering Washington during the summer. Don Luis de Onís retreated to Bristol, Pennsylvania, twenty-three miles northeast of Philadelphia on the Delaware River.
447.32–34 strong charges . . . against the Governor of Pensacola, and the Commandant of St. Mark's] In the effort to justify Andrew Jackson's unauthorized capture of St. Marks and Pensacola, American officials accused José de Soto, governor of Spanish West Florida, and Francisco Caso y Luengo, commandant of Fort San Marco, of supplying arms and other support to Seminole and Creek Indians at war with the United States.
449.3 Duval of Kentucky] Former congressman William Pope Duval of Kentucky would later serve as the first civilian governor of Florida Territory (1822–34).
450.5 Martens] See note 290.27.
451.21 a Mr. Rattenbury] Joseph Freeman Rattenbury, author, upon his return to England in 1819, of a pamphlet entitled _Remarks on the Cession of the Floridas to the United States of America, and on the Necessity of Acquiring the Island of Cuba by Great Britain_.
455.6 Mr. Vaughan] Philadelphia merchant and philanthropist John Vaughan was the librarian and treasurer of the American Philosophical Society. Born in London, he was another son of Samuel and Sarah Hallowell Vaughan (see note 6.1).
455.19 the third narrative of La Salle's discoveries] Three individuals who accompanied French explorer René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, on his expeditions left written accounts. That by Recollect missionary Louis Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ , was published in Paris in 1683.
456.20–22 She had known sorrow . . . was acquainted with grief] Cf. Isaiah 53:3.
457.5 ] Indicating both the Old and New Style dates.
458.24 Ambrister, Woodbine] During the War of 1812 Robert C. Ambrister had served in Spanish Florida as a lieutenant with a detachment of Colonial Marines under the command of Major Edward Nicholls. He returned to Florida in 1817 with another former marine, Captain George Woodbine.
460.25 Christiani] Described in the New York _Ladies' Literary Cabinet_ for May 29, 1819, as "Mr. Christiani, who announces himself as professor of music, and composer to all the theatres of the court of Spain."
464.23 Major Jackson] During the Revolutionary War William Jackson had been an aide-de-camp to Major General Benjamin Lincoln. He was subsequently secretary of the Constitutional Convention and personal secretary to President Washington before being appointed surveyor of customs for Philadelphia. Turned out with the Federalists' loss of power in 1800, he became the editor of a Philadelphia opposition newspaper called the _Political and Commercial Register._ He was competing with three other individuals for the post of U.S. marshal for eastern Pennsylvania, vacated with the death of the incumbent, John Smith: Reuben Etting, another Continental Army veteran, who had been U.S. marshal for Maryland under Jefferson; Jonathan Kearsley, formerly Collector of the Internal Revenue for Pennsylvania, who as Adams indicated had the support of Pennsylvania senators Abner Lacock and Jonathan Roberts but was opposed by the state's governor, William Findlay; and Daniel Moore, Smith's own choice. None of the four would receive the appointment in the end.
467.11 Col'l Butler] West Point graduate Robert Butler had been Jackson's adjutant at New Orleans.
468.2 Mr. John Pope] A former U.S. senator from Kentucky and currently its secretary of state, Pope was the widower of Adams's sister-in-law Eliza Johnson and the uncle of Congressman Daniel Pope Cook.
468.22 Melish's Map.] In 1816 Scottish-born cartographer John Melish made the first transcontinental map of the United States.
468.38–39 the general order, given by Jackson in 1817] Issued April 22, 1817, and beginning as follows:
The commanding general considers it due to the principles of subordination, which ought, and must exist in an army, to prohibit the obedience of any order emanating from the Department of War, to officers of this division, who have reported and been assigned to duty, unless coming through him, as the proper organ of communication.
469.21–22 a General George Clarke, as a speculator in the Yazoo Lands] Adams has misheard or misremembered. It was John Clark, a major general in Georgia militia, who was implicated in the Yazoo land fraud (see note 152.18). The Yazoo controversy fueled vicious factional rivalry in the state, which triggered an 1802 duel in which Crawford killed Peter Van Allen, an ally of Clark's. Clark wounded Crawford in another duel in 1806, and when he challenged Crawford a second time, Crawford declined to face him. Angered by this refusal, Clark accosted Crawford's ally Charles Tait, then a circuit court judge, severely whipping him with a riding crop on the streets of Milledgeville, Georgia.
470.2 Captain Call] U.S. Army officer Richard K. Call, an aide to Jackson, was part of a group that speculated in Florida land in and around Pensacola in the winter of 1817–18, months before Jackson occupied the area. The group included John Donelson, Jackson's nephew, and three men named Jackson unrelated to the general.
474.21 a Certificate for Captain Barron] Adams had provided testimony for a court of inquiry in New York investigating charges that U.S. naval officer James Barron, in Europe in 1813 upon the expiration of a five-year suspension from duty resulting from the _Chesapeake_ - _Leopard_ affair, had been derelict in returning to active service in the United States.
479.35–36 Mr. Cheves] Former congressman Langdon Cheves of South Carolina, who had been Speaker of the House while Henry Clay was in Ghent.
480.32 T. C. Clarke.] Twenty-six-year-old Lieutenant Charles Thomas Clark of the U.S. Navy, who had been married for a little more than a year and a half to Adams's niece Susanna Boylston Adams.
480.32–33 Mr. Alexander Scott] Scott had been dispatched as a special agent to Venezuela by President Madison in 1812 to administer foreign aid in the wake of a devastating earthquake. For much of the time since he had been embroiled in the prosecution of slander charges against John Law of Maryland, who had accused him of illegally selling slaves and of being "addicted to intemperate habits." The case had been resolved in his favor the month before he visited Adams.
483.3 at Aix La Chapelle] The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, a meeting of the allied powers (Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain), convened on October 1, 1818, to arrange for the removal of their forces from France.
483.12–13 Benjamin Owen Tyler . . . consanguineous with me.] In 1818 Tyler had sent a copy of his Declaration of Independence to John Adams, who responded that "Your name Sir . . . has affected me more than your declaration of Independence. . . . My Fathers Oldest Sister was married to Mr Benjamin Owen. There Second Daughter Ruth was married to Mr Tyler of Uxbridge. These circumstances Amount to a probable if not a violent presumption that you are a Son or Grandson of that Match. It would give me pleasure to know that any relation of mine possessed so much ingenuity and such a perfect Mastership of the Pen."
485.6–7 Mr. George Hay] Virginia jurist and politician George Hay was married to the president's daughter, Eliza Kortright Monroe.
486.40 John Cleves Symmes's project] In 1818 U.S. Army officer John Cleves Symmes Jr. had publicized an inventive theory about the nature of Earth's core, announcing in his _Circular No. 1_ that "the earth is hollow, and habitable within; containing a number of solid concentrick spheres, one within the other, and that it is open at the poles 12 or 16 degrees; I pledge my life in support of this truth, and am ready to explore the hollow, if the world will support and aid me in the undertaking."
490.32 Wells and Lilly] Boston publishers William Wells and Robert Lilly specialized in deluxe editions of the classics. They were also the publishers of the first American edition of Walter Scott.
490.39–491.2 " _Fidem_ , _libertatem_ . . . (Hist: Lib. I. Cap. 15.)] From the fifteenth chapter of the first book of the _History_ of Tacitus, here in an 1839 translation: "good faith, independent spirit, constancy in friendship; the prime virtues of the human character which you must endeavour to retain unshaken."
491.7–8 "Nulla enim minantis auctoritas apud liberos est,"] From Cicero's _Epistles_ , XI, 3: "To the free, threats are impotent."
492.19–20 "Je crains que nous n'ayons perdu un peu de terrain la-bas"] French: "I fear we have lost some ground over there."
492.27–28 the Charter] The Charter of 1814, granted by Louis XVIII upon his restoration, establishing a constitutional monarchy and recognizing certain civil liberties, including religious toleration.
492.30 "Tout pour le Peuple; et rien par le Peuple,"] French: "Everything for the People; and nothing by the People."
494.4 A man by the name of Jenkins] John Jenkins, author of _The Art of Writing, Reduced to a Plain and Easy System_ (Boston, 1791; second edition Cambridge, 1813).
496.25–26 The Banks are breaking all over the Country] These bank runs, like the failure of the Baltimore mercantile firms Adams noted earlier, were manifestations of America's first major financial crisis, now known as the Panic of 1819 (see Chronology).
498.14 Mr. Thomas Law] Englishman Thomas Law was the ex-husband of Martha Washington's granddaughter Elizabeth Parke Custis. A writer and developer, he was a mainstay of Washington society, active in the capital's literary and cultural societies.
498.31–32 Mr. and Mrs. Middleton] South Carolina congressman Henry Middleton failed to secure renomination in 1818 and his term ended on March 3, 1819. The following summer, with his wife Mary Hering Middleton, he traveled to Russia to assume Adams's old post at St. Petersburg.
499.2–3 Mr. Jefferson's Bust] With letters of introduction from Adams, Cardelli traveled to Jefferson's Monticello and Madison's Montpelier in June 1819 to take sittings of the former presidents. He left the unfinished mold of Jefferson at Monticello to set with instructions that it should be promptly sent on to him at Washington. Persistent drought prevented its dispatch by river and slowed its arrival.
500.14–15 with the advice of my father and of Mr. Quincy.] Adams's summer visit to Quincy was marred by the increasing instability of his brother Thomas, an alcoholic whose condition had worsened in the wake of their mother's death. In this as in many other matters, Adams and his father relied on the counsel of second cousin Josiah Quincy, a leading Massachusetts politician and future president of Harvard.
507.13–14 the sword of Brennus] According to Livy, at the culmination of the sack of Rome in 390 B.C.E., as the defeated Romans amassed gold to pay off the attacking Gauls, the Gallic chieftain Brennus grew enraged when the Romans questioned the accuracy of the scales used to measure the ransom. "Vae victis! (Woe to the vanquished!)" he shouted as he threw his sword on the scale.
510.11 the Yellow-Stone expedition] A failed expedition authorized by Secretary of War Calhoun to establish a fort or outpost at the mouth of the Yellowstone River, in present-day North Dakota, to protect northwestern trade.
511.36–37 dans les malheurs . . . nous déplait pas] One of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld (number 99 in the 1665 edition): in the adversity of our best friends we often find something that is not exactly displeasing.
514.26 the visiting question] The president had heard complaints about the Adamses' deviation from the tradition of paying "a visit of form" to each member and his wife at the beginning of each session of Congress. See the entry for January 22, 1818.
516.2 Dominical Letter B.] Dominical letters, from the Latin _dominica_ , for Sunday, are assigned from A to G starting with January 1, and used as an aid in calculating the dates for Easter and other festivals.
517.1 the Mississippi Stock] Pursuant to a congressional act on March 31, 1814, the Yazoo land claims were settled with the issuance of some $4.2 million in non-interest-bearing stock payable out of the proceeds of land sales in the Mississippi Territory, spurring a surge in speculation there. Only in May 1820 did the federal government begin to redeem the stock in cash.
517.29 The Barbours . . . in both houses] That is, James Barbour, in the Senate, and his brother Philip Pendleton Barbour, in the House.
524.23 Hodgson] Adam Hodgson, author of _Letters from North America: Written During a Tour in the United States and Canada_ (London, 1824).
525.13 the Instructions to the late Commodore Perry] U.S. naval hero Oliver Hazard Perry died on August 23, 1819, while on a diplomatic mission to South America.
527.19 Crawford's Indian Marriages] Alluding to a controversial report made by Crawford in 1816 during his tenure as secretary of war, in which he advocated intermarriage between Indians and white citizens as a means of assimilation, while also giving vent to an impolitic nativism: "It will redound more to the national honor, to incorporate, by humane and benevolent policy, the natives of our forests in the great American family of freemen, than to receive, with open arms, the fugitives of the old world, whether this flight has been the effect of their crimes or their virtues." Crawford's report is thought to have contributed to his narrow defeat in the 1816 presidential caucus.
530.31 Mr. Holley's] Unitarian minister Horace Holley, president of Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky.
536.8 Mr. Rice] Baptist minister Luther Rice, principal founder in 1821 of Columbian College (now George Washington University).
536.10 Mr. and Mrs. M'Tavish] John McTavish was British consul at Baltimore. His wife Emily was a daughter of Baltimore businessman Richard Caton and granddaughter of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Her sister Marianne (see note 413.8) was married to Robert Patterson, son of William Patterson (see note 103.31). Another sister, Louisa Catherine, was the wife of Felton Bathurst Harvey, an English baronet.
537.22–23 the building lately occupied by the two houses of Congress.] In the wake of the burning of the U.S. Capitol building in 1815, Congress moved into temporary quarters in a brick structure (the Old Brick Capitol) located on the present site of the U.S. Supreme Court building.
541.2 one of the numbers of the federalist] Cf. sections 4 and 5 of _Federalist_ No. 43, written by James Madison.
541.24 res nova] Latin: a new thing.
544.34–35 Benjamin . . . has ravined as a wolf] Cf. Genesis 49:27.
545.24 "Close ambition, varnished oer with zeal"] _Paradise Lost_ , II.485.
545.27–28 "Doth Job fear God for naught"] Job 1:9.
548.12 the Governor of Georgia] John Clark (see note 469.21–22).
549.28–29 Commodore M'Donough] U.S. naval officer Thomas Macdonough, known as the "Hero of Lake Champlain" for his actions in the War of 1812 (see note 313.18).
550.28 Botta's History] _Storia della guerra dell'Indipendenza degli Stati Uniti_ _d'America_ (1809) by Italian historian Carlo Botta. Otis's two-volume translation, _History of the War of the Independence of the United States of America_ , was published in Philadelphia in 1820.
553.16–17 Regnard's Hector concludes that Seneca] In _Le Joueur_ (1696), a five-act comedy by French playwright Jean-François Regnard.
553.39 without day] From the Latin _sine die_ , a term used to describe a final ending or adjournment of a session of a legislative or judicial body.
560.3 a flaming sword] Cf. Genesis 3:24.
560.34–35 reminded me of O'Brien's shrewd remark] In February 1820 Adams visited with Captain Richard Henry O'Brien, an American privateer who had been held captive for a decade in North Africa and later served as U.S. consul in Algiers.
566.12 their Relations at Frederick.] The family of Louisa Catherine Adams's uncle and aunt Thomas and Ann Johnson, of Frederick, Maryland.
566.16 Byers of New-York] New York ship-owner and sealer James Byers was ultimately unsuccessful in persuading the U.S. government to claim the archipelago now known as the South Shetland Islands.
571.5 the Hall over the bath room] Washington's fledgling Unitarian church met in a room over public baths located on C Street, between Fourth and Sixth Streets.
571.19 Fletcher's] Washington boardinghouse operated by Noah Fletcher, assistant clerk in the House of Representatives.
577.19 the Saints in Parliament] Epithet for the bloc of MPs, many of them evangelical Christians, committed to the abolition of slavery and the suppression of the international slave trade.
579.34 Pope's Messiah] Short poem (1712) by Alexander Pope, incorporating elements from the prophecies of Isaiah and Virgil's Fourth Eclogue, both of which were thought to foretell the birth of Christ.
580.27 Pope says tis Education] In _Moral Essays_ (1731–35), I.149.
582.22–23 "Donec eris felix, multos numerabis amicos."] From Ovid's _Tristia_ , rendered in an 1821 translation as "Long as you prosper, num'rous friends you'll own."
583.32 the Article of the Convention of 20 October 1818.] Canning refers to Article III of the Convention of 1818:
It is agreed, that any Country that may be claimed by either Party on the North West Coast of America, Westward of the Stony Mountains, shall, together with it's Harbours, Bays, and Creeks, and the Navigation of all Rivers within the same, be free and open, for the term of ten Years from the date of the Signature of the present Convention, to the Vessels, Citizens, and Subjects of the Two Powers: it being well understood, that this Agreement is not to be construed to the Prejudice of any Claim, which either of the Two High Contracting Parties may have to any part of the said Country, nor shall it be taken to affect the Claims of any other Power or State to any part of the said Country; the only Object of The High Contracting Parties, in that respect, being to prevent disputes and differences amongst Themselves.
595.1 the pamphlet of Governor Clarke] John Clark, _Considerations on the Purity of the Principles of William H. Crawford, Esq._ (Augusta, Georgia, 1819).
595.11–12 they had recently conferred distinguished honours upon my father.] John Adams had been elected by the town of Quincy to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention in 1820 and been treated reverentially by the delegates.
595.16–17 the trial of the Queen of England] Following his succession to the throne in 1820, George IV sought to annul his marriage to Caroline of Brunswick, now Queen Consort, by means of a quasi-judicial procedure in the House of Lords known as a bill of pains and penalties. The unseemly business stirred an opposition movement that threatened to topple the Tory administration of Lord Liverpool.
599.14–15 "to move in Charity . . . on the Poles of Truth."] From Francis Bacon's essay _Of Truth_ (1625).
#### Index
Åbo, Sweden (now Turku, Finland), 242
Abolitionism, 253, 389–90, 478, 485, 534–35, 577–79
Adair, John (U.S. senator from Kentucky), 132
Adams, Abigail (niece), 421
Adams, Abigail (sister). _See_ Smith, Abigail Adams
Adams, Abigail Smith (mother), 1, 37, 99, 118, 128, 133, 149, 166, 170, 208, 259, 273, 277, 499–500; on children, 565; death of, 456–58; health of, 103; JQA's letters to, 196, 211, 249, 331, 342–43, 366, 423; letters from, 146, 153, 171, 206, 220, 240, 276, 352, 367, 376, 404; marriage to John Adams, 314; patriotism of, 428; portrait by Gilbert Stuart, 109; in Quincy, 88–89, 421
Adams, Ann ("Nancy") Harrod (sister-in-law), 421, 455
Adams, Charles (brother): travels to Europe, 1, 287; at Harvard, 15, 19, 22; daughter of, 88; death of, 86, 143, 457
Adams, Charles Francis (son), 146, 150, 166, 169–70, 209, 218, 290, 347, 367, 420–21, 563, 579, 592; birth of, 142–43, 149; baptism of, 143, 213; in Quincy, 156–57; childhood in Russia, 175, 189, 208, 227–28, 233, 238–39, 246, 252, 255, 259–60, 266–67, 273, 280; childhood in England, 351, 357, 360–62, 370–72, 406–7, 409; childhood in Washington, 500, 516, 528, 530–31, 537, 560, 564; education of, 259, 280, 361–62, 370, 372, 407, 409, 564, 580
Adams, Elizabeth (niece), 421
Adams, George, Jr.: _Natural and Experimental Philosophy_ , 91
Adams, George Washington (son), 88, 90, 118, 128, 136, 138, 140, 143, 146, 149, 166, 171, 209, 228, 260, 273, 290, 376, 420–21, 563, 592; birth of, 87; baptism of, 213; in Quincy, 89, 137; childhood in England, 351–52, 357, 360–67, 370–72, 407; childhood in Washington, 101, 109–10, 124–25, 153; education of, 125, 189, 280, 361, 363, 365–66, 370; JQA's letters to, 212; letters from, 530; literary interests of, 579–80; in Washington, 516, 525, 528, 582
Adams, Isaac Hull (nephew), 421
Adams, John (father), 14, 38, 72, 80, 95, 99, 102, 118, 128, 133, 146, 149, 166, 171, 192, 259, 273, 276–77, 337–38, 340, 425, 563, 595; during the Revolution, 33, 373; signer of Declaration of Independence, 550; in Braintree, 37; American peace negotiator, 1–3, 45; in Paris, 1–3, 10–12; minister to the Netherlands, 63, 170, 287; minister to Britain, 11, 69, 354; and election of 1796, 77; president, 426, 595; and election of 1800, 86; in Quincy, 87–89, 99, 117, 124, 157, 421, 499–500; death of wife Abigail, 456–57, 499; _A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America_ , 243; JQA's letters to, 31, 113, 209, 346; letter to JQA on keeping a diary, xi; letters from, 153, 206, 240, 352, 367; library of, 16, 32–33; marriage to Abigail Adams, 314; motto of, 491; political enmity toward, 70, 159, 167; portrait by Gilbert Stuart, 109; principles concerning public office, 43
Adams, John, II (son), 109–10, 118, 124, 128, 136–38, 143, 146, 149, 166, 171, 189, 208–9, 228, 260, 273, 290, 367, 420–21, 563, 592; birth of, 98, 103; baptism of, 213; childhood in England, 351–52, 357, 360–62, 364, 366, 370–72, 405–7; education of, 280, 362, 370, 372, 407, 409; in Quincy, 157; JQA's letters to, 457; letters from, 417, 457; in Washington, 516, 525, 528, 530, 582, 589
Adams, John Quincy (nephew), 421
Adams, John Smith (nephew), 141–43
Adams, Louisa Catherine (daughter), 211–13, 218, 238, 240, 242, 244; death of, 245–47
Adams, Louisa Catherine Johnson (wife), 66, 88–89, 101–2, 109–10, 113, 119, 124, 128, 138, 149, 156–58, 166, 169–70, 196–97, 204, 228, 238, 240, 259, 273, 276–77, 218, 297, 313–14, 322, 332, 334, 340–41, 347, 349, 357, 361–62, 364–66, 378, 394, 397, 401, 421–22, 458, 468, 487, 491, 494, 498, 559, 566, 576; courtship with JQA, 73–74; marriage to JQA, 78, 82–83, 192, 209; meets JQA's parents, 90; birth of son George, 87; birth of son John, 98; stillbirth of third child, 135–36; birth of son Charles Francis, 142–43; birth of daughter Louisa, 211–12; death of daughter Louisa, 245–47; health of, 79, 81–82, 84–86, 127, 130, 142, 148, 150, 175, 206–7, 209, 260–61, 283, 351–52, 370–71, 431, 466–67, 499, 590; in St. Petersburg society, 181–84, 191, 227, 255; in London society, 355, 367–70, 375–76, 380–81, 405, 408, 417; in Washington society, 105, 119, 127, 129, 146–47, 153, 427–28, 435, 442–44, 449, 461, 475, 492, 523–25, 527–28, 531, 535–37, 546, 549, 560, 563, 582, 586
Adams, Peter Boylston (uncle), 367, 421
Adams, Samuel, 49, 101, 373
Adams, Susanna (sister), 457
Adams, Susanna Boylston (niece), 88
Adams, Thomas Boylston (brother), 1, 457; travels to Europe, 49–50, 60, 78, 82–83, 170; at JQA's wedding, 78; in Boston, 124, 142, 169; children of, 421; alcoholism, 500; JQA's letters to, 106; letters from, 37, 86, 206, 240
Adams, Thomas Boylston, Jr. (nephew), 421
Adams, William (British peace negotiator at Ghent), 292–332, 353, 356–57, 359–60, 382
Adams-Onís Treaty, 473–77, 493, 498, 501, 503, 508, 510, 514, 517–19, 523, 527, 548, 553–57, 560–61, 572–73, 590, 592–93, 598
Africa, 393, 535, 588; Barbary states, 10, 127–30, 371–72, 390–92, 401, 437, 440, 566; colony for free persons of color, 425, 477–79, 486–87, 512–13, 524; and slave trade, 403, 577, 579
Agha, Omar (dey of Algiers), 390–92, 401
Agriculture, 146, 305–6, 482, 491, 543, 561, 573
Aguirre, Juan Pedro (Argentine revolutionary), 427, 429
Alabama, 497–98
Albert, Madame (Louise-Augustine Hymn) (French soprano), 346
Alexander, Lawson (U.S. consul at Rotterdam), 172
Alexander I (of Russia), 163–64, 173, 182–87, 190–92, 197–202, 209, 215, 217, 221, 232–33, 236, 238–42, 250, 254, 258–60, 263, 265, 274–75, 277–78, 285, 287–88, 368–69, 380, 492, 573; JQA's meetings with, 175–81, 188, 204–8, 228–29; offer to mediate War of 1812, 247–49, 255–57, 261–62, 268–73, 279–80
Alexandria (District of Columbia, now Va.), 89, 314, 482
_Alfred_ (ship), 49–50, 170
Algiers, 371–72, 390–92, 401, 440
Alker, Mrs. (Boston neighbor), 142
Allen, Jeremiah (Suffolk County sheriff), 135, 158
Allison, Burgess (Baptist minister), 547, 595
Alston, Willis (U.S. representative from North Carolina), 139
Ambrister, Robert C. (British filibuster), 442–43, 451–52, 458–59
Ambrogetti, Giuseppe (Italian basso), 409
Amelia Island, 428–35, 437–38, 504–5
Amelia von Baden (sister of Elizabeth Alexeievna), 183
American Academy of Arts and Letters, 564
American Colonization Society, 425, 477–79, 485–88, 512–13
American Philosophical Society, 455–56
Ames, Fisher (Massachusetts politician), 93
Amory, Jonathan (Harvard classmate), 25, 42
Amory, William (Boston lawyer), 35
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 51, 63, 284; JQA in, 58–62
Anadia, vicomte de (Portuguese minister at Berlin), 174
Anderson, Joseph (U.S. Treasury Department comptroller), 426, 497
Anderson, Joseph I. (U.S. senator from Tennessee), 119, 121, 127, 147, 149, 153–54
Anderson, Richard C. (U.S. representative from Kentucky), 529
_Angerona_ (ship), 228
Anglicans (Church of England), 213, 266, 362, 371, 375–76
Angoulême, duc d' (Louis-Antoine d'Artois), 337
Angoulême, duchesse de (Marie-Thérèse d'Artois), 337
Angrisani, Carlo (Italian basso), 409
Angus, Samuel (captain of _John Adams_ ), 298
Anna Pavlova (sister of Alexander I), 183–84, 192, 277–78
Annapolis, Md., 89, 480, 491
Anne de Bretagne, 216
Antifederalists, 32, 36, 67, 71
Antonius, Marcus, 491
Antrobus, Crawford (British chargé d'affaires at Washington), 480
Antwerp, Belgium, 288
Appleton, John (Boston merchant), 16
Appleton, Nathaniel (Boston merchant), 16
Appleton (British army officer), 393
Araujo de Azevedo, Antonio de (Portuguese minister at The Hague), 64, 174
Arbuthnot, Alexander (Scottish merchant), 441–43, 451–52, 458–59
Arbuthnot, Charles (Tory MP), 378
Argentina, 426–29, 438–40, 453, 501, 509
Aristocracy, 3, 28, 32, 41, 47, 65–66, 69, 116, 375, 414–16, 550
Aristotle, 125
Arkansas Territory, 533–34, 537, 554
Arkhangelsk, Russia, 193, 201, 209, 240
Armfeldt, Gustaf M. (Russian courtier), 250, 275
Armstrong, John, Jr.: U.S. senator from New York, 103, 113; U.S. minister at Paris, 132, 148, 190, 192–93; U.S. secretary of war, 314
Army, British, 393, 396–97; in Napoleonic wars, 351, 357, 395; in War of 1812, 252, 259, 267, 270, 313, 339–40, 342–44, 397
Army, Continental, 430, 460, 537, 547
Army, French, 48, 59–60, 64, 68, 172, 182–83, 187, 223–24, 232, 237–38, 241–42, 249–52, 254–55, 258, 262–63, 271, 274–75, 288, 340–42, 344–46, 348, 357, 363
Army, Prussian, 357
Army, Russian, 200, 228–29, 232, 237–38, 241–42, 249–52, 254–55, 258, 260, 265, 271, 274–75, 287–88, 336, 412
Army, Spanish, 435, 550
Army, U.S., 326, 354–55, 413, 425, 440; congressional appropriations for, 137, 153, 231; and fortifications, 300–301, 307, 312, 510, 572–73; incursions into Florida, 427–35, 437–489, 443–53, 462–63, 470, 504; and pensions, 513, 598; Seminole War, 429, 440–43, 458–62, 468–69, 493, 532, 549, 557, 598; in War of 1812, 252, 259, 267, 270, 313, 339–40, 342–44, 397
Arnoux, Abbé (French cleric), 2
Artaud, Mr. (in St. Petersburg), 84
Articles of Confederation, 460, 540–41
Artois, comte d' (later Charles X), 337, 340
Aspinwall, Thomas (U.S. consul at London), 370, 380, 399
Astor, John Jacob, 565
Astor, William B., 301
Astronomy, 279, 282, 399–400, 419, 482, 498
Athanasian Creed, 372, 375–76
Athenaeum (Boston), 158
Athens, Greece, 219
Augereau, Pierre (French field marshal), 271
August Ferdinand, Prince (of Prussia), 80–82
Augustus, Prince (of Prussia), 81
Augustus (Roman emperor), 374
_Aurora_ (newspaper), 459, 463
Austin, Benjamin, Jr. (Boston politician), 92, 142, 161
Australia, 587–88
Austria, 44, 48, 187, 234, 394; and suppression of slave trade, 569, 577; in Napoleonic wars, 171, 175, 177, 250–51, 326, 568
Auteuil, France, 2, 11
Auxerre, France, 342
Babington, Thomas (British abolitionist), 417
Bache, Benjamin Franklin (schoolmate), 2
Bacon, Ezekiel (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 160–61
Bacon, Francis: _Advancement of Learning_ , 419; "Of Truth," 599
Bacon, Samuel (Episcopal priest), 524
Bagot, Charles (British minister at Washington), 356, 361, 378–79, 431, 442–44, 449–52, 472, 480–81, 567
Bagot, Mary Charlotte Anne (wife of Charles Bagot), 481
Bagot, William (British peer), 481
Bailey, John (U.S. State Department clerk), 426, 446, 464
Bailly, Jean-Sylvain (president of French National Assembly), 45
Bainbridge, William (U.S. commodore), 212
Baker, Anthony St. John (British commission secretary at Ghent), 290–92, 296, 299, 302, 332, 343
Balashov, Alexander (Russian minister of police), 270–71
Baldwin, Abraham (U.S. senator from Georgia), 103, 115, 131, 149
Baldwin, Henry (U.S. representative from Pennsylvania), 574–76
Baldwin, Thomas (Baptist minister), 98
Ballet, 343, 346, 409
Balloons, hot-air, 8–9
Baltimore, Md., 109, 163, 230, 421, 430, 442, 466, 482, 488, 491, 495, 552
_Baltimore Patriot_ (newspaper), 516, 524
Banks, 96–98, 394, 479–80, 482, 488, 491, 496, 516, 520–21, 546, 561. _See also_ Second Bank of the United States; State banks
Baptists, 547
Barbary states, 10, 127–30, 371–72, 390–92, 401, 437, 440, 566
Barbé-Marbois, François de (French politician), 337
Barberi, Mr. (fencing master), 364
Barbour, James (U.S. senator from Virginia), 466, 517, 525, 546
Barbour, Philip P. (U.S. representative from Virginia), 517
Barclay, Thomas (American consul in France), 2
Barclay de Tolly, Mikhail (Russian minister of war), 242
Baring, Alexander (British financier), 273
Barlow, Joel (American poet), 145; U.S. minister at Paris, 220, 230
Barnave, Antoine (French politician), 45
Barnett, John (English singer), 367
Barney, Joshua (U.S. commodore), 366, 424
Barrett, Mr. (Quincy neighbor), 133
Barron, James (U.S. naval officer), 474
Barthe, Dominick (merchant), 228
Barthélemy, Jean-Jacques (French archeologist), 47
Basel, Switzerland, 63
Bassano, duc de (Hugues-Bernard Maret) (French foreign minister), 203, 232, 236, 263
Batavian Republic (Netherlands), 59–66
Bates (captain of _Chauncey_ ), 313
Bathurst, Henry (British secretary of state for war and the colonies), 386, 393, 398, 442
Batiste, M. and Mme. (French ballet dancers), 409
Bautzen, battle of, 279
Bavaria, 174
Baxter, Mr. (American supercargo), 187
Bayard, James A.: U.S. senator from Delaware, 113, 119, 149; peace negotiator at Ghent, 268–69, 271–73, 276–80, 282–84, 288–332, 337, 339, 341–42, 344, 348, 351, 357–58, 360
Beach, Mary (servant), 417
Beale, Benjamin (Harvard classmate), 25; in Paris, 340, 342–43
Beasley, Reuben G. (U.S. consul at London), 284, 288, 333, 343–44, 351
Beaufort, Duke of (Henry Charles Somerset) (Tory peer), 378
Beauharnais, Eugène de (viceroy of Italy), 204
Beaumetz, Bon-Albert Briois de (French émigré), 44–45
Beckford, Benjamin (captain of _Horace_ ), 169, 171–73
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 367
Belgium (Flanders), 49, 351, 355; battle of Waterloo, 357, 395; JQA in, 289–336
Bellamy, Thomas L. (English basso), 367
Benevento, prince of. _See_ Talleyrand, Charles-Maurice de
Bennigsen, Levin von (Russian general), 242, 250
Bensley, Robert (English actor), 54
Benson, Egbert (U.S. representative from New York), 38
Bentham, Jeremy: _Correspondence_ , 407; _Chrestomathia_ , 408; _Plan of Parliamentary Reform_ , 413
Bentinck, William (British admiral), 242–43, 252
Bentley, Richard (British theologian), 481
Bentzon, Adrian (commercial agent for John Jacob Astor), 212, 308, 325
Bentzon, Magdalen Astor, 212
Beresford, Benjamin (Dutch Reformed minister), 275
Bergasse, Henri (French vintner), 114
Berkeley, George, 481
Berlin, Germany, 174, 179, 182, 184, 263, 337, 341, 355, 370; JQA in, 78–87
Berlin Decree, 139, 148, 203, 222, 350
Bermuda, 13, 444
Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste (French field marshal/later King Karl XIV Johan of Sweden), 242, 267, 274
Beroldingen, Joseph (Württembergian minister at London), 373, 378
Berry, duc de (Charles-Ferdinand d'Artois), 337
Berry, Mr. (American supercargo), 187
Betancourt, Agustín de (Spanish engineer in Russian service), 267
Betton, Silas (U.S. representative from New Hampshire), 105
Bezerra, Isabel Florência, 208, 212, 242
Bezerra, João Paulo (Portuguese minister at St. Petersburg), 208, 212, 242, 246
Bible, 194–95, 216, 219–20, 226–27, 238, 267, 282, 324, 551; Genesis, 226, 544, 560; Exodus, 19, 238; Deuteronomy, 516; Ruth, 282; Esther, 282; Job, 280–82, 545; Psalms, 235–36, 500; Ecclesiastes, 31; Isaiah, 456; Matthew, 19, 236, 593; Luke, 362; Acts, 547; 1 Corinthians, 372, 530; Hebrews, 226, 361–62; James, 18; Peter, 226; John 226; Revelation, 18
Bickford. _See_ Beckford, Benjamin
Biddle, James (U.S. naval officer), 532
Biddle, Nicholas (Philadelphia banker), 433–34, 589
Bidwell, Barnabas (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 130, 142
Bielfeld, Baron de (Prussian minister at The Hague), 65–66, 74, 339–40
Bigottini, Emilie (French ballet dancer), 409
Bill of Rights, U.S., 577
Bingham, Anne Willing, 9
Bingham, William (Philadelphia financier), 6–7, 9
Bird, Mr. (New York harbor pilot), 420
Bird, Savage, & Bird (London mercantile firm), 102
Blackstone, William, 33, 414
Bladensburg, Md., 472
Blake, George (U.S. district attorney for Boston), 142, 160–61, 489
Blanchard, Jean-Pierre (aeronaut), 8–9
Blanchard, Nathaniel, 138
Bland, Theodorick (South American Commission), 495
Blockades, legality of, 294, 315, 317, 385
Blodget, W. H. (American merchant in St. Petersburg), 212, 246
Blome, Otto (Danish minister at St. Petersburg), 191, 200
Bloomfield, Joseph (U.S. representative from New Jersey), 532–33
Blount, Mary (wife of Thomas Blount), 130, 146
Blount, Thomas (U.S. representative from North Carolina), 130, 146
Blount, Willie (Tennessee governor), 427
Blücher, Gebhard von (Prussian field marshal), 274, 357
Bode, Johann Elert: _Uranographia_ , 400
Boieldieu, François Adrien: _Jean de Paris_ , 338; _Le Calife de Bagdad_ , 341
Boileau-Despréaux, Nicolas (French poet), 17
Boissy, Louis de: _Le Français à Londres_ , 3–4
Bollmann, Erich (Hanoverian physician), 393–94
Bonaparte, Elizabeth Patterson, 104
Bonaparte, Jerome, 103–4
Bonaparte, Joseph (king of Spain), 204
Bonaparte, Louis (king of Holland), 174
Bonaparte, Napoléon. _See_ Napoléon Bonaparte
Bonaparte, Napoléon-François (king of Rome), 342, 345
Bône (now Annaba), Algeria, 391
Books. _See_ Libraries
Borodino, battle of, 250
Boston, Mass., 9, 17, 22–23, 26–27, 30, 32–33, 55, 109, 124, 135, 138, 146–48, 406, 421, 427, 456–57, 490, 499, 564, 595; JQA in, 1, 15–16, 37, 41–44, 49, 83, 91–99, 133–34, 140–43, 149, 156–62, 164–70, 172, 213
_Boston_ (American frigate), 170
_Boston Centinel_ , 92, 94, 493, 557
_Boston Chronicle_ , 92
_Boston Palladium_ , 94
Botta, Carlo: _Storia della guerra dell'Indipendenza degli Stati Uniti d'America_ , 550
Boucher, Pierre: _Institutions Commerciales . . . et d'un projet de Code de commerce_ , 229
Bouilly, Jean-Nicolas: _Haine aux femmes_ , 302
Boulogne, France, 291
Boundaries of the United States, 293, 296–301, 303, 308, 315, 317, 319–20, 417, 447, 463, 468, 476–77, 479, 502–3, 555–56, 583–84, 587–89
Bourbon dynasty, 262, 341, 345–47, 425
Bourke, Edmund (Danish minister at London), 372, 378, 381, 395
Bourke, Maria, 369, 372–73, 380–81
Bourne, Sylvanus (U.S. consul at Amsterdam), 59–61, 284, 314
Bourqueney, Adolphe de (French legation secretary at Washington), 472
Bowdoin, James (Massachusetts governor), 26
Bowdoin, James, III (Massachusetts politician), 92
Boyd, George (brother-in-law), 129, 137, 146, 153; U.S. diplomatic secretary, 313, 404, 421–23, 589
Boyd, Harriet Johnson (sister-in-law), 129, 422–23
Boylston, Ward Nicholas (philanthropist), 91, 99, 124, 133, 135–36, 143
Brackenridge, Henry Marie (South American Commission), 448–49, 453, 495
Bradbury, Francis (of Newburyport), 33
Bradford, William (U.S. attorney general), 70
Bradish, Mrs. (boardinghouse owner), 420
Bradley, James (British astronomer), 282
Bradley, Stephen R. (U.S. senator from Vermont), 105, 108, 112, 115, 126, 130, 149–50, 241
Braganza, house of, 198
Braham, John (John Abraham) (English tenor), 367
Brahe, Tycho (Danish astronomer), 280
Braintree, Mass., 15–16, 32–33, 37
Brancia, Francesco de (Neapolitan chargé d'affaires at St. Petersburg), 190
Brandel, Genseric (Swedish legation secretary at St. Petersburg), 225, 228, 261, 267
Brandenburg, Germany, 87
Bray, Franz Gabriel von (Bavarian minister at St. Petersburg), 174, 190, 213, 219–20, 241
Bray, Sophie von, 225–26
Brazil, 403, 425
Breck, Samuel (Boston merchant), 15
Breckinridge, John (U.S. senator from Kentucky), 101, 103, 105, 109, 115
Breda, Netherlands, 48
Bremen, Germany, 203
Brennus (Gallic chieftain), 507
Brent, Daniel (U.S. State Department clerk), 113, 424–25, 428, 467, 475, 505, 551
Brent, Robert: mayor of Washington, 113; District of Columbia magistrate, 424
Bridge, James (Harvard classmate), 25, 27
Brissot de Warville, Jacques-Pierre (French revolutionary), 45, 68
Bristol, Pa., 447
Britain, 11, 33, 44, 47, 62, 119, 145–46, 217, 291, 431, 442, 455, 459, 471, 501–2, 509–10, 515, 517, 519, 533–34, 543–44, 572–73, 582, 585–86, 590; Constitution, 29, 35, 254, 414; Convention of 1818, 583–84, 588; death of George III, 549–50; impressment of American seamen, 110, 129–30, 139–40, 146, 148, 157, 253–54, 257–58, 261, 264, 292–93, 315, 353, 379–80, 385–88, 568, 577–79; initial peace negotiations, 268–69, 271–73, 279–80; Jay's Treaty, 51, 54–57, 61, 64, 67, 71–72, 320, 327; John Adams as minister to, 11, 69; JQA as minister to, 351–417; JQA in, 4–7, 49–59, 66–78; _Leopard-Chesapeake_ affair, 141, 223, 563; Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, 139–40; in Napoleonic wars, 171–72, 177, 185–86, 188, 198, 203, 205, 219, 223, 241–44, 249, 262, 326; naval search for slave traders, 403, 417, 482–83, 485, 567–69, 576–79; Parliament, 57, 73, 188, 205, 223, 253, 256, 261, 292, 304–5, 353, 355, 361, 375, 390, 404–6, 413, 415–16, 529, 577–79, 587; relations with revolutionary France, 48–49, 61; tensions with, 130–31, 146, 151, 154, 164, 207–8, 221–23, 230–31, 239; treaty of commerce with, 272, 294, 332, 334, 378–80, 382–93, 401–3, 424; Treaty of Ghent, 284–85, 287–335, 342–43, 352–53, 357–60, 370, 388, 404, 430–31, 440, 460, 470, 474, 562, 568, 588; Treaty of Paris, 2–3, 56, 315, 319–21, 327, 332, 476; treaty of limits with, 105, 107; and U.S. boundaries, 583–84, 587–89; and U.S. seizure of Pensacola, 443–53; War of 1812, 240–41, 243, 247–49, 251–61, 264, 267–73, 279–80, 284–85, 294–95, 303–7, 309–11, 313–14, 318–19, 323, 326, 329–31, 339–40, 342–44, 388, 390, 397, 422, 431, 442, 468, 481, 489–90, 522, 568, 588
_British Critic_ (periodical), 91
Brito, Francisco (Portuguese chargé d'affaires at Paris), 337
Broglie, Albertine de, 338
Broglie, Victor de, 338
Bronson, S. G. (captain of _New Packet_ ), 371
Brooks, James (friend), 78
Brooks, Peter Chardon (Massachusetts merchant), 158
Brown, Charles (English physician in Berlin), 82, 84–86
Brown, Jacob (U.S. commanding general), 440, 527
Brown, James (U.S. senator from Louisiana), 590
Brown, John (U.S. senator from Kentucky), 99, 101, 107
Brown, Joseph, III (captain of _Washington_ ), 206
Brown, Mr. (clergyman), 140
Brown, Obadiah (Baptist minister), 516
Brühl, Count and Countess von (in Berlin), 84, 86
Brunswick, Duke of (Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand), 80
Brussels, Belgium, 293, 301–2, 335, 355
Brutus, Marcus, 491
Bryden, Mr. (dinner guest), 394
Brzozowski, Tadeusz (Jesuit superior-general), 225
Buchan, Earl of. _See_ Erskine, David S.
Buchanan, Andrew (brother-in-law), 220–21
Buchanan, Carolina Johnson. _See_ , Frye, Carolina Johnson Buchanan
Buchanan, Mary (niece), 461, 475
Buchanan, Robert (nephew), 428
Buckingham, Marquess of (Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville) (Whig peer), 355
Buckminster, Eliza (daughter of Joseph S. Buckminster), 160
Buckminster, Joseph S. (Unitarian minister), 530
Budberg, Andrei Y. (Russian foreign minister), 249
Buenos Aires, Argentina, 426–29, 438–40, 453, 501, 509
Bulfinch, Charles (American architect), 431–32
Bülow, Dietrich von: _Der Freistaat von Nordamerika_ , 84
Bunau, Count and Countess von (in Berlin), 85
Bunker Hill, battle of, 26
Burdett, Francis (British reformer), 408, 414
Burgoyne, John (British general), 80
Burke, Aedanus (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 38
Burke, Edmund, 117
Burr, Aaron, 123–24, 148, 431, 489; U.S. vice president, 99, 102, 104–5, 118–19, 121; duel with Alexander Hamilton, 110–11; plan to go to St. Petersburg, 186, 188–89
Burr, Jonathan (Harvard tutor), 30
Burrell, Fanny (English contralto), 367
Burrill, James (U.S. senator from Rhode Island), 546, 580
Burrough, Sidney (office seeker), 430
Burwell, William A.: secretary to Thomas Jefferson, 113; U.S. representative from Virginia, 591–92
Bussche Hunnefeldt, Baron de (Westphalian minister at St. Petersburg), 190, 212, 219, 238, 368
Bussey, Benjamin (Boston merchant), 93, 134–35
Butler, Joseph (English theologian), 516
Butler, Josiah (U.S. representative from New Hampshire), 574
Butler, Pierce (U.S. senator from South Carolina), 100
Butler, Robert (U.S. Army officer), 467
Butler, Samuel: _Hudibras_ , 14
Butler, William (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 145
Byers, James (New York merchant), 566
Byron, Lord (George Gordon): _Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_ , 275
Cabot, George (Boston merchant), 114
Cabre, Auguste de (French legation secretary at Washington), 129, 165, 398
Cadignan, Mrs. Charles (Johnson family friend), 78
Cádiz, Spain, 231
Cadore, duc de. _See_ Champagny, Jean-Baptiste de
Cadwalader, Thomas (Philadelphia lawyer), 532
Caesar, Julius, 25
Calais, France, 8–9
Caldwell, Elias Boudinot (of American Colonization Society), 425
Caldwell, Mr., 135
Calhoun, Floride (wife of John C. Calhoun), 428
Calhoun, John C., 428, 436, 440, 448, 454, 507, 514, 527, 529, 558, 562, 573, 588; U.S. secretary of war, 413, 426, 431, 439; on commercial treaty with Britain, 517; on Florida treaty, 499, 560–61; on Indians, 429, 548; on internal improvements, 464–66; JQA's opinion of, 433, 445, 516, 581, 597–98; on military incursions in Florida, 429, 432, 445, 449–50, 452, 459–60, 462, 464; on Missouri question, 538, 561, 571; on slavery, 534–35, 542–43, 578; on South American revolutions, 427, 572
Calhoun, Joseph (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 145
Calhoun, Mr. (American in St. Petersburg), 272
Calhoun, Patrick (father of John C. Calhoun), 543
Call, Richard K. (U.S. Army officer), 470
Callender, James (journalist), 111
Callender, John (Boston lawyer), 42
Callet, Jean-François (French mathematician), 275
Camaran, M. de (French visitor), 9
Camberlin, Mr. (dinner guest), 301
Cambridge, Duke of (Adolphus, son of George III), 395
Cambridge, Mass., 15, 29, 31, 124–25, 128, 133, 135–37, 141, 143, 165, 410, 524
Camden, Marquess of (John Jeffreys Pratt) (Tory MP), 356
Campbell, George W. (U.S. senator from Tennessee), 439, 442
Campenhausen, Balthasar von (Russian privy councilor), 201
Canada (British North America), 154, 215, 364, 502, 588–89; trade with, 379, 382–85, 515, 517, 519; in Treaty of Ghent, 293, 296, 299–301, 303–4, 306–7; in War of 1812, 259, 261, 270, 313
Canals. _See_ Roads and canals
Cannes, France, 339, 345
Canning, George (Tory MP), 360, 398
Canning, Stratford (British minister at Washington), 567–70, 576–79, 582–89
Canterbury, England, 4, 50
Canton (now Guangzhou), China, 193–94
Caracas, Venezuela, 542
Cardelli, Pietro (Italian sculptor), 431, 499, 523, 564–65
Carnes, Burrill (commercial agent at Nantes), 12
Caroline, Queen Consort (wife of George IV), 595
Carr, Colson (Anglican clergyman), 361
Carrette & Minguet (Paris banking firm), 349
Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton), 550
Carroll, Henry (secretary to Henry Clay), 291, 325, 343
Cartagena, New Granada (now Colombia), 391
Carter, Nathaniel, Sr. (Newburyport merchant), 37
Carysfort, Earl of (John Proby), 355
Carysfort, Lady (Elizabeth Grenville Proby), 355
Caso y Luengo, Francisco (Spanish commandant of Fort San Marcos), 447, 451
Cassius, Gaius, 491
Castelcicala, principessa di (wife of Sicilian minister at London), 369
Castlereagh, Lady (Amelia Hobart Stewart), 371
Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert Stewart) (British foreign secretary), 301, 352, 370, 376, 416, 442, 444, 587; on commercial treaty, 378, 382–93, 401–3, 424; JQA's meetings with, 354–56, 371–72, 378, 380–93, 411–12, 417; on Napoleonic Wars, 261–62; on peace negotiations at Ghent, 284, 295, 343; on War of 1812, 279–80, 304, 308
Cathcart, William (British minister at St. Petersburg), 242–43, 248–49, 256
Catherine II (of Russia), 80, 178, 278
Catholics, 225–26, 231, 266, 355, 371, 414, 428, 551
Caulaincourt, Armand de. _See_ Vicence, duc de
Census of 1810, 209–10
Cervantes, Miguel de: _Don Quixote_ , 114
Chabot, François (French revolutionary), 68
Chalut, Abbé (French cleric), 2
Champagny, Jean-Baptiste de (French foreign minister), 148, 200, 203
Chandler, Gardner Leonard (Harvard classmate), 25
Chandler, John (Harvard classmate), 25
Chandler, Thomas (Harvard classmate), 25
Channing, William Ellery (Unitarian minister), 370
Charles I, 47, 216
Charles V (Holy Roman emperor/king of Spain), 355
_Charleston Gazette_ , 527
Charlestown, Mass., 26, 92, 169–70
Charlotte, Princess (queen of Württemberg, daughter of George III), 372, 381
Charlotte, Queen (wife of George III), 367–69, 380–81, 395–96, 461, 472
Chase, Joseph (Nantucket commercial agent), 151
Chase, Samuel (U.S. Supreme Court justice), 114–19, 121–23
Chateaubriand, François-Auguste-René de, 211, 371; _Itinéraire_ , 218–19
Châtres, Louis, duc de la (French minister at London), 398
Chaumont, Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de (French merchant), 4, 16
Chaumont, Jacques Le Ray de (son of Jacques-Donatien), 339
_Chauncey_ (ship), 288
Chavagnes, Bidé de (captain of frigate _La Sensible_ ), 170
Chelsea, Mass., 92
Chernyshyov, Alexander I. (Russian army officer), 187, 200, 229, 233
Cherokees, 46, 127, 305, 548
_Chesapeake_ , U.S.S., 141, 170, 223, 563
Chester, Robert (British court master-of-ceremonies), 353–54, 369, 405, 410–12
Chevalier, Mr. (visitor), 129
Cheves, Langdon (South Carolina politician), 479–80
Chickasaws, 45–46
Childs, Francis (U.S. consul at Genoa), 82
Chile, 427, 444, 501
China, 193–94
Chippawa, battle of, 466
Christiani, Mr. (music master), 460
Christianity, 157, 213, 215, 235–36, 240, 277, 362, 372, 391–92, 401, 500, 544, 547, 551
Christophe, Henri (Haitian ruler), 371, 455–56
Church, John B. (London financier), 73
Cicero, 77, 241, 265–66, 374, 490–91
Cienfuegos, José (Spanish governor of Cuba), 435
Cimarosa, Domenico: _Il matrimonio segreto_ , 339
Civil war, 27, 415–16, 483, 533, 576
Claggett, Clifton (U.S. representative from New Hampshire), 574
Claiborne, William C. C. (Louisiana governor), 107
Clanwilliam, Earl of (Richard Meade) (British diplomat), 378
Clarence, Duke of (son of George III, later William IV), 370, 396
Clark, Asahel (lawyer in Glens Falls, N.Y.), 436
Clark, John (Georgia governor), 469, 548–49, 558; _Considerations on . . . William H. Crawford_ , 595
Clarke, Charles Thomas (niece's husband), 480
Clarke, Edward D.: _Travels in Various Countries_ , 246
Clarke, Richard (Loyalist émigré), 58
Clay, Henry (of Kentucky), 374, 437, 453, 493, 555; U.S. senator, 138; peace negotiator at Ghent, 284, 288–336, 338–39, 351–53, 356–60, 382; U.S. representative, 426, 428, 436, 439–40, 461–62, 469–70, 512, 523, 525–26, 530, 536, 538, 557, 559–60, 572, 590–91, 597–98; speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, 436, 526, 536, 538, 559; presidential ambitions, 436, 438, 454, 470–72; on slavery, 532–33; vice presidential ambitions, 552–54
Clay, Joseph (U.S. representative from Pennsylvania), 130
Clay, Lucretia Hart (wife of Henry Clay), 428
Clements, Mrs. (dinner guest), 352
Clifton, Lord (John Bligh) (son of Earl of Darnley), 395
Clinton, De Witt (New York governor), 430, 567, 595, 598; and New York politics, 488–89, 527–28, 547, 552, 558; presidential ambitions of, 436–37, 461, 472, 489, 552
Clinton, George (U.S. vice president), 121, 123, 127, 132, 148, 150, 156, 581
Clitherow, James (Little Ealing neighbor), 361
Clitherow, Jane (wife of James Clitherow), 361
Clitherow, Mary (sister of James Clitherow), 361
Cobb, Thomas W. (U.S. representative from Georgia), 536
Cochrane, Andrew (British admiral), 304, 308, 314
Cochrane, Thomas (Radical MP), 397
Coffin, Peleg (Massachusetts politician), 92
Cogdell, John S. (South Carolina state representative), 366
Coke, Edward: _Institutes of the Lawes of England_ , 35
Colaincourt. _See_ Caulaincourt, Armand de
Colburn, Abia (father of Zerah), 417
Colburn, Zerah (child prodigy), 417
Coleman, William A. (newspaper editor), 458
Coles, Isaac A. (secretary to Thomas Jefferson), 102
Collins, Charles (informant), 430
Colombi, Countess de (María de Bodé y Kinnersley) (St. Petersburg socialite), 227, 255
Colombi, Francisco, 241
Colonization movement, 425, 455, 477–79, 485–88, 512–13
Columbia River, 364, 479, 583–84, 587–88
Commerce, 48, 51, 202, 234–35, 313, 329, 479, 482, 491, 520, 561; with Britain, 56–57, 61, 70, 185, 272, 294, 332, 334, 378–80, 382–93, 401–3, 424; and British access to Mississippi River, 318, 320; British antagonism to competition, 578; with Canada, 379, 382–85, 515, 517, 519; and embargoes, 150; in Florida, 435; with France, 230, 573; between France and Louisiana, 463; freedom of, 186; French restrictions on, 222–23, 232, 519; with Indians, 320, 328; in Massachusetts, 96; and neutrality, 157, 177–78, 186, 200–201, 230; and privateers, 446–47, 495; with Prussia, 83, 86; with Russia, 163–64, 176, 178, 182, 185, 249, 257, 261, 272; between Russia and Britain, 261; between Russia and China, 193–94; with West Indies, 56, 379–80, 382–85, 515, 517, 519. _See also_ Slave trade
Conan, Mr. (office visitor), 376
Concerts, 367
_Concorde_ (French frigate), 41
Condorcet, marquis de (Marie-Jean de Caritat) (French _philosophe_ ), 45
Confederation of the Rhine, 237
Congo, 371
Congregationalists, 213, 500
Congress, under Articles of Confederation, 460, 540
Congress, Continental, 10, 13
Congress, U.S., 218, 441, 503, 552, 554, 557, 559–61, 581, 584; Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, 138; Anti–Slave Trade Act, 477, 479, 496, 512, 514; banking legislation, 394, 475, 520; bill for excluding foreign seamen in U.S. Navy, 379; caballing in, 467–68, 471–72, 490, 492–93; and colonization movement, 477, 485–86, 513; commercial legislation, 384, 517; and commercial treaty with Prussia, 86; debate about slave trade, 107–9, 121, 138; declaration of war against Britain, 241, 256; elections to, 256; electoral college results read in, 590–91; Embargo Act, 148, 150, 153, 159, 383; and Florida treaty, 501, 504–6, 508, 517–19, 523; gunboat bill, 146; impeachment trial of Justice Chase, 114–19, 121–23; and impressment of seamen, 129–30, 139–40, 146, 148; internal improvements legislation, 464–66, 510–12, 546; and Jay's Treaty, 71–72; Judiciary Act, 38–39; and Louisiana Purchase, 100–101, 104–9; and military incursions in Florida, 429, 432–33, 436, 438, 445–46, 448, 452, 454, 458, 460–64, 470, 473; and Missouri question, 497, 525–26, 528–30, 532, 534–40, 546, 548, 555, 558, 571, 575, 590–91, 595–97; Navigation Act, 444, 460; Non-Importation Act, 139, 147–48, 151–52; Pension Act, 513, 598; Potomac River bridge bill, 148; President Monroe's messages to, 433, 435, 501, 505, 507–13, 523, 571–73; and prohibition of slavery in territories, 539–42; raising troops, 137, 153, 231; report on weights and measures, 424–25, 465, 498, 592; revenue legislation, 521–22, 573; and South American revolutions, 427, 438–39, 572; war powers of, 430, 445
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 483, 492, 577
Congress of Vienna, 412
Connecticut, 14
Connell, John (Philadelphia merchant), 454, 545
Constant, Benjamin (political theorist), 338, 350
Constantinople, Ottoman Empire, 65, 391, 439, 526
_Constellation_ , U.S.S., 491
Constitution, British, 29, 35, 254, 414
Constitution, French, 113, 492
Constitution, Missouri, 571, 574–76
Constitution, Polish, 3
Constitution, U.S., 32–34, 99, 101, 104, 123, 155, 424, 596; admission of new states, 497; amendments to, 100, 115, 577; appointments approved by Senate, 353; and colonies, 478; and commerce, 57; and finances, 480, 520–21; and gifts to public officials, 218–19, 369, 411–12; and impeachment, 114, 122; and independent judiciary, 116; and internal improvements, 438, 464–66, 510–12; and Louisiana Purchase, 100, 106–7, 528–29; and military incursions in Florida, 445–467, 448–52; and Missouri question, 533–34, 538, 545–46, 571, 574–76; and national bank, 520; and political parties, 140; and presidential elections, 471, 506, 582, 590–91; ratification of, 36–37; and Seminole War, 493; and slavery, 533–34, 538–42, 544–47; and slave trade, 126, 534, 567, 577; and territories, 538–42; and war powers, 156, 430, 445–46
_Constitution_ , U.S.S., 252, 261
Constitutional Convention, 32, 493, 495
Constitutions, 29, 155, 214; state, 539
Convention of 1800 (with France), 148
Convention of 1818 (with Britain), 583–84, 588
Cook, Daniel Pope (U.S. representative from Illinois), 423
Cook, Dr. (British physician), 365
Cook, George (American slave trader), 393
Cook, Orchard (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 152
Cook, Peter (servant), 228
Cook, Thomas (executor of Walter Hellen estate), 366
Cooper, Samuel (Boston friend), 41
Copenhagen, Denmark, 242–43, 329
Copley, Elizabeth Clarke, 58
Copley, John Singleton, 16, 58, 73; _Death of the Earl of Chatham_ , 6
Coppinger, José María (Spanish governor of East Florida), 435
Corneille, Pierre: _Le Cid_ , 345
Corneille, Thomas: _Ariana_ , 340
Cornelissen, Egide (Ghent police chief), 330–31
Cornell, John (American commercial agent in Copenhagen), 302
Corrêa da Serra, José (of Portugal): chargé d'affaires at Berlin, 87; minister at Washington, 425–26
Cossacks, 251, 254, 336
Cottrell-Dormer, Clement (British court master-of-ceremonies), 71–73
Couling, William (British civil engineer), 376
_Courier_ (London newspaper), 207, 360
Court, Mrs. (Johnson family friend), 78
Cowell, Mr. (dinner guest), 394
Cowes, England, 420
Crafts, Thomas (Harvard classmate), 53
Craig, James (American in St. Petersburg), 212–14
Cranch, Elizabeth. _See_ Norton, Elizabeth Cranch
Cranch, Lucy (cousin), 15
Cranch, Mary Smith (aunt), 21, 33, 124, 220
Cranch, Richard (uncle), 15, 37, 124, 157, 220–21
Cranch, William (cousin), 15, 23, 25–27, 31–32, 37; U.S. Supreme Court reporter, 110, 112; U.S. circuit court judge for District of Columbia, 432
Crane, Dr. (Anglican clergyman), 361–62
Crawford, William H., 351, 428, 487, 497–98, 501–2, 514, 531, 535, 541; U.S. senator from Georgia, 153; U.S. minister at Paris, 270, 294, 313–14, 316, 323–24, 336–37, 342–44, 348; U.S. secretary of the treasury, 413, 426, 439; on banks, 479–80, 498; on colonization movement, 512–13; on finances, 482, 510, 521, 573, 594; on Florida treaty, 499, 503–5, 527; JQA's opinion of, 440, 464, 470–71, 495–96, 506, 542–43, 594; on military incursions in Florida, 429, 432–33, 441, 446, 448, 459–60, 462–63; on Missouri question, 538–40, 558; presidential ambitions, 436–37, 454, 461, 469, 472, 488, 490, 506–7, 510–12, 518–19, 548–49, 558–59, 562, 593–95, 598; on slavery, 532–33, 539; on South American revolutions, 427, 509
Creeks, 363, 442, 548
Crichton, Alexander (British physician to Alexander I), 251, 264
Crivelli, Domenico (Italian tenor), 409
Cromwell, Oliver, 216
Crowninshield, Benjamin W. (U.S. secretary of the navy), 404, 413, 427, 429, 431–33, 440
Cruger, Henry (New York merchant), 416
Cuba, 403, 435, 452
Currency, 64, 480, 498–99, 516, 520–21, 546, 561
Cushing, Thomas (Massachusetts lieutenant governor), 16
Cushing, William (U.S. Supreme Court justice), 158
Cushman, Joshua (U.S. representative from Maine), 571, 597
Custine, Adam-Philippe (French general), 64
Custis, George Washington Parke (grandson of Martha Washington), 89
Cutler, Benjamin C. (Norfolk County sheriff), 158
Cyrus the Great, 19
Dacier, André: _Les oeuvres de Platon_ , 215
Daendels, Herman W. (Batavian general), 59
Daggett, David (Connecticut jurist), 546
Dalayrac, Nicolas: _Maison à vendre_ , 341
Dallas, Alexander J.: Pennsylvania secretary of the commonwealth 70; U.S. secretary of the treasury, 316, 394
Dallas, George Mifflin: U.S. diplomatic secretary, 269, 273, 302; U.S. attorney for eastern Pennsylvania, 454
Dana, Elizabeth Ellery (wife of Francis Dana), 27
Dana, Francis (Massachusetts judge), 22–23, 30, 143
Dana, Samuel W. (of Connecticut): U.S. representative, 107; U.S. senator, 545–46
Danforth, Thomas (Boston physician), 158
Danton, Georges-Jacques (French revolutionary), 45
Danzig, Prussia (now Poland), 201, 203
Dargainaratz, M. (French court master-of-ceremonies), 337
Darnley, Earl of (John Bligh) (British peer), 395–97
Dartford, England, 4, 50
Dashkov, Andrei I. (Russian minister at Washington), 193–94, 209, 249–50, 252, 467
Davïdov, Stepan I.: _Lesta, ili Dneprovskaya rusalka_ , 187
Davis, John (Massachusetts jurist), 124, 135, 140, 158, 164
Davout, Louis-Nicolas (French field marshal), 254
Davy, Humphry (British chemist), 355
Dawes, Mr. (dinner guest), 105
Dawes, Thomas (Massachusetts supreme court justice), 91
Dayton, Jonathan (U.S. senator from New Jersey), 105, 108
Deal, England, 50, 52
Deane, Jesse (schoolmate), 14
Dearborn, Henry (U.S. general), 270
Deas, William (U.S. chargé d'affaires at London), 66
Decatur, Stephen (U.S. commodore), 427, 442, 536–37
Decharms, Mrs. (Philadelphia landlady), 125
Declaration of Independence, 424–25, 430, 483, 497, 515, 540, 550
Dedham, Mass., 421, 499
Degrand, Peter P. F. (Boston merchant), 165, 316–17, 458, 475
Delafield, Joseph (U.S. boundary commission agent), 596
Delapré, M. (St. Petersburg merchant), 195
Delaware, 327
Delaware River, 537
Delft, Netherlands, 287
Della Maria, Dominique: _L'Opera Comique_ , 302
Democracy, 28, 65, 156, 414–16, 550
Democratic-Republican Party. _See_ Republican Party
Denmark, 4, 64, 171–73, 242–43, 519
Dennie, Joseph (publisher of _Port Folio_ ), 113
De Pradt, Dominique Georges Dufour: _Recit Historique sur la Restauration_ , 425
Derham, William: _Physico-Theology_ , 266
Désaugiers, Marc-Antoine Madeleine: _Je fais mes farces_ , 347
Desfontaines, François-Georges: _L'Amour et La Folie_ , 408
Dessau, Germany, 83
D'Este, Augustus F. (British army officer), 397
Destouches, Philippe Néricault: _La fausse Agnès_ , 345
De Windt, Caroline Amelia Smith (niece), 277
Dexter, Aaron (Boston physician), 158
Dexter, Katharine Gordon (wife of Samuel Dexter), 157
Dexter, Samuel (Massachusetts politician), 95, 124, 140, 376
Diamond, John (U.S. consul at Göteborg), 260, 284
Dickons, Maria Poole (English soprano), 367
Didier & D'Arcy (Baltimore mercantile firm), 491
Doddridge, Philip: _Principal Subjects in Pneumatology, Ethics and Divinity_ , 25
Dokhturov, Dmitri S. (Russian general), 197, 250
Doradour, comte and comtesse de, 12
Dorsey, Mr. (visitor), 191
Dorvigny (Louis-François Archambault): _La fête de campagne, ou, l'intendant comédien malgré lui_ , 7
Dougherty, Thomas (clerk of U.S. House of Representatives), 597
Dournoff, M. (dinner guest), 189
Dover, England, 4–5, 8–9, 351
Draco, 215
Dresden, Germany, 82, 179, 263, 275
Drummond, Gordon (British-Canadian general), 310
Dryden, John, 75
Duane, William J. (Philadelphia publisher), 99
Dubrovsky, Piotr (Russian imperial librarian), 215–16
Ducobu, Mr. (Ghent landlord), 316
Ducorneau, Mr. (courier), 228
Dueling, 473, 494
Dufresny, Charles: _L'Esprit de contradiction_ , 345
Dumas, Charles (American commercial agent at The Hague), 287
Dumouriez, Charles-François (French general), 64, 362–64, 402; memoirs of, 75
Dunbaugh, Jacob (Burr conspirator), 148
Dundas, Thomas (British politician), 72
Dunkerque, France, 292, 297
Dunstanville, Lord (Francis Basset) (Tory peer), 377
Du Ponceau, Peter S. (Philadelphia scholar), 455
Duport, Louis: _Venus et Adonis_ ; 409
Duval, William Pope (Kentucky politician), 449
Dwight, Thomas (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 105
Dwight, Timothy: _The Conquest of Canaan_ , 14; Yale president, 157
Ealing, England, 361–71, 376, 394, 397, 399, 401–3, 407, 409, 551
Early, Peter (U.S. representative from Georgia), 130
Easter, Russian Orthodox, 189–90
East Florida. _See_ Florida
Eaton, John H. (U.S. senator from Tennessee), 583–84
Eaton, William (U.S. consul at Tunis), 138
Eckley, Joseph (Congregational minister), 157
Eddy, Samuel (U.S. representative from Rhode Island), 586
Edes, Benjamin (Boston printer), 41
_Edinburgh Review_ , 360, 503
Edward VI, 216
Edwards, Enoch (Philadelphia physician), 66
Edwards, Mrs. (of Boston), 37
Elba, 356
Elections. _See_ Presidential elections
Electoral College, 582, 590–91
Electricity, 25
Eler, André-Frédéric: _L'habit du chevalier de Grammont_ , 338
Eliot, John (Congregational minister), 158
Eliot, Samuel (Boston banker), 485
Eliot, Samuel A. (Harvard divinity student), 485
Elisabeth Louise von Brandenburg (wife of August Ferdinand of Prussia), 80
_Eliza_ (ship), 201
Elizabeth, Princess (daughter of George III), 369, 449, 451
Elizabeth I, 216
Elizabeth Alexeievna (empress of Russia, née Louise von Baden), 175, 180–81, 183–84, 190, 215, 237, 271, 275, 279
Elliott, John (U.S. senator from Georgia), 518
Ellis, Mr. (British foreign ministry clerk), 360
Elsling, battle of, 187
Ely, Justin (Massachusetts politician), 95
Emancipation, 478–79, 485–86, 532, 534–35, 545
Embargo Act, 148, 150, 153, 159, 383
Emerson, William (Unitarian minister), 140, 143, 158, 213
Emlen, George (U.S. diplomatic secretary), 302
Enfield, William: _The English Preacher_ , 212, 235, 238–40, 243
England. _See_ Britain
English, George Bethune (Harvard student), 141
English, Thomas (merchant), 141
Epicureanism, 145
Episcopalians, 487, 500, 551
Eppes, John Wayles (U.S. representative from Virginia), 113, 145
Epps, Elizabeth (servant), 88, 566
Equality/inequality, 27–29, 66
Erskine, David (British minister at Washington), 139, 146, 153
Erskine, David S. (Scottish peer), 145
Erskine, Frances Cadwalader (wife of David Erskine), 140, 146
Erskine, Thomas (Whig jurist), 395–97
Erving, George (Loyalist émigré), 58
Erving, George W. (U.S. minister at Madrid), 340, 348, 434, 437, 458–62, 467, 498
Essex Junto, 94, 159
Esterházy, Nicholas (Hungarian prince), 369
Esterházy, Paul Anton (Austrian minister at London), 369, 376, 395
Etter, Mr. (St. Petersburg bookseller), 189
Etting, Reuben (office seeker), 466
Euclid, 22, 217
Eustis, William (Massachusetts politician), 92–93, 161; U.S. minister at The Hague, 443
Everett, Alexander H.: U.S. legation secretary at St. Petersburg 166–67, 169–70, 172, 189; in Washington, 437
Everett, Edward (Harvard professor), 529–32
Exmouth, Viscount (Edward Pellew) (British admiral), 390–92, 401
Eylau, battle of, 187
Fabian military strategy, 250
Factions, 103, 122, 253
Faesch, Mr. (of Amsterdam), 62
Fagel, Robert (Dutch minister at Paris), 337
Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, 25, 119
_Fair American_ (ship), 284
_Fame_ (ship), 421
Farnham, Hannah Bliss Emerson, 140
Farren, Elizabeth (English actress), 590
Fauchet, Jean-Antoine (French minister to the United States), 47–48, 70
_Favourite_ (ship), 291, 343
Federalism, 93, 122, 363, 400
_Federalist_ , _The_ , 541, 582
Federalist Party, 36, 70, 103, 466; in Congress, 106, 108, 122, 131, 133, 137, 144, 149, 155; and election of 1808, 158; in Massachusetts, 92–93, 95, 98, 140–42, 160–62, 557, 594–95; in New York, 489, 528
Fellows, Nathaniel (Massachusetts politician), 92
Fenshaw, Mr. (of Russian army), 228
Fernando VII (of Spain), 198, 428, 434, 493, 503, 560, 590, 592
Fernán-Núñez, conde de (Carlos Gutiérrez de los Ríos) (Spanish minister at London), 410
Fessenden, Mr. (of Haverhill), 21
Fielding, Henry: _Tom Jones_ , 31
Finckenstein, Karl von (Prussian prime minister), 82–83
Findlay, William (Pennsylvania governor), 466
_Fingal_ (ship), 345
Finland, 180
Firmin (J.-B. François Becquerelle) (French actor), 345
First Bank of the United States, 520
Fisher, Miers, Jr. (American commercial agent in St. Petersburg), 208, 212, 215, 217–18, 224, 228, 240, 245, 251
Fisheries, 293–94, 297, 315, 318–23, 326, 330–31, 431
Fitzsimmons, Thomas (Philadelphia merchant), 10
Flanders, 49, 351, 355, 357, 395
Fletcher, Noah (boardinghouse owner), 571
_Fletcher v. Peck_ , 163
Florida (Spanish), 548; initial U.S. interest in, 130, 205–6, 311, 410, 417; and Seminole War, 429, 440–43, 458–62, 468–69, 493, 549, 532, 557, 598; treaty with Spain, 473–77, 493, 498, 501, 503, 508, 510, 514, 517–19, 523, 527, 548, 553–57, 560–61, 572–73, 590, 592–93, 598; U.S. assault on Amelia Island, 428–35, 437–38, 504–5; U.S. assault on Pensacola, 443–53, 462–64, 470, 504–5
Floyd, John (U.S. representative from Virginia), 587, 590
Floyd, William (signer of Declaration of Independence), 550
Fodor-Mainvielle, Joséphine (French soprano), 409
Fontainebleau, France, 356
Fontfreyde, John (Albany merchant), 13
Forbes, John Murray (U.S. consul at Hamburg), 329, 491
Forbes, Ralph B. (American supercargo), 329
Forian, Claris de: _Les deux billets_ , 84
Forman, Jacob (captain of _Washington_ ), 420
Forrest, Richard (U.S. State Department clerk), 220, 565, 570, 589
Forrester, Mr. (American in St. Petersburg), 224
Forsyth, Clara Meigs (wife of John Forsyth), 523, 563
Forsyth, John: U.S. representative from Georgia, 429, 468–70; U.S. minister at Madrid, 498, 503, 527, 593
Forsyth, Julia (daughter of John Forsyth), 523
Fort Barrancas, West Florida, 445
Fort Detroit, Michigan Territory, 252
Fortescue, Hester Grenville, 355
Fortescue, Hugh (British peer), 355
_Forth_ , H.M.S., 480
Fort San Marcos, West Florida, 441, 447, 451
Fosdick, Thomas (Boston merchant), 276
Foster, Alexander W. (patentee), 483
Foster, Augustus John (British legation secretary at Washington), 146, 205, 230, 241, 248
Foster, Bossenger, Jr. (Harvard classmate), 30, 73
Foster, Dwight (U.S. senator from Massachusetts), 93–94
Foster, Elizabeth ("Betsy") Smith (cousin), 421
Foster, John: _Essays in a Series of Letters to a Friend_ , 375
Foster, William (Quincy neighbor), 135, 166
Fouché, Joseph (French minister of police), 348
Fox, Henry Edward (son of Baron Holland), 373
Foxes, 127
Framingham, Mass., 32
France, 5–6, 44–45, 47, 53, 68, 70, 104, 114, 139, 148, 154, 157, 164, 214, 308, 330, 363, 422, 425, 434, 482, 492, 502, 508–10, 514, 565; commerce with, 230, 573; constitution of, 113; invasion of Russia, 237–39, 241–42, 249–52, 254–56, 258, 262–63, 278; John Adams as peace negotiator in, 1–3; JQA in, 1–4, 7–12, 336–50; Louisiana Purchase from, 100, 206; during Napoleonic wars, 171, 174–77, 186–88, 192–93, 198, 200–205, 219, 222–24, 228–30, 232–34, 236, 244, 253, 256–57, 262–63, 274–75, 285, 326, 336, 350; Napoléon's defeat at Waterloo, 357, 395; Netherlands under rule of, 59–66; relations with Britain during the Revolution, 48–49, 61; religion in, 210–11; restoration of Louis XVIII, 291; restrictions on commerce, 222–23, 232, 519; return of Napoléon, 339–50; and slave trade, 483, 567–69, 577; special commercial relationship with Louisiana, 463
Franklin, Benjamin, 1–3, 9–10, 80, 373, 403
Franklin, William Temple (grandson of Benjamin Franklin), 403
Franz I (of Austria), 187
Frazier, Nathan, Jr. (Boston friend), 49–50
Frederica (princess of the Netherlands), 62, 81
Frederick, Md., 566
Frederick, Prince (Duke of York), 49
Frederick, Prince (of Orange), 62–63
Freeman, James (Unitarian minister), 457
Freemantle, John (British army officer), 395
Free persons of color, 425, 455, 478–79, 485–87, 513, 571, 574–76
Freire, Cipriano Ribeiro (Portuguese minister at London), 378, 380–81
French Americans, 217
French Revolution, 44–45, 47, 53, 65, 68, 113, 210, 568
Friedland, battle of, 187, 237
Friedrich I (of Württemberg), 183, 372
Friedrich II (of Hesse), 80
Friedrich II (of Prussia) (Frederick the Great), 80, 179
Friedrich Augustus III (elector of Saxony), 263
Friedrich Heinrich Ludwig, Prince (of Prussia), 79–80
Friedrich Wilhelm (Elector of Brandenburg), 87
Friedrich Wilhelm II (of Prussia), 79, 177
Friedrich Wilhelm III (of Prussia), 79, 81–82, 86, 184, 380
Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich, Prince (of Prussia), 80
Fromentin, Eligius (U.S. senator from Louisiana), 434, 475
Frye, Carolina Johnson Buchanan (sister-in-law), 115, 119, 220, 421, 423, 428, 458, 566
Frye, Frederick (brother of Nathaniel Frye), 428
Frye, George (nephew), 423
Frye, John (nephew), 423
Frye, Joshua (nephew), 423
Frye, Nathaniel (brother-in-law), 421–23, 425, 428, 531, 580
Frye, Thomas (nephew), 423
Fugitive slaves, 460, 575
Fuller, Timothy (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 557–60
Fulton, Robert, 145–47, 483–84
Fürstenwerder, Baron (office visitor), 427
Fur trade, 56, 364, 536
Gabriel, Claude (servant to Alexander I), 241
Gail, Sophie: _Le Deux Jaloux_ , 338
Gaines, Edmund P. (U.S. general), 429
Gallatin, Albert: U.S. secretary of the treasury, 151, 218, 432, 522; U.S. representative from Pennsylvania, 218; peace negotiator at Ghent, 268–69, 271–73, 276–79, 282–84, 288–334, 336, 339, 342, 344–45, 351–53, 356–60, 382, 562; U.S. minister at Paris, 443, 456, 464, 506, 514, 565
Gallatin, James (U.S. diplomatic secretary), 269, 277, 339
Galliard, John (U.S. senator from South Carolina), 428, 431
Galloway, Dr. (Scottish physician in St. Petersburg), 207, 211, 218, 242, 244–45, 283
Gambier, James (British peace negotiator at Ghent), 291–332, 357, 359–60, 382
Game laws, 32, 306
Gardel, Marie (French ballet dancer), 409
Gardel, Pierre: _Télémaque_ , 340
Gardiner, Mr. (captain of _Fame_ ), 421
Gardner, Jared (Nantucket commercial agent), 151
Gardner, John (Boston friend), 41–42, 99
Garlike, Benjamin (British minister at Berlin), 86
Garmers, Heinke (ship captain), 74
Garrick, David, 590; _The Irish Widow_ , 6; _Isabella, or The Fatal Marriage_ , 6
Gassendi, Pierre (French philosopher), 145
Gaveaux, Pierre: _Le Diable en Vacances_ , 302
Geneva, Switzerland, 339
Genlis, Stéphanie-Félicité (French writer), 211
Georg, Duke of Oldenburg, 202
George, Prince Regent, 67, 223, 231, 248, 352, 354–55, 368, 374, 380–81, 396, 405–6, 411–12, 449, 451, 472; as George IV, 567
George II, 374
George III, 67, 71–72, 81, 131, 139, 148, 188, 223, 265, 293, 374, 396, 549–50
Georgetown (District of Columbia), 89, 102, 105, 109, 115, 119–20, 130, 163, 366, 425, 443, 475, 480, 531, 536–37
Georgia, 429, 445, 461, 469, 472, 487, 518, 548–49, 558, 598
German Americans, 217
Germany, 217, 237. _See also_ Prussia _and individual states_
Gerry, Elbridge, 11, 38, 92, 141–42, 581
Gervais, M. (Russian official), 188
Ghent (Gent, Belgium), 355, 358; JQA in, 289–336, 562
Gibbon, Edward, 73; _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ , 35
Gifts to public officials, 218–19, 369, 411–12
Giles, William Branch (of Virginia): U.S. representative, 70, 114–17, 119, 149, 152–53, 156, 158; U.S. senator, 507
Gill, Moses, Jr. (Massachusetts lawyer), 96
Gilman, Nicholas (U.S. senator from New Hampshire), 151, 155–56
Girard, Abbé (French cleric), 8
Gisborne, Thomas, 252; _Enquiry into the Duties of Men_ , 259; _Principles of Moral Philosophy_ , 253–54
Gisborne, Thomas John, 252
Giusta, Antoine (valet/steward), 335, 445, 452
Glenn, Elias (U.S. attorney for Maryland), 496
Glorious Revolution, 373
Gloucester, Duchess of. _See_ Mary, Princess
Gloucester, Duke of (William Frederick), 369
Gluck, Christoph Willibald: _Armide_ , 339
God, existence of, 20–21
Godfrey, Martha (servant), 169, 196–97
Goguet, Antoine-Yves (French historian), 275
Golofkin (Orangist general at Amsterdam), 59
Goodenough, Samuel (Anglican bishop), 402
Gorani, Giuseppe: _Mémoires Secrètes et Critiques des Cours . . . de L'Italie_ , 75
Gordon, James W. (British army officer), 381
Gordon, William: _The History of the Rise, Progress, and Establishment of the Independence of the United States_ , 373
Gore, Christopher (Massachusetts politician), 140, 166
Gorham, Mr., 161
Göteborg, Sweden, 186, 249, 260, 269, 273, 276, 284–85, 288–89
Goulburn, Henry (British peace negotiator at Ghent), 291–332, 352–53, 356–57, 359–60, 382, 416
Goulburn, Jane Montagu, 302, 352
Gouverneur, Maria Hester Monroe (daughter of James Monroe), 549
Gouverneur, Samuel L. (son-in-law of James Monroe), 475, 549, 592
Grafton, Duke of (George Henry Fitzroy) (Whig peer), 376
Graham, Archibald J. (Scottish commercial agent), 185
Graham, John (South American Commission), 444–45, 449, 487, 495
Granville, Lady (Emily Smith Somerset), 373, 375
Granville, Lord (Charles Henry Somerset) (Tory MP), 373, 375
Graves, Thomas N. (comptroller to Duke of Sussex), 370
Gray, Edward (Boston lawyer), 159
Gray, Elizabeth Chapman (wife of William Gray), 169
Gray, Francis C. (U.S. legation secretary at St. Petersburg), 169–70, 172, 196–97, 208, 212–13, 442–43
Gray, Horace (son of William Gray), 527
Gray, Mr. (Anglican church secretary at St. Petersburg), 245
Gray, William (Massachusetts merchant), 169, 175, 203, 515, 527
Great Lakes, 299–301, 303, 307, 312, 317
Gréban, Marie Anne (sister of Thérèse Meulemeester van Aken), 291
Greece, ancient, 219–20, 282, 399–401
Greenleaf, John, Jr. (son of Lucy Cranch), 421
Greenleaf, William (Boston merchant), 21
Greentree, Mrs., 422
Gregg, Andrew (U.S. representative from Pennsylvania), 139
Grenville, George (British prime minister), 354
Grenville, Thomas (Whig MP), 355
Grenville, William (British foreign secretary), 67–69, 71–73
Grétry, André: _La caravane du Caire_ , 346
Greuhm, Friedrich von (Prussian minister at Washington), 430
Grey, Charles (Whig MP), 352–53, 369
Griffin, Samuel (U.S. representative from Virginia), 46
Grimaldi, marchese di (Sardinian chargé d'affaires at London), 398
Grodno, Russia (now Belarus), 238
Grossette, Henry William: _Raymond and Agnes: The Traveler's Benighted_ , 322
Grou, Jean-Nicolas: _Dialogues de Platon_ , 215–16
Grubb, James (U.S. diplomatic secretary at London), 352, 357, 360–61, 365, 367, 408
Guernsey, 393
_Guerrière_ , H.M.S., 251–52, 261
Guillemain, Charles-Jacob: _Le mensonge excusable_ ; _Le nouveau parvenue_ ; _Le palais du bon gout_ , 7
Gulf of Mexico, 477, 556
Gunboats, 146
Habeas Corpus Act (Britain), 49, 69
Hafsan, Sidi (bey of Tripoli), 391
Hague, Netherlands, 43, 69, 72, 86, 174, 337; JQA in, 62–66, 76, 81, 287–89
Haiti (Saint-Domingue), 110, 129, 371, 430, 455–56, 485
Hale, John (Harvard tutor), 22
Hale, Nathan (newspaper editor), 595
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 300, 313
Hall, John (Boston friend), 42, 73, 78, 161
Hall, Mrs. (dinner guest), 119
Hall, Sarah Gray (family friend), 143
Halsey, Thomas (U.S. consul at Buenos Aires), 438
Hamburg, Germany, 59, 83, 86, 203, 288, 311, 326, 329
Hamilton, Alexander, 110–11, 465, 521–22
Hamilton, William (British undersecretary of state for foreign affairs), 356, 378, 389
Hammond, George (British minister to the United States), 49, 68–71, 73
Hammond, Thomas (Harvard classmate), 25
Hampden-Trevor, Thomas (British peer), 405
Hampstead, England, 5
Hancock, John, 37
Handel, George Frideric: _Israel in Egypt_ , 367
Hane de Steenhuyse, Jean-Baptiste d' (Flanders governor), 293
Hanseatic League, 183, 203–4
Hardy, Samuel (Continental Congress delegate), 13–14
Harris, John Levett (nephew of Levett Harris), 212, 250–52
Harris, Levett (U.S. consul at St. Petersburg), 173–75, 181, 183–85, 188–93, 195, 199, 202, 207, 212–15, 228, 233, 239–40, 245–46, 249–52, 255, 259–60, 264, 266, 269, 272–73, 276–77, 283–84, 332, 340, 410
Harrison, Nancy, 113
Harrison, Richard (U.S. Treasury auditor), 113
Harrison, William Henry, 439
Harrod, Charles (sister-in-law's brother), 455
Harrod, Foster (sister-in-law's brother), 142
Hartford, Conn., 14, 111
Hartley, David (British diplomat), 2–3
Harvard University, 110, 530; JQA attends, 11, 15–16, 21–31, 90; JQA as professor of oratory, 124–25, 128, 133, 135–38, 141, 165–66, 524
Harvey, Felton Bathurst (British baronet), 536
Harvey, Louisa Catherine Caton, 536
Harvey, Robert J. (British army officer), 395
Hastings, Seth (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 105
Haugwitz, Christian von (Prussian foreign minister), 86
Haugwitz, Countess von, 87
Havana, Cuba, 403, 435
Haven, C. C. (Portsmouth, N.H., merchant), 233, 249
Haverhill, Mass., 17–21, 29, 31, 142
Hawley, William D. (Episcopal priest), 487–88
Hay, Eliza Kortright Monroe (daughter of James Monroe), 549
Hay, George (Virginia jurist), 485–86
Hazard, Samuel (U.S. consul at Arkhangelsk), 209
Hazen, Nancy, 17–18
Heath, William (Massachusetts politician), 134
Hebrews, ancient, 219–20, 281–82
_Hector_ (ship), 266
Heinitz, Mme. de, 87
Heinrich, Prince (of Prussia), 289
Hellen, Adelaide Johnson (sister-in-law), 119, 146–47, 220, 366, 422–23
Hellen, Ann ("Nancy") Johnson (sister-in-law), 163, 206, 366, 422
Hellen, Johnson (nephew), 576, 582
Hellen, Mary Catherine (niece), 366, 443, 498, 531, 537, 560, 565–66, 582
Hellen, Walter (brother-in-law), 88, 112, 115, 150–51, 163, 366, 422
Hellen, Walter, III (nephew), 115
Henderson, John (English actor), 54
Henley, Frances (niece of Martha Washington), 89
Hennepin, Louis: _Description de la Louisiane_ , 455
Henri IV (of France), 341, 343
_Herald_ (ship), 322
Heredia, Narcisa de (daughter of Luis de Onís), 461
Herrick, Samuel (U.S. representative from Ohio), 427
Hersant, C. (French legation secretary at Washington), 528
Hewes, Mrs. (dinner guest), 119
Hewlett, John (Anglican priest), 78
Higginson, Stephen (Massachusetts merchant), 97
Hill, Arthur (British army officer), 395
Hill, Mark Langdon (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 515
Hillhouse, James (U.S. senator from Connecticut), 105, 108
Hingham, Mass., 33, 92
Hippisley, John Coxe (MP), 416
Hitroff (Russian general), 199
Hoadley, Benjamin (Anglican bishop), 374
Hodgson, Adam (office visitor), 524
Holland, Baron (Henry Vassall Fox) (Whig peer), 372–73, 375–76
Holland, Baroness (Elizabeth Vassall Fox), 373
Holley, Horace (Unitarian minister), 530
Hollins & McBlair (Baltimore mercantile firm), 491
Holman, Joseph George (English actor), 56
Holmead (Washington shopkeeper), 570
Holmes, Abiel (Congregational minister), 124
Holmes, John (U.S. representative from Massachusetts, later Maine), 426, 462, 467–68, 504, 523, 597
Homans, Benjamin (U.S. Navy Department clerk), 491, 536, 566
Homer, 22, 75, 236, 366: _Iliad_ , 24–25, 84, 128; _Odyssey_ , 137
Hooper, Mary Harris (of Newburyport), 37
Hooper, Thomas W. (Harvard classmate), 31
Hope, Thomas (British banker in the Netherlands), 60
Hopkinson, Joseph (U.S. representative from Pennsylvania), 459–60, 532, 593–94
Horace, 20, 22, 399
_Horace_ (ship), 169–73
Horner, Francis (Whig MP), 352
_Hornet_ (ship), 501
Horsley, Samuel (Anglican bishop), 374
Hottinguer, Jean C. (Paris financier), 349
Houel, Lucy (servant), 351, 378, 381, 417
House of Burgesses, Virginia, 478, 485–86
House of Representatives, Massachusetts, 93–98, 158–60
House of Representatives, U.S., 98, 106, 108, 127, 130, 353, 426, 430–31, 471, 511, 547; JQA attends sessions of, 38, 99, 101, 103; speaker of the House, 553. _See also_ Congress, U.S. _for specific issues and legislation_
Hubbard, Nicolaas (Amsterdam banker), 59–60, 349
Huger, Benjamin (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 99, 102, 123
Huger, Mary Allston, 102
Hughes, Christopher, Jr. (U.S. commission secretary at Ghent), 289–92, 294, 296, 302, 309, 313–14, 328, 331–32
Hughes, H. (of New York), 424
Hughes, Mrs. (English soprano), 409
Hugus, Jacob (U.S. patentee), 483
Hull, Isaac (captain of U.S.S. _Chesapeake_ ), 170
Hull, Mass., 92
Hull, William (U.S. general), 252, 304, 309
Human rights, 65–66, 544
Humboldt, Alexander von (Prussian explorer), 145
Hume, David, 374
Humphreys, David (American trade commissioner), 10–11
Hunt, Mr. (office visitor), 427
Hunter, Elizabeth Orby (of London), 88
Hunter, William (U.S. senator from Rhode Island), 546, 599
Huntington, Joshua (Congregational minister), 157
Huntt, Henry (family physician), 431, 466
Hurd, John R. (American commercial agent in St. Petersburg), 285
Hyde de Neuville, Jean-Guillaume de (French minister at Washington), 436, 442, 446–49, 463, 471–73, 476, 482–83, 492, 523, 525, 546
Illinois: as territory, 300, 425; as state, 534, 540, 543, 557–58
Immigrants, 181–82, 217–18
Impeachment, 114–19, 121–23
Impressment of seamen, 110, 129–30, 139–40, 146, 157, 253–54, 257–58, 261, 264, 292–93, 315, 317, 353, 379–80, 385–88, 568, 577–79
Indemnities, 294, 315–17, 519, 547–48, 556
India, 373, 479, 572, 588
Indiana, 534, 540, 543
Indians, 64, 426–27, 454, 486, 502, 527, 572; and early American settlements, 306; and commercial treaty with Britain, 363–64; President Jefferson's receptions for, 127, 129; President Washington's reception for, 45–46; near Russian settlement in Oregon Country, 194; Seminole War, 429, 440–43, 458–62, 468–69, 493, 549, 532, 557, 598; near Spanish settlements in Florida, 448; trade with, 320, 328; treaties with, 295–96, 305–6, 363, 548; and Treaty of Ghent, 293–300, 302–3, 305–13, 315, 317, 320, 328–29, 331. _See also individual tribes_
Ingalls, William (Boston physician), 475
Ingersoll, Charles Jared (U.S. attorney for Pennsylvania), 454, 532, 589
Ireland, 305, 308, 403
Irish Americans, 217
Irvine, Baptist (U.S. special agent to Venezuela), 495
Irving, William (U.S. representative from New York), 424
Isabey, Jean-Baptiste (French painter), 356
Issotier, M. (French visitor), 16
Italy, 75, 355
Ivernois, François d' (Swiss economist), 264–65
Jackson, Andrew, 549, 558; at battle of New Orleans, 343; considered for Russian mission, 439–40; JQA's meetings with, 467–70, 474; military incursions in Florida by, 427, 429, 441–43, 445–53, 458–60, 464, 473; presidential ambitions, 461–63, 472; in Seminole War, 440–42, 458–60, 493, 598
Jackson, Henry (U.S. chargé d'affaires at Paris), 336, 350
Jackson, Henry (U.S. general), 159
Jackson, James (of Georgia): U.S. representative, 38; U.S. senator, 108
Jackson, Jonathan (Harvard treasurer), 140
Jackson, William (office seeker) 464, 466
Jacobi-Kloest, Konstans von (Prussian minister at London), 352, 368
Jamaica, 389–90
James (servant), 142
James, Eleazer (Harvard tutor), 22–25
James I, 216
Jamestown settlement, 582
Jarvis, Charles (Boston politician), 97, 142
Jarvis, John (New York merchant), 12
Jay, John, 2, 7, 53–58, 61
Jay, Peter (son of John Jay), 55
Jay, Sarah Livingston (wife of John Jay), 2
Jay's Treaty, 51, 54–57, 61, 64, 67, 71–72, 320, 327
Jefferson, Lucy Elizabeth (daughter of Thomas Jefferson), 8
Jefferson, Thomas, 13, 63, 70, 152, 163, 249, 499, 591; signer of Declaration of Independence, 550; in Paris, 8, 10–12; secretary of state, 425; president, 86, 88, 99–100, 108, 110–14, 119, 121, 123, 125–26, 129–32, 137, 139, 141, 144–49, 151, 154–55, 158, 426; and colonization movement, 486; on Florida treaty, 560; on national bank, 520; opinion of Andrew Jackson, 439, 467; report on weights and measures, 424, 465; and slavery, 515
Jeffries, John (aeronaut), 8–9
Jenifer, Miss (dinner guest), 113
Jenkins, John (office visitor), 494
Jennings, Jonathan (Indiana governor), 543
Jennison, Timothy L. (Harvard tutor), 22, 24
Jersey, Countess of (Sarah Child Villiers), 373, 375–76
Jersey, Earl of (George Child Villiers) (Tory peer), 373, 375
Jerusalem, 219
Jesuits, 225–26, 228
Jesus, 236, 551
Jews, 3, 219–20, 281, 397, 495, 503, 566
John (saint), 226
_John Adams_ , U.S.S., 288, 298, 301, 313, 316, 491
Johnson, Adelaide. _See_ Hellen, Adelaide Johnson
Johnson, Ann ("Nancy"). _See_ Hellen, Ann ("Nancy") Johnson
Johnson, Benjamin (servant), 417
Johnson, Carolina. _See_ Frye, Carolina Johnson Buchanan
Johnson, Catherine ("Kitty"). _See_ Smith, Catherine ("Kitty") Johnson
Johnson, Catherine Nuth (mother-in-law), 78, 88, 105, 113, 129, 143, 146–47, 153, 163, 211, 220–21
Johnson, Eliza. _See_ Pope, Eliza Johnson
Johnson, Fanny (wife's cousin), 582
Johnson, Harriet. _See_ Boyd, Harriet Johnson
Johnson, Joshua (father-in-law), 66, 73–74, 78, 88–89
Johnson, Richard M. (of Kentucky): U.S. representative, 145, 439, 459–60; U.S. senator, 526, 553, 573
Johnson, Samuel, 76; "London," 243; _The Vanity of Human Wishes_ , 251
Johnson, Thomas and Ann (wife's uncle and aunt), 566
Johnson, Thomas Baker (brother-in-law), 109, 115, 399
Johnson, William (U.S. Supreme Court justice), 116, 532
Johonnot, Gabriel (Continental Army officer), 1
Johonnot, Samuel C. (schoolmate), 1–2
Jones, John Paul, 8
Jones, Thomas M. (American tourist), 206, 212–13
Jones, Walter, Jr. (U.S. attorney for District of Columbia), 479
Jones, William (president of Second Bank of the United States), 454
Jordan, Dorothea (English actress), 590
_Journal de l'Empire_ , 230, 346
_Journal du Nord_ , 233
Joy, George (American commercial agent in London), 357, 370–71
Judges, salaries of, 38–39
Judiciary, 116, 375
Judiciary Act, 38–39
Just, Baron (Saxon minister at London), 378
Juvenal, 236
Kane, Elias K. (Illinois secretary of state), 558
Karl (archduke of Austria), 187
Karl XIII (of Sweden), 183
Karl Friedrich (grand duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach), 263
Karl Georg August (prince of Brunswick), 62–63
Kean, Edmund (English actor), 589–90
Kearsley, Jonathan (office seeker), 466
Keith, Mr. (visitor), 143
Kelly, Michael: _Of Age Tomorrow_ , 322
Kendall, Ephraim (Harvard classmate), 25
Kenny, Patrick (Catholic priest), 551
Kent, Duke of (Edward, son of George III), 361–62, 369, 376–77, 395–96, 549
Kentucky, 313, 320, 327, 374, 438, 461, 468, 555, 558, 598
_Kentucky Reporter_ , 453
Key, Francis Scott, 479
Key, Philip Barton (U.S. representative from Maryland), 145
Kiel, Germany, 173
Kiev, Russia (now Ukraine), 200
Kilham, Daniel (Newburyport apothecary), 33–34
Kimball, Mr. (American in St. Petersburg), 239, 249
King, Charles Bird (American painter), 498
King, Hester Fortescue (wife of Peter King), 355
King, Peter (British peer), 355
King, Rufus, 13, 103, 121; U.S. minister at London, 77–78, 84, 86, 413; U.S. senator from New York, 354–55, 431, 460–61, 498, 525, 527–31, 533, 536, 540, 545–46, 594–95
King, William (Massachusetts state senator), 515
Kinnaird, Douglas (London banker), 352
Kinnaird, George (London banker), 109
Kirkland, John T. (Harvard president), 124
Klosterman, Mr. (St. Petersburg bookseller), 189
Knobloch, Herr (at Brandenburg), 84
Knox, Henry, 13, 46, 95, 465
Knox, Henry J. (son of Henry Knox), 430
Knox, Lucy Flucker (wife of Henry Knox), 47
Koe, John H. (secretary to Jeremy Bentham), 408
Kollock, Henry (Presbyterian minister), 409
Konovnitsyn, Piotr (Russian general), 250
Konstantin Pavlovich (brother of Alexander I), 183–84, 192, 215
Kosciuszko, Tadeusz (Polish general), 81
Kosodavlev, Osip (Russian interior minister), 274
Kotschuley, Count (Russian aristocrat), 267
Kotzebue, August von (German playwright), 84
Kovno, Russia (now Kaunas, Lithuania), 237–38
Krabbe, Mr. (Danish legation secretary at St. Petersburg), 274
Krayenhoff, Cornelius R. (Batavian official), 59
Krehmer, Annette (wife of Sebastian Krehmer), 212, 244–46, 260
Krehmer, George (Russian diplomat), 174, 207
Krehmer, J. A., 252–53
Krehmer, Sally (daughter of Sebastian Krehmer), 212
Krehmer, Sebastian (St. Petersburg merchant), 176, 212
Kreutzer, Rodolphe (French composer), 318
Kristiansand, Norway, 171–72
Kronstadt, Russia, 173, 203
Krusenstern, Adam (Russian admiral), 193
Kurakin, Alexander (Russian minister at Paris), 200, 220, 230, 236
Kutuzov, Mikhail (Russian field marshal), 242, 250, 252
La Châtre, Claude-Louis de (French minister at London), 398
Lacock, Abner (U.S. senator from Pennsylvania), 439, 466
La Colombe, Louis Saint-Ange Morel de (French army officer), 44–45
Lafayette, Marie-Adrienne-Françoise de, 12
Lafayette, Marie-Joseph du Motier de, 8–9, 15, 44–45, 64, 80, 271, 338, 349–50
La Garde, Charles-Auguste de (French foreign minister), 203
Lake of the Woods, 319
Lake Ontario, 243, 299
Lake Superior, 300
Lalande, Joseph-Jérôme de (French astronomer), 279
Lalin, M. (French court official), 337
La Luzerne, Anne-César de (French minister to the United States), 9
Lammens, Pierre (Ghent antiquarian), 330
Land Office, U.S., 425, 482, 496
Lang, John (newspaper editor), 420
Langdon, John (New Hampshire politician), 515
Larieu, M. (of Haverhill), 21
La Rochefoucauld, François de, 511
La Salle, René-Robert Cavelier de, 455
Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 486
Lathrop, John (Congregational minister), 140
Laubespin, comte de (François-Emmanuel Mouchet), 349
Laubespin, comtesse de (Augustine-Emilie Mouchet), 349
Laurie, James (Presbyterian minister), 99, 106, 487–88
Lauriston, Jacques (French minister at St. Petersburg), 203, 210, 212–13, 215, 219, 233, 236–40, 262–63
Laval de Montmorency, comte de, 189, 204, 212, 249, 340
Laval de Montmorency, Mme. de, 249
Law, Thomas (Washington developer), 498, 560
Law/lawyers, 41, 374–75, 407, 580
Lee, Henry ("Light-Horse Harry") (U.S. general), 111–12
Lee, Richard Bland, 497; U.S. representative from Virginia, 38
Lee, Richard Henry (Continental Congress delegate), 13
Lee, William (U.S. Treasury Department auditor), 436, 566
Legge, Edward (bishop of Oxford), 372
Leipzig, Germany, 274–75
Le Monnier, Guillaume-Antoine (French cleric), 2
Lens, Philippe de (mayor of Ghent), 293
_Leopard_ , H.M.S., 141, 563
Leopold, Prince (later Leopold I of Belgium), 395
Leslie, Charles Robert (English painter), 399
Lessing, Gotthold: _Emila Galotti_ , 85; _Minna von Barnhelm_ , 85
_Letters on Silesia_ (J. Q. Adams), 264
Lever, Ashton (exhibitor), 7
Levering, Aaron R. (office seeker), 424
Lewis, Eleanor Parke Custis (granddaughter of Martha Washington), 89
Lewis, John D. (American merchant in St. Petersburg), 260, 266, 269, 272, 284
Lewis, Joseph, Jr. (U.S. representative from Virginia), 153
Lewis, Lawrence (nephew of George Washington), 89
Lewis, Meriwether, 88, 137, 145
Lewis, William Thomas (English actor), 55
Lexington, Ky., 498
Leynowski, Mr. (St. Petersburg bookseller), 189
Liberia, 477–78, 512–13
Liberty, 27–29, 32, 44, 415, 528–29, 536, 538, 540, 543–44
Libraries, 16, 32–33, 215–16, 330, 407, 455, 490
Library of Congress, 146, 455
Lieven, Christophe von (Russian minister at London), 268, 353–54, 373, 375–77
Lieven, Dorothea von, 373, 375–76, 381
Lille, France, 344
Lillo, George: _The London Merchant_ , 3
Lincoln, Benjamin (Continental Army general), 466
Lisbon, Portugal, 78
Literature, 579–80
Little, Moses (Harvard classmate), 25, 33, 35
Little, Robert (Unitarian minister), 571
Livermore, Arthur (U.S. representative from New Hampshire), 516–17, 533–34, 590
Liverpool, Earl of (Robert Jenkinson) (British prime minister), 356, 398
Liverpool, England, 392–93, 406, 410, 549–50
Livingston, Henry Brockholst (U.S. Supreme Court justice), 430, 530
Livingston, Peter Van Brugh (visitor), 533
Livingston, Robert R. (New York chancellor), 483
Livonia, 225–26
Lloyd, James: Harvard classmate, 25; Boston merchant, 97; U.S. senator from Massachusetts, 158
Locke, John: _Essay on Human Understanding_ , 20–22, 92
Logan, George (U.S. senator from Pennsylvania), 121, 130–31
London, England, 11, 49, 102, 130, 139, 239, 273, 284, 325, 333, 428, 513, 581; JQA in, 4–7, 50–59, 66–78, 351–417
_London Gazette_ , 259
Long Island, 13
Lormery, M. (of Paris), 344
Loughborough, Baron (Alexander Wedderburn), 57
Louis XII (of France), 216
Louis XV (of France), 283
Louis XVI (of France), 8, 10–11, 68, 359
Louis XVIII (of France), 291, 337, 339–45, 355, 371, 374
Louisiana: as territory, 113–14, 121; as state, 417, 463, 483
Louisiana Purchase, 100–101, 104–9, 206, 322, 476, 479, 488, 497, 502, 529, 532, 537, 555
Louis-Philippe (duc d'Orléans, later king of France), 352
Love, Robert (presidential elector) 446, 449
Lovell, James (Harvard student), 24
Lowell, John, Jr. (Massachusetts lawyer), 96, 141
Löwenhielm, Carl (Swedish minister at St. Petersburg), 251
Löwenhielm, Gustave (Swedish diplomat), 267
Lower Canada (now Québec), 300
Lowndes, Sarah B. (wife of Thomas Lowndes), 102
Lowndes, Thomas (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 102
Lowndes, William (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 432, 464, 502, 514, 517, 523–26, 596
Lowth, Robert: "The Judgement of Hercules," 40
Lübeck, Germany, 203
Lucretius, 145
Luke, James (U.S. consul at Belfast), 370
Lundy's Lane, battle of, 311
Luther, Martin, 226
Lutherans, 225, 266
Lützow, Johann von (Prussian general), 82
Luxbourg, Charles de (Bavarian legation secretary at St. Petersburg), 200
Luzac, Elias: _Hollands Rijkdom_ ( _Richesse de la Hollande_ ), 75
Lycurgus, 171
Lyle, Mr. (American in London), 78
Lyman, Theodore (Massachusetts merchant), 97
Lyon, France, 224, 339–41
Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de (French _philosophe_ ), 2–3
MacDonough, Thomas (U.S. commodore), 549
_Macedonian_ , H.M.S., 260–61
Macey, Stephen (captain of _Alfred_ ), 49, 170
MacGregor, Gregor (Scottish filibuster), 432, 458
Machias, Mass. (now Me.), 313
Mackintosh, Catherine Stuart, 352
Mackintosh, James (Whig jurist/historian), 352, 373–76
Maclay, Samuel (U.S. senator from Pennsylvania), 147
Macon, Nathaniel (of North Carolina): U.S. representative, 101; U.S. senator, 428
Madison, Dolley Payne, 88, 435
Madison, James, 70, 88, 146, 407–8, 426, 440, 467, 522, 565–66; U.S. representative from Virginia, 38; U.S. secretary of state, 100, 107, 110, 125, 130–31; election of 1808, 150, 152, 156, 158; inauguration of, 163; appointment of JQA as U.S. minister at St. Petersburg, 163–64, 167; election of 1812, 255–56, 261, 489; appointment of JQA as peace negotiator at Ghent, 270, 272; appointment of JQA as U.S. minister at London, 221–22, 354; consideration of JQA as U.S. secretary of state, 403–4; on national bank, 520; and peace negotiations at Ghent, 317, 343; and presidential electioneering, 506–7; and relations with Russia, 176, 178, 186, 198, 219, 268; and treaty of commerce negotiations in London, 382; on U.S. Navy, 379; and War of 1812, 241, 314
Madrid, Spain, 249, 428, 498
Magruder, Patrick (U.S. representative from Maryland), 145
Mahmud II (sultan of Ottoman Empire), 391–92
Maine: as district of Massachusetts, 300–301, 313, 319, 326–27; as state, 537–38, 545–46, 558
Mair, John: _Book-keeping Methodised_ , 90
Maisonneuve, Joseph de (Russian court master-of-ceremonies), 176, 180–81, 277
Maisonneuve, Mme. de (friend of Lafayette), 81
Majority rule, 36
Malden, Mass., 92
Malou, Peter (Jesuit priest), 225, 228
Malta, 326
Manifest Destiny, 502–3
Manilius, Marcus: _Astronomicon_ , 399–400
Mansfield, Earl of (David Murray) (British privy councilor), 72
Manufacturing, 330, 393–94, 482, 491, 510, 520, 543, 561, 573
Marbois, Count. _See_ Barbé-Marbois, François de
_Marbury v. Madison_ , 110
March, Earl of (Charles Gordon-Lennox) (Tory MP), 373, 375
Maret, Hugues-Bernard. _See_ Bassano, duc de
Maria Feodorovna (empress dowager of Russia, née Sophie von Württemberg), 181, 183–84, 192, 215, 237–38, 271, 274–75
Maria Pavlovna (grand duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach), 263
Marie-Antoinette (queen of France), 10
Marie-Louise (empress of France, wife of Napoléon), 190, 345
Marivaux, Pierre de Carlet de Chamberlain de: _Les fausses confidences_ , 348
Markov, Arkady I. (Russian diplomat), 202, 274
Marks (captain of _Angerona_ ), 228
Marlborough, Mass., 14, 32
Marmontel, Jean-François (French historian), 135
Marseilles, France, 114
Marshall, James (special envoy), 80
Marshall, John, 163; _Life of Washington_ , 128–29, 373; U.S. Supreme Court chief justice, 530
Marston, John, Jr. (Quincy neighbor), 421
Martens, Georg Friedrich von: _Recueil de traites_ , 290, 450
Martin, Luther (Maryland jurist), 152, 163
Martin, Robert (servant), 417
Mary, Princess (daughter of George III), 369
Mary, Queen of Scots, 216
Maryland, 120, 424–25
Mason, Anna Maria (wife of John Mason), 130
Mason, Armistead Thomson (U.S. senator from Virginia), 472–73
Mason, John (Washington merchant), 130, 436; and American Colonization Society, 479
Mason, John, Jr. (secretary to James Monroe), 449
Mason, Jonathan (U.S. senator from Massachusetts), 93–94, 96, 105
Mason, Stevens Thomson (U.S. senator from Virginia), 101, 472
Mason, William (Harvard classmate), 25
Massachusetts, 179, 313, 331, 574–75, 582; commerce in, 96; early settlements in, 265, 306; Indians in, 306; JQA in, 14–44, 87–99, 124–25, 133–37, 140–43, 149, 156–62, 164–70; and Maine statehood, 537–38, 545; politics in, 36–37, 91–98, 140–42, 147, 158–60, 431, 553, 557, 594–95; Shays's Rebellion in, 26–27, 37; and Treaty of Ghent, 301, 319, 326–27
Massachusetts Historical Society, 145
Massillon, Jean-Baptiste, 171, 530; _Petit Carême_ , 283
Mathers, James (U.S. Senate sergeant-at-arms), 117
Maund, John James (Virginia state senator), 46
Maury, James (U.S. consul at Liverpool), 366, 373, 550
Maxwell, Charles W. (British governor of Sierra Leone), 393
McCarty, John Mason (duelist), 473
McCormick, A. Thomas (Episcopal priest), 500, 571
McCulloch, James H. (U.S. customs collector at Baltimore), 495–96
McEvers, Charles, Jr. (New York merchant), 59–60, 63
McLean, John (Illinois politician), 557–58
McTavish, Emily Caton, 536
McTavish, John (British consul at Baltimore), 536
Medford, Macall (London merchant), 78
Medford, Mass., 30, 92
Meigs, Clara Forsyth (daughter of Henry Meigs), 524
Meigs, Henry (U.S. representative from New York), 503, 523–24
Meigs, Josiah (U.S. Land Office commissioner), 425, 503
Meigs, Julianna Austin (wife of Henry Meigs), 523–24
Meigs, Return J. (U.S. postmaster general), 460, 503
Mellen, Prentiss (U.S. senator from Massachusetts), 546
Mellimelli, Soliman (Tunisian minister at Washington), 129
Melnitz, Mme. de (of Saxony), 84
Memel, Prussia (now Klaipeda, Lithuania), 340
Memel River, 237–38
Menzikoff, Princess (of Russia), 80
Mercer, Charles Fenton (U.S. representative from Virginia), 462, 473, 486
Merle, Jean-François: _Le Savetier et le Financier_ , 347
Merry, Anthony (British minister at Washington), 105, 127, 131
Merry, Elizabeth Leathes, 105, 109
Mersen, Mr. (of The Hague), 62
Methodists, 362, 375–76
Meulemeester van Aken, Jean de (Ghent banker), 291, 308, 334
Meulemeester van Aken, Thérèse, 291
Mexico, 364, 452, 502, 554–55
Meyer, J. C. (St. Petersburg merchant), 175
Michigan Territory, 300
Michillimackinac (Mackinac) Island, 313
Micklefield, William (bankruptcy case), 92
Middleton, Conn., 14
Middleton, Henry, 498; U.S. representative from South Carolina, 430, 440; U.S. minister at St. Petersburg, 525
Middleton, Mary Hering, 498
Mifflin, Mr. (in Ghent), 311
Mifflin, Thomas (Pennsylvania governor), 70
Mikhail Pavlovich (brother of Alexander I), 277–79
Milan Decree, 203, 222, 350
Militia, 465; Georgia, 429, 470; Massachusetts, 26–27; Pennsylvania, 438
Milligan, George (secretary to James Bayard), 269, 277, 288, 290, 336, 339
Mills, Samuel J. (of American Colonization Society), 425
Milman, Henry Hart (Anglican priest), 372
Milon, Louis: _Nina_ , 343
Milton, John: _Comus_ , 47; _Paradise Lost_ , 75–76, 160, 545; _The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates_ , 47
Milton, Mass., 38
Mina y Larrea, Martín Francisco Javier (Spanish general), 370
Mirabeau, comte de (Honoré-Gabriel de Riqueti) (French statesman), 44–45, 47–48, 80
Mississippi River, 300, 315, 318–23, 326, 330, 417, 434, 463, 476, 502, 533, 556
Missouri: as territory, 127, 497, 514, 517–18, 520, 524–26, 528–38; as state, 537–38, 540, 554, 571, 574–76, 590–91, 595
Missouri Compromise, 520, 524, 532–41, 543, 545–46, 548, 555, 558, 560–61, 571, 574–76, 595–97
Mitchell, Nahum (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 105
Mitchill, Samuel L. (U.S. senator from New York), 113, 115, 126, 130, 137, 139, 145–47, 149, 151
Mohawks, 307
Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin): _L'École des Femmes_ , 345; _George Dandin_ , 340; _Le Tartuffe_ , 348
Moltke, Countess von (Prussian lady-in-waiting), 84
Monarchy, 3, 28, 47, 154–55, 414–16, 550
_Moniteur_ (Paris), 208, 339, 344
Monroe, Elizabeth Kortright, 435, 460, 475, 549
Monroe, James, 152, 467, 474, 480, 491, 514–16, 523, 525, 549, 551, 560, 566–67, 570, 583, 585, 587, 597; delegate from Virginia to Confederation Congress, 13; U.S. minister at Paris, 61, 63, 70; U.S. minister at London, 130–31, 139, 353; as U.S. secretary of state, 166, 230, 241, 248, 256, 284, 289, 294, 298, 301, 314, 316, 331, 333–34, 340, 358, 367, 378, 382, 404; election of 1816, 398–99, 453, 463, 469, 471, 552, 559; appointment of JQA as U.S. secretary of state, 404, 406, 412, 426; election of 1820, 436–38, 461–63, 469–72, 506, 519, 552, 582, 591; on British naval searches for slave traders, 576, 579; cabinet meetings, 413, 426–29, 431–34, 445–51, 462–66, 507–13, 517–18, 562, 571–73; on colonization movement, 477–78, 486, 512–13; on diplomatic matters, 425–26, 429–30, 439–42, 451, 565; on fiscal matters, 521–22; on Florida treaty, 475, 499, 501, 503–5, 508–9, 517–18, 572–73, 592; on Indians, 429, 440, 443, 548; on internal improvements, 464–66, 510–12; messages to Congress, 433, 435, 501, 505, 507–13, 523, 571–73; on military incursions in Florida, 427, 429, 431–35, 440–51, 453, 458–59, 462–64; on Missouri question, 518, 520, 524, 538, 546, 571; on slavery, 460, 478–79; on South American revolutions, 427, 437–39, 501, 508–9, 531, 572; as Virginian, 422, 424, 439–40, 452–54, 478–79, 498, 506, 554, 557; on territories becoming states, 540–42
Monroe, James (nephew of James Monroe), 549
Monroe, Joseph Jones (secretary to James Monroe), 475
Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, 139–40
_Monsieur Credule_ (farce), 347
_Monsiuer Crouton_ (farce), 347
Montesquieu, baron de (Charles-Louis de Secondat), 102, 430
Montgelas, Maximilien von (Bavarian foreign minister), 200
Montgolfier, Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne (aeronauts), 8
Montréal, F. E. (French diplomat), 191–92, 195, 227, 233, 236, 240, 249, 260, 285
Montrose, Duke of (James Graham) (British courtier), 406
Moore, Daniel (office seeker), 466
Moose Island, 301, 319, 326–27
More, Hannah: _Cœlebs in Search of a Wife_ , 246
Moreau, Jean-Victor (French general), 154
Morier, John Philip (British undersecretary of state for foreign affairs), 356
Morley, Earl of (John Parker) (British peer), 381
_Morning Chronicle_ (London), 240, 342
Morocco, 10
Morris, Gouverneur, 61, 63, 66–68
Morris, Lewis (signer of Declaration of Independence), 430
Morris, William W. (office seeker), 430
Morse, Eliakim (merchant), 141
Morse, Jedidiah (Congregational minister), 157, 225
Morse, John (Harvard student), 141
Morton, Perez (Massachusetts politician), 141–42
Morton, Sarah Wentworth Apthorp (American poet), 109
Moscow, Russia, 228, 249–52, 262–63, 274, 444
Moses, 280
Moses, Mr., 370
Mouchet, Miss (dinner guest), 113
Mount Vernon, 88–89
Moxon, Mr. (St. Petersburg merchant), 242
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus: _Don Giovanni_ , 408–9; _Le Nozze di Figaro_ , 339
Muhammad, Mahmud ibn (bey of Tunis), 391
Muilman & Sons (Amsterdam mercantile firm), 60
Münchhausen, Alexander von (Hanoverian statesman), 79
Munroe, Isaac (newspaper editor), 524
Münster, Ernst H. (Hanoverian minister at London), 368, 378
Murat, Joachim (king of Naples), 252
Murdoch, Mr., 366
Murdock, Mr. (American in London), 78
_Murfreesboro Courier_ , 492–93
Murphy, Arthur: _The Citizen_ , 5
Murray, James (Annapolis physician), 130
Murray, James (British courtier), 406
Murray, John (Universalist minister), 99
Murray, Mr. (commercial agent), 496
Murray, William Vans (U.S. minister at The Hague), 82, 84–86
Naldi, Giuseppe (Italian basso), 409
Nantucket, 151
Naples, Italy, 391, 401, 519
Napoléon Bonaparte, 157, 174, 192, 200, 202, 210–11, 223–24, 229, 239, 244, 253, 264, 274, 285, 326, 353, 355; as first consul, 104; Berlin Decree, 139, 148, 203, 222, 350; personal details about, 186–87, 204, 222, 232; marriage to Marie-Louise, 190; Milan Decree, 203, 222, 350; and invasion of Russia, 250–51, 254–55, 262–63; returns to France from Elba, 339–50, 356; defeat at Waterloo, 357
Naryshkin, Alexander L. (Russian grand chamberlain), 219, 252, 254
Naryshkin, Lev A. (Russian aide-de-camp), 254
Naryshkin, Maria Alexeievna (wife of Alexander Naryshkin), 254
Nashville, Tenn., 459, 463, 467, 470
_National Advocate_ (New York), 436, 488
National bank. _See_ Second Bank of the United States
_National Intelligencer_ (Washington, D.C.), 268, 276, 449, 451, 453, 493, 552, 583, 586
_National Register_ (Washington, D.C.), 493
Naturalization, 258, 385, 387–88
Navarro d'Andrade, Rodrigo de (Portuguese chargé d'affaires at St. Petersburg), 174, 200, 202, 208, 212
Navigation Act (U.S.), 444, 460
Navigation Acts (Britain), 57
Navy, British, 1, 54, 177, 249–50, 288, 304–5, 389; _Chesapeake-Leopard_ affair, 141, 223, 563; conflict with Barbary states, 390–92; impressment of American seamen, 110, 129–30, 139–40, 146, 148, 157, 253–54, 257–58, 261, 264, 292–93, 315, 353, 379–80, 385–88, 568, 577–79; in Napoleonic wars, 171–72; search for slave traders, 403, 417, 482–83, 485, 567–69, 576–79; in War of 1812, 251–53, 260–61, 267, 313
Navy, Danish, 171–72
Navy, Dutch, 401
Navy, French, 48, 177, 356
Navy, U.S., 48, 61, 170, 203, 379, 391, 394, 491, 510, 513, 572–73; _Chesapeake-Leopard_ affair, 141, 223, 563; congressional appropriations for, 137; on Great Lakes, 299–301, 303, 307, 312; and suppression of slave trade, 573, 579; in War of 1812, 252–53, 260–61, 267, 313
Necker, Jacques (French finance minister), 45, 243
Negroes, 228, 370–71; carried off by British navy, 56, 304–5, 308, 332, 386, 388–90; free persons of color, 425, 455, 478–79, 485–87, 513, 571, 574–76; fugitive slaves, 460, 575; as servants, 169, 191, 196, 241, 270, 316, 318; as slaves, 12, 384, 532–35, 538–41, 543–44, 556, 575–76, 596. _See also_ Slavery; Slave trade
Nelson, Hugh (U.S. representative from Virginia), 553–54, 582–84
Nelson, Jeremiah (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 537
Nelson (servant), 169, 191
_Neptune_ (ship), 322, 333–35, 351
Nesselrode, Karl (Russian diplomat), 200, 233, 279, 368
Netherlands, 174, 182, 284, 355, 401, 440, 519; under French rule, 59–66; JQA as minister to, 43, 48, 58–66, 69, 72–74, 76, 287; and slave trade, 483, 485, 567–69, 577
Neutrality, 59, 67, 130, 157, 177–78, 186, 200–201, 222, 230, 294, 385, 508–9, 568, 572
New Brunswick, 300
Newbury, Mass., 37
Newburyport, Mass., 30–37
New England Confederation, 319
New Hampshire, 19
New Haven, Conn., 157, 425
New Jersey, 533
New Mexico (part of Mexico), 364
New Orleans, La., 113, 455; battle of, 339–40, 342–44, 397
_New Packet_ (ship), 371, 378
Newport, John (Whig MP), 352
Newport, R.I., 421
New South Wales (Australia), 587–88
Newton, Thomas, Jr. (U.S. representative from Virginia), 150, 573
New York, 123, 243, 498, 516, 561; politics in, 461, 488–90, 527–28, 547, 552, 558, 593–94, 598
_New York Advocate_ , 566
New York City, 86, 111, 178, 225, 228, 230, 276, 284, 343, 378, 424–25, 436, 490, 528, 566–67; Continental Congress in 13–14; federal government in, 38–39; JQA in, 44, 88, 419–21
_New York Commercial Advertiser_ , 241
Ney, Michel (French field marshal), 254, 342
Nicholas, Ellen (daughter of George Nicholas), 401
Nicholas, George (British schoolmaster), 361–62, 372, 407
Nicholas, Wilson Cary (U.S. senator from Virginia), 104, 153–54
Nicholas Pavlovich (brother of Alexander I, later Nicholas I), 277–78
Nicholls, Edward (Royal Marines officer), 363, 442, 458
Nikolai, Pavel (Russian diplomat), 378
_Niles' Register_ (newspaper), 367, 467
Noah, Mordecai M. (newspaper editor), 436–37, 566–67
Noailles, Louis-Marie de (French émigré), 47
Non-Importation Act, 139, 147–48, 151–52
Nootka Sound, 194
Norfolk, Va., 482
Norman, Thomas W. (U.S. consul at St. Petersburg), 285
Normandie, duc de (dauphin, later Louis XVII), 10–11
Northampton, Mass., 26
North Carolina, 553
Northwest Ordinance, 540–43
Norton, Elizabeth Cranch (cousin), 15, 20–21, 206
Norton, John (Teyoninhokarawen) (Mohawk chief), 307
Nourse, Joseph (U.S. Treasury Department register), 426
Nova Scotia, 154, 300–301, 313
O'Brien, Richard H. (former Barbary captive), 560
Ohio, 300, 534, 540, 543, 554
Ohio River, 502
Oldenburg, duchy of, 202, 232, 236
Old Sarum, England 415
Olivet, Pierre-Joseph: _Entretiens de Cicéron sur la nature des dieux_ , 265
Ompteda, Ludwig von (Hanoverian chargé d'affaires at Berlin), 80
Onís, Luis de (Spanish minister at Washington), 410, 433–36, 440, 443–44, 447–52, 461–63, 467–68, 473–74, 476, 493, 556
Opera, 187, 302, 318, 339–41, 343, 346–47, 367, 396, 408–9
Oran, Algeria, 391
Oratory. _See_ Rhetoric and oratory
Orders-in-Council (Britain), 230–32, 239, 257, 264
Oregon Country, 193–94, 364, 479, 583–84, 587–88
Orléans, duc d' (Louis-Philippe, later king of France), 352
Orpheus, 399–401
Orr, Benjamin G. (Washington mayor), 497
Osages, 127
Osgood, David (Congregational minister), 157
Osgood, Isaac (Haverhill merchant), 21
Osmond, René-Eustache d' (French minister at London), 378, 398
Ossian, 374
Ostervald, Jean-Frédéric (Swiss theologian), 195
Otis, George A. (Boston banker), 419, 421, 550–51
Otis, Harrison Gray: 94, 96, 133, 140, 154–55, 157, 159–60; U.S. senator from Massachusetts, 475, 526, 531, 545
Otis, James (Massachusetts patriot), 373
Otis, Sally Foster (wife of Harrison Gray Otis), 531
Otis, Samuel Allyne (secretary of U.S. Senate), 99, 159
Ottoman Empire, 65, 192, 391–92, 401, 439
Oudinot, Nicolas (French field marshal), 241
Ovid, 551, 582
Oxford University, 354
Pacific Ocean, 364, 447, 476, 479, 502, 556, 582–84, 587–88
Page, Mr. (commercial agent), 393
Pahlen, Nikolai (brother of Théodore), 337
Pahlen, Théodore (Russian minister at Washington), 185, 208–9
Pain, May (servant), 417
Paine, Robert Treat (Massachusetts attorney general), 27
Pakenham, Edward (British general), 340, 397
Paley, William, 243; _Natural Theology_ , 266–67
Palfrey, Cazneau (Unitarian minister), 593
Palm d'Aelders, Etta (Dutch revolutionary), 65
Palmer, John (English actor), 54
Panic of 1819, 491, 496
Panin, Nikita P. (Russian diplomat), 202
Paper money, 64, 492, 520, 546, 561
Pardo de Figueroa, Benito (Spanish diplomat), 190, 202
Parella, marchesa di Provana, 80
Parella, marchese di San Martino (Sardinian minister at Berlin), 80
Paris, France, 5, 53, 119, 179, 188, 190, 200, 204–5, 210–11, 213–14, 219–22, 224, 229–30, 233, 255, 262, 287–88, 301, 316, 410, 412, 428, 455, 524; JQA in, 1–4, 7–12, 335–50, 562, 565, 581; peace talks in, 2–3
Park, James A.: _A System of the Law of Marine Insurances_ , 91–92
Parker, Daniel (U.S. Army inspector general), 566
Parkman, Francis (Harvard student), 141
Parkman, George (Harvard student), 141
Parkman, Samuel (Boston developer), 141
Parliament, British, 205, 256, 292, 353, 355, 587; abolitionists in, 253, 390, 577–79; debate in, 529; George III's speech to, 188; JQA attends sessions of, 73, 361, 416; Navigation Acts, 57; Prince Regent's speech to, 223, 405–6; and reform, 413, 415–17; representation in, 375; slavery legislation, 305; and slave trade, 253–54, 389–90; Viscount Castlereagh's remarks in, 261, 304
Parrott, John F. (U.S. senator from New Hampshire), 545–46
Parry, William (American arms manufacturer), 366
Parsons, Theophilus (Massachusetts jurist), 30, 32–33, 35, 98, 157
Passamaquoddy Bay, 301, 313, 319
Passy, France, 1–3
Patent Office, U.S., 483–84, 547
Patriotism, 54–55, 131, 162, 367, 412, 458, 592–93
Patterson, J. W. (American in St. Petersburg), 218
Patterson, Marianne (wife of Robert Patterson), 413
Patterson, Robert (Baltimore merchant), 536
Paucton, Alexis-Jean: _Métrologie_ , 228
Paul (saint), 195, 226
Paul (servant), 196–97
Paul I (of Russia), 216, 278
Paulucci delle Roncole, Filippo (Sardinian general in Russian service), 251–52
Payne, Anne (sister of Dolley Madison), 88
Payne, Mrs. G., 160
Peabody, Stephen (uncle), 133–34
Pearson, Eliphalet (founder of Andover Theological Seminary), 455
Pendleton, Edmund (Virginia patriot), 101
Pendleton, Nathaniel (New York jurist), 164
Penn, William, 178, 306
Pennsylvania, 306, 408, 438, 464, 466, 498, 553, 594
Pensacola, Fla., 443–53, 462–64, 470, 504–5
Pension Act, 513, 598
Perceval, Spencer (British prime minister), 205, 231, 251, 264
Percy, Charles (British army officer), 395
Perkins, Jacob (Philadelphia engraver), 455
Perkins, Samuel G. (Boston merchant), 351
Perry, Oliver Hazard (U.S. commodore), 491, 525
Persia, ancient, 255
Peter, Thomas (of Georgetown), 443
Peter (saint), 195, 226
Peter (servant of Albert Gallatin), 316, 318
Peter I (of Russia), 179
Peters, Richard, Jr. (U.S. district court judge for eastern Pennsylvania), 532
Pétion, Jérôme de Villeneuve (Paris mayor), 45
Petry, Jean-Baptiste (French diplomat), 348
Pfeffel, Hubert Freiherr von (Bavarian minister at London), 378, 381
Philadelphia, Pa., 9–10, 88–89, 109, 125–26, 147, 152, 178, 217, 431, 453–55, 475, 550, 589; federal government in, 43–49, 72
Philippine Auguste von Brandenburg (wife of Friedrich II of Hesse), 80
Phillips, John (Massachusetts state senator), 91, 142
Pichegru, Jean-Charles (French general), 60, 64–65
Pichon, Emilie Brongniart, 105
Pichon, Louis-André (French chargé d'affaires at Washington), 104–5
Pickering, John (U.S. district court judge for New Hampshire), 104, 115, 117, 122
Pickering, Timothy: U.S. secretary of state, 66, 69–70, 77, 82, U.S. senator from Massachusetts, 94–96, 105–7, 115, 132, 154
Pickman, Benjamin, Jr. (Massachusetts politician), 94
Pierpont, Mr. (informant), 53
Pike, Zebulon (American explorer), 145
Pilâtre de Rozier, Jean-François (aeronaut), 8
Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth (South Carolina statesman), 121
Pinckney, Thomas (U.S. minister at London), 53–56, 69, 72, 112, 354, 413
Pine, Robert Edge (English painter), 6
Pinkney, William: U.S. minister at London, 139, 205, 353, 378; 442; U.S. senator from Maryland, 525–26
Piomingo (Chickasaw chief), 45–46
Pistols, 364, 473
Pitcairn, Joseph (U.S. consul at Hamburg), 85–86
Pitt, Christopher (English poet), 75
Pitt, Frances Percy (wife of London K. Pitt), 252
Pitt, London K. (Anglican priest in St. Petersburg), 212, 245, 252
Pitt, William (the Elder), 6
Pitt, William (the Younger), 48, 67
Pizarro, José García (Spanish foreign minister), 434
Planta, Joseph (secretary to Viscount Castlereagh), 356, 378, 380
Plantou, Julia (American painter), 430–31
Plato, 214–17, 227, 266
Plattsburgh, N.Y., 313
Pleasanton, Stephen (U.S. State Department clerk), 425–26, 466
Plenti (Sardinian diplomat), 59
Plumer, William (U.S. senator from New Hampshire), 144
Plumer, William, Jr. (U.S. representative from New Hampshire), 533–34, 591
Plummer, Ernest (American supercargo), 233, 239–40, 251, 266
Plutarch, 171, 236
Plymouth, England, 343, 351
Podewils, Peter von (Prussian official), 85
Poinsett, Joel Roberts: U.S. diplomat at St. Petersburg, 180–82; U.S. special agent to Argentina and Chile, 495
Poland, 3, 201–2, 250
Polangen, Russia (now Palanga, Lithuania), 237
Poletika, Peter I. (Russian minister at Washington), 492, 499, 524–25, 531, 563
Political parties, 91, 103, 122, 132, 140, 142, 152, 155, 158, 518, 591
Polotsk, Russia (now Belarus), 251
Poltava, battle of, 239
Pomerania, 229
Pope, Alexander, 75–76, 84, 137; _The Dunciad_ , 399; "Messiah," 579; _Moral Essays_ , 580
Pope, Eliza Johnson (sister-in-law), 113, 124
Pope, John, 468; U.S. senator from Kentucky, 153
Pope, Nathaniel (U.S. district court judge for Illinois), 557–58
Porter, Huntington (Congregational minister), 19
Porteus, Beilby (Anglican bishop of London), 73
Portland, Duke of (William Cavendish) (British home secretary), 72, 74
Portugal, 64, 78, 87, 172, 174, 303, 305, 403, 425–26, 519; and slave trade, 482, 485, 567–69, 577; in Napoleonic wars, 198, 224
Post, Reuben (Presbyterian minister), 546
Post Office Department, U.S., 598
Potomac River, 148; bathing in, 442, 444–46, 448–49, 452, 496, 498–99, 565
Potsdam, Germany, 81
Poulett, John (British peer), 378
Poverty, 402
Powell, Charles Stuart (impresario), 56
Prague, Austrian Empire (now Czech Republic), 326
Pratt, Samuel J.: _The Pupil of Pleasure_ , 17
Presbyterians, 487
Prescott, William Hickling (American historian), 394
Presidential elections: _1796_ , 77; _1800_ , 86; _1804_ , 121; _1808_ , 150, 152, 156, 158; _1812_ , 255–56, 261, 489; _1816_ , 398–99, 453, 463, 469, 471, 552, 558–59, 562; _1820_ , 436–38, 454, 459–63, 468–72, 506–7, 519, 543, 552–54, 558–59, 582, 590–91; _1824_ , 459, 558–59, 593–95, 598
Prevost, George (Governor General of British North America), 303
Prevost, John (New York jurist), 114
Prévost, M. (French diplomat at St. Petersburg), 214
Pride, Thomas (British surveyor), 376
Prince, James (U.S. marshal for Boston), 158
Privateers, 446–47, 495
Proby, Charlotte (daughter of Lord Carysfort), 355
Proby, Elizabeth (daughter of Lord Carysfort), 355
Proby, Frances (daughter of Lord Carysfort), 355
Proby, John (son of Lord Carysfort/Whig MP), 355
Protestants, 18, 213, 225, 266, 414, 551
Proud, Mr. (American commercial agent in St. Petersburg), 237, 241, 266
Providence, R.I., 421
Prussia, 48, 174, 184, 568; and slave trade, 569, 577; JQA as minister to, 78–87; in Napoleonic wars, 177, 229, 236, 274, 346
Puritans, 265, 306
Purviance, Samuel D. (U.S. representative from North Carolina), 102, 109
Putnam, Samuel (Harvard classmate), 25, 33, 35
Pyne, James F. (English tenor), 367
Quakers, 121, 178, 428
Quarles, Tunstall (U.S. representative from Kentucky), 554
_Quarterly Review_ , 360
Québec City, Lower Canada, 300
Queenston Heights, battle of, 259
Quincault, Philippe (French writer), 339
Quincy, Josiah, III, 110, 485, 500; U.S. representative from Massachusetts, 140, 147, 151, 160–63; secretary of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 564
Quincy, Mass., 43, 88–89, 98–99, 101, 117, 124–25, 128, 133–35, 137, 142–43, 157, 159–60, 165–66, 206, 276, 421, 456–57, 499–500
Quintilian, 137
Rabun, William (Georgia governor), 461, 487
Racine, Jean, 174; _Esther_ , 338
Radziwill, Antoni Henryk (husband of Princess Louise of Prussia), 81
Raimbert, François (French merchant in St. Petersburg), 202–3, 218–19
Raleigh, Walter, 450
_Rambler_ , 77
Ramsey, David: _The History of the American Revolution_ , 373
Randall, Paul (American diplomatic secretary), 12
Randolph, David Meade (U.S. marshal for the eastern district of Virginia), 100
Randolph, Edmund (U.S. secretary of state), 43–45, 51, 66, 70
Randolph, John: U.S. representative from Virginia, 115–17, 148; U.S. senator, 426, 428, 454, 525, 535–37, 539, 590
Randolph, Thomas Mann, Jr. (son-in-law of Thomas Jefferson), 113
Rapatel, Mr. (French officer in Russian service), 250
Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio), 153, 216
Rattenbury, Joseph Freeman (Florida landowner), 451
Ray, John: _The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of Creation_ , 266
Raynal, Guillaume-Thomas de (French historian), 47, 106–9
Rayneval, Joseph-Mathias-Gérard de (French diplomat), 229
Rayneval, Maximilien-Gérard de (French diplomat), 189, 214, 237
Rayneval, Mme. de, 237
Read, Nathan (Harvard tutor), 22
Réaumur, René-Antoine de, 3
Reden, Franz von (Hanoverian minister at Berlin), 80
Red River, 447, 477
Redwood, William (American commercial agent in St. Petersburg), 251, 272
Reede, Arend van (Dutch minister at Berlin), 80
Reeves, John: _Two Tracts_ , 325
Reform, 408, 413–16
Regnard, Jean-François (French poet), 553
Rehausen, Gotthard von (Swedish minister at London), 352, 410–12
Reid, Robert Raymond (U.S. representative from Georgia), 597
Reinke, Mrs. (midwife), 207
Religion, 18, 20–21, 239–40, 259, 265, 281, 362, 414, 500, 551
Rensner, Mr. (Prussian official), 83
Republicanism, 27, 66, 80, 178–79, 466, 497
Republican Party, 138, 497; in Congress, 144, 150, 552; and election of 1808, 158; in Massachusetts, 92, 94, 97, 103, 141, 160–62, 557; in New York, 489, 527–28; in Virginia, 69–70, 515
Reval, Russia (now Tallinn, Estonia), 202–3
Revenue and taxation, 27, 482, 492, 518, 520–22, 573, 597–99
Revolutionary War, 12–13, 57, 67, 184, 243, 295, 430, 466, 497, 547, 550; and Abigail Adams, 458; and Articles of Confederation, 541; battle of Bunker Hill, 26; battle of Saratoga, 80; battle of Savannah, 182–83; General Washington crossing the Delaware, 537; and madness of George III, 264–65; paper money during, 64; raising troops for, 507; role of founders in, 373; and slavery, 479, 544; and territorial claims of states, 542. _See also_ Army, Continental; Treaty of Paris
Reynolds, Joshua (British painter), 6
Rhetoric and oratory, 124–25, 128, 133, 136–37
Rhine River, 346
Rhodes, Jacob (Boston politician), 161
Ribke, Mr. (Berlin physician), 82
Rice, Luther (Baptist minister), 536
Richmond, Duke of (Charles Lennox) (British general), 373
Richmond, Va., 530, 598
_Richmond Enquirer_ , 446, 453–54
Ridley, Matthew (Maryland merchant), 2
Riedesel, Friedrich von (Hessian general), 80
Riga, Russia (now Latvia), 200, 340
Río Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande), 447, 468, 502, 555–56
Ripley, Samuel (Harvard divinity student), 159
Rivadavia, Bernardino (Argentine revolutionary), 444
Rivas y Salmon, Francisco Hilario (Spanish legation secretary at Washington), 592
Roads and canals, 438, 464–66, 510–12, 516, 546
Roane, Spencer (Virginia jurist), 446
Robbins, Edward (Massachusetts politician), 140
Robert, Anne-Jean and Nicolas-Louis (aeronauts), 9
Robert Bird & Co. (New York mercantile firm), 102
Roberts, Jonathan (U.S. senator from Pennsylvania), 428, 439, 466
Robertson, George (U.S. representative from Kentucky), 467–68
Robertson, Thomas (U.S. representative from Louisiana), 426
Robespierre, Maximilien-François de, 53
Robinson, Christopher (British admiralty lawyer), 385, 392
Robinson, E. W. (pseudonym), 436–37
Robinson, Frederic (Tory MP/privy councilor), 353, 356, 358–59
Rochester, England, 4
Rochow, Friedrich von (cathedral canon in Halberstadt), 84
Rocky Mountains, 455, 556, 588
Rodde, Jakov B. (U.S. consul at Reval), 202
Rodney, Caesar A. (South American Commission), 448–49, 453, 495
Rogers, Mr. (American in London), 78
Rogers, Thomas J. (U.S. representative from Pennsylvania), 554
Rome, ancient, 28–29, 399–400, 490–91, 503
Rome, Italy, 6
Romilly, Samuel (Whig MP), 413–14
Ross, Mr. (American in London), 78
Rossiell, Mr. (Ghent textile manufacturer), 330
Rossini, Gioacchino: _Il Barbiere di Siviglia_ , 396
Rosslyn, Earl of (James St. Clair–Erskine) (British general), 352
Roth, Charles (French chargé d'affaires at Washington), 570
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 430
Ruggles, Benjamin (U.S. senator from Ohio), 554
Rumford, Count (Benjamin Thompson), 72
Rumiantsev, Nikolai (Russian foreign minister), 173–75, 181, 184–85, 188, 193–94, 197–99, 202, 209–12, 214, 219–24, 229–35, 247–50, 252, 255–58, 261–63, 267–76, 369, 412
Rush, Benjamin, 125–26
Rush, Catherine (wife of Richard Rush), 421
Rush, Richard: acting U.S. secretary of state, 421–22, 424–25; U.S. minister at London, 456, 485, 587
Russell, Benjamin (newspaper editor), 557
Russell, George (son of Jonathan Russell), 297
Russell, Jonathan: U.S. chargé d'affaires at Paris, 204–5; U.S. minister at Stockholm, 237; peace negotiator at Ghent, 284, 288–332, 336, 357–58, 360, 363, 398, 440–41
Russell, Joseph (Boston politician), 94–95
Russell, Mr. (Washington preacher), 531–32
Russia, 3–4, 49, 80, 84, 287, 330, 368–69, 373, 412, 439, 442, 455, 492, 503, 508, 510, 515, 526, 568, 573; and slave trade, 483, 569, 577; commerce with, 163–64, 176, 178, 182, 185, 249, 257, 261, 272; commercial treaty with, 272; French invasion of, 237–39, 241–42, 249–52, 254–56, 258, 262–63, 278; JQA as minister to, 163–64, 166–285; in Napoleonic wars, 200, 228–29, 232, 287–88, 336; offer to mediate War of 1812, 247–49, 255–57, 261–62, 268–73, 279–80; settlement in Oregon Country, 194
Russo-Turkish War, 192
Rutland, Duke of (John H. Manners) (British peer), 378
Rutter, Thomas (U.S. marshal for Maryland), 424
Ryland, William (Methodist minister), 580
Sabine River, 468, 477, 502, 555–56
Sacchini, Antonio: _Œdipe à Colone_ , 343
Sacs, 127
St. Augustine, Fla., 435
Saint-Domingue. _See_ Haiti
Saint-Genest, M. (French diplomat at St. Petersburg), 213–14
Saint Julien, Joseph Guyard (Austrian diplomat at St. Petersburg), 199–200, 234–35, 237, 368
St. Lawrence River, 320, 323
Saint-Olympe, Jean-Baptiste du Buc de (French West Indies merchant), 10
St. Petersburg, Russia, 3, 84, 135, 166, 169, 340, 347, 369, 421, 439; JQA in, 172–285
_St. Petersburg Gazette_ , 238
St. Thomas (Virgin Islands), 460, 495
Salamanca, Spain, 241
Salaries of public officials, 27, 38–39
Saldern, Mme. de, 87
Salem, Mass., 373, 430
Salisbury, Marquess of (James Cecil) (British lord chamberlain), 72
Salmon, Eliza Munday (English soprano), 367
Saltykov, Alexander (Russian field marshal), 274–75
Saltykov, Nicholas (Russian imperial council president), 232, 237–38, 274
Sant Antonio, comte de (Paris neighbor), 339
Sanders, Prince (family friend), 370–71, 394, 455–56
San Fernando de Quiroga, José Melgarejo y Saurín (Spanish foreign minister), 503
Sanford, Nathan (U.S. senator from New York), 428, 527
Saratoga, battle of, 80
Sardinia, 391, 401
Sargent, Daniel, Jr. (childhood friend), 41, 49–50
Sasse, G. (Prussian legation secretary at Washington), 430
Saurin, Bernard-Joseph: _Béverlei_ , 3
Savannah, Ga., 183, 409
Sawyer, Micajah (Newburyport physician), 475
Saxony, 250
Sayres, John J. (Episcopal priest), 115
Schalden, Friedrich von (Prussian minister at St. Petersburg), 174
Scholten, Jan van Aschat (of The Hague), 62
Schröder, Friedrich: _The Ensign_ , 84
Schubart, Herman (Danish minister at The Hague), 64
Schubert, Friedrich von (German astronomer), 282
Schuyler, Mary Anna Sawyer (wife of Philip J. Schuyler), 475
Schuyler, Philip (U.S. general), 80
Schuyler, Philip J. (U.S. representative from New York), 475
Schuylkill River, 484
Schwarz, Mr., 153
Scituate, Mass., 99
Scotland, national character of, 374. _See also_ Britain
Scott, Alexander (office visitor), 480
Scott, Walter: "The Lady of the Lake," 399; Waverley novels, 374
Sealing industry, 566
Sears, Rebecca (of New York), 13
Second Bank of the United States, 394, 454, 475, 479–80, 516, 520, 598
Sedgwick, Theodore (Massachusetts supreme court justice), 91
Seed, Jeremiah (Anglican minister), 239
Sellentin, M. de (dinner guest), 85
Seminoles, 429, 440–43, 458–62, 468–69, 493, 549, 532, 557, 598
Senate, Massachusetts, 27, 94, 96–98, 158–60, 166
Senate, U.S., 353, 431; confirmation of JQA as U.S. minister at The Hague, 43; confirmation of JQA as U.S. minister at St. Petersburg, 163–64, 167–68; confirmation of JQA as U.S. secretary of state, 406; JQA as U.S. senator from Massachusetts, 93–160, 282, 432. _See also_ Congress, U.S. _for specific issues and legislation_
Senate, Virginia, 46, 478, 485–86
_Sensible_ (French frigate), 1, 170
Sequier, Armand-Louis (French consul at London), 398
Serano, M. (French visitor), 16
Sergeant, John (U.S. representative from Pennsylvania), 460–61, 464, 531, 589
Sermons, 18–19, 30, 140, 157, 361–62, 372, 423, 428, 500, 516, 529–32, 536, 546–47, 551, 571, 593
Sérurier, Louis de (French minister at Washington), 205
Servants, 195–96, 543
Sévigné, Marie de (French aristocrat), 99
Sewall, David (Massachusetts judge), 38
Shakespeare, William, 34, 481; _As You Like It_ , 81; _Hamlet_ , 5, 589; _2 Henry IV_ , 69, 413; _Henry VIII_ , 11, 53–54; _Julius Caesar_ , 109; _Measure for Measure_ , 6–7; _Romeo and Juliet_ , 55, 318
Shaler, William: U.S. commission secretary at Ghent, 288–89, 316; U.S. consul at Algiers, 433, 437
Sharp, Richard (Whig MP), 416
Shaw, Charity Smith (sister of William Stephens Smith), 89
Shaw, Henry (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 553
Shaw, John (uncle), 17, 19–22
Shaw, William Smith (cousin), 89, 98, 135, 156, 158, 166
Shays's Rebellion, 26–27, 37
Sheldon, Mr. (dinner guest), 129
Sherbrooke, John C., (Nova Scotia governor) 313
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley: _The Glorious First of June_ (with James Cobb), 53–54; _The Rivals_ , 401
Sherlock, William (Anglican minister), 239
Shetland Islands, 587–88
Shield, William, and William Reeve: _Oscar and Malvina_ , 55
Short, William (U.S. diplomat), 163–64
Shumen, Ottoman Empire (now Shumla, Bulgaria), 192
Siddons, Sarah (English actress), 6, 54–55, 590
Sierra Leone, 393
Silesia, 264, 274–75
Silistria, Ottoman Empire (now Bulgaria), 192
Silsbee, Nathaniel (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 424, 440, 527
Silvester, R. W. (London engraver), 381–82, 399
Simkins, Eldred (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 475
Simmons, Mr. and Mrs. (JQA visits), 129
Simpson, Dr. (physician in St. Petersburg), 244–45
Six van Oterleek, Willem (Dutch minister at St. Petersburg), 174, 189–91, 193
Skinner, Tompson J. (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 95, 98, 142
Slade, Mr. (American in St. Petersburg), 239–40
Slave insurrections, 304
Slavery, 108, 384, 460, 547, 557, 559, 596; blamed on British colonial rule, 543–44; of Christians by Barbary states, 372, 391–92, 401; emancipation of slaves, 478–79, 485–86, 532, 534–35, 545; fugitive slaves, 460, 575; and Missouri question, 497, 514, 520, 524–25, 528–29, 532–41, 543, 545–46; politically divisive nature of, 483, 545, 555, 576; prohibited in territories, 533–34, 537–42, 555–56; and Revolutionary War, 479, 544; and Virginia, 12, 478–79, 515, 533, 539; and War of 1812, 304–5, 308, 332, 370, 386, 388–90. _See also_ Abolitionism; Colonization movement; Slave trade
Slave trade, 417, 486, 495, 544, 572; Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, 138; Anti–Slave Trade Act, 477, 479, 496, 512, 524; British plan for naval searches, 403, 417, 482–83, 485, 567–69, 576–79; debate in Congress on banning of, 107–10, 121, 126; debate in Parliament on, 253–54, 389–90; internal, 478, 534; U.S. naval suppression of, 573, 579
Smith, Abigail Adams (sister), 1, 16–17, 143, 457; mastectomy, 220; death of, 276–77
Smith, Adam: _Essays on Philosophical Subjects_ , 254; _Wealth of Nations_ , 75
Smith, Barney (Massachusetts politician), 421
Smith, Caroline Amelia (niece), 277
Smith, Catherine ("Kitty") Johnson (sister-in-law): in Washington, 88, 113, 119, 146–47, 160, 166, 421–22, 425, 487, 491, 498–99, 505, 528, 566, 580; in St. Petersburg, 169–70, 191, 206–7, 211, 227, 238, 240, 245, 252, 255, 259–60; death of mother, 220–21; marriage to William Steuben Smith, 260; in Ghent, 314, 322, 324; in Paris, 339, 345
Smith, Elizabeth (cousin), 33
Smith, Elizabeth Quincy (grandmother), 457
Smith, Elizabeth Storer (great-aunt), 15
Smith, Hannah Carter (wife of cousin William Smith), 124
Smith, Isaac, Jr. (cousin), 91, 158
Smith, Isaac, Sr. (great-uncle), 1, 15, 33
Smith, Israel (U.S. senator from Vermont), 115–17
Smith, Jeremiah (New Hampshire supreme court justice), 141
Smith, John (U.S. marshal for eastern Pennsylvania), 466
Smith, John Adams (nephew), 141, 143, 277, 371, 376, 394, 405, 408, 417
Smith, John Spear (U.S. legation secretary at St. Petersburg), 193, 205, 207
Smith, John W. (courier), 229
Smith, Joseph Allen (American tourist), 180–82
Smith, Louisa Catherine (cousin), 88, 421
Smith, Margaret (wife of Robert Smith), 113
Smith, Margaret Spear (wife of Samuel Smith), 104, 475
Smith, Margaret Stephens (mother of Charity Smith Shaw), 89
Smith, Melancton (Continental Congress delegate), 13
Smith, Mr. (inventor), 494
Smith, Robert: U.S. secretary of the navy, 113, 119; U.S. secretary of state, 166, 187, 221
Smith, Samuel (of Maryland): U.S. senator, 103–4, 108, 119, 132, 137, 147, 149–51; U.S. representative, 424, 475, 479, 522, 552–53, 597
Smith, William: _Comparative Views of the Constitutions of the Several States_ , 102
Smith, William (cousin), 15, 37, 89, 91, 106, 124
Smith, William (grandfather), 457
Smith, William (English classicist), 110
Smith, William (U.S. representative from Maryland), 119
Smith, William (U.S. senator from Georgia), 431
Smith, William Sidney (British admiral), 372
Smith, William Stephens (brother-in-law), 44, 49, 132, 277
Smith, William Steuben (nephew): secretary to JQA in St. Petersburg, 167, 169–70, 172, 189, 207, 215, 243, 245–46, 254, 267, 281; marriage to Catherine Johnson, 260; death of mother, 276–77; secretary to JQA in Ghent, 314–15, 322, 324, 331, 335; secretary to JQA in Paris, 338–40, 342–43, 345; in Washington, 421, 423, 425, 498–99, 505, 580, 589
Smith & Buchanan (Baltimore mercantile firm), 491
Smolensk, Russia, 239, 242
Smyth, Alexander (U.S. general), 309
Snyder, Simon (Pennsylvania governor), 408
Society of the Cincinnati, 183
Socrates, 217, 227
Solar eclipse, 134–35, 482
Somerset, FitzRoy (British minister at Paris), 337, 343
Sophia, Princess (sister of Duke of Gloucester), 369
Soto, José de (Spanish governor of West Florida), 447, 449–51
South America, revolutions in, 188, 198, 391, 397, 403, 410, 422, 425–29, 437–40, 443–44, 452–54, 491, 495, 501, 508–9, 519, 531–32, 542, 547, 550, 555, 572, 598. _See also_ Argentina; Chile; Venezuela
South Carolina, 558
Southey, Robert, 360
Spafford, Horatio Gates (American geographer), 403–4
Spain, 48, 105, 358, 436, 441, 455, 458–59, 468, 471–72, 499, 502, 548, 560; Adams-Onís Treaty, 473–77, 493, 498, 501, 503, 508, 510, 514, 517–19, 523, 527, 548, 553–57, 560–61, 572–73, 590, 592–93, 598; and slave trade, 482, 485, 577; initial U.S. interest in Florida, 130, 205–6, 311, 410, 417; in Napoleonic wars, 198, 224, 231, 241, 249; and South American revolutions, 188, 198, 391, 397, 403, 410, 422, 425–29, 437–40, 443–44, 452–54, 491, 495, 501, 508–9, 519, 531–32, 542, 547, 550, 555, 572, 598; and U.S. military incursions in Florida, 428–35, 437–38, 443–53, 462–64, 470, 504–5
Spear, Barbara (sister of Margaret Spear Smith), 475
Spenser, Edmund, 84
Speyer, John (U.S. consul at Stockholm), 269, 276, 339–40
Springfield, Mass., 14
Stackelberg, Berndt (Swedish chargé d'affaires at Washington), 563
Staël, Germaine de, 242–44, 252, 337–38
State banks, 480, 520–21
State constitutions, 539
State Department, U.S., 156, 333, 358, 406; JQA as head of, 419–599
State legislatures, 511, 520–21, 534, 539–40, 574–75
Staten Island, 13
States' rights, 461, 592
Steamboats, 145, 147, 483–84
Stedingk, Curt (Swedish minister at St. Petersburg), 174, 182
Stedman, William: law clerk, 31; U.S. representative from Massachusetts, 105
Steibelt, Daniel (German composer), 318
Sterne, Laurence: "Our Conversation in Heaven," 266; _Sentimental Journey through France and Italy_ , 66; _Tristram Shandy_ , 39; "Vindication of Human Nature," 240
Stieglitz, Ludwig (St. Petersburg banker), 201
Stockdale, John (London publisher), 5
Stockholm, Sweden, 223, 244, 269, 363, 440–41
Stokes, Martha (servant), 109
Stone, David (U.S. senator from North Carolina), 115
Stone, Michael Jenifer (U.S. representative from Maryland), 38
Storer, Ebenezer (Harvard treasurer), 16, 37, 124, 133
Storrs, Henry R. (U.S. representative from New York), 596–97
Story, Joseph: U.S. representative from Massachusetts 152, 158; U.S. Supreme Court justice, 530–31, 547
Stoughton, Mr. and Mrs., 19, 133
Stoughton, Tomás (Spanish consul at New York City), 474
Stroganov, Pavel A. (Russian privy councilor), 240
Strogovshikov, Mr. (St. Petersburg landlord), 265, 275
Strong, Caleb (Massachusetts governor), 91–92, 134–35, 140
Strong, Mr. (American in Ghent), 322, 324
Strong, Nathaniel W. (U.S. consul at Göteborg), 284
Strother, George F. (U.S. representative from Virginia), 553–54
Struensee, Karl von (Prussian finance minister), 80
Stuart, Gilbert (American painter), 109
Stuart, Mr. (American in London), 78
Stuart dynasty, 374
Sudbury, Mass., 32
Sullivan, Francis S.: _The Constitution and Laws of England_ , 35
Sullivan, George (son of James Sullivan), 557
Sullivan, James (Massachusetts governor), 140, 146
Sullivan, James, Jr. (Harvard classmate), 25
Sullivan, William (Massachusetts politician), 98
Sully, Thomas (American painter), 537
Sumter, Thomas, Jr. (U.S. minister at Lisbon), 434
Supreme Court, Massachusetts, 91
Supreme Court, U.S., 152, 475, 530, 535; _Fletcher v. Peck_ , 163; impeachment trial of Justice Chase, 114–19, 121–23; _Marbury v. Madison_ , 110
Sussex, Duke of (Augustus Frederick, son of George III), 369–70, 395, 397
Svistunov, Nikolai P. (Russian court chamberlain), 277
Sweden, 4, 174, 180, 182–83, 229, 242–43, 250–51, 255, 393, 411, 440–41, 519
Swett, Charlotte, 33
Swett, John B. (Newburyport physician), 33
Swift, Jonathan, 481; _Gulliver's Travels_ , 46
Switzerland, 61, 63, 568
Symmes, John Cleves (U.S. Army officer), 486–87
Tacitus, 77, 490–91
Tait, Charles (U.S. senator from Georgia), 469
Talbot, Isham (U.S. senator from Kentucky), 460
Talleyrand, Charles-Maurice de (French foreign minister), 44–45, 204
Tallmadge, James, Jr. (U.S. representative from New York), 426, 460–61, 532
Tambov, Russia, 271
Tappan, David (Congregational minister), 31
Tariffs, 383, 561, 576
Tastrow, Mme. de (in Brandenburg), 84
Tate, James (Pennsylvania physician), 78
Tawast, Baron de (Swedish diplomat), 267
Taxation. _See_ Revenue and taxation
Tayloe, John, III (Virginia politician), 466–67, 535
Taylor, John (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 145
Taylor, John W.: U.S. representative from New York, 532, 595; speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, 597–98
Tchitchagov, Pavel (Russian general), 251, 254
Telfair, Edward (Georgia governor), 502
Ten Cate, J. W. (Dutch chargé d'affaires at Washington), 429–30, 448
Tennessee, 452, 558, 598
Terence, 2, 23, 25
Ternant, Jean-Baptiste de, 65
Territories, slavery prohibited in, 533–34, 537–42, 555–56
Texas (as Mexican province), 554–55, 560
Teyoninhokarawen (John Norton) (Mohawk chief), 307
Thatcher, George (Massachusetts supreme court justice), 141
Thatcher, Samuel (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 105
Thaxter, John, Jr. (mother's cousin), 1, 17, 33
Theater, 3–8, 47, 53–55, 84–85, 308, 322, 338, 340, 345, 347–48, 589–90
Thomas (servant), 196
Thomas, Joshua (Massachusetts lawyer), 91
Thomas, Nehemiah (Congregational minister), 99
Thompson, Arietta Tompkins (wife of Gilbert Thompson), 547
Thompson, Captain and Mrs., 115
Thompson, Gilbert L. (son of Smith Thompson), 547
Thompson, John (U.S. representative from New York), 145
Thompson, Smith (U.S. secretary of the navy), 462, 464, 491, 507–8, 512–13, 542, 546–47, 566, 577
Thompson, Thomas W. (law clerk) 31, 35–36
Thomson, James: "Britannia," 13
Thorndike, Israel (Massachusetts merchant), 266
Thorndike, Sally Ann Otis (daughter of Harrison Gray Otis), 531
Thornton, Anna Maria Brodeau, 524
Thornton, William (architect), 109; U.S. patent office superintendent, 483–84, 524, 531, 547, 586
Thorpe, John Thomas (sheriff of London), 397
Thruston, Buckner (U.S. district court judge for District of Columbia), 570
Thucydides, 110
Tilden, David (Massachusetts politician), 92
Tillinghast, Nicholas (Massachusetts politician), 95
_Times_ (London), 313–14, 316
Timms, Henry (U.S. Senate doorkeeper), 570
Todd, John Payne (U.S. diplomatic secretary), 277, 308, 324, 336, 338–39, 345, 351, 356
Tolstoy, Nikolai A. (Russian court grand marshal), 191
Tompkins, Daniel D. (U.S. vice president), 490, 547, 552, 593, 595, 598
Tormasov, Alexander (Russian general), 250–51
Torpedoes, 145, 147
Toscan, Jean-Joseph (French consul at Boston), 16
Toulon, France, 67
Townsend, Horatio (law clerk), 33–35
Tracy, Antoine Destutt de (French philosopher), 271
Tracy, Sarah Newton Destutt de (wife of Victor Destutt de Tracy), 349
Tracy, Uriah (U.S. senator from Connecticut), 103–5, 108–9, 111–12, 123, 125, 127, 144, 149
Tracy, Victor Destutt de (prisoner of war), 271, 338, 349
Treadwell, John, Jr. (Massachusetts politician), 97
Treasury, U.S., 482, 510, 573, 598
Treasury Department, U.S., 465, 470, 496, 510, 519
Treaties with Indians, 295–96, 305–6, 363, 548
Treaty of Commerce with Britain, 56–57, 61, 272, 294, 332, 334, 378–80, 382–93, 401–3, 424
Treaty of Commerce with Prussia, 83, 86
Treaty of Commerce with Russia, 272
Treaty of Fontainebleau, 356
Treaty of Ghent, 284–85, 287–335, 342–43, 352–53, 357–60, 370, 388, 404, 430–31, 440, 460, 470, 474, 562, 568, 588
Treaty of Greenville, 299–300, 320
Treaty of Paris (1784), 2–3, 56, 315, 319–21, 327, 332, 359, 476
Treaty of Tilsit, 224, 239
Treaty with Algiers, 390–91
Treaty with Tripoli, 127, 130
Trieste, Austrian Empire (now Italy), 326, 394
Trimble, David (U.S. representative from Kentucky), 523, 554–57
Tripoli, 127, 130, 390–91
Troup, George McIntosh (U.S. senator from Georgia), 428, 548
Trumbull, John (American painter), 53, 55, 66
Trumbull, John (American poet): _McFingal_ , 14
Tucker, Abraham: _The Light of Nature Pursued_ , 365
Tucker, George (U.S. representative from Virginia), 535, 573
Tucker, Samuel (captain of frigate _Boston_ ), 1, 170
Tudor, William (Massachusetts politician), 92
Tudor, William, Jr. (Boston civic leader), 166
Tufts, Cotton, Sr. (great-uncle) 22, 88, 367
Tufts, Samuel (cousin), 31
Tunis, 129, 390–91, 437, 566
Turks. _See_ Ottoman Empire
Turner, James (U.S. senator from North Carolina), 138, 167–68
Turreau, Louis-Marie (French minister at Washington), 113, 129, 205, 342
Tyler, Benjamin Owen (calligrapher), 424–25, 483
Tyler, Royall, 16–17
Tyranny, 28, 116, 416, 492
Unitarians, 370, 571
_United States_ , U.S.S., 260–61
Upper Canada (now Ontario), 270, 383
Vail, Miss (dinner guest), 428
Valvyn, Mr. (Ghent librarian), 302
Van Alen, James I. (U.S. representative from New York), 145
Van Cortlandt, Philip (U.S. representative from New York), 145
Vandamme, Dominique (French general), 274
Van Rensselaer, Solomon (U.S. representative from New York), 571
Varnum, Joseph B. (U.S. representative from Massachusetts), 139, 157–58
Vattel, Emmerich de: _Law of Nations_ , 107, 309, 312
Vaughan, John (Philadelphia merchant), 125, 455–56
Vaughan, Martha (wife of William Oliver Vaughan), 352
Vaughan, Samuel (London merchant), 6
Vaughan, William (London merchant), 6–7, 58, 352, 376
Venable, Abraham B. (U.S. senator from Virginia), 107
Venezuela, 495, 501, 531, 542
Venice, Italy, 65
Vérac, Charles-Olivier de Saint-Georges de (French minister at St. Petersburg), 174
Vergennes, comte de (Charles Gravier) (French foreign minister), 10
Vermont, 436, 598
Verplanck, Daniel C. (U.S. representative from New York), 145
Versailles, France, 2–3, 10, 12
Vestres, Auguste (French ballet dancer), 409
Vicence, duc de (Armand de Caulaincourt) (French minister at St. Petersburg), 174–75, 181–82, 187, 189–90, 192–93, 198, 200–204, 262, 347–48, 368, 398
Vienna, Austria, 179, 200, 205, 234, 412, 428, 566
Villenotte, chevalier de (in Berlin), 84
Villiers, John C. (Tory peer), 377
Vilna, Russia (now Vilnius, Lithuania), 237–38, 249
Virgil, 19, 174; _Aeneid_ , 42, 75, 342; _Eclogues_ , 16
Virginia, 13, 69, 120, 445, 471, 473, 516, 535, 553; colonization movement in, 485–86; early settlements in, 582; James Monroe as Virginian, 399, 422, 424, 439–40, 452, 498; JQA visits Mount Vernon, 88–89; politics in, 454, 461, 472, 506, 558–59, 591–92; and slavery, 12, 478–79, 515, 533, 539
Visscher, Charles (Batavian official), 60
Vivés, Francisco Dionísio (Spanish minister at Washington), 554, 560, 590, 592
Volange (Maurice François Rochet) (French actor), 7–8
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet): _L'Orphelin de la Chine_ , 340; _Tancrède_ , 15
Voss, Otto von (Prussian state minister), 82
Wadsworth, Jeremiah (of Connecticut), 14
Wadsworth, William (New York general), 259
Wagram, battle of, 174, 187
Waldstein (servant), 211, 225
Walin, Patty (servant), 109
Walker, Dudley (Boston merchant), 50
Walker, Elizabeth "Betsey" (wife of John Walker), 111–12
Walker, Elizabeth H. (Quaker preacher), 428
Walker, Freeman (U.S. senator from Georgia), 518
Walker, John (controversy with Thomas Jefferson), 111–12
Wallis, Tryphosa Jane (English actress), 55
Walpole, Horatio (British legation secretary at St. Petersburg), 279–80
Walpole, Mass., 421
Walsh, Robert, Jr. (Philadelphia journalist/diplomat), 437
Walterstorff, Ernst Frederik (Danish minister at Paris), 337, 344
Ward, John W. (Tory MP), 413–14, 416
Ward, Robert: _History of the Law of Nations_ , 126, 291
War Department, U.S., 427, 432, 438, 445, 469, 471, 597–99
Ware, Henry (Harvard professor), 133
War of 1812, 240, 243, 253–54, 258, 264, 267, 284–85, 294–95, 303, 306, 309, 318, 323, 326, 329–31, 388, 390, 422, 431, 442, 466, 468, 481, 489–90, 507, 520, 522, 568, 588; U.S. declaration of war, 241; Alexander I's offer to mediate, 247–49, 255–57, 261–62, 268–73, 279–80; _Constitution-Guerrière_ action 251–52, 261; taking of Fort Detroit/surrender of General Hull, 252; invasion of Canada/surrender of General Wadsworth, 259; _United States–Macedonian_ action, 260–61; taking of York by General Dearborn, 270; fighting in Passamaquoddy Bay, 301, 313, 319; battle of Lundy's Lane, 311; assault on Plattsburgh, 313; destruction of frigate _Adams_ , 313; fighting at Michillimackinac, 313; taking of Machias, 313; battle of New Orleans, 339–40, 342–44, 397; burning of Washington, 314; taking of Alexandria, 314; and Indians, 305, 307, 310; and slavery, 304, 314. _See also_ Treaty of Ghent
Warren, George (Milton, Mass., lawyer), 38
Warren, John Borlase (British admiral), 279
Warren, Joseph, Dr. (Massachusetts patriot leader), 26
Warsaw, Poland, 201
Washington, Anna Maria (grandniece of Martha Washington), 89
Washington, D.C., 86, 89, 163–65, 181, 200, 343, 366, 404; British burning of, 314; JQA in, 99–132, 135–40, 143–57, 421–599
Washington, George, 11, 466, 475; Continental Army general, 537; U.S. president, 43, 45–46, 51, 61, 69–70, 72, 80, 426, 582, 591; John Marshall's biography of, 128–29, 373; monument for, 581
Washington, Martha, 47, 88–89
_Washington_ (ship), 206, 419–20
_Washington Gazette_ , 493, 554
Waterhouse, Benjamin, 37, 136, 141, 165, 409–10
Waterloo, battle of, 357, 395
Watts, Isaac: _Logic_ , 22, 240
Watzdorf, Karl Friedrich von (Saxon minister at St. Petersburg), 202, 212, 219–20
Webber, Samuel (Harvard president), 133, 165
Webster, Daniel, 531, 595
Weehawken, N.J., 111
Weights and measures, 424–25, 498, 582, 592
Weimar, Germany, 263
Wellesley-Pole, Katherine Forbes, 417
Wellesley-Pole, William (British master of the Mint), 356, 417, 481
Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley), 172, 231, 241, 337, 357, 394–98, 481
Wells & Lilly (Boston publishing firm), 490
Wells, William Hill (U.S. senator from Delaware), 99, 105, 113
Welsh, Abigail Kent (wife of Thomas Welsh), 142
Welsh, Harriet (daughter of Thomas Welsh), 140, 456
Welsh, Thomas (Boston physician), 49, 98–99, 142, 160, 169–70
Wendell, Oliver (Massachusetts politician), 92
Wentworth, John (Nova Scotia governor), 154
West, Benjamin (American painter), 66, 417, 515
Westermann, François-Joseph (French general), 68
West Florida. _See_ Florida
West Indies, 56, 108–10, 171–72, 403, 460, 573; fugitive slaves allegedly sold in, 56, 304–5, 308, 332, 386, 388–90; trade with, 56, 379–80, 382–85, 515, 517, 519
Westmoreland, Earl of (John Fane) (Tory MP), 356
Wethersfield, Conn., 14
Weymouth, Mass., 457
Wheaton, Laban (Massachusetts state representative), 158–59
Whiskey Rebellion, 64
Whitcomb, Tilly (servant), 49–50, 52
White, John, Jr. (Haverhill merchant), 17, 20–21, 32
White, Leonard (Harvard classmate), 25
White, Samuel (U.S. senator from Delaware), 99, 105, 109, 115, 123
White, Sarah (wife of John White, Jr.), 20
Whiteside, Jenkin (U.S. senator from Tennessee), 241
Whitman, Benjamin (Boston politician), 141
Whitman, Zechariah G. (Harvard student), 141
Wibird, Anthony (Congregational minister), 15, 32
Wieland, Christoph: _Oberon_ , 84–85
Wiggers, Johann von (Hanseatic League commercial agent in St. Petersburg), 183, 204
Wilberforce, William (abolitionist/MP), 360, 416–17, 485
Wilkinson, James (U.S. general), 148
Willard, Joseph (Harvard president), 16, 21–24
William (prince of Orange, later William III of the Netherlands), 330
William (servant), 403
William V (prince of Orange), 48, 62
Williamos, Charles, 11–12
Williams (Baltimore mercantile firm), 491
Williams, Jonathan, Jr. (West Point superintendent), 150
Williams, David R. (U.S. representative from South Carolina), 130
Williams, Elizabeth (wife of David Rogerson Williams), 130
Williams, Harris (Harvard student), 22
Williams, John F. (captain of U.S.R.C. _Massachusetts_ ), 170
Williams, Mr. (Boston merchant), 68
Williams, Mr. (dinner guest), 119
Williams, Mr. (U.S. consular clerk at London), 351
Williams, Samuel, Jr. (Harvard classmate), 25
Williams, Samuel, Sr. (Harvard professor), 24–25
Willing, Richard (American in St. Petersburg), 251, 272
Willink, Willem and Jan (Dutch bankers), 59–60
Willis, Francis (physician to George III), 104
Willoughby (British army officer), 271
Wilson, Robert (British military advisor at St. Petersburg), 251, 264
Winter, Peter von: _Tamerlan_ , 340
Winthrop, John (Boston gentleman), 404, 410, 455
Wintzingerode, Ferdinand von (Hessian general in Russian service), 80, 251–52, 254
Wirt, William (U.S. attorney general), 425–26, 432–34, 438, 440, 446, 448–49, 451, 460, 464, 488, 493, 501, 507–14, 517, 538–39, 541
Wittgenstein, Peter L. (Russian field marshal), 241, 251, 271
Wolcott, Oliver, Jr. (U.S. secretary of the treasury), 70
Wood, Maria Elizabeth (daughter of Matthew Wood), 395–96
Wood, Maria Page (wife of Matthew Wood), 396
Wood, Matthew (lord mayor of London), 343, 394–97
Wood, Mr. (petitioner), 523
Wood, Mrs. (London landlady), 417
Woodbine, George (British filibuster), 458
Woodward, Mr. (American supercargo), 240
Woodward, Mr. (of Boston), 42
Worcester, Mass., 26
Worcester, Noah, 370
Worthington, Thomas (Ohio canal commissioner), 567
Worthington, William (U.S. special agent to Argentina and Chile), 438, 495, 526–27
Wright, Patience Lovell, 6
Wright, Robert (U.S. senator from Maryland), 122, 126, 129, 132
Wülfingh, Herr (German basso), 367
Wythe, George (Virginia jurist), 13
Xenophon: _Cyropaedia_ , 19
Xerxes, 255
Yale University, 157
Yates, Mary Ann (English actress), 54
Yazoo land claims, 152, 163, 469
Yellowstone expedition, 510
Yeo, James (British admiral), 403
York, Duchess of (Frederica Charlotte of Prussia), 372
York, Duke of (Frederick, son of George III), 396
York, Upper Canada (now Toronto, Ont.), 270
Zea-Bermúdez, Francisco de (Spanish diplomat at St. Petersburg), 241
Ziyaüddin, Kör Yusuabof (Ottoman grand vizier), 192
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaBook"
}
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Q: Ubuntu 14.04: setting environment variables I need set environment variables for Android Studio project EVERY TIME when reboot or close terminal. (Ubuntu 14.04) For setting variables I use:
export KEYSTORE_NAME=/home/anna/Documents/keys/NAME.keystore
export KEYSTORE_NAME_PASSWORD=PASSWORD
export KEY_NAME_ALIAS=NAME
export KEY_NAME_PASSWORD=PASSWORD
How can I set there variables forever?
A: Add the exports to your ~/.profile, that way they are loaded on every login.
Relevant: https://help.ubuntu.com/community/EnvironmentVariables
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
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In this guide, we will take you through an effective workflow for contributing to Gaia — and by this we mean adding features to the Gaia codebase and working on bugs filed against the Gaia project. The first set of articles can be worked through in order, or you can skip to the relevant section if you need to refresh yourself on a specific aspect of the process.
After that, we will provide reference materials and information covering additional topics.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
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Keep up-to-date. Like Yandina State School on Facebook TODAY.
Find out the latest news for the 125th Birthday Celebrations.
Have we told you about the Family History Posters before?
Swimming carnival for Thursday 6th February postponed until futher notice.
The latest news from our 125th Birthday Celebrations committee.
2014 Booklist are now available on our website.
Uniform Shop trading hours before school commences.
We need your help with our Bunnings Sausage Sizzle On November 17.
Payments due for swimming and Life education.
Swimming Lessons start on Monday 2 December, 2013.
Life Education December 3, 2013.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
| 5,910
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Q: How to manually set which version 'libstdc++.so.6' used instead of using the latest one? I got an error on my server.
version `GLIBCXX_3.4.21' not found
After I some investigation I found that 'libstdc++.so.6' version used when build the app on my local computer is much advanced than on server. So I got that error because that version is not available on server. From what I read, I can fixed that by upgrade 'libstdc++.so.6' on server to the latest one but I can't do that because the restricted acces.
Is there any way to downgrade or make my local use older version as default?
A: When linking your application specify -Wl,-rpath=$ORIGIN to make it search for shared libraries in the folder where the executable is. Then copy libstdc++.so.6 and other application dependencies (find them with ldd) into your application folder and distribute that folder. See man ld.so, section about $ORIGIN.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
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We take pride in producing quality, flavorful fruit for you and your family to enjoy! As a German / American family, we implement the tools and techniques acquired on an international level to most effectively bring high quality fruit to the consumers we serve.
Here at Apple Ridge Orchard we take pride in growing a variety of delicious fruits including apples, peaches, sweet and tart cherries. We specialize in apples, growing over 27+ different apple varieties for both the fresh and processing markets.
Our expanding farm currently grows 27+ apple varieties, along with delectable sweet and tart cherries and peaches.
We are a family owned orchard fruit business, located in Wayne County, NY. Our entire six-person family is enthusiastically engaged in fruit-growing and involved in the operation.
As a German / American family, we take pride in the production of quality fruits using techniques and industry relationships acquired on an international level.
Our team currently is comprised of US American, German, Chilean, South African and Mexican nationals, all working hand-inhand to further develop and advance our orchard.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
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Pulina, Giuseppe and Nudda, Anna and Macciotta, Nicolò Pietro Paolo and Battacone, Gianni and Rassu, Salvatore Pier Giacomo and Cannas, Antonello (2007) Non-nutritional factors affecting lactation persistency in dairy ewes: a review. Italian Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 6 , p. 115-141. eISSN 1828-051X. Article.
Milk production is largely related to the shape of the lactation curve. Key elements of the lactation pattern are peak yield, which is the maximum daily yield reached during lactation, and lactation persistency, which is the medium rate of milk yield decrease after the lactation peak. The ideal lactation curve should have a reasonably high peak and a flat trend afterwards. A more persistent lactation is desirable because it is related to better animal health and reduction of feeding costs. Effective strategies to improve lactation persistency require a deep understanding of the main factors that affect this trait, including genetics, hormonal status and administration, udder morphology, seasonal changes, management, animal health (e.g. mastitis), stress and nutrition. This review covers the effects of non-nutritional factors on lactation persistency in dairy sheep.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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Anna Maria Adroer i Tasis (La Escala, 19 de marzo de 1927-Barcelona, 27 de septiembre de 2021) fue una historiadora y arqueóloga española.
Trayectoria
Doctorada en Historia y Arqueología por la Universidad de Barcelona con la tesis El palau reial major de Barcelona —calificada Cum laude—, trabajó como investigadora en el Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) en España y en el Istituto internazionale di studi liguri (Bordighera, Italia).
Como arqueóloga trabajó en las excavaciones realizadas en Ampurias, Barcelona, Clunia (España), Bordighera (Italia) y Saintes (Francia). Como historiadora, ha participado en múltiples congresos, seminarios y conferencias, y es autora de distintas obras, buena parte de ellas centradas en la historia de Barcelona. Fue miembro colaborador en el equipo de edición de la Gran Enciclopedia Catalana, en el consejo de redacción de distintas publicaciones especializadas en historia de Cataluña y ha sido directora del Museo de Historia de Barcelona y del Instituto Municipal de Historia de la misma ciudad.
Obras
Del conjunto de sus libros y publicaciones en obras colectivas, se encuentran, además de la preparación y edición de los catálogos de fondos cartográficos y mapas antiguos de la península ibérica conservados en el Archivo Histórico de la Ciudad de Barcelona (1994), las siguientes:
El palau reial major de Barcelona, 1978 (ISBN 84-400-4664-2)
Pintura i escultura a la casa de la ciutat, junto con Eloïsa Sendra y Mercè Doñate, 1983 (ISBN 84-500-9188-8)
Història de la Taula de Canvi de Barcelona: seu fundacional de la Caixa de Barcelona, junto con Gaspar Feliu, 1989 (ISBN 84-505-8463-9)
Càtars i catarisme a Catalunya, junto con Pere Català i Roca, 1996 (ISBN 84-232-0499-5)
Palaus reials de Catalunya, junto con Ramon Manent, 2003 (ISBN 84-297-5354-0)
Referencias
Escritoras de España
Historiadores de España del siglo XX
Historiadores de España del siglo XXI
Historiadoras de España
Historiadores de Cataluña
Arqueólogos de España del siglo XX
Arqueólogas de España
Escritores en catalán del siglo XX
Escritores en catalán del siglo XXI
Alumnado de Historia de la Universidad de Barcelona
Investigadores científicos del CSIC
Fallecidos en Barcelona
Españolas del siglo XX
Nacidos en La Escala
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{
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Archives for posts with tag: music
3/4? 7/16? 12/8?
A music-theory mystery! Seth Stevenson investigates the time signature of The Terminator's Score.
Brad Fiedel's Main Theme from The Terminator:
via Liz
Categories I must retire to my nerdery, look over here!
No Diggity + Thrift Shop
March 6, 2013 //
This might be the best thing ever. I wonder what Blackstreet thinks.
Tags blackstreet, ed sheeran, music, no diggity
Mogwai's score for 'Les Revenants' is amazing. Atmospheric, epic, great music for star-gazing or laying the dark feeling your feels.
via Eric
Tags les revenants, mogwai, music
Categories look over here!
cups accompaniment
October 7, 2012 //
by Landshapes, formerly Lulu & the Lampshades
Tags landshapes, lulu & the lampshades, music
Madeon. Where is your full-length album.
All of his singles are great. This live mash-up video blew up last year. It broke my brain. Can't wait for an album!
Tags madeon, music
I'm basically copying Heather's post in it's entirety because…yeah, pretty much sums it up. Check out the video at the bottom—totally amazing.
This comment on a Metafilter thread (left by Bitter Old Punk) about the band says everything you need to know. Or you could just skip straight to the video and let the chills travel up and down your arm:
Last June or July, one of their videos gets picked up by the music blog Aquarium Drunkard. It gets the attention of one of the blog's readers, Pat Hood of Drive-By Truckers, who tracks down lead singer/guitarist Brittany Howard (who is working for the post office in Athens, Alabama at the time). He invites the band to open a few shows for DBT. By October, they're headlining a CMJ showcase show. By December, they've all quit their day jobs, have professional representation, and are shopping their demo to labels. By April, they've played sold-out shows in the UK and US, their album hits #5 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #3 on the UK charts.
It's an amazing story. They're an amazing band. If you have the chance to see them live, do so. Elizarde and I saw them last December in Birmingham in a small club that was packed to capacity. They started slowly, ratcheting things up with every tune. By the end of the show the crowd was sweaty and gasping and transported – glorious, truly one of the best shows I've EVER seen.
As it happens, their attorney is based in Birmingham, and I kinda know the guy as friends-of-friends. He's a former professional musician himself, who played in a couple of popular indie rock bands in the 80s and 90s. During the Shakes set, I turned to him and said, "We're watching something really special happen here, aren't we?" He grinned and mopped sweat off his face and replied, "Fuck yeah we are."
And here's the capper. Because they'd been on such a whirlwind, the Shakes hadn't spent much time at home. So before the show, a whole group of old people came into the club and quietly were ushered backstage. It was all of the band members parents. See, they had picked that night to shoot their first "official" video, and they wanted their moms and dads to be there with them.
Awwwwwwwwww!
Anyway, from everything I've heard from people who know, this band is not only super-talented, super charismatic, and super soulful, they're also really nice smart level-headed people who've surrounded themselves with quality people and are intent on being in the music business for the long run.
In three years, Alabama Shakes will be a household name, you'll hear their music everywhere, and EVERYONE will know who Brittany Howard is.
And it couldn't have happened to a more-deserving bunch.
Again: the album's pretty damn good, but GO SEE THIS BAND LIVE. They are absolutely transcendent.
Tags alabama shakes, music
andrew bird & yo yo ma
Tags andrew bird, music, yo yo ma
Categories look over here!, videos
lil buck + yo yo ma
The other day, I was lucky enough to be at an event to bring the arts back into schools and got to see an amazing collaboration between Yo-Yo Ma and a young dancer in LA, Lil Buck. Someone who knows Yo-Yo Ma had seen Lil Buck on YouTube and put them together. The dancing is Lil Buck's own creation and unlike anything I've seen. Hope you enjoy.
via Opening Ceremony via Danny
Tags dance, lil buck, music, yo yo ma
'ghostbusters' trailer, recut
Everything is better set to the 'Inception' score.
via Tiffany
Tags ghostbusters, inception, music
Categories I must retire to my nerdery, look over here!, videos
you are listening to los angeles
You are listening to Los Angeles is a fantastic project Eric created. He combined LAPD police radio with some ambient tracks to create a soundscape that has caused at least one person two a lot of people to mention 'Blade Runner'.
If you'd like more info about the project, or want to submit an original music track for the site, email Eric.
update 4: An iPhone/iPad app is in the works! Head over to Kickstarter and help take URL2.LA to the next level! Also – if you refresh your browser, you'll see that Eric has added 12 new cities to the You Are Listening To family.
update 5: Eric was interviewed as the Kickstarter blog's featured creator, and URL2.LA was featured in this week's (Feb 10) Kickstarter newsletter.
update 3: Coverage in Japan! So This (or Sothis? No idea.) Also, an interview on Hyperallergic.
update 2: Boing Boing has posted a link to the newest 'You are Listening to" site, You are Listening to Deep Thought.
update: the site has been linked to by the LA Times Tumblr, a bunch of other Tumblr users, Reddit (a couple times), Metafilter, the Daily What, it's been posted on Nerdist, Boing Boing, LA Weekly's blog, In Your Speakers, Buzzfeed, NBC LA's blog, Dave Malkoff's blog at KTLA (and also was featured during the March 28, 2011 10pm news broadcast, see below), Justine Bateman's company Section 5's blog, blogging.la, and LAist, and it has been tweeted by many, including Andy Baio from Waxy, Hotwire, Rob Sheridan, Richard Metzger, Joel Johnson, Mark Morford, and Tony Hawk. Gapers Block linked to the Chicago site. You can read interviews with Eric on Gentleforce and the Atlantic Cities, and it has been 'liked' over 3000 4000 11,000 27,000 times on Facebook! Plus, as a side bonus, my Flickr page for that photo of Los Angeles has gotten almost 200 hits…in the mere 27 hours since the site has gone live!
Some comments/phrases from listeners: Michael Mann, 'Heat', gripping, fucking brilliant, 'Homeworld', Soul Coughing, weirdly compelling, poignant, and a former LAPD police dispatcher called it 'a masterpiece'.
First, play this video with your eyes closed. Then open your eyes and look at this guy. Is he what you pictured?
(Linked instead of embedded to better keep the suspense)
Tags johnny flynn, music
quantum leap!
Check out my first attempt to make a song with Isle of Tune! Please vote it up!
(for comparison)
Tags isle of tune, music, quantum leap
Download Eric's picks over at antinomian.com.
little rosie franklin
December 8, 2010 //
jeff wanted to write a song today and asked for history topics. I pointed him to this issue of Hark! A Vagrant:
and he produced this delightful song.
update: io9 article about Rosalind and how she was basically cheated out of the recognition she deserved.
Tags music, rosalind franklin, science
is a collaborative design + architecture project featured in japan a few years ago. there are some great photographs through that link, and I have embedded the site's video here. it's quite long, but here is the gist from takram's site:
On a grid of equilateral triangles, we hung a total of 280 glass wind chimes from the ceiling at varying heights to represent the undulation of a wave. When you walk underneath the wind chime, not only does it ring, but its LED also alights like a firefly. The wind chimes nearer to the ceiling ring in higher tones, and those hung lower in lower tones together offering 10 degrees of tonal expression. And it feels as though you are walking inside a large interactive instrument. Additionally, the wind chimes are networked together, so that the sound and light spreads to adjacent wind chimes like ripples in the water. This network system was based on the idea of "behavior" we observe among certain animals in nature that form groups.
Tags architecture, design, music
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
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For Mac/ iPhone/ iPad owners anyone wanting more info/ details apple hardware software. Quantum Computer Systems has earned the highly acclaimed Gold Certified ISV ( Independent Software Vendor) competency from Microsoft Size Notes Date Registration req. You can absolutely depend on Windows Server/ SBS Backup to create complete including System State, SharePoint, Exchange , useable backups of the entire SBS system anything else you point to on your SBS Server. 010948 : 924Kb: The zip file contains Wavelink Avalanche packages to configure PC23 IT leadership, PC43 , cybersecurity, PD43 printers , DevOps, data analytics, printer models , including cloud computing, commentary on information technology trends IT infrastructure. Activesync windows 7 64 bit chip. Guides on using OS X communication , migrating data from a Mac , windows PC, protocols for connection, monitors , TVs, connectors , running Windows on a Mac via Boot Camp, info on apple cables/ video adapters, getting the most from your iOS device , power supply between personal computers their peripheral devices. Avalanche CFG pkg for PC23/ 43, PD43 K10.
Microsoft is widely expected to release the next major version of Windows 10 code- named " 19H1, thought to be version 1903 " in April. " If you ever had any doubts about the capabilities of SBS Backup, put them aside.
9 mm; Width : 64. 0 mm; Thickness : 9.
9 mm; Weight : 124 g; Volume : 75. 7 cm³; Form factor.
Form factor : Monoblock touch. Gold Certified ISV Software Solutions.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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{"url":"http:\/\/www.iemsjl.org\/journal\/article.php?code=63294","text":"\u2022 Editorial Board +\n\u2022 For Contributors +\n\u2022 Journal Search +\nJournal Search Engine\nISSN : 1598-7248 (Print)\nISSN : 2234-6473 (Online)\nIndustrial Engineering & Management Systems Vol.17 No.3 pp.479-496\nDOI : https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7232\/iems.2018.17.3.479\n\nPrediction of Stock Market Using an Ensemble Learning-based Intelligent Model\n\nPh.D. Student, University of Qom, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Information Technology, Qom, Iran\nIran University of Science and Technology, School of Computer Engineering, Tehran, Iran\nCorresponding Author, E-mail: b_minaei@iust.ac.ir\nJanuary 28, 2018 May 26, 2018 July 27, 2018\n\nABSTRACT\n\nAI-based models have shown that stock market is predictable despite its uncertainty and fluctuating nature. Research in this field has further dealt with predicting the next step price amount and less attention has been paid to the prediction of the next movement of price. However, in practice, the necessary requisite for decision-making and use of the results of prediction lies in considering the predictable trend of stock movement along with predicting stock price. Considering the widespread search in the literature on the matter, this paper takes into account, for the first time, two criteria of direction and price simultaneously for the prediction of the stock price. The proposed model has two stages and is developed based on ensemble learning and meta-heuristic optimization algorithms. The first stage predicts the direction of the next price movement. At the second stage, such prediction and other input variables create a new training dataset and the stock price is predicted. At each stage, in order to optimize the results, genetic algorithm (GA) optimization and particle swarm optimization (PSO) are applied. Evaluation of the results, on the real data of stock price, indicates that the proposed model has higher accuracy than other models used in the literature.\n\n1. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW\n\nPrediction is a process based on historical data and its accurate results will make better policy-making for the future (Campbell and Thompson, 2007). In financial actions, there are numerous cases that need careful prediction (Tk\u00e1\u010d and Verner, 2016). Prediction of financial time series is an important challenge in prediction, in which researchers try to extract patterns of data to predict the next event (Schwert, 1989). There are several hypotheses about the prediction of the stock market; the efficient market hypothesis is a theory that states market prices fully reflect all the available information and volatilities on prices are made with the results of new information. Based on this hypothesis, it should be impossible to outperform the overall market through expert stock selection or market timing, and that the only way an investor can possibly obtain higher returns is by chance or by purchasing riskier investments (Fama, 1970). In an efficient market, if expectations and information of all the participants of the market are well reflected by prices, volatilities of prices remain unpredictable. Another hypothesis compatible with the efficient market hypothesis is the random walk (RW) that says the trend of volatilities in stock market prices are random and, thus, not predictable (Fama, 1995).\n\nIn recent years, application of artificial intelligence in financial cases has triggered the strength of this idea that market might not be always completely efficient and not move randomly, and future price can be extracted from historical data and by means of various techniques (Cervell\u00f3-Royo et al., 2015; Enke and Thawornwong, 2005; Patel et al., 2015). Because the nature of the financial time series is fundamentally complex, noisy, dynamic, non-linear, non-parametric, and chaotic (Si and Yin, 2013), stock market prediction is a challenging issue for researchers.\n\nThere are different models for the prediction of stock market by using historical data, one of which divides the models into linear and non-linear, and the other divides them into statistical and machine learning. A suitable approach is to divide these models into two intelligent and classic ones. In the classic prediction, it is assumed that the future value of price follows the linear trend of the past values; autoregressive moving average (ARIMA), autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity (GARCH) and regression belong to this class (Wang et al., 2011b). Artificial neural networks (ANNs), fuzzy logic, support vector machines (SVMs), hybrid models and ensemble learning (EL) models belong to intelligent models (Cavalcante et al., 2016). These models, unlike the classic ones, are capable to obtain a non-linear relationship between the input variable without having information about the statistical distribution of the inputs (Lu et al., 2009). Comparisons show that intelligent models, via overcoming limitations of linear models, can better extract patterns from data with higher accuracy prediction (Adebiyi et al., 2014). For the same reason, in recent years, most of the studies conducted for the prediction of stock market have been focused on intelligent models (Tk\u00e1\u010d and Verner, 2016) and are also used in this paper.\n\nAccording to the studies conducted by (Atsalakis and Valavanis, 2009), out of about 150 papers in the field of stock exchange market through using intelligent models, artificial neural networks (ANNs) technique has been mostly applied. By reviewing more than 400 published papers in this field, (Tk\u00e1\u010d and Verner, 2016) concluded that ANNs had better performance than other models. Despite the complexity of stock market prediction, it is shown that ANNs with only a hidden layer can model a complex system with the concerned accuracy (Chauvin and Rumelhart, 1995).\n\nMany researches use the ANNs to predict the direction and stock price. In this paper, the direction is determined by decrease (negative) or increases (positive) of stock price relative to the past value of price. These papers often follow one of these two approaches; for example, (Kara et al., 2011) have used two models of SVM and ANN for the prediction of direction. To predict stock price, (Ticknor, 2013) proposed a Bayesian regularized artificial neural network (BRNN) and (Wang and Wang, 2015) proposed a stochastic time effective function neural network (STNN).\n\nAlthough the application of ANNs in relation to classic models has led to an over-increase in the accuracy predicted, these models have problems like being fallen in local optimum and over-fitting that make prediction accuracy challenging. Studies have specified that ANNs can be combined with other models to create a hybrid model. The hybrid model is better than simple ANNs in terms of increased prediction accuracy (Zhang and Wu, 2009). Therefore, one of the suitable ways to improve prediction accuracy is to use the combined models. The hybrid models are a combination of two or several simple models in order to take advantage of each one and cover shortcomings of one another. For the improvement of accuracy, in the literature, various models have been proposed by combining ANNs and other techniques, one of which is to combine ANN with classical models.\n\nBy combining an ANN as non-linear model and ARIMA as linear model, (Zhang, 2003) used the advantages of both and (Khashei et al., 2009) also proposed a combination of ARIMA, ANN, and fuzzy logic. Adhikari and Agrawal (2014) proposed a hybrid model from RW for exploring linear patterns and means of two NN models for uncovering non-linear patterns. Results show that hybrid model has higher accuracy than single models.\n\nAnother model is using neuro-fuzzy techniques with a meta-heuristic optimization algorithm. Chang and Liu (2008) applied a resulting fuzzy model of Takagi-Sugeno (TSK) and simulated annealing (SA) for training the fuzzy system parameters. Esfahanipour and Aghamiri (2010) employed a neuro-fuzzy system and fuzzy clustering to extract rules, where the results obtained were better than the Chang\u2019s results. Qiu et al. (2016) selected effective variables by means of a fuzzy model and applied them to three models of BPNN, GA-BPNN, and SABPNN.\n\nThe subsequent hybrid model is use of the ANNs with meta-heuristic optimization algorithm which is ordinarily used for improving the training of NN and overcoming its problems. Hassan et al. (2007) proposed a combination of hidden Markov model (HMM), NN, and GA. Asadi et al. (2012) used a combination of NN and Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) with improving the training of network with GA.\n\nIn these types of works, the proposed models have been compared with the existing individual and simple models in the combination and it has been specified that hybrid models have better accuracy in evaluations.\n\nModels that have been created using a combination of several techniques in relation to simple models could eliminate restrictions and improve accuracy. Due to the existing problems inherent in an individual model, whether simple or hybrid, these models cannot be expected to have access to the highest possible accuracy. In recent years, one of the concerned models for increasing accuracy of regression models is the usage of EL. The results obtained have proven its efficiency in different applications (Adhikari, 2015; Dietterich, 2000).\n\nThe related literature shows widely that EL algorithms have better performance than individual models for a wide spectrum of applications and different scenarios. The results are more accurate, more reliable, and more stable (Adhikari, 2015; Andrawis et al., 2011; Dietterich, 2000; Jose and Winkler, 2008). It is also shown that the necessary and sufficient condition for the higher accuracy of an ensemble learner than its base learners depends on the accuracy (Hansen and Salamon, 1990) (better accuracy than that of random learner) and diversity in base learners. These models have been developed under general titles such as multiple classifier systems, committee of classifiers, ensemble based systems, mixture of experts, multiple class combinations, neural network associations, and bootstrap aggregation (bagging) (Breiman, 1996).\n\nHashem (1997), Adhikari (2015), and Mabu et al. (2015) have used linear combinations by determining the weight of each base learner through ANNs. Li et al. (2014) based on the majority voting rule and (Rather et al., 2015) have proposed genetic algorithms for determining weights of the base learners. Also, Andrawis et al. (2011) and Jose and Winkler (2008) have proposed various model methods such as mean, trimmed mean, and winsorized mean for the aggregation of models. Table 1 shows papers related to the use of EL algorithms.\n\n1.1. Problem Statement\n\nThe most important problem in stock market prediction is accuracy. Because there is inherent complexity for the case, most of the models have restrictions in this regard. As mentioned before, the studies have further discussed the next step price prediction and less attention is paid to direction prediction. The first group includes models that predict stock price in the next time and criteria like mean squared error (MSE), root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) are used for evaluation. Cases reviewed above are in this category, such as (Chang and Liu, 2008; Hassan et al., 2007; Lin et al., 2017; Maknickien\u0117 and Maknickas, 2016; Ticknor, 2013; Wang and Wang, 2015). The second group contains models which predict stock direction for the next time and criteria like direct, hit ratio, and accuracy are used to appraise them (Kara et al., 2011; Mabu et al., 2015). The results of the model that deals with price prediction and the first group criteria only concerned do not suffice to make decision and trade in the real world because a model may be practically used, in which MAPE criterion is suitable, but trade leads to loss. In order to prevent the mentioned problem and practically use the results, stock price prediction is required to happen in the next time interval considering stock movement direction prediction (de Oliveira et al., 2013). Further, this is explained by an example.\n\nThe data shown in Figure 1 are chosen as real and predicted data for consecutive 11 days in Dow Jones index price. Calculated MAPE for predicted amounts is %18 which is a suitable figure for this dataset. As in Figure 1, 11 real and predicted points are specified in the chart. Based on such prediction and given that trader predicts and trades 10 days on a daily basis, the real value on day 1 is 21100 and it is predicted to be 21115 on day 2, which shows the upward movement direction. Therefore, a trader buys as predicted whereas the real price is 21020 on day 2 and he loses $80. Likewise, for the next days, if a trader decides to trade based on today\u2019s price and predicted price, he is faced with$250 of loss within 10 days just as daily profits; losses are shown in Figure 1.\n\nIn Figure 2, another prediction chart is presented where the prediction model has considered stock future movement direction and has predicted prices thereof. For the second prediction data, the calculated MAPE value is 0.28% which is about 50% more than the pre-vious error. In this process which is predicted based on predicted price and direction, if daily trading happens, the trader gains \\$100 of profit after 10 days.\n\nThese two charts are different in that the first mod-el predicts next price based on the previous direction without considering next predicted direction. The second model predicts next price by adding next predicted di-rection to other same input variables; despite having greater MAPE, profit which is aimed by trader increases.\n\nDue to the proper prediction of direction (increase or decrease of price), this profit is gained. Therefore, regarding the results of the example, it can be argued that prediction remains insufficient merely owing to a group of criteria (prediction of price or direction) and profit should be gained through price prediction by con-sidering the predicted direction.\n\nTo the best knowledge of the present authors, no solution has been presented for this problem so far. This is the first study to solve the explained problem that considers two simultaneous criteria of direction and price for the prediction of stock price and the results of prediction can be used in a real trader system. The pro-posed model has two stages that are composed of EL and meta-heuristic optimization algorithms. In the first stage, next direction (increase and decrease of price) is predicted and it is used for the prediction of price in the second stage.\n\n2. DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTELLIGENT ENSEMBLE-BASED MODEL FOR STOCK PRICE PREDICTION\n\nVarious studies in applying training methods show that there is no specific training algorithm that can be the most accurate and best for all the predictions. To overcome such a problem, EL algorithms have been developed largely. The main motivation for the devel-opments is to reduce the error.\n\nThe basic assumption of this methodology is that in EL, the probability of error prediction in an unknown sample is much less than the prediction of an individual model. In comparison with common machine learning methods trying to learn a hypothesis from training data, in EL models, several learners are trained to attain the greatest possible accuracy and also try to construct a set of hypotheses and compositions (Wang et al., 2011a). Learners that are used in EL are called base learners. The EL algorithm that is a combination of base learners produces better accuracy than the individual models (Dietterich, 2000). The general rule in EL systems is that the results of base learner are different from each other as much as possible. This diversity can be obtained in different ways. Four proposed methods for diversity are:\n\n\u2022 1. Use of different training datasets for the training of base learner; through resampling methods in which the sub-set of original training data is se-lected randomly and will be replaced with the original training dataset (Breiman, 1996).\n\n\u2022 2. In order to ensure that the boundaries are ap-propriately different, in addition to using differ-ent training data, unstable models are used as base models because they can make different decision boundaries, even with the low change in their training parameters (Cubiles-De-La-Vega et al., 2013).\n\n\u2022 3. Another way to achieve a diversity of different parameters is to use different models. For ex-ample, a set of multi-layer perceptron neural networks can be trained with initial weights, a number of layers and nodes, different error crite-ria, and so on. Setting such parameters can con-trol individual model instability and, ultimately, diversify them (Yao and Islam, 2008). The abil-ity to control the unstable ANNs has become the ideal candidate for the use of EL algorithms.\n\n\u2022 4. By using different features: Input space is divid-ed into different sub-sets of original features that might overlap and each sub-set is given to a model as an input. Through this method, every base learner explores some part of knowledge and diversity, by using features, triggers better result of EL algorithms (Dietrich et al., 2003).\n\nBagging as one of the simplest EL algorithms is of-fered to improve the performance of prediction models, and combinative strategy of base learners in them is the majority vote. Diversity in bagging is made using the bootstraps that are randomly selected and replaced with the original training data. Each bootstrap is used to train a learner of the same type (Wang et al., 2012). Lack of using unstable predictor leads to the creation of a collec-tion of almost identical predictors that no longer im-prove individual predictor efficiency. For the same rea-son, in bagging, unstable learning models like DT and ANNs are very efficient and effectively used because small changes in data can cause big changes in the re-sult of prediction (Cubiles-De-La-Vega et al., 2013). After training different base learners and in order to achieve final prediction, the results from all the learners are combined for an instance with different methods. In the simple weighted mean method, weights of all the learners are the same for producing the final result of an instance. The weight of each learner in the weighted mean method for final prediction is determined based on the accuracy of training step and compared to other learners. The effect of each learner on the result of final prediction can be considered as an optimization prob-lem. The goal of the optimization problem is to deter-mine the best weights for each learner in such a way that it can maximize the accuracy of prediction of test data. In this paper, to solve the optimization problem, two PSO and GA algorithms are used.\n\n2.1. Propose Model\n\nIn the previous sections, the challenge of a model was presented in the case of simultaneously paying no attention to stock price and direction. In order to solve the challenge, in this section, a new stock price predic-tion model is introduced by considering simultaneously the price and direction. The proposed model includes two dependent stages. Firstly, the direction of price change is predicted and it is added to other features as a new feature and this new dataset is used for prediction in the next time. In the first stage, in order to maximize classification accuracy (prediction of direction) and, in the second stage, to maximize regression accuracy (pre-diction of price), bagging algorithm that is a kind of EL is used. For the purpose of achieving the appropriate accuracy, it is necessary that the results of the base models be diverse as much as possible. The diversity is earned with different training datasets for each model. Diverse datasets are obtained by re-sampling the subset of the training data randomly via replacement. In addition, one NN that can create different decision boundaries, even with low deviations in training parameters, is used as base models. The ag-gregation of the result is done in four ways: optimiza-tion with GA; optimization with PSO; weight aggrega-tion based on the weight of each model that is earned by the accuracy of training data; and aggregation result with equal weight for each model. The best way for the aggregation of the base model is selected based on ac-curacy.\n\n2.1.1. First Stage (Extraction Direction)\n\nIn the first stage, the stock price direction is pre-dicted for next time. Most of the time series data in stock market are non-stationary and trendy, which re-duces the accuracy of stock market prediction. The data must be as de-trend and stationary as possible so that the hidden pattern in the series can be extracted more accurately (Kantelhardt et al., 2002). Differentia-tion and logarithmic conversion can discover more knowledge in the data. The first difference of a time series is the series of changes from one period to the next:(1)\n\n$\u2207 x t = x t \u2212 x t \u2212 1$\n(1)\n\nxt denotes the value of the time series xt at period t and the first difference of xt at period t is xt - xt-1 By the difference of the initial series, a new time series is created. The initial time series elements are stock prices and new time series elements are changes in price.\n\nUsing the value of X at period t is auto-correlated with its value at earlier periods where the n-th element of the series with k lag as input into the model is entered and the element of n+1 is predicted. This value will be predicted as change of price in the next period. In the proposed model, the close price data of the previous days are assigned as the initial inputs and, with their differentiation, a new series is made. The output of the model is the difference between the close price of today and previous day. The number of members of a time series with n element will reach n-1 with the first differentiation. The i-th element with the k lags is used to pre-dict the i+1 element. In the time series dataset, the number of k+1 variables (element i plus its previous k lags) is the input and a variable (element i+1) is the output in each record. The final number of records in this dataset will be n-k-2.\n\nThe process of the first stage is presented in Algo-rithm 1. First, data preparation and formation of new time series are performed as the result of the differential of two successive elements of the initial series along with the number of k lagging from that (line 1-2). Then, data are divided into two training and testing data (line 3). After completing these steps, if the records contained in dataset N are assumed, with N times of sampling with replacement on training data, N bootstraps are created (line 4-6). One NN is created and N times are trained with N bootstraps until N base models are obtained (line 7-10). In the following, training data are entered into each of the trained base models and its output is com-pared with the target output in order to determine the base model prediction accuracy (line 11-13). If the ac-curacy of prediction is better than random prediction (greater than 0.5), then the output of this model is main-tained and the results (predicted direction) are added to the results matrix (line 14-15). After the training data are applied to all the trained models and the results matrix is completed, this matrix is aggregated with four meth-ods and the best weighing vector of the combination of trained models is extracted (line 18). In Algorithm 2, the optimization of the vector of weighting is described.\n\nThe aggregation process results of base models are presented in Algorithm 2. The results are aggregated by four methods: simple average aggregation (SAV); weighted average aggregation (WAV); GA; and PSO (line 2-5). The extracted weights from the method that has most accuracy are selected (line 6).\n\nConsidering the importance of learner\u2019s weight for final performance, as earlier explained, extract of weights is defined as an optimization problem. In the following, the weight of each model is extracted by the use of PSO. The process is explained in Algorithm 3. Every particle in this algorithm is defined as a weight vector for combining learners for the computation of the final output. Therefore, every particle of the vector equals the dimensions of a number of learners obtained in the previous steps. Weights and initial velocity are determined randomly for each particle (line 3-6). Below, the performance (accuracy) of each particle (weights of base learners) is calculated. The performance of each particle means that the performance of the learner in teamwork for reaching the least possible error for all the training data is obtained by particle-related weight combination (line 8-9).\n\nFor example, for a particle the with weights of 0.5, 0.3 and 0.2, learner for a specific sample having 59, 65 and 62, final output stands at 61.4 = 0.\u00d75 e359+0.3365+ 0.2\u00d762. A complete update of the group of particles is made based on the best personal and group experience with a certain number of iterations (line 11-12). Finally, the best particle in the last iteration is being used as final weights for the combination of base models.\n\nThe GA optimization is applied for obtaining opti-mal weights of base models in addition to PSO. In this algorithm, each chromosome is taken as one weight vector. The number of genes concerned for each chro-mosome equals the number of base models obtained in the previous steps. To begin the GA, initial amounts of weights are generated in each chromosome randomly. Afterwards, chromosomes are arranged based on their performance (exactly similar to PSO). To generate the next generation, the selection is made through roulette wheel, and two-point crossover and two-point mutation are respectively used for crossover and mutation.\n\nTo generate the next generation, the selection is made through roulette wheel, and two-point crossover and uniform mutation are respectively used for crosso-ver and mutation. In the roulette wheel selection, par-ents are selected according to their fitness. The better the chromosomes, the more the chances for their selec-tion would be. Imagine a roulette wheel, in which all the chromosomes are placed in the population and the size of every chromosome corresponds to the size of its fit-ness function.\n\nThen, a marble is thrown there to select the chro-mosome. The chromosome with bigger fitness will be selected most of the time. Two-point crossover calls for two points to be selected on the parent chromosome. Everything between the two points is swapped between the parent organisms. Uniform mutation replaces the value of the chosen gene with a uniform random value selected between the user-specified upper and lower bounds for that gene. This mutation operator can only be used for integer and float genes.\n\nFor the evolution of chromosome, a predetermined number of chromosomes are considered for crossover and mutation. In the last iteration of the GA, after or-dering of chromosomes based on their accuracy in de-termining the direction for all the training data, the best chromosome is being used as final weights for base learner combination.\n\nWAV is another method of training output matrix aggregation where, firstly, accuracy level of each matrix column (prediction of a base model) is calculated for predicting target vector of training (line 3). The accuracy of each base model is being divided by total of accura-cy, and coefficient of each matrix column is obtained in the optimal combination vector (line 4). SAV is the sim-ple average of base models output for the aggregation of results with equal weights.\n\nFigure 3 shows the process aggregation of the results of the base models in different ways. The matrix columns are the results of the base models. For each column, one weight is considered. The method that makes the weight vector with the highest accuracy is selected as the aggregation method.\n\n2.1.2. Second Stage (Price Prediction)\n\nAfter the termination of the model\u2019s first stage, its output which includes \u201cthe price movement direction\u201d in the stock market, whether upward or downward, is obtained. In the second stage, with adding this feature to existing features (new dataset), a model is trained with the new dataset, the best combination of lags is chosen through trial and error, and it is used as the input of the second stage. The applied techniques in this stage are conceptually similar to the first stage of the proposed model to some extent, but it is different in the use; for example, evaluation criteria for base models and aggre-gation methods in this stage, instead of evaluating accu-racy of results in correct prediction of direction, varies with evaluation of accuracy in predicted price through MAPE criterion. In this stage, by bootstrap, base models are trained and next-time price is being predicted; in order to improve accuracy and further assurance, re-sults of base models are aggregated with different methods and the method with the highest accuracy is selected.\n\nThe process of the second stage is presented in Al-gorithm 5. Initially, a new dataset is created by adding the feature taken from the previous stage. Then, the (near) optimal lag is selected by trial and error (line 1-2). In the following, the new dataset is divided into two training and testing data (line 3) and, then, N bootstraps are created from the training dataset (line 5-7).\n\nOne NN is created and later, it is trained with N bootstraps until N trained base models are learned (line 9-11). Training data are applied to all the trained mod-els and their output is added to the training output ma-trix (line 12-18). According to EL algorithm, which is mentioned in the previous section, the results are aggre-gated through four methods, from among which the best vector is chosen (line 19).\n\nIn the first stage of the model, the difference of the closing price data is used to predict the next direction of price movement. Each data record is in this form w$[ D C t \u2212 1 ; D C t + 2 ; \u22ef ; D C t + k ; D t ]$; where DC as Difference between Closes, k-lagged as inputs, and D as the next Direction price change are the output. The data records are shown in Figure 4\n\nThus, the output vector of the first stage $[ D t , D t + 1 , D t + 2 , \u22ef D t + n ]$ along with other data is used as the input for the second stage.\n\nAggregation methods of results in this stage are car-ried out as in the previous stage (Algorithm. 2), with the difference that the criterion for evaluating and selecting the optimal weight of the vectors in the matrix is MAPE. This is also proper for algorithms used in this stage. Just as aggregation with PSO of results presented in Algo-rithm 3, each particle will be evaluated by the MAPE criterion. Algorithm 6 will be replaced with Algorithm 4 in the aggregation of the results based on weighted av-erage aggregation methods. Algorithm 5\n\n3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS\n\nIn this section, the performance of the proposed model is evaluated with several datasets, which include the introduction of datasets, evaluation criteria, imple-mentation of the proposed model, and comparing re-sults of the proposed model with other papers.\n\n3.1. Datasets\n\nIn order to compare the results of the proposed model with those of the accredited papers, the same datasets in the papers are used (Asadi et al., 2012; Chang and Liu, 2008; Esfahanipour and Aghamiri, 2010). These data are different indices of the world\u2019s validated stock exchanges that show changes of general level of prices in the market. In this paper, Indices of Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), Taiwan Stock Exchange (TSE), and Tehran Price Index (TEPIX) to-gether with three other Tehran Indices are being investi-gated. Indices of Tehran Industry Index (TII) show av-erage changes of stock price of operating companies in industry sector; Tehran Index of Financial Group (TIFG), the average changes in the stock price of oper-ating companies in the financial sector and Tehran In-dex of top 50 companies (TIT50C) in terms of Liquidity. Two other datasets are Nasdaq Index and Amazon Stock Prices. The information related to data is shown in Table 2.\n\n3.2. Evaluation Criteria\n\nConsidering the approach of the paper to simulta-neously improve the prediction of direction and price, the criteria for evaluating the results should support these two categories. The first criterion that has been used to compare the models is MAPE. In this criterion, absolute value of the difference between the real amount and prediction amount is divided by the real amount and, by dividing it by the number of total data in the problem, it is expressed in terms of percentage, where yi is the real amount, pi is predicted amount, and N is the number of data.(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)\n\n$MAPE = 100 \u00d7 1 N \u2211 i = 1 N y i \u2212 p i y i$\n(2)\n\n$P O I C D = 100 \u00d7 1 N \u2211 i = 0 N D i$\n(3)\n\n(4)\n\n$U of Tail = \u2211 i = 1 N ( y i \u2212 p i ) 2 \u2211 i = 1 N ( y i \u2212 y i + 1 ) 2$\n(5)\n\n$ARV = \u2211 \u200b i = 1 n N ( y i \u2212 p i ) 2 \u2211 \u200b i = 1 N ( y \u2212 \u2212 p i ) 2$\n(6)\n\nThe criterion the prediction of change in direction (POCID) shows calculation of direction change predic-tion. Model accuracy in direction prediction together with the proper prediction of price plays a leading role in profit gain. The interval of POCID criterion is [0, 100]; if POCID is closer to 100, the better accuracy of predic-tion is obtained. The third criterion is Theil\u2019s U statistic which compares model performance with RW model. If the Theil\u2019s U of the model is equal to 1, model perfor-mance is equivalent to RW. If the number is bigger than 1, the performance is worser than RW and, if it is less than 1, the proposed model performance is better than RW. The fourth criterion is the average relative variance (ARV); if it is equal to 1. it means that if instead of all the predicted values, we set the average of the time se-ries, accuracy will not change. The value of this criterion, which is less than 1 and closer to 0, indi-cates better prediction accuracy (Ferreira et al., 2008).\n\n3.3. Implementation of the Proposed Model\n\nResearch has shown that the input variables of stock price predictive models have been used, including price, technical, fundamental, and macroeconomic var-iables that can be categorized into different groups (de Oliveira et al., 2013). One common categorization for stock prediction models\u2019 input variables divides them into two types: the first type is the price variables such as open, close, low, high price, as well as the volume and number of trading in a period (Hassan et al., 2007). The second type is the technical variables that are derived from these price data using different formulas (Kara et al., 2011).\n\nIn the proposed model, this paper uses price varia-bles. Six time series in Table 1 contain 620 records, di-vided into two training and test data, 80% (500 records) for training 20% (120 data records) for test. The other papers compared with the results of this model also di-vide these data into the same training and test (Asadi et al., 2012). Two other time series are based on 80% of the training data and 20% of the test data\n\nThe final output of the proposed model is the pre-diction of price in the next time owing to the price change in the trend. In the first stage that is responsible for specifying price direction changes in next time, data entering the model of the first stage are differentiated and new data are price changes in two consecutive times.\n\nIn the proposed model, the base learners are com-posed of a three-layer feed-forward neural network and the number of inputs is equal to the number of lags used. Several factors in model setting can affect the accuracy of the results and each factor has different levels: settings for training data, such as use\/non-use of logarithmic transformation, applying different lags to the data, determining the percentage of validation data, number of bootstraps, amount of the use of data from each bootstrap, as well as number of inputs, number of neurons, training method, and aggregation method of the results of the base learners. The range of levels used in this experimental plan in shown in Table 3.\n\nCombining all possible scenarios and testing them require a large amount of time. To solve this problem and to reduce the tests using the Taguchi method and the Minitab software, 25 different modes are selected and the model is implemented to achieve the highest possible accuracy among these combinations. Models with the highest accuracy in the training data are shown in Table 4 for each dataset and model settings.\n\nPrediction output vector obtained from the first stage is added to other price variables, which creates a new input dataset into the second stage. In this stage, learn-ing model is repeated by changing its settings (similar to the first stage) to get the best results.\n\nAfter each training of individual models and their aggregation, the combination that has the best result of the evaluation of the training data is selected and, then, the testing data will be entered into the model and the model will be evaluated. The result of the evaluation of testing data along with the settings that produced these results is shown in Table 5.\n\nAs shown in Table 5, for the Dow Jones dataset, the (near) optimal MAPE happens when 3 lags are used. Also, 9 neurons in base models and 0.5% of data of each bootstrap are used for validation. The number of bootstraps is 100 and the method, by which base mod-els are aggregated, is WAV. By considering these settings in evaluation with testing data for the Dow Jones da-taset, the value of MAPE is 1.126. Figure 5 and Figure 6 show a compari-son of real and predicted values with the proposed model.\n\nIn this paper, for the aggregation of results in both stages, the meta-heuristic optimization algorithms are used. Several settings are obtained by trial and error, the best of which are selected for each dataset. These pa-rameters are shown in Table 6.\n\n3.4. Comparison of Proposed Model\n\nThe results of the proposed model are compared with the models of valid papers (Asadi et al., 2012; Chang and Liu, 2008; Esfahanipour and Aghamiri, 2010), which have used the same datasets in the field of stock price prediction with MAPE criterion. Table 7 shows the MAPE value of the proposed model and the results of other models as well as their percentage of improvement by the proposed model. Table 7 indicates the superiority of the proposed model to other models in most cases.\n\nConsideration of prediction criteria of price and market movement direction is the advantage of the proposed model in predicting. The results obtained compared to the results of Asadi\u2019s model (Asadi et al., 2012), in which POICD criterion is being used for the prediction of changes on the same datasets, show that the proposed model has better accuracy than this model. The results of this comparison are found in Table 8.\n\nThe results of Theil\u2019s U evaluation show that the proposed model is better than RW model and ARV in all the datasets. In respect to MAPE and POICD, the pro-posed model, in most cases, has better predicted accu-racy than the other models, the improved amount of which is shown in improvement column of Table 8. For example, for the Dow Jones dataset, MAPE obtained from Asadi\u2019s model is 1.41 and MAPE obtained from the proposed model of this paper is 1.126, which shows 18% improvement in price prediction. This is while the proposed model has shown 5% improvement in terms of price direction compared to that of this model.\n\nIn Figure 7 and Figure 8, comparisons of six indices between proposed model and Asadi\u2019s model in terms of MAPE and POCID criteria is demonstrated.\n\nThe average computation time for building the proposed model in the first and second stages is shown in Table 9. The time to build the model depends on var-ious factors (Table 3). Depending on the number of base models that are equal to the number of bootstraps (100 to 400), the runtime is different. The runtime also de-pends on the training algorithm used for the base mod-els. The average runtime for different composition fac-tors is shown in Table 9. This computation time involves constructing base models, training them, and aggregat-ing results with 4 methods.\n\nAll the prediction algorithms were implemented in MATLAB R2016b and carried out on a personal com-puter with an Intel(R) Ci7 7700K CPU and 64GB of RAM DDR4 and HDD 300 GB SSD. The training sam-ples for all the dataset were 500.\n\nAs can be seen in the table, the average building time of the proposed model was much larger than indi-vidual models; but, it should be noted that when the training step was completed and the model was selected, there was no significant difference in the implementa-tion time of the test data from that of the proposed model and individual models.\n\n3.5. Discussion\n\nAs mentioned before, prediction models have been divided into two groups of price prediction and direction prediction. Also, by examples, it was clarified that the use of models predicting price regardless of price trends, despite having less error in some important criteria, may cause a loss in real trading. This is also true for models that only deal with direction prediction. The proposed model predicts price based on the consideration of price trend and its prediction that may bring more profit than other models in real trading.\n\nThree categories of models include price prediction, direction prediction, and price prediction regarding direc-tion (proposed model of this paper); they are imple-mented with different datasets, the results of which are compared. The results of predictions obtained from all models are compared through various trading strategies and the profits. For example, DIJA test data (Table 2) are applied to each of three models, where real price and predicted price (in terms of two models) are shown in Figure 9.\n\nAlso, the results of direction prediction model are shown in Figure 10. In this figure, number 1 shows price increase and number -1 shows price decrease.\n\nThese predictions are evaluated by various trading strategies. If the output of prediction model is price, one strategy for trading seems like this: In case the next pre-dicted price has increased in relation to present price, a new stock is bought as much as a prediction is; on the contrary, if the next predicted price has decreased (ac-cording to present price), stock is sold as much as pre-diction is. If the output of direction model is direction, buying and selling are done in the same model, but it is done on a constant basis rather than as much as predic-tion is.\n\nThis strategy of buying and selling is being implemented on the prediction results of the above three models.\n\nIn case a deal is made with an initial capital of 10,000,000 money units for each of three models, the results obtained are shown in Figure 11. These results show that price prediction model has gained 8% of profit owing to direction while the initial capital of the other two models has decreased during this period and dealing has led to loss by the use of the other two models.\n\n3.6. Conclusion\n\nHigh-accuracy stock price prediction for trading is highly important in this market, which leads to the preservation and increase of capital. Considering the fact that some of the classic financial theories find market unpredictable, in this paper, despite fluctuating and unstable nature of the stock market, using artificial intelligence models, predicting the behavior of stock markets has shown that it is possible to predict the market. The proposed model simultaneously takes into account price movement direction (increase or decrease) and proper stock price in order to predict stock price and market behavior. The models in the literature have mainly underscored price prediction and paid no attention to the next movement direction; this has caused their results to be impractical and their application for trading in stock market to culminate in financial loss. To solve this problem, this paper proposed a two-stage model, based on which stock price was predicted with attention to the next price movement direction. In the first stage, the price change direction was predicted and, in the second stage, this direction was added to input variables for price prediction. The proposed model employed ensemble learning (EL) to increase the accuracy of prediction and rendered higher evaluation in criteria in addition to simultaneous consideration to two dimensions of price and direction in relation to other one-dimensional models. Because of the simultaneous prediction of the market direction and its price, the proposed model can be applied in a real trading system, in which direction prediction is employed for the release of buying and selling order, and price prediction is used for extracting its volume. The proposed model is being implemented on several datasets. The results showed that the proposed model, compared to other models, had more desirable performance. According to the results, the model proposed can be utilized as a backup system of certain decision-making in real trading in the stock market.\n\nFigure\n\nReal price and predicted price regardless of the prediction related to the direction of the stock price movement.\n\nReal price and estimated price considering the direction of the stock movement.\n\nAggregation process of the results of the base models.\n\nData records and output vector.\n\nComparison of real and predicted values with the proposed model.\n\nComparison of real and predicted values for Amazon stock price\n\nComparison of two models with MAPE criterion.\n\nComparison of two models with POICD criterion.\n\nReal values, predicted prices and predicted prices according to the direction for DIJA dataset.\n\nReal direction of stock movements and the predicted direction for DIJA dataset.\n\nResults of trading with three predicted models and strategy expressed over 120 days.\n\nTable\n\nPapers related to the use of EL for prediction\n\nPrediction of direction\n\nAggregation_method\n\nOptimization of weight using PSO\n\nWeighted Average Aggregation (Direct)\n\nWeighted Average Aggregation (Direct)\n\nWeighted Average Aggregation (Direct)\n\nThe range of levels used in this experimental plan\n\nResults of the first stage of implementation of the proposed model for training data\n\nResults of the second stage of implementation of the proposed model for test data\n\nMeta-heuristic algorithm settings\n\nComparing results of proposed model and other models\n\nComparing the results of the proposed model with Asadi\u2019s paper\n\nRuntime per training of various models\n\nREFERENCES\n\n1. Adebiyi, A. A. , Adewumi, A. O. , and Ayo, C. K. (2014), Comparison of ARIMA and artificial neural networks models for stock price prediction, Journal of Applied Mathematics, 2014 , Article ID614342, 7.\n2. Adhikari, R. (2015), A neural network based linear ensemble framework for time series forecasting , Neurocomputing, 157, 231-242.\n3. Adhikari, R. and Agrawal, R. (2014), A combination of artificial neural network and random walk models for financial time series forecasting , Neural Computing and Applications, 24(6), 1441-1449.\n4. Andrawis, R. R. , Atiya, A. F. , and El-Shishiny, H. (2011), Forecast combinations of computational intelligence and linear models for the NN5 time series forecasting competition , International Journal of Forecasting, 27(3), 672-688.\n5. Asadi, S. , Hadavandi, E. , Mehmanpazir, F. , and Nakhostin, M. M. 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(2015), Stock market trading rule based on pattern recognition and technical analysis: Forecasting the DJIA index with intraday data , Expert Systems with Applications, 42(14), 5963-5975.\n11. Chang, P. C. and Liu, C. H. (2008), A TSK type fuzzy rule based system for stock price prediction , Expert Systems with Applications, 34(1), 135-144.\n12. Chauvin, Y. and Rumelhart, D. E. (1995), Backpropagation: Theory, architectures, and applications, Psychology Press, New York.\n13. Cubiles-De-La-Vega, M. D. , Blanco-Oliver, A. , Pino-Mej as, R. , and Lara-Rubio, J. (2013), Improving the management of microfinance institutions by using credit scoring models based on statistical learning techniques , Expert Systems with Applications, 40(17), 6910-6917.\n14. de Oliveira, F. A. , Nobre, C. N. , and Z rate, L. E. (2013), Applying artificial neural networks to prediction of stock price and improvement of the directional prediction index: Case study of PETR4, Petrobras, Brazil , Expert Systems with Applications, 40(18), 7596-7606.\n15. Dietrich, C. , Palm, G. , and Schwenker, F. (2003), Decision templates for the classification of bioacoustic time series , Information Fusion, 4(2), 101-109.\n16. Dietterich, T. G. (2000), Ensemble methods in machine learning , Paper presented at the International Workshop on Multiple Classifier Systems, 1-15.\n17. Enke, D. and Thawornwong, S. (2005), The use of data mining and neural networks for forecasting stock market returns , Expert Systems with Applications, 29(4), 927-940.\n18. Esfahanipour, A. and Aghamiri, W. (2010), Adapted neuro-fuzzy inference system on indirect approach TSK fuzzy rule base for stock market analysis , Expert Systems with Applications, 37(7), 4742-4748.\n19. Fama, E. F. (1970), Efficient capital markets: A review of theory and empirical work , The Journal of Finance, 25(2), 383-417.\n20. Fama, E. F. (1995), Random walks in stock market prices , Financial Analysts Journal, 51(1), 75-80.\n21. Ferreira, T. A. , Vasconcelos, G. C. , and Adeodato, P. J. (2008), A new intelligent system methodology for time series forecasting with artificial neural networks , Neural Processing Letters, 28(2), 113-129.\n22. Freitas, P. S. and Rodrigues, A. J. (2006), Model combination in neural-based forecasting , European Journal of Operational Research, 173(3), 801-814.\n23. Hansen, L. K. and Salamon, P. (1990), Neural network ensembles , IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 12(10), 993-1001.\n24. Hashem, S. (1997), Optimal linear combinations of neural networks , Neural Networks, 10(4), 599-614.\n25. Hassan, M. R. , Nath, B. , and Kirley, M. (2007), A fusion model of HMM, ANN and GA for stock market forecasting , Expert Systems with Applications, 33(1), 171-180.\n26. Jose, V. R. R. and Winkler, R. L. (2008), Simple robust averages of forecasts: Some empirical results , International Journal of Forecasting, 24(1), 163-169.\n27. Kantelhardt, J. W. , Zschiegner, S. A. , Koscielny-Bunde, E. , Havlin, S. , Bunde, A. , and Stanley, H. E. (2002), Multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis of nonstationary time series , Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 316(1-4), 87-114.\n28. Kara, Y. , Acar Boyacioglu, M. , and Baykan, . K. (2011), Predicting direction of stock price index movement using artificial neural networks and support vector machines: The sample of the Istanbul stock exchange , Expert Systems with Applications, 38(5), 5311-5319.\n29. Khashei, M. , Bijari, M. , and Ardali, G. A. R. (2009), Improvement of auto-regressive integrated moving average models using fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks (ANNs) , Neurocomputing, 72(4-5), 956-967.\n30. Li, Y. , Wu, C. , Liu, J. , and Luo, P. (2014), A combination prediction model of stock composite index based on artificial intelligent methods and multi-agent simulation , International Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems, 7(5), 853-864.\n31. Lin, L. , Wang, F. , Xie, X. , and Zhong, S. (2017), Random forests-based extreme learning machine ensemble for multi-regime time series prediction , Expert Systems with Applications, 83, 164-176.\n32. Lu, C. J. , Lee, T. S. , and Chiu, C. C. (2009), Financial time series forecasting using independent component analysis and support vector regression , Decision Support Systems, 47(2), 115-125.\n33. Mabu, S. , Obayashi, M. , and Kuremoto, T. (2015), Ensemble learning of rule-based evolutionary algorithm using multi-layer perceptron for supporting decisions in stock trading problems , Applied Soft Computing, 36, 357-367.\n34. Maknickien\u0117, N. and and Maknickas, A. (2016), Prediction Capabilities of Evolino RNN Ensembles , Computational Intelligence, 473-485, Springer.\n35. Patel, J. , Shah, S. , Thakkar, P. , and Kotecha, K. (2015), Predicting stock and stock price index movement using trend deterministic data preparation and machine learning techniques , Expert Systems with Applications, 42(1), 259-268.\n36. Qiu, M. , Song, Y. , and Akagi, F. (2016), Application of artificial neural network for the prediction of stock market returns: The case of the Japanese stock market , Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, 85, 1-7.\n37. Rather, A. M. , Agarwal, A. , and Sastry, V. (2015), Recurrent neural network and a hybrid model for prediction of stock returns , Expert Systems with Applications, 42(6), 3234-3241.\n38. Schwert, G. W. (1989), Why does stock market volatility change over time? , The Journal of Finance, 44(5), 1115-1153.\n39. Si, Y. W. and Yin, J. (2013), OBST-based segmentation approach to financial time series , Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 26(10), 2581-2596.\n40. Ticknor, J. L. (2013). A Bayesian regularized artificial neural network for stock market forecasting , Expert Systems with Applications, 40(14), 5501-5506.\n41. Tk\u00e1\u010d, M. and Verner, R. (2016), Artificial neural networks in business: Two decades of research , Applied Soft Computing, 38, 788-804.\n42. Wang, G. , Hao, J. , Ma, J. , and Jiang, H. (2011), A comparative assessment of ensemble learning for credit scoring , Expert Systems with Applications, 38(1), 223-230.\n43. Wang, G. , Ma, J. , Huang, L. , and Xu, K. (2012), Two credit scoring models based on dual strategy ensemble trees , Knowledge-Based Systems, 26, 61-68.\n44. Wang, J. Z. , Wang, J. J. , Zhang, Z. G. , and Guo, S. P. (2011), Forecasting stock indices with back propagation neural network , Expert Systems with Applications, 38(11), 14346-14355.\n45. Wang, J. and Wang, J. (2015), Forecasting stock market indexes using principle component analysis and stochastic time effective neural networks , Neurocomputing, 156, 68-78.\n46. Yao, X. and Islam, M. M. (2008), Evolving artificial neural network ensembles , IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine, 3(1), 31-42.\n47. Zhang, G. P. (2003), Time series forecasting using a hybrid ARIMA and neural network model , Neurocomputing, 50, 159-175.\n48. Zhang, Y. and Wu, L. (2009), Stock market prediction of S&P 500 via combination of improved BCO approach and BP neural network , Expert Systems with Applications, 36(5), 8849-8854.","date":"2020-08-12 09:47:32","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 7, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 1, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 0, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.5293466448783875, \"perplexity\": 1191.9319490772184}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": false, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 20, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2020-34\/segments\/1596439738888.13\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20200812083025-20200812113025-00300.warc.gz\"}"}
| null | null |
Q: I got error java.lang.NumberFormatException: For input string:Excel Using Jdeveloper 12C, Oracle DB 12C, Windows 8.1
this is my code to read Excel File to DB.
This is an Image for the code I
link to the code
FileInputStream file = new FileInputStream
(new File("E:/Company Mails.xlsx"));
XSSFWorkbook workbook = new XSSFWorkbook(file);
XSSFSheet sheet = workbook.getSheetAt(0);
Iterator<Row> rowIterator = sheet.iterator();
DCBindingContainer bindings2 = (DCBindingContainer)
BindingContext.getCurrent().getCurrentBindingsEntry();
JUCtrlHierBinding obj = (JUCtrlHierBinding)
bindings2.findCtrlBinding("CompanyMails1");
ViewObject vo = obj.getViewObject();
BindingContainer bindings = BindingContext.
getCurrent().getCurrentBindingsEntry();
OperationBinding operationBinding = bindings.
getOperationBinding("Commit");
while (rowIterator.hasNext()){
Row row = rowIterator.next();
Iterator<Cell> cellIterator = row.cellIterator();
oracle.jbo.Row r = vo.createRow();
while (cellIterator.hasNext()){
Cell cell = cellIterator.next();
r.setAttribute("No", row.getCell(0));
r.setAttribute("Mail", row.getCell(1));
r.setAttribute("Person", row.getCell(2));} }
file.close(); operationBinding.execute();}
catch (Exception e){e.printStackTrace(); }
return null;}
this is the message I get on the Jdev
<org.apache.myfaces.trinidad.component.UIXComponentBase> <UIXComponentBase> <getClientId> <INVALID_CALL_TO_GETCLIENTID> <oracle.adf.controller> <Utils> <buildFacesMessage> <ADF: Adding the following JSF error message: For input string: "No"> java.lang.NumberFormatException: For input string: "No" at java.lang.NumberFormatException.forInputString(NumberFormatException.java:65)
"No" as A String is the head of first Column in Excel File
this is a pic for the error I got after running the code.
link to the error i got on the browser
A: The setAttribute() method needs the index of the column. Not the column Header.
So you have to change to:
r.setAttribute(0, row.getCell(0));
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 3,281
|
@implementation iDevice
@end
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 1,660
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\section{Introduction}
In a recent paper~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} we proposed a novel method to describe D-branes probing thermal backgrounds. This was based on the blackfold approach developed in~\cite{Emparan:2007wm}. The main feature of this new method is that it describes a brane probe consisting of a large number of coincident non-extremal D-branes such that the probe is in thermal equilibrium with the background. This new method was employed in \cite{Grignani:2010xm} to heat up the BIon solution~\cite{Callan:1997kz,Gibbons:1997xz} by putting it in the background of hot flat space. Doing this, it was found that the finite temperature BIon behaves qualitatively different than its zero-temperature counterpart.
A key observation of~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} is that the requirement of thermal equilibrium between the probe and the background changes the probe not only globally but also locally in that it changes the energy-momentum tensor in the equations of motion of the probe. This is due to the fact that the degrees of freedom living on the brane gets heated up. While this is taken into account in our new method it is, however, not taken into account in the previously used approach for describing D-brane probes in thermal background which employed the classical Dirac-Born-Infeld (DBI) action. Thus, the previously used approach does not provide an accurate description of D-brane probes in thermal backgrounds.%
\footnote{See~Section 3.3 of \cite{Grignani:2010xm} for a more elaborate and precise argument for this.}
Our method could thus potentially open up new insights and developments in the study of D-branes as probes of thermal backgrounds particularly with applications to the AdS/CFT correspondence.
In this paper we continue our study of the finite temperature BIon solution found in \cite{Grignani:2010xm} which generalizes the extremal BIon
solution in the particular case of the D3-brane. The extremal BIon solution either takes the form of an infinite spike with an F-string charge coming out of the D3-brane, describing a number of coincident F-strings ending on the D3-brane, or the form of a D3-brane and a parallel anti-D3-brane connected by a ``wormhole" with F-string charge which we dub the brane-antibrane-wormhole configuration. The latter solution would correspond in the linearized regime to a string stretched between a D3-brane and an anti-D3-brane. The finite temperature BIon solution of \cite{Grignani:2010xm} is a generalization of the brane-antibrane-wormhole configuration which is found employing a non-extremal D3-F1 probe brane system curved in hot flat space. Note that, while the extremal BIon solution of the DBI action is found for a system with one D3-brane (and anti-D3-brane) with $g_s \ll 1$ the finite temperature BIon solution is instead found in a regime with $N$ D3-branes (and anti-D3-branes) with $N \gg 1$ and $g_s N \gg 1$.
We focus in this paper on two aspects of the finite temperature BIon solution which we did not address in \cite{Grignani:2010xm}. The first concerns the structure of the phases of the brane-antibrane-wormhole configuration at finite temperature. It was found in \cite{Grignani:2010xm} that there are up to three available phases for a given temperature and separation between the D3-branes and anti-D3-branes, in contrast with the two available phases for the extremal BIon. Here we examine this further by comparing the free energy in the appropriate thermodynamical ensemble to see which available phase is the dominant one. Moreover, based on this, we propose a heuristic picture for the dynamics of the phases. The second aspect that we consider in this paper is the possibility of constructing a finite temperature generalization of the infinite spike configuraton of the extremal BIon.
We begin by reviewing here the main features of the finite temperature BIon solution \cite{Grignani:2010xm}. The geometric setup is as follows. Start with $N$ coincident flat non-extremal D3-branes embedded in flat space with spherical symmetry in the world-volume directions. Let $z$ be a transverse coordinate to the branes and let $\sigma$ be the radius on the world-volume. The case of the flat branes is thus $z(\sigma)=0$. The curving of the $N$ D3-branes is then described by the profile $z(\sigma)$, as illustrated in Fig.~\ref{fig:setup}. We impose the two boundary conditions that $z(\sigma)\rightarrow 0$ for $\sigma\rightarrow \infty$ and $z'(\sigma) \rightarrow - \infty$ for $\sigma \rightarrow \sigma_0$, where $\sigma_0$ is the minimal two-sphere radius of the configuration. Putting now $k$ units of F-string charge along the radial direction we obtain the profile
\begin{equation}
\label{thesolution}
z(\sigma) = \int_{\sigma}^\infty d{\sigma'} \left( \frac{F({\sigma'})^2}{F(\sigma_0)^2} - 1 \right)^{-\frac{1}{2}}
\end{equation}
where $F(\sigma)$ is given by
\begin{equation}
\label{Ffunction}
F(\sigma) = \sigma^2 \frac{ 4 \cosh^2 \alpha -3 }{\cosh^4 \alpha}
\end{equation}
In \cite{Grignani:2010xm} we found that there are two possible branches of solutions determining the function $\alpha(\sigma)$, one being the branch connected to the extremal BIon, the other being connected to a neutral 3-brane with F-string charge. In this paper we only consider the former branch, in which case we have
\begin{equation}
\label{mainbranch}
\cosh^2 \alpha = \frac{3}{2} \frac{\cos \frac{\delta}{3} + \sqrt{3} \sin \frac{\delta}{3} } {\cos \delta}
\end{equation}
with the definitions%
\footnote{Here the F-string tensions is $T_{\rm F1} = 1 / (2\pi l_s^2 )$ and the D3-brane tension is $T_{\rm D3} = 1/((2\pi)^3 g_s l_s^4 )$.}
\begin{equation}
\label{T_kappa_delta}
\cos \delta (\sigma) \equiv \bar{T}^4 \sqrt{1+ \frac{\kappa^2}{\sigma^4}}
\ , \ \
\bar{T} \equiv \left( \frac{ 9 \pi^2 N}{4\sqrt{3} T_{\rm D3}} \right)^{\frac{1}{4}} T
\ , \ \
\kappa \equiv \frac{k T_{\rm F1}}{4\pi N T_{\rm D3}}
\end{equation}
We see from the first equation above that the minimal radius $\sigma_0$ is bounded from below $\sigma_0 \geq \sigma_{\rm min} \equiv \sqrt{\kappa} \bar{T}^2 (1- \bar{T}^8)^{-1/4}$. Note also that $0\leq \bar{T} \leq 1$. From the above solution \eqref{thesolution} we can now construct the brane-antibrane-wormhole configuration by attaching a mirror of the solution, reflected in the plane $z=z(\sigma_0)$. The separation distance $\Delta$ between the $N$ D3-branes and the $N$ anti-D3-branes is then given by $\Delta = 2z(\sigma_0)$ as measured far away from the wormhole, $i.e.$ for $\sigma \gg \sigma_0$ (see Fig.~\ref{fig:setup}).
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centerline{\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{Setup.pdf}}
\caption{\small Illustration of the setup, showing the embedding function $z(\sigma)$ and
the definition of the parameters $\sigma_0$ and $\Delta$.}
\label{fig:setup}
\end{figure}
In \cite{Grignani:2010xm} we analyzed the separation distance $\Delta$ as a function of the minimal radius $\sigma_0$ for a given temperature $\bar{T}$. The results of this analysis are most easily illustrated by the Figs.~\ref{DeltaPlots} where we plotted $\Delta$ versus $\sigma_0$ for $\bar{T} = 0.05, 0.4, 0.7, 0.8$. Note that we set $\kappa=1$ without loss of generality since we can reinstate a general $\kappa$ by the transformation $\sigma_0 \rightarrow \sqrt{\kappa} \sigma_0$ and $\Delta \rightarrow \sqrt{\kappa} \Delta$. For comparison the figures also include the $\Delta$ versus $\sigma_0$ curve for the zero temperature case, for which the wormhole solution is characterized by a ``thin throat" branch with small $\sigma_0$ and a ``thick throat" branch with large $\sigma_0$ for fixed $\Delta$. Instead when the temperature is turned on, the separation distance $\Delta$ between the brane-antibrane system develops a local maximum in the region corresponding to the zero temperature thin branch. This is a new feature compared to the zero temperature case. The existence of this maximum gives rise to three possible phases with different $\sigma_0$ for a given $\Delta$. For small temperatures and/or large $\sigma_0$ the $\Delta$ as a function of $\sigma_0$ resembles increasingly closely the zero temperature counterpart.
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centerline{\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{DeltaPlot_4.pdf} \includegraphics[scale=0.8]{DeltaPlot_1.pdf}}
\centerline{\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{DeltaPlot_2.pdf} \includegraphics[scale=0.8]{DeltaPlot_5.pdf}}
\caption{\small On the figures the solid red line is $\Delta$ versus $\sigma_0$ for $\bar{T}=0.05$ (top left figure), $\bar{T}=0.4$ (top right figure), $\bar{T}=0.7$ (bottom left figure) and $\bar{T}=0.8$ (bottom right figure) while the blue dashed line corresponds to $\bar{T}=0$. We have set $\kappa=1$.}
\label{DeltaPlots}
\end{figure}
In the following we denote the value of $\Delta$ at the local maximum as $\Delta_{\rm max}$ and $\Delta$ at the (local) minimum as $\Delta_{\rm min}$. Studying the $\Delta$ versus $\sigma_0$ for small temperatures we found analytically that $\Delta_{\rm max} \propto \sqrt{\kappa} \bar{T}^{-2/3}$ while $\Delta_{\rm min} \propto \sqrt{\kappa} \bar{T}^0$. In Fig.~\ref{deltaT} we plotted $\Delta_{\rm max}$ and $\Delta_{\rm min}$, along with $\Delta$ at $\sigma_0=\sigma_{\rm min}$, for the whole range of temperatures $0\leq \bar{T} \leq 1$. We see from this that there is a critical value of $\bar{T}$ given by $\bar{T}_b \simeq 0.8$ beyond which $\Delta_{\rm max}$ and $\Delta_{\rm min}$ cease to exist.
\begin{figure}[ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.9]{Delta_T}
\caption{$\Delta_{\rm max}$ (blue curve), $\Delta_{\rm min}$ (red curve), $\Delta$
at $\sigma_{\rm min}$ (black curve) as a function of the temperature $\bar T$ for $\kappa=1$.}
\label{deltaT}
\end{figure}
Given the three phases described above, a natural question to ask is which of the phases
will dominate. This aspect is studied in Sec.~\ref{sec:freeenergy} of the paper, where we consider
the behavior of the finite-temperature brane-antibrane wormhole system in the canonical ensemble.
We first define in Sec.~\ref{sec:deffreeenergy} the free energy relative to a cutoff value of $\sigma_0$ and show
that there is no dependence on the cutoff when measuring the relative difference in the free energy.
When comparing the free energies, the resulting picture can be summarized as follows.
For a fixed temperature $T$ (below $T_{\rm b}$)
we find that for brane separations below $\Delta_{\rm max}$ the phase with $d \Delta/d \sigma_0 <0$
has lowest free energy and is the dominating branch. This may be considered as the finite temperature
analogue of the thin throat branch in the extremal case. We refer to this as the finite temperature thin throat branch below.
For brane separation larger than $\Delta_{\rm max}$
there is only one available branch (the finite temperature thick throat branch) and we argue that this corresponds to an unstable saddle point.
An alternative way to look at the system is to fix the separation distance and vary the temperature.
From this viewpoint we find that there is a critical temperature $T_{\rm c}$ below which
the finite temperature thin throat branch is the dominating phase. Above the critical temperature
only the finite temperature thick throat branch is available. For comparison we consider in Sec.~\ref{sec:comphas} the
energy in the extremal case, which shows that in this case the thin throat branch is always the energetically
favored configuration. Finally, we present in Sec.~\ref{sec:extren} a heuristic picture
of the system away from equilibrium that forms the basis for our argument that the finite temperature
thick throat branch is an unstable saddle point.
The thermal throat solution found in \cite{Grignani:2010xm} does not allow for an infinite spike. One may thus wonder whether it is possible to construct a thermal spike, i.e. a configuration of $k$ coincident F-strings ending on $N$ coincident D3-branes at non-zero temperature.%
\footnote{This could be relevant for applying our method to \cite{Hartnoll:2006hr}.}
At zero temperature this configuration for $N = 1$ is described by the infinite spike BIon of \cite{Callan:1997kz}.
This question is addressed in Sec.~\ref{sec:spike} of this paper. We propose that the configuration in question can be constructed by matching up a non-extremal black string solution with the throat solution \eqref{thesolution}-\eqref{T_kappa_delta}. In this description, the end of the
throat can thus be viewed as a correspondence point where the thermodynamics
of the D3-F1 blackfold configuration can be matched to that of $k$ non-extremal black F-strings. This matching requires an extrapolation of
the two descriptions into a regime that goes beyond the validity of the descriptions. We argue, however,
that while this poses a limitation to the approach in this case, at the same time it may be regarded as a clear indication that the match between the D3-F1 blackfold configuration and the non-extremal F-strings is possible.
Both of the two aspects that we examine in this paper rely on the detailed properties of the
thermodynamic quantities of the finite temperature throat solution \eqref{thesolution}-\eqref{T_kappa_delta}.
These were obtained in Ref.~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} and are given by the following expressions in terms of the three parameters $(T,N,k)$. For the brane-antibrane wormhole configuration
the total mass, entropy and free energy are
\begin{equation}
\label{Msolution}
M =\frac{4 T_{\rm D3}^2}{\pi T^4} \int_{\sigma_0}^\infty d \sigma
\frac{F(\sigma)\sigma^2}{ \sqrt{F^2(\sigma)-F^2(\sigma_0)} } \frac{4 \cosh^2 \alpha+ 1}{\cosh^4 \alpha} \ , \ \
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\label{Ssolution}
S = \frac{4 T_{\rm D3}^2}{\pi T^5} \int_{\sigma_0}^\infty d \sigma
\frac{F(\sigma)\sigma^2}{\sqrt{F^2(\sigma)-F^2(\sigma_0)} } \frac{4}{\cosh^4 \alpha}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\label{Fsolution}
\mathcal{F} = \frac{4 T_{\rm D3}^2}{\pi T^4} \int_{\sigma_0}^\infty d\sigma \sqrt{1+z'(\sigma)^2}
F(\sigma)
\end{equation}
The D3-brane and F-string chemical potential are given by
\begin{equation}
\label{mu3solution}
\mu_{\rm D3} = 8 \pi T_{\rm D3} \int_{\sigma_0}^\infty d \sigma
\frac{F(\sigma)}{\sqrt{F^2(\sigma)-F^2(\sigma_0)} } \,\sigma^2
\tanh \alpha \cos \zeta
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\label{mu1solution}
\mu_{\rm F1} = 2T_{\rm F1} \int_{\sigma_0}^\infty d \sigma
\frac{F(\sigma)}{\sqrt{F^2(\sigma)-F^2(\sigma_0)} } \,
\tanh \alpha \sin \zeta
\end{equation}
These quantities satisfy the first law of thermodynamics and Smarr relation
\begin{equation}
\label{firstlaw}
d M = T d S + \mu_{\rm D3} d N + \mu_{\rm F1} d k \ , \ \
4 (M- \mu_{\rm D3} N - \mu_{\rm F1} k) = 5 TS
\end{equation}
which can be checked explicitly from the expressions above.
Note that for the throat solution ($i.e.$ without attaching a mirror solution) all integrated quantities
should be divided by two.
We conclude this introduction by pointing out that while this paper treats a specific case, it should be emphasized that our new method has a very wide range of applicability. Indeed, the results of this paper and of Ref.~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} show that our method for describing D-branes probing thermal backgrounds is able to reveal new insights into physics of finite-temperature string theory.
\section{Comparison of phases in canonical ensemble}
\label{sec:freeenergy}
In this section we study the physics of the three different phases in the brane-antibrane wormhole configuration found in~\cite{Grignani:2010xm}. We define the free energy of the system and use this to compare the three phases in order to see which is the thermodynamically preferred one. We consider what happens when changing the temperature or the separation distance in the system. Furthermore, we compare the free energy to the energy of the phases in the zero-temperature case of the BIon solution~\cite{Callan:1997kz,Gibbons:1997xz}, see brief review in Section 2 of \cite{Grignani:2010xm}. Finally, we provide some heuristic considerations about the dynamics of the system away from equilibrium.
\subsection{Choice of ensemble and measurement of the free energy}
\label{sec:deffreeenergy}
As reviewed in the Introduction, in~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} we found that the $(\sigma_0,\Delta)$ diagram has important qualitative differences with the $(\sigma_0,\Delta)$ diagram of the BIon solution of the Born-Infeld theory. Notably, for temperatures not too large there exists three distinct phases, $i.e.$ three possible values of $\sigma_0$, for a range of separation distances $\Delta$. It is therefore a natural question which of the three phases are preferred thermodynamically. Before venturing into such a comparison, we should briefly ponder on which thermodynamic ensemble one should consider, $i.e.$ which quantities to keep fixed in the comparison.
We imagine here that the two systems of $N$ D3-branes and $N$ anti-D3-branes are infinitely extended, at least in comparison with the range of values of $\sigma_0$ that we will consider. Two obvious quantities to keep fixed are thus the D3-brane charge (which can be measured at each point of the D3-branes) and the temperature $T$. This is simply because it would take an infinite amount of energy to change the D3-brane charge or the temperature.%
\footnote{One can of course change the temperature locally but we are here concerned with systems in global thermodynamical equilibrium.}
With respect to the temperature we can say that the infinite extension of the branes means that the branes, up to some distance away from the wormhole, correspond to a heat bath for the part of the brane system with the wormhole with $k$ units of F-string flux that connects the two infinitely extended branes. Therefore we are obviously in the canonical ensemble. In addition, also the number of F-strings $k$ should be fixed. This is because if we consider a sufficiently large value of $\sigma$ so that we are far away from the part with the wormhole then we can still measure the $k$ F-strings by making an integral over the two-sphere with radius $\sigma$. From the charge conservation along the F-string world-volume direction we then get that $k$ should be kept fixed in our thermodynamical ensemble. Finally, it is also natural to keep fixed $\Delta$, the separation between the D3-branes and anti-D3-branes, since that is also something we can measure far away from the part of the system where the branes are connected with a wormhole.
In summary, we work in an ensemble with $T$, $N$, $k$ and $\Delta$ kept fixed. The first law of thermodynamics \eqref{firstlaw} generalizes to $dM = T dS + \mu_{\rm D3} dN + \mu_{\rm F1} dk + f d\Delta$ when we allow for variations of $\Delta$ where $f$ is the force between the D3-brane systems. We see from this that the correct free energy for our ensemble is $\mathcal{F} = M - TS$ with the variation $d\mathcal{F} = - S dT + \mu_{\rm D3} dN + \mu_{\rm F1} dk + f d\Delta$. Thus, we can write $\mathcal{F}( T, N, k , \Delta)$. However, as shown in \cite{Grignani:2010xm}, we can have up to three distinct phases given $( T, N, k , \Delta)$ which we can label by $\sigma_0$. Thus, we write below $\mathcal{F}( T, N, k , \Delta ; \sigma_0)$ where $\sigma_0$ is understood only as a label that points to which branch we are on, and should not be understood as a thermodynamic variable. From \eqref{thesolution}-\eqref{T_kappa_delta} and \eqref{Fsolution} we find
\begin{equation}
\label{freeenergy}
\mathcal{F}(T,N,k,\Delta ; \sigma_0) = \frac{4 T_{\rm D3}^2}{\pi T^4} \int_{\sigma_0}^\infty d\sigma \frac{F(\sigma)^2}{\sqrt{F(\sigma)^2 - F(\sigma_0)^2}}
\end{equation}
The goal is now to compute \eqref{freeenergy} for the various phases for different temperatures and brane separations.
In our application we shall keep $N$ and $k$ strictly fixed. Thus, as such, there is no reason to consider them as variables.
Note that, from Eqs.~\eqref{Ffunction}, \eqref{mainbranch} and \eqref{T_kappa_delta}, $F(\sigma)$ only depends on $N$, $k$ and $T$ through the variables $\kappa$ and $\bar{T}$.
Furthermore, changing $\kappa$ only amounts to a uniform rescaling of the system. Indeed, it is easy to show that finding a solution with a given $\bar{T}$, $\sigma_0$, $\Delta$ and $\mathcal{F}$ for $\kappa=1$ the general $\kappa$ configuration is found by rescaling $\sigma_0 \rightarrow \sqrt{\kappa} \sigma_0$, $\Delta \rightarrow \sqrt{\kappa} \Delta$ and $\mathcal{F} \rightarrow \kappa^{3/2} \mathcal{F}$ while keeping $\bar{T}$ fixed. Thus, we choose to set $\kappa=1$ in the rest of this section since one can always reinstate it by a trivial rescaling and since we are not interested in varying $\kappa$. In accordance with this, we shall consider the variation of $\mathcal{F}$ with respect to the rescaled temperature $\bar{T}$ rather than $T$. With this we can write \eqref{freeenergy} as
\begin{equation}
\label{freeenergy2}
\mathcal{F}(\bar{T},\Delta ; \hat{\sigma}_0) = \frac{9\pi N T_{\rm D3}}{\sqrt{3} \bar{T}^{4} } \int_{{\sigma}_0}^\infty d{\sigma} \frac{F(\bar{T},{\sigma})^2}{\sqrt{F(\bar{T},{\sigma})^2 - F(\bar{T},{\sigma_0})^2}}
\end{equation}
where $F(\bar{T},\sigma)$ is defined as the function $F(\sigma)$ given by \eqref{Ffunction}, \eqref{mainbranch} and \eqref{T_kappa_delta} for $\kappa=1$ and a given $\bar{T}$. For our purposes below we furthermore choose to set $N T_{\rm D3}$ to one, $i.e.$ we will measure the free energy in units of $N T_{\rm D3}$. We can thus write
\begin{equation}
\label{freeenergy3}
\mathcal{F}(\bar{T},\Delta ; {\sigma}_0) = \int_{{\sigma}_0}^\infty d{\sigma}\, h(\bar{T},{\sigma},{\sigma}_0) \ , \ \ h(\bar{T},{\sigma},{\sigma}_0) \equiv \frac{9\pi F(\bar{T},{\sigma})^2}{\sqrt{3} \bar{T}^{4}\sqrt{F(\bar{T},{\sigma})^2 - F(\bar{T},{\sigma}_0)^2}}
\end{equation}
Consider now the integrand $h(\bar{T},{\sigma},{\sigma}_0)$ in \eqref{freeenergy3}.
Using that in the regime of large $\sigma/\sqrt{\kappa}$ the function $F(\sigma)$ behaves as~\cite{Grignani:2010xm}
\begin{equation}
\label{Flargesigma}
F(\sigma)
=\sigma^2g(\bar{T})+\mathcal{O}(\kappa/\sigma^2)
\end{equation}
where $g(\bar{T})$ is a function that increases from 0 to $4/3$ as $\bar{T}$ goes from 0 to 1,
we see that for large ${\sigma}$
\begin{equation}
\label{intlarsig}
h(\bar{T},{\sigma},{\sigma}_0) = \frac{9\pi {\sigma}^2 g(\bar{T})} { \sqrt{3} \bar{T}^{4}} + \mathcal{O} ({\sigma}^{-2})
\end{equation}
Thus the integral over ${\sigma}$ in \eqref{freeenergy3} is clearly divergent, which is expected since the system of branes is infinitely extended along the D3-brane world-volume directions. However, we can get rid of this divergence consistently as follows. First we choose to only keep fixed $\bar{T}$ and instead consider all possible values of $\Delta$. In this way we can think of the free energy $\mathcal{F}( \bar{T} , \Delta(\sigma_0) ; \sigma_0 )$ as a function of $\bar{T}$ and ${\sigma}_0$. Our goal is now to compute $\mathcal{F}( \bar{T} , \Delta(\sigma_0) ; \sigma_0 )$ for a large range of ${\sigma}_0$ values with ${\sigma}_0 \geq \sigma_{\rm min}(\bar{T}) = ( \bar{T}^{-8} -1)^{-1/4} $. Pick now a ${\sigma}_0 = \sigma_{\rm cut}$ outside this range. We then consider the difference between the free energy at ${\sigma}_0$ and at $ \sigma_{\rm cut}$. This can be written as
\begin{equation}
\label{diffF}
\begin{array}{l} \displaystyle \delta \mathcal{F} ( \bar{T} , \Delta ({\sigma}_0) ; {\sigma}_0 ) \equiv \mathcal{F}(\bar{T},\Delta({\sigma}_0) ; {\sigma}_0) - \mathcal{F}(\bar{T},\Delta(\sigma_{\rm cut}) ; \sigma_{\rm cut}) \\[2mm] \displaystyle
= \int_{{\sigma}_0}^{\sigma_{\rm cut}} d{\sigma} h(\bar{T},{\sigma},{\sigma}_0) + \int_{\sigma_{\rm cut}}^\infty d{\sigma} \Big[ h(\bar{T},{\sigma},{\sigma}_0) - h(\bar{T},{\sigma},\sigma_{\rm cut}) \Big]
\end{array}
\end{equation}
Since the divergent part of the integrand for large ${\sigma}$ is independent of ${\sigma}_0$ the divergent part cancels out in the second integral of the RHS of Eq.~\eqref{diffF}. Moreover, since the correction to the leading part for large ${\sigma}$ in \eqref{intlarsig} goes like ${\sigma}^{-2}$ the second integral of the RHS of Eq.~\eqref{diffF} is convergent. Therefore, $\delta \mathcal{F} ( \bar{T} , \Delta ({\sigma}_0) ; {\sigma}_0 )$ as defined in \eqref{diffF} is well-defined for a given $\sigma_{\rm cut}$. We can furthermore infer that the dependence on $\sigma_{\rm cut}$ only enters as an additive constant. Indeed, if we consider two values ${\sigma}_0 = a_1,a_2$ with $ a_1 < a_2 < \sigma_{\rm cut}$ we find that $\delta \mathcal{F} ( \bar{T} , \Delta (a_1) ; a_1 ) - \delta \mathcal{F} ( \bar{T} , \Delta (a_2) ; a_2 )$ does not depend on $\sigma_{\rm cut}$. We thus see that we can use \eqref{diffF} to measure the free energy since we only need the relative measure of the free energy between the possible branches.
\subsection{Comparison of phases}
\label{sec:comphas}
We now compare the free energy of the three distinct phases found in \cite{Grignani:2010xm} for temperatures not too large.
We first consider the free energy for a fixed temperature. For definiteness, we consider the behavior of the free energy for the temperature $\bar{T}=0.4$. As one can see from Figure \ref{deltaT} we expect the qualitative features to be the same for the whole range of temperatures $\bar{T}$ from $0$ to $\bar{T}_b \simeq 0.8$. The $(\sigma_0,\Delta)$ diagram for $\bar{T}=0.4$ is displayed in Figure \ref{DeltaPlots}.
In Figure \ref{fig:free1} we display $\delta \mathcal{F} ( \bar{T} , \Delta( {\sigma}_0 ) ; {\sigma}_0 )$ as a $\delta \mathcal{F}$ versus $\Delta$ diagram for $\bar{T} = 0.4$ (with $\sigma_{\rm cut} $ chosen so that the upper branch starts with zero free energy).
We see from these diagrams that in the range of separation distances $\Delta$ from $\Delta_{\rm min} \simeq 3.7$ to $\Delta_{\rm max} \simeq 6.3$ the thermodynamically favored branch, $i.e.$ the branch with least free energy, is given by the branch in Figure \ref{DeltaPlots} that goes between $\Delta_{\rm min}$ to $\Delta_{\rm max}$ with $d\Delta/d\sigma_0 < 0$. Instead when $\Delta \geq \Delta_{\rm max}$ there is only one available branch. However, as discussed below we believe this is an unstable saddlepoint. Qualitatively, this is the behavior of the phases for temperatures $0 < \bar{T} \leq \bar{T}_b \simeq 0.8$. For $\bar{T} > \bar{T}_b$ we have at most one available phase for a given $\Delta$.
\begin{figure}[ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=1.15]{Free_Energy1}
\caption{{\small The free energy $\delta \mathcal{F}$ versus $\Delta$ for $\bar{T}=0.4$ and $\kappa=1$.}
\label{fig:free1}
}
\end{figure}
Consider instead a fixed separation distance $\Delta = \Delta'$ between the two systems of branes. Increase now the temperature slowly from zero temperature. Then the thermodynamically dominant phase is the phase for which $d\Delta/d\sigma_0 < 0$, $i.e.$ the phase that goes from $\Delta_{\rm min}$ to $\Delta_{\rm max}$. Above the critical temperature $\bar{T}=\bar{T}_c$ for which $\Delta' = \Delta_{\rm max}( \bar{T})$ the phase with $d\Delta/d\sigma_0 < 0$ does not exist anymore and the only available phase is the one with $d\Delta/d\sigma_0 > 0$ that starts at $\Delta_{\rm min}$. Note that we used here that $\Delta_{\rm max} (\bar{T})$ is a monotonically decreasing function of $\bar{T}$, see Figure \ref{deltaT}. However, we believe this phase is an unstable saddlepoint so the system should decay before reaching $\bar{T}_c$ towards another end state. This will be discussed further below in Section \ref{sec:heuristic}.
From the above considerations of the free energy we note that it has variation $d \mathcal{F} = - S dT + f d\Delta$ using here that we do not allow for variations of $N$ and $k$. Consider the derivative%
\footnote{Note that since $\mathcal{F}$ and $\delta \mathcal{F}$ only differ by an additive constant it does not matter whether we use $\mathcal{F}$ or $\delta \mathcal{F}$ in the Eq.~\eqref{fdef}.
}
\begin{equation}
\label{fdef}
f = \left( \frac{\partial \mathcal{F}}{\partial \Delta} \right)_{\bar{T}}
\end{equation}
$f$ is the force between the infinitely extended branes. Since it is a brane-anti-brane system the force is always positive $f > 0$. This we can in fact observe in the $\mathcal{F}$ versus $\Delta$ diagram of Fig.~\ref{fig:free1}. Furthermore, since the force is continuous as we follow the curve this explains the behavior that the phases meet in cusps with zero angle.
\subsection{Energy in the extremal case}
\label{sec:extren}
It is interesting to compare the finite temperature behavior of the free energy with that of the energy in the extremal case. Also in the extremal case the energy is divergent~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} and requires a regularization. We can adopt the same regularization used above for the free energy and define a regularized energy as
\begin{equation}
\label{diffE}
\begin{array}{l} \displaystyle \delta E (\Delta ({\sigma}_0) ; {\sigma}_0 ) \equiv E(\Delta({\sigma}_0) ; {\sigma}_0) - E(\Delta(\sigma_{\rm cut}) ; \sigma_{\rm cut}) \\[2mm] \displaystyle
= \int_{{\sigma}_0}^{\sigma_{\rm cut}} d{\sigma} h({\sigma},{\sigma}_0) + \int_{\sigma_{\rm cut}}^\infty d{\sigma} \Big[ h({\sigma},{\sigma}_0) - h({\sigma},\sigma_{\rm cut}) \Big]
\end{array}
\end{equation}
where now $h({\sigma},{\sigma}_0)$ is given by
\begin{equation}
\label{Hden1}
h({\sigma},{\sigma}_0)=8\pi T_{\rm D3}\frac{\sigma^4+\kappa^2}{\sqrt{\sigma^4-\sigma_0^4}}
\end{equation}
which corresponds to the energy density $dH/d\sigma$ in the extremal case. In this case the expression for the energy as a function of $\Delta$ can be written exactly
by eliminating $\sigma_0$ in the solution
\begin{equation}\label{X}
z(\sigma)=\int_\sigma^{\infty}d\sigma'\frac{\sqrt{\sigma_0^4+\kappa^2}}{\sqrt{\sigma'{}^4-\sigma_0^4}}
\end{equation}
using that for fixed $\Delta$ and $\kappa$ one has
\begin{equation}\label{r02}
\sigma_0^2=\frac{\Delta ^2\pm\sqrt{\Delta ^4-4 a^4 \kappa ^2}}{2 a^2}
\end{equation}
%
where the numerical constant $a$ is given by $a^2=\frac{2\sqrt{\pi } \Gamma \left(\frac{5}{4}\right)}{\Gamma \left(\frac{3}{4}\right)}$, see \cite{Grignani:2010xm} for more details.
Since there are two solutions for $\sigma^2_0$ in \eqref{r02} these generate two branches in the energy as a function of $\Delta$, one corresponds to the ``thin throat" branch, and it is energetically favored, and the other that corresponds to the ``thick throat" branch.
This is represented in Fig.~\ref{CMEnergy}.
\begin{figure}[ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=1.15]{CMEnergy}
\caption{{\small The energy $\delta E$ versus $\Delta$ for $\kappa=1$ and with $T_{\rm D3}=1$.}
\label{CMEnergy}
}
\end{figure}
Comparing with the free energy diagram of Figure \ref{fig:free1} we see that the branch with highest energy/free energy behaves the same whether the temperature is turned on or not. This branch ends in both cases at $\Delta_{\rm min}$. However, the qualitative difference comes in for the remaining branches. For the zero temperature case in Figure \ref{CMEnergy} the second branch with lower energy extends all the way to infinite separation. Instead, as seen in Figure \ref{fig:free1}, for non-zero temperature there is a turning point at $\Delta_{\rm max}$. If we imagine taking the zero temperature limit of the thermal case depicted in Figure \ref{fig:free1} what happens qualitatively is that the turning point at $\Delta_{\rm max}$ is pushed towards infinity thus leaving only the two infinite branches meeting at $\Delta_{\rm min}$. This is in accordance with the fact that we get the total energy of the configuration by taking the zero temperature limit of $\mathcal{F} = M - T S$ \cite{Grignani:2010xm}.
\subsection{Heuristic picture away from equilibrium}
\label{sec:heuristic}
We propose here a heuristic picture of the dynamics of the phases. In the above, we have considered static configurations in thermal and mechanical equilibrium. However, it is interesting to ask how the different phases we have found behave when allowing for dynamics.
We consider here what happens for a fixed temperature $\bar{T}=0.4$ and for different choices of values of the separation distance $\Delta$.%
\footnote{One could instead consider only one value of $\Delta$ and different choices of $\bar{T}$. However, the heuristic picture would amount to the same.} Thus, we impose the boundary conditions on the system in the form of the separation distance $\Delta$ and temperature $\bar{T}$, as measured sufficiently far away from the wormhole. The equilibrium solutions for $\bar{T}=0.4$ are displayed in Figure \ref{DeltaPlots} with free energy diagram given in Figure \ref{fig:free1}. We now fix $\Delta = 5$. This means we have three available equilibrium configurations, corresponding to three different values of the minimal radius $\sigma_0$. We illustrate this in the left part of Figure \ref{Heuristic}.
\begin{figure}[ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.65]{Heuristic}
\caption{{\small Left side: Free energy for $\bar{T}=0.4$ and $\Delta = 5$. Right side: Heuristic depiction of potential for $\bar{T}=0.4$ and $\Delta=5$.}
\label{Heuristic}
}
\end{figure}
Now, one can imagine going away from equilibrium to consider configurations with different values of $\sigma_0$ but still $\Delta=5$, just as one would be able to consider a harmonic oscillator away from its equilibrium configuration. This amounts to having a potential for the system for a range of $\sigma_0$ values. We sketched such a possible potential $V$ for $\Delta=5$ and $\bar{T}=0.4$ in the right part of Figure \ref{Heuristic}. Note that the values of the potential $V$ at the equilibrium points are taken to be the values of the free energy as displayed in Figure \ref{fig:free1} since the free energy is related to the total action of the solution. We see now that in this potential we have two local maxima and one local minimum. The local minimum is, obviously, the phase with the least free energy. Thus, we expect that this phase is stable to small perturbations. Instead for the other two phases, corresponding to the two local maxima, a small perturbation could move the system increasingly further away from equilibrium.
For the large $\sigma_0$ phase, what can happen is that having a perturbation that makes $\sigma_0$ smaller would tend to take the system towards the stable equilibrium solution. So, one would presumably end up in the stable configuration. Instead, making a perturbation that would tend to increase $\sigma_0$ would result in a run away type of instability. We believe this should be in the form of a time-dependent solution where the radius of the wormhole keeps increasing and thus the brane-antibrane system will disappear. Thus, one could think of this as a brane-antibrane annihilation process. This is presumably related to open string tachyon condensation of the brane-antibrane system \cite{Sen:1998sm}.
For the small $\sigma_0$ phase, a perturbation that would increase $\sigma_0$ would presumably end up in the stable phase. Instead, a perturbation that would tend to decrease $\sigma_0$ should be such that it makes the wormhole more and more thin. We speculate that this process could end up in annihilating the F-string flux from the branes and the end point would thus be the system of infinitely extended flat branes and anti-branes, but without the wormhole.
Finally, one could contemplate what happens for other values of $\Delta$. Taking $\Delta=4$ would remove the local maximum for small $\sigma_0$ as one can see from Figure \ref{DeltaPlots}. Instead taking $\Delta=7$ both the local maximum for small $\sigma_0$ and the local minimum would disappear. Thus, one is left with an unstable phase.
\section{Thermal spike and correspondence with non-extremal string}
\label{sec:spike}
In this section we explore the question of whether there is a configuration of $k$ coincident F-strings ending on $N$ coincident D3-branes at non-zero temperature. Unlike for the zero temperature case, where this configuration for $N=1$ is described by the infinite spike BIon solution,
the analysis of the non-zero temperature case done in \cite{Grignani:2010xm} showed that the non-zero temperature analogue of the BIon solution does not allow for an infinite spike. We begin this section with some general considerations, and then we propose how the configuration in question is made by matching up a non-extremal black string solution with the throat solution found in \cite{Grignani:2010xm}. This involves finding a regime with small temperatures in which we can ignore the presence of the D3-branes in the D3-F1 system. In this regime, the D3-F1 brane bound state behaves very similar to a fundamental non-extremal string. We show this by computing the mass and entropy densities of the D3-F1 brane bound state and comparing it with the corresponding quantities for the non-extremal fundamental string.
\subsection{General considerations}
\label{sec:gencon}
The infinite spike solution of the DBI theory, first found in \cite{Callan:1997kz}, is given by
\begin{equation}
\label{infinitespike}
z(\sigma) = \frac{k T_{\rm F1}}{4\pi T_{\rm D3} \,\sigma}
\end{equation}
The interpretation of this solution is that of $k$ coincident straight F-strings ending on a single D3-brane. This brane intersection happens at a right angle, ensuring the spherical symmetry around the string.
Why is this interpretation correct? Besides that one can measure that the effective tension of the spike has the right magnitude, the other physical requirement is that sufficiently far away from the D3-brane we should not be able to see the effect of the D3-brane on the configuration anymore, and any physical measurements should be consistent with having $k$ F-strings. Naively, this could seem impossible since for any value of $z$ the radius of the throat of the spike is finite and we could thus send in a very small observer inside the throat to see that there still is a D3-brane charge present. However, we are saved by the fact that the DBI theory is not an exact theory. It is an effective theory where one integrates out the open string scale. Thus, if we are sufficiently far away, the radius of the spike is of the same magnitude as the open string scale, and we cannot see ``inside the spike" anymore. Therefore, at this point the spike solution is indistinguishable from $k$ coincident F-strings. Or, said in a different way, since the infinite spike solution \eqref{infinitespike} is not valid anymore from this point on we should match the DBI theory solution with $k$ coincident F-strings at that point. If $k$ is sufficiently large, this could involve matching up the DBI solution with a supergravity solution of $k$ coincident F-strings. Note that at the correspondence point where we match the DBI solution and the F-string supergravity solution we go beyond the validity of both solutions. However, one can extrapolate the DBI solution beyond its validity because of supersymmetry.
Turning now to the thermal configuration found in \cite{Grignani:2010xm}, we have that the minimal radius $\sigma_0$ is bounded from below, $\sigma_0\ge\sigma_{\rm min}$, and that $z(\sigma_0) \leq \Delta_{\rm max} / 2$ when we are not in the ``thick throat" branch that starts at $\Delta_{\rm min}$ and continues with increasing $\sigma_0$ and $\Delta$ such that $\Delta \propto \sigma_0$ for large $\sigma_0$ \cite{Grignani:2010xm}. Obviously this means that we do not have any immediate generalization of the infinite spike solution \eqref{infinitespike} in the non-zero temperature case since we do not have $z(\sigma_0)=\infty$ away from the ``thick throat" branch. However, in analogy with the zero temperature case, we shall argue below that it is possible to match the blackfold type of solution of Ref.~\cite{Grignani:2010xm}, in a certain regime, with a supergravity solution of $k$ coincident F-strings at non-zero temperature, and thereby to construct a configuration that can be interpreted as $k$ F-strings ending on $N$ D3-branes.
Just as in the zero temperature case, this involves matching up the two different solutions, the blackfold solution and the F-string supergravity solution, at a correspondence point where we have to go beyond the validity of both solutions. We argue for the matching here by using the blackfold solution beyond its validity to show that its physical behavior is very close to that of $k$ non-extremal F-strings, and the slight numerical differences can be explained by the fact that we do not have supersymmetry to protect us.
We illustrate the matching of the blackfold solution and non-extremal black F-string solution at the correspondence point in Figure \ref{Match}.
\begin{figure}[ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.7]{D3-F1}
\caption{{\small Illustration of the matching of the D3-F1 blackfold configuration and the non-extremal black F-strings at the correspondence point.}
\label{Match}
}
\begin{picture}(0,0)(0,0)
\put(-75,110){\vector(1,0){50}}
\put(-175,107){\footnotesize Correspondence point}
\put(10,160){\footnotesize Non-extremal black F-strings}
\put(70,80){\footnotesize D3-F1 blackfold configuration}
\put(-65,153){\footnotesize $z$ direction}
\put(-15,140){\vector(0,1){30}}
\end{picture}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Correspondence point for matching of throat to F-strings}
In \cite{Grignani:2010xm} we found a solution using the blackfold approach for a spherically symmetric configuration of $N$ D3-branes with a throat supported by an F-string flux such that the F-string charge measured over each spherical surface is $k$. The throat ends in a minimal two-sphere of radius $\sigma_0$. In this section we find a regime of the solution of Ref.~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} in which it behaves like $k$ non-extremal F-strings at the end of the throat, $i.e.$ at $\sigma=\sigma_0$.%
\footnote{In order to compare our findings with the results for a non extremal fundamental string we work in this section in terms of the quantities $(T,N,k)$, $T_{\rm F1}$ and $T_{\rm D3}$ instead of $\kappa$ and $\bar T$.} This enables us to match the D3-F1 blackfold configuration to $k$ non-extremal black F-strings. As we explain below, this means that the end of the throat $\sigma=\sigma_0$ serves as the correspondence point between the two different solution, as illustrated in Figure \ref{Match}.
Since we are aiming to generalize the extremal infinite spike solution of \cite{Callan:1997kz} to non-zero temperature, as discussed above in Section \ref{sec:gencon}, we approach this problem in the low temperature limit in which we are close to extremality. We begin therefore this section by examining the thermodynamics of the supergravity solution of $k$ non-extremal F-strings at low temperature, and subsequently find a corresponding regime of the non-extremal D3-F1 solution of \cite{Grignani:2010xm}.
\subsubsection*{Non-extremal black F-strings at low temperature}
The supergravity solution for $k$ coincident non-extremal black F-strings lying along the $z$ direction is
\begin{equation}
\begin{array}{c} \displaystyle
ds^2 = H^{-1} ( - f dt^2 + dz^2 ) + f^{-1} dr^2 + r^2 d\Omega_7^2
\\[2mm] \displaystyle
e^{2\phi} = H^{-1} \ , \ \ B_{0z} = H^{-1} - 1 \ , \ \ H = 1+ \frac{r_0^6 \sinh^2 \bar{\alpha}}{r^6} \ , \ \ f = 1 - \frac{r_0^6}{r^6}
\end{array}
\end{equation}
here written in the string frame. This supergravity solution is a good description of $k$ non-extremal F-strings for $k\gg1$ and $g_s^2 k \gg 1$.%
\footnote{That $g_s^2 k \gg 1$ follows from demanding that the curvature length scale $(G T_{\rm F1} k)^{1/6} \sim ( g_s^2 k )^{1/6} l_s $ for the supergravity solution of $k$ coincident extremal F-strings is larger than the string scale.}
From this the mass density along the $z$ direction can be found using Ref.~\cite{Harmark:2004ch} %
\footnote{We write Eq.~\eqref{MF1} in terms of $T_{\rm D3}$ rather than the 10D Newtons constant $G$. This is done using the relation $16 \pi G=(2\pi)^7 l_s^8 g_s^2=(2\pi)/T_{\rm D3}^2$.}
\begin{equation}\label{MF1}
\frac{dM_{\rm F1}}{dz}= \frac{3^5 T_{\rm D3}^2 (1+6\cosh^2\bar{\alpha})}{2^7 \pi^3 T^6 \cosh^6 \bar{\alpha}} \ , \ \ k^2 = \frac{3^{12} T_{\rm D3}^4 ( \cosh^2 \bar{\alpha} - 1)}{2^{12} \pi^6 T_{\rm F1}^2 T^{12} \cosh^{10} \bar{\alpha}} \, ,
\end{equation}
where we eliminated $r_0$ in favor of the temperature $T$ and the second equation follows from charge quantization. Combining the two equations one can eliminate $\bar{\alpha}$ and write the mass density in terms of $k$, $T$, $T_{\rm D3}$ and $T_{\rm F1}$. Note that in solving the second equation of \eqref{MF1} for $\bar{\alpha}$ we choose the branch connected to the extremal solution. For small temperatures one can expand the mass density as follows
\begin{equation}\label{MF1exp}
\frac{dM_{\rm F1}}{dz} = T_{\rm F1} k+\frac{16 \left(T_{\rm F1} k \,\pi \right)^{3/2} {T}^3}{81
T_{\rm D3}}+\frac{40 T_{\rm F1}^2 k^2 \pi ^3 {T}^6}{729 T_{\rm D3}^2}+\mathcal{O}\left(T^9\right)
\end{equation}
This is the mass density of $k$ coincident F-strings for low temperatures so that the F-strings are close to extremality as found in the regime $k\gg 1$. We see the leading part as expected is given by $k$ times the extremal string tension $T_{\rm F1}$. We also read from this expression that being near extremality means that we are in the regime
\begin{equation}
\frac{\sqrt{T_{\rm F1} k}\, T^3}{T_{\rm D3}}\ll 1
\label{stringpert}
\end{equation}
In terms of the illustration in Figure \ref{Match} we can say that \eqref{MF1exp} is the mass density in the $z$ direction for the non-extremal black F-strings in the upper part of the drawing, away from the correspondence point.
\subsubsection*{Finding matching regime in the thermal D3-F1 configuration}
Having found the low temperature behavior \eqref{MF1exp} of the mass density of $k$ F-strings at low temperature near extremality we now look for a regime of the thermal D3-F1 blackfold configuration of \cite{Grignani:2010xm} in which its mass density is similar at the correspondence point at the end of the throat $\sigma=\sigma_0$. With such a regime in hand, we can match the D3-F1 blackfold configuration and the non-extremal F-string supergravity solution, as explained above in Section \ref{sec:gencon}.
Using \eqref{Msolution} along with the D3-F1 blackfold configuration given by \eqref{thesolution}-\eqref{T_kappa_delta} we can compute the mass density%
\footnote{Note that we have a factor two less in the mass since here we do not include the mirror of the solution.}
\begin{equation}\label{dMdz}
\frac{dM}{dz}=\frac{2 T_{\rm D3}^2}{\pi T^4}\,
\frac{F(\sigma)}{F(\sigma_0)}\,\sigma^2\frac{4 \cosh^2 \alpha+ 1}{\cosh^4 \alpha}\, .
\end{equation}
where we divided by the derivative of the
solution, $z'(\sigma)$, to construct the mass density with respect to the transverse direction $z(\sigma)$ to the D3-brane. We now expand this in the regime $\bar{T} \ll 1$ both since we want to match the result to the small temperature expansion of the non-extremal F-strings \eqref{MF1exp} but also since $\bar{T}=1$ is the maximal temperature for the D3-brane without F-string flux and thus a regime in which the D3-branes are suppressed with respect to the F-strings would have to be far from $\bar{T} =1$. Using the expansion for small temperature of the solution found in \cite{Grignani:2010xm} we obtain a perturbative expansion of the mass density \eqref{dMdz} in powers of the temperature $T$ for $\bar{T}\ll 1$
\begin{equation}
\label{dMdzexp}
\left.\frac{dM}{dz}\right|_{\sigma=\sigma_0}= T_{\rm F1} k \sqrt{1+x^2} + \frac{3 \pi T_{\rm F1}^2 k^2}{32 T_{\rm D3}^2 \sigma_0^2} (1+x^2) T^4 + \frac{7\pi^2 T_{\rm F1}^3 k^3 }{512 T_{\rm D3}^4 \sigma_0^4 } (1+x^2)^{\frac{3}{2}} T^8 + \mathcal{O} ( T^{12} ) \, ,
\end{equation}
where we defined the quantity
\begin{equation}
\label{xdef}
x \equiv \frac{4\pi T_{\rm D3} \sigma_0^2 N}{T_{\rm F1} k} \, .
\end{equation}
Note that from \eqref{dMdzexp} it is apparent that we need a stronger requirement than $\bar{T} \ll 1$ for the correction terms in the expansion \eqref{dMdzexp} to be small, namely that
\begin{equation}
\label{expansioncond}
\bar{T}^4 \ll \frac{x}{\sqrt{1+x^2}} \, .
\end{equation}
We now demand that we are in a regime in which the mass density \eqref{dMdzexp} is dominated by the presence of the $k$ F-strings to (and including) order $T^8$. This basically means that any term with $N$ dependence should be suppressed in comparison with the terms with only $k$ dependence. For the leading order term in \eqref{dMdzexp} this clearly means that $x \ll 1$. Since we recognize $T_{\rm F1} k \sqrt{1+x^2}$ as the $1/2$ BPS mass density formula for a D3-F1 brane bound state we see that $x \ll 1$ physically is the requirement that the F-strings dominate in the extremal bound state. Turning to the next order in the temperature, the $T^4$ term in \eqref{dMdzexp}, we see that the requirement of the dominance of the F-strings means $T_{\rm F1} k \, x^2 \ll T_{\rm F1}^2 k^2 T^4 /( T_{\rm D3}^2 \sigma_0^2 )$. We can write this condition as $x^3 \ll \bar{T}^4$. We see that this condition implies the $T^0$ condition $x\ll 1$ since our starting point is that $\bar{T} \ll 1$. Going on to the order $T^8$ we should require that $T^8 T_{\rm F1}^3 k^3 / ( T_{\rm D3}^4 \sigma_0^4 )$ dominates over both $x^2 T_{\rm F1} k$ and $x^2 T^4 T_{\rm F1} k^2 / ( T_{\rm D3}^2 \sigma_0^2 )$. While the latter reduces to the condition $x^3 \ll \bar{T}^4$ the first one gives instead the condition $x^2 \ll \bar{T}^4$
and we see that this condition implies both the $T^0$ order condition $x\ll 1$ and the $T^4$ order condition $x^3 \ll \bar{T}^4$.
If we now consider the condition \eqref{expansioncond} on the expansion of \eqref{dMdzexp} we note that for $x \ll 1$ this becomes $\bar{T}^4 \ll x$ which is consistent with the $x^2 \ll \bar{T}^4$ condition.
Thus, in summary, demanding that the physics of the $k$ F-strings should dominate over the $N$ D3-branes at the end of the throat $\sigma=\sigma_0$ to (and including) order $T^8$ means that we should be in a regime with
\begin{equation}
\label{xTregime}
x^2 \ll \bar{T}^4 \ll x\, .
\end{equation}
If one should include higher order corrections in the temperature expansion one would get stronger requirements on $x$. Assuming \eqref{xTregime} the mass density \eqref{dMdzexp} now becomes
\begin{equation}
\label{dMdzexp2}
\left.\frac{dM}{dz}\right|_{\sigma=\sigma_0}= T_{\rm F1} k + \frac{3 \pi T_{\rm F1}^2 k^2}{32 T_{\rm D3}^2 \sigma_0^2} T^4 + \frac{7\pi^2 T_{\rm F1}^3 k^3 }{512 T_{\rm D3}^4 \sigma_0^4 } T^8 + \mathcal{O} ( T^{12} ) \, ,
\end{equation}
Comparing this to the mass density for the F-strings \eqref{MF1exp}
we see that in order for the thermal D3-F1 configuration at $\sigma=\sigma_0$ to behave like $k$ F-strings near extremality we should take $\sigma_0$ to have the following dependence on the temperature
\begin{equation}
\sigma_0=\left(\frac{\sqrt{T_{\rm F1} k}}{T_{\rm D3}}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\, \sqrt{T}\left(s_0+s_1\, \frac{\sqrt{T_{\rm F1} k}}{T_{\rm D3}}\,T^{3}+\mathcal{O}(T^6)\right)
\label{sigmaTdep}
\end{equation}
where $s_0$ and $s_1$ are numerical coefficients which can be determined by requiring that the $T^3$ and $T^6$ terms in Eqs.~\eqref{MF1exp} and \eqref{dMdzexp2} agree. We find the precise coefficients below. Note that from the regime \eqref{xTregime} we have $\bar{T}^4 / x \ll 1$ which becomes the condition \eqref{stringpert} when we insert \eqref{sigmaTdep}.
The condition \eqref{xTregime} can be written equivalently as $\bar{T}^4 \ll x \ll \bar{T}^2$. Since from \eqref{xdef} we see that $x \sim \sigma_0^2 / \kappa$ we can also write it as $\bar{T}^2 \ll \sigma_0/\sqrt{\kappa} \ll \bar{T}$. This shows that we are well above $\sigma_{\rm min}$ but also below $\sigma_0 / \sqrt{\kappa} \sim \bar{T}^{2/3}$ for which $\Delta \sim \Delta_{\rm max}$. If we insert \eqref{sigmaTdep} in $\sigma_0/\sqrt{\kappa} \ll \bar{T}$ this condition can be written as $N T_{\rm D3} / ( k T_{\rm F1} ) \ll T^2$. This is consistent with \eqref{stringpert} when $N^3/k^2 \ll g_s$.
\subsubsection*{Validity of the probe approximation and the correspondence point}
Having found the regime \eqref{xTregime} with $\sigma_0$ given by \eqref{sigmaTdep} we have identified a regime in which the D3-F1 blackfold configuration of Ref.~\cite{Grignani:2010xm} at the end of the throat $\sigma=\sigma_0$ behaves as $k$ non-extremal F-strings near extremality. As illustrated in Figure \ref{Match}, the end of the throat $\sigma=\sigma_0$ is what we call the correspondence point. In our case we take this to signify that it is a point in which it is possible to match the two descriptions although the validity of the two descriptions does not overlap. One should therefore extrapolate the two descriptions in order to match them. Above we did this by finding the regime in which the D3-F1 blackfold description of the system looks like the non-extremal F-string description at the correspondence point.
That the validity of the approximation of the D3-F1 blackfold configuration breaks down when we are in the regime \eqref{xTregime}, \eqref{sigmaTdep} is seen as follows. In \cite{Grignani:2010xm} it was found that the probe approximation is valid provided $r_c \ll \sigma_0$ where $r_c$ is the charge radius of the D3-F1 brane bound state (see Section 4.4 of \cite{Grignani:2010xm}). Note that from \eqref{xTregime} we have that $x\ll 1$ which means that $\sigma_0 \ll \sqrt{\kappa}$. Using this one finds that the condition $r_c \ll \sigma_0$ reduces to $k T_{\rm F1} \ll \sigma_0^6 T_{\rm D3}^2$. Inserting \eqref{sigmaTdep} we then find that the blackfold approximation requires
\begin{equation}
\label{BFapprox}
\frac{\sqrt{k T_{\rm F1}}}{T_{\rm D3}} T^3 \gg 1
\end{equation}
which is seen to be exactly the opposite of the requirement \eqref{stringpert}. Thus, clearly we are beyond the validity of the blackfold description. However, this is in fact consistent with what we would like to do. If we for a moment imagine that we could reach a regime in which both the D3-F1 blackfold description and the non-extremal F-string description are valid, we would run in to problems. Indeed, an observer smaller than the size of the throat at $\sigma=\sigma_0$ would be able to see that there is a hole in the middle of the string and that there still is a D3-brane charge present. Instead, that the blackfold regime breaks down means that the backreaction to the system becomes strong before we reach $\sigma=\sigma_0$ and this can thus close off the hole in the middle of the throat and thereby also cancel out the D3-brane charge.
Of course, the fact that we go far beyond the validity of the blackfold description also means that it is limited what we can conclude from our approach. However, at the same time the breakdown of the blackfold description happening precisely in the regime in which we get a behavior similar to the F-strings is perhaps the clearest indication that our match between the D3-F1 blackfold and the non-extremal F-strings is possible.
To find the exact configuration in which $k$ non-extremal F-strings dissolve into $N$ non-extremal D3-branes would be a very difficult problem. One could try to add order by order corrections on the blackfold side, taking into account the backreaction, and at the same time add corrections to the F-string side, although it is not clear at present how one should do that. Note here that even in the extremal case such a configuration has not been found, thus as a first approach one should start with that.
\subsubsection*{Extrapolating the D3-F1 configuration}
Finally, we end this section with seeing how far we can take the extrapolation of the D3-F1 blackfold configuration in making it look like $k$ non-extremal F-strings. Note that a more accurate calculation should take into account that one should extrapolate both descriptions instead of only the D3-F1 blackfold description. However, we do not know how the F-string side changes as we get closer to the D3-branes.
We already remarked above that the mass density \eqref{dMdzexp2} can be matched to \eqref{MF1exp} with the precise coefficients up to (and including) order $T^6$ by fixing $s_0$ and $s_1$ in \eqref{sigmaTdep}. We find the numbers $s_0 = {9 \sqrt{3} } / (16 \sqrt{2} \sqrt[4]{\pi })$ and $s_1 = {43 \pi ^{5/4} }/(1728 \sqrt{6})$. This can be continued to higher orders as well. However, fixing $dM/dz$ as function of $k$ and $T$ does not fully characterize the thermodynamics of the string. This requires matching another quantity as well. We consider here the entropy density $dS/dz$. For $k$ non-extremal F-strings we find
\begin{equation}
\frac{dS_{\rm F1}}{dz} = \frac{8 \left(T_{\rm F1} k \pi \right)^{3/2} {T}^2}{27
T_{\rm D3}}+\frac{16 T_{\rm F1}^2 k^2 \pi ^3 {T}^5}{243 T_{\rm D3}^2}+\mathcal{O}\left(T^8\right) \, , \label{F1entropy}
\end{equation}
in the regime \eqref{stringpert}. One can now play the same game as for $dM/dz$ and fix $s_0$ and $s_1$ in \eqref{sigmaTdep} so that the D3-F1 blackfold configuration at $\sigma=\sigma_0$ reproduces $dS_{\rm F1}/dz$. As one could expect, the values of $s_0$ and $s_1$ that one needs to match $dM/dz$ and $dS/dz$ are different. Thus, one cannot simultaneously match the two quantities exactly. However, this would also be highly surprising since we are beyond the validity of the blackfold approximation, as discussed above. Nevertheless, it is interesting to compare how different the first correction to the extremal configuration is since for the extremal configuration we have supersymmetry and all the quantities thus match exactly. Computing $s_0$ for the two quantities we find
\begin{equation}
s_0 |_{\frac{dM}{dz}} \simeq 0.69 \ , \ \ s_0 |_{\frac{dS}{dz}} \simeq 0.65 \, .
\end{equation}
We see that they are about $6\%$ different. This is encouraging, as it basically means that we could reproduce the F-string thermodynamics within $6\%$ accuracy which is a rather good accuracy given that we are extrapolating the blackfold description beyond its validity.
\section*{Acknowledgments}
We thank Jan de Boer, Nadav Drukker, Vasilis Niarchos, Gordon Semenoff, Larus Thorlacius and especially Roberto Emparan
for useful discussions. TH thanks NBI for hospitality and MO and NO are grateful to Nordita for hospitality
during the workshop on ``Integrability in String and Gauge Theories; AdS/CFT Duality and its Applications''.
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{References}
\providecommand{\href}[2]{#2}\begingroup\raggedright
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
| 8,645
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One day Mr. Jones went to have a talk with the minister at his church.
"Reverend," he said, "I have a problem. My wife keeps falling asleep during your sermons. It's very embarrassing. What should I do?"
In church the following Sunday, Mrs. Jones dozed off. Noticing this, the preacher put his plan to work.
"...And who made the ultimate sacrifice for you?" he said, nodding to Mr. Jones.
"God!" cried out Mrs. Jones as she was stuck again with the pin once again.
"Right again, Mrs. Jones," said the minister, smiling and continuing his sermon.
"...And what did Eve say to Adam after she bore him his 99th son?"
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
| 7,148
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I went to Wal-Mart yesterday while the kids were at school and glanced longingly over at the new, fun-sized shopping carts lined up outside the automatic doors. Have you seen them yet? They're about half the size of the regular carts and they have an upper and lower deck.
I grabbed one of the "cute carts" about a month ago during what I thought would be a quick errand. I zipped down the bread aisle and tossed in a loaf. Then I hung a sharp left and picked up a box of Cheerios. But while I was in that aisle, I remembered we were low on the cereal bars the kids like for breakfast. Those were next to the fruit chews, so I picked up a box of those, too.
The next aisle over reminded me we only had one roll of paper towels left, so I tried to squeeze a big package of those on the lower deck of the mini-cart. It stuck out but I made it work. Next aisle over was the baking aisle, and since it never hurts to pick up a bag of sugar, into the cart it went.
My cute cart was already getting full, and I still had to go to the back of the store for milk. On the way to the dairy case, I spotted a few other necessities I didn't even know I needed. By the time I got there, I had to rearrange the contents of my cart just to find a spot for the milk.
So I stacked a box of graham crackers on top of the boxes of Cheerios, fruit chews and Nutri-Grain bars. I put the chocolate bars on top of that and then topped it off with a bag of marshmallows. Then I attempted to drive my cute cart across the store without toppling that teetering tower of treats. I had to stop a few times just to steady the stash threatening to spill out of the cart.
The experience taught me that, at least in this phase of my life, I'm not a cute-cart-kind-of-girl. Try as I might, there is no "quick trip" to the store. And "just a few things" is an urban myth. It's a lie I tell myself so the shopping trip will feel less daunting.
For now, I'm the mother of three kids ages 15, 12 and 10 – kids who can plow through groceries like a ravenous swarm of locusts and walk out of the kitchen having grown a half-inch taller right before my eyes. These are kids whose new jeans are just a bit too short every time I turn around.
Maybe a single person or an empty nester can wheel around with a cute cart, but I've got to make peace with the lumbering, full-size version that always seems to have a bad wheel. What the old carts lack in zippy cuteness, they make up for with space – space I obviously need, since a quick trip to the store is always longer than I thought and ends with a cart that's fuller than I planned.
Oh, well. At least we have s'mores.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
| 4,934
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Q: how do i resolve this project facet in eclipse? In a Java project that was imported into Eclipse, I am getting a marker for a Faceted Project Problem that states Targt runtime Apache Tomcat v7.0 is not defined. But Tomcat is not one of the project facets defined in the screen shot below, which also includes the error circled in orange below the Project Facets dialog:
I do not want to install Tomcat 7 because Tomcat 8 is the server I am using, and Tomcat 8 is defined in the servers tab of Eclipse. So how can I resolve this Faceted Project Problem without resorting to installing Tomcat 7?
A: Below Project Facets there is Server tab,
There you can find Apache Tomcat 7 Unbound.
Go to new button and show the destination where your server got installed.
You will be able to allocate server for your current project.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
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# Ideas with Consequences
## Studies in Postwar American Political Development
Steven Teles, _Series Editor_
**Series Board Members**
Jennifer Hochschild
Desmond King
Sanford Levinson
Taeku Lee
Shep Melnick
Paul Pierson
John Skrentny
Adam Sheingate
Reva Siegel
Thomas Sugrue
The Delegated Welfare State: Medicare, Markets, and the Governance of Social Policy
_Kimberly J. Morgan_ _and_ _Andrea Louise Campbell_
Rule and Ruin: The Downfall of Moderation and the Destruction of the Republican Party, From Eisenhower to the Tea Party
_Geoffrey Kabaservice_
Engines of Change: Party Factions in American Politics, 1868–2010
_Daniel DiSalvo_
Follow the Money: How Foundation Dollars Change Public School Politics
_Sarah Reckhow_
The Allure of Order: High Hopes, Dashed Expectations, and the Troubled Quest to Remake American Schooling
_Jal Mehta_
Rich People's Movements: Grassroots Campaigns to Untax the One Percent
_Isaac William Martin_
The Outrage Industry: Political Opinion Media and the New Incivility
_Jeffrey M. Berry_ _and_ _Sarah Sobieraj_
Artists of the Possible: Governing Networks and American Policy since 1945
_Matt Grossman_
The First Civil Right: Race and the Rise of the Carceral State
_Naomi Murakawa_
## Ideas with Consequences
## The Federalist Society and the Conservative Counterrevolution
## Amanda Hollis-Brusky
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide.
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© Oxford University Press 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hollis-Brusky, Amanda, author.
Ideas with consequences : the Federalist Society and the conservative counterrevolution / Amanda Hollis-Brusky.
pages cm
ISBN 978–0–19–938552–2 (hardback)
eISBN 978–0–19–938554–6
1. Federalist Society for Law & Public Policy Studies (U.S.) 2. Law—Political aspects—United States. 3. Judicial review—United States. 4. Conservatism—United States. I. Title.
KF294.F43H65 2015
349.7306—dc23
2014011196
Dedicated to Nelson W. Polsby ( _in memoriam_ ),
who brought this book to life with ten words.
## CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1. Understanding Federalist Society Network Influence
PART I : The State Exists to Preserve Freedom
2. The Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms: Lost and Found
3. Judicial Activism, Inc.: The First Amendment, Campaign Finance, and Citizens United
PART II : The Separation of Governmental Powers Is Central to Our Constitution
4. Federalism and the Commerce Power: Returning to "First Principles"
5. State Sovereignty and the Tenth Amendment: The Anti-Commandeering Doctrine
PART III : It Is Emphatically the Province and Duty of the Judiciary Branch to Say What the Law Is, Not What It Should Be
6. Saying What the Law Is: The Federalist Society and the Conservative Counterrevolution
Epilogue: An Agenda for Future Research: Looking Back, Looking Forward
Appendix: List of Interviews
Notes
References
Index
## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Origin stories about big scholarly projects can be difficult to tell. Scholars struggle to recount the nebulous beginnings, pinpoint the multiple sources of inspiration, and identify the major moments of transformation and revision. The origin story of this book, on the other hand, is rather easy to tell. In April 2006, I presented a paper to faculty and fellow graduate students at a mini-conference held on the University of California–Berkeley's campus. Inspired by a course I had taken with Shannon Stimson, the paper grappled with Stanley Fish's concept of an "interpretive community" as it applied to judges and constitutional interpretation. I wondered how one might operationalize the concept of an interpretive community—how was it bounded, what might it look like, how could we identify its influence? After the presentation, Nelson Polsby waved me over to his seat and uttered the magical words every graduate student longs to hear: "I have a dissertation topic for you." I was all ears. "You should study the Federalist Society as an epistemic community." I nodded, thanked him, and scribbled a note to myself to look up "Federalist Society" and "epistemic community" when I got home. Less than an hour of Internet searching and reading that evening confirmed that, as usual, Nelson Polsby was on to something big and important. Though he passed away less than a year later, this project benefited immensely from his insight, wisdom, and his approach to studying politics and people. The best parts of this book, I am confident, are a reflection of him.
Of course, the project has evolved in significant ways since those early days of graduate school due, in large part, to the helpful advice and suggestions I received from reviewers, conference discussants, and colleagues over the past eight years. In the project's earliest stages, several established scholars took the time to give this fledgling graduate student advice, comments, and encouragement. In particular, I want to thank Jeb Barnes, Thomas Keck, Carol Nackenoff, Lawrence Solum, Ann Southworth, Laura Hatcher, Howard Erlanger, Steve Teles, Cornell Clayton, Mitch Pickerill, Kevin McMahon, Mark Graber, Jonathan Simon, Malcolm Feeley, and Chuck Epp. I am forever grateful and I promise to pay it forward. In transforming this project from dissertation to article to book, I also received helpful comments and suggestions from Austin Sarat, Michael McCann, Laura Beth Nielsen, Jill Weinberg, Josh Wilson, Neil Devins, David Fontana, and Rick Hasen.
I want to thank the Charles and Louise Travers Department of Political Science at UC Berkeley as well as the Phi Beta Kappa Alpha Chapter of Northern California for their financial support. I am also deeply indebted to two important centers at UC Berkeley—the Institute for Governmental Studies and the Center for the Study of Law and Society. The Institute for Governmental Studies provided a home for me as an advanced graduate student and an accelerated education (almost through osmosis) about American politics. In particular, I want to thank my fellow carrel-inhabitants who taught me so much and made the Institute a vibrant and dynamic place to work: Dave Hopkins, Matt Grossman, Jill Greenlee, Rebecca Hamlin, Alison Gash, John Hanley, Mike Salamone, Ben Krupicka, John Henderson, Devin Caughey, Lee Drutman, Andrew Kelley, Chloe Thurston, Adrienne Hosek, Loan Le, Bruce Huber, Alex Theodoridis, Abby Wood, and Matt Wright. I was also fortunate to be awarded the Institute's Mike Synar Fellowship for Research in American Politics, which provided financial assistance for the researching of this book.
The Center for the Study of Law and Society was an invaluable resource for me throughout all stages of this project. Its workshops provided me with a crash course in socio-legal research approaches, ethnography, and interviewing—skills on which I relied heavily in carrying out the research for this book. The Center also gave me training in Atlas.ti, the qualitative data management program that I used to manage, code, and analyze the thousands of primary sources I gathered for this project. Finally, through the Center's Visiting Scholars program, I was able to spend my post-doctoral year on campus revising the dissertation, collecting additional data for the book, and connecting with scholars doing fascinating work in socio-legal studies. I want to say a special thanks to the Center's Executive Director Rosann Greenspann for continuing to support my affiliation with the Center, as well as to Calvin Morrill and Laurie Edelman for the education they provided me.
Beyond the institutional support I received at UC Berkeley, I owe an immeasurable debt to the faculty and fellow graduate students with whom I shared the campus. Shannon Stimson and Mark Bevir introduced me to material and readings that profoundly shaped my thinking about this project in critical ways early on. I am particularly grateful to Shannon for being such a wonderful advisor and strong professional role model. Daniel Farber's enthusiasm for the project gave me confidence that I was doing something important, and his connections helped open doors for me in the research process. I also benefited from comments and conversations with Jack Citrin, Terri Bimes, Eric Shickler, and Sean Farhang. Interactions with my fellow graduate student colleagues influenced this project in more ways than I can acknowledge. In particular, I want to thank my friend and colleague Veronica Herrera, who gave up so many late nights with her family to talk with me about this project and whose advice and suggestions always made it better.
When it comes to UC Berkeley, I am obliged here to single out and acknowledge two people who gave more to me and to this project than I could ever possibly have expected—Gordon Silverstein and Robert A. Kagan. Though they occupy different corners of the Public Law world, each of them has had a profound and identifiable impact on my thinking, my work, and my professional development. Studying under Gordon and Bob, I first discovered my love of constitutional law and legal institutions, respectively. I also learned the importance of thinking about law and politics together, rather than separately. As their teaching assistant, I learned how to be an engaged and dedicated teacher and mentor of students. As dissertation advisors, they were a perfect complement to one another—yin and yang. Bob, who has become legendary for his marginalia and detailed and thorough draft comments, gave an almost super-human amount of attention to the details of the thesis and challenged me to more rigorously support every claim I made. Meanwhile, Gordon encouraged me to think big and helped me pull my head out of the weeds long enough to recognize how my case studies informed broader themes and dynamics in American politics and constitutional development. I can say with absolute confidence that this is a vastly better book because I had the opportunity to work with both of them.
I also want to acknowledge my wonderful colleagues at the Claremont Colleges, in particular, David Menefee-Libey, Rachel Van Sickle-Ward, Heidi Haddad, and Pam Bromley, who took time out of their schedules to read drafts, provide suggestions, and act as ever-present sounding boards, and Susan McWilliams, whose mentorship and friendship has helped me navigate all things professional and political at Pomona College. And then there are my ever-impressive and inspiring students—I am so fortunate to be able to work with and learn from some of the best and brightest young men and women in the country. I owe a special thanks to all my research assistants ("Go Team HB!") who spent their summers and spare hours throughout the semester gathering and coding data for this book: Tommy Conkling, Danny Hirsch, Ethan Grossman, Larkin Corrigan, Evan Slovak, Sarah Laws, Christina Tong, and Joanmarie Del Vecchio. I also want to thank Pomona College, the Sponsored Research office, and the Summer Undergraduate Research Program for generously funding all of these students to work on this project for the past three years.
My editors at Oxford University Press, David McBride and Sarah Rosenthal, handled the manuscript with care, respect, and professionalism at all stages of the process. I also want to thank the series editor Steven Teles for his careful attention to the manuscript, his responsiveness to requests and questions, and for seeking out and selecting terrific reviewers. Their suggestions and comments improved the manuscript by leaps and bounds, especially Chapter 1. I also have to take time to thank the Federalist Society and American Constitution Society members in Berkeley, Washington, D.C., Chicago, and San Diego who agreed to be interviewed as part of this project. In addition to giving me their valuable time, they entrusted their stories to me. I have done my best throughout the book to honor that trust and repay it through accurate and careful accounts. In particular I want to thank Steven Calabresi, David McIntosh, Randy Barnett, Chuck Cooper, Doug Kmiec, Michael Greve, Eugene Meyer, Edwin Meese, Robert Post, and Goodwin Liu for being so generous with their time and for making themselves available for follow-up questions after the initial interview.
Finally, I have to acknowledge my family. This book belongs to them as much as it does to me. My working-class parents inspired in their daughter grit, tenacity, a strong work ethic, and the ambition to pursue a college education. They lived beyond their means to keep me in good public schools and encouraged me every step of the way. I am also humbled and inspired by my brother, Staff Sargent Jonathan Hollis, whose courage and service help me keep a perspective on the things that matter, and by my grandmother, Lee Hollis, whose strength and resilience never cease to impress me. Lastly, I am grateful for my husband, Sean, whose patience with and unwavering support for me and my career has made all of this possible, and for my brilliant daughters, Annabelle and Eloise, who fill me with pride and infuse everything I do with a profound sense of purpose and meaning.
## Introduction
In 1948, conservative intellectual Richard S. Weaver published a 200-page treatise on the decline of Western civilization. He entitled this treatise _Ideas Have Consequences_. Though the book's contributions to modern conservative thought were modest, the phrase "ideas have consequences" became an important and oft-repeated mantra for a group of young ideological lawyers who came to Washington, D.C., in the 1980s to help carry out the "Reagan Revolution." There, working alongside the attorney general and others, these young lawyers helped lay the intellectual groundwork for what would become the "conservative counterrevolution" in the law. Thirty years later, as a conservative majority on the Supreme Court ushers in an era of "conservative renaissance" (Avery and McLaughlin 2013, 7), the phrase "ideas have consequences" continues to be the calling card of the organization founded and led by this same group of lawyers to help bring that counterrevolution about—the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies.
Launched in 1982 by a small group of conservative and libertarian law students at Yale Law School and the University of Chicago Law School, the Federalist Society was founded to provide an alternative to the perceived liberal orthodoxy that dominated the law school curriculum, the professoriate, and most legal institutions at the time (Teles 2008, 138). Two of the principal founders—Steven Calabresi and Lee Liberman Otis—had worked on the Reagan campaign before coming to law school, and they had identified a profound mismatch between the conservative and libertarian views that had achieved political and electoral ascendancy and their elite law school campuses, which were still very left-wing and openly hostile to these ideas. It was in response to this frustration, and in the hopes of facilitating a friendlier environment for conservative and libertarian law students and ideas, that the first Federalist Society Student Chapters were organized. With modest funding and organizational support from a few other right-leaning law student groups, the chapters hosted a national symposium at Yale in the spring of 1982. The symposium brought together top conservative intellectual luminaries such as Robert Bork, Richard Posner, Charles Fried, Ralph Winter, Michael W. McConnell, and Antonin Scalia (at that time a law professor at the University of Chicago). The preface to the transcript, which reads like a call to arms for embattled conservatives and libertarians, is indicative of the tenor of the event: "At a time when the nation's law schools are staffed largely by professors who dream of regulating from their cloistered offices every minute detail of our lives. . . the Federalists met—and proclaimed the virtues of individual freedom and of limited government" (Hicks 2006, 652). _National Review_ magazine—one of the leading conservative publications of the time—covered the event, which spurred phone calls from dozens of students at law schools across the country inquiring about how to set up their own chapter of the Federalist Society.
The founders of the Federalist Society Student Chapters quickly realized that they had tapped into a high-demand market. As Steven Teles describes it, "c]onservative law students alienated in their home institutions, desperate for a collective identify, and eager for collective activity provided a ripe opportunity for organizational entrepreneurship" ([Teles 2008, 139). Within the first decade of founding the national organization, the number of Student Chapters at law schools grew to just over 150, while the operating budget of the Federalist Society increased from roughly $100,000 to $1.6 million. Over the course of its second decade, responding in part to its law student alumni who had graduated and entered the legal profession, the organization actively extended its reach beyond the law schools. During that time, the Federalist Society established practicing Lawyers Chapters in every major city, launched its Practice Group program, and increased its operating budget to just over $6 million (Teles 2008, 148–149). As it enters its fourth decade, the Federalist Society has matured into a nationwide network of more than 40,000 academics, practitioners, judges, politicians, and law students dedicated to reshaping America's institutions to reflect conservative and libertarian values. With annual revenues around $10 million and with the continuing support of prominent conservative and libertarian foundations and donors such as John Olin, Lynde and Harry Bradley, Richard Scaife, and the Koch family (Avery and McLaughlin 2013, 16–17), the Federalist Society has constructed a formidable conservative and libertarian counter-elite—a network of individuals shaped by a common set of beliefs, a canon of shared texts, and a desire to reformulate the law and legal institutions in accordance with these beliefs.
To wit, at the Federalist Society's Thirtieth Anniversary Convention in 2012, Vice President Leonard S. Leo took stock of all that the conservative legal movement had accomplished since the 1980s, and the important role that the Federalist Society network had played in that movement. Reflecting on three decades of the Federalist Society, he remarked that its success could be attributed to the tens of thousands of members who "choose to be citizen-lawyers by taking up service in government or in the judiciary, by becoming active in pro bono litigation or public policy activity, by teaching, or simply by helping to generate this institution's important educational products." A glance at the program for the Thirtieth Anniversary Convention confirms the prominence and prestige of many of the Federalist Society "citizen-lawyers" to whom Leo referred in his address. Among those donning tuxedos and gowns at the event were Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito, United States Senators Ted Cruz (R-TX) and Mike Lee (R-UT), twenty United States Court of Appeals judges, one former solicitor general, and dozens of leading libertarian and conservative intellectuals. While not featured on the 2012 program, Supreme Court Justices Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and John G. Roberts, Jr., also have well-documented and long-standing ties to the Federalist Society network.
While the list of prominent and powerful participants has prompted journalists and politicians on the left to refer to the Federalist Society as a "vast right-wing conspiracy," the Federalist Society itself actually does very little in terms of direct legal and political engagement. Animated by the belief that ideas _can_ and _do_ have consequences, the Federalist Society's focus has been on training and shaping its members through intellectual engagement, networking conservative and libertarian legal elites, and facilitating opportunities for members to put their shared legal principles into practice as "citizen-lawyers." Because of this, Steven M. Teles has argued that the Federalist Society should be understood as a "provider of public goods for the conservative legal movement" (Teles 2008, 136), while Ann Southworth has described it as a "mediator organization" for various crosscutting coalitions within the movement (Southworth 2008, 130–148). While journalists, social scientists, lawyers, and politicians universally agree that the Federalist Society is an important organization, its method of indirect versus direct influence—training, education, and networking versus lobbying, litigating, and endorsing political candidates—has made the scope of its influence difficult to pinpoint.
The social scientific framework that I develop in the pages of this book represents an innovative effort to capture and chronicle the kinds of influence that the Federalist Society network exerts and, further, to identify and explore the conditions that have enabled it to do so. It respects the fluid, network structure of the Federalist Society, as described in great detail in Southworth's work. It also provides a clear methodology and research agenda for investigating how particular Federalist Society members used the "goods" or "capital" (Teles 2008) generated by the Society to influence Supreme Court decisions in concrete cases. Additionally, it highlights the Federalist Society's role as a vocal and effective "judicial audience" (Baum 2006), keeping judges and Justices from drifting from their conservative and libertarian principles once on the bench. In so doing, this book provides a valuable framework for understanding the influence of the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies as well as similar organizations or networks—past, present, and future.
_Ideas with Consequences_ extends previous work I have published on this topic (Hollis-Brusky 2013) that analyzed the conditions under which Federalist Society network members had been successful in diffusing ideas or _intellectual capital_ to Supreme Court decision makers in federalism and separation of powers cases. The following chapters apply the same kind of analysis but expand the scope of the study to include cases on the Second Amendment ("the right to keep and bear arms"), and the First Amendment ("the freedom of speech"), as applicable to campaign finance regulations. My selection of these constitutional areas follows from the principal finding of my earlier work, which is that the Federalist Society network was most influential in cases where the Supreme Court took a big step away from their established constitutional framework; that is, cases where _doctrinal distance_ was greatest (Hollis-Brusky 2013). Similarly, I find that in each of the landmark cases I examine in this book—cases that represent "critical junctures" (Pierson 2000) in constitutional jurisprudence—members of the Federalist Society functioned as active conduits for idea transmission. The intellectual capital they supplied through their legal briefs and written scholarship helped the Supreme Court majority justify these revolutionary constitutional decisions in their written opinions. As I argue, how these written opinions are crafted and justified is critically important for law and policy development because these opinions shape, constrain, and direct the behavior of future courts, lower courts, legislators, and other policy entrepreneurs in the American political system (Shapiro 2002; Silverstein 2009). Additionally, in Chapter 6, I show how the Federalist Society network helped foster and facilitate a climate conducive to constitutional change. In other words, not only did it take advantage of these critical junctures in constitutional jurisprudence by providing intellectual capital to decision-makers when they were ready to revise or reconstruct constitutional frameworks, this network also actively worked to bring about those critical junctures in the first place.
Chapter 1 details my research approach and lays out an argument for why a slightly modified version of the epistemic community framework—what I am calling a _political epistemic network_ (PEN)—is the most appropriate for understanding and investigating Federalist Society influence. I argue that while the epistemic community framework captures the fluid network structure of the Federalist Society and places an appropriate emphasis on the ideas and shared language of its members as the means of tracing network connections and influence, it does not adequately account for the politically constructed dimensions of legal knowledge, legal authority, and the path-dependent nature of legal precedent. Further, the epistemic community model, as it has been developed and deployed, does not account for the Federalist Society's role as a powerful and vocal "judicial audience" (Baum 2006)—a role that has been important in keeping judges and Justices aligned with the network's views and shared beliefs once on the bench. Because of the path-dependent nature of law and the non-refutable disposition of legal and constitutional interpretations, this has also had the additional effect of further entrenching the network's shared beliefs. This added dimension of influence is more fully developed and captured in the PEN model. Chapter 1 also demonstrates how the Federalist Society is bound by a simple but powerful set of principles: _that the state exists to preserve freedom, that the separation of governmental powers is central to our Constitution, and that it is emphatically the province and duty of the judiciary to say what the law is, not what it should be_. I use these same principles to structure and organize the narratives of Federalist Society network influence contained in the book.
### THE STATE EXISTS TO PRESERVE FREEDOM
Chapters 2 and examine the role that the Federalist Society network and its members have played in fundamentally redefining the constitutional relationship between the person (human or corporate) and the state in two important areas. These areas include the Second Amendment and the right to keep and bear arms ( _District of Columbia v. Heller_ (2008); _McDonald v. City of Chicago_ (2010)), and the First Amendment and restrictions on political speech ( _FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life_ (2007); _Citizens United v. FEC_ (2010)). While dealing with different constitutional questions and issues, what binds these together for members of the Federalist Society network is a forceful critique of the role of the state vis-à-vis the person and the perceived erosion of freedom from strangling regulation. Chapter 2 details the decades-long campaign to lobby the Supreme Court to, for the first time in history, adopt a personal rights view of the Second Amendment's guarantee of the right to keep and bear arms. As the chapter illustrates in detail, the Federalist Society and its members helped support and sustain the campaign to reinterpret the Second Amendment in a radical manner, even when this interpretation was deemed "loony" or "off the wall" by many within the mainstream legal academy. Similarly, Chapter 3 examines how Federalist Society network members helped build the path that led to the revolutionary decision in _Citizens United_ to extend First Amendment protections to corporations in the area of political speech—a decision that seriously weakened existing campaign finance regulations and opened the floodgates for money in elections.
### THE SEPARATION OF GOVERNMENTAL POWERS IS CENTRAL TO OUR CONSTITUTION
Chapters 4 and shift focus from the relationship between the state and the individual to constitutional concerns about the relationship between the federal government and the states. These chapters examine Federalist Society influence on one aspect of the "separation of governmental powers"—federalism. Federalist Society network members view our system of divided government in general, and of dual federalism in particular, as one of the most important safeguards for individual liberty built into the structure of our Constitution. In these chapters, I examine the extent to which the Federalist Society network has reshaped the Supreme Court's understanding of the federal commerce power ( _New York v. United States_ (1992); _United States v. Lopez_ (1995); _United States v. Morrison_ (2000)) and state sovereignty ( _Printz v. United States_ (1997); _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012)). Chapter 4 examines how key network members provided the intellectual capital for some of the most important cases in the Supreme Court's "New Federalism" revolution—cases that resulted in a meaningful narrowing of the federal commerce power for the first time in fifty years. Chapter 5 describes how many of these same network members helped fabricate out of whole cloth a new Tenth Amendment doctrine—the "Anti-Commandeering Doctrine"—that has had the practical effect of limiting the scope and reach of federal power to regulate the implementation of background checks for gun purchases and the expansion of Medicaid through the 2010 Affordable Care Act.
### IT IS THE DUTY OF THE JUDICIARY TO SAY WHAT THE LAW IS, NOT WHAT IT SHOULD BE
The final chapter of this book, Chapter 6, aggregates insights drawn from preceding chapters but also expands the scope of the analysis to situate these insights within a body of scholarship on constitutional change and on the role of "support structures" (Epp 1998; Southworth 2008; Teles 2008; Hollis-Brusky 2011a) in that process. It identifies some of the critical ways in which the Federalist Society network has both (1) shaped the content, direction, and character of constitutional revolutions by supporting, developing, and diffusing intellectual capital to Supreme Court decision-makers; and (2) helped foster the conditions that facilitate those constitutional revolutions in the first place by (a) identifying, credentialing, and getting the right kinds of judges and Justices on the bench, (b) acting as a vocal and respected judicial audience (Baum 2006) to keep those judges and Justices in check once on the bench, and (c) creating an intellectual and political climate that is favorable to the desired change by reducing the stigma associated with once-radical ideas or constitutional theories. In effectively performing this dual function, I argue, the Federalist Society has had remarkable success implementing the third prong of its statement of principles: _that it is emphatically the province and duty of the judiciary is say what_ [they believe] _the law is, not what_ [others believe] _it should be_. The Epilogue suggests an agenda for future research, focusing on how the insights presented in this book might comprise a tentative rubric for evaluating the influence of PENs in prior constitutional revolutions and also for evaluating the potential and prospective successes of the self-proclaimed progressive counterpart to the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies—the American Constitution Society for Law and Policy.
_Ideas with Consequences_ is a book about the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies—about its ideas, networks, and influences. It is also, in part, an intellectual history of the "conservative counterrevolution" currently underway on the Supreme Court. It shows how the constitutional theories and intellectual capital used to undergird some of the most radical decisions of this counterrevolution were nurtured and developed over decades by intellectuals supported by and connected through the Federalist Society network. But, if this book can be considered an intellectual history of the current Supreme Court, then it must be viewed as a partial and incomplete history. For, as Vice President Leonard S. Leo reminded everyone at the Federalist Society's Thirtieth Anniversary Convention, the Federalist Society's army of "citizen-lawyers" is motivated, refreshed, and poised to push the counterrevolution deeper and farther in the years and decades to come.
Finally, and most important, this is a book about the dynamics of constitutional change and the roles that "support structures" (Epp 1998) play in that process. Implicit in the narrative presented in the chapters that follow is a strong endorsement for scholars, students, and observers of American law and politics to pay more attention to the sometimes subtle but always important ways that actors outside the Supreme Court (and, indeed, outside government altogether) can help bring about and shape constitutional revolutions. As I have argued elsewhere (Hollis-Brusky 2011a), supplementing the theories of constitutional change currently dominant in the academy with more attention to the activities and influence of groups and actors within the support structure will provide us with a better understanding of the processes of constitutional change. The question of how this happens—and who influences it—is of critical importance to scholars, citizens, and students of American politics alike, as the high-stakes outcomes of these processes ultimately determine what our Constitution, our statutes, and, in short, the structure of our political life itself will look like.
## CHAPTER 1
## Understanding Federalist Society Network Influence
[The Federalist Society has] trained, now, two generations of lawyers who are active around the country as civic leaders. Implicit in that is the Tocquevillian notion of lawyers being important for the community and society and so that's going to be untold ways in which notions of Originalism, of limited government, of the rule of law, are being implemented in thousands of decisions at various levels of government and the community outside of government. Putting them in place means we'll have fifty years of seeing what that actually means for impact.
—David McIntosh, cofounder of the Federalist Society
The Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies does not fit comfortably into any of the social science boxes that students of American politics traditionally use to study the impact of civic groups on law and politics. Unlike a public interest law firm, it does not find, finance, or staff litigation campaigns (though its individual members do). Dissimilar from an interest group, it does not lobby Congress, support judicial or political candidates, or officially participate in litigation as _amici curiae_ (though its individual members do). Moreover, unlike a think tank, it does not have a full-time staff of residents paid to publish position papers designed to advance or endorse a particular policy position (though its members do this, too). What the Federalist Society _does_ do, as the excerpt from cofounder David McIntosh alludes to, is educate and train its members through sponsored events and conferences, to shape and socialize them intellectually and professionally in a particular way, and to encourage them to draw on this training as they carry out their work as legal professionals, academics, judges, government officials, and civic leaders. It is important to note that the Federalist Society Executive Office would not claim credit for how its members or alumni apply the intellectual training that it offers. This, as Steven M. Teles noted, has been an important part of the organization's strategy of "boundary maintenance" (Teles 2008, 152). At the same time, its founding and core members do not _dis_ claim credit for what Federalist Society network actors and alumni do outside the walls of conferences and events. There are thousands of "untold ways" in which these individuals go on to shape legal doctrine and policy in accord with organizational principles and priorities. For example, cofounder Steven Calabresi described the Federalist Society's core purpose and impact to me in precisely these terms:
I think my own goal for the Federalist Society has been. . . [to] have an organization that will create a network of alumni who have been shaped in a particular way. . . . [B]ecause many of our members are right of center and because they tend to be interested in public policy and politics, a lot of them go on to do jobs in government and take positions in government where they become directly involved in policymaking. So I think it's fair to say that Federalist Society alumni who go into government have tended to push public policy in a libertarian–conservative direction.
It is this peculiar dynamic—the oft-blurred line between what the organization does and what its members do—that has made the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies so resistant to the labels and boxes developed by students and observers of American politics and has prompted several of its own members to classify it as _sui generis_.
While I take seriously the claim that the Federalist Society might be _sui generis_ , this description of what the Federalist Society network is and what it does bears a strong resemblance to what scholars of international relations have referred to as an _epistemic community_ (EC). A close cousin of Thomas Kuhn's concept of a "scientific paradigm" (Kuhn 1970) and Ludwig Fleck's idea of a "thought collective" (Fleck 1979), an EC has been defined as a network of professionals with expertise in a particular policy area bound together by a shared set of normative and principled beliefs, shared causal beliefs, shared notions of validity, and a common policy enterprise, who actively work to translate these beliefs into policy (Haas 1992, 3; Cross 2013, 20). Initially developed in the international relations literature to understand the influence of technocrats and scientific experts on the development and coordination of international policy (see, e.g., Haas 1992; Sebenius 1992; Yee 1996; Cross 2012), the EC construct is a good fit in some ways for understanding the influence of the Federalist Society network, but not in others. Structurally, an EC and what I am calling a _political epistemic network_ (PEN) look nearly identical: an interconnected network of experts with policy-relevant knowledge who share certain beliefs and work to actively transmit and translate those beliefs into policy. This is why, as I will explain in a few paragraphs, the research design and logic of the EC model is still appropriate for investigating PEN influence on policy development.
The primary distinctions to be drawn between the EC and PEN models have to do with the kinds of knowledge networks each concept seeks to model (scientific/technocratic versus legal/constitutional). Law is not like science, and lawyers and judges are not like technocrats. Claims to legal knowledge are non-refutable, always politically contested, and depend more on the authority and power of the speakers and their institutional positions than they do on the persuasiveness or objective truth of the knowledge itself (see, e.g., Fish 1980, ; Balkin and Levison 2001). A scientific or technocratic EC can be proven wrong empirically and its knowledge claims refuted. Such evidence would not guarantee but would certainly increase the likelihood that ECs could supplant one another. As Haas writes in his seminal theoretical article on epistemic communities, "If confronted with anomalies that undermined their causal beliefs," ECs "would withdraw from policy debate, unlike interest groups" (Haas 1992, 18; Toke 1999, 99). This is not the case with a PEN, whose knowledge claims and authority are derived from contested interpretations of political texts and meanings, such as those found in the Constitution. A PEN temporarily can be displaced and rendered powerless by the emergence of a rival PEN whose members more effectively have infiltrated positions of political power and decision-making. However, that PEN can continue to contest from the outside, working to adapt and better legitimate and market its own knowledge claims while still actively trying to place its own network members into positions of power and authority. This also means that PENs can and do modify their beliefs so as to better achieve their normative goals and shared vision of the proper arrangement of social and political life—another important distinction between a PEN and an EC. Thus, beliefs ("principled," "causal," and notions of "validity") in the PEN model should be understood as strategic and instrumental rather than sincere and objectively grounded, as they are often characterized in the EC model (Haas 1992; Gough and Shackley 2001, 331–332; Dumoulin 2003, 595). What makes the PEN's beliefs widely held and shared among network members is acknowledged and agreed-upon political value. The addition of "political" to the PEN model recognizes this and highlights the heightened political dimensions of legal knowledge and authority. Moreover, the dropping of "community" in favor of "network" in the definition signifies the important role the PEN plays in actively and consciously credentialing and placing its members into positions of political power—a function that I examine in greater length in Chapter 6.
With those small but important conceptual distinctions noted, because of the structural similarities between the PEN and the EC, the basic logic of the EC approach and the general research design developed in the international relations literature to investigate EC influence are still appropriate and translatable to the American legal-political context. The logic is straightforward: as decision-makers face an increasing number of difficult or complex policy decisions, they will tend to seek support from experts as sources of authoritative knowledge. This opens the door for well-coordinated groups of knowledgeable experts—ECs or PENs, with formal or informal ties to decision-makers—to frame, filter, or shape the outcome of the decision-making process according to their own shared beliefs, principles, or values (Sundstrom 2000, 4). In this way, both ECs and PENs can be understood as "channels through which new ideas circulate from societies to governments," with their individual members acting as "cognitive baggage handlers" whose activities and movements inside and outside government make that transmission possible (Haas 1992, 27).
Importing this logic and applying it to the American legal-political context, we can see certain institutional and political characteristics that might facilitate inroads for PENs in the judicial policymaking process. As Steven M. Teles argues in the context of his own work on the rise of the conservative legal movement, the American legal enterprise has become increasingly "complex, technical, and professionalized," which also means that it has become "acutely sensitive to the increasing significance of ideas, information, networks, and] issue framing" ([Teles 2008, 9–10). Thus, to carry out their work, legal and judicial decision-makers often rely on the broader legal community for intellectual support. This is particularly so in the case of judicial decision-makers whose written opinions and decisions need to persuade legal elites—and, through them, the public at large—in order to be considered authoritative. Legal scholar Martin Shapiro famously referred to this as the "giving reasons requirement" (Shapiro 2002). Unlike legislators who simply vote according to their policy preferences, judges and Justices are required to issue written opinions explaining, supporting, and defending their decisions in the language of the law. In order to persuade an audience of similarly educated and trained lawyers and politicians that their decisions are legitimate, these opinions must situate the given decision within a line of established precedent—that is, within an accepted constitutional framework—or, alternatively, they must provide a convincing argument for why that framework should either be ignored, altered, or reconstructed entirely (Silverstein 2009, 64; Hollis-Brusky 2013, 165). Thus, the importance of the persuasive function of the court is heightened in cases where the Supreme Court is altering or reconstructing existing constitutional frames—cases where _doctrinal distance_ is greatest.
By working to legitimize a set of ideas in the legal profession, PENs make it easier for judicial decision-makers who share these beliefs to articulate them in their opinions without the fear of being perceived as illegitimate. In this way, the PEN provides an important kind of "cultural capital" within the broader legal and political community (Teles 2008, 136). At the same time, the goal of the PEN is political infiltration; as a PEN consolidates its power within government by placing its members in key positions as advisors or as decision-makers, it stands to institutionalize its influence and ideas. As legal scholar Jack M. Balkin writes, "t]he more powerful and influential the people who are willing to make a legal argument, the more quickly it moves from the 'positively loony' to the 'positively thinkable,' and ultimately to something entirely consistent with 'good legal craft'" ([Balkin 2001, 1444–1445; Teles 2008, 12). This has the related consequence of making competing sets of beliefs, values, and techniques—which at one point might have been dominant within the legal profession—seem illegitimate. This function is particularly important in the context of law and legal interpretation, where the meaning and dominant understandings of texts like the Constitution are politically contested in perpetuity and are subject to interpretation. Hence, as I wrote earlier, authority cannot and does not derive simply from the objective meaning or truth of a PEN's claim, but rather from the position, power, and influence of the persons articulating that claim and translating it into policy and governing rules.
### THE FEDERALIST SOCIETY AS A POLITICAL EPISTEMIC NETWORK
By modifying Peter M Haas's definition of an EC (see Table 1.1), a PEN can be defined as an interconnected network of professionals with expertise or knowledge in a particular domain, bound together by the following four characteristics: a shared vision of the proper arrangement of social and political life (shared principled and normative beliefs); shared beliefs, largely instrumental, about how to best realize that vision (shared causal beliefs); shared interpretations of politically contested texts (shared notions of validity); and a common policy project, broadly defined. In the paragraphs that follow, I demonstrate how the Federalist Society network realizes each of these criteria.
_Table 1.1_ THE EPISTEMIC COMMUNITY AND MODIFIED POLITICAL EPISTEMIC NETWORK CRITERIA
Who are the 40,000 plus conservative and libertarian legal actors currently affiliated with and connected through the Federalist Society's burgeoning professional network? About one-fourth of these individuals, 10,000 total, are law students and select other undergraduate and professional students participating in one of 200 Student Chapter groups. With financial and programming assistance from the National Office, these chapters host on average 1,000 events annually that draw close to 48,000 students across the various campuses. The Lawyers Division of the Federalist Society, with its 75 chapters in all major cities, 15 professional Practice Groups, Faculty Division spin-off, and Speakers Bureau, is home to the other 30,000 members. As Steven M. Teles described, with the exception of its two national meetings, all of the Federalist Society's supported activities and events are conducted in its "student chapters (in law schools), lawyer chapters (by city), and Practice Groups (organized by functional interest)" (Teles 2008, 148).
As the Federalist Society website claims, their network of conservative and libertarian actors "interested in the current state of the legal order" presently "extends to all levels of the legal community." Evidence gathered from speaker lists at Federalist Society National Meetings from 1982 to 2011 provides a more descriptive picture of what this network actually looks like. By coding the speaker lists for occupation and aggregating the results, we get a sense not only of the range of representation from different levels of the legal and political community at Federalist Society National Meetings but also of the relative rates of participation by conservative and libertarian actors occupying different career roles within the legal-political complex.
Figure 1.1 provides a visual illustration of the results and corroborates the statement of the Executive Office as well as the impressions excerpted in the beginning of this chapter by cofounder Dave McIntosh that the Federalist Society network, indeed, extends to all levels of the legal and political community. For an organization that started in 1982 as a small group of law students situated in what they perceived to be a "hostile institution, America's law schools" (Teles 2008, 137), the fact that academics still account for more than a third (37%) of presenters at Federalist Society National Meetings is unsurprising. The next four largest groups are legal and political actors representing a think tank or interest group (13%), federal judges (13%), lawyers in private practice (13%), and individuals working in the executive branch of government (10%). Finally, as can be seen from the graphic, Federalist Society National Meetings draw a much smaller but consistent number of actors representing corporate America (4%), conservative and libertarian press and media (3%), state or local politics (3%), and the federal legislative branch (2%).
**Figure 1.1** Presenters at Federalist Society National Meetings by Professional Occupation, 1982–2011
On a very basic structural level, the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy certainly satisfies the PEN criterion of being an interconnected network of professionals with expertise or knowledge in a particular domain—in this case, the law. With members situated throughout the legal-political community, including the relatively large number of participants representing the federal judiciary and the executive branch of government, the Federalist Society would seem to be in a good position to have the kind of functional PEN impact described earlier in this chapter. Indeed, when I asked member and frequent participant Gail Heriot to locate the source of the Federalist Society's influence, she simply responded: "Like Verizon, it's the network." Showing that the Federalist Society has the requisite number of well-positioned "boots on the ground," as Federalist Society network member Michael Greve articulated it, is only the first step. The more important task is to demonstrate that actors within this network are shaped by a set of normative and causal beliefs that would inform the actions and decisions of network members as they carry out their work as legal professionals.
The most logical place to start looking for evidence of shared beliefs among network members is the Federalist Society's official statement of principles: "[The Federalist Society] is founded on the principles that the state exists to preserve freedom, that the separation of governmental powers is central to our Constitution, and that it is emphatically the province and duty of the judiciary to say what the law is, not what it should be." This sentence, co-authored by cofounders Lee Liberman Otis, David McIntosh, and Steven Calabresi in 1982 when the organization was still in its infancy, represents a short but powerful statement of conservative and libertarian legal principles. By unpacking this statement, we can see how it incorporates several important normative, principled, and causal beliefs shared by Federalist Society network members. Additionally, it alludes to the existence of a shared notion of interpretive "validity," which is yet another critical criterion for the existence of a PEN.
The first belief listed in the Federalist Society's statement of principles, that the "state exists to preserve freedom," represents a fusionist understanding of the role and responsibility of government vis-à-vis the individual. Frank S. Meyer, the philosophical father of fusionism—and the biological father of Federalist Society Executive Director Eugene Meyer—was a "staunch individualist" who, believing that individual freedom was the primary end of political action, argued that "the State" had only three, limited functions "national defense, the preservation of domestic order, and the administration of justice between individuals" (Edwards 2007, 2). This belief in a necessary but necessarily limited role for government, some conservatives have argued, was a principal concern of James Madison, the same Founding Father whose silhouette graces the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy's logo. Madison's fusionist understanding of the role of government, founded on "a profound mistrust of man and of men panoplied as the state" (Edwards 2007, 3) is articulated most famously in _The Federalist 51_ (Rossiter ed., 1961): "If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself." This is also—perhaps unsurprisingly given the canonical status of James Madison among Federalist Society members—one of the most oft-quoted and referenced passages from _The Federalist_ among Federalist Society participants.
Placed in the context of this first principled belief, the second principle listed in the Federalist Society's statement, that "the separation of governmental powers is central to our Constitution," can be understood as a causal or instrumental belief derived from this fusionist understanding of the role of government. In other words, members of the Federalist Society believe that the separation of powers is the best and perhaps only condition under which their shared principled belief in limited government and individual freedom can be properly realized. Federalist Society participant and co-author of the Society's _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ , Roger Clegg, articulated the relationship between these beliefs in the following manner: "One of the things [Federalist Society members] have in common is a strong belief in individual liberty and that's the reason we have the separation of powers and division of powers, federalism, is to protect individual rights and liberties." Evidence of a strong concern for the preservation of the separation of powers is not difficult to find among other Federalist Society members. In questioning just over 40 key actors about the principles or priorities that unite members of the Federalist Society, a concern for the "separation of powers" received 13 mentions. Articulated as a concern for the preservation of "federalism" or the "federal structure," this principle received another 23 mentions in interviews.
The organ of government that has historically policed the boundaries between the separate branches of government is the subject of the final principled belief listed in the Federalist Society's short statement: "it is emphatically the province and duty of the judiciary to say what the law is, not what it should be." Echoing familiar language from Chief Justice John Marshall's famous opinion in _Marbury v. Madison_ , this statement reflects the belief among members that unelected judges, who incorrectly interpret constitutional and statutory text, exercise the lawmaking functions of elected legislators and run dangerously afoul of the separation of powers. This is also popularly referred to in shorthand among Federalist Society members as a concern with "judicial activism" or, conversely, a belief in "judicial restraint." For instance, when asked what attracted him to the Federalist Society in its fledgling years, former Reagan Justice Department official Charles J. Cooper responded that it was the Federalist Society's "belief in a restrained judiciary. . . the belief that the Constitution. . . should be interpreted to mean what it was intended to mean. I was and still am very concerned about judicial activism and its consequences." This principled concern with judicial activism was expressed more than 20 times in interviews with key Federalist Society actors. Additionally, the nature of the judicial role has been the headlining topic at no fewer than eight Federalist Society National Conferences throughout the years.
The debate about the proper role of the judiciary is very old, and it gets to the heart of what the PEN believes to be a valid exercise of judicial power and how it goes about making that determination. For members of the Federalist Society, the answer to what makes an act of judicial power valid is consistent with the other normative and causal beliefs explored in this section. The relationship between these beliefs and the shared understanding by members of what makes judicial interpretation valid was articulated by Federalist Society Board member and mentor, the late Robert H. Bork, whose 1971 _Indiana Law Journal_ article was cited multiple times by interviewees as an important influence on their own beliefs:
The requirement that the Court be principled arises from the resolution of the seeming anomaly of judicial supremacy in a democratic society. If the judiciary really is supreme, able to rule when and as it sees fit, the society is not democratic. The anomaly is dissipated, however, by the model of government embodied in the structure of the Constitution, a model upon which popular consent to limited government by the Supreme Court also rests. This model we may. . . call "Madisonian". . . it follows that the Court's power is legitimate only if it has, and can demonstrate in reasoned opinions that it has, a valid theory, derived from the Constitution. . . . If it does not have such a theory but merely imposes its own value choices, or worse if it pretends to have a theory but actually follows its own predilections, the Court violates the postulates of the Madisonian model that alone justifies its power. (Bork 1971, 2–3)
The "valid theory" that Bork refers to in his article, the one that solves the "Madisonian" dilemma, would later become known throughout the legal community as the theory of Originalism. Scholar Jonathan O'Neill has provided a good working definition of this theory:
Originalism is best understood as several closely related claims about the authoritative source of American constitutional law, that is to say, what it means to interpret the Constitution and what evidence interpreters may legitimately consult to recover meaning. . . originalism holds that although interpretation begins with the text, including the structure and relationship of the institutions it creates, the meaning of the text can be further elucidated by. . . evidence from those who drafted the text in convention as well as from the public debates and commentary surrounding its ratification. (O'Neill 2005, 1–2)
Long-time Federalist Society member Loren A. Smith, now a judge on the U.S. Court of Federal Claims, explained the relationship between Originalism and judicial restraint: "The more basic formulation [of Originalism] was the result of some of the actions of the courts. . . of the fifties and sixties and seventies where the judge was making the decision based on what the judge's view of social policy was." Smith continued that while the idea that "judges should stick to the Constitution" was not "original to Originalism," the theory articulated more clearly "why it was important to democracy to follow the text as [the] controlling principle that controls judges from going off and doing whatever they want."
Executive Director Eugene Meyer commented that while they did not start the discussion of Originalism, the Federalist Society has worked hard to nurture and develop it over the past two and a half decades: "Specifically, when you talk about Originalism. . . our student chapters and our lawyers chapters and all our activities have fostered that to a great degree and I don't think the debate and discussion would be where it is were it not for us." In addition to having the topic of "Originalism" headline two of its National Conferences, institutional efforts to promote this theory within the Federalist Society include the web-published _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ , which relies heavily on Originalist scholarship and sources, an online debate series called _Originally Speaking_ that typically pits one Originalist against one non-Originalist on a given legal or political topic of currency, and a recently published collection of Federalist Society debates edited by cofounder Steven Calabresi (with a foreword by Justice Antonin Scalia) entitled _Originalism: A Quarter-Century of Debate_.
My interview data also corroborate the degree to which actors in the Federalist Society network have adopted Originalism. When I asked about the principles or priorities that unify members of the Federalist Society network, Originalism received 31 mentions, the most of any principle listed. For example, as Federalist Society member Daniel Troy explained in our interview, "what the Federalist Society offers is an opportunity to interact with people who at least share your point of view about constitutional interpretation. . . people who have shared views about Originalism." Similarly, Federalist Society member John Yoo emphasized in our interview that if he had to identify the single most important thing that the Federalist Society stood for, it would be "a commitment to Originalism."
Originalism also provides a standard or metric by which other network members can keep judges and fellow members in the network in check, that is, to mitigate what conservative commentators and others have come to refer to as the "Greenhouse Effect" (Baum 2006, 139–145). The "Greenhouse Effect," named after _New York Times_ Supreme Court reporter Linda Greenhouse, refers to the propensity of Supreme Court Justices to seek the approval—through their decisions—of the liberal media and the left-leaning "Georgetown set" (Baum 2006, 139). Several conservative commentators when discussing Republican nominees John Paul Stevens, Harry Blackmun, Potter Stewart, David Souter, and even Anthony Kennedy in part attribute the leftward drift of these Justices to their desire for approval from the Washington, D.C., elite circles (Baum 2006, 140–141). In helping to build a conservative and libertarian counter-elite around a shared belief in Originalism as the only valid mode of constitutional interpretation, the Federalist Society acts as a bulwark against this kind of judicial drift, holding members accountable for staying true to their principles. In the course of my interviews with key Federalist Society members, it became clear that they engage in this kind of feedback-loop with the Justices frequently—at Federalist Society conferences, at barbeques, through personal correspondence, and through scholarly publications.
As Federalist Society cofounder Steven Calabresi said in our interview, the growth of a conservative and libertarian counter-elite through the Federalist Society has "absolutely" helped keep Justices such as Scalia, Thomas, Roberts, and Alito in check:
I think it absolutely helps keep them in check. When one tries to think about what kinds of checks exist on officials as powerful as Supreme Court Justices I think the check of criticism by law schools, journalists, and conservative think tanks like the Federalist Society, criticism from those quarters is something that they notice. They may or may not be persuaded by it but I think they know it's out there and I think it is something of a check on them. Some of them may care more about being consistent than others. I think Scalia actually cares a lot about being consistent. He's no wallflower so if you criticize him he's not necessarily going to wilt under the criticism; he may conclude that he was right and stand up for the position he originally articulated but I think he notices things like that and I think in general other conservative and libertarian judges and public officials notice things like that as well and I think it can have an effect on them.
In this way, the Federalist Society elite is able to act as an effective "judicial audience" (Baum 2006), vocalizing their approval and disapproval of the decisions or the legal reasoning of fellow network members on and off the Supreme Court. As Lawrence Baum has written, judges, like people, are motivated and driven to act for many reasons—one of which, he argues, has to do with their desire to win approval from various "audiences" whose approval is valued not only strategically (as a means to promotion, selection to higher courts) but also "as an end in itself." For example, Baum writes in _Judges and Their Audiences_ , people are not "interdependent solely because they want to get concrete things from each other. Rather, people's identities, their conceptions of themselves, rest fundamentally on their relations with each other. And the need for others to validate people's self-conceptions. . . continues throughout life" (2006, 26).
Working under this assumption, Baum argues, even a Supreme Court Justice who has reached the pinnacle of his or her career cares about and would have incentive to seek approval from people whom he or she respects and with whom he or she is personally and politically connected. Because interpretations of inherently subjective texts like the Constitution will always be politically contested (unlike scientific knowledge that can be refuted), the "validity" criterion within the PEN functions more as a barometer for how closely aligned a judicial decision or its reasoning is with the PEN's normative and principled beliefs about the proper arrangement of social and political life.
The final definitional characteristic of actors within a PEN is that they also share a common policy project to which they can apply their shared beliefs and interpretive understandings of politically contested meanings or texts. The Federalist Society lists as an institutional goal the desire to chip away at the dominant liberal ethic espoused in the academy, legal institutions, and the legal community at large by "reordering priorities within the legal system" and "restoring the recognition of the importance of [conservative and libertarian principles] among lawyers, judges, law students, and professors." This multifaceted, ambitious policy project—which really comes down to an effort to reorient the legal culture—is, to recall the excerpt from cofounder David McIntosh, carried out in "untold ways" when conservative and libertarian principles are implemented by network actors and alumni in "thousands of decisions" at various levels of government and the legal profession. The Federalist Society's effort to reorder the priorities within the legal system involves not only shaping its members intellectually but also credentialing them professionally so that they might be in a position to have the kind of impact on the legal culture that the Federalist Society is trying to bring about. In our interview, former Federalist Society member and legal academic Thomas Smith recalled hearing the cofounders (including Calabresi) tell him very early on that it was
crucial to credential young conservatives. . . and to build an alternative elite because [at] Yale Law School. . . and other elite schools, it's quite true that it wasn't just a point of view, it was a way of life; it was a network, it was a group of people, it was a way to talk, it was a set of books to read. . . . On the other hand, the conservatives didn't have that. They were this sort of rag-tag group of people from lots of different odds and ends and I think [within the Federalist Society] there has been a very conscious effort to sort of build up an elite, and I think [it has been] really quite remarkably successful.
Federalist Society members recognize that this common policy project of restoring the recognition of conservative and libertarian principles in America's legal institutions requires the sustained efforts of thousands of network actors operating at times collectively and at other times separately, at different levels of government and the legal profession. After all, as one interviewee recalled hearing repeatedly at Federalist Society meetings of the effort to tear down the liberal orthodoxy permeating the legal profession and institutions of government, "Rome wasn't burned in a day."
While on a very general level, the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy satisfies the basic criteria of a PEN, it is perhaps more accurate to say that the Federalist Society network is composed of _multiple_ PENs. The various coalitions and divisions within the Federalist Society reflect those within the conservative legal movement more generally (see, e.g., Paik, Southworth, and Heinz 2007; Southworth 2008). While the Federalist Society has managed to successfully navigate and "mediate" (Southworth 2008) these fissures within the conservative movement, it would be a bold claim indeed to say that all 40,000 members agreed on all the constitutional issues I examine in this book. Acknowledging the limitations of this approach—that is, the non-generalizability of what I detail to the entire network membership—I believe that the framework is still extremely useful for examining the influence of the various smaller PENs that have cohered within the Federalist Society network around key doctrinal areas—the Second Amendment, the First Amendment, federalism, and state sovereignty. The next section lays out, in detail, my research approach for this work.
### TRACING THE INFLUENCE OF THE FEDERALIST SOCIETY ON THE CONSERVATIVE COUNTERREVOLUTION
In terms of conceptualizing influence, the PEN framework is consistent with the post-positivist tradition in social science. As law and society scholar Michael McCann has put it, this tradition "begins] from the assumption that no contextual factor alone is determinative or autonomous, and, indeed, the conceptualization of factors as independent forces only impedes understanding of both their dynamic interactions and their cumulative significance over time for the subjects we are trying to understand" ([McCann 1996, 462). Understood in this sense, Federalist Society network influence is not defined as its power to change the votes of Supreme Court justices in key cases. Rather, influence, as it is deployed in the PEN analysis, captures and chronicles the subtle, complex, and dynamic ways in which this network and its ideas helped shape the content, direction, and character of key Supreme Court decisions. It is also plausible, for reasons that I explore in greater detail in this book's final chapter, that the Federalist Society network, working systematically over the course of several decades, made it easier for the Justices to make the difficult decision to change constitutional course in the first place—that they helped foster an environment conducive to constitutional change.
The research techniques for demonstrating the influence of PENs on policy development are identical to those prescribed for the EC framework. The process involves "identifying community membership, determining the community members' principled and casual beliefs, tracing their activities and demonstrating their influence on decision makers at various points in time" (Haas 1992, 34). I should note that within the PEN framework, it does not matter whether or not these individuals are card-carrying and dues-paying Federalist Society "members" (in the same way that one is a member of a gym or a country club). What matters instead is the extent to which these individuals are active participants in Federalist Society network activities and programs. Thus, I refer to them in the pages of this book as "network members" rather than "members" of the Federalist Society. Because of this emphasis on activity versus membership (and because, from a practical standpoint, the Federalist Society maintains a strict policy against publishing their membership lists), I relied on speaker agendas for Federalist Society National Conferences (Student and Lawyers) from 1982 to 2012 to establish network affiliation. These speaker agendas furnished a list of 1,190 different individuals who have presented at Federalist Society National Conferences. In one respect, this data set is over-inclusive for determining PEN membership. It includes several speakers who are sometimes referred to as the "token liberals," such as Cass Sunstein, Louis Michael Seidman, Walter Dellinger, and Laurence Tribe. These individuals do not tend to share the Federalist Society's beliefs, notions of validity, or general policy project. For this reason, I have filtered them out of the subsequent case studies where I track network influence. In many respects, however, this list is highly _under_ -inclusive. National Student and Lawyer Conferences account for just two of the thousands of events the Federalist Society sponsors nationally each year, including local Student Chapter meetings, local lawyer lunches and speaker events, student leadership camps, regional colloquia and symposia, faculty conferences, professional Practice Group meetings, and campus debates. Further, this list does not take into account the tens of thousands of members who attend Federalist Society events each year but are not on the program. These constraints notwithstanding, I have found that these National Conferences attract some of the most high-profile Federalist Society participants, including leaders in the academy, in the legal profession, and decision-makers in government and on the judiciary.
While, for some network actors, the number of appearances at Federalist Society National Conferences is in the double digits, even an appearance on the program at one National Conference, as several interviewees confirmed, is viewed as an important credential and a great honor within the Federalist Society network—a signal of "true believership." As evidence, in the context of discussions with former Federalist Society Student Chapter Presidents, presenters at National Conferences were referred to as the "rock stars" and the "Mick Jaggers" of the network. Thus, though this network list represents less than 3% of the 40,000 members the Federalist Society boasts, these 3% can be understood as constituting the thought leaders of the network. Additionally, given the high profile of these conferences, these 3% are also likely to be among the most prominent and active "citizen-lawyers," to use Leonard Leo's term, within the network. Table 1.2 provides some evidence of this by listing the 13 most frequent participants at Federalist Society National Conferences and detailing their positions within the legal-political community.
_Table 1.2_ MOST FREQUENT PRESENTERS AT FEDERALIST SOCIETY NATIONAL CONFERENCES 1982–2013
Name |
# Nat. Conferences
| Occupation(s)
---|---|---
Frank Easterbrook |
32
| Federal Judge
Richard Epstein |
26
| Academic
Edwin Meese, III |
20
| Executive Branch, Think Tank
Steven Calabresi |
20
| Executive Branch, Academic
Thomas Merrill |
19
| Academic
Lino A. Graglia |
19
| Academic
A. Raymond Randolph |
19
| Federal Judge
John McGinnis |
19
| Executive Branch, Academic
Theodore Olson |
18
| Executive Branch, Litigation
Lillian BeVier |
16
| Academic
Charles J. Cooper |
16
| Executive Branch, Litigation
John C. Yoo |
15
| Executive Branch, Academic
William H. Pryor |
14
| State AG, Federal Judge
In determining these network members' beliefs about the constitutional doctrines examined in this book, I relied on several different expressions of these beliefs, both institutional (transcripts of Federalist Society conference speeches and panels, Federalist Society Practice Group newsletters and articles, the Federalist Society's _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ , Federalist Society–hosted online debates, Practice Group Teleforum calls and Podcasts) and non-institutional (law review articles and other scholarly publications, newspaper articles, archival data, and interview data). I work to establish these beliefs in the beginning of each chapter, detailing the major Federalist Society members contributing to the PEN's dialogue on that particular set of doctrines while providing evidence of these beliefs from the sources just mentioned.
As the model in Figure 1.2 illustrates, ideas can be diffused from the PEN to Supreme Court decision makers through several pathways. The dotted lines represent network actors as "cognitive baggage handlers" (Haas 1992, 27), carrying the ideas of the Federalist Society into their roles as legal professionals, including judges, academics, executive branch officials, litigators, or friends of the court. Of course, the most direct mechanism of transmission is through political infiltration. In this case, political infiltration is achieved when network members have secured positions as Supreme Court decision makers and, to a lesser extent, Supreme Court clerks. However, network ideas can reach decision-makers by several other paths. In Figure 1.2, these external paths of idea transmission are represented by solid lines. For example, ideas might travel through a lower court opinion authored by a Federalist Society network-member judge, a brief submitted by network-member litigator(s) and/or _amici curiae_ ("friends of the court"), or through published scholarship authored by Federalist Society–affiliated scholars. Federalist Society network participation in all these capacities—as a Supreme Court decision maker, Supreme Court clerk, lower court judge, _amicus curiae_ , and litigator(s)—was catalogued in each of the cases examined in this book. Realizing that the reader will not have access to my complete database of Federalist Society network participants, the first time I identify a member of the network I have endeavored to make it clear in either the body of the text or with an endnote (or both) exactly how he or she is connected to the Federalist Society network (e.g., conference participation, Practice Group membership, affiliated scholar, etc.). Finally, the respective opinions and briefs were coded using Atlas.ti Scientific qualitative data management software. Using references to Federalist Society scholarship and to the shared canon of Originalist sources as my primary indicators, I examined the extent to which Supreme Court Justices relied on the expressed intellectual capital of Federalist Society members in constructing their written opinions in each case.
**Figure 1.2** Political Epistemic Network (PEN) Pathways of Influence on Judicial Branch
As I wrote in the introduction, the constitutional areas examined in this book were selected because of the distinct conservative turn each has taken over the past 30 years—a turn that is very much in line with the kinds of arguments that conservatives and libertarians have been making at Federalist Society meetings since the 1980s. As my previous work on the Federalist Society suggested, it is in these kinds of revolutionary Supreme Court cases, those in which the degree of _doctrinal distance_ is greatest (Hollis-Brusky 2013), that the extent of reliance on outside intellectual capital should in fact be highest. Additionally, unlike the various cross-cutting issues that tend to routinely divide the conservative coalition and its lawyers (see, e.g., Southworth 2008), this book examines areas of constitutional law about which there seems to be—if not perfect agreement—a clear and identifiable consensus among the most prominent and active members of the Federalist Society network in terms of the kinds of arguments being made and how those arguments are being supported.
The next two chapters examine Federalist Society network influence on two constitutional areas that reflect the organization's first shared principle: _the state exists to preserve freedom_. Subsequent chapters examine network efforts, consistent with their second principled belief in the centrality of _the separation of governmental powers_ , to rein in the federal commerce power and bolster state sovereignty, respectively. The final chapter aggregates insights from these narratives of influence and situates them in a broader literature on the dynamics of constitutional change and judicial policy development. In short, it shows how and why the Federalist Society network has been so successful in _saying what the law is_.
## PART I
## The State Exists to Preserve Freedom
## CHAPTER 2
## The Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms
Lost and Found
_U.S. Constitution, Amendment II_
_A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State_ ,
_the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed_.
"The rights of the individual citizen would be little different today if the Second Amendment did not exist." This provocative statement, first appearing in a 1965 _American Bar Association Journal_ article entitled "The Lost Amendment," was intended to serve as a damning indictment of the Supreme Court's interpretation and application of the "right of the People to keep and bear arms" protected by the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Penned by eventual Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals judge and Nixon appointee Robert A. Sprecher, the article accused the Supreme Court of misconstruing the right to keep and bear arms on two grounds. First, in a series of late nineteenth-century cases ( _U.S. v. Cruikshank_ (1876); _Presser v. Illinois_ (1886); _Miller v. Texas_ (1894)) the highest court in the land failed to apply the U.S. Constitution's Second Amendment protections against the states, arguing that like all provisions of the Bill of Rights at that time, the Second Amendment should be read as providing protection against the actions and encroachments of the federal government, not the states. Second, in _United States v. Miller_ (1939), the first case in a century and a half in which the Supreme Court had the opportunity to rule squarely on the nature of the right to keep and bear arms, the Justices indicated that the Second Amendment right ought to be understood to be collective in nature, as opposed to a right guaranteed to each individual. In upholding the constitutionality of the federal National Firearms Act (NFA) and writing for a unanimous court in _Miller_ , Justice James Clark McReynolds wrote that "i]n the absence of any evidence tending to show that possession or use of a 'shotgun having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length' at this time has some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, we cannot say that the Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear such an instrument." The Supreme Court's reading of the Second Amendment in _Miller_ —a reading that focused on the right in the context of its relationship to the guarantee of a "well-regulated militia"—was quite in line with academic and elite opinion on the subject. As one observer noted, nearly all legal scholarship at the time was supportive of "some variant of the collective rights reading" of the Second Amendment ([Cornell 2006, 204). Moreover, lower federal court judges had reinforced the Supreme Court's holding in _Miller_ by applying, almost without exception, a narrow collective rights reading of the Second Amendment (Williams 2003, 106–107).
In Robert A. Sprecher's view, this double-barreled misconstruction of the scope and the nature of the right to keep and bear arms had turned the U.S. Constitution's Second Amendment into "The Lost Amendment." In addition to serving as an indictment of the Supreme Court's Second Amendment jurisprudence, Sprecher's article also contained a call to arms for then-present and future scholars to develop the intellectual underpinnings of a more robust understanding of the right to keep and bear arms and to pressure the Supreme Court to adopt this notion. He went on to say, "We should find the lost Second Amendment, broaden its scope and determine that it affords the right to arm a state militia and also the right of the individual to keep and bear arms" (Sprecher 1965, 669). Robert A. Sprecher served on the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals until his death on May 15, 1982, and his call to arms, though eloquent and bold, went largely unanswered during his lifetime. According to two prominent Second Amendment scholars, as late as the early 1980s, there was little interest from legal scholars in challenging the Supreme Court's interpretation of the right to bear arms, which by that point had garnered a broad scholarly consensus (Barnett and Kates 1996, 1141). As Randy Barnett and Don Kates noted, even libertarian law professor Daniel D. Polsby went on the record with the _Chicago Sun Times_ in 1981 and called the individual rights view of the Second Amendment "a lot of horsedung" (Barnett and Kates 1996, 1141). Still, the individual rights view of the Second Amendment was beginning to garner a fair amount of political support. In 1976, the language of the Second Amendment appeared for the first time in a Republican Party platform ("We support the right of citizens to keep and bear arms") (Spitzer 2001, 83). In 1980, as Robert J. Spitzer explains, the Republican Party used even stronger wording, stating, "We believe the right of citizens to keep and bear arms must be preserved" (Spitzer 2001, 83–84). This emphasis in the Republican Party's platform on the Second Amendment coincided with the party's nomination of Ronald Reagan, who had strongly endorsed the position of a group that was becoming a rising political force in Washington, D.C.—the National Rifle Association (NRA) (Langbein and Lotwis 1990, 430–434; Spitzer 2001, 84).
Around the same time that Ronald Reagan was catapulted into the presidency, the tide of academic and elite opinion on the Second Amendment was beginning to turn. One source of support for this shift would come from a fledgling group of law students and academics who would hold their first meeting in New Haven, Connecticut, in April 1982. The preface to the transcript of that first Federalist Society conference, reprinted in the _Harvard Journal for Law and Public Policy_ , signaled their sympathy with and receptivity to the kind of arguments that Robert A. Sprecher and a few others had been advancing before this time with little success: "At a time when the nation's law schools are staffed largely by professors who dream of regulating from their cloistered offices every minute detail of our lives. . . the Federalists met—and proclaimed the virtues of individual freedom and of limited government" (Hicks 2006, 652). This emphasis on "individual freedom" was soon institutionally enshrined in the Federalist Society's statement of principles, which, if we recall last chapter's discussion, states that one of the Society's foundational beliefs is that _the state exists to preserve freedom_. As the next section will detail, while the Society's openness and receptivity to this reading of the right to keep and bear arms was clear from the genesis of the organization, scholars and judicial decision makers affiliated with the Federalist Society network began aggressively advocating for an individual rights view of the Second Amendment in the early 1990s. These efforts accelerated after 1997, when Federalist Society member and hero Justice Clarence Thomas signaled in a Tenth Amendment case that the Supreme Court might be ready and willing to revisit the Supreme Court's five decades–old holding in _Miller_. In his concurring opinion in _Printz v. United States_ (1997),(discussed at length in Chapter 5), Thomas pointed to "a growing body of scholarly commentary" that supported the individual rights view of the Second Amendment and mused hopefully that "perhaps, at some future date, this Court will have the opportunity to determine whether Justice Story was correct when he wrote that the right to bear arms 'has justly been considered as the palladium of the liberties of a republic.'"
This "judicial signal" (Baird 2007) was received loud and clear by other members of the Federalist Society network. A decade after Justice Thomas's concurring opinion in _Printz_ , in a 2008 opinion written by former Federalist Society advisor Justice Antonin Scalia, the Supreme Court would hold for the first time that the Second Amendment protected an individual, not just a collective right to keep and bear arms. A mere two years later, in 2010, in an opinion written by another Federalist Society member—Justice Samuel Alito—the Supreme Court would incorporate and apply that right for the first time to the states. These two cases, _Heller v. District of Columbia_ (2008) and _McDonald v. City of Chicago_ (2010), represented a seismic shift in the Supreme Court's Second Amendment jurisprudence. This chapter explores the role that the Federalist Society network played in providing the intellectual capital for this constitutional paradigm shift. The following section works to establish the arguments and authoritative sources relied on by Federalist Society network members at conferences and in their scholarship in support of an individual rights reading of the Second Amendment. I then examine Federalist Society network participation in _Heller_ and _McDonald_ litigation, working to tease out some of those "untold ways" in which the network effectively diffused ideas or intellectual capital to Supreme Court decision makers in these two revolutionary decisions. I close the chapter with an evaluation and assessment of the ways in which the Federalist Society network ultimately helped the Supreme Court find "the Lost Amendment."
### THE FEDERALIST SOCIETY NETWORK ON THE SECOND AMENDMENT
As I mentioned in the previous section, the Federalist Society network had signaled its receptiveness early on to the kinds of arguments that would challenge the weak or watered-down version of the Second Amendment that the Supreme Court and the academic community at large had supported since the nineteenth century. Loren A. Smith, now a Federal Court of Appeals judge, was a frequent participant at some of the Federalist Society's earliest gatherings. He recalled for me, in our interview, the Society's early focus on the role of government, the perceived negative impact that government regulation was having on individual freedom, and the efforts within the Federalist Society to push back against the scholarly consensus about big government:
[One unifying] idea was that government has gotten too big and infringes too much on individual liberties. . . . I think [the Federalist Society] has made it respectable to debate whether government has gotten too big and whether judges, by their decisions, are undermining the Constitution. [That] wasn't really a respectable topic when I was at law school, at least. You didn't hear any discussion by my professors of whether government was too big or not.
This sentiment was echoed by Federalist Society cofounder David McIntosh, who said that the Federalist Society was established in part to provide an alternative to the "dominant liberal ethic" in legal academia that considered many views (including those about an individual rights view of the Second Amendment) to be "outside of the mainstream" and therefore out of bounds for serious scholarly consideration. While this hospitableness to unorthodox legal and constitutional views was apparent from the Federalist Society's founding, the Second Amendment did not become a salient topic of discussion at National Meetings until the early 1990s. In 1991, for example, the Federalist Society hosted its Tenth National Student Symposium on "The Bill of Rights after 200 Years" at Yale Law School. At that symposium, several participants lamented the failure of the judiciary to enforce the safeguards of the Second Amendment properly. One particularly noteworthy lament came from law professor Thomas W. Merrill. As he said, "[t]he judiciary in this country has done little to enforce the Second Amendment, perhaps because intellectual elites, such as the American Civil Liberties Union, do not really think it is a right." "Or," Merrill continued, "perhaps a judiciary that lives by the pen is not terribly supportive of those who would live by the sword. Nevertheless, and notwithstanding the complete judicial default in enforcing the Second Amendment, we have rather widespread ownership of firearms and other weapons in this country." It is no coincidence that the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act was being debated in Congress, and ultimately passed, in the early 1990s. Since that time, as I show in detail in the next section, Federalist Society network members have been active discussants of the Second Amendment both at conferences and in their scholarship.
In reviewing speech acts mentioning the Second Amendment at National Conferences, in online debates, in Practice Group Newsletters, and in scholarship recommended by the Federalist Society's _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ (hereinafter, the _Bibliography_ ), I identified just 27 speakers. Several of these speakers (e.g., Randy Barnett, Eugene Volokh, and Nelson Lund) are on the record multiple times. The number 27 does not account for the hundreds of attendees at conferences and events and other members who likely share these intellectual sympathies but are not on the record as endorsing the Second Amendment views of these leaders. With these limitations in mind, it is still important to note that of all the doctrinal areas examined in this book, the _political epistemic network_ (PEN) that has cohered around the Second Amendment within the Federalist Society network is the smallest. Size notwithstanding, this group is noteworthy both for the prominence of its members within the field more broadly and for the extent of ideological agreement among its members. As attorney Alan Gura explained on a Federalist Society Teleforum Call entitled _Gun Rights Litigation Update_ , "the Second Amendment field is very small." That being said, many of the most prominent and active attorneys and academics involved in Second Amendment litigation and intellectual development, such as Randy Barnett, Don B. Kates, Nelson Lund, Eugene Volokh, Charles J. Cooper, Robert Levy, and Clark M. Neily are active members of the Federalist Society network. Moreover, all of these speech acts (including all four sources recommended by the Federalist Society _Bibliography_ ) endorse an individual rights view of the Second Amendment. The following sections provide an overview of the Federalist Society network's support for and endorsement of the individual rights view of the Second Amendment; that is, these sections provide evidence from conferences, events, and scholarship of this PEN's long-standing support for this radical reinterpretation of the right to keep and bear arms.
#### An Originalist Reading of the Second Amendment Supports an Individual Right to Bear Arms, not a Collective Right
Critical to reinterpreting the Second Amendment as protecting an individual and not merely a collective right to keep and bear arms is the argument, expressed consistently in Federalist Society speech acts on the subject, that the "justification clause" of the Second Amendment ("A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State") should not be read to limit or constrain the "operative clause" ("the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed"). As Thomas W. Merrill put it at the 1991 National Student Symposium, "[t]he Second Amendment prefaces [the right to bear arms] with a reason why it is needed—to maintain a well-regulated militia. It does not, however, suggest that the right is limited to the implementation of that reason alone." Member Nelson Lund writes in his 1996 law review article, "The Past and Future of the Individual's Right to Bear Arms" (recommended reading in the Society's _Bibliography_ ), that "when read properly," the legislative history reveals that the "Second Amendment's prefatory language was perfectly adapted to a purpose having nothing to do with limiting or qualifying the grammatically inescapable language establishing an individual right to keep and bear arms." Similarly, member Eugene Volokh writes in his 1998 law review article, "The Commonplace Second Amendment" (also recommended reading in the _Bibliography_ ), that a close historical reading of state constitutions and other Originalist sources from the founding shows that "operative clauses are often both broader and narrower than their justification clauses, thus casting doubt on the argument that the right exists only when. . . it furthers the goals identified in the justification clause." To put it another way, Federalist Society network members argue that an Originalist reading of the Second Amendment commands us to read it _backward_.
In doing so, Federalist Society network members give far more interpretive weight to the operative clause, emphasizing the Framers' selection of the phrase "the right of the people" rather than "the right of members of the militia." As Volokh writes:
The operative clause says the right to keep and bear arms belongs to "the people." Given that "the right of the people" is likewise used to describe the right to petition the government, the right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures, and the rights to keep and bear arms recognized in various contemporaneous state constitutions—all individual rights that belong to each person, not just to members of the militia—"the people" seems to refer to people generally.
This same argument is made in each of the other three sources recommended in the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ under the Second Amendment. For example, in their 1996 law review article, "Under Fire: The New Consensus on the Second Amendment," members Randy Barnett and Don B. Kates argue, "the strongest support for the individual right view and against the. . . militia-centric view derives from the text of the Amendment itself. . . [which] uses the phrase, 'right of the people,' a term also used in the First, Fourth, Ninth and Tenth Amendments, and in the original Constitution, and used to denote the rights of individuals." Nelson Lund, in his above-cited 1996 article, also emphasizes the overlap in language ("the right of the people") between the Second, First, and Fourth Amendments, pointing out that no one has "ever explained why the Framers of these three provisions would have used the identical language in a fundamentally different sense in the Second Amendment." Lund echoed this same argument at the 1999 Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention in Washington, D.C., on a panel discussing "Firearms Litigation, Tort Liability, and the Second Amendment." There, he declared emphatically, "the Second Amendment protects the right of individuals to keep and bear arms, not some sort of collective states' right to maintain military organizations like the National Guard."
Further underscoring the coherence of beliefs about the Second Amendment within the PEN is the shared canon of sources that network members have relied on in their scholarship and speech acts to construct the legal-intellectual scaffolding of this individual rights view. For example, the sources recommended by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ under the "Second Amendment"—each of which is authored or co-authored by a Federalist Society member—draw in critical ways in their arguments on Blackstone's _Commentaries on the Laws of England_ , _Federalist_ 29, and _Federalist_ 46. Blackstone's _Commentaries_ are mobilized by network members to support the proposition that the right to bear arms, as it relates to self-defense, is a natural and personal (not collective) right. As such, the network members argue, it cannot be taken (or regulated) away. For example, in Barnett and Kates's "Under Fire. . ." the authors cite the following excerpt from Blackstone: "Self-defense therefore, as it is justly called the primary law of nature, so it is not, _neither can it be in fact_ , [emphasis added by Barnett and Kates] taken away by the law of society." Alexander Hamilton's _Federalist_ 29 is mobilized to deemphasize and shed a skeptical light on the "prefatory" language in the Second Amendment ("A well-regulated Militia. . .") and to justify shifting the analytical focus of that Amendment to what network members refer to as the "operative" clause. For example, in defending this analytical move in his article "The Past and Future of the Individual's Right to Bear Arms," Federalist Society member Nelson Lund writes the following:
Some of the more liberal leaders of the founding generation probably thought that the republican ideal of the citizen militia amounted largely to romantic nonsense, inconsistent with the principle of the division of labor. Alexander Hamilton, for example, wrote that "[t]he project of disciplining all the militia of the United States is as futile as it would be injurious if it were capable of being carried into execution." THE FEDERALIST No. 29, 184 (Alexander Hamilton) (Clinton Rossiter ed., 1961) . . . Hamilton's views only confirm that while the Second Amendment may have embodied a _hope_ for something impracticable, it _requires_ something perfectly feasible [emphasis in original]. Indeed, Hamilton believed that something well beyond the requirement of the Second Amendment was feasible. In the midst of his strongest criticism of the militia ideal, Hamilton also wrote: "Little more can reasonably be aimed at with respect to the people at large than to have them properly armed and equipped; and in order to see that this be not neglected, it will be necessary to assemble them once or twice in the course of a year." (THE FEDERALIST No. 29, _supra_ , 185)
In addition to Hamilton, Federalist Society network members also mobilize their patron founding father James Madison, to emphasize the importance that the founding generation placed on the right to keep and bear arms. For example, Nelson Lund, in his Second Amendment entry in the _Heritage Guide to the Constitution_ (recommended by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ), includes a lengthy excerpt from _Federalist_ 46 to support the " _shared_ assumption" [emphasis in original] of the Founding generation that "the federal government should not have any authority at all to disarm the citizenry."
These are, of course, but three of the dozens of sources that Federalist Society network members mobilize in support of a robust and individual rights interpretation of the Second Amendment. However, as this section has aimed to show, these three sources were recognized as critical to deconstructing the collective rights framework and building the scaffolding of the individual rights interpretation that more than a decade after most of this scholarship was written would help revolutionize the Supreme Court's Second Amendment jurisprudence in _District of Columbia v. Heller_ (2008).
#### The Second Amendment Should Be Incorporated and Applied to the States Through the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges and Immunities Clause and/or Due Process Clause
As I wrote earlier in this chapter, Federalist Society network members and other sympathizers had a "double-barreled" agenda when it came to the Second Amendment. This agenda included goals to (1) supplant the collective rights view of the Amendment that had been the dominant view in Supreme Court jurisprudence since the late nineteenth century, and (2) argue for the incorporation of the Second Amendment as a protection against actions and regulations of the states rather than merely as a protection against actions by the federal government. In reviewing Federalist Society speech acts, it is clear there are two principal avenues that network members identify and endorse when it comes to incorporating the Second Amendment. The first, utilizing the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (Amend. XIV, Sec. 1, cl. 3), is rather uncontroversial—it is the manner in which prior (mostly progressive/liberal) Supreme Courts have incorporated many of the other Amendments of the Bill of Rights against the states. The second, however, is rather radical. Building from the scholarship of former Reagan Justice Department appointee and first generation Federalist Society member John Harrison, as well as that of network member Michael Kent Curtis, several Federalist Society network members (including Justice Clarence Thomas), argue for resurrecting the Privileges Or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (Amend. XIV, Sec. 1, cl. 2)—a clause that was all but neutered by a set of Supreme Court rulings in 1873—and using this clause instead to incorporate the Second Amendment against the states. Each is considered seriously by fellow Federalist Society member Samuel Alito in his majority opinion in _McDonald v. City of Chicago_ (2010) (examined later in this chapter); I will briefly review each set of arguments for incorporation in turn.
Nelson Lund, speaking on a Federalist Society National Conference Panel organized by the Society's Civil Rights Practice Group in 1999, offered a strong defense of using the Due Process Clause to incorporate and apply the Second Amendment against the states. Lund said, "If one applies the substantive due process principles on which the Court purports to rely in its modern incorporation cases, there can be no doubt that the Second Amendment will be applied against the states, just like almost every other provision of the Bill of Rights." Nelson Lund continued by adding that, "[i]n fact, the argument for incorporating the right to arms through the Fourteenth Amendment is actually much stronger than for such rights as free speech and free exercise of religion." Lund's arguments for incorporation are fleshed out more fully in his various law review articles on the Second Amendment. For example, in Lund's 1996 law review article, "The Past and Future of the Individual's Right to Bear Arms" (recommended reading on the Second Amendment by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ), he argues that the right to keep and bear arms is both "fundamental" and integral to a "scheme of ordered liberty" and thus satisfies the Supreme Court's criterion for incorporation under the substantive Due Process doctrine.
While Lund and many other conservative legal scholars are deeply skeptical about the substantive Due Process doctrine—the doctrinal foundation of the right to privacy, abortion, homosexual sodomy, and potentially also same-sex marriage—Lund concludes that "[i]f the Court has the slightest regard for doctrinal consistency, it will have no choice except to incorporate the Second Amendment." This ambivalence about incorporating the Second Amendment through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment is echoed by various other Federalist Society members in their speech acts and scholarship. For example, network member Thomas Burrell, writing for the Federalist Society's Practice Group Journal, _Engage_ , wrote in 2008 (prior to the _Heller_ decision) that while he and others are skeptical of the Due Process doctrine, the right to keep and bear arms is "'fundamental' and thus protected by its understanding of 'due process' under the Fourteenth Amendment." Burrell continues to argue that "[t]he Court's refusal thus far to see the right to keep and bear arms in the Second Amendment as a 'deeply rooted' or 'fundamental' right is at odds with its own jurisprudence." In other words, to summarize many of these network members' concerns, absent a more viable constitutional alternative, most members would lobby at least for "parity" in the Supreme Court's incorporation doctrine.
Several prominent voices within the Federalist Society network, including Randy Barnett, Don Kates, John C. Harrison, Michael Kent Curtis, and Clarence Thomas, argue that there is, in fact, a more viable constitutional alternative—resurrecting the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause and incorporating the Second Amendment as applicable to the states through that clause. This path is more viable, these voices insist, because it is the more constitutionally principled route; that is, it is more consistent with the original meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment. As John Harrison argues in his 1992 _Yale Law Journal_ article, "Reconstructing the Privileges or Immunities Clause," a proper reading of the "Privileges or Immunities Clause accomplishes something very much like incorporation as the Republicans would have understood it. . . this would go a long way toward actually applying the first eight amendments to the states." However, this route would involve asking the Supreme Court to overturn a 140-year-old set of decisions handed down in the wake of the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment—the _Slaughterhouse Cases_ (1873)—that narrowly circumscribed the scope and reach of the Privileges or Immunities Clause. In brief, the Supreme Court had interpreted the "Privileges or Immunities" of national citizenship as encompassing only a few narrow rights—the right, for example, to leave a state without paying an exit tax, the right to use navigable waters of the United States, the right to demand protection of the national government when in a foreign country or on the high seas, and a few others. Nowhere on the Supreme Court's truncated list of the Privileges and Immunities of national citizenship was the right to keep and bear arms. This omission, according to several scholars within the Federalist Society network, was a constitutional mistake—one that ought to be corrected by (to borrow the title of John Harrison's article recommended by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ) "reconstructing the Privileges or Immunities clause" using Originalism.
Randy Barnett and Don Kates's 1996 law review article "Under Fire. . ." (recommended by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ) addresses the issue of incorporation by referring to the work of several scholars who have shown that "the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment was specifically intended to incorporate the personal right to arms." Among those scholars whose work is cited as authoritative on this issue are Federalist Society members William Van Alstyne and Michael Kent Curtis. Van Alstyne, who participated in the Second Annual Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention in 1987 on "The Constitution and Federal Criminal Law," is a recommended authority on "Federalism" in the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ (see Chapter 4 of this book). As Barnett and Kates acknowledge in their article, Van Alstyne is also recognized within the Federalist Society network for his influential 1994 law review article entitled "The Second Amendment and the Personal Right to Arms." In this article, Van Alstyne mobilizes evidence from the framing and ratification period of the Fourteenth Amendment to argue that the Privileges or Immunities Clause was specifically designed to incorporate and apply the Second Amendment to the states. The other Federalist Society network scholar whose work is cited by Barnett and Kates in their Second Amendment piece is Wake Forest University School of Law professor Michael Kent Curtis, who argues in his book _No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights_ (1987) that among the rights that "Republicans in the Thirty-ninth Congress relied on as absolute rights of the citizens of the United States were the right to freedom of speech, the right to due process of law, and the right to bear arms." Signaling Federalist Society network approval of this kind of argument, Curtis was invited to participate in his first Federalist Society National Conference the year after his book was published. The title of his talk, delivered at the 1988 National Student Conference, was (appropriately enough) "Privileges or Immunities, Individual Rights, and Federalism." Curtis's 1988 talk at the Federalist Society, which outlines in abbreviated form some of the historical evidence mobilized in his book to support the incorporation of fundamental rights (including the right to keep and bear arms) through the Privileges or Immunities Clause, contains the following prescient statement: "The title of this panel is 'The Modern Role for the Privileges or Immunities Clause,' but there is almost no modern role for it. I will therefore look at the history of the Fourteenth Amendment; perhaps its future role may be found in the past."
Michael Kent Curtis's aspirations, articulated at a 1988 Federalist Society talk, that a "future" Supreme Court might reconsider its Privileges or Immunities jurisprudence and align it with what he and other members considered the correct Original meaning of the clause might have seemed to be a bit of a fantasy at that time. But after 20 years of chipping away at the collective rights view through conservative and libertarian scholarship, the production and diffusion of intellectual capital, and—most important—the successful appointment of three additional Federalist Society member Supreme Court Justices (Thomas, Roberts, and Alito) presumably sympathetic to this view, it seemed that the time was ripe for both Second Amendment and Privileges or Immunities enthusiasts.
### THE SECOND AMENDMENT AND THE SUPREME COURT
As I wrote in the introduction to this chapter, at the time that Federalist Society hero and mentor Justice Clarence Thomas penned that fateful concurrence in _Printz_ in 1997 (expressing hope that the Supreme Court might soon get the opportunity to reconsider its Second Amendment jurisprudence), the collective rights reading of the Second Amendment had been settled constitutional jurisprudence for over half a century. While I examine _Printz_ in great detail in Chapter 5, it is worth excerpting from Thomas's concurrence here, to provide some context for the revolutionary process it would set into motion:
This Court has not had recent occasion to consider the nature of the substantive right safeguarded by the _Second Amendment_. If, however, the _Second Amendment_ is read to confer a _personal_ right to "keep and bear arms," a colorable argument exists that the Federal Government's regulatory scheme, at least as it pertains to the purely intrastate sale or possession of firearms, runs afoul of that Amendment's protections. As the parties did not raise this argument, however, we need not consider it here. Perhaps, at some future date, this Court will have the opportunity to determine whether Justice Story was correct when he wrote that the right to bear arms "has justly been considered, as the palladium of the liberties of a republic." 3 J. Story, Commentaries 1890, p. 746 (1833). In the meantime, I join the Court's opinion striking down the challenged provisions of the Brady Act as inconsistent with the _Tenth Amendment_. (emphasis in original)
Within six short years of Thomas sending this "judicial signal" (Baird 2007), members of the Federalist Society network would respond by filing a case in District Court that would eventually make its way to the Supreme Court in the form of _District of Columbia v. Heller_ (2008); a case that would allow the Supreme Court (in Thomas's words) to "[re]consider the nature of the substantive right safeguarded by the _Second Amendment_."
#### _District of Columbia v. Heller_ (2008)
This case challenged the constitutionality of the District of Columbia's "Firearms Control Regulation Act of 1975." Proposed as part of an effort to improve the District of Columbia's government capacity to monitor firearms trafficking, this legislation sought to reduce the rate of gun-related crimes and violence within its jurisdiction by prohibiting the purchase, sale, transfer, and possession of handguns by D.C. residents. The law excluded law enforcement officers and military members and included a provision for firearm owners registered under D.C.'s 1968 registration law to re-register their firearms within 60 days of the Act becoming effective, after which handguns became "unregisterable." The Firearms Control Regulations Act also made an exception for certain firearms, including rifles and shotguns, which re-registrants and prospective firearms purchasers could acquire after undergoing a required eligibility screening process. Finally, the Firearms Control Regulations Act obliged owners to have their certificate of registration whenever possessing their firearms and required any firearm to be kept unloaded and either disassembled or secured by a trigger lock. The legislation was catalyzed by a record number of homicides in 1974, more than half of which were committed with handguns, and an increasing number of reported cases of juveniles obtaining access to handguns.
The _Heller_ case was originally filed in the federal district court for the District of Columbia in February 2003, then known as _Parker v. District of Columbia_ , on behalf of six plaintiffs. Robert A. Levy, who is chairman of the Cato Institute's board of directors and also sits on boards of the Institute for Justice, the Federalist Society, and the George Mason University School of Law, had a large role in developing, shaping, and supporting the case from conception. Taking sole responsibility of financing the case, Levy collaborated with Clark Neily, a staff attorney at the Institute for Justice, to handpick plaintiffs and select fellow Federalist Society member Alan Gura as the lead attorney on the case. One of the strategies for building the case involved interviewing a number of prospective plaintiffs and ultimately choosing individuals who represented a diversity of ages, genders, races, incomes, and occupations. The lead plaintiff, Shelly Parker, was a neighborhood activist who had been threatened by drug dealers, and the case sought to challenge the constitutionality of D.C.'s gun control laws under the Second Amendment. In March 2004, federal district Judge Emmet Sullivan ruled in favor of the D.C. government, stating that the Second Amendment referred to persons in a militia, and consequently did not apply to the six plaintiffs. The case was then appealed to the federal Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, which held that five of the six plaintiffs did not have standing for the lawsuit. The court determined that the lone plaintiff with standing was Dick Heller, whose application to register a gun he owned and kept outside D.C. was denied by the D.C. Metropolitan Police Department. Upon rehearing the case, the panel ruled 2 to 1, in an opinion written by Federalist Society member Laurence Silberman, that the challenged gun control laws were unconstitutional under the Second Amendment. In September 2007, the District of Columbia petitioned for a _writ of certiorari_ for the case, now _District of Columbia v. Heller_ , which the Supreme Court granted in November 2007. Oral argument was held on March 18, 2008, and just a few months later, on June 26, 2008, the Supreme Court ruled in a 5 to 4 decision that the D.C. firearms control regulations violated the Second Amendment, holding for the first time that the Amendment protected an _individual_ , not merely a collective, right to bear arms. The majority opinion in _Heller_ was written by Justice Antonin Scalia. Chief Justice John Roberts, Justice Anthony Kennedy, Justice Clarence Thomas, and Justice Samuel Alito were also in the majority. Of these five Justices, as I detailed in Chapter 1, four have deep and long-standing connections to the Federalist Society network. In addition to the network affiliations of these four Supreme Court Justices, as Figure 2.1 illustrates, the Federalist Society was well represented in other areas of the litigation effort. Six-time Federalist Society National Conference presenter Judge Laurence Silberman wrote the Circuit Court decision in _Heller_. Further, three of the lawyers involved in masterminding the litigation strategy on behalf of Dick Heller et al., Clark M. Neily III, Robert Levy, and Alan Gura, have active ties to the Federalist Society network. Finally, an impressive 21 members of the Federalist Society network signed on to eight different _amicus curiae_ briefs submitted on behalf of Dick Heller. Some of the more prominent signatories on these briefs include former Reagan attorney general and early Federalist Society patron Edwin Meese III, Eugene Volokh (whose Second Amendment scholarship is also recommended reading by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ), and Nelson Lund, who chairs the "Second Amendment" Subcommittee of the Federalist Society's Civil Rights Practice Group.
**Figure 2.1** _District of Columbia v. Heller_ (2008)
One _amicus_ brief ("Brief for Amici Curiae Former Senior Officials of the Department of Justice in Support of Respondent") is particularly noteworthy, because it contains 10 Federalist Society signatories, and was being drafted by several members of the network at the time I was interviewing them in 2008. For example, in responding to a question about Federalist Society influence, former attorney general and Federalist Society mentor Edwin Meese cited this joint-brief as one example of the ways in which the organization has helped further the goals and principles of the Reagan Revolution. Meese said, "For example on the _Heller_ case that's coming up, the gun case. . . we have a lot of people helping on that in various ways and other major cases today. I know I get importuned to help participate in various briefs for Supreme Court cases by people I worked with in the past there." Similarly, former head of the Office of Legal Counsel and Federalist Society member Douglas Kmiec talked about how he came to be a signatory on that same brief:
[Charles J.] Cooper called me about this one and said. . . "would you take a look at the brief filed by Janet Reno and the Solicitor General and tell me what you think." So this is a brief filed by. . . a pretty suspicious looking group: Ed Meese, Bill Barr, Bob Bork, Viet Dinh, Richard Willard, myself. You'll notice this is mostly [Office of Legal Counsel] people. . . but Chuck [Cooper] basically said he was going to take the laboring ore in terms of most of the writing and then he'd circulate drafts so that we could make changes and if we were satisfied enough we could sign on. And that happened I suppose because first the Federalist Society pulled us together as former colleagues and now on this current issue we have at least some common ground in seeing [the Second Amendment] properly interpreted.
This is just one example of the ways in which the "social capital" that the Federalist Society network helps generate for the conservative legal movement (Teles 2008, 136) has resulted in the coordinated and effective diffusion of intellectual capital, or ideas, to Supreme Court decision makers in a way that, ultimately, helped effect a constitutional revolution.
Like all of the Federalist Society network scholarship outlined in the previous section on the Second Amendment, Justice Scalia's justification in _Heller_ for (re)interpreting the Second Amendment as an individual right turns on the relationship between the "two parts" of the Amendment. As Scalia writes in _Heller_ :
The Second Amendment is naturally divided into two parts: its prefatory clause and its operative clause. The former does not limit the latter grammatically, but rather announces a purpose. The Amendment could be rephrased, "Because a well regulated Militia is necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.". . . Although this structure of the Second Amendment is unique in our Constitution, other legal documents of the founding era, particularly individual-rights provisions of state constitutions, commonly included a prefatory statement of purpose. See generally Volokh, The Commonplace Second Amendment, 73 _N.Y.U. L. Rev_. 793, 814–821 (1998).
As you will note above, Scalia relies on fellow network member Eugene Volokh's article to help support the Court's interpretation of the relationship between the "prefatory" and "operative" clauses of the Second Amendment. Later in the opinion, in further defending his Originalist (re)interpretation of the right to bear arms as not being limited to the militia, Scalia again enlists the help of Eugene Volokh, whose analysis of historical materials from the founding in a later law review article provided support for the Supreme Court's claim that the "natural meaning" of "bear arms" in the eighteenth century "enshrined a right of citizens to 'bear arms in defense of themselves and the state'" and was not limited to "carrying a weapon in an organized military unit." Finally, a 2007 law review article by Volokh is mobilized by Scalia, to provide a rather expansive understanding of the meaning of "security of a free state" in the Second Amendment's prefatory clause: "The phrase 'security of a free state' meant 'security of a free policy,' not security of each of the several states as the dissent below argued." "It is true," Scalia continues, "that the term 'State' elsewhere in the Constitution refers to individual states, but the phrase 'security of a free state' and close variations seem to have been terms of art in 18th-century political discourse, meaning a 'free country' or free polity. See Volokh, "Necessary to the Security of a Free State," 83 _Notre Dame L. Rev_. 1, 5 (2007)."
In addition to Scalia's frequent reliance on Eugene Volokh's Second Amendment scholarship, the majority opinion mobilizes an article by member Randy Barnett (a recommended author on the Second Amendment by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ) to rebut the petitioner's argument that the phrase "bear arms" was used most often in the military context, not the personal or everyday context. This 2004 law review article, entitled "Was the Right to Keep and Bear Arms Conditioned on Service in an Organized Militia?" was also cited by fellow member Nelson Lund in his _amicus curiae_ brief submitted to the Supreme Court in _Heller_ on behalf of the Claremont Institute. The Barnett article provides a plethora of Originalist evidence to support an individual rights (not collective rights) reading of the Second Amendment. In fact, as Barnett explained to me in our interview in 2008, it was his move to Originalism in the scope of his work on the Ninth and Second Amendments that truly solidified his connection to and relationship with the Federalist Society network:
. . . although the Federalist Society was always generous and warm to me in my dealings with them. . . it was when I made the move to Originalism that we became much closer, because before then we had this limited government idea in common and some other general cultural things in common possibly but what I was writing about was stuff that a lot of Federalist Society people disagree with. Once I made the move to Originalism, and not only that, became one of the leading theoretical spokespeople and defenders of the method, we had a lot more in common and my relationship to the Federalist Society became much closer after that.
Not only is Randy Barnett now a leading theoretician of Originalism, as he mentions in the excerpt above and as I detailed in the preceding sections, he is one of the leading authorities within the Federalist Society network on the Second Amendment.
In addition to Federalist Society network scholarship, the majority opinion in _Heller_ also mobilized some of the most oft-cited sources from the Originalist canon (examined earlier in this chapter) by network members defending an individual rights view of the Second Amendment: _Federalist_ 46 (*595), _Federalist_ 29 (*598 and *600), and William Blackstone's _Commentaries_ (*582, *593, *594, *595, *597, *606, *609, *626, and *627). The Supreme Court majority's heavy reliance on this outside intellectual capital developed over decades by scholars affiliated with the Federalist Society in _Heller_ is noteworthy but, in the end, not all that surprising. As I wrote in Chapter 1, when the Supreme Court decides to either significantly alter or entirely reconstruct a constitutional frame (as it had to do with the Second Amendment in _Heller)_ , it cannot simply rely on its own authoritative precedent to do so. In _Heller_ , as in other cases like this, the Court had to look for outside authorities to justify this radical reinterpretation of the Second Amendment. However, Federalist Society mentor Justice Scalia did not have to look too far or too hard to find the intellectual capital upon which to construct this new Second Amendment frame—a small but influential group of scholars had been hard at work, building it for decades. As this section has demonstrated, this intellectual capital was easily diffused by Federalist Society network affiliated litigators, _amici curiae_ , and clerks—individuals who became active conduits for the transmission of ideas and Originalist sources that supported this seismic Second Amendment shift.
#### _McDonald v. Chicago_ (2010)
Initiated in the immediate wake of the Supreme Court's _Heller_ ruling, this case challenged the constitutionality of several long-standing Chicago and its Oak Park suburb ordinances that prohibited people from possessing firearms unless they were holders of valid registration certificates. The ordinances also prevented the registration of most types of handguns, effectively banning nearly all possession for private residents of the city. The Chicago City Council approved the gun control law in March 1982, stating that the handgun ban was designed to protect its citizens "from the loss of property and injury or death from firearms." The law was enacted during a national trend of increased handgun regulations prompted by events associated with the small suburb of Morton Grove, Illinois. Following Morton Grove's passage of a ban on the possession of handguns by anyone but police officers and antique collectors, the city of Chicago joined approximately 400 cities and towns, from Massachusetts to California, in passing similar ordinances.
The _McDonald_ case was filed with the support of three gun rights organizations on behalf of a group of residents of the greater Chicago area. Otis McDonald, one of the petitioners, wanted to possess a handgun in his home for self-defense because he was in his late seventies and resided in a neighborhood with a high crime rate. A community activist devoting substantial time to alternative policing methods with the intention of increasing neighborhood safety, McDonald often received threats from nearby drug dealers. Another petitioner, Colleen Lawson, had been the victim of a home burglary and believed a handgun would protect her in the event of a future attack. The petitioners owned handguns but were forced to keep them outside the city limits instead of inside their homes, due to the Chicago city ordinances.
Following the Supreme Court's ruling in _Heller_ , the Chicago petitioners, the Illinois State Rifle Association, and the Second Amendment Foundation, Inc., filed suit against the City of Chicago in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, claiming Chicago's gun control ordinances violated the Second and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The National Rifle Association (NRA) filed an additional action challenging the Chicago ordinance, and joined two Oak Park residents in challenging the similar Chicago suburb law in the same District Court. The three district court cases were assigned to the same judge who, citing Seventh Circuit precedent, rejected the plaintiffs' argument that the Chicago and Oak Park laws were unconstitutional. The Seventh Circuit affirmed the decision based on three Supreme Court cases from the nineteenth century: _United States v. Cruikshank_ , _Presser v. Illinois_ , _91_ and _Miller v. Texas_. This trio of cases was decided in the wake of the Supreme Court's narrow interpretation of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment in the _Slaughter-House Cases_. Although the Seventh Circuit, in an opinion written by Judge Frank H. Easterbrook, described the rationale of those cases as "defunct," recognizing that they did not consider "the question whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause incorporates the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms," the court nonetheless felt obliged to follow the precedent established by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court granted certiorari, after which the petitioners argued on appeal that the right to possess handguns is among the "Privileges or Immunities of citizens of the United States" and that the Court should reject the narrow interpretation of the Privileges or Immunities Clause established in the _Slaughter-House Cases_. Additionally, the petitioners contended that the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause incorporated the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms. The Supreme Court ruled five to four, with Federalist Society member Justice Samuel Alito writing for the majority (and with fellow network members Scalia and Thomas both penning concurring opinions), that the local handgun bans were unconstitutional because the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause incorporated the Second Amendment.
In addition to the four Federalist Society network Justices on the bench in _McDonald_ , the network was represented by 11 _amici curiae_ on seven briefs, including Edwin Meese III, Clint Bolick, and John C. Eastman. Additionally, the network also boasted three litigators representing the petitioners Otis McDonald et al. (Paul Clement, Alan Gura, and Kevin Martin), one lower court judge, and 32-time Federalist Society National Conference participant Frank Easterbrook, who wrote the majority opinion for the Seventh Circuit decision. While not an impressively large number of Federalist Society network members participated in the _McDonald_ litigation overall, those who did were both well-positioned to diffuse intellectual capital to Supreme Court decision makers and, consistent with the PEN framework, very ideologically coherent in their arguments and sources. For example, of the eight briefs (seven _amicus curiae_ and Brief for Petitioner) that contained Federalist Society network signatories, seven of these argued for _exclusively_ using the Privileges or Immunities clause to apply the Second Amendment to the states. In fact, of the 30 _amicus curiae_ briefs submitted in _McDonald_ , only two briefs with non-Federalist Society signatories lobbied as aggressively and exclusively for using the Privileges or Immunities path.Moreover, in constructing their arguments, each one of these Federalist Society network briefs relied on at least one source (and in most cases multiple sources) of Federalist Society network intellectual capital, including the scholarship of Michael Kent Curtis, Eugene Volokh, Randy Barnett, and John C. Harrison, which I reviewed earlier in this chapter. While, as I explain below, neither the Circuit Court nor the Supreme Court majority opinions would adopt this view of radically reinterpreting incorporation of the Bill of Rights through the Privileges or Immunities Clause, it would feature prominently in the concurring opinion in _McDonald_ by fellow Federalist Society network member Justice Clarence Thomas.
**Figure 2.2** _McDonald v. City of Chicago_ (2010)
Judge Frank Easterbrook's Seventh Circuit Opinion, while expressing sympathy for the views advocated for by fellow Federalist Society members lobbying for the resurrection of the Privileges or Immunities Clause, is more directly concerned with the judicial hierarchy and the notion of judicial restraint—the notion that his court has neither the authority nor the willingness to overturn or sidestep the _Slaughter-House Cases_ and the controlling precedent regarding the applicability of the Second Amendment to the states. As he writes, "[a]lthough the rationale of _Cruikshank, Presser_ , and _Miller_ is defunct, the Court has not telegraphed any plan to overrule _Slaughter-House_ and apply all of the amendments to the states through the Privileges and Immunities clause, despite scholarly arguments that it should do this." Easterbrook's opinion continues by stating that the question of incorporation needs to be one for "the Justices rather than a court of appeals." This opinion is an excellent illustration of what Easterbrook has, at Federalist Society conferences and in other cases, consistently been preoccupied with—judicial activism. Purportedly captured and articulated in the Federalist Society's statement of principles, within the Federalist Society network, judicial activism has come to mean that judges should be confined to using their power of judicial review to say "what the law is" not "what [they think] it should be." Since being invited to speak at one of the earliest Federalist Society conferences, a 1984 "Symposium on Judicial Activism: Problems and Responses," Judge Easterbrook has spoken on the topic of "judicial activism" or "judicial restraint" an impressive five additional times at Federalist Society National Conferences. More recently, Easterbrook participated in the 2008 National Lawyer Convention's Showcase Panel at the Federalist Society's conference on "The People and the Judiciary."
Easterbrook is not alone within the Federalist Society network in thinking this is an important set of constitutional concerns. As a testament to how salient this conversation is within the Federalist Society, eight National Conferences have featured some variation of the judicial role or the problems of judicial activism as their dedicated and headlining theme. This is also borne out in interview data. For example, in asking key members of the Federalist Society network about the shared principles or priorities of the Federalist Society, the idea of "judicial restraint" received the second most mentions, right behind a belief in, or commitment to, Originalism. As Federalist Society member Gail Heriot explained in our interview, when asked about unifying principle(s) within the Federalist Society, "o]ne thing, the most unifying thing. . . is that the judiciary's job is not to make law but to say what the law is. That is something that just about everyone agrees with up to a point." This emphasis on judicial restraint helps provide some context for why Judge Easterbrook—the single most frequent participant at Federalist Society National Meetings since its founding (see [Table 1.2)—would issue a decision that might seem to be at odds with the preferred outcome of Second Amendment enthusiasts within the Federalist Society network. It might also help explain why Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito, a clear Second Amendment enthusiast who signed on to Scalia's revolutionary majority opinion in _Heller_ rendering several long-standing Second Amendment decisions obsolete, would be hesitant to overturn another century-plus-old opinion ( _Slaughter-House_ ) just two years later.
Like Easterbrook's Seventh Circuit opinion, Justice Samuel Alito's majority opinion in _McDonald_ signals his intellectual sympathy with the Privileges or Immunities approach to incorporation, noting that "[t]oday, many legal scholars dispute the correctness of the narrow _Slaughter-House_ interpretation" of that clause. However, perhaps because of a belief in judicial restraint combined with the availability of an alternative (though admittedly less desirable to conservatives and libertarians) path, Alito sees "no need to reconsider that interpretation here," ultimately declining "to disturb the _Slaughter-House_ holding." Using the Due Process framework, the burden on the majority was still to show that the right to bear arms was a "fundamental right" in the context of the Supreme Court's precedent and understanding in this area. To do so, the Alito-authored opinion relies in part on the intellectual capital of Federalist Society cofounder Steven Calabresi, whose 2008 co-authored law review article "Individual Rights under State Constitutions When the Fourteenth Amendment Was Ratified in 1868" mobilized evidence from the constitutions of several states that showed, according to Alito, that "[a] clear majority of the states in 1868, therefore, recognized the right to keep and bear arms as being among the foundational rights necessary to our system of Government."
Fellow Federalist Society network member Justice Scalia writes separately in _McDonald_ , first, to signal that he joins the Court's opinion "despite his] misgivings about Substantive Due Process as an original matter," and second, to respond to dissenting Justice John Paul Stevens's criticisms of Originalism as an interpretive method in general, and of its application in this case. Recall the discussion in [Chapter 1: the Federalist Society as a PEN identified Originalism as the interpretive method embodying the Federalist Society's shared notion of validity—that is, as the only mode consistent with a proper understanding of the nature of government and the structure of the Constitution. Thus, Justice Stevens's attack on Originalism can be seen, in part, as an attack on the PEN itself. Given this, it is not surprising that the Federalist Society's founding advisor at the University of Chicago, Antonin Scalia—who also wrote the foreword to the Federalist Society's 2007 edited volume _Originalism: A Quarter-Century of Debate_ 117—would exert the intellectual energy to pen an impassioned defense of Originalism in his concurring opinion in _McDonald_. Scalia's response to Stevens, reminiscent of his own writings on Originalism and of early talks he gave at the Federalist Society prior to and since becoming a member of the Supreme Court, defends Originalism not as a "perfect" method of constitutional interpretation, but rather as the "best means available" and, more pointedly, as better than the methodology of "'living Constitution' advocates":
Justice Stevens' response to this concurrence, post, 3116-3119, makes the usual rejoinder of "living Constitution" advocates to the criticism that it empowers judges to eliminate or expand what the people have prescribed: The traditional, historically focused method, he says, reposes discretion in judges as well. Historical analysis can be difficult; it sometimes requires resolving threshold questions, and making nuanced judgments about which evidence to consult and how to interpret it. . . . But the question to be decided is not whether the historically focused method is a _perfect means_ of restraining aristocratic judicial Constitution-writing; but whether it is the _best means available_ in an imperfect world. . . . I think it beyond all serious dispute that it is much less subjective, and intrudes much less upon the democratic process (emphases in original).
Scalia's concurrence in _McDonald_ , while not reflective of the PEN's specific beliefs and intellectual capital concerning the Second Amendment and incorporation, is a reflection of that community's most widely shared and deeply held beliefs about Originalism as the best (and, indeed, the only valid) method of constitutional interpretation.
Fellow network member Justice Thomas's concurrence, on the other hand, embodies nearly perfectly the Federalist Society network beliefs about Privileges or Immunities and Second Amendment incorporation. Spanning an impressive 29 pages in length and drawing on various sources of Federalist Society network intellectual capital—including the previously examined scholarship of member Michael Kent Curtis as well as non-network sources provided in Federalist Society-affiliated briefs—Thomas's concurrence in _McDonald_ mounts an Originalist argument for overturning _Slaughter-House_ and for declaring the right to keep and bear arms as one of the various privileges protected in his reconstructed understanding of the Privileges or Immunities Clause.
In critical parts of his historical/Originalist argument for resurrecting the Privileges or Immunities Clause, five times in his opinion Thomas draws on the intellectual capital of Michael Kent Curtis, who—as I wrote earlier in this chapter—laid out an argument for resurrecting the Privileges or Immunities Clause at the 1988 Federalist Society National Conference. Curtis's book _No State Shall Abridge_ was also mobilized in every single one of the Federalist Society–affiliated briefs ( _amicus_ and counsel) that argued for incorporating the Second Amendment through the Privileges or Immunities Clause. Thomas's concurrence mobilizes dozens of other historical and Originalist sources to support his argument, nearly all of which also are mobilized in Federalist Society–affiliated briefs submitted to the Supreme Court in _McDonald_. One _amicus curiae_ brief is particularly noteworthy—that of the American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ), with Federalist Society member Jay Alan Sekulow as counsel of record. Jay Sekulow participated in the 2007 Federalist Society National Conference alongside Federalist Society stalwarts Eugene Volokh and Michael W. McConnell on a panel organized by the Free Speech and Election Law Practice Groups. Not only does Sekulow's brief mobilize several of the same sources as the Thomas concurrence, but it also deploys them in a very similar way. I excerpt (and abridge) two lengthier sections below that demonstrate this overlap between the ACLJ _amicus curiae_ brief and Thomas's concurring opinion, beginning with the former:
The Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment is better suited for incorporation the individual protections of the Bill of Rights, including the Second Amendment. In interpreting the Constitution, this Court is "guided by the principle that '[t]he Constitution was written to be understood by the voters; its words and phrases were used in their normal and ordinary as distinguished from technical meaning." _District of Columbia v. Heller_ , 128 S. Ct. 2783, 2788 (2008). This reference to the phrase "normal and ordinary" should be read to include the way in which the terms were understood in contemporary legal discourse. . . William Blackstone recognized the true relationship between man's natural rights and the law of governments as their protectors. . . . Blackstone characterized these positive law rights as "civil privileges" and "private immunities." Blackstone supra, 125. Blackstone's undeniable influence over American legal thought imparted this understanding of privileges and immunities to the Founders. . . . [Alexander] Hamilton quotes Blackstone's position that the terms "privileges" and "immunities" referred to the sacred and fundamental natural rights of all men as guarded by the sentinel of positive political enactments. . . . This understanding of "privileges" and "immunities" is not inconsistent with prevailing case law at the time of the Fourteenth Amendment. . . . Of all the possible interpretations of the Privileges and Immunities of Article IV, the interpretation that dominated antebellum case law and commentary was a reading that; "require[d] [S]tates to grant visiting citizens _some_ of the same privileges and immunities which the [S]tate conferred upon its own citizens." Kurt Lash, _The Origins of the Privileges or Immunities Clause, Part I: "Privileges and Immunities" as an Antebellum Term of Art_ , 18 (Loyola Law Sch. Legal Studies Paper No. 2009-29, 2009. . . . Applying this history of the origins of the terms "privileges" and "immunities" to the text of the amendment, the terms "privileges" and "immunities" when paired together, "did not refer to the natural rights belonging to all people or institutions, but referred instead to rights belonging to a certain group of people or a particular institution." Lash, supra, 16; see also _Magill v. Brown_ , 16 F Cas. 408, 428 (C.C.E.D. Pa. 1833) (No 8952) (privileges and immunities are "the rights of persons, place or property; a privilege is a peculiar right, a private law, conceded to particular persons or places, whereby a particular man,. . . is exempted from the rigor of the common law. . .").
In interpreting [the Privileges or Immunities Clause], it is important to recall that constitutional provisions are "'written to be understood by the voters.'" Heller, 554 U.S., at ---. . . . Thus, the objective of this inquiry is to discern what "ordinary citizens" at the time of ratification would have understood the Privileges or Immunities Clause to mean. 554 U.S. at ---, 128 S.Ct., 2788. At the time of Reconstruction, the terms "privileges" and "immunities" had an established meaning as synonyms for "rights." The two words, standing alone or paired together, were used interchangeably with the words "rights," "liberties," and "freedoms," and had been since the time of Blackstone. See 1 W. Blackstone, Commentaries *129 (describing the "rights and liberties" of Englishmen as "private immunities" and "civil privileges"). A number of antebellum judicial decisions used the terms in this manner. See, e.g., _Magill v. Brown_ , 16 F. Cas. 408, 428 (No 8.952) (CC ED Pa. 1833) (Baldwin, J.) ("The words 'privileges and immunities' relate to the rights of persons, place or property; a privilege is a peculiar right, a private law, conceded to particular persons or places"). . . . Blackstone, for example, used the terms "privileges" and "immunities" to describe both the inalienable rights of individuals and the positive law rights of corporations. See 1 Commentaries, *129 (describing "private immunities" as a "residuum of natural liberty," and "civil privileges" as those "which society has engaged to provide, in lieu of the natural liberties so given up by individuals"). . . . The nature of a privilege or immunity thus varied depending on the person, group, or entity to whom those rights were assigned, See Lash, The Origins of the Privileges or Immunities Clause, Part I: "Privileges and Immunities" as an Antebellum Term of Art, 98 _Geo. L.J_. 12241, 1256–1257 (2010) (surveying antebellum usages of these terms).
While the two do not map perfectly on to one another, there is an unmistakable overlap in terms of the logic and use of authorities to support and defend the radical reinterpretation of Privileges or Immunities that both Federalist Society network members propose.
In our 2008 interview, former head of the Office of Legal Counsel under Reagan and Federalist Society member Douglas Kmiec described Justice Clarence Thomas as "the jurist who is unafraid to explore originalist implications." Expanding on this thought, Kmiec added: "I think if you were looking for an honest statement of originalist jurisprudence, Thomas comes closest to the pure Federalist Society model." Similarly, Federalist Society member and Second Amendment expert Randy Barnett described Justice Thomas as a Federalist Society "icon" and quiet "hero." In the context of the PEN framework, Justice Thomas might be described more accurately as the best _consumer_ of Federalist Society intellectual capital on the Supreme Court. As I demonstrate throughout this book, his Originalist analyses—often penned as concurring opinions in major cases—borrow heavily from Federalist Society–member briefs and scholarship (sometimes citing his sources, other times not). As Law Professor Sandy Levinson noted in a 1996 law review article in the context of evaluating Thomas's concurring opinion in _United States v. Lopez_ (which I examine in great length in Chapter 4), "t]he ordinary standards governing attribution of sources—the violation of which constitutes plagiarism—seem not to apply in Justice Thomas' chambers. Whether responsibility for this. . . is best assigned to the Justice himself or to his law clerks is known only to them" ([Levinson 1996, 775). Either way, Kmiec and Barnett were correct in asserting that Thomas's opinions, including his concurrence in _McDonald_ , do represent the Federalist Society model in its most pure form—in part, because these opinions are often constructed almost entirely using network member intellectual capital.
### IDEAS WITH CONSEQUENCES: THE RIGHT TO KEEP AND BEAR ARMS
"The rights of the individual citizen would be little different today if the Second Amendment did not exist" (Sprecher 1965, 667). Nearly half a century later, thanks in part to the persistent and coordinated efforts of a small but dedicated group of academics, judges, and litigators connected through and supported by the Federalist Society network, the Supreme Court has (to borrow the words of the late Judge Robert A. Sprecher) finally "found" the "Lost Amendment." Nevertheless, as this chapter has demonstrated, constitutional frameworks are not simply "found" or rediscovered. They are consciously and systematically constructed and reconstructed, often over a long period of time with the help of key members of the "support structure" (Epp 1998; Southworth 2008; Teles 2008; Hollis-Brusky 2011a) working from the outside to develop, support, and diffuse the intellectual capital that will become the scaffolding for new Supreme Court frames. In his revolutionary opinion in _Heller_ , former Federalist Society advisor Justice Antonin Scalia relied on several sources of Federalist Society network intellectual capital to help construct and support the personal or individual rights reading of the Second Amendment—a view that only three decades earlier was considered to be completely "off-the-wall" within academic, legal, and political circles. Still, with the properly framed case brought by Federalist Society–affiliated litigators and, just as importantly, with the intellectual capital nurtured and supported through Federalist Society conferences and events and further developed by network members in their scholarship, in _Heller_ five Justices on the Supreme Court were able to reinterpret radically the Second Amendment's right to keep and bear arms as a personal, not a collective right. Federalist Society network members recognized the revolutionary and important nature of the _Heller_ decision, and their post-decision reactions reflected their optimism about where this jurisprudence might lead. Second Amendment scholar and network member Randy Barnett called the decision "a great victory for gun rights—one that until a few years ago would have been unimaginable." Similarly, Federalist Society network member Robert A. Levy wrote in the wake of the _Heller_ decision: "Last week, apparently embarrassed by seven decades without a coherent explanation of the right celebrated during the Founding era as 'the true palladium of liberty,' the court rediscovered the Second Amendment." George Will, who delivered an address at the Federalist Society's National Lawyers Convention in 2000, remarked in a _Washington Post_ editorial in 2008, "[o]f conservatives' few victories this year, the most cherished came when the Supreme Court, in _District of Columbia v. Heller_ , held for the first time that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to bear arms."
Others within the Federalist Society network—including those who were involved most closely with the litigation in _Heller_ and who continue to bring Second Amendment litigation in the post- _Heller_ era—while recognizing the decision as an important step toward a more robust protection for the right to keep and bear arms, have expressed disappointment with Scalia's opinion in that case. For example, during a Federalist Society Teleforum Call sponsored by the Criminal Law and Procedures Practice Group on August 16, 2012, Nelson Lund said that Scalia's opinion in _Heller_ was "unclear" and was generating significant problems in the lower courts, which in his view, were struggling to apply the case's holding properly. As Lund and Gura noted during their Teleforum Call with fellow Federalist Society members, there have been some encouraging post- _Heller_ decisions coming out of select lower courts—including decisions in _Ezell v. City of Chicago_ , authored by Federalist Society network member Judge Diane A. Sykes, in which the Seventh Circuit struck down part of a Chicago law prohibiting public firing ranges, and in _Moore v. Madigan_ , authored by Federalist Society network member Judge Richard A. Posner, in which the Seventh Circuit relied on _Heller_ and _McDonald_ to strike down Illinois's total ban on concealed carry of firearms outside the home. In hundreds of other cases that have been initiated in the wake of _Heller_ , lower courts generally have been reluctant to strike down gun control laws. As Alan Gura noted toward the end of that Teleforum Call, "we are at the very beginning of the post- _Heller_ , post- _McDonald_ process," and while there are a small group of individuals working hard to bring the kinds of "strategic civil rights cases" that have the "likelihood of shaping the law," the process is slow and will be continuing over the next decade. In other words, the process of building upon and, for Federalist Society network actors, entrenching these victories (or at least protecting them from being narrowed or eroded in the lower courts) is just now beginning.
Additionally, as we saw in the case of _McDonald_ , which was initiated in the wake of the _Heller_ litigation, the question of how and if to incorporate the Second Amendment against the states presented a critical opportunity for members of the Federalist Society network, who had been waiting for the right time and opportunity to aggressively lobby the Supreme Court to overturn _Slaughter-House_ and resurrect the Privileges or Immunities Clause. While the practical effect of incorporating the Second Amendment through either the Due Process or Privileges or Immunities Clause would have been no different (as Randy Barnett wrote in a _Wall Street Journal_ op-ed, regardless of the approach the Supreme Court chose, "the Chicago gun ban at issue will soon be consigned to the dust bin of history"), the long-term and precedential effect of such a decision favoring the latter approach would have been nothing short of sweeping. Even still, as Randy Barnett wrote shortly after the decision, with Justice Thomas providing the crucial fifth vote in _McDonald_ but doing so by incorporating the Second Amendment through the Privileges or Immunities Clause, there was no true majority for using the Substantive Due Process approach, only a _plurality_. As Barnett explains:
. . . the fact that there was only a plurality for using the Due Process Clause means that the original meaning of the Privileges or Immunities Clause is not a part of constitutional law. Justice Thomas's uncontradicted analysis will enter into the casebooks from which all law students and future justices study the 14th Amendment. . . . Justice Thomas presented an extensive and detailed analysis of the original meaning of the Clause in the belief that "this case presents an opportunity to reexamine, and begin the process of restoring, the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment agreed upon by those who ratified it." By declining to take issue with Justice Thomas' impressive 56-page originalist analysis, the other justices in effect conceded what legal scholars have for some time maintained—that the court's cramped reading of the clause in 1873 was inconsistent with its original meaning.
Barnett concludes, in language that echoes that of the late Judge Robert A. Sprecher in describing the Second Amendment half a century earlier, "[t]his week the lost Privileges or Immunities Clause was suddenly found. And some day it may be fully restored to its proper place as the means by which fundamental individual rights are protected under the Constitution against abuses by states." In short, while the Federalist Society network did not achieve its optimal goal in _McDonald_ , its members did help push the doctrine significantly forward—laying one brick down on the path toward resurrecting Privileges or Immunities (and, according to Barnett's reasoning above, subtly chipped away at the authoritativeness of the despised Substantive Due Process doctrine). Ultimately, as the various narratives and analyses throughout this book show, it is in this incremental fashion that constitutional change actually comes about. As Federalist Society network member Lillian BeVier said to me in our 2008 interview in response to a question about changing the law (and changing the way people think about the law), "[a] lot of times it's just like dripping water. You know it can wear away a stone but it takes a lot of drips."
## CHAPTER 3
## Judicial Activism, Inc.
The First Amendment, Campaign Finance, and _Citizens United_
_U.S. Constitution, Amendment I_
_Congress shall make no law_. . .
_Abridging the freedom of speech_
The Supreme Court's January 2010 decision in _Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission_ (2010), invalidating key campaign finance restrictions on election spending by corporations and unions, sent a shock wave through the American polity. Newspaper headlines shortly after the decision read, "Supreme Court Opens Floodgates for Corporate, Union Political Contributions," "Judicial Activism Inc.; The Supreme Court Tosses Out Reasonable Limits on Campaign Finance," and "Court Kills Limits on Corporate Politicking." Every progressive politician from Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) to Barney Frank (D-MA) to Charles Schumer (D-NY) publicly decried the decision and vowed to pass an override or a constitutional amendment to fix this issue. Perhaps most memorably, on January 27, 2010, President Barack Obama used the bully pulpit of the State of the Union Address to chastise the members of the Supreme Court (seven of whom were sitting just in front of him) for issuing a decision that "will open the floodgates for special interests, including foreign corporations, to spend without limits in our elections." The president then implored Congress to "pass a bill that helps correct some of these problems." In response, the House of Representatives Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Civil Liberties held a hearing called "The First Amendment and Campaign Finance Reform After _Citizens United_."The chairman, Jerrold Nadler (D-NY), opened the hearing with the following remarks on the Supreme Court's decision in _Citizens United_ : "One of the things that strikes me. . . is the extent to which an extraordinarily activist Court reached out to issue this decision. The justices answered a question they weren't asked in order to overturn a century of precedent which they had reaffirmed only recently."
Though the Court under the direction of Chief Justice Roberts was, to quote the subcommittee chairman, "extraordinarily activist" in how it orchestrated the _Citizens United_ decision itself, this is only half of the story. Having an activist Court is a necessary but not sufficient condition for revolutionary constitutional change. There also needs to be a set of litigators finding and bringing well-framed cases and a set of academics working to nurture and develop the intellectual capital that might be used to justify such a radical departure from existing constitutional frames. Put another way, there needs to be a well-developed, attentive, and attuned "support structure" (Epp 1998) to listen and interpret the "signals" from the Court (Baird 2007) and to respond by effectively supplying what the Justices need to enact sweeping change. In this case, as in many others detailed in this book, the Federalist Society, acting as a PEN, performed this important role for the Justices.
As this chapter details, the path to _Citizens United_ began in earnest with two Supreme Court decisions issued in the late 1970s— _Buckley v. Valeo_ (1976) and _First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_ (1978). The constitutional campaign to deregulate campaign finance was accelerated in the mid-1990s with the institutional support and networks of the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies. The Supreme Court's decision in _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ (1990) and the momentum building behind campaign finance reform in Congress prompted actors within the Federalist Society network to organize around the issue and begin to build and develop the intellectual capital that would eventually allow a reconstituted Supreme Court in _Citizens United v. FEC_ (2010) to reclaim, entrench, and extend the _Buckley-Bellotti_ path. Most important, certain network members vocally urged the Justices to abandon judicial restraint—a principle the Federalist Society had championed since the 1980s—in the area of campaign finance jurisprudence in favor of a return to First Amendment first principles. For the two Federalist Society member Justices recently appointed to the Supreme Court (Roberts and Alito), this network nudging seems to have made a difference in terms of how they viewed their roles and the role of _stare decisis_ in the area of campaign finance. To understand the full magnitude of the Federalist Society's influence in this area of constitutional law, we first must turn back the clock to the decade prior to the Federalist Society's founding.
Corruption-free government was the cry following the Watergate scandal in 1972. Opportunistic campaign finance reform advocates rode this wave of government distrust and proceeded to enact several significant amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971. These amendments sought to reduce the role of money in elections, provide greater transparency for the electorate, and dispel the pall of perceived and real corruption that hung over current political affairs. Passed over President Gerald Ford's veto and enacted into law in 1974, the amendments were challenged in a lawsuit brought by Senator James L. Buckley of New York and others against Secretary of State Francis R. Valeo, an ex officio member of the newly constituted Federal Election Commission (FEC). Buckley et al. levied several constitutional challenges against the newly enacted amendments, but the most important test implicated campaign spending and contribution limits because they violated the First Amendment's freedom of speech. _Buckley v. Valeo_ (1976) was the resulting challenge. In a complex _per curiam_ opinion, the Supreme Court majority upheld some provisions of the amendments (disclosure and reporting provisions and limits on individual contributions to candidates) but struck down caps and limits on overall contributions on behalf of candidates and spending caps for candidates themselves. In the course of doing so, the opinion in _Buckley_ articulated the first important constitutional variable in the _Citizens United_ equation: money is speech. The phrase "money is speech," while actually appearing only once in the opinion (in the partial dissent of Justice Byron White), became shorthand for the majority's reasoning that money in the context of campaigns and elections can be understood as a form of important political speech and is therefore protected by the constitution's First Amendment.
Just a few years after _Buckley_ , the Supreme Court further entrenched the "money is speech" path in _First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_ (1978). The Massachusetts legislature had established a criminal statute that prohibited corporations or banks from making certain kinds of expenditures for influencing the vote on state referenda. Justice Powell, writing for the majority, characterized the issue as whether or not the statute, "a prohibition directed at _speech itself_ ," could survive "the exacting scrutiny necessitated by a state-imposed restriction of free speech." The majority in _Bellotti_ reaffirmed the commitment to the "money is speech" path from _Buckley_. More important, however, through the course of its legal reasoning, the majority in _Bellotti_ signaled that corporations, like individuals, should be afforded robust speech rights. This case provided the second important constitutional variable in the _Citizens United_ equation: corporations also have speech rights. As Justice Powell wrote, "The inherent worth of speech in terms of its capacity for informing the public does not depend upon the identity of its source, whether corporation, association, union, or individual." While not considered a landmark or particularly high-profile Supreme Court decision at the time it was issued, as this chapter details, _Bellotti_ came to play a central role 32 years later in the Supreme Court's landmark decision in _Citizens United_. For this reason, former _New York Times_ Supreme Court correspondent Linda Greenhouse named _Bellotti_ "the most important Supreme Court case no one's ever heard of."
Very little transformative Supreme Court litigation took place in the decade following _Buckley_ and _Bellotti_. While lower courts were relying on the _Buckley_ and _Bellotti_ decisions to strike down campaign finance restrictions in various states, the conservative legal movement did not mobilize and make a concerted effort to push the Free Speech agenda forward at the Supreme Court. One explanation for this was that the conservative legal movement did not exist in any meaningful sense prior to the mid-1980s. Absent a coordinated and sophisticated network of individuals and organizations to connect ideas and intellectual capital with litigation, financing, and strategies, coordinating and organizing litigation strategies would have been difficult. Additionally, it did not seem to be a priority for members of the conservative legal support structure who were organized during that time. In the decade following the _Buckley_ and _Bellotti_ decisions, for example, the Federalist Society hosted only one National Conference, in 1986, featuring organized panels on campaign finance and the First Amendment.
The pace with which the courts traversed the path increased significantly in the last 15 years for a few reasons: the emergence of a robust conservative legal movement that brought the right kinds of cases framed in the right way to appeal to conservative members of the court and, second, the Supreme Court's surprising decision in _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ (1990), which marked the first major rejection of the _Buckley-Bellotti_ path in over a decade, galvanizing a response among the conservative legal support structure to prevent the court from back-pedaling any further. _Austin_ addressed the heart of the expenditure-contribution distinction. The State of Michigan passed a law that prevented corporations from using funds from their general treasury for political expenditures. The Michigan Chamber of Commerce challenged the statute, asserting that it did not constitute a compelling state interest. The Court disagreed with the Chamber of Commerce and established a new compelling state interest. As the majority opinion stated, states have a vested interested in regulating "the corrosive and distorting effects of immense aggregations of wealth that are accumulated with the help of the corporate form and that have little or no correlation to the public's support for the corporation's political ideas." The distinction the court drew in _Buckley_ turned on the desire to prevent quid pro quo corruption—money for political votes. _Austin_ expanded the Court's definition of corruption to accept influence, or political responsiveness, as a compelling state interest.
The conservative legal support structure did not present a robust voice in _Austin_ , nor was it particularly concerned with campaign finance issues given the general stability of the respective jurisprudence. Compared to later cases, the numbers of _amici curiae_ and prominent conservative legal movement members participating was negligible. The dissents of Justices Kennedy and Scalia in _Austin_ , on the other hand, were indicative of the direction and degree of criticism that members of the conservative legal support structure would begin to voice about _Austin_ in its aftermath. In their impassioned dissents, the Justices in _Austin_ cited the Supreme Court's decision in _First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_ (1978) 14 times as evidence that the majority had misconstrued both Supreme Court precedent and the First Amendment in its ruling.
### THE FEDERALIST SOCIETY NETWORK, THE FIRST AMENDMENT, AND CAMPAIGN FINANCE
Unlike the decade following _Buckley_ and _Bellotti_ and preceding _Austin_ , the 1990s would witness an uptick in activity and interest in campaign finance among the ever-expanding networks and organizations of the conservative legal support structure. Between 1988 and 1998, the Federalist Society's overall membership would rise from just shy of 5,000 to over 25,000 (Teles 2008, 150). Also, in 1996 the Federalist Society formed its Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group. The formation of this group came on the heels of Congress's first failed attempt in 1995 to pass the sweeping campaign finance reform package that would eventually become the Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act (BCRA), or McCain-Feingold. In the Practice Group's very first Newsletter, published in the fall of 1996, Senator Mitch McConnell (R-KY) referred to the McCain-Feingold bill as "an unprecedented power grab" and wrote that "[f]reedom-loving Americans of all ideological persuasions should be horrified by the professional reformers' ambition to force a bureaucratic takeover of the American political process." In that same issue, James Bopp, Jr. decried the FEC's "assault on the First Amendment," while Allison Hayward criticized the Supreme Court for its inconsistent application of "core" First Amendment principles in its campaign finance jurisprudence. As I detail in the case analyses later in this chapter, the scholars and practitioners this Practice Group brought together both physically (through organized panels) and intellectually (through its newsletters, journal, and teleforum calls) included several key figures who factored prominently in the campaign finance litigation leading up to and including the successful challenge in _Citizens United_.
A larger group than the PEN cohering around the Second Amendment examined in the previous chapter, the group of scholars and practitioners active in discussions of campaign finance and the First Amendment within the Federalist Society network is still relatively small and tight-knit. In reviewing National Conference transcripts and Practice Group newsletters, I identified 49 individuals as active contributors to the network's dialogue on the subject. The most active contributors include current chairman of the Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Allison Hayward, past chairman James Bopp, Jr., and legal academics Lillian BeVier, Bradley A. Smith, and John McGinnis. Several other prominent network actors contributed to this dialogue through their scholarship and advocacy, including Jan Witold Baran, Joel Gora, and Richard E. Wiley. What all these network members have in common, as Lillian BeVier explained to me in our interview in 2008, is an overarching belief in "freedom" and "liberty." Tellingly, BeVier first said "individual freedom" but then corrected herself, emphasizing that it was not just "individual freedom" but "freedom" and "liberty" more generally. Federalist Society cofounder Lee Liberman Otis, who helped draft the Society's statement of principles, also formulated her response to what the network's overarching beliefs were to me in the exact same way: "I think that individual freedom, no freedom is what I would say, not individual freedom—freedom, liberty." This distinction is important for members of this PEN and important for our narrative of campaign finance jurisprudence, as these members consistently have expressed the position that corporations should be entitled to many of the same liberties and freedoms guaranteed to individuals in the constitution and Bill of Rights. This is also consistent with the Federalist Society's official statement of principles, examined at length in Chapter 1, which reads, "the state exists to preserve freedom," _not_ that "the state exists to preserve _individual_ freedom" (emphasis added).
As mentioned earlier, prior to the mid-1990s, the Federalist Society network did not appear to discuss the topic of the First Amendment and campaign finance with any frequency or intensity at National Conferences, though it did come up. At the 1986 National Meeting, for example, Milton Friedman gave a talk on "Free Markets and Free Speech," Lillian BeVier presented a campaign-finance-centric talk entitled "Hands Off the Political Process" while Charles J. Cooper presented a similar position on campaign finance in his talk "The First Amendment, Original Intent, and the Political Process." After the Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group organized in 1996, the activity and intellectual capital development was more or less centered on the Practice Group's newsletters. Between 1996 and 2000, the Practice Group published nine separate issues, featuring 38 articles by network members on topics ranging from "Taking Commercial Speech Seriously" to " _Buckley v. Valeo_ Revisited" to a semi-regular review of relevant Supreme Court decisions in the area of campaign finance. Since 2000, the Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group has hosted at least one high-profile panel at every Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention. At the 2000 National Convention, Jan Witold Baran, Michael Malbin, Steven Rosenthal, and Bradley A. Smith discussed campaign finance and the role of parties on a panel entitled "The Future of Political Parties." At the 2003 National Convention, Daniel Ortiz, Trevor Potter, Kenneth Starr, David Thompson, and Fifth Circuit Judge Jerry Smith directly engaged the topic of "Campaign Finance Reform in the Supreme Court." Additionally, the Federalist Society sponsored a four-panel, year-long "Election Law Series" as a "Special Project" from May through September 2006, indicating the increasing importance and institutional attention the network was giving to the subject.
There have been several kinds of arguments levied by Federalist Society network members against campaign finance regulations. For example, network members warned of the chilling effect that disclosure requirements might have on speech. Others made the claim that campaign finance regulations stifling the speech of corporations create undue influence by the left-liberal media and Hollywood elite. Still others attempted to show that campaign finance regulations serve only to entrench incumbents and are self-serving for those in power. For the purposes of this chapter, however, three arguments are worth exploring in detail. Taken together, these three arguments helped to arm the Supreme Court majority with both the intellectual capital and the judicial bravado necessary to abandon judicial restraint and _stare decisis_ and radically reinterpret the constitutional framework for campaign finance in _Citizens United v. FEC_ (2010). These arguments include the following: (1) the First Amendment prohibits governments from attempting to equalize speech resources, (2) there is no meaningful First Amendment distinction to be drawn between the protections of individual and corporate speech, and (3) the principles of judicial restraint and _stare decisis_ should not deter Justices from correcting the constitutional mistakes of prior courts in the area of campaign finance.
#### The First Amendment Prohibits Governments from Attempting to Equalize Speech Resources
The crucial premise of the Supreme Court's holding in _Buckley v. Valeo_ (1976), as interpreted by Federalist Society network members, is that the First Amendment forbids federal and state legislatures from attempting to equalize speech resources in order to enhance public debate. To paraphrase member Lillian BeVier's 1994 _Columbia Law Review_ article (recommended by the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ), this kind of government intervention in and meddling with the political process constitutes the very antithesis of freedom (BeVier 1994, 1260). This critique, to quote BeVier's article directly, runs along these lines:
The First Amendment's negative constraints on government, which embody our traditional conception of "freedom of speech," have been instrumental in the achievement of the broadly participatory, relatively open, officially uncensored, political debate in which we take pride. It is a mistake, however, to maintain that. . . the First Amendment's] guarantee of autonomy may be sacrificed in order "to _ensure_ a well-functioning deliberative process among political equals" (emphasis in original). ([BeVier 1994, 1261)
Empowering legislatures to restrict the speech rights of one portion of society (e.g., the wealthy or corporations) in order to enhance the speech rights of others, BeVier and other members contend, constitutes an unconstitutional and unauthorized redistribution of political power. Federalist Society Practice Group member and former chairman of the FEC, Bradley A. Smith, wrote in a 1997 _Georgetown Law Journal_ article that the "First] Amendment's language, which states that government 'shall not' act, makes clear that [vibrant public discussion] was to be achieved by protecting individual liberty interests against government interference" and not, Smith continued, "through an activist government role in political debate" ([Smith 1997, 66). Senator Mitch McConnell (R-KY) made a variant of this same argument (albeit with far more rhetorical flourish) in front of the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group in 1999. Speaking derogatorily about the legislators promoting the McCain-Feingold bill, McConnell remarked that, "these free speech utilitarians. . . claim that it is necessary to avoid certain dangers associated with allowing some groups of citizens. . . engage in too much political speech." "And the fact is," McConnell continued, "that the First Amendment does not permit government to control the quantity or nature of political dialogue for any purpose, no matter how allegedly laudatory or necessary it may be."
Paraphrasing this same argument, member John O. McGinnis remarked to his audience at the 2000 Annual Student Symposium that "a]t its core, _Buckley_ recognizes that the First Amendment provides a shield against government intervention, not a matrix for government regulation" ([McGinnis 2000, 32). Moreover, McGinnis's presentation (later reprinted as a law review article) defends this core holding of _Buckley_ with reference to several authorities from the Originalist canon—something the pre-Federalist Society _Buckley_ Court did not do in its opinion. In the course of showing that these kinds of campaign finance regulations are "flatly inconsistent with the historic core of the First Amendment's protections," McGinnis cites the "struggle for freedom of speech in late seventeenth century England" and the battle against government restrictions on the printing press as evidence that the founding generation was wary of any attempt by government to control or regulate speech or the communication of political ideas (McGinnis 2000, 34). Additionally, quoting the Founder whose silhouette graces the Federalist Society logo, McGinnis reminded his audience that James Madison wrote in his essay _Property_ that "'man had a property right in his opinions and the free communication of them'" and that "the First Amendment protects 'the communication of opinions' as well as the holding of opinions" (McGinnis 2000, 33–34). McGinnis also cited _Federalist_ 10, Madison's essay on factions, as support for greater First Amendment pluralism and freedom of speech and expression. In the context of campaign finance, McGinnis warns, the "pluralistic roots of the First Amendment should make us suspicious that any attempt to restrict expenditures for political speech is actually an attempt to entrench a legislative or popular majority" (McGinnis 2000, 35).
For many Federalist Society members, this critique took on more urgency and importance in the wake of the Supreme Court's decision in _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ (1990)—a case that expanded the scope of permissible government intervention into the political process by widening the definition of "corruption" to include "the appearance of corruption." Lillian BeVier dedicated an entire section of her 1994 _Bibliography_ -endorsed law review article to examining why the Supreme Court's opinion in _Austin_ was so "troublesome" and how it represents a clear "departure from _Buckley's_ limiting principles" (BeVier 1994, 1270–1271). As BeVier writes, the majority opinion in _Austin_ effectively "transformed] the most highly protected category of core political speech into an activity legitimately subject to complete prohibition" without "identify[ing] the constitutional principle" that would license such a ruling ([BeVier 1994, 1271). A former vice chairman of the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group, Charles H. Bell, wrote in a 1996 Newsletter that _Austin_ was a prime example of the acceptance of "a Political Nanny State" and of the liberals' "fundamental interest in realigning political and economic power, and in fixing the rules to accomplish those ends." Finally, current chairman of the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group, Allison Hayward, wrote in 2008 for the Practice Group journal _Engage_ that with its recent decisions (citing _Austin_ as chief among them) the Supreme Court has had "a confounding effect on campaign regulation" and mused that with the addition of Roberts and Alito, "now might be a good moment" for the Supreme Court to revisit its campaign finance jurisprudence.
#### There Is No Meaningful First Amendment Distinction to Be Drawn Between the Protections of Individual and Corporate Political Speech
The authority most often cited within the Federalist Society network for the claim that the First Amendment draws no distinction between individual and corporate speech is the Supreme Court's decision in _First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_ (1978). As I wrote earlier, in _Bellotti_ the Supreme Court was considering a Massachusetts statute that made it illegal for business corporations to make contributions or expenditures to influence the outcome of a ballot initiative if the question did not materially affect the corporation's business interest. As Justice Powell wrote for the majority in _Bellotti_ , the relevant constitutional question was not "whether corporations 'have' First Amendment rights" that were "coextensive with those of natural persons" but rather whether a prohibition on corporate political expenditures "abridges expression that the First Amendment was meant to protect." In the case of the Massachusetts statute, the majority answered this question in the affirmative, noting that "[t]he speech proposed by appellants is at the heart of the First Amendment protections." Powell also proclaimed in _Bellotti_ that "'[t]he inherent worth of the speech in terms of its capacity for informing the public does not depend upon the identity of its source, whether corporation, association, union, or individual."
Even though this opinion was handed down several years before the Federalist Society was founded, it became a highly valued piece of intellectual capital within the network—one that helped members justify and articulate their principled disagreement with campaign finance-favorable decisions like _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ (1990) and _McConnell v. FEC_ (2003). For example, network member Larry E. Ribstein criticized the Supreme Court's decision in _Austin_ in a 1992 law review article entitled "Corporate Political Speech" when he wrote that the decision was at odds with the "broad recognition of corporate First Amendment rights in Justice Powell's decision in _First National Bank v. Bellotti_ " (Ribstein 1992, 109). Ribstein spent much of the article contrasting _Bellotti_ with _Austin_ and provided a robust Amendment argument for the protection of corporate political speech. Member Jill E. Fisch wrote in a 1991 law review article that "e]ven superficial scrutiny of the opinion in _Austin_ reveals that it stands in absolute contradiction to the principles set out in _Bellotti_ " ([Fisch 1991, 613), and she spent a significant portion of the article illustrating this inconsistency (Fisch 1991, 595–614, 618, 640). Lillian BeVier also cited _Bellotti_ in her 1994 _Bibliography_ -endorsed law review article as the principled First Amendment alternative to the Supreme Court's ruling in _Austin_ (BeVier 1994, 1258). Writing for the _Cato Supreme Court Review_ in 2003, Bradley A. Smith critiqued the Supreme Court's decision in _Federal Election Commission v. Beaumont_ (2002) both for its dubious reliance on _Austin_ and because, in his view, "the opinion includes the de facto overruling of _Bellotti_ " (Smith 2003, 218).
Just as Federalist Society member John O. McGinnis supplemented and bolstered _Buckley v. Valeo_ (1976) with his own Originalist analysis, with their historical scholarship on the role of corporations and campaign finance, Practice Group members Allison R. Hayward and Bradley A. Smith provided support for the core holding in _Bellotti_ by challenging the purported governmental interest in regulating corporations any differently from individuals or other associations of individuals for First Amendment purposes. That their scholarship was complementary was not an accident. In addition to being connected through the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group, Hayward served as the chief of staff for Smith when he was commissioner of the FEC. Hayward's scholarship has focused on debunking what she refers to as "the fable of reform," that is, the notion that campaign finance reform generally, and the corporate contribution ban specifically, was enacted because of a strongly felt need to control the undue influence of corporations and unions on the political process (Hayward 2008a, 421). Identifying Justice Felix Frankfurter's oft-cited majority opinion in _United States v. United Auto Workers_ (1957) as the source of this "fable," Hayward mobilized historical evidence to show how the reform movement was not necessary or natural, but rather was "dictated by political opportunism" and became an effective way to "restrict political rivals' access to financial resources" (Hayward 2008a, 422). Hayward's article mentioned several Supreme Court opinions—chief among them _McConnell v. FEC_ (2003)—that relied on what she argued was a faulty or incorrect version of history presented in _Auto Workers_ to justify the need for strengthening prohibitions on direct corporate contributions and reigning in corporate political activity (Hayward 2008a, 423–425). The rest of the article mobilized historical sources—both primary and secondary—that challenged the _Auto Workers_ narrative of the campaign finance reform movement. Notably, Hayward published a version of this same article three years earlier as a Federalist Society White Paper under the title "Rethinking Campaign Finance Prohibitions."
Bradley A. Smith's book _Unfree Speech_ , published before the Supreme Court's decision in _McConnell_ , made a similar argument about the misuse or mischaracterization of history by reformers looking to further regulate or restrict the political speech and influence of corporations (Smith 2001, 9, 21–24, 27, 29–30, 36). In the preface to this book, after noting that parts of the book had been presented at several different symposia, Smith thanked the Federalist Society specifically for "sponsoring many of the above lectures and panels, along with others at various lawyers' chapters around the country and before the society's E. L. Wiegand Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group" (Smith 2001, xiii). Smith also mentioned several Federalist Society network members by name in his acknowledgments (Lillian BeVier, James Bopp, Jr., John O. McGinnis, William Marshall, John Norton Moore, Roger Pilon, and Daniel Polsby), noting that he benefited greatly from discussions with them (Smith 2001, xii). As I discuss in detail in this book's final chapter, Smith's acknowledgments are but one illustration of the important role that the Federalist Society, acting as a PEN, plays in the development, nurturing, and refinement of intellectual capital and ideas for the conservative legal movement—ideas and capital that litigators, _amici curiae_ , and judges use to help justify the reconstruction of constitutional frameworks. As Daniel Polsby, who is credited by Smith in the acknowledgments to _Unfree Speech_ , said to me in our interview in 2008, the Federalist Society has "been very effective at creating a voice, an outlet, that meets a couple of times a year and collects people who have kindred interests in one room where they can talk about the things that interest them about current public policy on the highest plane." Polsby continued that the Federalist Society "makes it possible for people to continue to stay on course with their own research interests because they don't have the sense they are just talking to a wall." Lillian BeVier, who is also credited in Smith's acknowledgments, said something very similar to me during our interview about the Federalist Society's contribution to the marketplace of ideas. Specifically, she talked about how having fellow Federalist Society members who share her ideas helped her pursue topics that were, in her own words, "completely out of the mainstream" of legal academia.
#### The Principles of Judicial Restraint and _Stare Decisis_ Should Not Control in the Area of Campaign Finance
As I wrote in Chapter 1, the proper role of the judiciary is one of the topics consistently discussed within the Federalist Society network since its founding. Enshrined in the third part of the Federalist Society's statement of principles ("it is emphatically the province and duty of the judiciary to say what the law is, not what it should be"), within the Federalist Society network this is popularly noted as a concern with "judicial activism" or, conversely, a belief in "judicial restraint." While Federalist Society members repeatedly mentioned this topic in our interviews as one of the chief concerns and unifying principles of members within the network, Executive Director Eugene Meyer pointed out that this statement is actually "the closest thing to a controversial statement in our statement of purpose." Member Richard Willard expressed a similar sentiment in our interview when asked about the principles that unify members of the network: "I would say that most people would believe in [Originalism] but, for example, on the judicial activism versus judicial restraint there are some people in the Society who feel that judges should be activist and others who are more advocates of judicial restraint." In my follow-up question, I confirmed that Willard was referring to "judicial restraint" as the act of upholding settled law or constitutional doctrine, that is, as being cautious not to disrupt an area of law or overturn precedents. In this sense, "judicial restraint" means that a judge tends to abide by the doctrine of _stare decisis_ , which is Latin for "to stand by things decided," and is not eager to overturn precedent. Conversely, "judicial activism" would refer to a judge who privileges what he or she would consider a correct interpretation or outcome of the case over respecting the decisions of past courts, even if this means overturning one or more precedents. The most vocal advocate of this understanding of judicial restraint within the Federalist Society network is J. Harvie Wilkinson. A Fourth Circuit judge and an active Federalist Society network member since the early 1980s, Wilkinson consistently has warned of the dangers of uprooting too many areas of settled law at too fast a pace. For example, at the 1988 Annual Student Symposium, Wilkinson warned that, regardless of what the original meaning dictated, the Supreme Court should not attempt to enact swift and broad changes to the constitutional landscape all at once: "the fortuities of uneven constitutional development must be respected, not cast aside in the illusion of reordering the landscape anew."
There is, however, another understanding of "judicial activism" versus "judicial restraint" that, as one journalist recently suggested and my interview data confirmed, has now become the dominant understanding within the Federalist Society network. Championed by network members such as Randy Barnett, Richard Epstein, and Justice Clarence Thomas, "judicial restraint" means simply that a judge interprets the words of the Constitution consistent with its original meaning. On the other hand, "judicial activism" is when a judge substitutes his or her own policy preferences for those of the founding generation. Understood this way, a judge is being restrained if he or she overturns precedents that were decided in a manner inconsistent with Originalism—decisions that were the products of past "judicial activism"—regardless of how long they have controlled or been considered settled law. The concern with fixing past law and aligning jurisprudence with the original meaning therefore trumps any deference to the doctrine of _stare decisis_. These two different understandings of judicial restraint and activism came head to head at the Federalist Society's 2013 National Lawyers Convention. The Sixth Annual Rosenkranz Debate pitted J. Harvie Wilkinson against Randy Barnett on this topic. The resulting debate and conversation highlighted a clear preference within the Federalist Society network for the Barnett brand of judicial restraint over the Wilkinson brand.
Though it might be more acceptable now within the Federalist Society network to talk openly about overruling precedents and to advocate for massively realigning constitutional jurisprudence, it is still unusual to see a group of litigators and scholars uniformly calling for the Supreme Court to abandon _stare decisis_. In fact, of all the constitutional areas that I examine in this book, this call was most pronounced in the area of campaign finance. While some members, such as Joel Gora, have called for revisiting and overruling parts of the Supreme Court's decision in _Buckley v. Valeo_ (1976), most of the calls for reconsidering campaign finance precedents from network members focus on decisions that, in their view, are inconsistent with the _Buckley_ and _Bellotti_ precedents—namely, _Austin_ and _McConnell_. Unsurprisingly, these calls accelerated with the appointment of Roberts and Alito, two individuals who had proven Federalist Society credentials. For example, in his 2007 law review article entitled "The John Roberts Salvage Company: After McConnell, a New Court Looks to Repair the Constitution," Bradley A. Smith advocated overruling _Austin_ outright (Smith 2007, 918–920). While recognizing that Roberts, Alito, and Kennedy are not "inclined to readily overrule precedent," Smith argues that _Austin_ is "the odd case out in the post- _Buckley_ jurisprudence" and that "overruling the case would not be a radical move" (Smith 2007, 920). Similarly, Allison Hayward, speaking on a panel entitled "The Supreme Court and Campaign Finance" at the 2008 National Lawyers Convention, did not hold back with her recommendations for SCOTUS. In a passage that seems directly addressed to Roberts and Alito, who had declined to consider overruling _Austin_ just a year earlier, Hayward concluded her conference remarks with a plea for the justices to disregard judicial restraint:
Whatever appealing qualities might attach to a justice's respect for precedent and restraint in ordinary circumstances, none are found here. It is vitally important that future justices appreciate the position the Court is in, and the power the Court has to improve the law. Rather than decry judicial activism, principled Court watchers need to allow for space for future justices to repair the mistakes of the past.
While we cannot know for sure the extent to which this support and encouragement from fellow network members helped Roberts and Alito join the other conservatives' campaign to "repair the mistakes of the past" in _Citizens United_ , as I discuss further in Chapter 6, members of the Federalist Society network certainly believe the justices are listening. As cofounder Steven Calabresi said to me in our interview regarding the feedback or criticism that Federalist Society network members provide to Supreme Court justices, "I think it absolutely helps keep them in check. When one tries to think about what kinds of checks exist on officials as powerful as Supreme Court Justices I think the check of criticism by law schools, journalists and conservative think tanks like the Federalist Society, criticism from those quarters is something that they notice." The next section will demonstrate conclusively that once these Justices decided to abandon judicial restraint and _stare decisis_ in _Citizens United_ , the Federalist Society network was an important source of intellectual capital that helped them justify that controversial decision.
### THE FIRST AMENDMENT AND CAMPAIGN FINANCE AT THE SUPREME COURT
Nearly three decades after the Supreme Court's decision in _Buckley v. Valeo_ (1976), members of Congress resolved to update the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971. The resulting legislation was called the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA). Cosponsored by Senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Russell D. Feingold (D-WI), the legislation sought to address two major problems. The first part of the bill, Title I, addressed "soft money," or the practice of donating to political parties, which would then pass the money on to respective candidates. Neither the original bill in 1971 nor the amendments in 1974 placed any regulations or limits on party donations. The second part, Title II, addressed the proliferation of "issue advocacy ads." Paid for by groups that were not a part of a campaign's formal organization, neither restrictions nor limits existed for the fundraising for or spending on advertisements.
Despite the careful consideration of the congressional drafters, many in the conservative-libertarian legal community felt that the legislation went too far in the proposed reforms. Senate Majority Whip, Mitch McConnell (R-KY), along with 10 other organizations, responded and filed suit, stating the legislation to be unconstitutional given First Amendment jurisprudence. The Supreme Court in a special session heard the resulting litigation, _McConnell v. Federal Election Commission_ (2003), on September 8, 2003. The Justices were asked to look at the constitutionality of various sections, including Section 203. Prior to the passage of BCRA, the Federal Election Campaign Act §316(b)(2) simply made it "unlawful. . . for any corporation whatever, or any labor organization, to make a contribution or expenditure in connection with" certain federal elections. BCRA §203 amended the definition of the term "contribution or expenditure" to include "any applicable electioneering communication." This section of BCRA dealt with the proliferation of soft money, but also placed greater constraints on the First Amendment speech rights of corporations and unions.
In a sweeping and complex 272-page decision issued in December 2003, the Supreme Court in _McConnell_ upheld the constitutionality of §203 by a bare 5 to 4 majority. Relying critically on _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ (1990), the majority opinions, written by Justices Sandra Day O'Connor and John Paul Stevens, said that the federal government had a compelling and constitutionally permissible interest in regulating "the corrosive and distorting effects of immense aggregations of wealth that are accumulated with the help of the corporate form." The use of _Austin_ by the majority was not a popular choice with the more conservative members of the court. Indeed, the dissents in _McConnell_ sent clear signals to the broader legal community that they disagreed with the way in which _Austin_ was used to justify the narrowing of corporate speech rights. An opportunity to revisit the decision, these dissenting Justices indicated, would be looked upon favorably. As Justice Thomas wrote, "[b]ecause _Austin_ 's definition of "corruption" is incompatible with the First Amendment, I would overturn _Austin_ and hold that the potential for corporations and unions to influence voters. . . is not a form of corruption justifying any state regulation or suppression."
The signals in _McConnell_ were an important step in the development of the constitutional path that would culminate in _Citizens United_. More important, however, the makeup of the Supreme Court changed dramatically between 2003 and 2007. Chief Justice John Roberts replaced Chief Justice Rehnquist in 2005 and Justice Samuel Alito replaced Justice Sandra Day O'Connor in 2006. A change in the makeup of the Supreme Court is a unique and powerful kind of signal. New members of the Court bring new philosophical approaches to the law and a shift in the voting blocs (Baird 2008, 58). Alito and Roberts were known commodities to the Federalist Society, and their presence was another indication that—given the right case—the Supreme Court would be amenable to revisiting _McConnell_ and the frustrating precedent set in _Austin_. The conservative legal movement did not have to wait long to see exactly how the changed composition on the Supreme Court might influence their fortunes in the area of campaign finance. Less than a year after Justice Alito replaced Sandra Day O'Connor, the Supreme Court granted review in _Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life_ —a case that raised a direct challenge to O'Connor's 2003 majority opinion in _McConnell_.
#### _Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life_ (2007)
In July 2004, Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (WRTL), a "state nonprofit, nonstock ideological advocacy corporation," began broadcasting advertisements urging voters to contact Wisconsin senators Feingold and Kohl and ask them to oppose a planned Senate filibuster of federal judicial nominees. WRTL planned to finance the ad campaign with its general treasury funds. WRTL had intended to run its ads through August 15, 2004, but recognized that this would bring it within 30 days of the Wisconsin primary, and would therefore constitute illegal "electioneering communications" under Section 203 of the BCRA. Believing it had a First Amendment right to broadcast these ads, WRTL (represented by Federalist Society member James Bopp, Jr.) filed suit in the federal District Court for the District of Columbia against the FEC. Bopp made two arguments in defense of WRTL. First, he alleged that WRTL's ads were more accurately classified as "grassroots lobbying advertisements" and therefore did not constitute the kind of communications that the drafters of the BCRA intended to limit. Second, he argued that the relevant portions of _McConnell v. FEC_ (2003), which upheld the constitutionality of Section 203, should be overturned because they were inconsistent with the First Amendment's narrow tailoring requirement.
The three-judge District Court disagreed on both grounds. It denied the motion for a preliminary injunction and dismissed WRTL's complaint. WRTL was therefore unable to air its ads during the 30-day period. WRTL appealed to the Supreme Court. On appeal, the Supreme Court found in favor of WRTL and declared that the District Court had misinterpreted and incorrectly applied the _McConnell_ decision. On remand, the District Court, in an opinion authored by Richard J. Leon and joined in full by Federalist Society member and 12-time National Conference participant David Sentelle held that Section 203 of the BCRA was unconstitutional as applied to WRTL's campaign. In a 5 to 4 decision, the Supreme Court affirmed this decision, holding that WRTL's campaign constituted "issue advocacy" as opposed to "express advocacy" and that BCRA's prohibition on the use of corporate funds to finance these ads violated the corporation's free speech rights. In the majority opinion, written by Chief Justice John Roberts, the Supreme Court ruled that as long as the speech at issue could reasonably be interpreted as anything other than "express advocacy," then the Section 203 prohibitions should not apply. Justice Scalia wrote a concurring opinion, in which Justices Thomas and Kennedy joined, arguing that the Supreme Court ought to have gone further in this case. Writing for the three Justices, Scalia outright called for overruling _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ (1990) and reversing the relevant portion of _McConnell_ that Roberts, joined by Alito, had left intact—if only barely—in his majority opinion.
As illustrated in Figure 3.1, the Federalist Society network was well represented in the _Wisconsin Right to Life_ litigation. Federalist Society network member and long-time co-chair of the Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group, James Bopp, Jr., represented the appellee, WRTL, while 10 Federalist Society members signed on to _amicus curiae_ briefs in support of Bopp's client—Charles J. Cooper, David H. Thompson,Erik S. Jaffe, Jan Witold Baran, Jay Alan Sekulow, Laurence Gold, Joel Gora, Steven J. Law, Steven Shapiro, and Theodore Olson. As I wrote earlier, Society member and federal judge David Sentelle joined in the majority opinion ruling in favor of WRTL at the District Court level. Additionally, of the four Federalist Society members on the Supreme Court, three wrote opinions in this case. Chief Justice Roberts wrote for the majority, while Justice Scalia and Justice Alito each wrote concurring opinions. Thus, in Figure 3.1, I have indicated 12 clerks as potential conduits through which Federalist Society network intellectual capital might have been transmitted to the Justices writing in this case.
**Figure 3.1** _FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life_ (2007)
Toward the end of his majority opinion in _Wisconsin Right to Life_ , Chief Justice John Roberts took a moment to acknowledge the importance of the issue of campaign finance to a wide and "diverse" set of groups and organizations:
These cases are about political speech. The importance of the cases to speech and debate on public policy issues is reflected in the number of diverse organizations that have joined in supporting WRTL before this Court: the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Rifle Association, the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations, the Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America, Focus on the Family, the Coalition of Public Charities, the Cato Institute, and many others.
The organizations that Roberts lists are quite diverse in terms of their issue focus (the NRA as compared with Focus on the Family) and their political tilts (the ACLU as compared with the Chamber of Commerce). Though these groups might make for strange bedfellows, they are hardly strangers. What they have in common, apart from an interest in loosening campaign finance restrictions, is some connection to the Federalist Society network. With the exception of the Coalition of Public Charities, each of these groups was represented on brief by at least one Federalist Society network member in this litigation. This fact speaks to the power of a PEN to effectively organize and cohere around discrete issues, even if its members would be ideologically and politically opposed on others. This also resonates with Ann Southworth's description of the Federalist Society as the "cross-roads" of the conservative movement and as an important "mediator organization" for the sometimes disparate constituencies that coexist within the movement (Southworth 2008).
These Federalist Society network _amici_ all urged the Supreme Court to uphold Federalist Society member David Sentelle's District Court ruling that Section 203 of the BCRA was unconstitutional as applied to the broadcasts at issue in the litigation. Their briefs supplemented Sentelle's opinion with intellectual capital from Federalist Society network scholarship, the Originalist canon, and with a generous dose of _First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_. Going a step further than his network colleagues, WRTL counsel James Bopp, Jr., asked the Supreme Court to overturn _McConnell's_ holding that Section 203 was constitutional on its face. In a section of his brief that would be echoed in Justice Scalia's concurring opinion (and later in Chief Justice Roberts's concurring opinion in _Citizens United_ ), Bopp argued that this case fell squarely within the Supreme Court's framework for when it was appropriate to abandon the doctrine of _stare decisis_ :
This Court has provided standards for determining when it is appropriate to overrule precedent. . . . _Stare decisis_ is a "principle of policy," and not an "inexorable command.". . . Two primary rationales govern. First, "badly reasoned" or "unworkable" precedent will be overturned. . . . Second, precedent is reversed if an essential factual assumption of the prior case was inaccurate or becomes inaccurate. . . . Consistent with the above guideline, the experience in this case. . . reveals that the assumption in _McConnell_ that as-applied challenges would be an adequate remedy to protect genuine issue ads has proven inaccurate and unworkable. . . . Therefore, there is clear justification for partially overturning _McConnell_.
Three justices in _Wisconsin Right to Life_ agreed with Bopp and were prepared to overrule Section 203 of _McConnell_. Writing in concurrence and joined by Justices Kennedy and Thomas, Scalia devotes a full three pages of his opinion to the issue of _stare decisis_ , arguing (as Bopp did) that because it produced an "'unworkable' legal regime" and because the "as-applied test" failed to sufficiently safeguard First Amendment rights, the relevant portions of _McConnell_ ought to be overruled. In response to those who would caution against disrupting settled law and changing the constitutional landscape too quickly, Scalia argued that it was the _McConnell_ decision—and before that, the _Austin_ decision—that actually disrupted a body of settled law since _Buckley_ : "It is not as though _McConnell_ produced a settled body of law. Indeed, it is far more accurate to say that _McConnell unsettled_ a body of law" (emphasis in original). Scalia's opinion insisted that the Supreme Court's "pre- _McConnell_ decisions, with the lone exception of _Austin_ , disapproved limits on independent expenditures. The modest medicine of restoring First Amendment protection to nonexpress advocacy-speech that was protected until three Terms ago does not unsettle an established body of law."
While, according to Scalia, overruling _McConnell_ would have been merely "modest medicine," the newly appointed Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Alito were not quite ready to swallow it in _Wisconsin Rightto Life_. Exhibiting what I referred to earlier as the J. Harvie Wilkinson brand of judicial restraint, Roberts wrote "in deciding this as-applied challenge, we have no occasion to revisit _McConnell's_ conclusion that the statute is not facially overbroad." While joining the majority opinion in full, Alito wrote separately in this case. His concurrence more directly "signals" (Baird 2007) both to his colleagues on the Court and to those outside the Court that he would reconsider the holding in _McConnell_ if it later proved unworkable: "I join the principal opinion because I conclude. . . that because § 203 is unconstitutional as applied to the advertisements before us, it is unnecessary to go further and decide whether § 203 is unconstitutional on its face." "If," Alito continued, "it turns out that the implementation of the as-applied standard set out in the principal opinion impermissibly chills political speech. . . we will presumably be asked in a future case to reconsider the holding in McConnell that § 203 is facially constitutional." On clear display in this exchange between Roberts and Alito, on the one hand, and Scalia, Thomas, and Kennedy, on the other, are two very different understandings of judicial restraint—both of which, as I documented earlier, have constituencies within the Federalist Society network. Roberts and Alito play the role of J. Harvie Wilkinson here—resolving the issue at hand on the narrowest grounds possible so as not to disrupt the constitutional landscape too much, too quickly. The priority for Scalia et al., on the other hand, is fixing the perceived mistakes of the past—decisions like _McConnell_ and _Austin_ , which were not faithful to the text, history, and meaning of the First Amendment. This is the Randy Barnett–Richard Epstein–Clarence Thomas definition of judicial restraint. Within this framework, overruling these precedents is not judicial activism; it is simply, to borrow Scalia's phrase, providing some "modest medicine" for an ailing area of constitutional jurisprudence. As we see in _Citizens United_ , it did not take long for Scalia to convince his new colleagues of the healing benefits of this "modest medicine" and of letting go of their concerns with _stare decisis_.
In the end, the decision in _Wisconsin Right to Life_ gave the Federalist Society network the proverbial "half a loaf." Laurence Gold, Jan Witold Baran, and James Bopp, Jr., all praised the decision in _USA Today_ , with Gold calling the ruling "a breath of constitutional fresh air." Federalist Society cofounder Steven Calabresi was more ambivalent. He was quoted in the same edition of _USA Today_ saying that while "conservatives will be happy" about the Supreme Court's ruling in _Wisconsin Right to Life_ , "many conservatives will be struck by the incremental, small steps taken" by the Supreme Court. To wit, Lillian BeVier wrote of _Wisconsin Right to Life_ in 2007 that instead of embracing a kind of "faux judicial restraint," perhaps "judicial honor—and the rule of law—would have been fully satisfied only by a straightforward overruling of a precedent left standing with its theoretical heart cut out and its head severed" (BeVier 2007, 105). Similarly underwhelmed with the decision, Allison Hayward wrote that the Supreme Court's decision in _Wisconsin Right to Life_ was "unfortunately unremarkable" (Hayward 2008b, 309). The article, appropriately enough, was titled "Wisconsin Right to Life: Same Song, Different Verse." In the earlier analysis of Federalist Society speech acts, I noted that Hayward had become especially vocal in Practice Group newsletters and publications about abandoning judicial restraint in the wake of the Supreme Court's decision in _Wisconsin Right to Life_. Recall, for example, that in a 2008 passage from _Engage_ , she implored fellow network members to stop worrying about judicial activism and start worrying about giving future Justices license "to repair the mistakes of the past."
#### _Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission_ (2010)
In January 2008, Citizens United, a nonprofit corporation, released a film entitled _Hillary: The Movie_ that criticized then-Senator Hillary Clinton, who was a candidate for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination. In addition to releasing the film in theaters and on DVD, Citizens United intended to increase distribution by making it available to digital cable subscribers with video-on-demand. To promote the film, Citizens United produced two 10-second ads and one 30-second ad for _Hillary: The Movie_ , which included a short, pejorative statement about Senator Clinton, followed by the name of the movie and the movie's website address. Citizens United intended to air the advertisements on both broadcast and cable television. Because Citizens United planned to screen the advertisements within 30 days of the 2008 primary elections, it was subject to the restrictions outlined in the BCRA. Because it feared civil and criminal penalties under the BCRA's ban on corporate-funded independent expenditures, outlined in section 441b, Citizens United, which at that point was represented by James Bopp, Jr., sought declaratory and injunctive relief against the FEC in December 2007, arguing that BCRA was unconstitutional as applied to _Hillary: The Movie_. The District Court, which consisted of Federalist Society member Circuit Judge A. Raymond Randolph and District Judges Royce Lamberth and Richard Roberts, denied the motion for preliminary injunction and granted the FEC's motion for summary judgment, holding that BCRA was constitutional as applied to _Citizens United_.
Citizens United, which had since secured Federalist Society stalwart Theodore Olson as counsel, appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, arguing initially that the BCRA's prohibitions did not apply to documentaries like _Hillary: The Movie_. As Jeffrey Toobin would later recount in a 2012 _New Yorker_ piece, "[Theodore] Olson had presented the case to the Court in a narrow way. . . the main issue was whether the McCain-Feingold law applied to a documentary, presented on video on demand, by a nonprofit corporation." Citizens United was not asking the Supreme Court to overrule the relevant portions of the BCRA, because—the organization did not think that necessary. However, after a backdoors "private drama" that involved negotiations among the conservative justices about using this case to revisit _Austin_ and _McConnell_ , Chief Justice Roberts agreed to order a new round of arguments for the case in the new term that would ask the parties to file new briefs directly addressing whether or not the decisions in _Austin_ and _McConnell_ ought to be overruled. Instead of waiting for the first Monday in October (when the Supreme Court's new term traditionally begins), the second round of oral argument in _Citizens United_ was scheduled for September 9, 2009. In the final opinion, released on January 21, 2010, Justice Kennedy wrote for the five-Justice majority, holding that in barring corporations and unions from using general treasury funds to make independent expenditures that advocate the election or defeat of a candidate, the federal government violated the First Amendment by impermissibly suppressing political speech on the basis of the speaker's corporate identity. Moreover, as presaged three years earlier by the concurring bloc (Scalia, Thomas, and Kennedy) in _Wisconsin Right to Life_ , this decision effectively overruled precedents established in both _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ and _McConnell v. Federal Election Commission_.
In addition to Theodore Olson, who picked up the litigating mantle from James Bopp, Jr., 13 other Federalist Society network members, several of whom were repeat players from the litigation in WRTL, participated as _amici curiae_ in this case—Edwin Meese III, Bradley A. Smith, Charles Cooper, David H. Thompson, Floyd Abrams, James Bopp, Jr., Joel Gora, John Eastman, Laurence Gold, Steven J. Law, Steven Shapiro, Reid Alan Cox, and Allison Hayward. Of the four Federalist Society–affiliated Supreme Court Justices in the majority in _Citizens United_ , two wrote separate, concurring opinions in the case: Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Scalia. Their eight clerks, in addition to three of Justice Kennedy's clerks who clerked for lower court Federalist Society judges, comprise the 11 Federalist Society clerk conduits indicated in Figure 3.2.
**Figure 3.2** _Citizens United v. FEC_ (2010)
When a majority of Supreme Court justices decide they are ready to revise or reconstruct a constitutional framework, they need to justify that decision with reference to some authorities either internal to the institution (precedent) or external to it but recognized as authoritative (legal scholarship or other interpretive authorities). Justice Kennedy, writing for the majority in _Citizens United_ , relied on both. Joining a chorus of Federalist Society network members, Kennedy dusted off _First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_ (1978) and featured it prominently in the majority's reasoning—citing it 24 times. For example, Kennedy cited _Bellotti_ as evidence that "[t]he Court has thus rejected the argument that political speech of corporations or other associations should be treated differently under the First Amendment simply because such associations are not 'natural persons.'" As Kennedy's repeated citation to the 1978 precedent demonstrated, _Bellotti_ served a critical purpose in _Citizens United_ , that is, to bolster the argument that _Austin_ was a departure from core First Amendment principles and "an aberration." This was exactly the argument made by network member Theodore Olson in his brief for Citizens United, which referenced _Bellotti_ 12 times. The Olson-authored brief argued that _Austin's_ logic "was rejected almost verbatim in _Bellotti_ ," that it cannot "be reconciled with _Bellotti's_ recognition that political speech is no less valuable 'because the speech comes from a corporation rather than an individual'" and that, accordingly, it was "wrongly decided and should be overruled." Three Federalist Society network _amicus curiae_ briefs submitted in this case also used _Bellotti_ to question _Austin's_ principal holding.
Kennedy's majority opinion also mobilized intellectual capital and support for the majority's reasoning in _Citizens United_ from Federalist Society network member scholarship. Kennedy referenced an article by member Richard H. Fallon (whose work on federal judicial procedure is recommended in the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ) to defend the majority's decision to decide the broader constitutional question in _Citizens United_ rather than the more narrow, as-applied challenge first stipulated by the parties in their briefs. Far from being simply a technical question about federal judicial procedure, this went to the heart of what the proper judicial role was and should be (a discussion that was the focus of Chief Justice Roberts's concurrence, which we will turn to in a moment). Kennedy also relied on the historical scholarship of Federalist Society Practice Group members Bradley A. Smith and Allison R. Hayward (both of whom submitted _amicus curiae_ briefs in this case) to argue against the proposition that restrictions on corporate political speech have been in practice long-standing, legitimate, or necessary. Bradley A. Smith, whose book _Unfree Speech_ was cited in Kennedy's majority opinion, signed on to _amicus curiae_ briefs submitted by the Center for Competitive Politics and by Seven Former Chairmen and One Former Commissioner of the FEC. This latter brief, with fellow network member James Bopp, Jr., as counsel of record, was cited directly twice in Kennedy's majority opinion. Hayward's _amicus curiae_ brief summarized her campaign finance scholarship and specifically directed the Court to her article "Revisiting the Fable of Reform," which was reviewed earlier in this chapter and successfully found its way into Kennedy's majority opinion twice. Most notably, Hayward's brief and article were cited as direct support in the majority opinion (*901) for overruling _Austin_ and abandoning _stare decisis_ :
When neither party defends the reasoning of a precedent, the principle of adhering to that precedent through _stare decisis_ is diminished. _Austin_ abandoned First Amendment principles, furthermore, by relying on language in some of our precedents that traces back to the _Automobile Workers_ Court's flawed historical account of campaign finance laws, see Brief for Campaign Finance Scholars as _Amici Curiae;_ Hayward 45 HarvJ. Legis. 421.
While Kennedy's majority opinion did offer a brief justification for abandoning _stare decisis_ , the Chief Justice, who, alongside newly appointed Justice Alito, declined to consider overruling _Austin_ three years earlier in _Wisconsin Right to Life_ , took up the burden of fully justifying this decision in _Citizens United_.
Chief Justice Roberts's concurring opinion is a direct response to the strongly worded dissent of Justice John Paul Stevens. In his 90-page dissent, joined by Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor, Stevens accused the majority of violating several tenets of judicial process: answering a question that was not presented to them properly, deciding the case on the broadest, rather than the narrowest legal grounds, and of abandoning _stare decisis_. These derelictions of judicial process, Stevens wrote, were not simply "technical defects] in the Court's decision" but instead demonstrated an approach to the judicial role that ran "contrary to the fundamental principle of judicial restraint." In sum, Stevens charged the Court of operating "with a sledge hammer rather than a scalpel" and wrote that the majority's decision cannot be the work product of a Court that was "serious about judicial restraint." Roberts's defense of the majority's decision in _Citizens United_ embodied a fundamentally different understanding of judicial restraint—one that privileged fidelity to constitutional principles over fidelity to principles of judicial process ( _stare decisis_ , etc.). As he wrote, the principle of _stare decisis_ should be viewed as instrumental, not as an end in itself: "[i]ts greatest purpose is to serve a constitutional ideal—the rule of law." Roberts continued, "fidelity to any particular precedent does more to damage this constitutional ideal than to advance it, we must be more willing to depart from that precedent." This justification for abandoning _stare decisis_ echoed that of Federalist Society network member Lillian BeVier who, as I recounted earlier, wrote that the _Wisconsin Right to Life_ decision amounted to a kind of "faux judicial restraint" and argued that both "judicial honor" and "the rule of law" would have been better served by overruling, rather than preserving precedents ([BeVier 2007, 105). While Roberts was clearly responding to the dissenting bloc in _Citizens United_ , one can understand his concurring opinion as addressed to another audience: those within the Federalist Society network who would interpret it as a signal that the Chief Justice was moving closer to the Barnett-Epstein-Thomas model of judicial restraint (privileging principle) and away from the Wilkinson model (privileging process).
Finally, Federalist Society mentor Justice Scalia also wrote separately in the case. The purpose of his concurring opinion was, as he wrote, to demonstrate "the conformity of today's opinion with the original meaning of the First Amendment." Specifically, Scalia was working to counter the strong assertion, articulated by Justice Stevens in his dissent, "there is not a scintilla of evidence to support the notion" that the original understanding of the First Amendment would preclude regulatory distinctions between the human and corporate form. Scalia and Stevens both mobilized numerous sources from the Originalist canon, as well as scholarship on the early founding period and the role of corporations, in their attempts to persuade their audience that history and Originalism were on their side. Setting aside the question of whose Originalism trumped whose in _Citizens United_ , it was plain to all audiences that Originalism (and, by extension, the Federalist Society network) was the real winner. As I articulate at greater length in Chapter 6, the back-and-forth over Originalism in this case and others is evidence that the Federalist Society successfully has changed the debate and has helped to bring Originalism into the legal mainstream. As member John C. Yoo said in our personal interview (and as Stevens's dissent in _Citizens United_ makes clear), now "even liberals on the Supreme Court take it seriously."
### IDEAS WITH CONSEQUENCES: THE FIRST AMENDMENT AND CAMPAIGN FINANCE
If _Wisconsin Right to Life_ gave Federalist Society network members the proverbial "half a loaf," _Citizens United_ provided a significant portion of the second half of that loaf—though it did leave some crumbs on the table. For example, Theodore Olson (arguing on behalf of Citizens United) and other _amici curiae_ affiliated with the Federalist Society network were unable to persuade a majority of the justices that the disclosure requirements of McCain-Feingold were unconstitutional as applied to Citizens United. As I wrote earlier, the issue of disclosure was one that had been discussed with some regularity by Federalist Society network members who worry that these requirements impermissibly chill free speech and thus violate the First Amendment. Disclosure aside, Federalist Society network litigators, _amici_ , and scholars celebrated the Supreme Court's decision in _Citizens United_. James Bopp, Jr., who initiated the litigation and participated as _amicus curiae_ , called the ruling "a wonderful decision" and a "ringing affirmation of the protections of the First Amendment." Jan Witold Baran, who submitted an _amicus_ brief on behalf of the Chamber of Commerce, referred to the decision as a "breath of fresh air" and said that it would "restrain Congress from flooding us with arcane, burdensome, convoluted campaign laws that discourage political participation." Ted Olson, celebrating after his client's victory, told newspapers that "the court's decision vindicates the right of individuals to engage in core political speech by banding together to make their voices heard" and that "[t]he Court recognized that permitting widespread participation in the marketplace of ideas will invigorate political discourse. . . and, ultimately, strengthen the very foundations of our democracy."
_Citizens United_ was also a victory for the network in that it demonstrated willingness from Roberts and Alito to abandon the Wilkinson-model of judicial restraint and embrace the Barnett-Epstein-Thomas model that, as I discussed earlier in this chapter, seems to have found a significant constituency within the Federalist Society. And once these justices decided to abandon _stare decisis_ , the Federalist Society network became a series of active conduits through which intellectual capital was transmitted. This intellectual capital helped the majority defend the decision to abandon _stare decisis_ and rebuild the scaffolding of campaign finance jurisprudence around the First Amendment principles articulated in _Bellotti_. Moreover, constituting another win for the Federalist Society network, we saw in Stevens's dissent evidence that Originalism had taken hold as the dominant discourse on the Supreme Court. Even if the liberals or progressives on the bench disagree with it, as I return to discuss in Chapter 6, they felt compelled to respond to their conservative and libertarian counterparts in that discourse.
The question of whether the decision in _Citizens United_ lived up to its perilous promise to damage the integrity of our democratic institutions and democratic process (or whether, as Justice Alito mouthed at the 2010 State of the Union Address, this is simply "not true") has proven difficult to assess. Even still, the impact of _Citizens United_ is already evident in a few significant areas. Just as _Heller_ and _McDonald_ , the Second Amendment cases examined in the previous chapter, opened the doors for more Second Amendment litigation and invigorated litigators to attempt to push their deregulation efforts further and deeper, the decision in _Citizens United_ energized First Amendment campaign finance litigators to continue to chip away at both state and federal campaign finance legislation. To wit, Steve Simpson, an attorney for the Institute of Justice and a regular participant in Federalist Society discussions on campaign finance, was quoted in _USA Today_ saying that he was "certainly emboldened" by the decision in _Citizens United_. Similarly, James Bopp, Jr., spoke of his "10-year plan to take all this [campaign finance regulation] down" and was quick to point out, after Citizens United, that "we are not done yet." In its Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Teleforum calls, its National Conferences, its lawyer chapter events, and its Student Chapter events, the Federalist Society has served as a hub of post– _Citizens United_ discussion and strategic deliberation, facilitating close to 100 events on the decision and its aftermath. This energetic discussion within the network already has translated into action. Spearheaded by the James Madison Center for Free Speech (with James Bopp, Jr., as General Counsel) and the Center for Competitive Politics (with Bradley Smith at the helm), lawsuits have been filed in federal courts challenging federal disclosure requirements, state electioneering disclosure requirements, federal lobbying disclosure requirements, the FEC's classification of a "political committee," soft money bans, and coordinated spending bans. Most noteworthy is the recent Supreme Court litigation in _McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission_ , which challenged the McCain-Feingold Act's aggregate limits on combined campaign contributions to non-candidate committees, national party committees, and candidate committees. Decided by the Supreme Court by a 5 to 4 vote on April 2, 2014, the opinion in _McCutcheon_ , authored by Chief Justice Roberts, held that the aggregate limits cap did not in fact serve to further the government's compelling interest in preventing corruption. Court-watchers are referring to the case as "Citizens United II" because it has the potential to both further entrench the _Citizens United_ frame and to hollow out federal and state regulations on campaign finance more deeply.
There have been some significant lateral effects of the _Citizens United_ decision. As Gordon Silverstein presents in _Law's Allure_ , some of the most powerful effects of judicial decisions are the framing effects they can have for other areas of law. Once a new path opens up in a particular area of law, litigators who have been unsuccessful pursuing one line of reasoning can latch on to this new path, reframe their case, and potentially have better success (Silverstein 2009, 68–75). In the case of _Citizens United_ , the holding that the First Amendment's protection of speech does not discriminate between human and corporate or other associational speakers has already been used by savvy litigators (many of them connected with the Federalist Society network) to argue that the same logic should apply to the First Amendment's protection of religious liberty. For example, arguing before the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals _en banc_ , Federalist Society network member and counsel for the for-profit business Hobby Lobby, Kyle Duncan, successfully persuaded the Court of Appeals that the corporation's free-exercise rights were protected by the First Amendment and had been violated by the Health and Human Services mandate requiring most business and entities to provide contraceptive coverage for their female employees. Citing the Supreme Court's holdings in both _Citizens United_ and _Bellotti_ , the Tenth Circuit (in an opinion authored by Federalist Society network member Timothy Tymkovich) held that "[t]he Constitution guarantees freedom of association of this kind as an indispensable means of preserving other individual liberties'" and that "the Free Exercise Clause is _not_ a 'purely personal' guarantee[]. . . unavailable to corporations and other organizations because the 'historic function' of the particular [constitutional] guarantee has been limited to the protection of individuals."
## PART II
## The Separation of Governmental Powers Is Central to Our Constitution
## CHAPTER 4
## Federalism and the Commerce Power
Returning to "First Principles"
_U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8, clause 3_
_The Congress shall have Power_. . .
_[t]o regulate Commerce with foreign Nations_ ,
_and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes_
On January 30, 1987, Pat Buchanan sent an urgent, last-minute memo to President Ronald Reagan's chief of staff about the president's scheduled call to the fledgling Federalist Society that night: "Ken Cribb called from Justice to say Ed Meese is asking 'as a personal favor' that the Chief of Staff make the added point in his phone call to the Federalist Society tonight—about the structural tensions inside the Constitution." The memo provoked anger and annoyance from the president's chief of staff, but because it was framed as a favor to Attorney General Meese, he agreed and added the talking point. Two of Meese's special assistants named on the telephone message request, who had a hand in drafting the language for the last-minute addition to the president's talking points, were Federalist Society cofounders David McIntosh and Steven Calabresi. The additional talking point that Meese and his special assistants felt so strongly about including in President Reagan's phone call to the Federalist Society read as follows:
The structure of government designed by the Framers protects individual liberty by ensuring against the concentration of power in any one branch or level of government. This is accomplished through a carefully-crafted system of checks and balances, which rests on the twin Constitutional doctrines of Federalism and separation of powers. . . . All three branches of the federal government—executive, legislative, and judicial—have a special obligation to maintain fidelity to these ideals, as expressed and embodied in our written Constitution—the supreme law of the land. This Bicentennial Year represents an opportunity for us all to affirm and strengthen our adherence to those ideals.
This talking point neatly encapsulates how Federalist Society members understand constitutional structure and why it is so important to them. The protection of freedom, or "individual liberty," as established in Chapter 1, is the key normative and principled belief of Federalist Society network members. Further, network members believe that the structure of the Constitution best preserves freedom through the separation and fragmentation of power, both vertically and horizontally. As the second prong of the Federalist sSociety's statement of principles states, network members believe that _the separation of governmental powers is central to our Constitution_. This chapter and the next focus on the Federalist Society's long-term efforts to revive and reinvigorate judicial enforcement of the vertical separation of powers (federalism and state sovereignty), thereby fundamentally restructuring the relationship between the federal government, the states, and the individual. Specifically, this chapter examines three landmark federalism decisions— _New York v. United States_ (1992), _United States v. Lopez_ (1995), _Morrison v. United States_ (2000)—in which the Supreme Court enlisted the help of Federalist Society network ideas and intellectual capital to enforce limits on the federal commerce power for the first time in almost half a century.
The Supreme Court's role in policing the boundaries between federal and state power has long been a source of "ideological tension" and "high political drama" (Scheiber 2005, 322). The principal constitutional clause around which this federalist "political drama" has unfolded is the Commerce Clause (Art. 1, Sec. 8, clause 3). This clause, which grants Congress the power to regulate commerce "among the several states," became the primary vehicle through which the federal government extended its regulatory reach into the states throughout the latter half of the twentieth century; and, for this, Congress had the Supreme Court to thank. After a series of controversial decisions in the early 1930s that had enforced strict limits on Congress relating to commerce power and had all but crippled President Roosevelt's New Deal plan, the Supreme Court signaled that it would no longer view the Commerce Clause as a strict limit on congressional regulatory power. This new doctrinal approach reached its fullest expression in a 1946 decision, _American Power & Light v. SEC_, in which the Supreme Court declared that Congress's commerce power was "'as broad as the economic needs of the nation' required" (Scheiber 2005, 327). Needing to prove only the slightest connection between the activity being regulated and interstate commerce, Congress had used this power to pass legislation regulating everything from intrastate labor relations to wheat grown for personal consumption to private restaurants serving interstate travelers.
The Supreme Court's broad interpretation of Congress's commerce power was grounded in and supported by a theory of flexible or "political safeguards" federalism that viewed the primary checks against the excessive accumulation of federal power as political ones, not legalistic or judge-centric ones (Kramer 2000). In other words, proponents of this theory believed that the boundaries of state and federal power could be negotiated politically, rather than decided legalistically through a narrow interpretation of commerce (Choper 1980). Additionally, in contradistinction to the more rigid view endorsed by the Supreme Court in the pre–New Deal era, proponents of political safeguards federalism viewed the Constitution as a broad blueprint that ought to be interpreted in light of the changing needs and politically expressed desires of society. So, rather than embracing a static, eighteenth-century constitutional understanding of commerce, advocates of the more flexible federalism approach argued that Congress's commerce power should be interpreted in light of the ever more complex and interdependent nature of national markets. Under this doctrinal approach, the Supreme Court decided that any activity "affecting interstate commerce" was within the scope of Congress's regulatory power under the Commerce Clause.
This theory and the Supreme Court's resulting hands-off approach to the Commerce Clause had been cause for political concern with Republicans from the Barry Goldwater campaign onward. As political scientists Cornell Clayton and J. Mitchell Pickerill have shown, discussions of the Tenth Amendment, state sovereignty, and limited federal power began to appear with some frequency in Republican Party platforms as early as 1976 and increased steadily from 1980 to 1988 (Clayton and Pickerill 2004, 96). Moreover, the discourse of "limited government" became something of a mantra during Ronald Reagan's presidential campaign. In his first inaugural address, President Reagan announced his New Federalism Initiative, in which he promised to "curb the size and influence of the federal government" and to restore "the distinction between the powers granted to the federal government and those reserved to the states, or to the people."
In line with this political pro-federalism push, conservative and libertarian legal elites began discussing the issue of federalism with a renewed sense of urgency in the 1980s. For example, in the 1988 Reagan Justice Department report _The Constitution in the Year 2000_ , principal author and Federalist Society member Stephen Markman wrote that "for those who view federalism as a serious concern of the Constitution, the current state of the Supreme Court's law in this area is troubling." The report goes on to suggest that in the "1990s" the Supreme Court might "reconsider its doctrines granting Congress virtually limitless powers under the Commerce Clause" and, based on the "structure of the Constitution," it might "reverse its current course and place judicial limits" on Congress's commerce power. Prior to the cases examined in this chapter, there had been one recent but short-lived attempt to enforce meaningful limits on Congress's commerce power. In the 1976 decision _National League of Cities v. Usery_ , the Supreme Court relied in part on the Commerce Clause to invalidate federal wage and hour restrictions on state and government employees. This precedent and the principle of limited federal power it embodied, however, was overturned within the span of a decade in _Garcia v. San Antonio Metro Transit Authority_ (1985), prompting Justice Rehnquist to predict in dissent that it would not be long before the Supreme Court would have another stand-off over Congress's commerce power.
### THE FEDERALIST SOCIETY NETWORK ON THE COMMERCE CLAUSE
Judicial enforcement of constitutional federalism has been a salient topic of discussion at Federalist Society National Conferences. The preface to the transcript from the very first Federalist Society meeting, dedicated in its entirety to "Federalism," reveals this early enthusiasm within the network for the vertical separation of powers: "At a time when the nation's law schools are staffed largely by professors who dream of regulating from their cloistered offices every minute detail of our lives. . . the Federalists met—and proclaimed the virtues of individual freedom and of limited government." Since that time, the Federalist Society has hosted dozens of panels and invited talks on the subject. A review of the agendas for Federalist Society National Conferences from 1982 to 2011, for example, revealed that no fewer than 30 panels contained the word "federalism" in their titles. On those panels and in those talks, Federalist Society participants consistently have criticized the Supreme Court for half a century of lax enforcement of the constitutionally prescribed limits on Congress's commerce power. For example, at the 1988 National Lawyers Convention, scholar William Van Alstyne lamented that "'the power to regulate commerce among the states'" had been interpreted by the Supreme Court as "the power 'to regulate' period, whether or not it is commerce, whether or not it is among the states." At that same conference, Federalist Society member Lynn Baker referred to the Commerce Clause in her talk as the "Hey, you-can-do-whatever-you-feel-like Clause."
Federalist Society network members also have been active critics of Congress's commerce power outside Federalist Society conferences. To illustrate this point, a search that I conducted in 2009 within a subset of conservative media outlets for "federalism" revealed that nearly one in five articles published in those outlets were authored by Federalist Society network members. While most of these authors expressed their federalism concerns in more general terms, 39 (21%) of them did specifically address Congress's commerce power. My interviews with founding and core members of the Federalist Society also demonstrated a strong concern with limiting the scope of Congress's commerce power. For example, in my interview with Federalist Society cofounder David McIntosh, he lamented the tendency of Congress to "ignore" the original meaning of the Constitution, "because they want to use the commerce clause as their end all and be all." Former Reagan appointee Douglas Kmiec also discussed the original meaning of the Commerce Clause in our interview, arguing that Justice Clarence Thomas's interpretation of that clause, which advocates radically limiting and reinterpreting the modern understanding of "commerce," in fact "comes closest to the pure Federalist Society model."
In terms of the constitutional areas examined in this book, federalism and/or state sovereignty rank as the most salient topic of discussion within the Federalist Society network. In total, in looking through conference transcripts, Practice Group newsletters, and through Federalist Society recommended scholarship, I was able to identify 129 speech acts that dealt primarily with federalism and/or state sovereignty. This sample includes speech acts from 93 different actors within the Federalist Society network. It also includes repeat performances from several notable individuals, including Charles Fried, Edwin Meese III, James L. Buckley, Charles J. Cooper, Michael W. McConnell, Paul M. Bator, and Richard A. Epstein. Within this sample, Congress's commerce power is discussed explicitly in about one-third (42) of these speech acts. After a close reading of all these speech acts, I identified three general categories of argument expressed by Federalist Society network members in favor of narrowing the scope of Congress's commerce power: textual arguments supporting an originalist interpretation of the phrase "commerce. . . among the several states"; structural arguments relying on Madison's _Federalist_ 45 that emphasize the relationship between limited governmental powers and individual freedom; and functionalist arguments for less federal regulation derived from economic theories supporting competition and free markets.
#### A Textualist-Originalist Interpretation of "Commerce. . . among the Several States"
The textualist-originalist argument blends textual analyses of the language of the clause itself with original understanding arguments to advocate for a narrow interpretation of Congress's commerce power. Its proponents have used it to critique several of the tests and doctrines that the Supreme Court has developed since the late 1930s that, for example, have permitted Congress to regulate activities, behaviors, or industries that, when considered in the aggregate, can be understood to have a substantial effect on interstate commerce. As Charles J. Cooper lamented at the 1994 National Lawyers Conference, "It is no exaggeration to say today that there is almost no human commercial endeavor that cannot be brought within the Congress's commerce powers as construed by the Supreme Court." Advocates of the textualist-originalist interpretation of the commerce power situate the terms "commerce" and "among the several states" within an eighteenth-century framework in which the Supreme Court's modern doctrines and tests would appear, according to the argument, completely illogical. While several Federalist Society conference participants have deployed this argument for narrowing the scope of the Commerce Clause in their conference speeches, the textualist-originalist arguments for narrowing the commerce power are developed most fully in Federalist Society network scholarship. Each of the sources that I examine here is also recommended reading under "federalism" and the "Commerce Clause" in the Federalist Society's _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_.
In the first source recommended under the "Commerce Clause" sub-heading—Richard Epstein's 1987 _Virginia Law Review_ article, "The Proper Scope of the Commerce Power"—Epstein argues that the content assigned to "commerce" must make sense with respect not only to the economic relationship between Congress and the states but also with respect to "foreign nations" and the "Indian tribes." As Epstein illustrates rhetorically, "What possible sense does it make as a matter of ordinary English to say that Congress can regulate 'manufacturing with foreign nations, or with Indian tribes'. . . ?" (Epstein 1987, 1393–1394). This textual argument is then further supported with reference to familiar historical sources from the Originalist canon such as Elliot's _Debates, The Federalist_ , and the _Antifederalist_ papers. From these sources, Epstein concludes that "the affirmative scope of the commerce power" should be limited to "interstate transportation, navigation and sales, and the activities closely incident to them. All else should be left to the states" (Epstein 1987, 1454).
Building on Epstein's work, legal scholar and member Randy Barnett engaged in an extensive textualist-originalist exploration of the term "commerce" in his Federalist Society–recommended 2001 law review article, "The Original Meaning of the Commerce Clause." Relying on evidence from eighteenth-century dictionaries, James Madison's notes from the Constitutional Convention, _The Federalist_ , and the ratification debates, Barnett concluded that the founding generation understood "commerce" as being confined to "trade" or "exchange," and this did not include other commercial activities such as manufacture and agriculture (Barnett 2001, 112–125). Offering further intellectual support for a more restrictive reading of the Commerce Clause, Federalist Society member and Pepperdine academic Douglas W. Kmiec argued in his 2001 law review article, "Rediscovering a Principled Commerce Power," that the most "historically informed" definition of "commerce" was a relatively narrow one linked to certain principles articulated in the "Virginia Resolutions of 1787" (Kmiec 2001, 560–565).
#### Reinvigorating the Structural Limits on Federal Power via Madison's _Federalist_ 45
The structural argument on behalf of a more limited interpretation of Congress's commerce power, often supported with reference to Madison's _Federalist_ 45, is closely connected to the network's shared beliefs about the relationship between limited government and individual freedom. In this essay, Madison proclaimed that "t]he powers delegated by the proposed Constitution to the federal government are few and defined" whereas "[t]he powers reserved to the several states will extend to all the objects which, in the ordinary course of affairs, concern the lives, liberties, and properties of the people, and the internal order, improvement, and prosperity of the State" ([Rossiter 1961, 260–261). According to this structural argument, by interpreting the powers delegated to Congress via the Commerce Clause as not "few," but many, the Supreme Court has eroded one of the most important structural checks on expansive federal power and has posed a serious threat to individual liberty. The relationship between limited government (enumerated federal power) and individual liberty was articulated by Charles J. Cooper at the 1992 National Student Conference: "individual rights and enumerated powers are opposite sides of the same coin. . . . By delegating legislative power over certain subjects to the federal government, the people consented to abide by the laws enacted by the federal government which pertained to those subjects." "However," Cooper continued, "as to those subjects over which the federal government had no delegated legislative power, the people retained the right vis-a-vis the federal government to act any way they pleased." At this same conference, former state legislator Pete du Pont referred to the "Commerce Clause" as "the most notable" of the "structural devices" the Founders included in the Constitution "to restrain the government." In supporting a reading of the Commerce Clause that provided only "limited power" to Congress, du Pont made specific reference to Madison's _Federalist_ 45. At the 1998 Federalist Society Conference, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," member John Yoo also articulated a structural argument for a government of limited and enumerated powers, recalling the oft-cited language from Madison's _Federalist_ 45 to argue against the "broad sweep given to the Commerce Clause" by the "modern Court" (Yoo 1998, 2).
The structural argument for a more narrow judicial interpretation of Congress's commerce power is also evident in network scholarship recommended in the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_. In his 1987 law review article referenced earlier, Richard Epstein considered the Commerce Clause in light of the "overall constitutional structure" and concluded that when the "federal government received delegated powers from the states and the individuals within the states. . . there was clearly no sense that either grantor conferred upon the Congress the plenary power to act as a roving commission" that would be empowered to "do whatever it thought best for the common good" (Epstein 1987, 1395–1396). In light of this original understanding of a limited government empowered by "We the People," Epstein continued, any judicial interpretation that reads "the Commerce Clause" as "allowing] the government to regulate anything that even indirectly burdens or affects commerce does away with the key understanding that the federal government has received only enumerated powers" ([Epstein 1987, 1396). Charles J. Cooper, one of the strongest and most vocal proponents of federalism and limited government, writes in his 1988 article recommended in the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ , "The Demise of Federalism," that the Supreme Court had "abdicated its constitutional responsibility" to enforce the Commerce Clause as a "structural limitation on federal governmental power." Referring to Madison's _Federalist_ 45, Cooper argues that the founder whose silhouette graces the Federalist Society logo "underestimated the power of judicial interpretation" to erode the structural checks against federal power that the Constitution had put in place (Cooper 1998, 283, 249).
#### The Framers, Free Markets, and Functionalist Originalism
While several of the Federalist Society network actors' Commerce Clause arguments begin with this historical and structural insight about the relationship between limited government and individual freedom as important in its own right, they do not all end there. For instance, at the 1998 Student Conference, Lynn Baker argued for supplementing these more formalist or "historical insight[s]" about federalism and the Commerce Clause with a "functionalist originalism" derived from the economic logic of public choice theory. As articulated by Antonin Scalia at the Society's first national meeting in 1982, this argument is derived from the libertarian belief that "the free market has the ability to order things in the most efficient manner, and generally should be allowed to operate free of government intervention." This "functionalist" argument for federalism is perhaps best represented in the speech acts and scholarship of Richard Epstein. At the 1989 National Lawyers Convention, Epstein explained the relationship between federalism and public choice theory, many of whose adherents advocate competition and open markets: "The bottom line, therefore, is that separation of powers, checks and balances, should be treated as a means to an end. The only way that this end can be rightly understood is with a healthy dose of public choice theory, which should animate your coming and your going in public life." Epstein continued, emphasizing that "[w]hen most outputs of Congress are redistributive, then the best way to make government work is to see that its wheels grind slowly so that as little harm as possible is done. And that spells a great appreciation for the now neglected virtues of separation of powers."
Similarly, at the 1998 National Student Conference, Epstein used this same logic to argue that "the courts should reverse the limitless reading of the Commerce Clause and reject the implicit economic logic that underlies the vast expansion of federal power." Former Solicitor General Charles Fried used the same functionalist logic at the 1982 National Conference to argue that the Supreme Court's Commerce Clause jurisprudence, and its complicit role in the centralization of governmental power, had the practical effect of facilitating greater government spending: ". . . special interests can get a stronger hold at the federal level than they can at the state level; all one needs at the federal level is to find a few skillful congressmen and one senator, and one is assured a billion or so annually in the federal budget." Legal scholar John McGinnis echoed the same concern, relying explicitly on public choice theory's concept of "rent-seeking" to explain the inherent dangers of the Supreme Court's Commerce Clause post-1940s jurisprudence:
The advantage of federalism under this view is that a properly designed dual system of government can limit the total amount of rent-seeking by such interest groups more than can a unitary state. Rent-seeking from the national government is limited by giving it only limited powers, including limited powers, of taxation. Rent-seeking from state government is limited by putting those governments in competition with one another for capital, including human capital. The bridge between the two mechanisms is that the limited powers of the national government sustain the conditions for competition among the state governments.
As McGinnis went on to explain at the 1997 National Student Conference, "by the early 1940s the United States Supreme Court had abandoned the constitutional limitations that prevented the federal government from directly regulating manufacturing and the conditions of labor, thereby greatly increasing special-interest power to obtain regulatory rents." Similarly, Epstein has repeatedly called for a return to a "pre-1937" approach to the Commerce Clause, insisting that the Supreme Court's jurisprudence was "more intellectually coherent" and consistent with the important precepts of public choice theory as understood by these network members.
The "functionalist" argument for a limited reading of the Commerce Clause, at times relying exclusively on the language of public choice theory and at other times blending this logic with a "functionalist originalism," has appeared with some frequency in Federalist Society network scholarship. For example, a 1987 article recommended under the "federalism" section of the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ by Michael W. McConnell blends this public choice logic with an Originalist perspective to argue on behalf of the functional benefits of federalism. In "Federalism: Evaluating the Founders' Design," McConnell described how the American system of "dual sovereignty," preserved through a narrow reading of the Commerce Clause, was designed to promote three "complementary objectives: (1) 'to secure the public good,' (2) to protect 'private rights,' and (3) 'to preserve the spirit and form of popular government'" (McConnell 1987, 1492). Engaging in an extensive "examination of the founders' arguments and the modern literature," the McConnell piece catalogued the functional benefits of federalism:
. . . decentralized decision making is better able to reflect the diversity of interests and preferences of individuals in different parts of the nation. Second, allocation of decision making authority to a level of government no larger than necessary will prevent. . . attempts by communities to take advantage of their neighbors. And, third, decentralization allows for innovation and competition in government. (McConnell 1987, 1493)
Federalist Society member John Yoo argued that "the framers' understanding" of federalism and limited government "anticipated some of the concerns raised in recent scholarship" by "Public choice scholars" (Yoo 1998, 37). As he wrote in a 1998 law review article, "put in public choice terms, federalism and the maintenance of a federal government of limited, enumerated powers may be a positive externality that no individual state acting individually or collectively fully internalizes." However, the Yoo article maintained that the Framers also built "deliberate inefficiencies]" into the system to protect individual liberty and that these checks and balances can be seen to be "at odds with the public approach to federalism" because they do not maximize efficiency ([Yoo 1998, 41–42, 43–44).
While certainly not all-inclusive or exhaustive, this sample of speech acts and published scholarship advocating for a more limited understanding of the Commerce Clause represents some of the Federalist Society network's shared beliefs, first outlined in Chapter 1, about limited government, individual liberty, and the role of the judiciary in enforcing and policing the separation of powers. The next task of this chapter will be to examine how and to what extent the actual intellectual capital generated by Federalist Society members was diffused to Supreme Court decision makers in three important decisions handed down between 1992 and 2000: _New York v. United States_ (1992), _United States v. Lopez_ (1995), and _United States v. Morrison_ (2000).
### THE COMMERCE CLAUSE AND THE SUPREME COURT
Recall from the introductory section of this chapter that the Supreme Court had, for the first time in almost half a century, flirted with a more limited interpretation of Congress's commerce power in its 1976 _National League of Cities_ opinion. To the chagrin of many conservatives and libertarians, chief among them Justice Rehnquist, this decision was overturned just nine years later in _Garcia_. Justice Rehnquist, who would be elevated to Chief Justice the following year, was nonetheless "confident" that the principle of limited federal power embodied in _National League of Cities_ would "in time again command the support of a majority of this Court." With three more conservative appointments to the Supreme Court over the next five years, two of whom were very prominent within the Federalist Society network—Justice Antonin Scalia and Justice Clarence Thomas—the odds of Rehnquist's bold prediction panning out were certainly much more favorable as of 1991.
#### _New York v. United States_ (1992)
This case challenged the constitutionality of the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act. An effort to ease the burden on states such as Washington, South Carolina, and Nevada that until 1980 had been accepting all of the nation's low-level radioactive waste, the original legislation mandated that each state in the union be responsible for developing a method of disposing of its waste by 1986. States were given the choice of either building their own disposal sites or joining an interstate compact. When it became clear that states were not complying, Congress passed the Amendments Act, which extended the deadline for another seven years and included three types of provisions to encourage compliance with the Act: "monetary incentives" that authorized states to collect a surcharge for accepting waste, "access incentives" that authorized states to charge multiple surcharges to states not in compliance and to deny access altogether, and a "take title" provision that would hold a state liable for all damages incurred as a result of its failure to take possession or take title of its waste in a timely manner.
The State of New York had not joined a regional compact but instead identified five potential intrastate dumping sites for its waste in Allegany County and Cortland County. After intense opposition from the residents of these counties to the state's plan, New York and the two counties decided to file suit against the United States in the Northern District Court of New York claiming that the Amendments Act violated the Tenth Amendment, the Eleventh Amendment, and the Constitution's Guarantee Clause (Art. IV, 4). The District Court dismissed the case, and the Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the lower court's ruling. New York and its counties appealed to the Supreme Court, which granted cert and heard the case on March 30, 1992. The Supreme Court decision, handed down in June, affirmed in part and reversed in part, holding that of the three provisions in question, only the "take title" provision exceeded Congress's enumerated powers under the Commerce Clause and thus violated the doctrine of state sovereignty as protected by the Tenth Amendment.
Of the six parties filing _amicus curiae_ briefs in _New York_ , two were represented on brief by Federalist Society network members. Virginia Seitz and Laurence Gold argued on behalf of the AFL-CIO, while Carter Phillips and Rex Lee represented the Rocky Mountain Low-Level Radioactive Waste Compact. However, both parties were arguing to affirm the lower court ruling. Also urging the Supreme Court to affirm the lower court ruling and uphold the constitutionality of the Waste Amendments, the United States was represented on brief by Federalist Society member Kenneth W. Starr. Interestingly, then, the pro-federalism arguments were not being articulated by either Federalist Society network _amici curiae_ or affiliated counsel participating in this case. However, as Figure 4.1 details, the Federalist Society network still had four active conduits through which pro-federalism intellectual capital could be diffused: Justice Antonin Scalia, Justice Clarence Thomas, and two clerks with Federalist Society ties.
As I mentioned, both the District Court of Northern New York and the Second Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed the State of New York's case against the Waste Amendments. Relying on the Supreme Court's opinion in _Garcia_ , the decision that had overturned in dramatic fashion the briefly resurrected principle of limited federal power articulated in _National League of Cities_ , the Second Circuit majority provided a brief discussion of the tension that exists between Congress's commerce power under the Commerce Clause and the doctrine of state sovereignty embodied in the Tenth Amendment: "It is self-evident that virtually every congressional exercise of power under the _commerce clause_ will limit state power over that commerce and, to that extent, will invite state objections under the _Tenth Amendment_." In determining where the balance lay between these two constitutional provisions, the Appeals Court cited _Garcia's_ flexible, process-based framework that elevated the "national political process" over "the courts" as the ultimate arbiter of the limits of federal power and protector of state sovereignty. Discounting the nine years during which _National League of Cities_ was considered authoritative precedent, this process-based framework or, as many Federalist Society network actors would understand it, this abdication of judicial responsibility, had provided Congress with wide-ranging regulatory power under the Commerce Clause for half a century. As long as _Garcia_ and the laundry list of prior Supreme Court decisions consistent with its framework remained in force, legislation like the Waste Amendments would unquestionably continue to "pass constitutional muster" in lower courts.
While the Supreme Court majority opinion in _New York_ , authored by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, did not overturn the _Garcia_ framework, it did represent a bold departure from these prior cases by explicitly relying on a more "formalistic" approach to enforcing the constitutional boundaries between federal and state sovereignty:
Much of the Constitution is concerned with setting forth the form of our government, and the courts have traditionally invalidated measures deviating from that form. The result may appear "formalistic" in a given case to partisans of the measure at issue, because such measures are typically the product of the era's perceived necessity. But the Constitution protects us from our own best intentions: It divides power among sovereigns and among branches of government precisely so that we may resist the temptation to concentrate power in one location as an expedient solution to the crisis of the day. The shortage of disposal sites for radioactive waste is a pressing national problem, but a judiciary that licensed extraconstitutional government with each issue of comparable gravity would, in the long run, be far worse.
In sketching out the "constitutional line between federal and state power," the majority opinion referred to several essays from the _Federalist_ , in addition to numerous excerpts from the _Records of the Federal Convention_ and Elliot's _Debates_. More important, the majority also cited Federalist Society network scholar Michael W. McConnell's article, "Evaluating the Founders' Design" as an authoritative statement on "the benefits of this federal structure." This article and its functionalist-originalist defense of federalism, detailed in the prior section, had been cited almost verbatim in the Supreme Court's 1991 majority opinion in _Gregory v. Ashcroft_. The excerpts below, first from the McConnell article and second from the majority opinion in _Gregory_ , illustrate this overlap in logic and language:
Three important advantages of decentralized decision making emerge from an examination of the founders' arguments and the modern literature. First, decentralized decision making is better able to reflect the diversity of interests and preferences of individuals in different parts of the nation. Second, allocation of decision making authority to a level of government no larger than necessary will prevent. . . attempts by communities to take advantage of their neighbors. And, third, decentralization allows for innovation and competition in government.
This federalist structure of joint sovereigns preserves to the people numerous advantages. It assures a decentralized government that will be more sensitive to the diverse needs of a heterogeneous society; it increases opportunity for citizen involvement in democratic processes; it allows for more innovation and experimentation in government; and it makes government more responsible by putting the states in competition for a mobile citizenry.
Because the benefits of federalism had "been extensively catalogued" in _Gregory_ , the majority in _New York_ merely gestured to that opinion as additional support for its application of a more "formalistic" federalism framework.
**Figure 4.1** _New York v. United States_ (1992)
The three challenged provisions of the Waste Amendments, detailed earlier in this section, were considered in light of this more "formalistic" framework derived from and supported by Originalist sources and Federalist Society network member scholarship. Of the three provisions, the majority ruled that only the "take-title" provision constituted an "unconstitutionally coercive regulatory technique. . . lying outside Congress' enumerated powers" that made it "inconsistent with the federal structure of our Government established by the Constitution." The Act stood as constitutional, with this provision being severable from the rest of the Amendments. However, the principle of limited federal power that had up until this point existed mostly in the speech acts and scholarship of Federalist Society actors had been articulated and defended by a majority on the Supreme Court for only the second time in half a century. Relying on the canon of Originalist sources and select Federalist Society scholarship, the majority's opinion represented a sign of hope for individuals frustrated with the Supreme Court's long history of employing a hands-off, political process–based approach to federalism. The question remained, however, whether the Supreme Court would be persistent in policing the boundaries between state and federal power based on a more "formalistic" understanding of federalism or whether _New York_ would become the _National League of Cities_ of the 1990s, swiftly swept aside and overturned in favor once again of a more deferential and pragmatic approach to federal regulatory power. Observers would not have long to speculate about where the Supreme Court was headed with its federalism jurisprudence. Just two years after the opinion was handed down in _New York v. United States_ , the Supreme Court would hear oral argument in another case that implicated directly the limits of Congress's powers to pass legislation under the Commerce Clause.
#### _United States v. Lopez_ (1995)
This case subjected the Gun-Free School Zones Act to constitutional scrutiny, raising the question of whether the Act constituted a valid exercise of Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause. Enacted as part of the Crime Control Act of 1990, the Gun-Free School Zones Act made it a crime for any individual knowingly to possess a firearm within 1,000 feet of a school. Cosponsored by Senators Joe Biden (D-DE) and Strom Thurmond (R-SC) and signed into law by President George H. W. Bush, the Gun-Free School Zones Act received strong bipartisan support in both the House and the Senate. The issue of gun possession near schools had received some national attention after a gun attack outside a Stockton, California, elementary school in January 1989 killed five children between the ages of six and nine.
High school senior Alfonso Lopez, Jr., was charged with violating the Gun-Free School Zones Act for having carried a concealed revolver into his high school in San Antonio, Texas. His counsel moved to have the case dismissed in District Court for the Western District of Texas on the grounds that the Act exceeded Congress's congressional power to regulate under the Commerce Clause. The District Court denied the motion to dismiss the case, concluding that the Act was a constitutional exercise of Congress's commerce power, and subsequently convicted Alfonso Lopez, Jr. On appeal to the United States Court of Appeals in September 1993, the Fifth Circuit reversed the conviction, holding that the Gun-Free School Zones Act did indeed exceed Congress's authority pursuant to the Commerce Clause. The Supreme Court granted cert, heard oral argument on November 8, 1994, and issued a 5 to 4 split decision affirming the Fifth Circuit Court's holding the following April.
The litigation in _Lopez_ did not attract widespread Federalist Society network participation. The four network members identified in Figure 4.2 as _amici curiae_ in this case—Randy Barnett, Henry Mark Holzer, Daniel Polsby, Charles E. Rice—were all signatories on the same brief (the _Academics for the Second Amendment_ brief). Litigating the case on behalf of Alfonso Lopez, Jr., was advocate and Federalist Society participant Carter Phillips. Notably, three of the clerks working for Justice Clarence Thomas in this case—Saikrishna Prakash, Caleb Nelson, and John Yoo—would go on to become presenters at Federalist Society National Conferences and prominent members within the conservative legal movement. While I cannot say with any degree of certainty which of these clerks, if any, helped pen Justice Thomas's important concurring opinion in _Lopez_ , scholarship in political science suggests that Supreme Court clerks play an important role in crafting opinions (Peppers 2006, 83–144; Ward and Weiden 2006, 200–236) and also act as a critical bridge between the courts and the legal academy, bringing with them the latest theories, ideas, and creative legal strategies being nurtured and developed in the law schools (Atiyah and Summers 1987, 281–283).
The Supreme Court majority opinion in _Lopez_ , written by Chief Justice Rehnquist, opened with a recitation of the same excerpt from Madison's _Federalist_ 45 and also repeated some of the benefits of the dual federal structure as catalogued, with the help of Federalist Society scholar Michael W. McConnell, in _Gregory_ :
We start with first principles. The Constitution creates a Federal Government of enumerated powers. See Art. I, § 8. As James Madison wrote, "the powers delegated by the proposed Constitution to the federal government are few and defined. Those which are to remain in the State governments are numerous and indefinite." _The Federalist_ No. 45, pp. 292–293 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961). This constitutionally mandated division of authority "was adopted by the Framers to ensure protection of our fundamental liberties." _Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 452, 458, 115 L. Ed. 2d 410, 111 S. Ct. 2395 (1991)_ (internal quotation marks omitted). Just as the separation and independence of the coordinate branches of the Federal Government serve to prevent the accumulation of excessive power in any one branch, a healthy balance of power between the states and the Federal Government will reduce the risk of tyranny and abuse from either front.
Rehnquist's majority opinion did not proceed to engage in any deep or historical theorizing about federalism and the limits of Congress's commerce power. These tasks were, however, taken on by three other Justices in two separate concurring opinions in _Lopez_. Justices Kennedy and O'Connor's joint concurring opinion consisted of a thoughtful exploration, supported by numerous Originalist sources and couched in Federalist Society–friendly language, of the importance of "federalism" as one "of the various structural elements in the Constitution" and the Supreme Court's attendant "authority and responsibility" to "review" and at times strike down "congressional attempts to alter the federal balance."
Federalist Society member Justice Thomas also wrote separately to articulate what he believed to be "the original understanding of the _Commerce Clause_." Notably, in his defense of a more limited reading of "commerce," Justice Thomas incorporated Richard Epstein's argument from "The Proper Scope of the Commerce Power" (explored at great length earlier in this chapter) almost verbatim. While Thomas does not cite the 1987 Epstein article, the similarity in language and logic is unmistakable. I excerpt first from the Epstein article, and next from Justice Thomas's concurring opinion:
Similarly, one does not want a meaning of the term commerce which renders any one of these three heads of the commerce power redundant or unnecessary. The modern view which says that commerce among the several states includes all manufacture and other productive activity within each and every state. . . violates this constraint. . . . What possible sense does it make as a matter of ordinary English to say that Congress can regulate "manufacturing with foreign nations, or with the Indian tribes," or for that matter "manufacturing among the several states," when the particular fabrication or production takes place in one state, even with the goods purchased from another?. . . It is worth noting that this view of commerce as trade is consistent with the other prominent mention of the word commerce in the Constitution. Article I also states that "[n]o preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another." The term "commerce" is used in opposition to the term "revenue," and seems clearly to refer to shipping and its incidental activities. . . .
Moreover, interjecting a modern sense of commerce into the Constitution generates significant textual and structural problems. For example, one cannot replace "commerce" with a different type of enterprise, such as manufacturing. When a manufacturer produces a car, assembly cannot take place "with a foreign nation" or "with the Indian Tribes." Parts may come from different states or other nations and hence may have been in the flow of commerce at one time, but manufacturing takes place at a discrete site. Agriculture and manufacturing involve the production of goods; commerce encompasses traffic in such articles. The Port Preference Clause also suggests that the term "commerce" denoted sale and/or transport rather than business generally. According to that Clause, "no Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another." _U.S. Const., Art. I, § 9, cl. 6_. Although it is possible to conceive of regulations of manufacturing or farming that prefer one port over another, the more natural reading is that the Clause prohibits Congress from using its commerce power to channel commerce through certain favored ports.
Thomas also mobilized several essays from the _Federalist_ , excerpts from Elliot's _Debates_ , and evidence from an edited volume called _A Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution_ to implore the other members of the Supreme Court to "reconsider" its broad understanding of commerce and, "at an appropriate juncture," to "modify" its "Commerce Clause jurisprudence" to conform to the "original understanding" of the Constitution. For the time being, however, the Justice admitted that it would suffice "to say that the [Commerce] Clause does not empower Congress to ban gun possession within 1,000 feet of a school."
**Figure 4.2** _United States v. Lopez_ (1995)
The majority and concurring opinions in _Lopez_ made it quite clear that the Supreme Court's new "formalistic" federalism framework, introduced in _Gregory_ and _New York_ a few years prior, would not be a _National League of Cities_ –like blip on the constitutional radar screen. Indeed, the post- _Lopez_ optimism that change was afoot with the Supreme Court's Commerce Clause jurisprudence was particularly evident among Federalist Society network members. Federalist Society cofounder Steven Calabresi wrote in a law review article that the _Lopez_ decision marked "a revolutionary and long overdue revival of the doctrine that the federal government is one of limited and enumerated powers" and that it "must be recognized as an extraordinary event" for having "shattered forever the notion that, after fifty years of Commerce Clause precedent, we can never go back to the days of limited national power" (Calabresi 1995, 752). Similarly, John C. Yoo, who clerked for Thomas that term, wrote a few years after the _Lopez_ decision that "Federalism is back, with a vengeance" (Yoo 1998, 27). The Federalist Society itself responded to this post- _Lopez_ optimism by organizing its 1998 Student Conference around the topic "Reviving the Structural Constitution," at which speakers discussed and debated the rebirth of federalism, undoing the New Deal, and the advantages and disadvantages of a return to the formalist framework applied in _Lopez_. As it turned out, Federalist Society network members would not have long to wait to see whether or not all this optimism surrounding a more permanent return to the "formalistic" federalism framework announced in _New York_ and _Lopez_ was misplaced or in fact warranted.
#### _United States v. Morrison_ (2000)
The constitutional challenge in this case involved a provision of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA), enacted pursuant to Congress's Commerce Clause authority and its remedial power under the Fourteenth Amendment. The law provided a federal civil remedy for victims of gender-motivated violence. VAWA was drafted by Senator Joe Biden (D-DE) and signed into law by President Bill Clinton as part of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. The federal legislation was supported by groups like the National Organization for Women (NOW) and viewed by proponents as an important supplement to the patchwork of state legislation in place at that time, much of which was seen as providing inconsistent and unsatisfactory remedies for victims of gender-motivated violence. For instance, under Virginia state law, rape is a "crime with a remarkably wide range of sanctions, from five years to life imprisonment" with the choice being left to "'the discretion of the court or the jury'" (Noonan 2002, 123).
In early 1995 Christy Brzonkala, a Virginia Tech freshman, filed a report to the University complaining that she had been raped by two members, Antonio Morrison and James Crawford, of the school's football team (Noonan 2002, 121). When, after a series of hearings, the University failed to sanction the two football players appropriately, Brzonkala filed suit against Morrison and Crawford in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Virginia for damages under the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). The United States intervened to defend the constitutionality of VAWA but to no avail. The District Court dismissed the complaint, ruling that Congress lacked the authority to enact VAWA under either the Commerce Clause or its Fourteenth Amendment remedial power. A panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit initially reversed the District Court's ruling but upon rehearing _en banc_ , affirmed in a 7–4 decision. The Fourth Circuit majority opinion issued on March 5, 1999, was written by Federalist Society member Judge Michael Luttig. The Supreme Court heard the appeal from the United States on January 11, 2000 and affirmed the Fourth Circuit's ruling in a 5 to 4 decision issued the following May.
Federalist Society network participation in _Morrison_ reflected their post- _Lopez_ excitement about the Supreme Court's recent federalism revival. Eleven members signed on to 5 of the 18 _amicus curiae_ briefs submitted in _Morrison_ : William H. Pryor, Jeffrey Sutton, John Eastman, Edwin Meese III, Phyllis Schlafly, Richard Epstein, Clint Bolick, Timothy Lynch, Roger Pilon, Robert A. Levy, and Mary Ann Glendon. Every one of these briefs was urging affirmance of the Luttig-authored Fourth Circuit majority decision. Two of the three network members listed as counsel in this case—Michael Rosman and Charles Fried—were also arguing for affirmance of the lower court's decision. Between the Fourth Circuit (Luttig and Wilkinson) and the Supreme Court (Scalia and Thomas), the Federalist Society network boasted four judicial decision-makers in this case. Additionally, as Figure 4.3 illustrates, there were five network-affiliated clerks identified in this case. While Federalist Society network _amici curiae_ and litigators referred to the Originalist canon a total of 69 times in constructing their arguments on behalf of a more narrow reading of Congress's commerce power, as this section details, the Supreme Court majority opinion in _Morrison_ did not feature a single citation to these Originalist authorities. Instead, it relied on and reinforced the principle of limited federal power that had been articulated five years earlier in _Lopez_. As I have argued elsewhere (Hollis-Brusky 2013), while the degree of idea diffusion from the Federalist Society network into the _Morrison_ opinion is low when considered on its own, the fact that the majority is able to simply cite its previous handiwork in _Lopez_ (which as we saw, was constructed with the help of Federalist Society intellectual capital) is in itself a measure of the influence of this _political epistemic network_ in getting its ideas insinuated into authoritative Supreme Court precedent.
Judge Michael Luttig introduced the Circuit Court's opinion in _Morrison_ with a strong and dramatically worded defense of limited government, bringing into sharp relief the shared structural belief of Federalist Society actors that the division of power between the states and the federal government is a precondition for individual liberty. "We the People, distrustful of power, and believing that government limited and dispersed protects freedom best, provided that our federal government would be one of enumerated powers, and that all power unenumerated would be reserved to the several states and to ourselves." "Thus," Luttig continued, "though the authority conferred upon the federal government be broad, it is an authority constrained by no less a power than that of the People themselves." The majority proceeded to justify its conclusion that the provision of VAWA in question "simply cannot be reconciled with the principles of limited federal government upon which this Nation is founded" with reference to a string of recent decisions, like _New York_ and _Lopez_ , in which the Supreme Court had "incrementally, but jealously, enforced the structural limits on congressional power that inhere in Our Federalism." Reaffirming the impressions of several Federalist Society network actors, the majority noted that the _Lopez_ decision was indeed the "Supreme Court's most significant recent pronouncement on the Commerce Clause" and that while it did not explicitly overturn "the precise holdings" of _Garcia_ and past precedents like it, _Lopez_ effectively "renounced or limited some of the most sweeping reasoning and dicta of [the Supreme Court's] Commerce Clause opinions."
Fourth Circuit Judge and Federalist Society member J. Harvie Wilkinson wrote separately to add his own thoughts on the recent Commerce Clause decisions that resurrected a role for the courts in enforcing the structural boundaries between federal and state power. He considered _Morrison_ and past decisions like _New York_ and _Lopez_ to be cases that "pit the obligation to preserve the values of our federal system against the imperative of judicial restraint," in light of other periods of judicial intervention or "Judicial activism." Wilkinson's concurrence echoed concerns that many Federalist Society network members share—concerns that, in fact, he himself addressed in his talk at the 1988 Student Conference. In that talk, Wilkinson warned that regardless of what the original meaning dictated, the Supreme Court should not attempt to enact swift and broad changes to the constitutional landscape all at once: "the fortuities of uneven constitutional development must be respected, not cast aside in the illusion of reordering the landscape anew." In _Morrison_ , Wilkinson concluded that these decisions did indeed strike a proper balance between the obligation of judges to uphold and defend the Constitution and the obligation of judges to be measured and cautious in striking down popularly enacted legislation. Finally, Wilkinson noted that his "fine colleagues" in dissent might not share his views but that their Commerce Clause jurisprudence would in effect "sweep the role of the judiciary and the place of the states away" and amount to an attempt to "rewrite[] the Constitution" to their particular "taste." Wilkinson also warned judges against this tendency, what he described as the truly damaging kind of judicial activism, in his 1988 Federalist Society talk: "[this] holds special hazards for judges who are mindful that the proper task is not to write their personal views of appropriate public policy into the Constitution."
**Figure 4.3** _United States v. Morrison_ (2000)
The Supreme Court's majority opinion, written by Chief Justice Rehnquist, relied on its holdings in _Lopez_ and _City of Boerne v. Flores_ to conclude that the federal civil remedy provided for under VAWA could not be sustained as a constitutional exercise of Congress's authority under either the Commerce Clause or the Fourteenth Amendment. The majority opinion in _Morrison_ did not engage in any novel analysis, but merely reinforced the principle of limited federal power articulated most recently in _Lopez_ : " _Lopez_ emphasized. . . that even under our modern, expansive interpretation of the _Commerce Clause_ , Congress' regulatory authority is not without effective bounds." Justice Thomas added a four-sentence concurring opinion that reiterated his view, expressed in _Lopez_ , that the Supreme Court ought to align its Commerce Clause jurisprudence "with the original understanding of Congress' powers" if it does not wish to "continue to see Congress appropriating state police powers under the guise of regulating commerce." The dissenting opinion composed by Justice Souter and joined by Justices Stevens, Ginsburg, and Breyer chastised the majority for its reliance on a "new" kind of "categorical formalism" in enforcing the boundaries of federalism that, in their view, had no such "constitutional warrant."
### IDEAS WITH CONSEQUENCES: FEDERALISM AND THE COMMERCE POWER
After _Morrison_ , the question remains, then, to what extent does the Supreme Court's Commerce Clause jurisprudence reflect the shared beliefs and intellectual capital of members in the Federalist Society network?
In terms of network members' textualist-originalist arguments advocating a more limited understanding of "commerce," we saw that in _Lopez_ Justice Thomas's concurrence engaged in an extensive Originalist defense of this narrow reading of "commerce," relying in part on the logic and language of fellow member Richard Epstein's 1987 law review article. While this understanding has yet to gain acceptance by a majority of the Supreme Court, Thomas reiterated in _Morrison_ (and once again in dissent in _NFIB v. Sebelius_ (2012)) his intent to continue to push his colleagues to reconsider their Commerce Clause jurisprudence in light of this evidence. The structural argument linking limited federal power to individual freedom, on the other hand, has been adopted and articulated by majorities of decision-makers on both the federal circuit and the Supreme Court. Recall that both the Fifth Circuit and Supreme Court majority opinions in _Lopez_ opened with citations to Madison's _Federalist_ 45 to justify what Rehnquist referred to as a return to "first principles" in their Commerce Clause jurisprudence. Similarly, in his Fourth Circuit concurring opinion in _Morrison_ , an opinion littered with references to the importance of constitutional "structure" and "structural principles," J. Harvie Wilkinson relied on Madison's _Federalist_ 45 to support the position that the "federal commerce power" had "identifiable and judicially enforceable boundaries." Finally, while the Supreme Court has yet to consider the benefits of federalism from a pure public choice perspective, as some network members like John O. McGinnis and Richard Epstein have, it did in both _Gregory_ and _New York_ rely explicitly on Michael W. McConnell's functionalist-originalist defense of federalism to catalog the many benefits of the constitution's dual structure of sovereignty.
Taken together, the trilogy of Commerce Clause cases examined in this chapter were viewed by federalism proponents in the Federalist Society as serious victories for the principle of limited government. As network member Jeremy Rabkin wrote in _The Weekly Standard_ just weeks after the Supreme Court rounded out its constitutional reconsideration of Congress's commerce power in _United States v. Morrison_ , the "remarkably unflinching" and "brusque" opinion in _Morrison_ "show[ed] [that] the Court is not rattled by such [liberal scare] tactics" and that "for the Court's current majority, the Constitution really does mean something." Several days earlier in the _Wall Street Journal_ , Charles Fried had applauded the majority in _Lopez_ and _Morrison_ for its successful "attempt to breathe life into the federalism doctrine" and chastised the dissenting Justices for their refusal to draw any meaningful limits between "the national and the local." Randy Barnett took the opportunity of Chief Justice Rehnquist's passing half a decade later to evaluate positively "the New Federalism" and the Supreme Court's "revival of the ideas that the judiciary should protect the role of the states within the federal system and enforce the textual limits on the powers of Congress."
While the cases examined in this chapter certainly represented a long-awaited victory for the proponents of a more limited understanding of congressional commerce power, as a number of scholars have noted, the Supreme Court has refrained from targeting legislation at the heart of either party's political agenda and thus has not effectively limited the power of the federal government in any meaningful way (Shroeder 2001; Whittington 2001; Clayton and Pickerill 2004). In areas of importance to Republicans, such as drug control and federal preemption of state law, for example, the Supreme Court has "conspicuously shied away" from curbing Congress's regulatory power (Clayton and Pickerill 2004, 91). For example, in _Gonzales v. Raich_ (2005) the Supreme Court upheld the federal government's power under the Commerce Clause to ban the personal use of medical marijuana, contrary to the will of the California voters. In _Watters v. Wachovia_ (2007), the Supreme Court (at that point populated by four Federalist Society–affiliated Justices) handed another victory to the federal government in ruling that Congress had the power to regulate operating subsidiaries of national banks and, under the Commerce Clause, could preempt state regulations. Finally, in a case that I will discuss at length in the next chapter, _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012), the Supreme Court ruled that the Individual Mandate portion of the Affordable Care Act was unconstitutional under the Commerce Power, but then proceeded to provide a constitutional rationale to uphold the Mandate under Congress's Taxing Power.
Still, after half a century of being on the losing end of Commerce Clause decisions, Federalist Society–network advocates of limited government have reason to be optimistic. Moreover, the Commerce Clause cases constitute only half of the story of the "triumph of federalism" that Rabkin and several other Federalist Society network actors have celebrated in the media and in law review articles. The other half of this "constitutional revolution" in federalism, as Federalist Society cofounder Steven G. Calabresi has labeled it, involves a revival of state sovereignty and the Supreme Court's adoption of a novel doctrine, built in part upon the majority's reasoning in _New York v. United States—_ the Anti-Commandeering Doctrine. This doctrine, codified into law in a revolutionary opinion written by Antonin Scalia, was later relied on by seven Supreme Court Justices in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012) to strike down the Medicaid expansion provision of the Affordable Care Act as unconstitutionally "coercive" and in violation of state sovereignty.
## CHAPTER 5
## State Sovereignty and the Tenth Amendment
The Anti-Commandeering Doctrine
_U.S. Constitution, Amendment X_
_The Powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution_ ,
_nor prohibited by it to the states_ ,
_are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people_.
Questions of federalism, Justice O'Connor reminded her audience in the majority opinion in _New York v. United States_ (1992), "can be viewed in either of two ways." In some cases, the Supreme Court has framed its inquiry around whether a statute is authorized by "one of the powers delegated to Congress in Article I of the Constitution." In other cases, "the Court has sought to determine whether an Act of Congress invades the province of state sovereignty reserved by the Tenth Amendment." These two inquiries, O'Connor proceeds to explain, "are mirror images of one another: If a power is delegated to Congress in the Constitution, the Tenth Amendment expressly disclaims any reservation of that power to the states; if a power is an attribute of state sovereignty reserved by the Tenth Amendment, it is necessarily a power the Constitution has not conferred on Congress." While the three cases reviewed in the previous chapter all framed their federalism questions around the scope and extent of Congress's enumerated power under the Commerce Clause (Art. I, sec. 8, cl. 3), this chapter examines two other revolutionary federalism cases in which the Supreme Court focused its constitutional analysis on the "mirror image" of these inquiries—beginning instead with state sovereignty and the Tenth Amendment. In its crudest formulation, the state sovereignty doctrine maintains that after the American Revolution, the sovereignty of the English Crown was "transferred" directly to the people and, through them, to the "individual states" (Nash 2005, 969). These states were authorized to act as sovereign decision-makers, except in those areas where they had, through the ratification of the Constitution, explicitly authorized the federal government to act instead. This "geometric" or formalist view of federal-state relations thus divides sovereignty into two separate spheres, with "each government" understood as "supreme in its respective sphere" (Nash 2005, 969). In terms of the constitutional text, the doctrine of state sovereignty finds its most authoritative expression in the Tenth Amendment (U.S. Const., Amend. X). The principal legacy of the Anti-Federalists, who were fearful of the concentration of power, the Tenth Amendment declares that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people."
The Tenth Amendment and the state sovereignty doctrine notwithstanding, by the late 1970s most federalism scholars had pronounced the formalistic or geometric view of dual federalism described above as being "dead" (Hills 1998, 815). Cooperative federalism, a system in which federal, state, and local governments share responsibility for governance and interact cooperatively, had become the "reigning conception of American federalism" (Kincaid 1990, 139). Instead of conceiving of state and federal governments operating each within their own distinct spheres of power, cooperative federalism more accurately reflected how federalism had come to work in practice; that is, federal, state and local governments working together to fund and implement complex social and economic legislation. Beginning in the late 1950s and intensifying in the 1960s, for example, the federal government began to work with and provide funding to state and local governments to address problems of racism, health care, individual rights, poverty, and environmentalism (Kincaid 1990). While the objective of this legislation was for the federal government to work with states to alleviate serious social and economic ills, critics of this approach noted the propensity of "cooperative federalism" to degenerate into "coercive federalism," wherein the federal government imposed conditions on the states that seriously invaded state sovereignty and threatened to erode the constitutional limits of federal power (Kincaid 1990, 139).
In addition to the Supreme Court's laissez-faire approach to Congress's commerce power, the advent of cooperative/coercive federalism had become a serious concern for proponents of state sovereignty. The Tenth Amendment, in effect, had been on the losing end of constitutional and political challenges to federal power for half a century. The view that the Tenth Amendment was nothing more than "a truism" with no substantive meaning, first articulated by Justice Stone in the 1941 case _United States v. Darby_ , had more or less reduced the state sovereignty doctrine to empty rhetoric—an ineffective protection against federal incursion. In fact, the Supreme Court decision in _Darby_ provoked a Yale law professor to announce in a 1941 law review article with some sadness that "The Tenth Amendment Retires" (Feller 1941, 223). Even in cases where the Supreme Court did pay lip service to the substantive protections for state sovereignty within the Tenth Amendment (see, e.g., _Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining_ (1981) and _FERC v. Mississippi_ (1982)), it consistently found that the federal legislation in question did not in fact violate those protections. The one exception had been the short-lived decision in _National League of Cities v. Usery_ (1976), which brought the Tenth Amendment out of retirement to help justify limiting the scope and reach of the Fair Labor Standards Act. This opinion, authored by Justice William Rehnquist, prompted state sovereignty advocates to announce with some optimism "[r]eports of the death of the Tenth Amendment have been greatly exaggerated" (Abrams 1983–1984, 723) and that "the Tenth Amendment is alive and doing well" (Percy 1976–1977, 95). However, as was chronicled in the previous chapter, the Supreme Court reversed course and overruled the _National League of Cities_ decision only nine years later. Seen in this context, the Supreme Court's opinion in _New York v. United States_ (1992) represented a long-awaited victory for proponents of state sovereignty. Though, as we saw in the previous chapter, the majority in _New York_ ultimately relied on the Commerce Clause to strike down the take-title provision of the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Amendments, the opinion goes out of its way to give some teeth to the Tenth Amendment's implicit prohibitions on legislation that subjects states to "coercive" conditions, supporting its analysis with a multipage review of Originalist evidence surrounding the adoption of the Tenth Amendment.
While _New York_ signaled, for the first time, that a majority on the Supreme Court was willing to use the Tenth Amendment and its implicit prohibitions on federal "coercion" of the states as a serious limit on federal power, Federalist Society network actors had been hard at work developing the intellectual capital for this theory at conferences and in their scholarship well before this decision and continued to do so after. I will examine Federalist Society network participation and activity in two Supreme Court cases that built on and extended the logic of _New York_ in developing a robust theory of state sovereignty that would come to be known as the Anti-Commandeering Doctrine: _Printz v. United States_(1997), and _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012). As in previous chapters, I follow this up with an assessment of the extent to which the Supreme Court incorporated Federalist Society network actors' intellectual capital in articulating and/or supporting their decisions.
### THE FEDERALIST SOCIETY NETWORK ON STATE SOVEREIGNTY/ANTI-COMMANDEERING
Discussions of the constitutional merits of federalism and state sovereignty have become a permanent fixture of the Federalist Society dialogue. As we should expect, discussions of Commerce Clause federalism, within the Federalist Society network, are often merged with discussions of its constitutional "mirror image"—state sovereignty and the Tenth Amendment. A review of past National Conference agendas reveal that state sovereignty has also been discussed with some frequency on its own. For example, at the very first Federalist Society Conference in 1982, Michael W. McConnell's talk that focused on the Tenth Amendment and state sovereignty was called "The Politics of Returning Power to the States." At the 1994 National Lawyers Conference, panelists A. Raymond Randolph, Richard Epstein, and Stephen F. Williams discussed state sovereignty extensively on their panel "Limits on National Power and Unconstitutional [Coercive] Conditions." State Sovereignty also received prime billing at the 1998 National Student Conference, "Reviving the Structural Constitution." Two speakers highlighted states' rights in the titles of their speeches (Lynn A. Baker, "The Revival of States' Rights; A Progress Report and a Proposal"; John C. Harrison, "In the Beginning Are the States"), and several others discussed the importance of state sovereignty in the broader context of federalism and the commerce power. Interview data also illustrate Federalist Society members' interest in reviving a robust understanding of both the Tenth Amendment and state sovereignty. For example, in discussing the emphases and concerns of Federalist Society members and how they have changed (or not) over the life span of the organization, Charles J. Cooper was quick to point out that there is still an intense interest "within Federalist Society circles" in "restoring the structural protection" for states "to make decisions about how they will live. . . without the leveling and often times suffocating national rule" that the Supreme Court has allowed the federal government to impose on them. Similarly, Loren A. Smith said that one of the "unifying" principles of the Federalist Society was "a certain concern that states have a legitimate role in the federal system and that centralization in Washington is not the system that the Framers sought." Former Reagan attorney general and early Federalist Society mentor Edwin Meese also expressed a concern that legislators, once they arrived in Washington, D.C., lost their "allegiance to maintaining the Founders' constitutional view of the states in the whole structure of government." This, Meese continued, "has enabled the administrative state" and has destroyed "the balance between state and central government."
In terms of state sovereignty mentions in Federalist Society speech acts, just under half (64) of the 129 speech acts I located dealing with federalism/state sovereignty made explicit mention of the Tenth Amendment. Some of the most prominent and outspoken advocates of the Tenth Amendment and state sovereignty will be familiar from last chapter's Commerce Clause analysis—Charles J. Cooper, William Van Alstyne, and Michael W. McConnell, for example. However, this sample also includes speech acts from Federalist Society member state legislators—Pete du Pont and Malcolm Wallop, for example—who have a stake in reviving states' rights from the bottom up, rather than the top down. These members articulated an argument grounded in state sovereignty and the Tenth Amendment for limiting the federal government's reach into the states—a reach that had been seriously extended since the advent of cooperative/coercive federalism. From a close reading of all these speech acts, the arguments that Federalist Society members make on behalf of state sovereignty and reviving states' rights tend be of two kinds: Originalist arguments, relying on the Anti-Federalists and evidence from the Founding Era, that push back against the notion that the text of the Tenth Amendment merely states a "truism"; and arguments drawing on these same sources to address the more acute problem of "coercion" of the states by the federal government.
#### The Tenth Amendment Is Not a Mere "Truism"
Legal scholar Martin Redish opened his remarks at the 1996 Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention with the following satirical comment on the Supreme Court's century-long record of accomplishment of policing the boundaries between federal and state power:
Well, I have decided to entitle my talk, "The Supreme Court and Constitutional Federalism: A 100 Year How-Not-To-Do-It Manual." If the Supreme Court was to have one of those Bob Vila fix-it shows about constitutional federalism—maybe we could call it "This Old House and Senate"—and people were to call in and ask questions, and the Supreme Court was to give advice, you would want to do the exact opposite of what they said.
Redish attributed the Supreme Court's poor track record on federalism in part to the fact that it had felt at liberty to continually "ignore or disregard" the Tenth Amendment as an "unimportant" and "superfluous truism." Referring to the historical record, Redish argued that the Tenth Amendment instead should be understood as a "political exclamation point" on the federal government's limited enumerated power. Several other Federalist Society network members expressed a similar unwillingness to accept the view that the Tenth Amendment, as Justice Stone famously wrote in _United States v. Darby_ , communicated a mere truism. Current D.C. Circuit Judge David Sentelle confessed to an audience at the 1988 National Lawyers Conference that he "ha[d]n't gotten the word and perhaps never will. . . that the Tenth Amendment was intended to create an empty set." Sentelle continued, surmising that if "today" scholars and others see the Tenth Amendment "as an empty set, it is because we are not looking to see what is there" but rather what has resulted from "an improper treatment of the constitutional division of the powers of rule."
Along the same lines, at the 1992 National Student Conference, Pete du Pont lamented the fact that the Supreme Court in _Darby_ had "reduc[ed] the Tenth Amendment to a truism" and had subsequently "disavowed any judicial role in protecting the states from federal intrusion, leaving the states to fend for themselves and the national bull free to rampage through state china shops." Finally, Ninth Circuit Judge Alex Kozinksi introduced a panel at the 1998 National Student Conference with a discussion of how the "rebirth of federalism" embodied in _New York_ and _Lopez_ would hopefully challenge the view held by "most scholars" that the Tenth Amendment was "'a mere truism' that left the states only such power as Congress chose not to exercise." As mentioned earlier, many of these Federalist Society network members support their more robust understanding of Tenth Amendment state sovereignty protections with reference to founding documents. For instance, in her presentation before a Federalist Society audience at the 1998 National Student Conference, Lynn Baker relied on the "Framers' intent" and "history" to support her conclusion that "the states' ratification of the federal Constitution was predicated on the preservation of a sphere of autonomy for the states" and thus that "the Tenth Amendment" was intended "to serve as [a] real constraint on the exercise of federal power rather than as meaningless rhetoric." Six years earlier, at the 1992 Federalist Society Student Conference, Charles J. Cooper relied on papers of the Anti-Federalists and records from the Federal Convention to point out how far the Supreme Court had deviated from the original understanding of the Tenth Amendment. Cooper referred to the Tenth Amendment as one of the "forgotten" Amendments that, unfortunately, had "not had the constraining influence on the federal government's appetite for power that the Founders, especially the Anti-Federalists, had hoped." After mobilizing this historical evidence, Cooper asked the Federalist Society audience rhetorically: "When was the last time the Supreme Court upheld a State's claim that a congressional enactment encroached on the State's sovereign authority in violation of the Tenth Amendment? That has happened only once in over fifty years." Cooper continued his lament, pointing out that even "[t]hat modest, almost insulting, concession to state sovereign authority did not last long." Expressing a similar sense of frustration with the state of constitutional federalism over a decade earlier, at the 1982 National Conference, Theodore Olson looked to Madison's _Federalist_ 39 as evidence that the Founders had intended a more robust protection of the "spheres of sovereignty" with the addition of the Tenth Amendment. The _Federalist_ 39, which links the Constitution's authority to "the assent and ratification of the several states, derived from the supreme authority in each State—the authority of the people themselves," was also cited by participant John S. Baker, Jr., at the 1992 Federalist Society Student Conference in his discussion of the Tenth Amendment's protections against "a newly energetic central government" that "could infringe on the powers of the states and the liberties of its citizens."
Recommended reading on the Federalist Society's _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ , Charles J. Cooper's 1988 article, "The Demise of Federalism," offers even more historical evidence in support of a further robust understanding of state sovereignty under the Tenth Amendment. Cooper situated James Madison's promise in _Federalist_ 39 that the states would retain "a residuary and inviolable sovereignty" in the context of the laundry list of fears and concerns articulated by the Anti-Federalists, which, as he explained, ultimately "led directly to the proposal and adoption of the Bill of Rights, including the tenth amendment" (Cooper 1988, 239). This protection of state sovereignty, Cooper explained, was critical to the ratification of the Constitution:
In almost every state's ratifying convention, opponents of the Constitution—the "Antifederalists"—echoed the concern expressed by George Mason of Virginia: "T]he general government being paramount to, and in every respect more powerful than the state governments, the latter must give way to the former." . . . So great was the fear that the new national government would eventually consume the states that proponents of the Constitution were compelled to make assurances that a bill of rights. . . would be considered by the First Congress. Eight states voted for the Constitution only after proposing amendments to be adopted after ratification. All eight of these included among their recommendations some version of what later became the tenth amendment. ([Cooper 1988, 239–243)
In other words, Cooper's article used Originalist and historical sources to argue that the Tenth Amendment and its promise of state sovereignty, far from being a mere "truism," was a precondition of the states' acceptance of the new Constitution and was designed to "ensure the continued strength of the states vis-a-vis the national government" (Cooper 1988, 244).
#### "State governments are neither regional offices nor administrative agencies of the federal Government."
The above excerpt from Justice O'Connor's majority opinion in _New York v. United States_ (1992), which was reviewed in the previous chapter, succinctly articulates the argument that Federalist Society members have been making at their conferences and in their scholarship since the early 1980s, against cooperative-turned-coercive federalism. For example, at the very first Federalist Society National Meeting in 1982 on "Federalism," Michael W. McConnell used similar language to lament the development of cooperative (or "coercive") federalism: "the federal government has put itself in the position of managing partner of an enterprise, rather than that of a separate sovereignty. The States, to a very real extent, have been reduced to the role of administering federal programs, rather than functioning as sovereign states." A few years later, responding to the Supreme Court's flip-flop in _Garcia_ , William Van Alstyne complained in his article "Second Death of Federalism" (recommended reading on the Federalist Society's _Bibliography_ ) that by refusing to acknowledge the Tenth Amendment as a check on coercive federalism, the Supreme Court was complicit in creating "a plenary national power to dictate the terms of state and local government." Similarly, in the 1988 Reagan Justice Department Report _The Constitution in the Year 2000_ , principal author and Federalist Society D.C. Chapter head Stephen Markman dedicated several pages to the "troubling" issue of federal-state coercion, noting the constitutional threat this poses to state sovereignty and the Tenth Amendment, as well as the practical problems that states face if they decide to opt out: "When Congress seeks to control state policies by imposing conditions on grants and tax exemptions, the states can theoretically avoid congressional control by abstaining from the federal program." "In practice," the Report continues, "this is highly burdensome. . . . It may therefore be all but impossible for a state to withdraw from a federal program in response to a newly instituted condition." The report continues that "[i]f the Court continues down this path, it may be expected that the role of the states in addressing public policy issues will be significantly reduced by the year 2000." On the other hand, the report states, the Court "could decide to reverse its current course and place judicial limits, derived from the Tenth Amendment and the structure of the Constitution, on the authority of Congress. . . to interfere in matters of state concern."
That same year, in his 1988 law review article "The Demise of Federalism" (again, recommended reading by the Federalist Society), Charles J. Cooper reviewed a flood of federal legislation that places what he considered to be "coercive" conditions on the states, arguing that the "courts have acquiesced in this erosion of state power, deferring to Congress and rejecting arguments that the conditions imposed interfere with the sovereign prerogatives reserved to the states under the tenth amendment." Cooper explains that while the courts have been receptive to challenges to statutes that appeared to "coerce individuals" it has "rejected similar arguments when applied to the states." Cooper echoed the same concerns with the erosion of state sovereignty and the coercion of the states by the federal government at the 1994 Federalist Society National Lawyers Conference. Speaking before that audience, Cooper argued, "[a]t the wholesale level, surely no one will deny that the states have been 'melted' into little more than administrative units of the federal government." At the same 1994 Conference, reflecting on the Supreme Court's decision in _New York v. United States_ (1992), U.S. senator Malcolm Wallop characterized the federal government as a "temptress," explaining that "[i]t holds out the promise of things to the states, but its promises are conditional." Wallop continues, describing the unfortunate consequences of the various ways in which the federal government invades state sovereignty and "coerces" the states: "With the modern advent of the unfunded mandate, of the overzealous bureaucrat, of coercive federal court orders and of the blackmail of states and localities through the attachment of strings to the granting of federal funds, the federal government circumvents all the protections that we thought were in place against administrative despotism." Wallop ended his talk at the 1994 National Lawyers Conference with a bold prediction: "I honestly believe we are at a sort of watershed time now. . . . I believe that the people will begin to take back some of the powers that the states have lost under the Tenth Amendment." Wallop continued, "You are beginning to see movements to right ourselves. And organizations such as this one will serve as the intellectual basis from which these changes are derived."
### THE STATE SOVEREIGNTY/ANTI-COMMANDEERING DOCTRINE AND THE SUPREME COURT
By the mid-1990s, the Rehnquist Court had already signaled, through its Commerce Clause opinions in _New York_ and _Lopez_ , that it was both willing and capable of enforcing the limits on federal power in order to protect and preserve the individual states' rights to exercise sovereign decision-making in those "area[s] to which states lay claim by right of history and expertise." Still, the Tenth Amendment had been a second consideration in _New York_ , as the majority's opinion and analysis turned instead on the limits of Congress's commerce power. Just one year after it handed down its decision in _Lopez_ , the Supreme Court would consider a set of related but distinct questions concerning the scope of state sovereignty and the limits on federal power implicit and explicit within the structure of the Constitution. Along with the previously examined opinion in _New York_ , the opinion in this case— _Printz v. United States_ (1997)—would lay the groundwork for the Supreme Court's landmark decision in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012) to strike down the Medicaid expansion provision of President Barack Obama's health care legislation.
#### _Printz v. United States_ (1997)
In this case, the Supreme Court considered a challenge to an interim provision of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (Brady Act) that required law enforcement officers of certain states to carry out background checks on individuals attempting to purchase a handgun. Initially proposed to Congress in 1987, the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act was spearheaded by Sarah Brady, the wife of President Reagan's press secretary, James S. Brady, who was shot in the assassination attempt on President Reagan in 1981 and permanently disabled. After initial setbacks and opposition, attributed to the intense lobbying efforts of the National Rifle Association (NRA), the Brady Act found a champion in President Clinton, who helped move the bill through the Senate, and signed it into law in 1993. The Brady Act mandated the establishment, by November 30, 1998, of a national system for instant criminal background checks of proposed handgun transferees in order to ensure that handguns were not being sold to a subset of violent criminals, fugitives, illegal aliens, and mentally ill persons. In the interim, in states that did not provide for handgun permits or instant background checks, the Brady Act ordered the state's chief law enforcement officers (CLEOs) to personally carry out a background check within five days of all handgun purchases and, in some cases, to provide a written report containing the reasons for authorizing or not authorizing a handgun purchase.
In separate suits filed in the U.S. District Courts of Montana and Arizona, Sheriffs Jay Printz and Richard Mack, the CLEOs for their respective counties, challenged the interim provisions of the Brady Act, arguing that Congress could not constitutionally compel state officers to execute federal laws. Both District Courts agreed that the interim provisions of the Brady Act were unconstitutional but severable from the rest of the Act, leaving a voluntary system of background checks and the five-day waiting period intact. On consolidated appeal, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the District Court decision and held, in an opinion handed down in September 1995, that the Tenth Amendment did not prohibit Congress from enlisting the states to help carry out certain federal requirements. The Supreme Court granted cert and heard the appeal on December 3, 1996. In a 5 to 4 decision handed down in June of the following year, the majority reversed the Ninth Circuit's holding and struck down the interim provisions of the Brady Act as violating the structural principles of federalism and dual sovereignty.
Federalist Society network participation was relatively scant in _Printz_. As Figure 5.1 illustrates, only two Federalist Society network members participated as _amici curiae_ in _Printz_ (Gale A. Norton and Timothy Tymkovich) and there were no Federalist Society actors listed on litigants' briefs. However, the two Federalist Society–network Justices (Scalia and Thomas) each wrote opinions in the decision. The most notable datum in _Printz_ is citations to Federalist Society scholarship. Five of the 13 _amicus_ briefs filed in _Printz_ cited Federalist Society network scholarship in their arguments. Counsel briefs referred to two articles by network members, while the majority and concurring opinions of Supreme Court decision makers relied on five different sources of Federalist Society scholarship to help support state sovereignty arguments.
**Figure 5.1** _Printz v. United States_ (1997)
Both of the District Court opinions in _Printz_ relied on Justice O'Connor's analysis in _New York_ , examined in the last chapter, to conclude that the interim provisions of the Brady Act violated the Tenth Amendment. Reminding his audience that analyses concerning Congress's commerce power and the Tenth Amendment are "mirror images of each other," Judge Charles C. Lovell, writing for the District Court of Montana, concluded that even though the decision in _New York_ did not necessarily turn on the Tenth Amendment, the "language in the opinion made clear that the constitutional principles of state sovereignty restrict the federal government not only from compelling the states to enact a federal regulatory program, but also from administering such a program." The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, however, found no violation of the Tenth Amendment, arguing that the District Courts' reading of _New York_ was overly broad: "Mack and Printz. . . contend that. . . the federal government is now flatly precluded from commanding state officers to assist in carrying out a federal program. We do not read _New York_ that broadly." Accordingly, the Ninth Circuit found that there "would appear to be nothing unusually jarring to our system of federalism" in the Brady Act's interim provisions. The Supreme Court majority, in an opinion authored by Justice Scalia, would come to a very different conclusion.
Justice Scalia's majority opinion in _Printz_ , joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices Thomas, O'Connor, and Kennedy, is grounded not in the "text of the Constitution" but rather "in historical understanding and practice, in the structure of the Constitution, and in the jurisprudence" of the Supreme Court. As would be expected, in order to tease out the historical understanding and practice, Scalia refers to several essays from _The Federalist_ , as well as excerpts from the _Records of the Federal Convention_ , and Joseph Story's _Commentaries_. Finding that the history is not "conclusive," Scalia's opinion turned next to consider "the structure of the Constitution" in order to "discern among its 'essential postulates'. . . a principle that controls the present cases." In supporting the majority's opinion that the interim provisions of the Brady Act violated principles of federalism and the structure of dual sovereignty embodied in the Constitution and made explicit in the Tenth Amendment, Scalia relied on articles authored by four different Federalist Society network members: Saikrishna Prakash, cofounder Gary Lawson, cofounder Steven Calabresi, and David Schoenbrod. In one notable section of the majority opinion, for example, Scalia cites an article co-authored by Federalist Society member Gary Lawson to support his reasoning that the interim provisions violate the principle of state sovereignty reflected in various constitutional provisions, not just the Tenth Amendment. I excerpt first from the Lawson piece, and subsequently from the Scalia opinion:
In the Federalist [No. 33], Alexander Hamilton similarly argued that. . . "The propriety of a law, in a constitutional light, must always be determined by the nature of the powers upon which it is founded. . .". . . The Tenth Amendment declares that "[t]he powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people." This provision expressly confines the national government to its delegated sphere of jurisdiction. . . [any] law that regulates subjects outside Congress' enumerated powers is not "proper" and therefore not constitutional. The Tenth Amendment, as with the rest of the Bill of Rights, is thus declaratory of principles already contained in the unamended Constitution. . .
When a [law] violates the principle of state sovereignty reflected in the various constitutional provisions we mentioned earlier. . . it is not a "Law. . . proper. . ." and is thus, in the words of The Federalist, "merely [an] act of usurpation" which "deserves to be treated as such." The Federalist No. 33, 204 (A. Hamilton). See Lawson & Granger, The "Proper" Scope of Federal Power: A Jurisdictional Interpretation of the Sweeping Clause, 43 Duke L. J. 267, 297–326, 330–333 (1993). . . [The dissent's] argument also falsely presumes that the Tenth Amendment is the exclusive textual source of protection for principles of federalism. Our system of dual sovereignty is reflected in numerous constitutional provisions. . . and not only those, like the Tenth Amendment, that speak to the point explicitly.
Mobilizing this scholarship from the Federalist Society network, in addition to a variety of sources from the Originalist canon, the majority concluded that the interim provisions of the Brady Act "offend[ed]" the "very principle of state sovereignty" and "compromise[d] the structural framework of dual sovereignty" to such an extent as to render them unconstitutional. Scalia closed the majority's analysis by reiterating Justice O'Connor's defense of the Supreme Court's "formalistic" approach to federalism. As we saw in the last chapter, this same approach was mobilized to defend the Supreme Court's narrowing of the federal commerce power in _New York, Lopez_ , and _Morrison_.
Though they join the majority opinion, Justices O'Connor and Thomas both write separately to bring attention back to the Tenth Amendment, the constitutional provision that played a mere supporting role in Justice Scalia's majority opinion. For example, Justice Thomas wrote separately "to emphasize that the _Tenth Amendment_ affirms the undeniable notion that under our Constitution, the Federal Government is one of enumerated, hence limited, powers. . . . Accordingly, the Federal Government may act only where the Constitution authorizes it to do so." As we saw in Chapter 2, Justice Thomas also used his concurring opinion to pen some thoughts about the original meaning of the Second Amendment's right to "keep and bear arms," musing hopefully that "perhaps, at some future date, this Court will have the opportunity to determine whether Justice Story was correct when he wrote that the right to bear arms 'has justly been considered as the palladium of the liberties of a republic.'" In support of this claim, Thomas's concurring opinion referenced "a growing body of scholarly commentary" that indicated the right to bear arms was, in fact, a personal right. The string-cite of scholarship Thomas referred to was, in fact, borrowed from an _amicus_ brief submitted in _Lopez_ , the case examined in the previous chapter that struck down the federal Gun-Free School Zones legislation. Four Federalist Society network members were signatories on that brief: Charles E. Rice, Daniel Polsby, Henry Mark Holzer, and Randy Barnett. I excerpt first from the _Lopez_ brief and then from Thomas's concurring opinion in _Printz_ :
In contrast, articles accepting the Amendment as an individual right are published on their own merits and in top rank law reviews. . . Van Alstyne, "The Second Amendment and the Personal Right to Arms," _43 DUKE L. J. 1236 (1994)_ , Amar, "The Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment," _101 YALE L. J. 1193, 1205–11, 1261–2 (1992);_. . . Cottrol & Diamond, "The Second Amendment: Toward an AfroAmericanist Reconsideration," _80 GEORGETOWN L.J. 309 (1991)_. . . Levinson, "The Embarrassing Second Amendment," _99 YALE L. J. 637 (1989)_. . . Kates, "Handgun Prohibition and the Original Meaning of the Second Amendment," _82 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1983)_. . . S. Halbrook, "THAT EVERY MAN BE ARMED": THE EVOLUTION OF A CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT (1984). See generally, J. Malcolm, TO KEEP AND BEAR ARMS: THE ORIGINS OF AN ANGLO-AMERICAN RIGHT (Harvard U. Press, 1994), ch. 8.
Marshaling an impressive array of historical evidence, a growing body of scholarly commentary indicates that the "right to keep and bear arms" is, as the Amendment's text suggests, a personal right. See, _e.g_., J. Malcolm, To Keep and Bear Arms: The Origins of an Anglo-American Right 162 (1994); S. Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed, The Evolution of a Constitutional Right (1984); Van Alstyne, The _SecondAmendment_ and the Personal Right to Arms, _43 Duke L. J. 1236 (1994)_ ; Amar, The _Bill of Rights_ and the _Fourteenth Amendment, 101 Yale L. J. 1193 (1992)_ ; Cottrol & Diamond, The _Second Amendment_ : Toward an Afro-Americanist Reconsideration, _80 Geo. L. J. 309 (1991)_ ; Levinson, The Embarrassing _Second Amendment, 99 Yale L. J. 637 (1989)_ ; Kates, Handgun Prohibition and the Original Meaning of the _Second Amendment, 82 Mich. L. Rev. 204 (1983)_.
While neither the _Lopez_ nor _Printz_ decisions addressed the Second Amendment question, as I detailed in Chapter 2, this scholarship would feature prominently in Justice Scalia's landmark opinion in _District of Columbia v. Heller_ (2008) over a decade later and would help to justify the Supreme Court's individual rights interpretation of the Second Amendment.
Justice John Paul Stevens argued in dissent that given the long tradition of cooperation between the federal government and state and local officers "we are far truer to the historical record by applying a functional approach" to federalism that relies on the political process to safeguard the division between national and local than the majority whose decision relies on "empty formalistic reasoning of the highest order." Stevens further asserted that "perversely," the majority's ruling "seems more likely to damage than to preserve" federalism by creating incentives for the federal government "to aggrandize itself" in lieu of enlisting the help of the states. For its part, the majority of the Supreme Court also did its best in _Printz_ to counter the dissent's use of "sources we have usually regarded as indicative of the original understanding of the Constitution," by referring to these interpretations in various places as "a mighty leap," "untrue," "most implausible," and "most peculiar."
While the number of Federalist Society network participants in _Printz_ did not rival that of the previous chapter's _United States v. Morrison_ (2000) case, for example, the amount of reliance on Federalist Society scholarship across the board—by _amici_ , counsel, and judicial decision-makers—in this case was truly impressive. Aided and supported by this scholarship and intellectual capital, Justice Antonin Scalia constructed a state sovereignty argument that reinforced and extended the "formalistic" federalism framework that we first witnessed in the previous chapter's examination of _New York_. Relying on both the Tenth Amendment and overall "structure of the constitution," the majority and concurring opinions in _Printz_ together represented a sweeping and robust statement on the importance of dual sovereignty and of states' rights. While the immediate casualty of this novel Anti-Commandeering doctrine was the interim provisions of the Brady Act, the long-term consequences and import of this intellectual capital would not be fully understood for another 15 years.
#### _National Federation of Independent Business et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012)
On March 23, 2010, after a year of highly politicized town hall meetings, summits, and a sharply divided partisan vote in Congress, President Barack Obama signed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) into law. A keystone of the legislation is a provision (hereafter "the Individual Mandate") requiring that most Americans maintain "minimum essential" health care coverage. Beginning in 2014, individuals who do not comply with this requirement would pay "a penalty" to the Internal Revenue Service. This provision was designed to provide near-universal coverage and to lower overall health care costs by addressing the problem of adverse selection. As Theda Skocpol and Lawrence Jacobs explain, "mandating most individuals to get insurance serves to pool the relatively small number of sick and medically expensive cases with the far larger number of healthy people" and prevents the insurance market from becoming "lopsided" (Skocpol and Jacobs 2010, 74). Another important provision of the ACA aimed to expand access to healthcare by increasing the scope of the Medicaid program, a federally subsidized and state administered program that provides coverage for some poor people. The Act required state programs to provide Medicaid coverage to all adults with incomes up to 133 percent of the federal poverty level. This represented a significant increase, as many states currently cover disabled adults, pregnant women, and adults with children, and only if their income is considerably lower −11% of the poverty line in Alabama, for example. (Skocpol and Jacobs 2010, 76–77). A classic example of cooperative federalism, the ACA increases federal funding to cover most of the states' costs in expanding Medicaid coverage but also conditions that funding on states complying with new coverage requirements. If a state refuses to comply with the new coverage requirements, it may lose not only the federal funding for those requirements, but all of its federal Medicaid funds.
The conservative legal mobilization efforts against the ACA (derogatorily referred to on the legal/political right as "Obamacare") began long before the statute was signed into law. In this effort, prominent Federalist Society members led the charge. In July 2009, for example, the Federalist Society released a White Paper (co-authored by Peter Urbanowicz and Dennis G. Smith) entitled "Constitutional Implications of an 'Individual Mandate' in Health Care Reform," in which the authors outline various constitutional objections to the proposed healthcare legislation. On September 18, 2009, the Federalist Society hosted an online debate as part of its series "Originally Speaking," on the constitutionality of Health Care Reform. It then hosted a follow-up debate in November specifically on the issue of the constitutionality of the Individual Mandate, in which David B. Rivkin raised a host of constitutional objections to healthcare reform, referring to the Individual Mandate as the "Commerce Clause on steroids." This conservative legal mobilization against "Obamacare" spilled over into the mainstream media. In August 2009, Federalist Society members David Rivkin and Lee Casey wrote an op-ed for the _Wall Street Journal_ entitled "Illegal Health Reform." Federalist Society member Randy Barnett—who would become the mastermind behind the legal strategy attacking the individual mandate—posted a follow-up article on _Politico_ less than a month later, and argued that the commerce power did not and could not be understood to allow Congress to mandate the purchase of health insurance. From September to December 2009, David Rivkin was busy making the rounds on Fox News and FoxNews.com, calling the proposed health care legislation "an unprecedented imposition on individual liberty."
Despite these objections, the ACA became the law of the land in March 2010. As expected, shortly thereafter 26 states, several individuals, and the National Federation for Independent Business (NFIB) filed suits in federal District Courts, raising a host of constitutional objections to the legislation. The challenges that the Supreme Court ultimately agreed to hear in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012) came out of the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals and, before that, the United States District Court for the Northern District of Florida. The Supreme Court case involved two main constitutional issues: (1) a challenge to the Act's Individual Mandate as exceeding Congress's power to enact under the Commerce Clause; and (2) a Tenth Amendment/Anti-Commandeering challenge to the Act's Medicaid expansion provision. While the District Court and the Eleventh Circuit had both ruled that the Individual Mandate exceeded Congress's power under the Commerce Clause, the former had ruled that it was non-severable from the rest of the legislation, while the latter ruled that most of the Act could be salvaged even after striking down the mandate component.
As for the challenge to the Medicaid expansion, the Eleventh Circuit had ruled that the provision to expand Medicaid did not constitute "coercion" as the Supreme Court had defined it in _New York_ and _Printz_ and therefore did not violate the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution. Parties on both sides of the case appealed the Eleventh Circuit's decision to the Supreme Court: the States Attorneys General (Florida et al.) and the NFIB appealed the Eleventh Circuit's holding on the Medicaid Expansion and its decision on the severability of the Individual Mandate, respectively, and the United States Government (Department of Health and Human Services and Secretary Kathleen Sebelius) appealed the Eleventh Circuit's holding on the Individual Mandate as exceeding Congress's power under the Commerce Clause. The Supreme Court announced that it would hear the challenges in what would become known as _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ in November 2011 and, in a historic move signaling the importance of this case, it designated six hours of oral argument over three days (as opposed to the normal one hour) at the end of March 2012 to thoroughly consider all constitutional questions and concerns from the parties. After months of media speculation, fanfare, and election-year politicking, the Supreme Court finally announced its decision on June 28, 2012. In a fractured opinion written by Chief Justice John Roberts, the Supreme Court agreed with the Eleventh Circuit and District Court (and many members of the Federalist Society network) that the Individual Mandate exceeded Congress's power under the Commerce Clause. However, in a surprise move, the Chief Justice wrote that the Individual Mandate could still be upheld under Congress's taxing power and was therefore constitutional. On the other hand, the Supreme Court reversed the Eleventh Circuit's holding on the Medicaid expansion provision, arguing that it did in fact constitute "coercion" and therefore did violate the Tenth Amendment Anti-Commandeering Doctrine established in _New York_ and _Printz_.
As I described a few paragraphs back, Federalist Society members had been invested in the litigation efforts against the ACA well before the Act was signed into law—before there was even anything concrete to litigate against. Given the enthusiasm within the network for the constitutional questions concerned (federalism/state sovereignty) and the scope and importance of the legislation itself, it should not come as a surprise that Federalist Society network participation in the litigation in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012) was very high. As Figure 5.2 illustrates, 24 Federalist Society network members participated as _amici curiae_ in this case. These 24 members were listed on 15 of the total 56 _amicus curiae_ briefs submitted on behalf of the states and the NFIB. This list includes several names familiar from this chapter and Chapter 4 that I have identified as thought leaders within the Federalist Society network on the topics of federalism and state sovereignty—Edwin Meese III, Richard Epstein, and Charles J. Cooper. Additionally, eight Federalist Society members were listed as counsel on litigant's briefs, including both counsels of record. For the states (Florida et al.), Federalist Society member Paul Clement was listed as counsel of record and argued the case before the Supreme Court. Also listed on the brief from the states are Federalist Society members Robert M. McKenna, David B. Rivkin, Lee A. Casey, and Michael B. Wallace. Counsel of record for the National Federation of Independent Business, Federalist Society member Michael A. Carvin also argued his client's case before the Supreme Court at oral argument and was aided on brief by two other Federalist Society members—Randy Barnett and Gregory G. Katsas. Finally, though neither the District Court opinion nor the Eleventh Circuit opinion was written by a Federalist Society member, the network was well represented at the Supreme Court level with Chief Justice John Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito.
**Figure 5.2** _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ (2012)
Although the Individual Mandate portion of the ACA was ultimately left intact by the Supreme Court, the majority opinion in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ still represented a partial victory for the Federalist Society network. Relying on the Commerce Clause cases examined in the previous chapter— _New York, Lopez_ , and _Morrison—_ the majority opinion ruled that the Individual Mandate exceeded Congress's commerce power. In doing so, it reaffirmed the more limited understanding of the Commerce Clause that many network members had fought for decades to get the Supreme Court to adopt. The successful litigation strategy against the Individual Mandate, often credited to Federalist Society member Randy Barnett, was to draw a clear line between what the Supreme Court had previously said Congress could regulate (commercial "activity") versus what they argued the ACA was attempting to regulate ("inactivity"). The counsel brief for the NFIB (on which Randy Barnett was a signatory) explains that "[u]nder controlling precedent, there are 'three broad categories of activity that Congress may regulate under [that] commerce power'. . . Yet none of those 'categories of activity' covers the inactivity regulated by the mandate—i.e., the non-purchase of health insurance."The brief for the states (Florida et al.), on which Federalist Society member Paul Clement was counsel of record and four other network members were signatories, also advanced the activity/inactivity argument. In addition, 23 of the 54 _amicus curiae_ briefs submitted on behalf of NFIB and/or the states mentioned the activity/inactivity distinction a total of 90 times in their arguments. Seven of these briefs had Federalist Society network signatories.
This novel activity/inactivity distinction was adopted wholesale by Chief Justice John Roberts in his majority opinion in _NFIB et al. v Sebelius_. It also featured prominently in the joint dissent of Scalia, Thomas, Alito, and Kennedy. As Roberts writes, "[a]s expansive as our cases construing the scope of the commerce power have been, they all have one thing in common: They uniformly describe the power as reaching 'activity.'" He continues that, unlike previous cases, the individual mandate "does not regulate existing commercial activity:"
It instead compels individuals to _become_ active in commerce by purchasing a product, on the ground that their failure to do so affects interstate commerce. Construing the Commerce Clause to permit Congress to regulate individuals precisely _because_ they are doing nothing would open a new and potentially vast domain to congressional authority. Every day individuals do not do an infinite number of things. In some cases they decide not to do something; in others they simply fail to do it. Allowing Congress to justify federal regulation by pointing to the effect of inaction on commerce would bring countless decisions an individual could _potentially_ make within the scope of federal regulation, and—under the Government's theory—empower Congress to make those decisions for him.
Roberts continues that if the Supreme Court were to accept the Individual Mandate as a valid exercise of the commerce power, then Congress could presumably also use the commerce power to mandate individuals to purchase "food, clothing, transportation, shelter, or energy" and to regulate individuals "from cradle to grave." In fact, Federalist Society member and counsel of record for the NFIB made this exact point during oral argument. "If being born is entering the market," Carvin argued, "then I can't think of a more plenary power Congress can have, because that literally means they can regulate every human being from cradle to grave."
This concern with the slippery slope of governmental regulation, of the limitless power of Congress to compel individuals to engage in activity and to regulate individuals "precisely because they are doing nothing" was also an oft-cited concern by Federalist Society _amici curiae_ in their briefs to the Supreme Court. For example, in his _amicus_brief, Federalist Society member Richard Epstein writes, "This Court must give a candid answer to this question: 'If the government can force us to buy health insurance, what can't it force us to do? To that question it is not an acceptable answer to say that in the name of protecting and advancing health, the commerce power allows the federal government to prescribe what individuals may eat, how they must exercise, and what medicines they may take." Epstein's brief extended this logic, arguing that "[w]ithout judicially enforceable limits on the power of Congress, only the self-restraint of transient congressional majorities can limit the reach of the federal government. History teaches, and Madison knew all too well, that in any constitutional republic, the transition to unrestrained majority rule is often an irrevocable step on the road to tyranny." The language in Roberts's majority opinion also echoed the concerns of Federalist Society network members expressed in op-eds, on Fox News, and in Federalist Society–sponsored debates up to a year prior to this decision. For example, in an online debate hosted by the Federalist Society in November 2009, David B. Rivkin had argued that the Individual Mandate "does not regulate any transactions at all. It regulates human beings, simply because they exist, and orders them to engage in certain types of economic transactions." Similarly, network member Ilya Somin had written earlier in 2010 in a Federalist Society–sponsored publication that while "some argue that those who choose not to purchase health insurance are not simply 'doing nothing,'. . . the individual mandate is not contingent on engaging in any. . . activities."
What is so noteworthy about this wholesale adoption of the activity/inactivity distinction is the fact that the Eleventh Circuit opinion, which also found that the Individual Mandate exceeded Congress's commerce power, did not accept this distinction as dispositive. In fact, in their jointly authored majority opinion, Judges Joel Frederick Dubina (a George H. W. Bush nominee) and Frank Hull (a Clinton nominee) wrote, "Whereas the parties and many commentators have focused on this distinction. . . we are not persuaded that the formalistic dichotomy of activity and inactivity provides a workable or persuasive enough answer in this case." Unlike the Supreme Court majority, the Eleventh Circuit was hesitant to adopt the kind of formalistic distinction that had plagued the Supreme Court's pre–New Deal era Commerce Clause jurisprudence—the kind of jurisprudence that Federalist Society members such as Richard A. Epstein, if we recall last chapter's discussion on the Commerce Clause, are quite eager to return to in regular practice. What is even more noteworthy about the adoption of the activity/inactivity distinction is that, according to several experts and legal commentators—Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg among them—because Roberts's opinion ultimately upheld the Individual Mandate as constitutional under Congress's taxing power, it was not legally necessary to address the Commerce Clause question at all. So Roberts's treatise on the Commerce Clause and his adoption of the activity/inactivity distinction can arguably be construed as a way of placating those on the legal right (his fellow Federalist Society members chief among them) who would understandably be upset with him for joining the liberal bloc to uphold the Individual Mandate. If this is so, then this speaks to the power of the Federalist Society network as a "judicial audience" (Baum 2006), that is, as a check and a safeguard against conservative judges and Justices straying too far from what their intellectual and social peer group expect of them.
A second and more important way in which the opinion in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ can be understood as a victory for the Federalist Society network and proponents of limited government is in its ruling on the Medicaid expansion provision. To recall, this provision required states to provide Medicaid coverage to adults with incomes up to 133 percent of the federal poverty level. While the ACA increases federal funding to cover the states' costs in expanding Medicaid coverage, if a state refuses to comply with the expanded coverage requirements, it may lose not only the federal funding for those requirements, but all of its federal Medicaid funds. The states (Florida et al.), led by counsel of record and Federalist Society member Paul Clement, argued that this provision violated the principles of state sovereignty embodied in the Constitution, as well as the coercion doctrine: "The coercion doctrine is as essential. . . to the preservation of the integrity, dignity, and residual sovereignty of the states." To make its case, the states' brief relies heavily on _New York_ and _Printz_ , citing these cases a combined 13 times in its Argument section. Seven other parties submitted _amicus curiae_ briefs addressing the Medicaid question; three of these briefs contained Federalist Society signatories (Richard A. Epstein, Steven G. Bradbury, and James F. Blumstein). The majority opinion, penned by Chief Justice Roberts, dutifully reviews Supreme Court precedent on "coercion" and "commandeer[ing]," focusing especially on the opinions in _New York_ and _Printz_ to support the proposition that it is the duty of the Supreme Court "to strike down federal legislation that commandeers a state's legislative or administrative apparatus for federal purposes." After reviewing the details of the Medicaid expansion provision, the majority concludes that it crosses the line from inducement into unconstitutional coercion. In a final statement that recalls language often recited within Federalist Society network, Roberts emphasizes that, in a system of limited government and dual sovereignty, "Congress has no authority to order the states to regulate according to its instructions."
Though Scalia, Alito, Thomas, and Kennedy join in the ruling that the Medicaid expansion provision is unconstitutionally coercive, they write separately in this case. In addition to agreeing with the logic of the majority opinion, the three Federalist Society network members, joined by Justice Kennedy, pen a strong defense of federalism and the separation of powers as the key "structural protections" of liberty found in the Constitution:
The Constitution, though it dates from the founding of the Republic, has powerful meaning and vital relevance to our own times. The constitutional protections that this case involves are protections of structure. Structural protections—notably, the restraints imposed by federalism and separation of powers—are less romantic and have less obvious a connection to personal freedom than the provisions of the Bill of Rights or the Civil War Amendments. Hence they tend to be undervalued or even forgotten by our citizens. It should be the responsibility of the Court to teach otherwise, to remind our people that the Framers considered structural protections of freedom the most important ones, for which reason they alone were embodied in the original Constitution and not left to later amendment. The fragmentation of power produced by the structure of our Government is central to liberty, and when we destroy it, we place liberty at peril. Today's decision should have vindicated, should have taught, this truth; instead, our judgment today has disregarded it.
As discussed in Chapter 1, it is and always has been a priority of the Federalist Society network to promote and protect federalism and the separation of powers, what several members refer to as the "twin doctrines of the structural constitution." If there is a unifying principle or something that approximates orthodoxy within the Federalist Society, this is surely the belief. The joint dissent, penned by three prominent Federalist Society members, succinctly and emphatically illustrates this opinion. More important, it illustrates their disappointment with the Chief Justice, a fellow Federalist Society network member, for "disregard[ing]" this "truth" and for placing "liberty at peril" by upholding the Individual Mandate portion of the ACA. Further, in its closing section, the joint dissent accuses the majority [read Chief Justice] of "vast judicial overreaching," of "undermining state sovereignty" and of rewriting congressional legislation. Unsatisfied with the partial victory on the Medicaid expansion, the dissenting Justices announce that they "would find the [Affordable Care] Act invalid in its entirety."
### IDEAS WITH CONSEQUENCES: STATE SOVEREIGNTY AND ANTI-COMMANDEERING
While Federalist Society network members (including the three very prominent members in dissent) expressed both frustration and disappointment with the decision of Chief Justice John Roberts to join with the liberal bloc of the Court in upholding the Individual Mandate in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ , this case actually represented a significant victory for this federalism-focused network, the culmination of decades of intellectual effort and investment. To wit, Federalist Society member and mastermind behind the ACA legal challenge, Randy Barnett, wrote shortly after the decision in _Sebelius_ that, from his perspective, proponents of federalism and limited government had actually won, even while losing. As this chapter and previous have chronicled, the ways in which proponents of federalism have "won" are in fact many.
After reading the opinions in _New York, Printz_ , and _Sebelius_ , no legal scholar or court-watcher can reasonably declare that the Tenth Amendment is understood by the current Supreme Court to be a dead letter, a "mere truism." As we saw in both the current and previous chapter, several Justices went out of their way in both the majority and concurring opinions to breathe new life into the Tenth Amendment. Even though the Tenth Amendment had played a mere supporting role in the majority opinions in _New York_ and _Printz_ , through its dicta and rhetoric in those cases the Supreme Court had succeeded at, as one Federalist Society network commentator described in a February 2000 _Weekly Standard_ article, "blow[ing] the dust off the Tenth Amendment." While this Tenth Amendment rhetoric, undergirded in critical ways by Federalist Society network intellectual capital, would be important for supporting the Supreme Court's decision 12 years later in _Sebelius_ , it has also contributed to a broader revolution in state sovereignty—one that has included the Supreme Court's adoption of a novel and expansive understanding of the Eleventh Amendment's State Sovereign immunity doctrine.
As I explain elsewhere, over the past 20 years the Supreme Court has used both of these doctrines in surprising ways to push back against perceived incursions into state power and state prerogative (Hollis-Brusky 2013). This robust understanding of state sovereignty and its implications for the future of federal power was on full display in former Federalist Society network advisor Justice Antonin Scalia's dissenting opinion in the controversial 2012 Arizona immigration case, _Arizona et al. v. United States_. In his dissent, which was joined in part by Federalist Society–affiliated Justices Thomas and Alito, Scalia draws on the Tenth and Eleventh Amendments to articulate an argument for an extreme version of state sovereignty—one that, as the majority warned, if accepted would allow "every State to] give itself the independent authority to prosecute federal. . . violations" and, in essence, create a system of 50 separate sovereigns, each with the power to enforce federal law as it saw fit. While this opinion did not command the majority of the Supreme Court in this case, the same robust state sovereignty logic undergirding it was used by the conservative majority to strike down Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act in _Shelby County v. Holder_ (2013). In that majority opinion, Chief Justice Roberts wrote that the Voting Rights Act of 1965 represented "a drastic departure from basic principles of federalism" and that the coverage formula that had subjected some states and jurisdictions to a preclearance requirement prior to enacting changes to their voting laws or procedures represented "an equally dramatic departure from the principle that all states enjoy equal sovereignty." While this constitutional principle of equal dignity and sovereignty of the states finds no support in the text of the Constitution itself, it is clearly aligned with several of the cases I have examined both in the last few chapters of this book and elsewhere ([Hollis-Brusky 2013), in which the Supreme Court has used structuralist arguments to inflate the sphere of state sovereignty in order to push back on what these Justices perceive to be unjustified and offensive incursions by the federal government into state affairs.
The Anti-Commandeering Doctrine that emerged from the Supreme Court's reasoning in _New York_ and _Printz_ reads like a scripted response to the complaint articulated for over a decade prior to these decisions at Federalist Society meetings and in network scholarship—that thanks to the advent of cooperative federalism, the states were dangerously close to becoming administrative units of the federal government. That is because, in many ways, Federalist Society members wrote the script. Once that script was written, the Supreme Court majority in _Sebelius_ was able to draw on the Anti-Commandeering Doctrine to strike down the Medicaid Expansion provision of the ACA with relative jurisprudential ease. In fact, in holding as it did in _Sebelius_ that a federal law can constitute an unconstitutional command even if the states can choose not to act, the majority in effect redefined the scope of the doctrine and placed a completely new class of federal laws at constitutional risk. As one scholar explains, this is "an important shift" in the doctrine that could "jeopardize a range of federal spending programs" (Joondeph 2012). We will likely find out in the coming years whether the opinion in _Sebelius_ will open the door for constitutional challenges to a large swath of cooperative federalism programs that once were thought to be well within the scope of federal power. What is clear even at this point is that State Senator Malcolm Wallop's prediction at the 1994 Federalist Society National Conference ("I honestly believe we are at a sort of watershed time now. . . . I believe that the people will begin to take back some of the powers that the states have lost under the Tenth Amendment") has proved to be remarkably prescient. Moreover, as this chapter and the previous have demonstrated, the Federalist Society has in fact (as Wallop also predicted) "serve[d] as the intellectual basis" for many of "these changes."
## PART III
## It Is Emphatically the Province and Duty of the Judiciary Branch to Say What the Law Is, Not What It Should Be
## CHAPTER 6
## Saying What the Law Is
The Federalist Society and the Conservative Counterrevolution
Taking a step back, the task of this final chapter is to begin to aggregate what we know about the Federalist Society network and its influence. This includes reviewing insights drawn from the analyses in this book, and situating this within a body of scholarship on constitutional change more generally, and on the role of "support structures" (Epp 1998; Southworth 2008; Teles 2008; Hollis-Brusky 2011a) in that process more specifically. Doing so will help to identify some of the critical ways in which this network and others like it (past, present, or future) can (1) shape the content, direction, and character of constitutional revolutions by supporting, developing, and diffusing ideas or intellectual capital to Supreme Court decision-makers; and (2) help foster the conditions that facilitate those constitutional revolutions in the first place by (a) identifying, credentialing, and getting the right kinds of judges and Justices on the bench, (b) acting as a vocal and respected judicial audience to keep those judges and Justices in check once on the bench, and (c) creating an intellectual and political climate that is favorable to the desired change by reducing the stigma associated with once-radical ideas or constitutional theories. In effectively performing this dual function, the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies has had remarkable success implementing the third prong of its statement of principles: _that it is emphatically the province and duty of the judiciary to say what_ [they believe] _the law is, not what_ [others believe] _it should be_.
While the first function of the Federalist Society as a _political epistemic network_ (PEN)—providing intellectual capital for judicial decision makers—has been detailed in this book, as well as in my prior scholarship on the topic (Hollis-Brusky 2011b, ), the second function—helping to foster an environment where constitutional change is possible in the first place—builds on earlier work on the Federalist Society (Hicks 2006; Paik et al. 2007; Southworth 2008; Teles 2008, 2009; Scherer and Miller 2009), and synthesizes this work with social science scholarship on the dynamics of constitutional change (Dahl 1957; Graber 1993; Epp 1998; Clayton and May 2000; Whittington 2001, 2005; Balkin and Levinson 2001, 2006; Clayton and Pickerill 2004; Gillman 2006) and judicial behavior (Baum 2006; Baird 2007). This chapter proceeds by reviewing and/or introducing evidence to illustrate two critical functions that the Federalist Society network performed in helping to bring about and shape the Supreme Court's "conservative counterrevolution."
### SHAPING THE CONTENT, CHARACTER, AND DIRECTION OF SUPREME COURT DECISIONS
As the preceding chapters have demonstrated, the Federalist Society network and its members have played an important role in generating and diffusing ideas and intellectual capital to Supreme Court decision-makers in several of the most significant decisions of the "conservative counterrevolution" currently underway on the Court. Acting in their professional capacities as academics, _amici curiae_ , litigators, clerks, and judges, members of the Federalist Society network (like the "cognitive baggage handlers" Haas described in his classic article on epistemic communities) carried their shared beliefs, ideas, authorities, and sources to decision-makers through scholarship and, more proximately, through _amici curiae_ and merits briefs filed in those cases. Because of the conditions of uncertainty associated with changing constitutional meaning—conditions that epistemic community theorists identify as important for influence (Haas 1992; Cross 2013)—the Justices relied on outside intellectual capital from Federalist Society network members to help justify their revised and reconstructed constitutional frames in these cases where _doctrinal distance_ (Hollis-Brusky 2013) was meaningful and significant. For example, in Chapter 2 we saw how, with the properly framed case brought by Federalist Society–affiliated litigators and with the intellectual capital nurtured and supported through the Federalist Society network, five Justices on the Supreme Court were able to reinterpret, by some standards radically, the Second Amendment's right to keep and bear arms as a personal, not a collective right in _Heller_. While the network did not achieve its ideal constitutional result in _McDonald_ —to resurrect the Privileges or Immunities clause—Justice Alito's opinion did further entrench the _Heller_ individual rights holding of the Second Amendment and, with help from several Federalist Society network members, Justice Thomas's concurrence laid the first brick on a path to possibly resurrecting the Privileges or Immunities Clause in the future.
Similarly, in Chapter 3 we saw how Federalist Society network members helped to construct and intellectually reinforce the path that led to the Supreme Court's revolutionary _Citizens United_ decision, in which it held that the First Amendment protections for free speech extended to corporations and unions as well as individuals. As Justice Stevens warned in his dissent, this holding not only threatened to "undermine the integrity of elected institutions across the Nation" but it also would likely "do damage to this institution." Finally, in Chapters 4 and , we saw Federalist Society members for decades lobbying the Supreme Court to "Reviv[e] the Structural Constitution." Once the Court seemed ready and willing to consider doing so, network members again provided the intellectual capital and support to justify narrowing the long-expansive federal commerce power in _New York, Lopez_ , and _Morrison_ —holding that federal programs aimed at controlling waste disposal, guns near schools, and violence against women were beyond the scope of the federal commerce power. Even more critically, Justice Scalia relied on several sources of network scholarship to construct the novel "Anti-Commandeering" Doctrine in _Printz_. While the immediate casualty of _Printz_ was the background-check provisions of the Brady Act, this same doctrine would empower the Supreme Court to strike down the Affordable Care Act's Medicaid Expansion in _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_. Each of these cases persuasively demonstrates how the Federalist Society network helped to shape the content, character, and direction of these revolutionary Supreme Court decisions.
As I have written elsewhere (Hollis-Brusky 2013), and as this expanded study further demonstrates, this dynamic makes sense in the context of what we know about law and the American judicial enterprise as being both highly path-dependent and preoccupied with the problem of justifying the power of judicial review in a democratic system. The American judicial enterprise and judicial decision making in particular, as Gordon Silverstein has written, is "distinctly different" from decision-making and policymaking in the political branches:
. . . judicial decision-making follows different rules and is driven by different incentives, limited by different constraints, and addressed to different audiences in a different language than is the political process. The way judges articulate, explain, and rationalize their choices and the way earlier decisions influence, shape, and constrain later judicial decisions are distinctly different from the patterns, practices, rhetoric, internal rules, and driving incentives that operate in the elected branches and among bureaucrats. (Silverstein 2009, 63)
One unique constraint of the American judicial enterprise, as I wrote in Chapter 1, is the "giving reasons requirement" (Shapiro 2002). Unlike legislators who simply vote according to their policy preferences, judges and Justices are required to issue written opinions explaining, supporting, and defending their decisions. In order to persuade a similarly trained and educated legal and political audience that these decisions were well reasoned and authoritative, these opinions must situate the given decision within an established legal or constitutional framework or, alternatively, they must provide a convincing argument for why that framework should either be ignored, altered, or reconstructed entirely. In other words, judicial decision-makers can either attempt to fit the case within an "existing line of reasoning" (Silverstein 2009, 64) or, as Chief Justice Rehnquist did in _Lopez_ , "begin with first principles" and instead construct an altered or new line of reasoning—a new constitutional frame—to justify their decision. In the parlance of path-dependence, when the Supreme Court decides to do the latter, we might refer to this as a new point of "critical juncture" (Mahoney 2000; Pierson 2000; Hathaway 2001; Bennet and Elman 2007; Capoccia and Kelemen 2007) in Supreme Court jurisprudence.
Of course, the less costly, lower risk option for decision-makers is to justify their decisions with reference to the existing constitutional framework, particularly if that frame and the attendant precedents have become entrenched from years of judicial reliance and authoritative citation. As former Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson wrote in _The Struggle for Judicial Supremacy_ :
Justices are drawn only from the legal profession. The entire philosophy, interest, and training of the legal profession tend toward conservatism. . . it is much concerned with precedents, authorities, existing customs, usages, vested rights, and established relationships. Its method of thinking, accepted by no other profession, cultivates a supreme respect for the past, and its order. Justice Cardozo has well said that the "power of precedent, when analyzed, is the power of the beaten track." No lawyer sufficiently devoted to the law to know our existing rules, the history of them, and the justification for them, will depart from them lightly. (Jackson 1979, 313–314)
Again, if we want to think about Justice Jackson's observations in terms of path-dependence, once the Supreme Court starts down a path or line of reasoning and once that path is "beaten" or entrenched in doctrine, the costs of un-sticking the old line of reasoning and constructing a new one are very high (Pierson 2000, 254; Silverstein 2009). This is because the further the Supreme Court decides to move away from its established constitutional frame in a given case, the less it will be able to rely on past lines of reasoning and precedent to legitimate its ruling, and the more it will have to fish around for alternative authorities and constitutional frames to justify a decision.
I argue that it is this precise dynamic that opened the door for the Federalist Society to frame and shape the Supreme Court's legal reasoning by providing ideas, authoritative sources, and legal arguments that were used to un-stick and reconstruct the constitutional frames articulated in the cases examined in this book. Once that constitutional frame was laid down and the intellectual capital incorporated into Supreme Court doctrine, it could once again justify its rulings according to its own precedent, as we saw in _United States v. Morrison_ (2000)—the case that struck down part of the Violence Against Women Act as beyond the scope of the federal commerce power. That is not to say, however, that _Morrison_ and cases like it do not exhibit Federalist Society network influence. The Supreme Court, in treating the Federalist Society–constructed opinion in _Lopez_ as settled law, is saying that these ideas no longer need to be defended or legitimated. They are now part of the new constitutional frame, one that has the force and authority of Supreme Court precedent backing the judgment. In many ways, then, opinions that follow on the heels of these revolutionary decisions and further entrench those decisions—as _Morrison_ did after _Lopez_ —exhibit the highest degree of Federalist Society influence, for they not only contain the network imprimatur but they also have the weight of Supreme Court precedent. What that constitutional frame looks like and how it is articulated is important because it influences the decision-making and policymaking of lower courts, future courts, the political branches, and other political and legal entrepreneurs. In his book _Law's Allure_ , political scientist Gordon Silverstein cites Martin Shapiro on this point, emphasizing that written opinions matter since these "provide the constraining directions to the public and private decision makers who determine ninety-nine percent of conduct that never reaches the courts" (Silverstein 2009, 64).
In summary, the preceding chapters helped to illuminate the "untold ways" (to once again borrow cofounder David McIntosh's words) in which the Federalist Society network has shaped the content, character, and direction of the conservative counterrevolution. That is, it shows how—once the door for constitutional change was open and the Justices were willing—the Federalist Society network became an active series of conduits through which ideas and intellectual capital were transmitted to decision-makers looking to justify their altered or reconstructed constitutional frameworks. But, as prior scholarship on the Federalist Society has gestured at, and as scholarship on constitutional change more generally would suggest, we should also partially credit the Federalist Society network with helping to bring about that constitutional change in the first place—in helping to create (again, in the parlance of path-dependence) the "critical junctures" that it would then actively work to shape with its ideas and intellectual capital. The next section synthesizes previous research on the Federalist Society network with that of my own and integrates this with insights from scholarship on constitutional change and judicial behavior to highlight three ways in which the Federalist Society network helped to create a climate conducive to constitutional change.
### HELPING TO CREATE A CLIMATE CONDUCIVE TO CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGE
In addition to exploiting the opportunities to shape constitutional meaning and direction when they have arisen, what has the Federalist Society network done to help foster and facilitate those opportunities in the first place? In other words, can we identify ways in which this network has worked actively to help bring about a climate conducive to constitutional change? While there are undoubtedly many other "untold ways" in which the network and its members have had a hand in fostering a climate conducive to constitutional change, I explore three areas—grounded in and drawn from studies of constitutional change and judicial behavior in political science—where we can identify Federalist Society influence: getting the right cast of characters on the Supreme Court; acting as an effective judicial audience; and creating an intellectual climate more favorable to Originalism and conservative and libertarian legal ideas.
#### Getting the Right Cast of Characters on the Supreme Court
[T]he Federalist Society has a de facto monopoly on the credentialing of rising stars. . . on the left there are a million ways of getting credentialed; on the political right, there's only one way in these legal circles.
—Federalist Society member Michael Greve, February 12, 2008
The topic of constitutional change has long fascinated and engaged the academic imagination. While explaining constitutional change has become something of a cottage industry within legal scholarship and political science, the voices that have dominated this debate have all echoed variations of the same proposition: that the "Supreme Court follows the election returns." This insight finds its most robust expression in "regime politics theory" (Dahl 1957; Graber 1993; Clayton and May 2000; Balkin and Levinson 2001, 2006; Whittington 2001; Clayton and Pickerill 2004; Gillman 2006). This theory maintains that constitutional change is ultimately driven by electoral politics—the people elect a president, who then exercises the power of appointment to pack the federal courts with judges who share his party's broad political agenda: "w]hen Presidents are able to appoint enough judges and Justices, constitutional doctrines start to change" ([Balkin and Levinson 2006, 102). While I—alongside several other scholars—have maintained that getting the right cast of characters on the bench is not a _sufficient_ condition for bringing about constitutional change and revolution (see, e.g., Hollis-Brusky 2011a), it is still a _necessary_ condition for enacting such change.
The founding generation of the Federalist Society was acutely aware of this concept. After all, as former Reagan Justice Department appointee and Federalist Society member Douglas Kmiec said to me in our interview, one of the key insights that founding members of the Federalist Society learned at the Reagan Justice Department (alongside "ideas have consequences") is that "policy is people." So changing constitutional law and policy meant, first, getting the right people into positions of power and influence in government (where judicial nominees are vetted, selected, and confirmed) and on the bench (where these "people" can actually shape and influence "policy"). One of the earliest members of the Federalist Society, who also served in the Reagan Justice Department alongside its founders, recalls Steven Calabresi telling him that, for exactly this reason, it was "crucial to credential young conservatives. . . and to build an alternative elite." Corroborating this, Steven Teles recounts in his own work on the Federalist Society that building an "informal" job placement network to rival that of the "liberal legal network" was an explicit goal of the Federalist Society's founders (Teles 2008, 140). By all measures, they have succeeded. As one member put it to me, "you cannot have a conversation in Washington about judges without the Federalist Society being part of it." That is because, over the past 30 years, the Federalist Society network and its members have played a key role in recruitment, training, credentialing, and vetting nominees for federal judgeships. As Michael Greve stated emphatically in the interview excerpt above, the Federalist Society now has a "de facto monopoly on the credentialing of rising stars" within the conservative legal movement. Federalist Society member and former Student Chapter president Tony Cotto illustrated the power of the Federalist Society credential with reference to President George W. Bush's withdrawn Supreme Court nomination of Harriet Miers: "No Fed Society credentials, that's going to hurt you. It hurt Harriet [Miers] a lot. . . . We want credentials. We want to see you've spoken at Federalist Society conferences, we want to know you've been at dinners, gripping and grinning. Even if you're not a die-hard, we need to know you."
Moreover, while it does not issue official rankings of judicial candidates like the American Bar Association, the Federalist Society network has become an important "informal" gatekeeper for vetting judicial nominees to the lower federal courts and to the Supreme Court during Republican administrations (Southworth 2008, 138–141; Teles 2008, 527–529; Hollis-Brusky 2011b). As he explained in our interview, Federalist Society member Michael Carvin believes the Federalist Society is "influencing some aspects of the judicial confirmation process" because unlike before, "conservatives have an intellectual background and set of principles that are out there and widely accepted." Similarly, member Randy Barnett said that while opponents refer to the Federalist Society as a "vast right-wing conspiracy, the truth that lies behind that is that. . . the Federalist Society is the only source of conservative and libertarian legal intellectual activity in the United States." "Given that," Barnett continued, "of course Republican administrations rely on the Federalist Society as a source of talent; as a farm team." Another reason that the Federalist Society credential has become so important to Republican administrations, which the Barnett quote gestures at, is that these administrations are themselves staffed with members of the Federalist Society network. For example, Teles notes that Stephen Markman, a former president of the D.C. Chapter of the Federalist Society, was responsible for judicial nominations during the second half of the Reagan administration, while Federalist Society cofounder Lee Liberman Otis was in charge of the White House counsel's work on judicial nominations during the George H.W. Bush administration (Teles 2008, 158). My own research suggests that the role of the Federalist Society as an ideological gatekeeper in vetting judicial nominees was expanded during the George W. Bush administration (Hollis-Brusky 2011a, b). For example, as Federalist Society member Daniel Troy described it to me, "e]verybody, I mean everybody who got a job [in the George W. Bush administration] who was a lawyer was involved with the Federalist Society. I mean everybody." While I cannot corroborate the literal assertion that "everybody" who got a job was involved with the Federalist Society network, other members confirmed that Federalist Society network associates Fred Fielding, Rachel Brand, Bradford Berenson, and Brett Kavanaugh played key roles in selecting, vetting, and shepherding nominees through the confirmation process during the George W. Bush administration ([Hollis-Brusky 2011a). The fruits of their labor include the confirmation of Federalist Society network members Barrington D. Parker, Jr. (Second Circuit), Edith Brown Clement (Fifth Circuit), Michael W. McConnell (Tenth Circuit), Jay Bybee (Ninth Circuit), Timothy Tymkovich (Tenth Circuit), Jeffrey Sutton (Sixth Circuit), Michael Chertoff (Third Circuit), Richard C. Wesley (Second Circuit), Carlos T. Bea (Ninth Circuit), William H. Pryor, Jr. (Eleventh Circuit), Diane Sykes (Seventh Circuit), Priscilla Owen (Fifth Circuit), Janice Rogers Brown (D.C. Circuit), Thomas B. Griffith (D.C. Circuit), Brett Kavanaugh (D.C. Circuit), Debra Ann Livingston (Second Circuit), and two Supreme Court Justices with very strong and long-standing Federalist Society credentials—Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito.
These "Federalist Society alumni," as Federalist Society cofounder Calabresi believes, have tended to "push public policy in a libertarian-conservative direction in the way that Yale Law School alumni who have become judges have tended to push judging in a legal realist direction." Calabresi's impression is supported empirically. Nancy Scherer and Banks Miller found that judges on the United States courts of appeals who are self-identified Federalist Society members decide cases in a more conservative manner than non-member Republican judges (Scherer and Miller 2009). To return to regime politics theory, bringing about constitutional change is not just about "appointing] enough judges and Justices" ([Balkin and Levinson 2006, 102), but rather about appointing enough of the _right_ judges and Justices: individuals who have been shaped intellectually and have been professionally credentialed by a network that will, through its personal and professional ties, hold those judges and Justices accountable for being faithful to a particular view of the Constitution and of constitutional interpretation. The Federalist Society network has accomplished this, first, by carefully selecting, training, and vetting potential judicial nominees, and, second, by acting as a vocal and vigilant "judicial audience" (Baum 2006) for judges and Justices once they are on the bench. I explore this related function in the next section.
#### Acting as a Vigilant and Vocal Judicial Audience
I did a brief a few years ago in [ _Gonzales v. Raich_ ] because it is part of the Federalist Society calling but it's also part of my calling to want to respect the division between that which is national and that which is local. . . [a]nd I was enormously disappointed that someone who's been great friends with me and the Federalist Society for years, Justice Scalia, would write an opinion concurring in [that] judgment. . . and I've said to him face to face that he got it wrong and he'll tell me why I got it wrong. . . [s]o that's pretty direct feedback.
—Federalist Society member Douglas Kmiec, March 14, 2008
To have a serious and lasting influence on the direction of constitutional law and jurisprudence—a constitutional revolution—you need to appoint the _right_ cast of characters to the courts and you need to make sure that, once appointed, they do not fall victim to the "Greenhouse Effect," or judicial drift—that is, the observed tendency for some conservative Supreme Court appointees to moderate their beliefs during their tenure on the court, thereby drifting to the ideological center or left. Presidents and electoral politics can influence the first half of this equation— _who_ gets appointed—but it is ultimately up to the "support-structure" (Epp 1998; Hollis-Brusky 2011a) to ensure that judges remain faithful to their appointing regime once on the court. As I explained in Chapter 1, the concept of judicial drift and the attempts to mitigate it can be best understood in light of political scientist Lawrence Baum's concept of a "judicial audience" (Baum 2006). In his book _Judges and Their Audiences_ , Baum draws on research in social psychology to argue that judges, like all other people, seek approval or applause from certain social and professional groups and that the manner in which a judge decides cases and writes opinions may be influenced by certain "audiences" that the judge knows will be paying attention to his or her "performance" (Baum 2006, 24–49). Moreover, Baum argues, that of all the types of audiences for whom a judge might perform, "social groups and the legal community have the greatest impact on the choices of most judges" (Baum 2006, 118). The Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy, as a social and professional network extending to all levels of the legal community, can be understood as a hybrid of both of these most influential referent groups for judges. As Baum writes of the Federalist Society in the context of his own work,
j]udges who identify with the society and participate in its activities have an attentive audience that applauds certain kinds of decisions and doctrines. In this way the organization makes more concrete and thus more salient the ideological reference groups of conservative judges. One result is to provide additional reinforcement for the kinds of conservative positions that members of the society favor. ([Baum 2006, 125)
Baum adds that while, as an organization, the Federalist Society provides a strong referent for conservative judges and Justices, it is probably most effective and potent as a "personal audience" for particular judges and Justices who have connections to prominent members within the network (Baum 2006, 125).
This was evidenced throughout the case studies examined in this book. We saw examples of the Federalist Society network acting as a vigilant and vocal "judicial audience"—applauding or booing the opinions and decisions of network-affiliated Supreme Court Justices in the media and in law review articles. The "personal audience" element of the Federalist Society network was exemplified in several instances through my interviews with Federalist Society network members as well. The interview excerpt from my conversation with Federalist Society member Douglas Kmiec exemplifies the kind of personal interaction and, as he calls it, "feedback loop" that the Federalist Society network facilitates between judges, Justices, and other members of the legal community. During that interview, Kmiec expressed his disappointment with his "friend" Justice Scalia for joining the majority in _Gonzales v. Raich_ (2005) in holding that, under the Commerce Clause, the federal government may criminalize the production and use of medical marijuana even where states approved its use for medicinal purposes. Federalist Society member Randy Barnett, who argued _Raich_ for the plaintiffs before the Supreme Court, also mentioned this case as an example of network members expressing vocal disappointment with Scalia for his perceived infidelity to Originalism and principles of limited federal government: "[Federalist Society members] totally shook their head and said, 'we can't believe it.' I mean, I think Justice Thomas's stock really went up at that point and Justice Scalia's stock took a hit. If there were a Justice trading market within the Federalist Society. . . I think Scalia's stock is down as a result of [ _Raich_ ]."
In addition to simply expressing their disappointment in interviews to me, or even simply writing law review articles and op-eds expressing their frustrations, many Federalist Society members also have personal relationships with and access to these Justices through formal and informal network events, dinners, and meetings. Kmiec said he has told Scalia "face-to-face" that he thought he got the _Raich_ decision wrong. Similarly, Steven Calabresi, a former law clerk to Scalia, said he agrees with what Scalia decides and writes "95% of the time" but he said that he "really value[s]" the opportunity to disagree "that 5% of the time. . . and to explain [to him] why." When he does, Calabresi added, "I tend to think I am out-Scalia-ing Scalia, if there is such a thing." The inference here is that there is a clear ideological or interpretive standard from which the Justice has deviated and the vigilant and vocal members of this judicial audience are in a position, both personally and professionally, to signal their disapproval with this instance of drift from the agreed-upon or shared understanding within the Federalist Society network.
Another way in which an attentive judicial audience like the Federalist Society can help bring about constitutional change is through paying attention to and responding appropriately to a variety of different "signals" (Baird 2007) that Supreme Court Justices send about the kinds of cases and constitutional questions they would like to hear. While the Supreme Court is not a "self-starting" institution (Hollis-Brusky 2011a) and while it cannot make a certain case or controversy appear before them "as if by magic" (Epp 1998, 18), as scholar Vanessa A. Baird explains in _Answering the Call of the Court_ , the Justices can and do communicate their preferences for certain kinds of cases, questions, and policy issues through signaling:
A justice might indicate a preference or priority change with a majority opinion, or even perhaps a concurring or dissenting opinion. The justices might indicate more or less directly what kinds of arguments or case facts they would be more or less interested in considering. They might not provide this information in a case opinion at all—they could provide cues in oral arguments for repeat players, or perhaps by saying something to a journalist or in a commencement address. There may be several justices doing or saying something that gives litigants some kind of indication of interest in a particular policy, or perhaps the clues might come from only a single justice. (Baird 2007, 44)
The effectiveness of these signals, whatever form they might take, will ultimately depend on the presence of an attentive and attuned judicial audience consisting of individuals and organizations (legal entrepreneurs) with the capacity to find, finance, and litigate the right kinds of well-framed cases and constitutional questions the signaling judges want.
We saw a very explicit example of judicial signaling in this book with Justice Clarence Thomas's concurring opinion in _Printz v. United States_ (examined in Chapters 2 and ), in which the Justice mused hopefully that "perhaps, at some future date, this Court will have the opportunity to determine whether Justice Story was correct when he wrote that the right to bear arms 'has justly been considered as the palladium of the liberties of a republic.'" As I detailed in Chapter 2, when the conditions seemed favorable (i.e., after two more Federalist Society network-credentialed colleagues had joined Thomas), members of the network responded by bringing to Thomas et al. a Second Amendment challenge that would effectively and radically reinterpret the right to keep and bear arms. So if we think of this network as, among other things, facilitating "communication" among and between members of the conservative legal movement (Southworth 2008) both on and off the bench, then we can understand how the Federalist Society has helped increase the clarity, response time, and quality with which these signals are communicated and received by members of the support structure. Understanding the Federalist Society in the context of networks, signals, and communication helps shed some light on the response that Federalist Society member Gail Heriot provided when I asked her about Federalist Society influence. She paused, and simply said, "Like Verizon, 'it's the network.'"
#### Changing the Debate and Reducing the Stigma of Once-Radical Ideas and Theories
I think certainly in my professional lifetime the debate, the dialogue, about constitutional law has shifted much more towards Originalism. . . even liberals on the Supreme Court take it seriously. . . . I think the Federalist Society has had an amazing impact and influence on the debate when measured against its numbers. . . . I mean it's sort of a crude measure, but the real impact is how the dialogue has shifted.
—Federalist Society member John C. Yoo, January 16, 2008
As Steven Teles has described, in addition to engaging in _recruitment_ activities, investing in _human capital_ , and producing _social capital_ in the form of networks, the Federalist Society also produces _cultural capital_ , "in that its activities facilitate the orderly development of conservative legal ideas and their injection into the legal mainstream, reducing the stigma associated with those ideas in institutions that produce and transmit professional distinction" (Teles 2008, 136). Drawing on work by legal theorists such as Jack Balkin, Sanford Levinson, and Owen Fiss, Teles explains why this _cultural capital_ is important, indeed integral, to the process of constitutional development: "for legal ideas to be taken seriously by the courts they cannot be seen as wholly novel or outside the realm of legitimate professional opinion. This is work that first must be done outside the courts" (Teles 2008, 12). Connecting this with my earlier discussion about the path-dependence of law and the importance of justifying judicial power in a democracy, when the Justices decide to alter or reconstruct a constitutional frame, the outside intellectual capital that they rely on to do so must _first_ be seen as reasonable, legitimate, and authoritative within the broader legal community. In other words, the ideas, frames, and sources the Justices rely on to justify their decisions will not be accepted if large segments of the legal community believe them to be, to quote Jack Balkin, "positively loony" or "off the wall" (Balkin 2001, 1444–1445; Teles 2008, 12). While Teles cabins his examination of the production of cultural capital by the Federalist Society to the law schools and its importance within the legal profession more generally, there is evidence also to suggest a second way in which the Federalist Society network, through its media outreach and burgeoning relationship with Tea Party groups and legislators, is helping to change the constitutional culture outside the legal profession.
The Federalist Society, as Teles describes, was founded in a set of institutions that historically had been quite "hostile" to conservative and libertarian thought: "America's law schools" (Teles 2008, 137). As it grew and its law school chapters multiplied, the Federalist Society became a home for once-ostracized conservative and libertarian law students. As Federalist Society member Walter Berns said to me in our interview, "[t]he purpose of the Federalist Society was to make it clear to law students of a conservative persuasion that they were not alone in the world. And, my God, they have succeeded." Similarly, Michael Horowitz, who mentored many of the fledging Federalists in the Reagan administration, said that the Federalist Society was "so important" because it "really created this forum that allowed [conservative and libertarian law students] to think and to know that they were not alone." Eugene Meyer, executive director of the Federalist Society, explained to me why the Federalist Society's presence within the law schools was so important:
. . . instead of law students going to law school and hearing only about left-wing ideas . . . students who are interested in ideas now have the opportunity at most schools to hear some counter-weight and also have the opportunity to meet other people who share those ideas. That probably would never have happened before [the Federalist Society existed] and that's a huge deal. . . . So that affects what that next generation of lawyers is like and the whole discussion in law school now pays some attention to a whole set of ideas it ignored before. It's still a minority, but it's in the game.
In a similar vein, Steven Calabresi explained:
The Federalist Society made it okay to be a conservative and a libertarian and kind of fortified the outspokenness of conservatives and libertarians in different law schools on different faculties spread across the country. . . so I think the Federalist Society helped to change the legal culture by giving conservatives and libertarians a sense of belonging and feeling that there was a home.
Steven Teles has observed that, by helping conservative and libertarian law students realize that their "identity is not shameful and that there are others out there like them," the Federalist Society helped transform a previously "stigmatized" identity and set of ideas into "a badge of pride" (Teles 2008, 166–167). For example, Federalist Society member Michael Rappaport credits the Federalist Society with helping him formulate thoughts on Originalism, on which he is now a leading theorist, before it became an acceptable topic to discuss in mainstream legal scholarship:
I will say this, that I think that it's had just enormous effects, not by pulling any strings but just in the very ordinary way of being a vehicle; allowing people to debate issues, allowing people to just constantly, every year having several conferences which get ideas out which would not otherwise be considered. So, now, for example on Originalism, there's a good deal of stuff outside of the Federalist Society being done on Originalism. But, for a long time, there wouldn't have been so it allows there to be intellectual interest in the ideas. It allows there to be intellectual debate about the ideas. It allows people to know about one another. In the Academy, it's extremely important. My guess is that it's also important at the level of practicing lawyers, especially for people who are politically minded.
Because law students eventually graduate and go on to pursue careers in the legal profession, the transformation that started in the law schools has carried over (and has been institutionalized by the Federalist Society through its lawyers chapters and practice groups) into the legal profession at large. As former attorney general and early mentor to the founding generation of Federalists, Edwin Meese III, explained to me in our interview, the Federalist Society "has contributed a great deal to the legal profession as a whole because it went beyond law schools. As people graduated from law schools and liked what they were doing in the Federalist Society, they formed lawyers chapters. And so as a result it's been a material factor in the whole legal profession." Thirty years removed from the Federalist Society's founding, there are now several generations of lawyers who have come up through the ranks of the Federalist Society network, who have been trained to take Originalism and conservative and libertarian legal ideas seriously, and who are not afraid "to show their ideological stripes" (Teles 2008, 166) for fear of persecution or professional penalty. Indeed, within the legal academy and in legal scholarship, there is no question that Originalism has become far more acceptable than it was in the early 1980s. Two indications of its growing acceptance within the legal community is that there has been a push among legal progressives to co-opt Originalism, and that, as Federalist Society member John C. Yoo mentioned in the opening excerpt to this section, "even liberals on the Supreme Court take it seriously."
The Federalist Society founders, several of whom had worked in the Reagan Justice Department under Attorney General Meese (Teles 2010; Hollis-Brusky 2011b), have long understood the importance of shaping not just the legal debate, but also the broader political and public debate about the role of government and the Constitution. However, this is not anything the Federalist Society had devoted institutional resources to until fairly recently. When I interviewed him in 2008, Federalist Society Executive Director Eugene Meyer twice mentioned the Society's then-recent institutional efforts to promote their members as experts and encourage them to speak to the media, go on television, and do outreach in state and federal governments—that is, to make a concerted effort to have an impact on the debate and discussion "beyond just the legal community." Here is an excerpt from that interview:
A third thing we're beginning to do is with our people who have developed real expertise in these areas, getting them out into the media. Not to speak on behalf of the Federalist Society, not to give a position, but what we've tried to do is give them some media training and some help getting placed so that the broad ideas that we talk about get out there beyond just the legal community. That happened a lot in the Supreme Court nomination battles. We're trying to do that in the states to some degree; to get some discussion out there of what the rule of law means, what courts should be doing, what state courts should be doing, how do some of these battles apply and if we're thinking about it this way, what sorts of questions apply.
Around the time of our conversation, the Federalist Society added to its website a PDF document entitled "Journalist's Guide to Legal Policy Experts." This 59-page document provides the names and contact information of hundreds of Federalist Society–affiliated experts on over 200 different topics, ranging from Anti-Trust Law to Political Correctness, from the Line Item Veto to School Vouchers, and from Fundamental Rights to Land Use. While I have not investigated the extent to which these particular members have appeared in the media since the publication of this list, in the preceding chapters we did see some evidence of Federalist Society network media presence. Randy Barnett is a particularly noteworthy illustration. Listed on the Journalists' Guide as an expert under "Constitutional Law," "Federalism," "Fundamental Rights," "Gun Control," and six other topics, Barnett wrote about the _McDonald_ decision in the _Wall Street Journal_ , the "New Federalism" Revolution and William Rehnquist's legacy in the _Wall Street Journal_ , and the _Sebelius_ decision in the _Washington Post_. Barnett, along with fellow network member David B. Rivkin and Federalist Society cofounder David McIntosh, also appeared on Fox News to discuss high-profile constitutional cases and issues such as the Affordable Care Act, gun control, immigration, and voting rights.
A more recent avenue that the Federalist Society looks to be exploring in order, as Eugene Meyer stated, to influence the dialogue and debate beyond the legal community, has been to bring itself into dialogue with the Tea Party movement and its leadership in Congress. For example, the 2010 Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention was organized around the topic "Controlling Government: The Framers, the Tea Parties, and the Constitution." The convention description is instructive of the very exploratory nature of the developing relationship between the Federalist Society "elites" and the "tea parties" formed by "the people":
We have come a long way since the framing of the Constitution when our Founding Fathers struggled with the question of how to install a government strong enough to govern and limited enough to leave the people with the maximum practical degree of freedom. That question is perennial and highlighted by recent events. Indeed, some of our citizens recalled the passions that led to independence and the Constitution by forming tea parties. That movement today is seeking ways to limit government in practice. At the same time, other forces view such proposals as not only impractical, but undesirable. Some believe that elites need to help the people to avoid many of the problems and pitfalls of society. Others take a more Burkean view about the leavening of direct democracy. Many interesting questions arise here, and we hope to explore them through four Showcase panels which address attempts to limit government and also include some discussion of the dangers and problems of the people exercising overly direct control of the government.
The Republican senator from Utah, Mike S. Lee, gave one of the keynote addresses at that conference. In addition to being a prominent member of the Senate Tea Party Caucus, when at law school he served as president of the Brigham Young University Law School Chapter of the Federalist Society. Lee was invited back to the Federalist Society's Thirtieth Anniversary Convention in 2012, where he and fellow Tea Party Caucus colleague, Senator Ted Cruz (R-TX) gave back-to-back addresses in the Grand Ballroom of the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D.C. As another (non-institutional) example of this kind of continuing outreach outside the legal community, in January 2011 former Federalist Society advisor and mentor Justice Scalia was invited by then-Representative Michelle Bachman (R-MN) to lead a seminar on constitutional interpretation to the House Tea Party Caucus.
While there is certainly ambivalence about aligning themselves institutionally with the Tea Party, illustrated very clearly by the 2010 conference description, as well as some apparent disinterest on the part of non-lawyer Tea Party legislators and voters about "high-level" constitutional theorizing, this kind of outreach is consistent with Meyer's stated goal to have an influence "beyond just the legal community." It is also consistent with what I heard from certain members of the Federalist Society network during interviews in 2008. For example, cofounder and former Indiana Congressman David McIntosh said to me that it was "discouraging that Congress doesn't pay attention to its constitutional role" and said that he thought Congress "could benefit from an educational program" that would instruct them on "what the constitution expects of them] and would show them how to think about it." Bringing Tea Party legislators into the fold and having them speak with and learn from mainstream Federalist Society elites at conferences is certainly one way of attempting to shape the thinking and constitutional dialogue beyond the legal community. Additionally, the "educational program" McIntosh described to me in 2008 might have had its pilot run with Justice Scalia at the Tea Party House Caucus in 2011. But, as McIntosh recognized, there are real limits to getting legislators and voters to engage in the constitutional debate in the way that the Federalist Society has: "you go home to your district and you talk to your voters and they don't really want to hear that you've spent your time in Washington thinking about what the Constitution says. . . so being a lawyer. . . and being part of the Federalist Society were not things I advertised when I was running for office." While there are real challenges to convincing legislators and voters to seriously engage in the kind of constitutional discourse that happens in and around the Federalist Society, by distilling their ideas and disseminating them in newspapers, on Fox News, and by reaching out early on to the newly minted class of Tea Party legislators, the Federalist Society and its members have certainly contributed to the legitimating of Originalism and of conservative and libertarian legal positions outside the legal community. Taken together, these efforts both inside and outside the legal profession have acted like, to borrow Federalist Society member Lillian BeVier's language, "dripping water," slowly wearing away at the dominance of liberal legal thought and effectively changing the dialogue about the Constitution and constitutional culture. To bring this back to our focus on constitutional change, nurturing and supporting this kind of _cultural capital_ ([Teles 2008) is important for bringing about constitutional revolutions because, as I have said before, the Supreme Court's only power lies with its ability to persuade an audience of similarly educated elites inside the legal profession _and_ "We the people" at large that its decisions are well-reasoned and legitimate—that it is, in fact, saying _what the law is_ and not simply what they think _it should be_.
## EPILOGUE
## An Agenda for Future Research
_Looking Back, Looking Forward_
This book has examined what the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy _does_ —by providing a framework that we as students and observers of American politics can use to make sense of its influence and by providing evidence of that influence in concrete cases. This book has not conclusively answered the question of what the Federalist Society _is_. Is it, as several Federalist Society members suggested to me in our conversations, _sui generis_? Or is the Federalist Society, as Lawrence Baum has written, simply a more "formalized]" or stylized version of the kind of informal elite networks that have always operated within the legal community? ([Baum 2006, 126)? As evidence, Baum points to the Franklin Roosevelt–era Justices, who—as other scholars have documented—maintained strong links with liberals in the academy, in the executive branch, and with judges on other courts:
There were strong links between some of Franklin Roosevelt's Supreme Court appointees and other liberals in the New Deal era (Lash 1975; Newman 1997; Jackson 2003). Liberal Justices on the Court and the federal court of appeals for the District of Columbia interacted with each other and with like-minded people who held other positions in the 1960s and 1970s. Indeed, the dining room of a liquor warehouse in Washington served as something of a "salon" for liberals in and out of the judiciary during that era. (Barbash 1981; Clines and Weaver 1982; Baum 2006, 126)
What Baum and other scholars are documenting is what Teles referred to as the genesis of the "Liberal Legal Network," whereby "a generation of New Deal lawyers, informed by legal realism and experienced in government, created new kinds of law and new kinds of lawyering, and became in the process an integral part of America's legal elite" (Teles 2008, 24–25). As Teles documents and my research further illustrates, the founders of the Federalist Society were conscious of the Roosevelt-era model and sought to build a counter-network that would rival what the left built from the 1930s onward (Teles 2008, 137–142). Moreover, this period witnessed several seismic shifts in constitutional jurisprudence: the demise of _Lochner_ era jurisprudence (Gillman 1993), the rise of a sociological jurisprudence that justified the expanding role of government in the economy (Irons 1982; Horwitz 1992; Duxbury 1995; Cushman 1998), and the Warren Court's "rights revolution" (Epp 1998; Horwitz 1999). If we follow the logic that I outlined earlier about "critical junctures" and _doctrinal distance_ , these eras would seem ripe for a PEN analysis. Perhaps such an analysis would corroborate what Baum suggests: that is, that the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy is simply a more "formalized]" version of the kinds of elite networks that have long-existed within the legal "support structure" ([Epp 1998) to aid and influence the work of judges and Justices.
Alternatively, it might reveal something else. Perhaps the Federalist Society's innovation—the act of formalizing and institutionalizing these once-informal networks—itself represents something of a "critical juncture" within the legal community. That is, the Federalist Society model, though inspired by the "Liberal Legal Network," is viewed now by many within the legal community as strategically superior to its prototype. The informal networks and processes that successfully helped support and implement the "rights revolution" on the left are now seen as insufficient counterweights to the more formalized and organized Federalist Society network. The best evidence that the Federalist Society has indeed altered the rules of engagement around the battle for constitutional understanding was the founding in 2001 of a progressive counterpart to the Federalist Society—the American Constitution Society (ACS). The ACS is the "mirror image" of the Federalist Society (Southworth 2008, 185) in its institutional machinery, with an emphasis on creating a community of legal elites who share a particular legal and constitutional philosophy, networking these elites, and supporting their professional development. Its mission, as articulated on the organization's website, "promote[s] the vitality of the U.S. Constitution and the fundamental values it expresses: individual rights and liberties, genuine access to justice, democracy and the rule of law." Like its philosophical foil, ACS boasts a growing number of lawyer and student chapters. It sponsors conferences, debates, colloquia, and networking events, and supports a number of working groups that develop litigation strategies on issues such as federalism, executive power, and judicial nominations. As founding executive director of ACS Lisa Brown explained to me in an interview in 2008, "the ultimate goal [of ACS] is to further a progressive vision of law and policy, to get ideas out there and have them be acted on and implemented. . . over time as people go into different positions of all sorts and different jobs in government and judging, then you actually see more of the. . . realizing of the ideas." Brown continued to say that the ideas were important, but it was the "ideas connected to the people. . . the network" that had been the Federalist Society's formula for success—a formula the ACS has been doing its best to try to imitate.
While I cannot pretend to have captured the Federalist Society's precise formula for success in these pages, future scholarship might use the dimensions of Federalist Society influence I have outlined here in this book as a starting point for evaluating how far the ACS, at just over 10 years of age, is from having the kind of influence its founders hoped it would. So, future scholarship might investigate: (1) the extent to which a PEN or mini-PENs have cohered around the ACS in order to evaluate whether members of this network are poised to take advantage of and shape "critical junctures" in constitutional development; and (2) the extent to which members of the ACS network are successfully working to bring those "critical junctures" about by (a) getting the right cast of characters on the bench, (b) functioning as a vigilant and vocal judicial audience, and (c) recapturing the debate over constitutional interpretation. While a systematic examination of these critically important questions will undoubtedly be the subject of future studies, I will close by offering some preliminary thoughts and insights, gleaned from my interviews with some of the leadership of the ACS, as well as from interviews with Federalist Society members about its progressive counterpart in 2008.
In 1988, then-newly appointed Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia delivered a lecture in honor of William Howard Taft. The lecture, entitled "Originalism: The Lesser Evil," succinctly illustrates what I believe to be the single greatest challenge for the ACS:
. . . nonoriginalism confronts a practical difficulty reminiscent of the truism of elective politics that "You can't beat somebody with nobody." It is not enough to demonstrate that the other fellow's candidate (originalism) is no good; one must also agree upon another candidate to replace him. Just as it is not meaningful for a voter to vote "non-Reagan," it is not very helpful to tell a judge to be a "non-originalist." If the law is to make any attempt at consistency and predictability, surely there must be general agreement not only that judges reject one exegetical approach (originalism), but that they adopt another. And it is hard to discern any emerging consensus among the nonoriginalists as to what this might be.
One of the reasons that the Federalist Society network has been so successful in shaping constitutional understanding has been the identifiable PENs that cohered around various doctrinal areas within the organization. These PENs share a set of beliefs, a canon of authoritative sources, and employ a clear method of interpreting the Constitution: Originalism.
One of the critical questions for ACS will be the extent to which it has managed effectively to generate consensus among progressives about the non-originalist interpretive alternative—that is, to borrow Scalia's phrase, the "non-Reagan" of constitutional interpretation. Every member with whom I spoke in 2008 identified this as the key challenge for the ACS moving forward. For example, Lisa Brown, the former executive director of ACS, said of the state of ideological coherence within the organization at that time, "I think on a broad level there's agreement. What there isn't yet is an 'Originalism.'" Similarly, board member Goodwin Liu said that one of goals of the ACS is "to capture the intuitive set of ideas that progressives sort of take for granted in terms of how they see the world. Progressives always think, 'well I know what I think but it's hard to articulate it.' So, we're trying to articulate it." As evidence that the ACS is taking this task seriously, Brown, Liu, and other members I interviewed pointed to the "Constitutional Interpretation and Change Issue Group," whose mission has been to work toward developing and articulating a progressive alternative to Originalism. Pulling together big name progressive and liberal legal scholars such as Pamela Karlan, Jack Balkin, Robert Post, Reva Siegel, Cass Sunstein, Mark Tushnet, Geoffrey Stone, Laurence Tribe, and Bruce Ackerman (among others), the aim of this Issue Group is to "promote persuasive and accessible methods of interpretation that give full meaning to the guarantees contained in the Constitution" and to "debunk[] the purportedly neutral theories of originalism and strict construction."
In terms of intellectual production, over the past five years, this working group has produced dozens of issue briefs and three book-length explorations of what progressive constitutional interpretation is and how it is applied. Future scholarship might mine these sources, alongside ACS member speech acts at National Conferences and other ACS publications such as _Advance_ and the _Harvard Law and Policy Review_ to examine whether these institutional investments in developing something like Originalism for progressives have paid dividends. Is there an emerging consensus in terms of how members talk about and employ constitutional interpretation? Is there a shared canon of authorities members consistently cite? This ideological coherence, the development of an interpretive consensus, and the ability to shape and socialize its members accordingly will be important for ACS if it hopes to be in a position to influence the content and character of the next [progressive] "critical juncture" in constitutional development.
In terms of helping bring that progressive "critical juncture" about, as I explained earlier, one of the necessary conditions (though not a sufficient condition) for a constitutional revolution is having the right cast of characters on the court. An important element in that process is in the identification, credentialing, and vetting of potential judicial candidates. As leaders within both the ACS and the Federalist Society recognize, this is the portion of the Federalist Society formula that its counterpart will have the most difficulty replicating. In part, this has to do with the plethora of institutions on the legal left (including, but not limited to, elite law schools like Harvard, Yale, and Stanford) where aspiring progressive lawyers can be credentialed. To paraphrase Federalist Society member Michael Greve's words cited earlier in this chapter, on the legal left there are "a million ways to get credentialed," but on the legal right, "there is only one." Federalist Society member Dan Troy expressed a similar sentiment about the limited utility of the ACS network when it comes to getting clerkships, judgeships, and other jobs in government:
If you want to be a judge, which a lot of lawyers want to be, and the Federalist Society has been very good for that kind of network, or you want a government job and you have a choice between getting involved in the [American Bar Association] or getting deeply involved in the American Constitution Society, if I were a liberal I'd bet on the ABA. . . I think I'm going to make more contacts and I think they're going to be more prestigious. . . . So, I just don't see the same need for it.
Leaders within the ACS acknowledge the improbability of making their organizational credential a _sine qua non_ for prestigious jobs and judgeships. While recognizing that it will not have a _de facto_ monopoly on the credentialing of progressive legal talent, former executive director Lisa Brown said that she thought the ACS credential would still be viewed as "a positive, a plus" for Democratic administrations looking to appoint strong progressives into judgeships and government positions. While those I interviewed in 2008 could simply speculate, we now have six years of nominations under a Democratic administration to examine for ACS influence. After the selection of ACS board member Eric Holder as attorney general, the _New York Times_ published an article touting the influence the organization seemed to have early on in the Obama administration, noting in particular appointments to the executive branch. On the other hand, Obama's two Supreme Court nominees—arguably the most important appointments in terms of influencing constitutional law and policy—do not seem to have strong ties to the ACS network. Justice Sonia Sotomayor was a virtual unknown to progressives within the ACS network and, according to at least one source, her appointment initially made liberals and progressives "unhappy." Justice Elena Kagan was a speaker and participant in ACS conferences in 2005, 2007, and 2008, although, as Obama noted on her confirmation, she also frequently participated in and received "standing ovations" from "the Federalist Society." Future studies might more closely inspect the DNA of all the Obama administration's executive branch and judicial appointees and evaluate whether or not the ACS credential factors prominently in some or all of these appointees.
One high-profile blow dealt to both the Obama administration and the ACS was the failed battle to appoint board member Goodwin Liu to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals after his nomination was filibustered successfully by Senate Republicans in 2011. In his Senate hearing, Liu was asked about his involvement with ACS by Senator Jon Kyl (R-AZ), who equated Liu's involvement with and promotion of the mission of ACS with a desire to usurp the political process and engage in an agenda of judicial activism. A short excerpt from the transcript of that hearing illustrates this:
SENATOR KYL. Thank you, Madam Chairman, and for your patience. I want to get back to this question of agenda that I was talking about before we had our little break. You, in a broadcast earlier this year, January 3rd, on NPR, were discussing how the Obama administration represented a new opportunity for the American Constitution Society. You said that Obama administration, "that ACS had the opportunity to actually get our ideas and the progressive vision of the Constitution and of law and policy into practice." What did you mean by "our ideas" and your "progressive vision" of the Constitution and law and policy?
PROFESSOR LIU. Senator, I think that was a reference to the ideas that underpin the American Constitution Society. I think, as the mission statement of that organization reads, it's a dedication to certain basic principles of our Constitution: genuine equality, liberty, access to the courts, and a broad commitment to the rule of law.
. . .
SENATOR KYL. Well, the way you described it was "the opportunity to actually get our ideas and the progressive vision of the Constitution and of law and of policy into practice," so I assume you subscribe to these views when you talked about "our ideas."
PROFESSOR LIU. I have—I think, as I think the record shows, Senator, I have been deeply involved in the American Constitution Society.
SENATOR KYL. Yes.
PROFESSOR LIU. I have served on the board, I have chaired the board.
SENATOR KYL. There's nothing wrong with having views that are wrong.
[Laughter.]
SENATOR KYL. No. OK. But I mean, so that's what you meant by "the opportunity to actually get our ideas and progressive vision of the Constitution and law and policy into practice." But I guess the follow-up question is, obviously I guess you would say you were speaking in a policy way, not through the judicial process. Is that the way—
PROFESSOR LIU. I think—well, Senator, the short answer is yes. In addition, I think that—look, I mean, I think every President has his or her own views of what vision they would like to enforce as a President. I think—I don't think I was meaning anything more than just that basic prerogative of the President.
SENATOR KYL. Policy through the appropriate ways of implementing policy.
PROFESSOR LIU. Absolutely. Yes.
How should we interpret the failed battle to confirm Liu who, in many ways, is the embodiment of the American Constitution Society's progressive jurisprudence and approach to the law? Further, did this high-profile failure create a stigmatizing effect among legal progressives? Alternatively, as the failed nomination of Robert Bork to the Supreme Court in 1987 did for the fledgling Federalists working at the Reagan Justice Department, will this have a rallying and mobilizing effect within the ACS? These questions and more will be important for scholars to think about and study in detail in the future.
Even if we do see evidence of the ACS gene playing a prominent role in Obama's judicial nominations, is this society poised and positioned to act as a vigilant and vocal judicial audience (Baum 2006), keeping its members in line with the progressive judicial philosophy that the network advocates? In many ways, the answer to this question will depend on whether or not, per the PEN criterion, ACS has developed an identifiable, shared interpretive philosophy, and a set of beliefs that members could in fact use as a baseline for measuring the performance of ACS-affiliated judges and Justices. I asked Goodwin Liu in 2008 how, given that the progressive vision seemed to encompass so many different intellectual touchstones and strands, folks within the ACS would be able to identify and hold someone accountable to that broad vision. He paused for quite a while and then said that he would look for "the unique quality of people who are progressive in their orientation. . . which is that these kind of majestic generalities in the constitution need to be made practical for people in their everyday lives." Future studies might investigate whether Liu's baseline for evaluating the performance of progressive judges resonates within the network at large or whether there are one or several varied criteria among the members of ACS. Beyond that, how well are ACS members positioned to respond vocally to perceived drifts or deviations from the progressive standard (and is there a feedback loop to the Justices, as there clearly is within the Federalist Society network)? A more systematic evaluation of how vocal, vigilant, and unified members of the ACS network have been in applauding and booing Supreme Court decisions and how consistent they have been in terms of the criteria they use to talk about and evaluate the performance of progressive judges in the media (along with an examination of which media outlets members are using to disseminate their ideas) would go a long way toward helping evaluate the ACS network as an effective (or potentially effective) "judicial audience" (2006).
Finally, how successful has the ACS been in recapturing the debate over constitutional interpretation, in reducing the stigma of (or rebranding) the "living constitution" approach to constitutional interpretation? The phrase "living constitution," once associated with the judicial philosophies of prestigious judges and Justices such as John Marshall, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Louis Brandeis, and Thurgood Marshall, has been redefined successfully over the past few decades by those on the legal and political right as synonymous with "judicial activism" and as an excuse to write one's own social and moral values into the Constitution. As David A. Strauss writes in his book _The Living Constitution_ , the standard critique of the "living constitution" usually proceeds along these lines:
A living constitution is, surely, a manipulable constitution. If the Constitution is not constant—if it changes from time to time—then someone is changing it. And that someone is changing it according to his or her own ideas about what the Constitution should look like. The "someone," it's usually thought, is some group of judges. So a living constitution would not be the Constitution at all. . . [rather] a collection of gauzy ideas that appeal to the judges who happen to be in power at a particular time and that they impose on the rest of us.
Strauss also notes that these critiques have been so effective that scholars who write about constitutional interpretation avoid using it, unless they are using it derisively (Strauss 2010, 2). Justice Scalia is a clear example of the latter. In the fall of 2011, Scalia told a Senate committee that he hoped the "living constitution would die" and, more recently, in a 2013 talk at Southern Methodist University, Scalia reportedly became exasperated with those who believe in the "living Constitution," emphatically insisting that "[i]t's not a living document. It's dead, dead, dead." Given its explicit mission of countering and "debunking" Originalism, how successful has the ACS been at recapturing the debate over constitutional interpretation—of burying the dead constitution of Originalism and breathing new life into the notion of a "living constitution?"
It should be noted that the parameters of what the ACS considers its battleground over constitutional meaning are drawn more narrowly than were those of its rival organization at its founding. Liberals and progressives still largely claim the legal Academy and the legal profession as their intellectual territory. As ACS board member and Yale Law School professor Robert Post explained to me, "we are still hegemonic within the law schools, most law professors are liberal, most students are liberal." The implication of this, Post explained, is that "ACS is coming in on the back of an extremely well developed tradition of liberal legal thinking that has endless supporters in the law schools," and unlike its counterpart, it does not have to engage in "idea generation." Rather, Post insisted, the principal task of ACS is "idea dissemination and distribution." As former executive director Lisa Brown also said, the "gap" the founders of ACS noticed was not in the law school dialogue or debate, but rather "it was that the public dialogue had become so lop-sided and that there was a sense of needing a progressive voice in the public dialogue." Brown continued that the real work of ACS is to "communicate" and "synthesize" all the work that has been done on "progressive constitutional interpretation in the Academy" and make it accessible to a public or political audience. Whether they call it "living constitutionalism" or something else, many of the leading liberal lights in the Academy still practice and preach something very similar, so how is ACS distilling and repackaging this progressive constitutional vision for public consumption?
One of the aforementioned book projects to emerge from the ACS's "Constitutional Interpretation and Change Issue Group" exemplifies one such approach to rebranding the "living constitution." _Keeping Faith with the Constitution_ , written by Goodwin Liu, Pamela Karlan, and Christopher Schroeder and available for free on the ACS website as a PDF download, rebrands "living constitutionalism" as "constitutional fidelity," co-opting the term that Edwin Meese III and other prominent intellectuals on the right used in the 1980s to define Originalism in contradistinction to the "living constitution" approach. Even though the book's authors do not once use the phrase "living constitution," an excerpt from the introduction locates their approach squarely within this tradition:
Interpreting the Constitution, we argue, requires adaptation of its text and principles to the conditions and challenges faced by successive generations. The question that properly guides interpretation is not how the Constitution would have been applied at the Founding, but rather how it should be applied today in order to sustain its vitality in light of the changing needs, conditions, and understandings of our society.
Moreover, the authors of the book define their approach as a "richer" and more constitutionally faithful alternative to Originalism. This is consistent with the ACS's stated goal of "debunking" Originalism.
Potentially complicating the achievement of this objective, there are those deeply connected with and involved in ACS, such as Yale Law professor Jack Balkin, who are instead attempting to co-opt Originalism for progressives. In 2008 at the ACS's National Convention, Jack Balkin appeared on a panel with Federalist Society stalwart Randy Barnett and Goodwin Liu and argued for the merits of a progressive Originalism. Shortly after that panel, I asked Liu what he thought of Balkin's move to Originalism. Liu responded that "to call Jack Balkin an Originalist is just to empty the word Originalism of very much meaning. I mean Jack Balkin's Originalism is not that far from Justice Brennan's appeal to contemporary values. . . if Originalism is able to accommodate that kind of evolving understanding, then I just don't understand what the debate is about anymore." Despite the reservations of Liu and others about this being a disingenuous strategy, Balkin's campaign to convert liberals and progressives within the ACS network to Originalism did not stop there. In 2011, Balkin gave a talk before the University of Chicago Law School Chapter of ACS entitled "Why Liberals Should Be Originalists." Professor Balkin's conversion to Originalism is explained and justified in greater detail in his 2011 book, _Living Originalism_ (Belknap: 2011), where he makes the case that "living constitutionalism" and "Originalism" are actually compatible interpretive theories. Future research might investigate which of these strategies is actually dominant among members of the ACS network (using surveys and/or analyzing network members' conference speech acts, intellectual/academic production, and print and media appearances) and whether the tension between the two will be productive or ultimately will hinder the ability of ACS to reclaim the public and political debate over constitutional interpretation.
In closing, in addition to these important empirical questions that warrant further investigation, I think there are also normative questions that merit some consideration. If the Federalist Society model and the rise of its rival, the ACS, does represent a "critical juncture" within the legal profession, that is, a new model of identifying, training, promoting, and disciplining lawyers on both the right and the left from professional cradle (law school) to professional grave (retirement), then what consequences might this have for the legal profession specifically and for the politicization of law, more generally? By governing the ideological socialization of young law professionals and plugging them into a political network that creates professional incentives for students and lawyers aspiring to top clerkships, positions in the national bureaucracy, and federal judgeships, some fear that these legal-hybrid organizations have further blurred the crucial divide, however tenuous, between law and politics and have contributed negatively to the polarization of the law. Others, such as George Washington University law professor Orin Kerr, say this is an improvement on the old model of networking within the legal profession based on school credentials or family ties: "Now the networking is more open." These normative concerns will be important for scholars, students, and practitioners of American politics and law to think about and engage with as we seek to understand and evaluate the mechanisms, old and new, by which "ideas" _can_ and _do_ "have consequences."
## APPENDIX
## List of Interviews
(CPHS Protocol #2007-7-5)
1. Charles J. Cooper (founding member and chairman of Cooper & Kirk, PLLC; assistant attorney general for the Office of Legal Counsel (1985–1988)) in discussion with the author, June 2, 2008.
2. Carter Phillips (managing partner, Sidley Austin, LLP) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008.
3. Daniel Troy (attorney, Sidley Austin, LLP; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel (1984–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008.
4. Daniel Ortiz (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in discussion with the author, February 6, 2008.
5. Daniel Polsby (dean and professor of law, George Mason Law School) in discussion with the author, February 11, 2008.
6. David McIntosh (partner, Meyer, Brown and Platt; member of Congress (1995–2001); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 25, 2008.
7. Donald Devine (vice-chairman, American Conservative Union; director, U.S. Office of Personnel Management under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, February 7, 2008.
8. Douglas W. Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008.
9. Edwin W. Meese, III (U.S. attorney general under President Ronald Reagan (1985–1988); Fellow, Heritage Foundation) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2008.
10. Eugene Meyer (president, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, February 8, 2008.
11. Fred L. Smith (president and founder, Competitive Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, January 16, 2008.
12. Gail Heriot (professor of law, University of San Diego; commissioner, United States Commission on Civil Rights) in discussion with the author, March 18, 2008.
13. Goodwin Liu (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; Board of Directors, American Constitution Society; nominee to Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals) in discussion with the author, June 27, 2008.
14. Gregory Maggs (senior associate dean for Academic Affairs and professor of law, George Washington University Law School) in discussion with the author, January 22, 2008.
15. John C. Yoo (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; former law clerk to Judge Laurence H. Silberman and Justice Clarence Thomas; general counsel, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee (1995–1996); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (2001–2003)) in discussion with the author, January 16, 2008.
16. John T. Noonan (senior circuit judge, Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals) in discussion with the author, January 14, 2008.
17. Loren A. Smith (judge, U.S. Court of Federal Claims; chairman, Administrative Conference of the United States (1981–1985)) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008.
18. Laurence Claus (professor of law, University of San Diego; former John M. Olin Fellow at Northwestern University School of Law) in discussion with the author, March 18, 2008.
19. Lee Liberman Otis (Office of Legal Counsel, George H. W. Bush Administration; general counsel (2001–2005); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, June 4, 2008.
20. Lillian BeVier (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in discussion with the author, February 1, 2008.
21. Linda Chavez (chairman, the Center for Equal Opportunity; staff director, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (1983–1985)) in discussion with the author, January 29, 2008.
22. Lisa Brown (executive director, American Constitution Society (2001–2008)) in discussion with the author, June 19, 2008.
23. Louis Michael Seidman (professor of constitutional law, Georgetown Law School) in discussion with the author, February 15, 2008.
24. Michael Carvin (partner, Jones Day; deputy assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1985–1987); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (1987–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 28, 2008.
25. Michael Greve (director of the Federalism Project, American Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, February 12, 2008.
26. Michael Horowitz (Senior Fellow, Hudson Institute; general counsel, Office of Management and Budget under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 22, 2008.
27. Michael Rappaport (professor of law, University of San Diego Law School; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, March 17, 2008.
28. Randy Barnett (professor of legal theory, Georgetown University Law School) in discussion with the author, June 10, 2008.
29. Richard K. Willard (partner, Steptoe and Johnson, LLP; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008.
30. Robert Post (dean and professor of Law, Yale Law School; Board of Directors, American Constitution Society) in discussion with the author, June 12, 2008.
31. Roger Clegg (president and general counsel, Center for Equal Opportunity; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1987–1991); assistant to the solicitor general (1985–1987)) in discussion with the author, January 29, 2008.
32. Spencer Abraham (U.S. senator from Michigan (1994–2001); U.S secretary of Energy (2001–2004); cofounder, _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ ) in discussion with the author, June 3, 2008.
33. Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008.
34. Thomas A. Smith (professor of law, University of San Diego Law School; senior counsel, President Reagan's Council of Economic Advisors) in discussion with the author, March 19, 2008.
35. Tony Cotto (former student chapter president at George Washington University Law School, the Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008.
36. Walter Berns (Resident Scholar, American Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008.
## NOTES
### _INTRODUCTION_
. Richard S. Weaver, _Ideas Have Consequences_ (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1948).
. Leonard S. Leo, "Welcome Address." Showcase Panel I: Federalism and Federal Power. 2012. Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention, November 19, 2012 (accessed June 13, 2013), <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/federalism-and-federal-power-event-audiovideo>.
. Antonin Scalia was a faculty advisor to the Federalist Society when it was a student group at the University of Chicago and presented at the very first Federalist Society Conference. See Antonin Scalia, "The Two Faces of Federalism," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 6 (1982): 19–22. Clarence Thomas has also been a frequent participant at Federalist Society events and conferences since the late 1980s. See Clarence Thomas, "The Higher Law Background of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment." _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 12, no. 1 (1989): 63–70. John G. Roberts, Jr., was plugged into the Federalist Society network through his work in the Reagan Justice Department, alongside many of its founders. Roberts also delivered the Barbara K. Olson Memorial Lecture at the Federalist Society's 2007 25th Anniversary National Lawyers Convention, accessed June 13, 2013, <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/7th-annual-barbara-k-olson-memorial-lecture-event-audiovideo>.
. See "About Us" (accessed June 13, 2013), <http://www.fed-soc.org/aboutus/>.
. 124 Stat. 119.
. Leonard S. Leo, "Welcome Address." Showcase Panel I: Federalism and Federal Power. 2012. Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention. November 19, 2012 (accessed June 13, 2013), <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/federalism-and-federal-power-event-audiovideo>.
### _CHAPTER 1_
. David McIntosh, (partner, Meyer, Brown and Platt; member of Congress (1995–2001); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 25, 2008.
. Steven Calabresi, (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008.
. See, for example, interview with Carter Phillips (managing partner, Sidley Austin, LLP) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008: " _Sui generis_ is probably as good of a description as you can come up with in terms of what that organization is."; interview with Gregory Maggs (senior associate dean for Academic Affairs and professor of law, George Washington University Law School) in discussion with the author, January 22, 2008: " I think it is really _sui generis_ and if you think about why it was formed you sort of understand why that is"; interview with Michael Carvin (partner, Jones Day; deputy assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1985–1987); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (1987–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 28, 2008: ". . . it's got characteristics of [a think tank and an interest group] but I would call it a think tank slash debating society. . . their contribution to the marketplace of ideas comes a lot more from these structured conferences and their speakers. . . so I would think they're _sui generis_ in that respect."; interview with Richard K. Willard (partner, Steptoe and Johnson, LLP; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008: "I think it's pretty _sui generis_. . ."
. I have actually called the Federalist Society an "epistemic community" in earlier writing on the subject (see Hollis-Brusky 2010, ). I figured that even if it did not work perfectly, the research approach and logic of the epistemic community model was right for investigating Federalist Society influence. However, various reviewers, scholars, and epistemic community theorists have persuaded me since that early time that instead of stretching the epistemic community construct to fit the Federalist Society network, I ought to acknowledge the very important ways in which the model does not fit and perhaps develop a related construct that can be applied to networks like the Federalist Society with a strong political valence. That is what this section attempts to accomplish.
. See Federal Society Organization, About Us page, accessed February 16, 2009, www.fed-soc.org/aboutus.
. I coded the speaker lists for the entire set of presenters at Federalist Society National Meetings from 1982 to 2011. Speakers were coded for their occupation at the time they were participating in the event. For instance, Kenneth Starr, who participated in nine Federalist Society National Meetings, was coded three different ways during three periods of his career history: as Executive Branch (U.S. solicitor general); Private Practice (Kirkland & Ellis); and Academic (Dean Pepperdine Law School). For some, the speaker's current occupation was listed on the program agenda or in the footnote section of the reprinted transcript of their talk. For others, I had to investigate. If it was unclear as to what the speaker was doing at the exact time of his or her talk, a very small set of instances, I coded the individual for the occupational role I could find that was closest to the tenure of the talk. Of the 1,957 speakers coded, the breakdown of raw data with percentages (rounded up to nearest whole number) were as follows: Legal Academics (717, or 37%); Think Tank or Interest Group (253, or 13%); Federal Judge (247, or 13%); Private Practice (249, or 13%); Executive Branch (187, or 10%); Corporate or Corporate Counsel (73, or 4%); Other (73, or 4%); Press and Media (58, or 3%); State or Local Politicians (55, or 3%); and Legislative Branch (45, or 2%).
. Interview with Gail Heriot (professor of law, University of San Diego; commissioner, United States Commission on Civil Rights) in discussion with the author, March 18, 2008.
. I borrow the phrase "boots on the ground" from Federalist Society member and American Enterprise Institute Scholar Michael Greve. Interview with Michael Greve (director of the Federalism Project, American Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, February 12, 2008.
. See Federal Society Organization, About Us page, accessed February 16, 2009, www.fed-soc.org/aboutus.
. Fusionism, sometimes described as "libertarian means to conservative or traditional ends," is a philosophy of American conservatism most closely associated with conservative intellectual and _National Review_ editor Frank S. Meyer, the father of Federalist Society executive director Eugene Meyer. In his book _In Defense of Freedom: A Conservative Credo_ (1962), Meyer outlined what he understood to be a uniquely American variant of conservatism that blended traditional conservative emphases on values and virtue with a libertarian focus on freedom and political liberty.
. Based on content analysis of a sample of just over 200 speech acts from Federalist Society National Meetings from 1982–2008, _The Federalist Papers_ were the most often cited authoritative source, receiving 173 specific mentions. Within that sample, _Federalist_ 10, _Federalist_ 78, and _Federalist_ 51 received the most mentions by name.
. Roger Clegg (president and general counsel, Center for Equal Opportunity; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1987–1991); assistant to the solicitor general (1985–1987)) in discussion with the author, January 29, 2008.
. See, for example, Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008: ". . . during the Reagan administration we cared a lot about the separation of powers [and] part of the Federalist Society is to defend the separation of powers and the. . . horizontal structure of the Constitution"; Interview with John Yoo (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; former law clerk to Judge Laurence H. Silberman and Justice Clarence Thomas; general counsel, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee (1995–1996); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (2001–2003)) in discussion with the author, January 16, 2008: "I could tell you the Federalist Society [stands for] Originalism and the strict separation of powers."; Interview with Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008: "The Society has always been consistently interested in promoting. . . a greater respect for the separation of powers."
. See, for example, Interview with Charles J. Cooper (founding member and chairman of Cooper & Kirk, PLLC; assistant attorney general for the Office of Legal Counsel (1985–1988)) in discussion with the author, June 2, 2008: "I am among those [in the Federalist Society] who prefer a consistent and principled view towards state sovereignty. . . I believe that the principles of federalism are robust enough to stand up for decisions I don't like as well as those I do."; Interview with Carter Phillips (managing partner, Sidley Austin, LLP) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008: "I've always viewed the federalism part of [the Federalist Society] as the most significant. . . I always thought that respect for states' rights was one of the original driving forces of it."; Interview with Loren Smith, (judge, U.S. Court of Federal Claims; chairman, Administrative Conference of the United States (1981–1985)) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008: "I guess that would be one element of federalism that unifies [the Federalist Society]. . . another idea that federalism connotes to me is a certain concern that states have a legitimate role in the federal system and that centralization in Washington is not the system that the Framers sought. . . it infringes too much on individual liberties."
. _Marbury v. Madison_ , 5 U.S. 137 (1803) was a landmark Supreme Court decision that established the principle of judicial review. In his majority opinion, Chief Justice John Marshall famously wrote: "It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule of particular cases, must of necessity expound and interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide on the operation of each."
. Interview with Charles J. Cooper (founding member and chairman of Cooper & Kirk, PLLC; assistant attorney general for the Office of Legal Counsel (1985–1988)) in discussion with the author, June 2, 2008.
. See, for example, Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008: "So, it would be the standard things like federal-state relations and the separation of powers, the nature of the judicial function, [these are the] stand-bys."; Interview with Gail Heriot (professor of law, University of San Diego; commissioner, United States Commission on Civil Rights) in discussion with the author, March 18, 2008: "One thing, the most unifying. . . is that the judiciary's job is not to make law but to say what the law is. That is something that just about everyone agrees with up to a point."; Interview with Laurence Claus (professor of law, University of San Diego; former John M. Olin Fellow at Northwestern University School of Law) in discussion with the author, March 18, 2008: "I just don't think that judges should be pretending the constitution says something about them when it doesn't; that unelected judges should be trumping majorities in areas where the law doesn't give them a mandate to do it."; Interview with Lee Liberman Otis (Office of Legal Counsel, George H. W. Bush administration; general counsel (2001–2005); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, June 4, 2008: ". . . the main feeling was that the courts are deciding a lot of questions without reference to anything that the American people had authorized them to decide and that is not what should be happening."; Interview with Lillian BeVier (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in discussion with the author, February 1, 2008: ". . . the over-arching principle is the rule of law. . . being necessary to restrain the Court who seemed to think that they could make it up."; Interview with Michael Carvin (partner, Jones Day; deputy assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1985–1987); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (1987–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 28, 2008: "I started reading these opinions and realized they were intellectually bankrupt and started getting firmer in my views about the need for a limited judiciary. So I was probably typical of the people who were attached to the Federalist Society in the beginning."; Interview with Michael Rappaport (professor of law, University of San Diego Law School; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, March 17, 2008: "If you come from a libertarian slash conservative perspective. . . you would never believe that judges should be able to rewrite the law to pursue their policy objectives. I mean, the law was the limit on the state. You would never allow the state to rewrite it."
. See, 1984 National Student Conference: "A Symposium on Judicial Activism: Problems and Responses"; 1987 National Lawyers Conference: "Changing the Law: The Role of Lawyers, Judges, and Legislatures"; 1993 National Student Conference: "Symposium on Judicial Decision Making"; "Symposium on Judicial Decisionmaking: The Role of Text, Precedent, and the Rule of Law" (Transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 17, no. 1 (1994); 1999 National Lawyers Conference: "The Rule of Law, Modern Culture, and the Courts at Century's End"; 2001 National Lawyers Convention: "Judicial Decision-Making"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention: "The People and the Judiciary"; 2008 National Student Conference: "The People and the Courts."
. See, for example, Interview with Daniel Troy, January 30, 2008: "So I'm sure that sometime during my second year of law school]. . . I read Judge Bork's seminal _Indiana Law Journal_ article. . . . So I quickly became a Borkean not only because I was clerking for Judge Bork but because it really spoke to me. And he really sort of articulated my dissatisfaction [with the courts]."; Interview with Daniel Ortiz, February 6, 2008: ". . . there had been articles, very influential articles, written in law reviews before that time [on Originalism]. The most famous was probably Bork's piece in the _Indiana Law Journal_."; Interview with Lee Liberman Otis (Office of Legal Counsel, George H. W. Bush administration; general counsel (2001–2005); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, June 4, 2008: "I think initially probably an awful lot of us started out with Bork's critique of the courts as usurping democracy."; Interview with Lillian BeVier (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in discussion with the author, February 1, 2008: ". . . when I first started teaching in 1970 and I started reading law scholarship and I was interested in constitutional theory, in constitutional structure and the legitimacy of decision-making by the Court in particular, the idea that the Supreme Court can overstep its constitutional boundaries by making things up, making constitutional rights up. I just became interested in that idea. . . [and], at some point I must've read Robert [Bork's 1971 _Indiana Law Journal_ piece."; Interview with Michael Carvin (partner, Jones Day; deputy assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1985–1987); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (1987–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 28, 2008: "I read Bork's _Indiana Law Journal_ article just sort of by accident and it made unbelievable sense to me. And, as I said, part of me becoming more and more conservative was reading these opinions and they were just not intellectually coherent and if you want[ed] some meat you were drawn to people like Bork and Scalia who were making coherent arguments and they were brilliant men and. . . incredibly persuasive writers. So it just made a lot more sense to me."
. Interview with Loren A. Smith (judge, U.S. Court of Federal Claims; chairman, Administrative Conference of the United States (1981–1985)) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008.
. Interview with Eugene Meyer (president, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, February 8, 2008.
. See 1995 National Student Conference: "Originalism, Democracy, and the Constitution" and 2005 National Lawyers Convention: "Originalism."
. Co-authored by members Roger Clegg and Michael DeBow, the Web-published _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ explains its selection of sources and scholarship in the following manner: "As to what is 'conservative' or 'libertarian' we relied most heavily on the Founders' ideals for guidance. With respect to constitutional law, for example, we searched for works that endeavored to interpret the Constitution according to its text and original meaning."
. This edited volume, published by Regnery Press (2007) and available from the Federalist Society's online store, contains excerpts from five select panel debates on Originalism from Federalist Society conferences. It also features an introduction by cofounder Steven Calabresi, a foreword by Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia, and an epilogue by former Solicitor General Theodore B. Olson and includes famous speeches about Originalism by former Attorney General Edwin Meese, III, Judge Robert H. Bork, and President Ronald Reagan. The website's promotional blurb (see www.fed-soc.org/store/id.471/default.asp) reads: "What did the Constitution mean at the time it was adopted? How should we interpret today the words used by the Founding Fathers? In _Originalism: A Quarter-Century of Debate_ , these questions are explained and dissected by the very people who continue to shape the legal structure of our country."
. See, for example, Interview with Edwin Meese, III (U.S. attorney general under President Ronald Reagan (1985–1988); Fellow, Heritage Foundation) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2008: "I think [the Federalist Society represents] a commitment to the rule of law and a commitment to the Constitution, and from that kind of a body of philosophical principles—Originalism is a part of that."; Interview with Eugene Meyer (president, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, February 8, 2008: "So those are the two things I think more than anything else that we have done; Originalism and helping to create a broader debate in the law schools and ultimately the legal community at large."; Interview with Michael Rappaport (professor of law, University of San Diego Law School; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, March 17, 2008: "So, now, for example on Originalism there's a good deal of stuff outside of the Federalist Society being done on Originalism but, for a long time, there wouldn't have been so it allows there to be an intellectual interest in the ideas."; Interview with Randy Barnett (professor of legal theory, Georgetown University Law School) in discussion with the author, June 10, 2008: "Once I made the move to Originalism, and not only that, became one of the leading theoretical spokespeople and defenders of the method we had a lot more in common and my relationship to the Federalist Society became much closer after that."; Interview with Richard K. Willard (partner, Steptoe and Johnson, LLP; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008: "I think there are probably many different viewpoints on a lot of issues within the Society but I would think that most members would believe in Originalism as a school of thought."; Interview with Michael Greve (director of the Federalism Project, American Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, February 12, 2008: "Obviously the one thing that Originalism as a theory did for the Federalist Society was it gave them an agenda and a platform."
. Interview with Daniel Troy (attorney, Sidley Austin, LLP; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel (1984–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008 (Washington, DC).
. Interview with John Yoo (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; former law clerk to Judge Laurence H. Silberman and Justice Clarence Thomas; general counsel, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee (1995–1996); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (2001–2003)) in discussion with the author, January 16, 2008 (Berkeley, CA).
. Interview with Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008 (Chicago, IL).
. See Federal Society Organization, About Us page, accessed February 16, 2009, www.fed-soc.org/aboutus.
. Interview with Thomas Smith (professor of law, University of San Diego Law School; senior counsel, President Reagan's Council of Economic Advisors) in discussion with the author, March 19, 2008.
. Ibid.
. See, e.g., Brigham 1987; McCann 1994, ; Sarat and Kearns 1998; Scheingold 2004.
. See www.fed-soc.org/events for a small sampling of all the events the Federalist Society sponsors each year.
. See, for example, personal interview with Michael Greve (director of the Federalism Project, American Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, February 12, 2008 (calls Federalist Society Conferences important for the "credentialing of rising stars"); Interview with Tony Cotto (former Student Chapter president at George Washington University Law School, the Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008 (in the context of why the Federalist Society stalwarts did not accept Harriet Myers as a Supreme Court nominee): "She's not a true believer. . . [The Federalist Society stalwarts] want credentials, they want to see you've spoken at Fed Society conferences, they want to know you've been at dinners and luncheons, gripping and grinning."
. Participant observations at a Federalist Society Student Chapter Happy Hour, Recessions Bar, Washington, D.C. February 12, 2008.
. Sources exhaustively examined include transcripts of National Student Conferences reprinted in the _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ ; audio and written transcripts of National Lawyer Conferences; scholarly articles and books recommended in the Federalist Society's _Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ , accessed May 23, 2012, at <http://www.fed-soc.org/resources/page/conservative-libertarian-legal-scholarship-annotated-bibliography>; scholarly articles and books published by Federalist Society members; Federalist Society Practice Group Newsletters (1996–2000); _Engage_ Journal of the Federalist Society Practice Groups (2002–2012); Federalist Society White Papers; relevant other multimedia from events accessible through the Federalist Society's online archive (www.fed-soc.org). In determining network members' shared beliefs, I also relied on data gathered from personal interviews with Federalist Society members in 2008 and archival data gathered from the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, CA, in 2008.
. Individuals clerking for a Supreme Court Justice are not likely to appear at a Federalist Society National Conference as a speaker prior to or concurrent with their clerkship. However, given the important role that clerks play in the researching and writing of Supreme Court opinions (see, e.g., Peppers 2006; Ward and Weiden 2006), I did note their presence as a possible conduit for idea diffusion if the clerk would later go on to become a prominent member of the Federalist Society (John C. Yoo, Sakrishna Prakash, and Paul Cassell, for example, are individuals who were involved with the society prior to clerking but would not be invited to speak at a National Conference until later in their careers) or if they had previously clerked for a lower court judge who is a prominent Federalist Society member (J. Michael Luttig and Laurence Silberman, for example).
. See <http://www.atlasti.com/index.html>.
. To clarify, it was not enough to show that the Supreme Court opinion was in some general sense "Originalist." To count in terms of influence, these Originalist sources, references, or lines of argumentation required proof that they were in fact diffused through a Federalist Society member participating in the litigation and/or through Federalist Society members' published scholarship. If the idea could not be traced to an identifiable source of Federalist Society member scholarship and/or through a brief or lower court opinion authored by a Federalist Society member, it was not considered an indicator of influence.
### _CHAPTER 2_
. Robert A. Sprecher, "The Lost Amendment." _American Bar Association Journal_ 51 (1965): 667.
. U.S. Const., Amend. II ("A well regulated Militia being necessary for the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed").
. _United States v. Cruikshank_ , 92 U.S. 542 (1876); _Presser v. Illinois_ , 116 U.S. 252 (1886); _Miller v. Texas_ , 153 U.S. 535 (1894).
. _Barron v. Baltimore_ , 32 U.S. 243 (1833).
. _United States v. Miller_ , 307 U.S. 174 (1939): *178.
. See, e.g., _Cases v. United States_ (1942) (First Circuit), _United States v. Warin_ (1976) (Sixth Circuit), and _United States v. Oakes_ (1984) (Tenth Circuit).
. See Federalist Society Organization, About Us page, www.fed-soc.org/aboutus.
. _Printz v. United States_ 521 U.S. 898, (1997): *938.
. Interview with Loren Smith (judge, U.S. Court of Federal Claims; chairman, Administrative Conference of the United States (1981–1985)) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008.
. Interview with David McIntosh (partner, Meyer, Brown and Platt; member of Congress (1995–2001); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 25, 2008.
. See, e.g., Walter Berns, "On Madison and Majoritarianism: A Response to Professor Amar," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 15 (1992): 113; Thomas W. Merrill, "The Role of Institutional factors in Protecting Individual Liberties," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 15 (1992): 85; Frank H. Easterbrook, "Bills of Rights and Regression to the Mean," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 15 (1992): 71; Theodore Olson, "How Effective are Bills of Rights in Protecting Individual Freedoms," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 15 (1992): 53.
. Thomas W. Merrill, "The Role of Institutional Factors in Protecting Individual Liberties," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 15 (1992): 85.
. 107 Stat. 1536. The Brady Act instituted a federal background check system for the purchase of firearms.
. Alan Gura, _Gun Rights Litigation Update_ , Sponsored by the Criminal Law and Procedures Practice Group of the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy. August 16, 2012, 12:00 EST.
. Thomas W. Merrill, "The Role of Institutional factors in Protecting Individual Liberties," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 15 (1992): 85.
. Nelson Lund had been featured as a presenter at four Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 1999 National Lawyers Convention, Civil Rights Group Panel, "Firearms Litigation, Tort Liability, and the Second Amendment"; 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Panel II, "Judicial Decisionmaking: The Case of Judicial Oversight of the Political Process"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Civil Rights Panel, "The Heller Case"; 2011 National Student Symposium, Panel I, "Economic Theory, Civic Virtue and the Meaning of the Constitution."
. Nelson Lund, "The Past and Future of the Individual's Right to Bear Arms," _Georgia Law Review_ _31_ , no. 1 (1996–1997): 2.
. Eugene Volokh has been a featured presenter nine times at Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 1999 Annual National Student Symposium, "Freedom of Speech about Political Candidates: The Unintended Consequences of Three Proposals" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 24, no. 1 (2000): 47–70); 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "The Bartnicki Case and Privacy"; 2002 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "Arguing the Slippery Slope"; 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "First Amendment: Regulation of False Statements of Fact"; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "What Is the 'Free Press?'"; 2007 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "Restricting Parental Speech"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "Freedom of Speech vs. Anti-Discrimination Laws"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel IV, "Showcase Panel IV: Regulation of Judicial Conduct: Silencing Judges or Avoiding Improper Influence"; 2010 National Lawyers Convention, Religious Liberties Panel, "Christian Legal Society v. Martinez."
. Eugene Volokh, "The Commonplace Second Amendment," _New York University Law Review_ _73_ (1998): 793, 795.
. Eugene Volokh, "The Commonplace Second Amendment," _New York University Law Review_ _73_ (1998): 793, 795.
. Randy Barnett has been a featured presenter at 12 Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 1986 Federalist Society National Meeting, "Are Enumerated Constitutional Rights the Only Rights We Have? The Case of Associational Freedom" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 10, no. 1 (1987) 101–116; 1988 Annual National Federalist Society Symposium, "Two Conceptions of the Ninth Amendment" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_12, no. 1 (1989): 29–42); 1991 National Lawyers Convention, Panel III: The Death of Contract and the Rise of Tort, "Some Problems with Contract as Promise" (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Law Review_ 77, no. 5 (1992): 1022–1033); 1995 National Student Symposium, Panel V: Is Originalism Possible? Historical Indeterminacy, "The Relevance of the Framers' Intent" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19, no. 2 (1996): 403–410); 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Federalism and Separation of Powers Panel, "Gay Marriage and Amending the Constitution"; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel IV, "The Original Meaning of the Commerce, Spending and Necessary & Proper Clauses"; 2007 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel II, "Is American Different from Other Major Western Democracies?"; 2007 Annual Student Symposium, "What Is Morality? The Philosophical and Theological Foundations of Moral Debate"; 2009 National Lawyers Convention, "Constitutional Interpretation and the Bill of Rights"; 2010 Annual Student Symposium, Panel II, "Originalism and Construction: Does Originalism Always Provide the Answer?"; 2010 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel I, "Enumerated Powers: The Tenth Amendment, and Limited Government"; 2011 Annual Student Symposium, "Debate: Economic Freedoms and the Constitution." Barnett also confirmed to me in our personal interview that since he made the move to Originalism, he has found a welcome and receptive home within the Federalist Society network and has strengthened his personal and professional ties with its members (Personal interview with Randy Barnett (professor of legal theory, Georgetown University Law School) in discussion with the author, June 10, 2008).
. Don Kates is an active member of the Federalist Society Civil Rights Practice Group, who often speaks on issues relating to criminology and Gun Rights. See, e.g., "Discussion about the DC Gun Ban and Its Road to the Supreme Court," George Mason Student Chapter, September 19, 2007, and "Gun Laws & the Heller Case," San Diego Lawyers & Student Chapter, February 20, 2008.
. Randy Barnett and Don Kates, "Under Fire: The New Consensus on the Second Amendment," _Emory Law Journal_ _45_ (1996): 1139, 1207.
. Nelson Lund, "The Past and Future of the Individual's Right to Bear Arms," _Georgia Law Review_ _31_ , no. 1, (1996–1997): 20.
. For a transcript of the panel discussion, see _Civil Rights Practice Group Newsletter_ 3, no. 1 (Spring 1999).
. See, e.g., Barnett and Kates, supra note 23: 1177–1178; Lund, supra note 24: 12–15, 60–61; and Volokh, supra note 20: 806.
. See, e.g., Lund supra note 24: 33 and Barnett and Kates, supra note 23: 1208–1209.
. See, e.g., Barnett and Kates, supra note 23: 1169–1172, 1175–1176, and 1213.
. Barnett and Kates, supra note 23: 1177–1178 (quoting 3 William Blackstone, Commentaries: 4).
. Lund, supra note 24: 33.
. Nelson Lund, "To Keep and Bear Arms." Heritage Guide to the Constitution.
. "nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law."
. John Harrison, who interviewees confirm was one of the first generation of young Federalist Society members coming out of the Reagan Justice Department (interview with Daniel Troy (attorney, Sidley Austin, LLP; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel (1984–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008), has also been a presenter at eight Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 1998 National Student Symposium, Panel IV: Federalism in Constitutional Context, "In the Beginning Are the States" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22, no. 1 (1998): 173–180); 1988 National Symposium, Panel IV: The Role of Legislative and Executive Branches in Interpreting the Constitution (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Law Review_ 73, (1988): 371–374); 1991 National Student Symposium, Debate: Should Congress Pass Legislation Overruling the Supreme Court's Decision in the Peyote Case?, "The Free Exercise Clause as a Rule about Rules" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 15, no. 1 (1992): 169–180); 2002 National Student Symposium, Panel II: Originalism and Historical Truth, "Forms of Originalism and the Study of History" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 26, no. 1 (2003): 83–94); 2005 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel I: Originalism and Unenumerated Constitutional Rights; 2006 Annual Student Symposium, Panel: Enforceablity of International Tribunals' Decisions in the U.S.; 2009 Annual Student Symposium, Panel IV: The Administrative State and the Constitution; 2010 Annual Student Symposium, Panel IV: Does the Originalism of the Fourteenth Amendment Guarantee Justice for All?
. Michael Kent Curtis has been a featured presenter at two National Conferences. See, e.g., 1988 National Federalist Society Symposium, "Privileges or Immunities, Individual Rights, and Federalism" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 12, no. 1 (1989): 53–62); 1999 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel: Back to the Future—What 21st Century Legal Culture Can Learn from the 19th Century's First Amendment.
. "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States."
. "Firearms Litigation, Tort Liability, and the Second Amendment—A Symposium." _Civil Rights Practice Group Newsletter_ 3, no. 3 (February 1, 2000).
. Lund, supra note 24: 50.
. Thomas Burrell, "Is There Anything 'Fundamental' in the Right to Keep and Bear Arms? A Call for Parity in the Incorporation Doctrine." _Engage_ _9_ , no. 1 (February 2008): 26.
. Ibid., 22.
. John Harrison, "Reconstructing the Privileges or Immunities Clause." _Yale Law Journal_ _101_ (1992): 1385, 1465.
. 83 U.S. 36 (1873).
. For a more detailed account of this case and its implications for the Privileges Or Immunities Clause, see Charles Black, _A New Birth of Freedom: Human Rights Named and Unnamed_ (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 41–85.
. John Harrison, "Reconstructing the Privileges or Immunities Clause." _Yale Law Journal_ _101_ (1992): 1385.
. Barnett and Kates, supra note 23: 1156.
. Panel III: Federalism and the Scope of the Federal Criminal Law (James L. Buckley, William Van Alstyne, David B. Sentelle, Joseph E. diGenova, G. Robert Blakey). Transcript reprinted in _American Criminal Law Review_ 26 (1988–1989): 1737–1778.
. William Van Alstyne, "The Second Amendment and the Personal Right to Arms." _Duke Law Journal_ _43_ (1993–1994): 1236.
. Ibid., 1251–1252 ("[t]he immunities of citizens with respect to rights previously secured only from abridging acts of Congress were recast in the Fourteenth Amendment as immunities secured also from any similar act by any state. It was precisely in this manner that the citizen's right to keep and bear arms, formerly protected only from acts of Congress, came to be equally protected from abridging acts of the sates as well").
. Michael Kent Curtis, _No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights_ (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), 104.
. Transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 12 (1989): 53–61.
. Ibid., 53.
. _Printz v. United States_ , 521 U.S. 898, Thomas, J. concurring: *938–939.
. DC ST § 7-2501.01 et seq.
. Council Act No. *694 1–142, Hearing and Disposition before the House Committee on the District of Columbia, 94th Cong., 2d Sess., on H. Con. Res. 694, Ser. No. 94–24, p. 25 (1976).
. D.C. Code Ann. Tit. 22, §§93201–3217, Arts. 50–56 (D.C. Police Regulations).
. D.C. Code § 7-2507.02.
. (Council Act No. *694 1–142), 25.
. Paul Duggan, "Lawyer Who Wiped Out D.C. Ban Says It's about Liberties, Not Guns." _Washington Post_ , March 18, 2007, A01.
. Adam Liptak, "Carefully Plotted Course Propels Gun Case to Top." _New York Times_ , December 3, 2007, 16.
. 311 F.Supp.2d 103.
. F.3d, 2012 WL 1450561.
. See 478 F. 3d 370 (Silberman, J, majority).
. Since Justice Scalia is notorious for only selecting clerks with Federalist Society credentials, and since there were no concurring or separate opinions in _Heller_ , in Figure 2.1 I have noted Justice Scalia's four law clerks at the time as conduits through which Federalist Society intellectual capital might have been diffused (Aditya Bamzai, John F. Bash III, Bryan M. Killian, and Rachel P. Kovner). All but one (Bryan M. Killian) also previously clerked for a Federalist Society–affiliated lower court judge.
. See, e.g., 1989 National Lawyers Convention, Panel I, "Agency Autonomy and the Unitary Executive" (transcript reprinted in _Washington University Law Quarterly_ 68, no. 3 (1990): 495–499); 1992 National Lawyers Convention, Luncheon Address, "The Clarence Thomas Confirmation: A Retrospective" (transcript reprinted in _Cumberland Law Review_ 23, no. 1 (1993): 141–154); 1994 Annual Student Symposium, Panel IV: "Feminism, Children, and the Family" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 18, no. 2 (1995): 501–503); 1995 National Lawyers Convention, Address, "The D.C. Circuit Task Force on Gender, Race, and Ethnic bias: Political Correctness Rebuffed" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19, no 3 (1996): 759–766); 2002 National Lawyers Convention, Convention Luncheon Speaker; 2009 Annual Student Symposium, Banquet Keynote Speaker.
. In addition to being actively involved in the Federalist Society's Civil Rights Practice Group, Clark Neily was invited to present on gun rights at the 2008 National Lawyers Convention. See Civil Rights Panel, "The Heller Case."
. In addition to being on the Federalist Society's Board of Visitors, Robert Levy has been an invited presenter at three Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 2002 National Lawyers Convention, Civil Rights Panel, "Privacy in the Post-September 11 World"; 2003 National Lawyers Convention, Special Session, "Civil Liberties and the War on Terror"; 2004 National Lawyers Convention, "Litigation: Regulation Through Litigation."
. Alan Gura is an active member of the Federalist Society's Civil Rights Practice Group and has participated in dozens of lawyer chapter events on the Second Amendment and gun rights. See, e.g., Federalist Society Debate, "Parker v. District of Columbia: DC Gun Ban Case," August 31, 2007; "D.C. v. Heller and the Future of Gun Control Legislation," Fordham Student Chapter, January 22, 2009; "Reception and Remarks with Alan Gura," Minnesota Lawyers Chapter, January 23, 2013.
. Brief for Amici Curiae Former Senior Officials of the Department of Justice in Support of Respondent, 2008 WL 405551 (U.S.) (Charles J. Cooper, Edwin Meese III, William P. Barr, George J. Terwilliger III, Robert H. Bork, Viet Dinh, Timothy E. Flanigan, Douglas W. Kmiec, Jack Goldsmith, and Richard K. Willard); Brief Amicus Curiae of the Heartland Institute in Support of Respondent, 2008 WL 405555 (U.S.) (Richard K. Willard, Eugene Volokh); Brief of the Second Amendment Foundation as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondent, 2008 WL 383529 (Nelson Lund); Amicus Brief of the American Center for Law and Justice in Support of Respondent, 2008 WL 383518 (Jay Alan Sekulow); Amicus Curiae Brief of the Goldwater Institute in Support of Respondent, 2008 WL 405566 (U.S.) (Clint Bolick, Bradford A. Berenson); Brief of the States of Texas, Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, etc., 2008 WL 40558 (R. Ted Cruz, Steve Carter, Michael A. Cox, Robert M. McKenna); Brief of Criminologists, Social Scientists, Other Distinguished Scholars at the Claremont Institute as Amici Curiae (Don B. Kates); Amicus Curiae Brief of the Libertarian National Committee, Inc. In Support of Respondent (2008 WL 391284 (Bob Barr)).
. As several interviewees confirmed, Ed Meese III was one of the earliest patrons of the fledgling Federalist Society group, hiring many of its founding members into the Department of Justice as special assistants in the 1980s and providing some institutional support and legitimacy for the group in its early years. I have documented these ties extensively in Hollis-Brusky 2011b.
. See Federal Society Website, May 23, 2013, <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/page/civil-rights-practice-group-executive-committee-contact-information>.
. 2008 WL 405551 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief).
. Edwin Meese III, Richard K. Willard, Charles J. Cooper, and Douglas Kmiec were involved in the drafting of this brief at the time I interviewed them. Each one mentioned it to me, unsolicited, as an example of the way in which the Federalist Society network had kept them in contact with one another after leaving the Reagan Justice Department and facilitated their collaborative efforts on this brief in particular.
. Interview with Edwin Meese III (U.S. attorney general under President Ronald Reagan (1985–1988); Fellow, Heritage Foundation) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2008.
. Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008.
. _Heller_ , *577.
. Ibid., *584–585 (Scalia, J., majority) (citing Eugene Volokh, State Constitutional Rights to Keep and Bear Arms, _Texas Review of Law and Politics_ 11 (2006): 191).
. .Ibid., *597 (Scalia, J., majority).
. Ibid., *587 (Scalia, J., majority) ("And the phrases used primarily in those military discussions include not only 'bear arms' but also 'carry arms,' 'possess arms,' and 'have arms'—though no one thinks that those _other_ phrases also had special military meanings. See Barnett, "Was the Right to Keep and Bear Arms Conditioned on Service in an Organized Militia?" _Texas Law Review_ 83 (2004): 237, 261).
. See Brief of the Second Amendment Foundation as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondent, 2008 WL 383529 (Nelson Lund): *14.
. Interview with Randy Barnett (professor of legal theory, Georgetown University Law School) in discussion with the author, June 10, 2008.
. 130 S. Ct. 3020 (2010).
. Chicago, Ill., Municipal Code § 8-20-050 et seq.
. Chicago, Ill., Journal of Proceedings of the City Council 10049 (1982).
. Fred Barbash, "Illinois Suburb Inspires a National Drive for Handgun Controls," _Washington Post_ , March 1, 1982, A9.
. Lea Donosky et al., "A New Push for Gun Control," _Newsweek_ , March 15, 1982, 22.
. 130 S. Ct. 3026–27.
. Ibid.
. Ibid.
. Ibid.
. _NRA, Inc. v. Village of Oak Park_ , 617 F. Supp. 2d 752, 753 (N.D. Ill. 2008) (citing _Quilici v. Village of Morton Grove_ , 695 F.2d 261 (7th Cir. 1982)).
. 92 U.S. 542 (1876).
. 116 U.S. 252 (1886).
. 153 U.S. 535 (1894).
. _Slaughter-House Cases_ , 16 Wall. 36, 21 L.Ed. 394.
. _McDonald_ , 130 S.Ct. 3027.
. Ibid., 3028.
. Ibid.
. Ibid., 3025, 3036.
. Amicus Curiae Brief of the American Center for Law and Justice in Support of Petitioners, WL 4049146 (Jay Alan Sekulow), Brief of the States Texas, Ohio, Arkansas, Georgia, Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, etc., 2009 WL 4378909 (James C. Ho, Richard Corday, Michael A. Cox, Robert M. McKenna); Brief Amicus Curiae of Cato Institute and Pacific Legal Foundation in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4030387 (Robert A. Levy); Brief Amicus Curiae of Center for Constitutional Jurisprudence in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4049148 (John C. Eastman, Edwin Meese III); Brief of Constitutional Law Professors as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4099504 (Douglas T. Kendall); Brief for the Goldwater Institute, Scharf-Norton Center for Constitutional Government, and Wyoming Liberty Group as Amici Curiae Supporting Petitioners, 2009 WL 4247970 (Clint Bolick); Brief of Amicus Curiae Institute for Justice in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4099506 (Clark M. Neily III).
. In addition to being an active member of the Federalist Society's Civil Rights Practice Group, Clint Bolick has been a presenter at four National Conferences. See 1990 Annual Symposium, Panel V: New Frontiers in Civil Rights, "Unfinished Business: A Civil Rights Strategy for America's Third Century" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 114, no. 1 (1991): 137–141); 1996 Annual Student Symposium, Panel II: Justice for All? "Civil Rights and the Criminal Justice System" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 20, no. 2 (1997): 391–396); 2006 National Lawyers Convention, Civil Rights Panel, "Civil Rights in the 21st Century"; 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel IV, "Brown and School Choice."
. John C. Eastman has been an invited presenter at seven Federalist Society National Conferences. See 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel I, "Judicial Decisionmaking: The Case of Life, Liberty and Property in the Modern Technological Age"; 2003 National Lawyers Convention, "Environmental Law and Property Rights"; 2004 National Lawyers Convention, "Federalism and Separation of Powers: Gay Marriage and Amending the Constitution"; 2007 National Lawyers Convention, "Federalism: Religion, Early America and the Fourteenth America"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, "Federalism: The Roberts Court and Federalism"; 2009 National Lawyers Convention, "Federalism and the Economic Crisis"; 2010 National Lawyers Convention, "Federalism: Is There Any Remaining Limit to Federal Power."
. In addition to clerking for Federalist Society members Judge Laurence H. Silberman and Justice Antonin Scalia, Paul Clement has been a presenter at four Federalist Society National Conferences. See 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel II, "Judicial Decisionmaking: The Case of Judicial Oversight of the Political Process"; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, "Address"; 2006 National Lawyers Convention, "Welcome and Opening Address"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, "The Roberts Court and Federalism."
. Kevin Martin has been a participant in three Federalist Society National Conventions. See 2004 National Lawyers Convention, "Telecommunications: Emerging Technologies and the Role of the Federal and State Regulators"; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, "Address"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, "Telecommunications: The FCC and the First Amendment."
. Of the seven, the only brief that did not lobby for the privileges or immunities path was Brief of the States Texas, Ohio, Arkansas, Georgia, Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, etc., 2009 WL 4378909 (James C. Ho, Richard Corday, Michael A. Cox, Robert M. McKenna).
. See Amicus Brief for Academics for the Second Amendment in Support of the Petitioners, 2009 WL 4099518 (Prof Joseph Edward Olson and David T. Hardy, Counsels of Record); Brief of the American Civil Rights Union, Let Freedom Ring, Committee for Justice, and the Family Research Council, as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4099513 (Peter J. Ferrara, Counsel of Record).
. _National Rifle Association of America, Inc., v. City of Chicago, Illinois, and Village of Oak Park, Illinois_ , 567 F. 3d 856 (2009) (Seventh Circuit): *858–859.
. See Federalist Society Statement of Principles, May 21, 2013, <http://www.fed-soc.org/aboutus/page/our-background>.
. See "A Symposium on Judicial Activism: Problems and Responses" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 7, no. 1 (1984): 87–100); "The First Annual Federalist Society Lawyers Convention" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 11, no. 1 (1988): 59–66); "Symposium on Judicial Decisionmaking: The Role of Text, Precedent, and the Rule of Law" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 17, no. 1 (1994): 61–70); 2001 National Lawyers Convention: "Judicial Decisionmaking" (audio available at www.fed-soc.org) 2008 National Lawyer's Convention: "The People and the Judiciary" (audio available at www.fed-soc.org); 2008 Annual Student Symposium: "The People and the Courts" (audio available at www.fed-soc.org).
. See, e.g., "A Symposium on Judicial Activism: Problems and Responses" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 7, no. 1 (1984): 1–176); "The First Annual Federalist Society Lawyers Convention" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 11, no. 1 (1988): 1–110); "Symposium on Judicial Decisionmaking: The Role of Text, Precedent, and the Rule of Law" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 17, no. 1 (1994); 1–156); "Federalism and Judicial Mandates" (transcript reprinted in _Arizona State Law Journal_ 28, no. 1 (1996): 17–222); 1999 Federalist Society National Lawyers Conference: "The Rule of Law, Modern Culture, and the Courts at Century's End"; (Federalist Society National Lawyers Conference, 1999); 2001 National Lawyers Convention: "Judicial Decisionmaking" (audio available at www.fed-soc.org) 2008 National Lawyer's Convention: "The People and the Judiciary" (audio available at www.fed-soc.org); 2008 Annual Student Symposium: "The People and the Courts" (audio available at www.fed-soc.org).
. In asking 34 key members of the Federalist Society network to identify a unifying principle or set of principles within the Federalist Society, a belief in Originalism received the most mentions (31) and a belief in judicial restraint received the second-most mentions (25).
. Interview with Gail Heriot (professor of law, University of San Diego; Commissioner, United States Commission on Civil Rights) in discussion with the author, March 18, 2008. See also, e.g., Interview with Charles J. Cooper (founding member and chairman of Cooper & Kirk, PLLC; assistant attorney general for the Office of Legal Counsel (1985–1988)) in discussion with the author, June 2, 2008 ("[The Federalist Society] was founded on some beliefs that, philosophical beliefs or premises, that I very much shared. A belief in a restrained judiciary, in the importance of adhering to the original meaning. . . . I was and still am very opposed to and concerned about the judicial activism and its consequences."); see also Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008 (". . . the standard things like federal-state relations and the separation of powers, the nature of the judicial function, there are some stand-bys. . ."); Interview with Loren Smith (judge, U.S. Court of Federal Claims; chairman, Administrative Conference of the United States (1981–1985)) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008. ("I think [the Federalist Society] has made it respectable to debate whether government has gotten too big and whether judges, by their decisions, are undermining the constitution."); Interview with Lee Liberman Otis (Office of Legal Counsel, George H. W. Bush Administration; general counsel (2001–2005); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, June 4, 2008; (". . . the main feeling was that the courts are deciding a lot of questions without reference to anything that the American people had authorized them to decide and that is not what should be happening."); Interview with Lillian BeVier, February 1, 2008 ("I think that consistent throughout is the rule of law. . . being necessary to restrain the Court who seemed to think that they could make it up.").
. _McDonald_ , supra note 94: *3029 (Alito, J, majority).
. Ibid., *3030–3031.
. Calabresi and Agudo, "Individual Rights under State Constitutions When the Fourteenth Amendment Was Ratified in 1868: What Rights Are Deeply Rooted in American History and Tradition?" _Texas Law Review_ _87_ (2008): 7, 50.
. _McDonald_ , supra note 94: *3042 (Alito, J., majority).
. Ibid., *3050 (Scalia, J., concurring).
. _McDonald, supra_ note 94: *3118–3119 (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("Justice Scalia's method invites not only bad history, but also bad constitutional law. . . . Not only can historical views be less than completely clear or informative, but they can also be wrong. Some notions that many Americans deeply believed to be true, at one time, turned out not to be true. Some practices that many Americans believed to be consistent with the Constitution's guarantees of liberty and equality, at one time, turned out to be inconsistent with them. The fact that we have a written Constitution does not consign this Nation to a static legal existence. Although we should always 'pa[y] a decent regard to the opinions of former times,' it 'is not the glory of the people of America' to have 'suffered a blind veneration for antiquity.' _The Federalist No. 14_ , p. 99, 104 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) (J. Madison). It is not the role of federal judges to be amateur historians. And it is not fidelity to the Constitution to ignore its use of deliberately capacious language, in an effort to transform foundational legal commitments into narrow rules of decision.").
. See Steven G. Calabresi (ed.), _Originalism: A Quarter-Century Debate_ (Washington, DC: Regnery: 2007), 43–45.
. See Antonin Scalia, "Foreword," in Steven G. Calabresi (ed.), _Originalism: A Quarter Century Debate_ (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2008), See also 1985 Federalist Society National Meeting, Antonin Scalia, "Morality, Pragmatism, and the Legal Order" (transcript reprinted at _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 9, no. 1 (1986): 123). See also the Seventh Annual National Federalist Society Symposium in 1988, Antonin Scalia, "Is There an Unwritten Constitution?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 12, no. 1 (1989): 1).
. _McDonald, supra_ note 94: *3057–3058 (Scalia, J., concurring).
. Ibid., *3088 (Thomas, J., concurring).
. Ibid., *3071 ("Evidence from the political branches in the years leading to the Fourteenth Amendment's adoption demonstrates broad public understanding that the privileges and immunities of United States citizenship included rights set forth in the Constitution. . . . M. Curtis, No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights 57 (1985) (hereinafter Curtis))" (Thomas J. concurring); *3075 ("There is much else in the legislative record. Many statements by Members of Congress corroborate the view that the Privileges or Immunities Clause enforced constitutionally enumerated rights against the states. See Curtis 112 (collecting examples))" (Thomas J. concurring); *3076 ("Even opponents of Fourteenth Amendment enforcement legislation acknowledged that the Privileges or Immunities Clause protected constitutionally enumerated individual rights. . . see Curtis 166–170 (collecting examples)"); *3078, and *3087 ("Cruikshank's holding that blacks could look only to state governments for protection of their right to keep and bear arms enabled private forces, often with assistance of local governments, to subjugate the newly freed slaves and their descendants through a wave of private violence designed to drive blacks from the voting booth and force them into peonage, an effective return to slavery. Without federal enforcement of the inalienable right to keep and bear arms, these militias and mobs were tragically successful in waging a campaign of terror against the very people the Fourteenth Amendment had just made citizens. . . Curtis 156") (Thomas, J., concurring).
. See Amicus Curiae Brief of the American Center for Law and Justice in Support of Petitioners, WL 4049146 (Jay Alan Sekulow): 18–19; Brief Amicus Curiae of Cato Institute and Pacific Legal Foundation in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4030387 (Robert A. Levy): 3, 15, 17–18, 23; Brief Amicus Curiae of Center for Constitutional Jurisprudence in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4049148 (John C. Eastman, Edwin Meese III): 7, 33; Brief of Constitutional Law Professors as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4099504 (Douglas T. Kendall) 6, 20, 25, 33; Brief for the Goldwater Institute, Scharf-Norton Center for Constitutional Government, and Wyoming Liberty Group as Amici Curiae Supporting Petitioners, 2009 WL 4247970 (Clint Bolick): 21; Brief of Amicus Curiae Institute for Justice in Support of Petitioners, 2009 WL 4099506 (Clark M. Neily III): 9; Petitioner Brief, 2009 WL 4378912 (Alan Gura): 14.
. Amicus Curiae Brief of the American Center for Law and Justice in Support of Petitioners, WL 4049146 (Jay Alan Sekulow).
. See 2007 Federalist Society National Lawyers Convention, "Shining City upon a Hill: American Exceptionalism," (accessed May 28, 2013), <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/pubID.452/pub_detail.asp>.
. Amicus Curiae Brief of the American Center for Law and Justice in Support of Petitioners, WL 4049146 (Jay Alan Sekulow): *3–8.
. _McDonald_ , supra note 94: *3063–3064 (Thomas, J., concurring).
. Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008.
. Interview with Randy Barnett (professor of legal theory, Georgetown University Law School) in discussion with the author, June 10, 2008 (Washington, DC) ("So when you ask me who are the big figures, Scalia is obviously because he's a Supreme Court Justice, because he writes opinions that fire people up and because a lot of people agree with him or want to agree. People need, everybody needs icons, everybody needs heroes. He serves that role, Justice Thomas serves that role for many people too. But, because he's quieter and not as caustic and not as combative, he doesn't get the attention that Justice Scalia does").
. Randy Barnett, "The Second Amendment and the states." _Wall Street Journal (Online)_ , March 2, 2010.
. Robert A. Levy, "Second Amendment Aftermath." _Washington Times_ , July 3, 2008, A22.
. George F. Will, "Reinventing the Second Amendment." _Washington Post_ , November 23, 2008, B07.
. Federalist Society Teleforum Call, "Gun Rights Litigation Update with Professor Nelson Lund and Mr. Alan Gura." August 16, 2012.
. Judge Diane Sykes is a six-time Federalist Society National Conference Participant (2007 National Lawyer's Convention; 2007 Annual Student Symposium; 2008 National Lawyer's Convention; 2009 National Lawyer's Convention; 2010 Annual Student Symposium; 2011 Annual Student Symposium).
. _Ezell v. City of Chicago_ , 7th Circuit 10-3525 (2011) (Sykes, J., majority).
. Judge Richard Posner is a three-time Federalist Society National Conference Participant and, in fact, was an invited participant at the very first Federalist Society National Meeting in 1982 (First Federalist Society National Meeting—A Symposium on Federalism (1982); Federalist Society Sixth Annual Symposium (1988); 2008 National Lawyer's Convention). Interestingly, Posner wrote a rather scathing review of Justice Scalia's majority opinion in _Heller_ , in the _New Republic_ , accusing the Justice of misusing history and misapplying Originalism in his opinion. See Richard A Posner, "In Defense of Looseness," _The New Republic_ , August 27, 2008 (accessed May 29, 2013), <http://www.newrepublic.com/article/books/defense-looseness#>.
. _Moore v. Madigan_ , 7th Cir. 12-1269, 12-1788 (2012) (Posner, J., majority).
. As Adam Winkler noted in a Federalist Society Teleforum debating the merits of the Seventh Circuit decision, "in the wake of the Heller case the vast majority of courts have been eager to uphold challenged gun control laws. In fact, there's been something like 400 lower court decisions on the constitutionality of gun control laws since the Heller case was decided in 2008, the vast majority of those cases—all but six or seven of them—have upheld the challenged law and where the law has been struck down, it's usually been an extreme outlier law." Federalist Society Teleforum Call, "Controlling Gun Control?: The Seventh Circuit Steps In with Kenneth A. Klukowski, Adam Winkler, Dean A. Reuter." March 20, 2013.
. Randy Barnett, "The Supreme Court's Gun Showdown." _Wall Street Journal_ , June 30, 2010, 15.
. Ibid.
. Ibid.
. Lillian BeVier has been an invited speaker at 15 Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 1986 National Meeting, "Hands off the Political Process" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 10, no. 1 (1987): 11–14); 1988 National Symposium, "What Privacy Is Not" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 12, no. 1 (1989): 99–104); 1993 Annual Student Symposium, Panel I: The Enterprise of Judging, "Judicial Restraint: An Argument from Institutional Design" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 17, no. 1 (1994): 7–12); 1994 Annual Student Symposium, Panel II: The Constitution on Sex, "Thoughts from a 'Real' Woman" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 18, no. 2 (1995): 457–464); 1995 Annual Student Symposium, Panel II: Constitutionalism and Originalism, "The Integrity and Impersonality of Originalism" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19, no. 2 (1996): 283–292); 1997 Annual Student Symposium, Panel I: What Is the "Law" in Law and Economics?, "Law, Economics, and the Power of the State" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 21, no. 1 (1997): 5–10); 1998 Annual Student Symposium, Panel II: Congress and the Judiciary, "Religion in Congress and the Courts: Issues of Institutional Competence" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22, no. 1 (1998): 59–66); 2000 National Lawyers Convention, "Special Forum: The State of Legal Education"; 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "The Bartnicki Case and Privacy"; 2004 National Lawyers Convention, "Professional Responsibility: Congressional Evaluation of Judicial Nominees"; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "What Is the 'Free Press?'"; 2007 Annual Student Symposium, "Government Promotion of Moral Issues"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "Freedom of Speech vs. Anti-Discrimination Laws"; 2010 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel IV, "Ideas for Structural Change: Term Limits, Revving the Right to Civil Jury Trial, Moving Administrative Law Judges to Article III, and Others"; 2011 Annual Student Symposium, "Welcome and Opening Remarks."
. Interview with Lillian BeVier (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in discussion with the author, February 1, 2008.
### _CHAPTER 3_
. 558 U.S. 310 (2010).
. Kenneth P. Vogel, "Supreme Court Opens Floodgates for Corporate, Union Political Contributions." _St. Paul Pioneer Press_ , January 20, 2010.
. Editorial, "Judicial Activism Inc.: The Supreme Court Tosses Out Reasonable Limits on Campaign Finance." _The Washington Post_ , January 22, 2010.
. Jess Bravin, "Court Kills Limits on Corporate Politicking." _Wall Street Journal_ , January 22, 2010.
. See, e.g., Robert Barnes, "Alito's State of the Union Moment." _The Washington Post_ , January 27, 2010. Available at <http://voices.washingtonpost.com/44/2010/01/alito-mouths-not-true-at-obama.html>.
. Ibid.
. House Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Civil Liberties, Committee on the Judiciary. "First Amendment and Campaign Finance Reform After Citizens United." Wednesday, February 3, 2010.
. Ibid., 1.
. Jeffrey Toobin, "Money Unlimited." _The New Yorker_ , May 21, 2012. Available at <http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/05/21/120521fa_fact_toobin?currentPage=5> (accessed January 3, 2014).
. 424 U.S. 1 (1976).
. 435 U.S. 765 (1978).
. 494 U.S. 652 (1990).
. U.S. Const., Amend. I ("Congress shall make no law. . . abridging the freedom of speech").
. See, e.g., Silverstein 2009, 167 ("[the phrase 'money is speech'] appears not in support of the majority's conclusions, but in a partial _dissent_ by Justice Byron White. The argument that 'money is speech,' Justice White writes, is one that 'proves entirely too much,' because there are so many activities that the government regulates that do, in some sense, have an effect on speech").
. _First Nat. Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_ , 435 U.S. 765, 786 (1978).
. Ibid.
. A Lexis Nexis Academic Search performed on May 22, 2013, for " _First National Bank v. Bellotti_ " in All News Sources revealed only two mentions of the case the year it was handed down: "Corporate Free Speech Backed." _Facts on File World News Digest_ , May 12, 1978, U.S. Affairs; Richard E Cohen, "New Lobbying Rules May Influence Grass-Roots Political Action." _The National Journal_ , May 27, 1978.
. See, e.g., Linda Greenhouse "Over the Cliff." _New York Times Blogs (Opinionator)_ , August 24, 2011. ("I fell into a Supreme Court time warp the other day. Preparing to teach a seminar this fall on the court under Chief Justice Warren E. Burger—the court of the 1970s and mid-'80s—I picked up for the first time in many years a decision from 1978, _First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_. The case is not well-known today, although it should be. It was the decision that really opened the door to corporate money in politics, leading 32 years later to a very well-known case: _Citizens United_ ").
. "The Big Question: What's the Most Important Supreme Court Case No One's Ever Heard of?" _The Atlantic_ , May 2013. Available at <http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2013/05/the-big-question/309290/>. (accessed January 7, 2014).
. See, e.g., _Federal Election Com. v. Central Long Island Tax Reform Immediately Committee_ , 616 F. 2d 45 (Second Circuit) (1980); _Marshall v. Stevens People & Friends for Freedom_, 669 F. 2d 171 (Fourth Circuit) (1981); _Taxation with Representation v. Regan_ , 676 F. 2d 715 (D.C. Circuit) (1982); _Federal Election Co. v. Massachusetts Citizens for Life, Inc_., 769 F. 2d 13 (First Circuit) (1985) _William E Brock v. Local 375_ , 860 F. 2d (1988).
. See "Symposium: The 1986 Federalist Society National Meeting" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 10, no. 1 (1987): 1–26 and 53–74).
. 494 U. S. 652.
. _Austin_ , supra note 22, at 660.
. The ACLU with Joel Gora as the counsel of record and a group filing of the AMA, National Association of Realtors, American Insurance Association, with Carter Phillips as the counsel of record.
. See, e.g., 494 U.S. 652 (1990). Kennedy, J. dissenting, at *699–700 ("[t]he protection afforded core political speech is not diminished because the speaker is a nonprofit corporation. Even in the case of a for-profit corporation, we have upheld the right to speak on ballot issues. The Bellotti Court stated: 'If the speakers here were not corporations, no one would suggest that the State could silence their proposed speech. . .'")
. For a catalogue of this Practice Group's Newsletters from 1996 to 2000, see <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/page/free-speech-election-law-practice-group-newsletters> (accessed May 22, 2013).
. See Urofsky 2005, 109 ("The original version of the BCRA had been introduced as senate Bill 1219 in the 104th Congress in September 1995. . . The bill never made it out of committee, but at each succeeding session of Congress, Senators John McCain (R-Ariz.) and Russell D Feingold (D-Wis.) reintroduced a version of their bipartisan campaign proposal").
. Mitch McConnell, "Campaign Finance 'Reform': A View from Capitol Hill." _Free Speech & Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 1 (Fall 1996). Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/campaign-finance-reform-a-view-from-capitol-hill> (accessed January 8, 2014).
. James Bopp, Jr., "The FEC's Assault on the First Amendment." _Free Speech & Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 1 (Fall 1996). Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/the-fecs-assault-on-the-first-amendment> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. Allison R. Hawyard, "Free Speech and the 1995–96 Term: A Mixed Message." _Free Speech & Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 1 (1996). Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/free-speech-and-the-1995-96-term-a-mixed-message> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. See interview with Lillian BeVier (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in phone discussion with the author, February 1, 2008.
. See interview with Lee Liberman Otis (Office of Legal Counsel, George H. W. Bush Administration; general counsel (2001–2005); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, February 1, 2008.
. See <http://www.fed-soc.org/aboutus/> (last accessed January 7, 2014).
. See _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 10, no. 1 (1987): 1–20.
. Daniel E. Troy, "Taking Commercial Speech Seriously." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _2_ , no. 2 (Spring 1998). Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/taking-commercial-speech-seriously> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. Joel M. Gora, " _Buckley v. Valeo_ Revisited." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 3, no. 3 (Winter 2000). Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/buckley-v-valeo-revisited> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. See, e.g., Allison R. Hayward, "Free Speech and the 1995–96 Term: A Mixed Message." _Free Speech & Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 1, no. 1 (Fall 1996). Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/free-speech-and-the-1995-96-term-a-mixed-message> (last accessed January 8, 2014). See also, Allison R. Hayward, "Election Law Observer." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 2, no. 2 (Summer 1998). Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/election-law-observer-2> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Group, "The Future of Political Parties." See <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/page/2000-national-lawyers-convention-the-presidency> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. 2003 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Group, "Campaign Finance Reform in the Supreme Court." See <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/page/2003-national-lawyers-convention-international-law-and-american-sovereignty> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. See <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/spdetail/election-law-series> (last accessed January 8, 2014).
. See, e.g., Stephen R. Klein, "A Cold Breeze in California: _Protect Marriage_ Reveals the Chilling Effect of Campaign Finance Disclosure on Ballot Measure Issue Advocacy." _Engage_ _10_ , no. 3 (2009): 68–73; James Bopp, Jr., "The FEC's Assault on the First Amendment." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 1 (Fall 1996); Bradley A. Smith, "Should 'Committing Politics' Be a Crime? The Case for Deregulating Campaign Finance." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 2 (July 1997).
. See, e.g., John O McGinnis, "Against the Scribes: Campaign Finance Reform Revisited." _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ _24_ , no. 1 (2000): 25–46; Joel M Gora, "Buckley v. Valeo Revisited." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _3_ , no. 3 (Winter 2000); Mitch McConnell, "Campaign Finance 'Reform': A View from Capitol Hill." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 1 (Fall 1996).
. See, e.g., John R. Lott, "Empirical Evidence in the Debate on Campaign Finance Reform." _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ _24_ , no. 1 (2000): 9–16; Boyden Gray, "Afternoon Address." _Cumberland Law Review_ _23_ , no. 1 (1992): 49–60; Michael W. McConnell, "A Constitutional Campaign Finance Plan." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _2_ , no. 1 (May 1998); Charles R. Spies, "Michigan Issue Ad Ruling Reinforces Constitutional Protections." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 2, no. 3 (December 1998).
. See <http://www.fed-soc.org/resources/page/conservative-libertarian-legal-scholarship-constitutional-law> (last accessed January 6, 2014).
. Mitch McConnell, "It's a Matter of Principle." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 3, no. 1 (Spring 1999).
. Charles H. Bell, "A Practitioner's View of _Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee v. Federal Election Commission_." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 1, no. 1 (Fall 1996).
. Allison R. Hayward, "The Supreme Court and Campaign Finance." _Engage_ _9_ , no. 3 (October 2008): 61.
. Ibid., 63.
. _Bellotti_ , supra note 15, at *776.
. Ibid., *776.
. Ibid., *777.
. Ribstein is a professor of law at Illinois College of Law and has participated in Federalist Society faculty conferences (see, e.g., 12th Annual Faculty Conference, "Bankruptcy or Bailout," January 8, 2010) and Debates (see, e.g., Debate, " _Citizens United v. FEC_ : A Roundtable Discussion," February 3, 2010).
. Fisch presented a talk on "The New Federal Regulation of Corporate Governance" at the 2004 Annual Student Symposium (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 28, no. 1 (Fall 2004): 39–50).
. 539 U.S. 146 (2003) (held that applying the direct contribution prohibition to nonprofit advocacy corporations is consistent with the First Amendment). Notably, this case was argued by Federalist Society member James Bopp, Jr.
. 352 U.S. 567 (1957) (upheld a criminal conviction of a union for using union dues to sponsor commercial television broadcasts designed to influence the electorate in connection with national elections pursuant to 18 U.S.C.S. Section 610. Though the Supreme Court declined to consider the broader constitutional question of whether the ban was constitutional, Justice Felix Frankfurter mobilized historical evidence to demonstrate how this statute was consistent with a long series of congressional efforts calculated to avoid the deleterious influences of corporations and unions on the political process).
. See Allison R. Hayward, "Rethinking Campaign Finance Prohibitions." Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20070403_campfin.pdf> (last accessed January 21, 2014).
. Marshall, a professor at University of North Carolina School of Law, has participated in four Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 1998 Annual Student Symposium, Panel III: Constitutional Federalism Reborn, "American Political Culture and the Failures of Process Federalism" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22, no. 1 (1998): 139–155); 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel IV, "Brown and School Choice"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel I, "Judicial Selection: Federal and State"; 2011 Annual Student Symposium, Panel III, "The Welfare State and American Exceptionalism."
. Moore, the director of the Center for National Security Law at the University of Virginia, has presented at two Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Roundtable III, "What Should Shape a President's Perspective on Foreign Policy?"; 2002 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel III, "Fighting Fairly: The Laws of Armed Conflict."
. Pilon, the founder and director of Cato Institute's Center for Constitutional Studies, has presented at six Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Environmental Law and Property Rights, "Property Rights Protection: Judicial Activism or a Return to First Principles"; 2003 National Lawyers Convention, Criminal Law and Procedure, "Victims' Rights"; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, Telecommunications, "Expansion of Indecency Regulation"; 2006 National Lawyers Convention, Federalism, "Executive Power in Wartime"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Litigation, "Civil Litigation under the Roberts Court"; 2010 National Lawyers Convention, Labor, "Regulatory Power Unleashed?"
. Polsby, who is the dean of George Mason Law School, has presented at three Federalist Society National Conferences. See, e.g., 1994 Annual Student Symposium, Panel IV: Feminism, Children and the Family, "Ozzie and Harriet Had It Right" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 18, no. 2 (1995): 531–536); 1995 Annual Student Symposium, Panel I, "Originalism and the Dead Hand" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19, no. 2 (1996): 243–244); 1999 Annual Student Symposium, Panel IV: Does Consumer Choice Need to be Managed, "Should Government Attempt to Influence Consumer Preference" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 23, no. 1 (1999): 197–202).
. See interview with Daniel Polsby (dean and professor of law, George Mason Law School) in discussion with the author, February 11, 2008.
. See interview with Lillian BeVier (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in discussion with the author, February 1, 2008 ("[The Federalist Society's principal contribution has been] opening debate. For me what that opening debate has meant, the ideas that I share with other people who are members of the Federalist Society have been able to be injected and people have found them persuasive. I can't tell you how often I've given talks at law schools and it's a topic completely out of the mainstream because that's what I seem to do and people come up to me and say, 'I never looked at it that way. I never thought about that.'")
. Personal Interview with Eugene Meyer (president, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, February 8, 2008.
. Personal interview with Richard Willard (partner, Steptoe and Johnson, LLP; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008.
. See J. Harvie Wilkinson, "The Fourteenth Amendment Privileges and Immunities Clause." _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ _43_ , no. 12 (1989): 51–52.
. See Ian Millhiser, "How Conservatives Abandoned Judicial Restraint, Took over the Courts, and Radically Transformed America." _Think Progress_ , November 19, 2013. Available at <http://thinkprogress.org/justice/2013/11/19/2944371/tedcruzification-judiciary/> (last accessed January 26, 2014).
. See <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/sixth-annual-rosenkranz-debate-resolved-courts-are-too-deferential-to-the-legislature-event-audiovideo> (last accessed January 26, 2014).
. See Ian Millhiser, "How Conservatives Abandoned Judicial Restraint, Took over the Courts, and Radically Transformed America." _Think Progress_ , November 19, 2013. Available at <http://thinkprogress.org/justice/2013/11/19/2944371/tedcruzification-judiciary/> (last accessed January 26, 2014).
. See, e.g., Joel Gora, " _Buckley v. Valeo_ Revisited." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 3, no. 3 (Winter 2000).
. Allison R. Hayward, "The Supreme Court and Campaign Finance." _Engage_ 9, no. 3 (October 2008): 63.
. Personal interview with Steven Calabresi (cofounder of the Federalist Society, professor of law, Northwestern University) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008.
. 116 Sat. 81 (2002).
. See, e.g., _Senator Mitch McConnell v. Federal Election Commission_ , Civ. No. 02-0582.
. Sections 201 and 202 were also charged with being unconstitutional. I chose to highlight §203 as it proves to be the major point of contention in _Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc_., 551 U.S. 449 (2007), the next case in my analysis, and the case that sets up the judicial paths that were picked up by the court in _Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission_ , 558 U.S. 08-205 (2010).
. 2 U.S.C. §441b(a) (2000 ed.).
. 2 U.S.C.A. §441b(b)(2) (Supp. 2003).
. _Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ , 494 U.S. 652, 658 (1990).
. McConnell, 540 U.S. 93, at 13 (Thomas, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).
. 546 U.S. 410, 126 S.Ct. 1016.
. 551 U.S. 449, 127 S.Ct. 2652.
. Bopp, who is general counsel for the James Madison Center for Free Speech, was the co-chairman for Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Group from 1996 to 2005. He has also presented at two Federalist Society National Conferences. See 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "First Amendment: Regulation of False Statements of Fact"; and 2010 National Lawyers Convention, Professional Responsibility Panel, "The Bloody Crossroads: _Republican Party of Minnesota v. White_ Runs into _Caperton v. Massey_."
. 546 U.S. 410, 126 S.Ct. 1016.
. Brief for Appellee, 2007 WL 868545 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *25.
. Sentelle's earliest appearance at a Federalist Society National Conference was in 1987. See "Second Annual Lawyers Convention of the Federalist Society: The Constitution and Federal Criminal Law," Panel III: Federalism and the Scope of the Federal Criminal Law (transcript reprinted in _American Criminal Law Review_ 26, no. 4 (1988–1989): 1737–1778).
. 551 U.S. 449, 127 S.Ct. 2652.
. Thompson, who is a managing partner at Cooper and Kirk alongside fellow network member Charles J Cooper, appeared at the 2003 National Lawyers Convention to speak on the issue of Free Speech and Election Law. See 2003 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Group, "Campaign Finance Reform in the Supreme Court."
. Jaffe, a constitutional litigator and former clerk to Justice Clarence Thomas, has participated in dozens of Federalist Society events. For a small sample of his network participation since 2006, see <https://www.fed-soc.org/publications/author/erik-s-jaffe> (last accessed January 27, 2014).
. Baran, who is a litigator for Wiley Rein with extensive expertise in First Amendment and Campaign Finance law, presented at the 2000 National Student Symposium on "Political Parties and Spending Limits" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 24, no. 1 (2000): 83–90).
. See, e.g., 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Labor and Employment Group Panel, "Regulatory Enforcement of Labor and Employment Law: What the Future Holds."
. Gora, a law professor at Brooklyn Law School, has been an active member of the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group since at least 1999. See, e.g., " _Buckley v. Valeo_ Revisited: Remarks of Professor Joel M. Gora at the Federalist Society's September 1999 Conference." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ 3, no. 3 (Winter 2000). Available at: <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/buckley-v-valeo-revisited> (last visited January 2, 2014).
. Law, who at this time was the chief legal officer and general counsel for the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, is now the president and CEO of American Crossroads. He has presented at two Federalist Society National Conferences. See 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Labor Panel, "Globalization: Labor Challenges for the 21st Century" and 2009 National Lawyers Convention, Labor Panel, "Wall Street, Labor Unions, and the Obama Administration: A New Paradigm for Capital and Labor?"
. Shapiro, who is the former national legal director for the ACLU, participated in the 1999 National Lawyers Convention on the Free Speech and Election Law Group's Panel, "Freedom of Speech and Criminal Facilitation."
. _Wisconsin Right to Life, supra_ note 85, *481.
. See, e.g., "Brief Amicus Curiae of the American Civil Liberties Union in Support of Appellee" (Joel M. Gora and Steven R Shapiro, Counsel of Record). 2007 WL 894817 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief); "Brief of Amicus Curiae National Rifle Association" (Charles J. Cooper, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894818 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief); "Brief of the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations as Amicus Curiae in Support of Appellee" (Laurence Gold, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894819 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief); "Brief of Amicus Curiae Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America in Support of Appellee" (Jan Witold Baran, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894812 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief); "Brief Amici Curiae of the American Center for Law and Justice and of Focus on the Family in Support of Appellee" (Jay Alan Sekulow, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894822 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief); "Brief for Amici Curiae the Center for Competitive Politics, the Institute for Justice, Reason Foundation, The Individual Rights Foundation, and the Cato Institute, in Support of Appellees" (Erik S Jaffe, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 922218 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief).
. 466 F. Supp. 2d 195 (2006) (held Section 203 of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act unconstitutional as applied to three broadcast advertisements that Wisconsin Right to Life intended to run within 30 days of a federal general election).
. See, e.g., "Brief of United States Senator Mitch McConnell as Amicus Curiae in Support of Appellee" (Theodore Olson, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894813 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), at *14 (citing Bradley A. Smith and Jason R. Owen, "Boundary Based Restrictions in Unbounded Broadcast Media Markets: _McConnell v. FEC_ 's Underinclusive Overbreadth Analysis." _Stanford Law and Policy Review_ 18 (2007)); "Brief for Amici Curiae the Center for Competitive Politics, the Institute for Justice, Reason Foundation, The Individual Rights Foundation, and the Cato Institute, in Support of Appellees" (Erik S. Jaffe, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 922218 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), at *15 (citing Bradley A. Smith and Jason R. Owen, "Boundary Based Restrictions in Unbounded Broadcast Media Markets: _McConnell v. FEC_ 's Underinclusive Overbreadth Analysis." _Stanford Law and Policy Review_ 18 (2007)), *6 and *23 (citing Erik S. Jaffe, " _McConnell v. FEC:_ Rationing Speech to Prevent "Undue" Influence, 2003–2004." _Cato Supreme Court Review_ 245 (2004)); *17 (citing Ilya Somin, "Political Ignorance and the Countermajoritarian Difficulty: A New Perspective on the Central Obsession of Constitutional Theory." _Iowa Law Review_ 89 (2004): 1287).
. See, e.g., "Brief for Amici Curiae the Center for Competitive Politics, the Institute for Justice, Reason Foundation, The Individual Rights Foundation, and the Cato Institute, in Support of Appellees," supra note 96, *5, *24 (citing _Federalist_ No. 10, _The Federalist Papers_ ); "Brief of United States Senator Mitch McConnell as Amicus Curiae in Support of Appellee" supra note 96, *11(citing Continental Congress, "Address to the Inhabitants of the Province of Quebec" (Oct. 26, 1774), in _Journal of the Continental Congress_ 1 (1904 ed.): 104); "Brief Amici Curiae of the American Center for Law and Justice and of Focus on the Family in Support of Appellee" (Jay Alan Sekulow, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894822 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *6–7 (citing 1628 Petition of Right, 3 Chas.1 c.1), *7–8 (citing 1689 Bill of Rights, 1 W. & M., Sess. 2, ch. (1689)), *9 (citing "An Act Prohibiting Trade and Intercourse with America," 16 Geo. III., c. 5 and Declaration and Resolves, First Continental Congress, October 14, 1774), *10 (citing Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Sess., 451 (June 8, 1789)).
. See, e.g., "Brief Amicus Curiae of the American Civil Liberties Union in Support of Appellee" (Joel M. Gora and Steven R Shapiro, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894817 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *25; "Brief of United States Senator Mitch McConnell as Amicus Curiae in Support of Appellee" supra note 96, *13, *16, *18, *22; "Brief of Amicus Curiae National Rifle Association" (Charles J. Cooper, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894818 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *19; "Brief of the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations as Amicus Curiae in Support of Appellee" (Laurence Gold, Counsel of Record) 2007 WL 894819 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *22–*23.
. Brief for Appellee, 2007 WL 868545 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *68.
. _Wisconsin Right to Life_ , supra note 85 (Scalia, J., concurring), *502–503.
. Ibid., *502.
. _Wisconsin Right to Life_ , supra note 85 (Roberts, C.J., majority), *476.
. _Wisconsin Right to Life_ , supra note 85 (Alito, J., concurring), *482–483.
. Richard Wolf and David Jackson, "Shackles Off 'Issue Ads' Naming Candidates, but Who Benefits Up for Debate." _USA Today_ , June 26, 2007.
. Joan Biskupic, "Court's Newcomers Lead a Measured Push to the Right; 5-4 Ruling Suggest That Roberts and Alito Will Reverse Prior Decisions—To a Point." _USA Today_ , June 26, 2007.
. Allison R. Hayward, "The Supreme Court and Campaign Finance." _Engage_ 9, no. 3 (October 2008): 63.
. 558 U.S. 310, 130 S.Ct. 876.
. 2 U.S.C.A. § 434 (f)(3)(A)(i).
. 558 U.S. 310, 130 S.Ct. 876, *321.
. Randolph, a federal judge on the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals, has been on the program at Federalist Society national conferences an impressive 19 times. His first appearance was as a moderator at the 1992 National Lawyers Conference, Panel IV, "Who Controls the Administrative State? A Debate on the Relationship Between Congress and Government Agencies" (transcript reprinted in _Cumberland Law Review_ 23, no. 1 (1993): 125–140).
. 530 F.Supp.2d 274 (D.D.C.2008) 558.
. Jeffrey Toobin, "Money Unlimited." _The New Yorker_ , May 21, 2012. Available at <http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/05/21/120521fa_fact_toobin?currentPage=5> (last accessed January 31, 2014).
. Ibid., 5.
. 558 U.S. 310, 130 S.Ct. 876.
. Smith, who served as the chairman of the Federal Election Commission under George W. Bush between 2000 and 2005, currently serves as an advisor for the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group. Additionally, he has presented at two Federalist Society National Conferences. See 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "The Future of Political Parties" and 2010 National Lawyers Convention, "Free Speech: Anonymity and the First Amendment."
. Abrams, a prominent First Amendment attorney, spoke on civil liberties at two of the earliest Federalist Society National Conferences. See 1986 Federalist Society National Meeting, "Content Neutrality: Some Thoughts on Words and Music" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 10, no. 1 (1987): 61–70) and 1987 First Annual Federalist Society Lawyers Convention, "The Ninth Amendment and the Protection of Unenumerated Rights" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 11, no. 1 (1988): 93–96).
. Cox, who serves as a chairman for the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group, also presented at the 2002 National Lawyers Convention on the Telecommunications Panel, "Privacy, Telecommunications and Technology: Does Emerging Technology Force New Privacy Considerations?"
. Hayward, a former professor at George Mason Law School and current vice president of Policy at the Center for Competitive Politics, is the chairman of the Federalist Society's Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group.
. See, e.g., _Citizens United_ , supra note 1 (Kennedy, J., majority), *898–*899 ("Prohibited, too, are restrictions distinguishing among different speakers, allowing speech by some but not others. See _First Nat. Bank of Boston v Bellotti_ "); *899 ("The Court has recognized that First Amendment protection extends to corporations. Bellotti, supra, at 778); *900 ("Under the rationale of these precedents, political speech does not lose First Amendment protection 'simply because its source is a corporation' Bellotti, supra, 784. . . The Court has thus rejected the argument that political speech of corporations or other associations should be treated differently under the First Amendment simply because such associations are not 'natural persons.' Ibid., 776").
. Ibid., *900.
. Ibid., *907.
. See "Brief for Appellant" (Theodore Olson, Counsel of Record) 2009 WL 61467 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *14, 29, 30, 31, 43, 45, 47, 55.
. Ibid., *31.
. Ibid., *30.
. Ibid.
. See "Brief of the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations as Amicus Curiae in Support of Appellant" (Laurence Gold, Counsel of Record) 2009 WL 2365216 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *12; "Brief of Amicus Curiae Center for Competitive Politics in Support of Appellant" (Stephen M. Hoerstring, Counsel of Record with Bradley A. Smith, Reid Alan Cox) 2009 WL 132719 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *24; "Brief of Amicus Curiae Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America in Support of Appellant" (Jan Witold Baran, Counsel of Record) 2009 WL 154011 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief), *15, 17, 18, 20.
. Fallon, a professor at Harvard Law School, has presented at three Federalist Society National Conferences and has spoken on the topic of the judicial role. See, e.g., 1993 Annual Student Symposium, Panel IV: Non-Legal Theory in Judicial Decisionmaking, "Non-Legal Theory in Judicial Decisionmaking" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 17, no. 1 (1994): 87–100).
. See <http://www.fed-soc.org/resources/page/conservative-libertarian-legal-scholarship-federal-courts> ("Richard H. Fallon, Jr., _Judicially Manageable Standards and Constitutional Meaning_ , 119 Harv. L. Rev., 1274 (2006). This article flushes out how courts have defined 'judicially manageable standards,' which result in nonjusticiable political questions. Professor Fallon then identifies a series of criteria that guide courts, but concludes that the ultimate test is so discretionary that it could be considered judicially unmanageable.") (last accessed February 3, 2014).
. _Citizens United_ , supra note 1 (Kennedy, J., majority), *893 ("The parties cannot enter into a stipulation that prevents the Court from considering certain remedies if those remedies are necessary to resolve a claim that has been preserved. Citizens United has preserved its First Amendment challenge to 441b as applied to the facts of its case; and given all the circumstances, we cannot easily address that issue without assuming a premise—the permissibility of restricting corporate political speech—that is itself in doubt. See Fallon, As-Applied and Facial Challenges and Third-Party Standing, 113 _Harv. L. Rev_. 1321 (2000): 1339").
. See, _Citizens United, supra_ note 1 (Kennedy, J., majority), *900 ("At least since the latter part of the 19th century, the laws of some States and of the United States imposed a ban on corporate direct contributions to candidates. See B. Smith, Unfree Speech: The Folly of Campaign Finance Reform 23 (2001)").
. "Brief of Amicus Curiae Center for Competitive Politics in Support of Appellant" (Stephen M Hoerstring, Counsel of Record) 2009 WL 132719 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief).
. "Brief Amici Curiae of Seven Former Chairmen and One Former Commissioner of the Federal Election Commission Supporting Appellant on Supplemental Question" (James Bopp, Jr., Counsel of Record) 2009 WL 2349018 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief).
. See _Citizens United, supra_ note 1 (Kennedy, J., majority), *895 ("Third is the primary importance of speech itself to the integrity of the election process. As additional rules are created for regulating political speech, any speech arguably within their reach is chilled. See Part II-A, _supra_. Campaign finance regulations now impose 'unique and complex rules' on '71 distinct entities.' Brief for Seven Former Chairmen of FEC et al. as _Amici Curiae_ 11–12. These entities are subject to separate rules for 33 different types of political speech. Ibid., 14–15, n. 10. The FEC has adopted 568 pages of regulations, 1,278 pages of explanations and justifications for those regulations, and 1,771 advisory opinions since 1975. See ibid., 6, n. 7."); *897–898 ("PACs have to comply with these regulations just to speak. This might explain why fewer than 2,000 of the millions of corporations in this country have PACs. See Brief for Seven Former Chairmen of FEC et al. as _Amici Curiae_ 11 (citing FEC, Summary of PAC Activity 1990–2006, online at <http://www.fec.gov/press/press2007/20071009pac/sumhistory.pdf>); IRS, Statistics of Income: 2006, Corporation Income Tax Returns 2 (2009) (hereinafter Statistics of Income) (5.8 million for-profit corporations filed 2006 tax returns). PACs, furthermore, must exist before they can speak. Given the onerous restrictions, a corporation may not be able to establish a PAC in time to make its views known regarding candidates and issues in a current campaign.")
. "Brief of Amicus Campaign Finance Scholars in Support of Appellant, Citizens United" (Allison R. Hayward, Counsel of Record) 2009 WL 2365206 (U.S.) (Appellate Brief).
. Ibid., *9 and *17.
. See _Citizens United_ , supra note 1 (Kennedy, J., majority) at *901 (discussing _United States v. Automobile Workers_ , "The Court did not get another opportunity to consider the constitutional question in that case; for after a remand, a jury found the defendants not guilty. See Hayward, Revisiting the Fable of Reform, 45 _Harv J. Legis_. 421(463) (2008)"), *912.
. _Citizens United, supra_ note 1 (Stevens, J. dissenting), *932.
. Ibid., *933–934.
. Ibid., *938.
. _Citizens United, supra_ note 1 (Roberts, C. J., concurring), *920-921.
. _Citizens United, supra_ note 1 (Scalia, J., concurring), *929.
. _Citizens United, supra_ note 1 (Stevens, J., dissenting), *948.
. Interview with John C. Yoo (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; former law clerk to Judge Laurence H. Silberman and Justice Clarence Thomas; general counsel, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee (1995–1996); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (2001–2003)) in discussion with the author, January 16, 2008.
. See, _Citizens United, supra_ note 1(Kennedy, J., majority), *916 ("Last, Citizens United argues that disclosure requirements can chill donations to an organization by exposing donors to retaliation. Some amici point to recent events in which donors to certain causes were blacklisted, threatened, or otherwise targeted for retaliation. See Brief for Institute for Justice as Amicus Curiae 13–16; Brief for Alliance Defense Fund as Amicus Curiae 16–22").
. See, e.g., Stephen R. Klein, "A Cold Breeze in California: _Protect Marriage_ Reveals the Chilling Effect of Campaign Finance Disclosure on Ballot Measure Issue Advocacy." _Engage_ _10_ , no. 3 (2009): 68–73; James Bopp, Jr., "The FEC's Assault on the First Amendment." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 1 (Fall 1996); Bradley A. Smith, "Should 'Committing Politics' Be a Crime? The Case for Deregulating Campaign Finance." _Free Speech and Election Law Practice Group Newsletter_ _1_ , no. 2 (July 1997).
. Howard Greninger, "High Court Removes Campaign Funding Restrictions." _Tribune-Star_ , January 23, 2010.
. Michael R. Wolford, "Commentary: What's behind the 'Citizens' Brouhaha?" _Daily Record of Rochester_ , February 4, 2010.
. "Editorial: Transparency Is the Answer to Political Spending." _Foster's Daily Democrat_ , Dover, NH, January 25, 2010.
. John O'Brien, "U.S. SC Overturns Campaign Spending Law, Infuriates Obama." _Madison County Record_ , January 22, 2010.
. See, e.g., Robert Barnes, "Alito's State of the Union Moment." _Washington Post_ , January 27, 2010. Available at <http://voices.washingtonpost.com/44/2010/01/alito-mouths-not-true-at-obama.html>.
. See, e.g., http://www.fed-soc.org/search/default.asp?q=steve+simpson&x=0&y=0 (last accessed February 9, 2014).
. Fredreka Schouten, "Campaign-Finance Fights Not Over; High Court's Ruling on Spending Limits Was Just One Case." _USA Today_ , January 27, 2010.
. David Kirkpatrick, "A Quest to End Spending Rules for Campaigns." _New York Times_ , January 25, 2010.
. For a sampling of all the events the Federalist Society has facilitated on _Citizens United_ , see the following search results for "citizens united" on the Society's website (which number close to 100): http://www.fed-soc.org/search/default.asp?q=citizens+united&x=0&y=0 (last accessed February 9, 2014).
. See, generally, The Campaign Legal Center, <http://www.clcblog.org/blog_item-329.html> (last accessed February 6, 2014).
. _Shaun McCutcheon, et al., v. Federal Election Commission_ , No. 12-536 (proceedings and orders available at <http://www.supremecourt.gov/Search.aspx?FileName=/docketfiles/12-536.htm> (last accessed February 5, 2014).
. See, e.g., <http://prospect.org/article/mccutcheon-oral-arguments-point-way-backward-and-forward> (last accessed February 6, 2014).
. U.S. Const. Amend. I ("Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof").
. Duncan, who presented at the 2014 National Lawyers Convention on "Religious Liberty and Conflicting Moral Visions" has also participated in the Religious Liberties Practice Group events and Lawyers Chapter events for the Federalist Society. See <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/author/kyle-duncan> (last accessed February 6, 2014).
. 78 Fed. Reg. 39870 (July 2, 2013); 42 U.S.C. Sec 300bb-13(a)(4) (a regulation under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act that requires non-exempt entities to provide insurance coverage for all FDA-approved contraceptive methods).
. Tymkovich has been a presenter at three Federalist Society National Conferences. See 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Environmental Law Panel, "Turning Private Property into Public Trusts"; 2007 Annual Student Symposium, "Moral Choices and the Eighth Amendment"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Labor Panel, "Labor Initiatives in the New Administration."
. _Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc v. Kathleen Sebelius_ (U.S. Court of Appeals, Tenth Circuit) (2013), 37.
### _CHAPTER 4_
. Document obtained from the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, CA, on March 12, 2008. See "Memo from Pat Buchanan for the Chief of Staff," January 30, 1987. Presidential Handwriting File, Series IV, File 173.
. Document obtained from the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, CA, on March 12, 2008. See "Memo from David Chew to Donald T. Regan, January 30, 1987." Presidential Handwriting File, Series IV, File 173. 459153SS: "We agreed on one extra talking point, numbered #5 in the attached revised talking points. Unfortunately, the President got the talking points last night. Now we have to go back to him and give him a new set. You know how much he hates that. I feel these last minute add-ons should be turned down. They don't add much and annoy the President. But given it is a Meese request and that you agree, I have made the changes."
. Document obtained from the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, CA, on March 12, 2008. See "Telephone Message Request from the Office of the Attorney General," January 29, 1987, 3 pm. Presidential Handwriting File, Series IV, File 173.
. Document obtained from the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, CA, on March 12, 2008. See "Topics of Discussion," Talking Point #5. Presidential Handwriting File, Series IV, File 173, 459153SS.
. "The Congress shall have Power. . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian Tribes."
. For a good summary of what is often referred to in Supreme Court lore as "the switch in time that saved nine" and the constitutional revolution in federal power that followed, see Barry Cushman, _Rethinking the New Deal Court: The Structure of a Constitutional Revolution_ (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 11–32.
. _NLRB v. Laughlin Jones & Laughlin Steel Co_., 301 U.S. 1 (1937) (upheld the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 and held that Congress could use its Commerce Power to pass wage and hour restrictions on intrastate labor); _Wickard v. Filburn_ , 317 U.S. 111 (1942) (held that the Agricultural Adjustment Act could be applied to control the production of wheat, even if grown for personal consumption only); _Heart of Atlanta Motel Inc. v. United States_ , 379 U.S. 241 (held that based on the fact that even local establishments served out-of-state customers, Congress could use its commerce power to apply the 1964 Civil Rights Act to private establishments who refused to serve African Americans).
. President Reagan, Inaugural Address, Washington, DC, January 20, 1981.
. Stephen Markman was the president of the D.C. Lawyers Chapter for the Federalist Society and involved in the early years through connections at the Reagan Justice Department. See, e.g., 1988 Annual Student Symposium, "The Amendment Process of Article V: A Microcosm of the Constitution" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 12, no. 1 (1989): 112–122). For a detailed examination of Markman and other fledgling Federalist Society members' roles in providing the intellectual capital for the Reagan Justice Department's long-range legal and constitutional agenda, see Amanda Hollis-Brusky, "Helping Ideas Have Consequences: Political and Intellectual Investment in the Unitary Executive Theory, 1981–2000." _Denver University Law Review_ , _89_ , no. 1 (2011): 197–244. See also Steven Teles, "Transformative Bureaucracy: Reagan's Lawyers and the Dynamics of Political Investment," _Studies in American Political Development_ _23_ , no. 1 (2009): 61–83.
. See The Office of Legal Policy, U.S. Department of Justice, Report to the Attorney General, _The Constitution in the Year 2000: Choices Ahead in Constitutional Interpretation_ (1988), 138 (hereafter _Constitution in the Year 2000_ ). A number of interviewees linked these reports to Stephen Markman, who had also been serving as the president of the D.C. Lawyers Chapter of the Federalist Society (Teles 2008, 145). See, e.g., Interview with Daniel Troy (attorney, Sidley Austin, LLP; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel (1984–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008: "Obviously you had Steve Markman at the Office of Legal Policy who was writing these great pieces which you should definitely go back and read about legislative history and about Originalism. He's got this sourcebook, I mean go back and look at what OLP was putting out then."; Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008: "Steve Markman was the head of [the Office of Legal Policy] in the second term. . . here's a memo from Steven Markman, February 1, 1989, 'Report on Adverse Inferences from Silence.' So I mean these are things I actually still consult from time to time. . ."; Interview with Richard Willard (partner, Steptoe and Johnson, LLP; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008: "When Meese was Attorney General, Steve Markman worked for him and headed up the Office of Legal Policy which was like a think tank within the Justice Department and published a lot of monographs on constitutional law and things like that"; Interview with Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008: "All the papers on various subjects about Originalism and so forth, my impression is that Steve Markman as the head of the Office of Legal policy really came up with the idea of putting together those papers and publishing them." For a summary of the content of these Office of Legal Policy reports, see Dawn Johnsen, "Ronald Reagan and the Rehnquist Court on Congressional Power: Presidential Influences on Constitutional Change," 78 _Indiana Law Journal_ 363 (2003): 363–412.
. _National League of Cities v. Usery_ , 426 U.S. 833 (1976).
. See _Garcia v. San Antonio Metro_. Transit Authority, 469 U.S. 528 (1985) ( _Hereafter Garcia_ ), Justice Rehnquist dissenting **580 ("But under any one of these approaches the judgment in these cases should be affirmed, and I do not think it incumbent on those of us in dissent to spell out further the fine points of a principle that will, I am confident, in time again command the support of a majority of this Court.").
. George Hicks, "The Conservative Influence of the Federalist Society on the Harvard Law School Student Body." _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ _29_ (2006): 652.
. See, e.g., 1982 Symposium, Charles Fried, "Federalism: Why Should We Care?"; 1988 National Lawyers Convention, "Federalism and the Scope of Federal Criminal Law" (James L. Buckley, William Van Alstyne, David Sentelle, Joseph E. diGenova, and G. Robert Blakey); 1989 National Student Symposium, Michael Kent Curtis, "Privileges or Immunities, Individual Rights, and Federalism"; 1992 National Student Symposium, "From Federal Union to National Monolith: Mileposts in the Demise of American Federalism"; 1998 National Student Symposium, Panel IV: "Federalism in Constitutional Context" (Max Boot, Roderick M. Hills, Jr., John C. Yoo, and Evan H. Caminker); 1999 National Student Symposium, Panel II: "International Law and Federalism: What Is the Reach of Regulation?" (Alan J. Meese, Alan O. Sykes, and Diane P. Wood); 2002 National Lawyers Convention, "Corporations, Securities and Antitrust: Competition and Regulatory Federalism" (Timothy Muris, R. Hewitt Pate, and Diarmuid O'Scannlain); 2002 National Lawyers Convention, "Showcase Roundtable IV: Wither Federalism? The Impact of Globalization and the War on Terror" (Ron Cass, John McGinnis, Randy Moss, William Pryor, Ken Wainstein, Ronald Weich, Richard Willard, and Alex Azar); 2004 National Lawyers Convention, "Federalism and Separation of Powers: Gay Marriage and Amending the Constitution" (Randy Barnett, Gerard V. Bradley, John Eastman, Jesse H. Choper, and Anthony Picarello); 2005 National Lawyers Convention, "Labor: Contending with Diverse State Employment Laws in a Global Economy, or What's So Great about Federalism?" (George H. Cohen, Randel K. Johnson, John S. Irving, and Amy Laura Wax).
. William Van Alstyne, 1988 National Lawyers Convention, Panel II: "Federalism and the Scope of the Federal Criminal Law" (transcript reprinted in _American Criminal Law Review_ 26 (1989): 1737).
. Lynn A. Baker, 1998 National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," Panel III: "Constitutional Federalism Reborn" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22 (1998–1999): 95).
. Search conducted on January 21, 2009, using LexisNexis Academic. Exact search dates were 01.01.1981–12.12.2008. I selected the _Wall Street Journal, National Review, American Spectator_ , and the _Weekly Standard_ , and the total combined search of all four sources yielded 1,059 hits for "federalism"; 185 of the articles returned under the "federalism" search (17%) were authored by participants in Federalist Society national meetings.
. Media search included the _National Review, Wall Street Journal, American Spectator_ , and the _Weekly Standard_ , initially filtered—as detailed earlier—for mentions of "federalism" and "separation of powers" from 1.1.1981 to 12.12.2008. A database search for "commerce" within the returned results for "federalism" revealed 39 articles written by Federalist Society network actors. See, e.g., Terry Eastland, "Bookshelf: Keeping the Federal Government in Its Place," _Wall Street Journal_ , August 19, 1987; Jeremy Rabkin, "State Your Business," _American Spectator_ , July 1995; Steven G. Calabresi, "A Constitutional Revolution," _Wall Street Journal_ , July 10, 1997; Jeremy Rabkin, "Bill's Fickle Feminists," _American Spectator_ , May 1998; Michael W. McConnell, "Let the States Do It, Not Washington," _Wall Street Journal_ , March 29, 1999; Daniel E. Troy, "Electing the Supreme Court," _Weekly Standard_ , May 10, 1999; Michael Greve, "Federalism Is More Than States' Rights," _Wall Street Journal_ , July 1, 1999; R. Alexander Acosta, "In 2000, Supreme Court Is at Stake Too," _Wall Street Journal_ , August 23, 1999; Theodore B. Olson, "Aaaand They're Off! The Justices Go to Work," _Wall Street Journal_ , Oct 4, 1999; Jeremy Rabkin, "Federalism v. Feminism: The Supreme Court Is Likely to Side with the Federalists," _The American Spectator_ , Dec 1999/Jan 2000; Charles Fried, "Opponents of Federalism Are Mired in a Time Warp," _Wall Street Journal_ , May 16, 2000; Michael S. Greve, "A Federalism Worth Fighting For," _Weekly Standard_ , January 29, 2001; Jeremy Rabkin, "The Ducks Stop Here," _American Spectator_ , February 2001; Douglas W. Kmiec, "Screening Judges," _National Review_ , September 5, 2001; Jonathan H. Adler, "The Framers' Design," _National Review_ , November 1, 2001; Robert A. Levy, "None of Their Business," _National Review_ , May 22, 2002; Ronald D. Rotunda, "Federalizing the Windy City," _National Review_ , June 18, 2002; Richard A. Epstein, "A Federal Case," _National Review_ , October 28, 2002; Terry Eastland, "The Estrada Pinata," _Weekly Standard_ , February 24, 2003; Jonathan H. Adler, "Suicidal Folly," _National Review_ , August 19, 2004; John Engler, C. Boyden Gray, and Kenneth Starr, "Phony Federalists," _Wall Street Journal_ , June 1, 2004; Christopher Cox, "The Marriage Amendment Is a Terrible Idea," _Wall Street Journal_ , September 28, 2004; Jonathan H. Adler, "High Court Anxiety," _National Review_ , December 1, 2004; John Engler, C. Boyden Gray, and Kenneth Starr, "High-Tech Federalism," _National Review_ , April 27, 2005; Jonathan H. Adler, "Federalism, Up in Smoke?" _National Review_ , June 7, 2005; Randy E. Barnett, "The Ninth Circuit's Revenge," _National Review_ , June 9, 2005; Terry Eastland, "Reading Roberts' Mind," _Weekly Standard_ , August 1, 2005; Randy E. Barnett, "William Rehnquist," _Wall Street Journal_ , September 6, 2005; Richard E. Epstein, "Still Defending the New Deal Program," _Wall Street Journal_ , September 7, 2005; Terry Eastland, "Farewell to the Chief: William H. Rehnquist," _Weekly Standard_ , September 26, 2005; Nelson Lund, "Putting Federalism to Sleep," _Weekly Standard_ , October 31, 2005; Jonathan Adler, "Environmental Enemy #1," _National Review_ , January 3, 2006; Hadley Arkes, "Servatius Redux," _National Review_ , January 27, 2006; John O. McGinnis, "Bookshelf: A Justices Is Weighed in the Balance," _Wall Street Journal_ , January 31, 2006; Jonathan H. Adler, "How Conservative Is This Court?" _National Review_ , July 5, 2007; John O. McGinnis, "One Blueprint for Obama," _Wall Street Journal_ , July 15, 2008.
. Interview with David McIntosh (partner, Meyer, Brown and Platt; member of Congress (1995–2001); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 25, 2008, Washington, DC.
. Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008.
. See Charles J. Cooper, "The Federal Judiciary, Life Tenure, and Self-Government." 1994 National Lawyers Conference (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 2, no. 4 (1995): 499).
. See, e.g., Gary S. Lawson, 1992 National Lawyers Conference, "The Congress: Representation, Accountability and the Rule of Law." Panel III: "Congress, the Court, and the Bill of Rights" (transcript reprinted in _Cumberland Law Review_ 23, no. 1 (1992–1993): 91–124; Charles J. Cooper, 1992 Student Symposium, "Independent of Heaven Itself: Differing Federalist and Anti-Federalist Perspectives on the Centralizing Tendency of the Federal Judiciary" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 16, no. 1 (1993): 119–128); Richard Epstein, 1998 National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," Panel V: "Undoing the New Deal?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22 no. 1 (1998–1999): 209).
. Charles J. Cooper, 1992 National Student Symposium, "The Legacy of the Federalist Papers," Panel V: "The Anti-Federalists After 200 Years: Pundits or Prophets?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19 (1993): 119).
. Pete du Pont, 1992 National Student Symposium, "The Legacy of the Federalist Papers," Epilogue: Federalism in the Twenty-First Century: Will States Exist? (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19 (1993): 137).
. Lynn A. Baker, 1998 National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," Panel III: "Constitutional Federalism Reborn" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22 (1998–1999): 95).
. Antonin Scalia, 1982 National Symposium: A Symposium on Federalism. "The Two Faces of Federalism" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 6 (1982–1983): 19).
. Richard A. Epstein, 1989 National Lawyers Convention, "A Federalist Society Symposium on the Presidency and Congress." (transcript reprinted in _Washington University Law Quarterly_ 68, no. 3 (1990): 567–574.
. Richard A. Epstein, 1998 National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," Panel V: "Undoing the New Deal?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22 (1998–1999): 209).
. Charles Fried, 1982 National Symposium: A Symposium on Federalism, "Federalism—Why Should We Care" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 6 (1982–1983): 1).
. John O. McGinnis, 1997 National Student Symposium, "Law and Economic and the Rule of Law," Panel VI: "Public Choice and the Structural Constitution" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 21 (1997–1998): 195).
. Richard A. Epstein, 1998 National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," Panel V: "Undoing the New Deal?" Transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22 (1998–1999): 209).
. _New York v. United States_ , 505 U.S. 144 (1992) (hereafter _New York_ ), United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995) (hereafter _Lopez_ ), _United States v. Morrison_ , 529 U.S. 598 (2000) (hereafter _Morrison_ ).
. _Garcia_ , **580.
. 42 USCS 2021b et seq.
. See Summary of _New York v. United States_ on lexis nexis.
. The Tenth Amendment provides that "[t]he powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people" (U.S. Const., Amend X); The Eleventh Amendment provides that "[t]he Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State" (U.S. Const., Amend. XI); and the Guarantee Clause provides that "[t]he United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence" (U.S. Const., Art. IV, S 4).
. See, e.g., 1992 National Lawyers Convention, Panel III: "Congress, the Court, and the Bill of Rights" (transcript reprinted in _Cumberland Law Review_ 23, no. 1 (1993): 97–104).
. See, e.g., 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Labor and Employment Group Panel, "Regulatory Enforcement of Labor and Employment Law: What the Future Holds."
. While Phillips was described to me in interviews as not being a "true believer" in terms of the Federalist Society, he has participated in National Conferences and is not a "token liberal," so he was included. See Speaker Agenda for 2008 Federalist Society National Lawyers Conference on "The People and the Judiciary" (available at www.fed-soc.org). Phillips participated on a panel with, among others, Roger Pilon, Jerry Smith, and Ken Starr. I also interviewed Phillips (managing partner, Sidley Austin, LLP) on January 30, 2008, for this research. He described himself as "somewhat more conservative" than most law school faculty. He also mentioned that he had a close relationship with at least one of the founding members, Peter Keisler, and a working relationship with others, such as Samuel Alito and Charles J. Cooper. Phillips also demonstrated a thorough grasp of the Federalist Society's unifying principles and beliefs, stating that he believed "federalism" and "respect for states' rights" were the "driving forces" of the Federalist Society.
. Rex Lee, who served as President Reagan's solicitor general from 1981–1985, participated in some of the Federalist Society's earliest conferences and meetings. See, e.g., 1984 Symposium on Judicial Activism, "Legislative and Judicial Questions" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 7, no. 1 (1984): 35–42).
. Kenneth Starr has been a presenter at nine Federalist Society National Conferences. See 1989 Federalist Society Symposium, Panel V, "The Role of the Courts in Separation of Powers Disputes" (transcript reprinted in _Washington University Law Quarterly_ 68, no. 3 (1990): 667–706); 1992 National Lawyers Convention, "Commentary: Here and There" (transcript reprinted in _Cumberland Law Review_ 23, no. 1 (1993): 193–196); 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Religious Liberties Panel, "First Amendment Roundup: Freedom of Speech, Expression, and Association and the Recent Rehnquist Court"; 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel III, "Judicial Decisionmaking: Judicial Enforcement of the Boundaries of the Government's Power"; 2002 National Lawyers Convention, "Barbara K Olson Memorial Lecture"; 2003 National Lawyers Convention, Free Speech and Election Law Panel, "Campaign Finance Reform in the Supreme Court"; 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Annual Convention Luncheon Speaker; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, Religious Liberties Panel, "Hyde-Weldon Amendment/Conscience Clauses"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, "Civil Litigation under the Roberts Court."
. Stuart Banner and Austin Schlick.
. _The State of New York, The County of Allegany, New York and The County of Cortland, New York v. The United States of America_ et al. 942 F.2D 114 (1991) (hereafter _New York Circuit_ ): *119.
. Ibid., *119 (citing majority opinion in _Garcia_ ).
. Ibid., *121.
. New York, supra note 32, at, *187–188.
. Ibid., *155 ("In 1788, in the course of explaining to the citizens of New York why the recently drafted Constitution provided for federal courts, Alexander Hamilton observed: 'The erection of a new government, whatever care or wisdom may distinguish the work, cannot fail to originate questions of intricacy and nicety; and these may, in a particular manner, be expected to flow from the establishment of a constitution founded upon the total or partial incorporation of a number of distinct sovereignties.' _The Federalist_ No. 82, p. 491 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961)"; **157 ("Interstate commerce was an established feature of life in the late 18th century. See, _e.g., The Federalist_ No. 42, p. 267 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) ('The defect of power in the existing Confederacy to regulate the commerce between its several members [has] been clearly pointed out by experience')"; **164 ("The Convention generated a great number of proposals for the structure of the new Government, but two quickly took center stage. Under the Virginia Plan, as first introduced by Edmund Randolph, Congress would exercise legislative authority directly upon individuals, without employing the states as intermediaries. 1 Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, p. 21 (M. Farrand ed. 1911). Under the New Jersey Plan, as first introduced by William Paterson, Congress would continue to require the approval of the states before legislating, as it had under the Articles of Confederation. 1 _id., 243–244_. These two plans underwent various revisions as the Convention progressed, but they remained the two primary options discussed by the delegates. One frequently expressed objection to the New Jersey Plan was that it might require the Federal Government to coerce the states into implementing legislation. As Randolph explained the distinction, 'the true question is whether we shall adhere to the federal plan [ _i.e_., the New Jersey Plan], or introduce the national plan. The insufficiency of the former has been fully displayed. . . . There are but two modes, by which the end of a General Government can be attained: the 1st is by coercion as proposed by Mr. Paterson's plan[, the 2nd] by real legislation as proposed by the other plan. Coercion [is] _impracticable, expensive, cruel to individuals_. . . . We must resort therefore to a national _Legislation over individuals_.' 1 _id., 255–256_ (emphasis in original). Madison echoed this view: 'The practicability of making laws, with coercive sanctions, for the states as political bodies, had been exploded on all hands.' 2 _id., 9_ "); and **165 ("In the end, the Convention opted for a Constitution in which Congress would exercise its legislative authority directly over individuals rather than over states; for a variety of reasons, it rejected the New Jersey Plan in favor of the Virginia Plan. 1 _id., 313_. This choice was made clear to the subsequent state ratifying conventions. Oliver Ellsworth, a member of the Connecticut delegation in Philadelphia, explained the distinction to his State's convention: 'This Constitution does not attempt to coerce sovereign bodies, states, in their political capacity. . . . But this legal coercion singles out the. . . individual.' 2 J. Elliot, Debates on the Federal Constitution 197 (2d ed. 1863). Charles Pinckney, another delegate at the Constitutional Convention, emphasized to the South Carolina House of Representatives that in Philadelphia 'the necessity of having a government which should at once operate upon the people, and not upon the states, was conceived to be indispensable by every delegation present.' 4 _id., 256_.").
. _New York_ , **157.
. _Gregory v. Ashcroft_ , 501 U.S. 452 (1991) (hereafter _Gregory_ ).
. Michael McConnell, "Federalism: Evaluating the Founders' Design," _University of Chicago Law Review_ _54_ (1987): 1484, 1493.
. _Gregory_ , **458.
. _New York_ , **157 ("The benefits of this federal structure have been extensively cataloged elsewhere, see, _e.g., Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 457–460_ ; Merritt, The Guarantee Clause and State Autonomy: Federalism for a Third Century, _Colum. L. Rev_. 88, no. 1 (1988): 3–10; McConnell, Federalism: Evaluating the Founders' Design, _U. Chi. L. Rev_. 54 (1987): 1484, 1491–1511, but they need not concern us here. Our task would be the same even if one could prove that federalism secured no advantages to anyone. It consists not of devising our preferred system of government, but of understanding and applying the framework set forth in the Constitution").
. _New York_ , **176–177.
. 18 USCS 922 (q)(1)(A).
. See, "Five Children Killed as Gunman Attacks a California School," _New York Times_ , January 18, 1989. <http://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/18/us/five-children-killed-as-gunman-attacks-a-california-school.html> (last accessed June 17, 2014).
. See, e.g., 1986 Federalist Society Symposium, "The True _Reynolds v. United States_ " (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 10, no. 1 (1986): 43–46).
. Dean of George Mason Law School, Daniel Polsby has been a speaker at three Federalist Society National Conferences. See 1994 National Symposium, Panel IV: Feminism, Children and the Family, "Ozzie and Harriet Had It Right" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 18, no. 2 (1995): 531–536); 1995 Annual Student Symposium, Panel I: Originalism and the Dead Hand, "Introduction" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19, no. 2 (1996): 243–244); 1999 Annual Student Symposium, Panel IV: Does Consumer Choice Need to Be Managed? "Should Government Attempt to Influence Consumer Preference" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 23 no. 1 (1999): 197–202).
. See, e.g., 1984 National Symposium, "Withdrawing Jurisdiction from the Federal Courts" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 7, no. 1 (1984): 13–16).
. Prakash, who clerked for Clarence Thomas in this case, would go on to become a law professor (University of San Diego and University of Virginia Law School) and has also presented at three National Conferences. See 2006 Annual Student Symposium, "How Does International Law Limit the War on Terror?"; 2008 Annual Student Symposium, "Bator Award Presentation"; 2010 Annual Student Symposium, "Originalism: A Rationalization for Conservatism or a Principled Theory of Interpretation?"
. Nelson, who clerked for Clarence Thomas in this case, would go on to become a law professor at the University of Virginia Law School and present at two National Conferences. See 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Roundtable IV, "Judicial Decisionmaking: Precedent and Constitutional Meaning"; 2010 Annual Student Symposium, Panel II, "Originalism and Construction: Does Originalism Always Provide the Answer?"
. As Table 1.2 in Chapter 1 illustrates, having presented at 15 Federalist Society National events, John C. Yoo ranks as one of most frequently invited presenters at these events. Per our interview, Yoo confirmed that he had been involved with the organization from his first year of law school at Yale Law School and describes himself as a "second generation Federalist." Interview with John Yoo (professor of Law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; former law clerk to Judge Laurence H. Silberman and Justice Clarence Thomas; General Counsel, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee (1995–1996); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (2001–2003)) in discussion with the author; ("I think of myself as second generation because I wasn't there when it was created or founded but I was someone who I think it served the purpose it for which it was originally created; to provide this alternative, this forum of alternative views in law school for law students. So, I guess in my case it kind of worked").
. _Lopez_ , **552.
. _Lopez_ , **575.
. _Lopez_ , **584.
. Richard Epstein, "The Proper Scope of the Commerce Clause," _Virginia Law Review_ _73_ (1987): 1393–1395.
. _Lopez_ , **586–587.
. _Lopez_ , **601–602.
. See, generally, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22, no. 3 (1998–1999): 3–246.
. The Fourteenth Amendment reads: ". . . No State shall make or enforce any law which shall. . . deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. . . . The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article." (U.S. Const., Amend. XIV, sec. 5).
. See Title IV of Public Law, 103–322.
. According to several interviewees, Michael Luttig, who resigned from the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals in 2006 over a high-profile dispute with the Bush administration regarding the litigation over Jose Padilla's detention (see, e.g., Jess Bravin and J. Lynn Lunsford, "Breakdown of Trust Led Judge Luttig to Clash with Bush" _Wall Street Journal_ , May 11, 2006 (available online at <http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB114727449814548996>)), had been a permanent fixture at Federalist Society conferences prior to his resigning. Moreover, Luttig made headlines when he admitted to only hiring Federalist Society–affiliated law clerks. See, e.g., Amy Bach, "Movin' on Up with the Federalist Society," _The Nation_ , October 1, 2001 ("Judge Michael Luttig on the Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, for example, hires only students with membership in the Federalist Society or comparable credentials on their resumes. And almost all of Judge Luttig's clerks go on to clerkships at the Supreme Court. His unheard-of batting average is sustained because Judge Luttig diverts clerks who don't land a clerkship with other Justices to Justice Scalia (whom Luttig himself clerked for) and Justice Clarence Thomas").
. As Table 1.2 in Chapter 1 illustrates, with 14 National Conference presentations, William H. Pryor, former state attorney general for Alabama and current Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals judge, ranks among the most frequent Federalist Society participants in National Conferences. See, e.g., Pryor's first appearance, 1999 National Lawyers Convention, Corporations, Securities, and Antitrust Group, "Should Business Support Federalism?" and his most recent, 2010 National Lawyers Convention, Religious Liberties Panel, "Christian Legal Society v. Martinez."
. Sutton, who is now a Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals Judge, has presented at five National Conferences from 2004 to the present. See, e.g., 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Litigation Panel, "Regulation Through Litigation" and 2010 National Lawyers Convention, Federalism Panel, "Is There Any Remaining Limit to Federal Power?"
. Schlafly, who is the founder and executive director of the Eagle Forum, presented at four National Conferences between 1991 and 2007. See, e.g., 1991 National Lawyers Convention, Panel II: Family Law and Individual Responsibility, "The Public School System as an Instrument of Power" (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Law Review_ 77, no. 5 (1992): 1000–1004).
. Lynch, director of the Cato's Project on Criminal Justice, presented at both the 1999 National Lawyers Convention (see Criminal Law and Procedure Group, "The Future of Miranda and the Exclusionary Rule") and the 2004 National Lawyers Convention (see Criminal Law Panel, "The Patriot Act: A Three Year Retrospective").
. Pilon, the founder and director of Cato's Center for Constitutional Studies, presented at four National Conferences between 2001 and 2010. See, e.g., 2006 National Lawyers Convention, Federalism Panel, "Executive Power in Wartime."
. Glendon, who is a law professor at Harvard, presented at the 1992 Federalist Society Annual Student Symposium (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 16, no. 1 (1993): 23–32).
. Rosman, who is general counsel for the Center for Individual Rights, has also been a presenter at two National Conferences. See 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Civil Rights Panel, "The Future of Racial Preferences: Is the Issue on the Brink of Resolution at Last?"; 2006 National Lawyers Convention, Labor Panel, "Law Firm Hiring Practices and Diversity."
. In addition to being a participant in the very first Federalist Society National Conference, Harvard law professor, and former Reagan solicitor general, Charles Fried has presented at 13 total National Conferences. See, e.g., his first (1982 Symposium on Federalism, "Federalism—Why Should We Care?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 6, no. 1 (1982): 1–6)) and his most recent (2010 National Lawyers Convention, Litigation Panel, "Debating the Constitutionality of the Federal Health Care Legislation") appearances.
. For Chief Justice Rehnquist, writing for the majority, Jay T. Jorgensen; For Justice Thomas, writing in concurrence, Steven Coltreau, C. Kevin Marshall, Kristen Silverberg, and Sanford Weisburst.
. See, e.g., _United States v. Morrison_ , 529 U.S. 598 (2000), at *606.
. _Christy Brzonkala v. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University_ , 169 F.3D 820 (1999) (hereafter _Morrison Circuit_ ), *825.
. _Morrison Circuit_ , *826.
. Ibid., *854.
. Ibid., *889.
. See J. Harvie Wilkinson, "The Fourteenth Amendment Privileges and Immunities Clause," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ _12_ , no. 1 (1989): 43–52.
. _Morrison Circuit_ , *897.
. Ibid., *897.
. See J. Harvie Wilkinson, "The Fourteenth Amendment Privileges and Immunities Clause," _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ _12_ , no. 1 (1989): 43–52.
. _City of Boerne v. Flores_ , 521 U.S. 507 (1997). This case struck down the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) and, in doing so, was seen to limit the power of Congress severely enough to pass legislation under Section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment. Petitioners in _Morrison_ made a similar claim of congressional power under Section 5 and the Court rejected it, foreclosing another avenue for Congress to pass legislation that applies against the states.
. _Morrison_ , **606.
. Ibid., *627.
. Ibid., *644–645 ("If we now ask why the formalistic economic/noneconomic distinction might matter today, after its rejection in _Wickard_ , the answer is not that the majority fails to see causal connections in an integrated economic world. The answer is that in the minds of the majority there is a new animating theory that makes categorical formalism seem useful again. Just as the old formalism had value in the service of an economic conception, the new one is useful in serving a conception of federalism. It is the instrument by which assertions of national power are to be limited in favor of preserving a supposedly discernible, proper sphere of state autonomy to legislate or refrain from legislating as the individual states see fit. The legitimacy of the Court's current emphasis on the noncommercial nature of regulated activity, then, does not turn on any logic serving the text of the _Commerce Clause_ or on the realism of the majority's view of the national economy. The essential issue is rather the strength of the majority's claim to have a constitutional warrant for its current conception of a federal relationship enforceable by this Court through limits on otherwise plenary commerce power").
. See _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ , 567 U.S. ____ (2012), Thomas, J. dissenting ("I dissent for the reasons stated in our joint opinion, but I write separately to say a word about the Commerce Clause. . . . I adhere to my view that 'the very notion of a 'substantial effects' test under the Commerce Clause is inconsistent with the original understanding of Congress' powers and with this Court's early Commerce Clause cases'").
. _Morrison Circuit_ , **899.
. Rabkin, who is currently a professor of law at George Mason University, has presented at nine Federalist Society National Conferences. See, 1984 National Meeting, "Public Interest Law: Is It in the Public Interest?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 8, no. 2 (1985): 341–348); 1989 National Symposium, Panel II: Property and the Constitution, "Private Property and Public Office" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 13, no. 1 (1990): 54–59); 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Roundtable II, "What Should Shape a President's Perspective on Foreign Policy?"; 2003 Annual Student Symposium, "What We Can Learn about Human Dignity from International Law" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 27, no. 1 (2003): 145–168); 2003 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel II, "Unilateralism, Multilateralism and American Sovereign Interests"; 2006 Annual Student Symposium, "What Is an International Rule of Law? Competing Perspectives on Its Meaning, Feasibility, and Desirability"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Environmental Law Panel, "The Policy Implications of the Reaction to Climate Change"; 2009 National Lawyers Convention, International Panel, "International Law: Agreements Between Sovereigns or World Government?"; 2011 Annual Student Symposium, Panel III, "The Welfare State and American Exceptionalism."
. Jeremy Rabkin, "Sex, Violence, and the Supreme Court: The Constitution Prevails over Congressional Pandering to Feminists." _Weekly Standard_ , May 29, 2000.
. Charles Fried, "Opponents of Federalism Are Mired in a Time Warp." _Wall Street Journal_ , May 16, 2000.
. Randy E. Barnett, "William Rehnquist." _Wall Street Journal_ , September 6, 2005.
. _Gonzales v. Raich_ , 545 U.S. 1 (2005) (held that under the Commerce Clause Congress may ban the use of medical marijuana even where states have approved it for medicinal use).
. Chief Justice John Roberts, Justice Samuel Alito, Justice Clarence Thomas, and Justice Antonin Scalia. Justices Roberts and Scalia were in dissent in _Wachovia_ ; Justice Alito ruled with the majority; Justice Thomas did not participate in the decision.
. _Watters v. Wachovia Bank_ , 550 U.S. 1 (2007) (held that Congress had the power to preempt state regulations on subsidiaries of national banks operating within particular states).
. Jeremy Rabkin, "Sex, Violence, and the Supreme Court: The Constitution Prevails over Congressional Pandering to Feminists." _Weekly Standard_ , May 29, 2000. See also Steven G. Calabresi, "A Constitutional Revolution." _Wall Street Journal_ , July 10, 1997; Terry Eastland, "Farewell to the Chief: William H. Rehnquist." _Weekly Standard_ , September 26, 2005. See also Steven G. Calabresi, "'A Government of Limited and Enumerated Powers': In Defense of United States v. Lopez," _Michigan Law Review_ _94_ , no. 3 (1996): 752; Steven G. Calabresi, "The Era of Big Government Is Over," _Stanford Law Review_ _50_ , no. 3 (1998):1015; Lino A. Graglia, "United States v. Lopez: Judicial Review under the Commerce Clause," _Texas. Law Review_. _74_ , no. 4 (1996): 719; John C. Yoo, "Defining Federalism in the 1990s," _Indiana. Law. Review_ _32_ , no. 1 (1998): 27.
### _CHAPTER 5_
. _New York v. United States_ , 505 U.S. 144, Opinion of O'Connor, J., *156.
. U.S. Const., Amend X.
. See _United States v. Darby_ , 312 U.S. 100 (1941), *123–124 ("Our conclusion is unaffected by the Tenth Amendment. . . [which] states but a truism that all is retained which has not been surrendered. There is nothing in the history of its adoption to suggest that it was more than declaratory of the relationship between the national and state governments as it had been established by the Constitution before the amendment or that its purpose was other than to allay fears that the new national government might seek to exercise powers not granted, and that the states might not be able to exercise fully their reserved powers").
. 452 U.S. 264 (1981) (holding that the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, which promulgated a federal regulatory program to control the adverse effects of surface coal mining operations, did not exceed Congress's commerce power, nor did it violate the Tenth Amendment).
. 456 U.S. 742 (1982) (holding that the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978, which empowered the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to promulgate rules and regulatory standards to be adopted by state utility regulatory commissions, did not exceed Congress's power under the Commerce Clause and hence did not violate the Tenth Amendment's state sovereignty protections).
. _New York_ , Opinion of O'Connor, J. *162–167.
. Michael W. McConnell, "The Politics of Returning Power to the States." _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ _6_ , no. 1 (1982–1983): 103.
. For transcript, see _Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 4, no. 2 (1995): 457–481.
. For transcript, see _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22, no. 1 (1998): 1–246.
. Interview with Charles J. Cooper (founding member and chairman of Cooper & Kirk, PLLC; assistant attorney general for the Office of Legal Counsel (1985–1988)) in discussion with the author, June 2, 2008.
. Interview with Loren A. Smith (judge, U.S. Court of Federal Claims; chairman, Administrative Conference of the United States (1981–1985)) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008.
. Interview with Edwin Meese, III (U.S. attorney general under President Ronald Reagan (1985–1988); Fellow, Heritage Foundation) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2008.
. Martin Redish, 1996 National Lawyers Convention, Panel III: "Disciplining Congress: The Boundaries of Legislative Power" (transcript reprinted in _The Journal of Law and Politics_ 13 (1997): 585).
. David Sentelle, 1988 National Lawyers Convention, Panel III: "Federalism and the Scope of Federal Power" (transcript reprinted in _American Criminal Law Review_ 26 (1989): 1737).
. Pete du Pont, 1992 National Student Symposium, "The Legacy of the Federalist Papers," Epilogue: "Federalism in the Twenty-First Century: Will States Exist?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19 (1993): 137).
. Alex Kozinski, 1998 National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," Panel III: "Constitutional Federalism Reborn" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22 (1998–1999): 93).
. Lynn A. Baker, 1998 National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution," Panel III: "Constitutional Federalism Reborn" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 22, (1998–1999): 95).
. Charles J. Cooper, 1992 National Student Symposium, "The Legacy of the Federalist Papers," Panel V: "The Anti-Federalists After 200 Years: Pundits or Prophets?" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19 (1993): 119).
. Theodore Olson, 1982 National Conference, "A Symposium on Federalism" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 6 (1982–1983): 7).
. John S. Baker, Jr., 1992 National Student Symposium, "The Legacy of the Federalist Papers," Panel III: "Liberty and Constitutional Architecture" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 19 (1993): 59).
. _New York_ , Opinion of O'Connor, J. *188.
. Michael W. McConnell, 1982 National Symposium: A Symposium on Federalism. "The Politics of Returning Power to the States" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 6 (1982–1983): 103).
. William Van Alstyne, "The Second Death of Federalism." _Michigan Law Review_ _83_ , no. 1709 (1985): 1716.
. _Constitution in the Year 2000_ , Justice Department Office of Legal Policy (1989), 137.
. _Constitution in the Year 2000_ , supra note 24: 139.
. Charles J. Cooper, "The Demise of Federalism." _Urban Lawyer_ _20_ , no. 2 (1988): 239–283.
. Charles J. Cooper, 1994 National Lawyers Convention: Reinventing Self-Government, Can We Still Have Limits on National Power? Panel III: "The Federal Judiciary and Self-Government" (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 4, (1994–1995): 500).
. Malcolm Wallop, 1994 National Lawyers Convention: Reinventing Self-Government, Can We Still Have Limits on National Power? Panel III: "The Federal Judiciary and Self-Government" (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 4 (1994–1995): 500).
. _Lopez_ , *583 (Justices Kennedy and O'Connor concurring).
. See 18 U.S.C.S. 921.
. Summary from LexisNexis, _Printz v. United States_.
. See _Richard Mack v. United States of America; Jay Printz v. United States of America_ , 66 F. 3D 1025 (1995) (hereafter _Printz Circuit_ ).
. Norton, who served as the secretary of the Interior under George W. Bush, from 2011 to 2006, has been a speaker at four Federalist Society National Conferences. See 1989 National Symposium, Panel III: Regulation and Property—Allies or Enemies? "Takings Analysis of Regulations" (transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 13, no. 1 (1990): 84–90); 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Criminal Law and Procedure Group Panel, "The Migration of Responsibility and Punishment from the Wrongdoer to the Politically Correct"; 2001 National Lawyers Convention, "Address"; 2002 National Lawyers Convention, Speaker, "Twentieth Anniversary Lawyers Gala."
. Tymkovich, a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, has presented at three National Conferences. See 2004 National Lawyers Convention, Environmental Law Panel, "Turning Private Property into Public Trusts"; 2007 Annual Student Symposium, "Moral Choices and the Eighth Amendment"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Labor Panel, "Labor Initiatives in the New Administration."
. _Mack v. United States_ , 856 F. Supp. 1372 (D. Ariz 1994); _Printz v. United States_ , 854 F. Supp 1503 (D. Mont. 1994) (Hereafter _Printz District_ ).
. _Printz District_ , *1513.
. _Printz Circuit_ , *1030.
. Ibid., 1029.
. _Printz_ , *905.
. See, e.g., _Printz_ , *915–917 ("In addition to early legislation, the Government also appeals to other sources we have usually regarded as indicative of the original understanding of the Constitution. It points to portions of The Federalist which reply to criticisms that Congress's power to tax will produce two sets of revenue officers—for example, "Brutus's" assertion in his letter to the New York Journal of December 13, 1787, that the Constitution "opens a door to the appointment of a swarm of revenue and excise officers to prey upon the honest and industrious part of the community, eat up their substance, and riot on the spoils of the country," reprinted in 1 Debate on the Constitution 502 (B. Bailyn ed. 1993). "Publius" responded that Congress will probably "make use of the State officers and State regulations, for collecting" federal taxes, The Federalist No. 36, p. 221 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton; hereinafter The Federalist), and predicted that "the eventual collection [of internal revenue] under the immediate authority of the Union, will generally be made by the officers, and according to the rules, appointed by the several states," _id_., No. 45, 292 (J. Madison). The Government also invokes the Federalist's more general observations that the Constitution would "enable the [national] government to employ the ordinary magistracy of each [State] in the execution of its laws," _id_., No. 27, 176 (A. Hamilton), and that it was "extremely probable that in other instances, particularly in the organization of the judicial power, the officers of the states will be clothed in the correspondent authority of the Union," _id_., No. 45, 292 (J. Madison). However, none of these statements necessarily implies—what is the critical point here—that Congress could impose these responsibilities _without the consent of the states_. . . . It is interesting to observe that Story's Commentaries on the Constitution, commenting upon the same issue of why state officials are required by oath to support the Constitution, uses the same "essential agency" language as Madison did in Federalist No. 44, and goes on to give more numerous examples of state executive agency than Madison did; all of them, however, involve not state administration of federal law, but merely the implementation of duties imposed on state officers by the Constitution itself: "The executive authority of the several states may be often called upon to exert Powers or allow Rights given by the Constitution, as in filling vacancies in the senate during the recess of the legislature; in issuing writs of election to fill vacancies in the house of representatives; in officering the militia, and giving effect to laws for calling them; and in the surrender of fugitives from justice." 2 Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States 577 (1851). . . Even if we agreed with JUSTICE SOUTER's reading of the Federalist No. 27, it would still seem to us most peculiar to give the view expressed in that one piece, not clearly confirmed by any other writer, the determinative weight he does. That would be crediting the most expansive view of federal authority ever expressed, and from the pen of the most expansive expositor of federal power. Hamilton was "from first to last the most nationalistic of all nationalists in his interpretation of the clauses of our federal Constitution." C. Rossiter, Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution 199 (1964). More specifically, it is widely recognized that "The Federalist reads with a split personality" on matters of federalism. See D. Braveman, W. Banks, & R. Smolla, Constitutional Law: Structure and Rights in Our Federal System 198–199 (3d ed. 1996). While overall The Federalist reflects a "large area of agreement between Hamilton and Madison," Rossiter, _supra_ , 58, that is not the case with respect to the subject at hand, see Braveman, _supra_ , 198–199. To choose Hamilton's view, as JUSTICE SOUTER would, is to turn a blind eye to the fact that it was Madison's—not Hamilton's—that prevailed, not only at the Constitutional Convention and in popular sentiment, see Rossiter, _supra_ , 44–47, 194, 196; 1 Records of the Federal Convention (M. Farrand ed. 1911) 366, but in the subsequent struggle to fix the meaning of the Constitution by early congressional practice, see _supra, 5–10_.").
. _Printz_ , *918.
. See _Printz_ , *921 ("The dissent, reiterating JUSTICE STEVENS' dissent in _New York, 505 U.S. 210–213_ , maintains that the Constitution merely _augmented_ the pre-existing power under the Articles to issue commands to the states with the additional power to make demands directly on individuals. See _post_ , 7–8. That argument, however, was squarely rejected by the Court in _New York, supra, 161–166_ , and with good reason. Many of Congress's powers under Art. I, § 8, were copied almost verbatim from the Articles of Confederation, indicating quite clearly that 'where the Constitution intends that our Congress enjoy a power once vested in the Continental Congress, it specifically grants it.' Prakash, Field Office Federalism, _Va. L. Rev_. 79, 957, 1972 _(1993)_ "): *923 ("We have thus far discussed the effect that federal control of state officers would have upon the first element of the 'double security' alluded to by Madison: the division of power between State and Federal Governments. It would also have an effect upon the second element: the separation and equilibration of powers between the three branches of the Federal Government itself. . . The Brady Act effectively transfers this responsibility to thousands of CLEOs in the 50 States, who are left to implement the program without meaningful Presidential control (if indeed meaningful Presidential control is possible without the power to appoint and remove). The insistence of the Framers upon unity in the Federal Executive—to insure both vigor and accountability—is well known. See The Federalist No. 70 (A. Hamilton); 2 Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution 495 (M. Jensen ed. 1976) (statement of James Wilson); see also Calabresi and Prakash, The President's Power to Execute the Laws, _104 Yale L. J_. 104, no. 541 (1994): 541–666. That unity would be shattered, and the power of the President would be subject to reduction, if Congress could act as effectively without the President as with him, by simply requiring state officers to execute its laws."); and *924 ("What destroys the dissent's Necessary and Proper Clause argument, however, is not the _Tenth Amendment_ but the Necessary and Proper Clause itself. When a 'Law. . . for carrying into Execution' the _Commerce Clause_ violates the principle of state sovereignty reflected in the various constitutional provisions we mentioned earlier, _supra, 19–20_ , it is not a 'Law. . . _proper_ for carrying into Execution the _Commerce Clause_ ,' and is thus, in the words of The Federalist, 'merely [an] act of usurpation' which 'deserves to be treated as such.' The Federalist No. 33, 204 (A. Hamilton). See Lawson & Granger, The 'Proper' Scope of Federal Power: A Jurisdictional Interpretation of the Sweeping Clause, _Duke L. J_. 43, (1993): 267, 297–326, 330–333"); and _Printz_ , *927 ("The Government's distinction between 'making' law and merely 'enforcing' it, between 'policymaking' and mere 'implementation,' is an interesting one. It is perhaps not meant to be the same as, but it is surely reminiscent of, the line that separates proper congressional conferral of Executive power from unconstitutional delegation of legislative authority for federal separation-of-powers purposes. . . . This Court has not been notably successful in describing the latter line; indeed, some think we have abandoned the effort to do so. See. . . Schoenbrod, The Delegation Doctrine: Could the Court Give It Substance? _Mich. L. Rev_. 83, (1985): 1223, 1233. We are doubtful that the new line the Government proposes would be any more distinct.").
. Though Lawson is not often credited as one of the three principal cofounders of the Federalist Society (Lee Liberman Otis, David McIntosh, and Steven Calabresi), he was mentioned by several network actors as one of the critical, early contributors in terms of developing the philosophy and libertarian side of the statement of principles of the Federalist Society. See interview with David McIntosh (partner, Meyer, Brown and Platt; member of Congress (1995–2001); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 25, 2008 ("[Gary] was one of the early people that put on the first symposium in the Yale chapter."); Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008 ("Gary would be someone who is very active in the Federalist Society today. . . [and] had systematically studied Hayek and would come out on that side of the spectrum"); Interview with Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008 ("One of our first chapter events at Yale Law School, we had a poster that said 'sponsored by the Federalist Society' and one of our members wrote an asterisk next to 'Society' and wrote at the bottom 'spontaneous collection of individuals acting together.' I thought that was kind of funny in terms of people caring about that. When we were first forming the chapter the same individual, Gary Lawson. . . when we were founding the Society he was in a Randian libertarian phase and he initially wanted us to call the Society the Ludwig von Mises Society. . . ."). Lawson is also on record as participating in 8 Federalist Society National Conference Events.
. Schoenbrod, a professor at New York Law School and a Visiting Scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, would not be considered a Federalist Society "true believer" or line up with many core members on various constitutional and legal issues. However, his work on delegation and the separation of powers is recommended in the Federalist Society _Bibliography_ and he has spoken at two Federalist Society National Conferences on this topic. See 1989 National Lawyers Convention, Panel II, "Vetoes, Line Item Vetoes, Signing Statements, Executive Orders, and Delegations of Rulemaking Authority" (transcript reprinted in _Washington University Law Quarterly_ 68, no. 3 (1990): 533–560); 1999 National Lawyers Convention, Administrative Law and Regulation Group Panel, "The Non-Delegation Doctrine Lives!"
. Gary Lawson and Patricia Granger, "The Proper Scope of Federal Power." _Duke Law Journal_ _43_ (1993): 267, 299, 330.
. _Printz v. United States_ , 521 U.S. 898, *923.
. _Printz_ , *932.
. See _Printz_ , *933 (quoting _New York v. United States_ ) ("'Much of the Constitution is concerned with setting forth the form of our government, and the courts have traditionally invalidated measures deviating from that form. The result may appear 'formalistic' in a given case to partisans of the measure at issue, because such measures are typically the product of the era's perceived necessity. But the Constitution protects us from our own best intentions: It divides power among sovereigns and among branches of government precisely so that we may resist the temptation to concentrate power in one location as an expedient solution to the crisis of the day.'").
. See _Printz_ , *936 (Justice O'Connor concurring) ("Our precedent and our Nation's historical practices support the Court's holding today. The Brady Act violates the [*936] _Tenth Amendment_ to the extent it forces states and local law enforcement officers to perform background checks on prospective handgun owners and to accept Brady Forms from firearms dealers."); and *936–937 (Justice Thomas concurring) ("The Court today properly holds that the Brady Act violates the _Tenth Amendment_ in that it compels state law enforcement officers to 'administer or enforce a federal regulatory program.' See _ante_ , 25. Although I join the Court's opinion in full, I write separately to emphasize that the _Tenth Amendment_ affirms the undeniable notion that under our Constitution, the Federal Government is one of enumerated, hence limited, powers. . . Accordingly, the Federal Government may act only where the Constitution authorizes it to do so.").
. _Printz_ , *936–937.
. Ibid., *938.
. See Amicus Brief on Behalf of Academics for the Second Amendment, 1993 U.S. Briefs 1260; 1994 U.S.S.Ct. Briefs LEXIS 275 (hereafter _Academics Brief_ ).
. _Academics Brief_ , *13–16.
. _Printz_ , *939.
. See _District of Columbia v. Heller_ , 554 U.S. 570 (2008), J. Scalia writing for the majority.
. _Printz_ , *952.
. _Printz_ , *913, 912, 914, 915.
. 26 U.S.C.S. § 5000A.
. See 42 U.S.C.S. § 1396d(y)(1).
. See §1396c.
. Available at <http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090710_Individual_Mandates.pdf> (last accessed July 23, 2012).
. Erwin Chemerinsky and David B. Rivkin, "Individual Health Care Insurance Mandate Debate." November 3, 2009–November 6, 2009 <http://www.fed-soc.org/debates/dbtid.35/default.asp> (accessed July 23, 2012).
. David B. Rivkin and Lee A. Casey, "Illegal Health Reform." _Wall Street Journal_ , Opinion. August 22, 2009, <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/21/AR2009082103033.html> (accessed July 23, 2012).
. Randy Barnett, "Healthcare: Is 'Mandatory Insurance' Unconstitutional?" _Politico_ , September 18, 2009. Available at <http://www.politico.com/arena/perm/Randy_Barnett_8256A4EF-01E6-4207-B4E8-C761F2FDB5BF.html> (last accessed July 23, 2012).
. Jim Angle, "Health Care Mandate Sparks Constitutional Debate."September. FoxNews.com, September 29, 2009, <http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/09/29/health-care-mandate-sparks-constitutional-debate/July>.
. Florida, South Carolina, Nebraska, Texas, Utah, Louisiana, Alabama, Colorado, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Washington, Idaho, South Dakota, Indiana, Mississippi, Nevada, Arizona, Georgia, Alaska, North Dakota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Ohio, Kansas, Wyoming, and Maine.
. Clement, who served as the solicitor general from 2005 to 2008, has been a featured speaker at four Federalist Society National Conferences. See 2001 National Lawyers Convention, Showcase Panel II, "Judicial Decisionmaking: The Case of Judicial Oversight of the Political Process"; 2005 National Lawyers Convention, "Address"; 2006 National Lawyers Convention, "Welcome and Opening Address"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Federalism Panel, "The Roberts Court and Federalism."
. McKenna was an invited speaker at the 2000 National Lawyers Convention. See Administrative Law and Regulation Group Panel, "The Rise of Government by Agency Guidance."
. Wallace was a speaker at the 2004 National Lawyers Convention. See Professional Responsibility Panel, "Congressional Evaluation of Judicial Nominees."
. Even though he does not appear as a speaker at a National Conference until 2000 (see 2000 National Lawyers Convention, Civil Rights Group Panel, "The Use and Misuse of Statistics in Civil Rights Litigation"), Michael Carvin, whom I interviewed for this book in 2008, was involved early on in the Federalist Society during his time in the Reagan Justice Department. Carvin had the following to say about how and when he became involved with the Federalist Society: "[the Founders of the Federalist Society] all worked at the Justice Department so I knew them. . . and it was mostly through those guys that I became aware of it. . . I went to some of the D.C. Lawyers lunches in the mid-80s. . . I think I started out in law school as what you'd call a 'middle of the road Republican' and then I started reading these opinions and they were intellectually bankrupt and I started getting firmer in my views about the need for a limited judiciary. So I was probably typical of the people who were attached to the Federalist Society in the beginning."
. Katsas, who worked in the Civil Division at the Justice Department under George W. Bush, has also presented at three National Conferences. See 2003 National Lawyers Convention, Administrative Law and Regulation Panel, "Immigration and the War on Terror"; 2008 National Lawyers Convention, Litigation Panel, "Civil Litigation under the Roberts Court"; 2011 Annual Student Symposium, Panel II, "Federalism and Interstate Competition."
. Although this proposed distinction is novel, it also represents a measured approach to the case. In other words, by developing the activity/inactivity distinction, the parties are offering the Supreme Court a means to strike down the Individual Mandate without dismantling some of its most far-reaching and long-standing Commerce Clause precedents (see, e.g., _Wickard v. Filburn_ (1942) and _Gonzales v. Raich_ (2005)).
. Brief for Private Respondents on the Individual Mandate, 2012 WL 379586, 15.
. See Brief for State Respondents on the Minimum Coverage Provision, 2012 WL 392550, 7–8.
. See Brief of Amicus Curiae Texas Public Policy Foundation Supporting Respondents on the Individual Mandate (Richard Epstein), 2012 WL 504607, *33–34; Brief for Amici Curiae Economists in Support of Respondents Regarding Individual Mandate (Steven G Bradbury), 2012 WL 504611, *27; Amicus Brief on Behalf of Citizens and Legislators in the Fourteen Health Care Freedom States in Support of Respondents (Clint Bolick), 2012 WL 504613, *8–9; Brief Amicus Curiae of the Commonwealth of Virginia Ex Rel Attorney General Kenneth T. Cuccinelli, II, in Support of Respondents (Kenneth T. Cuccinelli, II), 2012 WL 504623, *19–21; Brief of Amicus Curiae Landmark Legal Foundation in Support of Respondents on the Individual Mandate (Mark Levin, Miahel J. O'Neill), 2012 WL 484060, *11, *17; Amicus Curiae Brief of the American Center for Law & Justice (Jay Alan Sekulow, Walter M. Weber), 2012 WL 441264, *7, *12, *15; Brief of Amicus Curiae Partnership for America in Support of Respondents on Minimum Coverage Issue (Charles J. Cooper, David H. Thompson), 2012 WL 484065, *11–12, *15.
. See, e.g., _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ , 567 U.S. ____ (2012). Dissent of Scalia, Alito, Thomas, and Kennedy, J., 234–235 ("It is true enough that Congress needs only a '"rational basis" for concluding that the _regulated activity_ substantially affects interstate commerce,' _ante_ , 15 (emphasis added). But, it must be _activity_ affecting commerce that is regulated, and not merely the failure to engage in commerce. And one is not now purchasing the health care covered by the insurance mandate simply because one is likely to be purchasing it in the future. Our test's premise of regulated activity is not invented out of whole cloth, but rests upon the Constitution's requirement that it be commerce that is regulated. If all inactivity affecting commerce is commerce, commerce is everything. Ultimately, the dissent is driven to saying that there is really no difference between action and inaction, _ante_ , 26, a proposition that has never recommended itself, neither to the law nor to common sense. To say, for example, that the inaction here consists of activity in 'the self-insurance market,' Ibid., seems to us wordplay. By parity of reasoning the failure to buy a car can be called participation in the non-private-car-transportation market. Commerce becomes everything.").
. _NFIB et al. v. Sebelius_ , 567 U.S. ___ (2012). Opinion of Roberts, C.J., 45.
. Michael Carvin, Oral Argument, March 27, 2012. _Department of Health and Human Services, et al. v. Florida, et al_., 2012 WL 1017220.
. Brief of Amicus Curiae Texas Public Policy Foundation Supporting Respondents on the Individual Mandate, 2012 WL 504607, 34–35.
. David B. Rivkin, "The Federalist Society Online Debate Series: Individual Health Care Insurance Mandate Debate," November 3, 2009, <http://www.fed-soc.org/debates/dbtid.35/default.aspJuly> (accessed July 30, 2012).
. Ilya Somin, "The Individual Health Insurance Mandate and the Constitutional Text." _Engage: The Journal of the Federalist Society Practice Groups_ _11_ , no. 1 (2010): 50.
. _State of Florida et al. v. United States Department of Health and Human Services_ , 648 F.3d 1235 (Eleventh Circuit), Opinion of Dubina and Hall, 1285–1286.
. See e.g., _Sebelius_ , Opinion of Roberts, C.J. 86–87 ("JUSTICE GINSBURG questions the necessity of rejecting the Government's commerce power argument, given that §5000A can be upheld under the taxing power, _Post_ , 37. But the statute reads more naturally as a command to buy insurance than as a tax, and I would uphold it as a command if the Constitution allowed it. It is only because the Commerce Clause does not authorize such a command that it is necessary to reach the taxing power question. And it is only because we have a duty to construe a statute to save it, if fairly possible, that §5000A can be interpreted as a tax. Without deciding the Commerce Clause question, I would find no basis to adopt such a saving construction.").
. Brief of the State Petitioners on Medicaid, 2012 WL 105551, 27–28.
. Bradbury, who has received some notoriety for authoring several controversial opinions on enhanced interrogation techniques during his time at the Office of Legal Counsel under George W. Bush, also presented at the 1999 National Lawyers Convention (see Intellectual Property Group Panel, "The Internet and Property Rights in the Digital Age").
. Blumstein gave a talk at the 1994 National Lawyers Convention entitled "On Prudence in Health Care Reform" (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 4, no. 2 (1995): 422–431). Notably, David Rivkin was also featured on this panel as a moderator.
. Brief of Amici Curiae Texas Public Policy Foundation and 36 Texas State Legislators Supporting Petitioners on Medicaid (Richard A. Epstein); Brief for Amici Curiae Economists in Support of State Petitioners Regarding Medicaid Expansion (Steven G Bradbury); Brief of James F. Blumstein, as Amicus Curiae in Support of Petitioners (James F. Blumstein).
. _Sebelius_ , Opinion of Roberts, C.J., 91.
. Ibid., 111.
. _Sebelius_ , Dissenting opinion of Scalia, Thomas, Alito, and Kennedy, JJ, 318–319.
. "Memo from Pat Buchanan for the Chief of Staff," January 30, 1987. Presidential Handwriting File, Series IV, File 173. Document obtained from the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, CA, on March 12, 2008.
. _Sebelius_ , Dissenting opinion of Scalia, Thomas, Alito, and Kennedy, JJ, 317, 318, and 316.
. Ibid., 319.
. See, e.g., Randy Barnett, "We Lost on Health Care. But the Constitution Won." _Washington Post_ , June 29, 2012, <http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/randy-barnett-we-lost-on-health-care-but-the-constitution-won/2012/06/29/gJQAzJuJCW_story.html> (accessed July 6, 2012).
. Timothy Lynch, "Criminal Theory." _Weekly Standard_ , February 14, 2000.
. U.S. Const., Amend. XI ("The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or subjects of any Foreign State"). For more on how members of the Federalist Society network helped to provide the Supreme Court with the intellectual capital for an expansive understanding of the State Sovereign Immunity Doctrine, see Hollis-Brusky, "It's the Network: The Federalist Society as a Supplier of Intellectual Capital for the Supreme Court." _Studies in Law, Politics, and Society_ _61_ , (2013): 137–178.
. 567 U.S. ___ (2012) (hereafter _Arizona_ ).
. _Arizona_ , 10. Opinion of Kennedy, J.
. 570 U.S. ___ (2013) (held that Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act is unconstitutional because it violated the principle of state sovereignty embedded in the Constitution and offended the equal sovereignty and dignity of the states).
. Ibid., at 1.
. Malcolm Wallop, 1994 National Lawyers Convention: Reinventing Self-Government, Can We Still Have Limits on National Power? Panel III: "The Federal Judiciary and Self-Government" (transcript reprinted in _Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy_ 4 (1994–1995): 500).
### _CHAPTER 6_
. Parts of this section first appeared in Amanda Hollis-Brusky, "'It's the Network': The Federalist Society as a Supplier of Intellectual Capital for the Supreme Court." _Studies in Law, Politics, and Society_ 61 (2013): 164–166.
. _Citizens United v. FEC_ , 558 U.S. 310 Stevens, J. dissenting, *396.
. See, e.g., 1998 Federalist Society National Student Symposium, "Reviving the Structural Constitution." Transcript reprinted in _Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy_ 22 (1998–1999): 3–246.
. Parts of this section first appeared in Amanda Hollis-Brusky, "Support Structures and Constitutional Change: Teles, Southworth, and the Conservative Legal Movement." _Law and Social Inquiry_ 36, no. 2 (2011): 527–531.
. Interview with Michael Greve (director of the Federalism Project, American Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, February 12, 2008.
. Peter Finley Dunne, _Mr. Dooley's Opinions_ (New York: R. H. Russell, 1901) ("[N]o matter whether th' constitution follows th' flag of not, th' supreme court follows th' iliction returns").
. Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008.
. Interview with Thomas Smith (professor of law, University of San Diego Law School; senior counsel, President Reagan's Council of Economic Advisors) in discussion with the author, March 19, 2008.
. Interview with Tony Cotto (former Student Chapter president at George Washington University Law School, the Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008.
. Ibid.
. Interview with Michael Carvin (partner, Jones Day; deputy assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1985–1987); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (1987–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 28, 2008.
. Interview with Randy Barnett (professor of legal theory, Georgetown University Law School) in discussion with the author, June 10, 2008.
. Interview with Dan Troy (attorney, Sidley Austin, LLP; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel (1984–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008.
. Interview with Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008.
. Interview with Douglas Kmiec (professor of law, Pepperdine University; Office of Legal Counsel under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush) in discussion with the author, March 14, 2008.
. I should note that Lawrence Baum, in his own work, classifies the Federalist Society as a "Policy Group" (see, e.g., Baum 2006, 123–126). However, as I mention here, I would classify it as a hybrid "social group" and "legal community" group.
. 545 U.S. 1 (2005).
. Interview with Randy Barnett (professor of legal theory, Georgetown University Law School) in discussion with the author, June 10, 2008.
. Interview with Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008.
. _Printz_ , *938.
. Interview with Gail Heriot (professor of law, University of San Diego; commissioner, United States Commission on Civil Rights) in discussion with the author, March 18, 2008.
. Interview with John C. Yoo (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; former law clerk to Judge Laurence H. Silberman and Justice Clarence Thomas; general counsel, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee (1995–1996); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (2001–2003)) in discussion with the author, January 16, 2008.
. Interview with Walter Berns (resident scholar, American Enterprise Institute) in discussion with the author, January 24, 2008.
. Interview with Michael Horowitz (senior fellow, Hudson Institute; general counsel, Office of Management, and Budget under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 22, 2008.
. Interview with Eugene Meyer (president, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, February 8, 2008.
. Interview with Steven Calabresi (professor of law, Northwestern University; cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, April 3, 2008.
. Interview with Michael Rappaport (professor of law, University of San Diego Law School; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, March 17, 2008.
. Interview with Edwin Meese, III (U.S. attorney general under President Ronald Reagan (1985–1988); Fellow, Heritage Foundation) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2008.
. Perhaps the best example of movement to co-opt Originalism for Liberals/Progressives is Jack M. Balkin, _Living Originalism_ (Harvard, MA: Belknap Press, 2011).
. Interview with Eugene Meyer (president, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, February 8, 2008.
. Federalist Society website (accessed June 7, 2013), <http://www.fed-soc.org/for_press/page/journalists-guide-to-legal-policy-experts-2>.
. Experts listed as of June 7, 2013, include George Bittlingmayer, Ronald Cass, Carolyn F. Graglia, Lino A. Graglia, John S. Irving, David B. Kopel, Robert A. Levy, Stephen R. McAllister, John O. McGinnis, and Gregory J. Sidak.
. Experts listed as of June 7, 2013, include Larry Alexander, Francis J. Beckwith, Roger Clegg, Donald A. Daugherty, George W. Dent, Jr., Robert L. Freedman, Philip K. Howard, Kris W. Kobach, Michael I. Krauss, Curt A. Levey, Henry Manne, Douglas D. McFarland, John O. McGinnis, Cleta Mitchell, Mike Thompson, Gerald Walpin, Russell L. Weaver, C. Douglas Welty, Laurence H. Winer, and Ronald A. Zumbrun.
. Experts listed as of June 7, 2013, include Kris W. Kobach, Nelson Lund, David N. Mayer, John O. McGinnis, Ronald D. Rotunda, and Mark I. Shublak.
. Experts listed as of June 7, 2013, include Dana Berliner, Clint Bolick, Laurence D. Cohen, Donald A. Daugherty, George W. Dent, Jr., David N. Mayer, Charles E. Rice, Ronald D. Rotunda, Abigail Thernstrom, Eugene Volokh, Gerald Walpin, Russell L. Weaver, and Christopher Wolfe.
. Experts listed as of June 7, 2013, include Randy Barnett, Kris W. Koback, Andrew W. Lester, David N. Mayer, Roger Pilon, Ronald D. Rotunda, Russell L. Weaver, C. Douglas Welty, and Ronald A. Zumbrun.
. Experts listed as of June 7, 2013, include James S. Burling, Michael A. Carvin, Michael DeBow, and Gregory J. English.
. "Contract Law," "Criminal Justice," "Economic Freedom," "Judicial Confirmation," " _Miranda_ ," and "Term Limits."
. Randy Barnett, "The Supreme Court's Gun Showdown." _Wall Street Journal_ , June 30, 2010, 15.
. Randy E. Barnett, "William Rehnquist." _Wall Street Journal_ , September 6, 2005.
. See, e.g., Randy Barnett, "We Lost on Health Care. But the Constitution Won." _Washington Post_ , June 29, 2012, <http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/randy-barnett-we-lost-on-health-care-but-the-constitution-won/2012/06/29/gJQAzJuJCW_story.html>.
. See March 23, 2012 (on Healthcare), available on You Tube at <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2rJcAxauinY> (accessed June 7, 2013).
. See, e.g., October 25, 2009 (on Healthcare), available on YouTube <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mB1D02rv0-Y>; December 28, 2010 (on Immigration Ruling), available on YouTube <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPAd1Bq4w5g>; January 16, 2013 (on Gun Control), available on YouTube <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scx1oy-ClM4>. On his personal website, Rivkin links to videos of 69 distinct media appearances, <http://www.davidrivkin.com/media-gallery/media-gallery> (accessed June 7, 2013).
. See June 25, 2010 (on Immigration), available on You Tube at <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9X31CH9_txw> (accessed June 7, 2013).
. See <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/page/2010-national-lawyers-convention-controlling-government-the-framers-the-tea-parties-and-the-constitution> (accessed June 7, 2013).
. See Address by Senator Elect Michal S. Lee, November 19, 2010 (Introduction by Leonard Leo), <http://www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/address-by-senator-elect-michael-s-lee-event-audiovideo>.
. For speaker agenda, see <http://www.fed-soc.org/events/page/2012-national-lawyers-convention-schedule> (accessed June 7, 2013).
. See, e.g., David G. Savage and Kathleen B. Hennessey, "Scalia Appears at 'Tea Party' House Meeting." _Los Angeles Times_ , January 24, 2011 (quoting seminar attendee Rep. January Schakowsky (D-IL) "'This is a discussion going on at a very, very high level right now—lots of Latin phrases from lawyers that I'm not sure what they are,' Schakowsky said. 'This was pretty dry, actually.'"
. Interview with David McIntosh (partner, Meyer, Brown and Platt; member of Congress (1995–2001); cofounder, Federalist Society) in discussion with the author, January 25, 2008.
. Ibid.
. Phone Interview with Lillian BeVier (professor of law, University of Virginia Law School) in discussion with the author, February 1, 2008; ("A lot of times it's just like dripping water. You know it can wear away a stone but it takes a lot of drips. So it's just a question of getting these ideas out [there]").
### _EPILOGUE_
. See, for example, interview with Carter Phillips (managing partner, Sidley Austin, LLP) in discussion with the author, January, 30, 2008: " _Sui generis_ is probably as good of a description as you can come up with in terms of what that organization is."; interview with Gregory Maggs (senior associate dean for Academic Affairs and professor of law, George Washington University Law School) in discussion with the author, January 22, 2008: " I think it is really _sui generis_ and if you think about why it was formed you sort of understand why that is"; interview with Michael Carvin (partner, Jones Day; deputy assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division (1985–1987); deputy assistant attorney general, Office of Legal Counsel (1987–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 28, 2008: ". . . it's got characteristics of [a think tank and an interest group] but I would call it a think tank slash debating society. . . their contribution to the marketplace of ideas comes a lot more from these structured conferences and their speakers. . . so I would think they're _sui generis_ in that respect."; interview with Richard Willard (partner, Steptoe and Johnson, LLP; assistant attorney general, Civil Rights Division under President Ronald Reagan) in discussion with the author, January 31, 2008: "I think it's pretty _sui generis_. . ."
. See "Mission" (accessed June 12, 2013), <http://www.acslaw.org/about/mission>.
. Interview with Lisa Brown (executive director, American Constitution Society (2001–2008)) in discussion with the author, June 19, 2008.
. Antonin Scalia, "Originalism: The Lesser Evil." _University of Cinncinatti, Law, Review_ , _57_ (1988–1989): 849–866, 855.
. Interview with Lisa Brown (executive director, American Constitution Society (2001–2008)) in discussion with the author, June 19, 2008.
. Interview with Goodwin Liu (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; Board of Directors, American Constitution Society; nominee to Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals) in discussion with the author, June 27, 2008.
. See ACS Law website (accessed June 11, 2013), <http://www.acslaw.org/issues/constitutional-interpretation-and-change>.
. Interview with Dan Troy (attorney, Sidley Austin, LLP; special assistant, Office of Legal Counsel (1984–1988)) in discussion with the author, January 30, 2008 (Washington, DC).
. Interview with Lisa Brown (executive director, American Constitution Society (2001–2008)) in discussion with the author, June 19, 2008.
. Charlie Savage, "Liberal Legal Group Is Following New Administration's Path to Power." _New York Times_ , December 10, 2008 (noting the appointments of Executive Director Lisa Brown as White House staff secretary, Melody Barnes as director of the Domestic Policy Council, and Ronald Klain as Joe Biden's chief of staff).
. See, e.g., David Fontana, "Sonia Sotomayor: How She Became the Public Face of the Supreme Court's Liberal Wing" _The New Republic_. June 29, 2011. Available at <http://www.newrepublic.com/article/politics/91013/sonia-sotomayor-supreme-court-liberal-voice> ("When Sotomayor was nominated to the Supreme Court in 2009, many liberals were unhappy. This unease was only magnified by her confirmation hearings. _The Washington Post_ said there was 'little for liberals' in the hearings, and former University of Chicago Law School Dean Geoffrey Stone argued that they 'did serious damage to the cause of progressive thought in constitutional law.'").
. See ACS Law website (accessed June 11, 2013), <http://www.acslaw.org/acsblog/marking-kagans-confirmation-obama-notes-acs-lauds-historic-moment>.
. See James Oliphant, "Obama Court Nominee Goodwin Liu Withdraws after Filibuster." _Los Angeles Times_ , May 25, 2011, <http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/25/nation/la-na-0526-goodwin-liu-20110526>.
. See Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing Transcript for Goodwin Liu, April 16, 2010 (accessed June 11, 2013), <http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/nominations/Materials112thCongress.cfm>.
. Interview with Goodwin Liu (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; Board of Directors, American Constitution Society; nominee to Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals) in discussion with the author, June 27, 2008.
. David A. Strauss, _The Living Constitution_ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 2.
. See Jeremy Leaming, "Scalia Misses Again with 'Dead' Constitution Refrain." _American Constitution Society Blog_. January 29, 2013, <http://www.acslaw.org/acsblog/scalia-misses-again-with-%E2%80%98dead%E2%80%99-constitution-refrain>.
. Interview with Robert Post (Dean and Professor of Law, Yale Law School; Board of Directors, American Constitution Society) in discussion with the author, June 12, 2008.
. Interview with Lisa Brown (executive director, American Constitution Society (2001–2008)) in discussion with the author, June 19, 2008.
. See ACS Law website, June 12, 2013, <http://www.acslaw.org/publications/books/keeping-faith-with-the-constitution>.
. See, e.g., Edwin Meese, "Reagan Upheld the Rule of Law." _Washington Times_ , February 2, 2011 ("Ronald Reagan was committed to restoring the concept of constitutional fidelity. Judges, he maintained, should base their decisions on the original meaning of the Constitution. . ."). See also Interview with Edwin Meese III (U.S. attorney general under President Ronald Reagan (1985–1988); Fellow, Heritage Foundation) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2008, ("I think it's a commitment to the rule of law and a commitment to the Constitution, and from that kind of a body of philosophical principles. . . is all kind of mixed in there but I think fidelity to the Constitution is a guiding principle").
. Goodwin Liu, Pamela S. Karlan, and Christopher H. Schroeder, _Keeping Faith with the Constitution_ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), xvi–xvii.
. Ibid., xvi.
. See ACS Law website, June 12, 2013, <http://www.acslaw.org/about> ("The American Constitution Society is also debunking conservative buzzwords such as "originalism" and "strict construction" that use neutral-sounding language but all too often lead to conservative policy outcomes. Using both traditional and new media to communicate with policymakers, judges, lawyers and the public at large, ACS presents a compelling vision of core constitutional values such as genuine equality, liberty, justice and the rule of law.").
. Interview with Goodwin Liu (professor of law, University of California, Berkeley Law School; Board of Directors, American Constitution Society; nominee to Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals) in discussion with the author, June 27, 2008.
. See ACS Law website, June 12, 2013, <http://www.acslaw.org/events/2011-05-05/jack-balkin-why-liberals-should-be-originalists>.
. See, e.g., Charlie Savage, "Liberal Legal Group Is Following New Administration's Path to Power." _New York Times_ , December 10, 2008. ("Some law professors privately bemoan the rise of both societies, saying they are helping to polarize the law by making ambitious students think they have to pick sides early—before their thinking may have matured, and in a public way that affects which judges will hire them as clerks").
. Ibid.
. An allusion to an oft-quoted book within conservative legal circles by Richard S. Weaver, _Ideas Have Consequences_ (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1948).
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## INDEX
Abrams, Floyd, , 205n116
Ackerman, Bruce,
Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA), , , , 226n87
Alito, Samuel: appointment of, , , ; on campaign finance, , , –, , , ; Federalist Society credentials of, ; on judicial restraint, ; on Second Amendment, , , , , , –; on state sovereignty, , , ,
American Bar Association,
American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ),
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), , , 199n24
American Constitution Society (ACS), –
_American Power & Light v. SEC_ (1946),
_Amicus curiae_ briefs: on campaign finance, , , , , , , nn96–, 206n126; on Commerce Clause, , , –; on Second Amendment, , , , –n67, 193n98, 194n104, nn122–; on state sovereignty, –, –, , 226n87
_Annotated Bibliography of Conservative and Libertarian Legal Scholarship_ (Federalist Society), , , , , , , , , 185n23
_Answering the Call of the Court_ (Baird),
Anti-Commandeering Doctrine: Federalist Society network on, , , –, ; _National Federation of Independent Business_ case (2012), –; _Printz_ case (1997), –; Supreme Court on, –
Anti-Federalists, ,
_Arizona v. United States_ (2012), –
Atlas.ti Scientific qualitative data management software,
_Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce_ (1990), , , , , , ,
Bachman, Michelle,
Background checks for gun purchases,
Baird, Vanessa A., –
Baker, John S., Jr.,
Baker, Lynn, , , ,
Balkin, Jack M., , , ,
Bamzai, Aditya, 191n62
Baran, Jan Witold, , , , , , 203n88, 206n126
Barnett, Randy: on campaign finance, , ; on Commerce Clause, , , ; Federalist Society presentations by, –189n21; on Federalist Society's influence, ; on judicial restraint, ; on Originalism, , 186n25; on Scalia, , 196n128; on Second Amendment, , , , , , , , , , , , ; on state sovereignty, , , , ; on Thomas, 196n128
Barr, Bob, 192n67
Barr, William P., 191n67
Bash, John F., III, 191n62
Bator, Paul M.,
Baum, Lawrence, , , , 227n16
Bea, Carlos T.,
_Beaumont, Federal Election Commission v_. (2002),
Bell, Charles H., –
Berenson, Bradford, , 192n67
Berns, Walter,
BeVier, Lillian: on campaign finance, , , , , , , ; on Federalist Society founding principles, 195n110; Federalist Society presentations by, –198n141; on Federalist Society's influence, ; on judicial restraint, 184n17, 185n19; on Second Amendment,
Biden, Joe, ,
Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002, , , , , ,
Blackmun, Harry,
Blackstone, William,
Blumstein, James F., , 226n87
_Boerne, City of v. Flores_ (1997), , 217n90
Bolick, Clint, , , 192n67, 193n98, 193n99, 196n122
Bopp, James, Jr.: on campaign finance, , , , –, , –, 206n132; Federalist Society presentations by, 203n81
Bork, Robert H., , –, , –n19, 185n24, 191n67
Bradbury, Steven G., , 226n85, 226n87
Bradley, Harry,
Brady, James S.,
Brady, Sarah,
Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act of 1993, , ,
Brand, Rachel,
Brandeis, Louis,
Breyer, Stephen, ,
Brown, Janice Rogers,
Brown, Lisa, , ,
Brzonkala, Christy,
Buchanan, Pat,
Buckley, James L., ,
_Buckley v. Valeo_ (1976), , , ,
Burrell, Thomas, –
Bush, George H. W.,
Bush, George W., ,
Bybee, Jay,
Calabresi, Steven: on campaign finance, , ; on Commerce Clause, , , ; on Federalist Society founding principles, ; on Federalist Society's influence, –, ; as founding member of Federalist Society, ; on Lawson, 222n43; on Originalism, , 185n24; on purpose of Federalist Society, , ; on Scalia, ; on Second Amendment, ; on state sovereignty, ; on "stigmatized" identity of conservative and libertarian law students,
Campaign finance, –; _Citizens United_ case (2010), –; Federalist Society network on, –; and government attempts to equalize speech resources, –; individual vs. corporate political speech, –; and judicial restraint, –; and _stare decisis_ , –; Supreme Court on, –; _Wisconsin Right to Life_ case (2007), –
Carter, Steve, 192n67
Carvin, Michael A., , , 185n19, 224n70, 229n1
Casey, Lee A., ,
Cato Institute,
Center for Competitive Politics,
Chertoff, Michael,
Chief law enforcement officers (CLEOs),
"Citizen-lawyers," ,
_Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission_ (2010), –, , , , –, , 202n74
Claremont Institute,
Claus, Laurence, 184n17
Clayton, Cornell,
Clegg, Roger,
Clement, Edith Brown,
Clement, Paul, , , , , 193n101, 224n67
Clinton, Bill, ,
Clinton, Hillary,
Coalition of Public Charities,
Coercive federalism, , ,
_Commentaries on the Laws of England_ (Blackstone),
Commerce Clause, –; and Affordable Care Act, ; Fderalist Society network on, –; and framers' intent, –; and functionalist originalism, –; _New York v. United States_ (1992), –; originalist reading of, –; and structural limits on federal power, –; Supreme Court on, –; _United States v. Lopez_ (1995), –; _United States v. Morrison_ (2000), –
Conservative counterrevolution, ,
Constitutional change, fostering conditions for, –, –
Constitutional fidelity,
_The Constitution in the Year 2000_ (Justice Department), ,
Cooper, Charles J.: on campaign finance, , , , 204n98; on Commerce Clause, , , –; on Federalist Society founding principles, –195n110; on judicial restraint, ; on Second Amendment, , , 191n67, 192n71; on state sovereignty, , , , –, , , 183n14
Cooperative federalism, ,
Corday, Richard, 193n98
Cotto, Tony, , 186n34
Cox, Michael A., 192n67, 193n98
Cox, Reid Alan, , 205n117, 206n126
Crawford, James,
Cribb, Ken,
Crime Control Act of 1990,
Critical junctures, –, , ,
_Cruikshank, United States v_. (1876), , ,
Cruz, Ted, , , 192n67
Cultural capital, . _See also_ Intellectual capital
Curtis, Michael Kent, , , , , , 190n34
_Darby, United States v_. (1941), 219n3
Dellinger, Walter,
Dinh, Viet, 191n67
_District of Columbia v. Heller_ (2008), , , , –, ,
Doctrinal distance, –, , ,
Dubina, Joel Frederick,
Due Process Clause, –
Duncan, Kyle,
du Pont, Pete, ,
Easterbrook, Frank H., , ,
Eastman, John C., , , , 193n98, 193n100, 196n122
Eleventh Amendment, , , 213n36
Ellsworth, Oliver, 214n47
Epistemic community model, , , 182n4
Epstein, Richard A., , , –, , , , , , , , , 226n87
Express advocacy,
_Ezell v. City of Chicago_ (2011),
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938,
Fallon, Richard H., , 206n127
Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, , ,
_Federal Election Commission v. Beaumont_ (2002),
_Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life_ (2007), , –, 202n74
_Federalist 10_ (Madison), , 204n97
_Federalist 29_ (Hamilton),
_Federalist 39_ (Madison),
_Federalist 44_ (Madison), 221n40
_Federalist 45_ (Madison), –, –, ,
_Federalist 46_ (Madison), –
_Federalist 51_ (Madison),
_Federalist 82_ (Hamilton), 214n47
Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies: boundary maintenance strategy, ; on campaign finance, –; on Commerce Clause, –; conservative counterrevolution influenced by, –; and constitutional change climate, –; demographics of, –; Executive Office, –; on First Amendment, –; founding of, –; growth of, , ; influence of, –, –; as informal gatekeeper for vetting judicial nominees, , 186n34; and judicial restraint, –; operating budget of, ; as political epistemic network, –; on Second Amendment, –; statement of principles,
Feedback loops,
Feingold, Russell D., , 199n27
_FERC v. Mississippi_ (1982),
Ferrara, Peter J., 194n104
Fielding, Fred,
Firearms Control Regulation Act of 1975 (Washington, D.C.), –
First Amendment: and campaign finance, , –; _Citizens United_ case (2010), –; Federalist Society network on, –; individual rights in, ; individual vs. corporate political speech, –; and judicial restraint, –; as prohibition on government attempts to equalize speech resources, –; and _stare decisis_ , –; Supreme Court on, –; _Wisconsin Right to Life_ case (2007), –
_First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti_ (1978), , , , , , ,
Fisch, Jill E.,
Fiss, Owen,
Flanigan, Timothy E., 191n67
Fleck, Ludwig,
Focus on the Family,
Ford, Gerald,
Formalist view of federal-state relations,
Fourteenth Amendment: Due Process Clause, , , ; Privileges or Immunities Clause, , , , ; provisions of, 216n69; Second Amendment applied to states via, –
Fourth Amendment,
Frank, Barney,
Frankfurter, Felix, , 201n55
Fried, Charles, , , , ,
Friedman, Milton,
Functionalist originalism, –
Fusionism, 182n10
Future research agenda, –
_Garcia v. San Antonio Metro Transit Authority_ (1985), ,
Geometric view of federal-state relations,
Ginsburg, Ruth Bader, , , –
"Giving reasons requirement," ,
Glendon, Mary Ann, , 217n77
Gold, Laurence, , , , , 204n98, 206n126
Goldsmith, Jack, 191n67
Goldwater, Barry,
_Gonzales v. Raich_ (2005), ,
Gora, Joel, , , , , 199n24, 203n90
Greenhouse, Linda, ,
"Greenhouse Effect," ,
_Gregory v. Ashcroft_ (1991),
Greve, Michael, , , , , 182n8, 186n25, 186n34
Griffith, Thomas B.,
Guarantee Clause, , 213n36
Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990, ,
Gura, Alan, , , , , , 191n66, 196n122
Haas, Peter M., , ,
Hamilton, Alexander, , 214n47, 221n40
Hardy, David T., 194n104
Harris, John,
Harrison, John, , , , , 189n33
Hayward, Allison R., , , , , , , , 205n118
_Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States_ (1964), 209n7
Heller, Dick,
Heriot, Gail, , , , 184n17
_Heritage Guide to the Constitution_ ,
_Hillary: The Movie_ ,
Ho, James C., 193n98
_Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining_ (1981),
Hoerstring, Stephen M., 206n126, 206n131
Holder, Eric,
Holmes, Oliver Wendell,
Holzer, Henry Mark, ,
Horowitz, Michael,
Hull, Frank,
_Ideas Have Consequences_ (Weaver),
Illinois State Rifle Association,
_In Defense of Freedom: A Conservative Credo_ (Meyer), 183n10
Intellectual capital, diffusion of, , , –, , , , –, –, 191n62
Issue advocacy advertisements, ,
Jackson, Robert,
Jacobs, Lawrence,
Jaffe, Erik S., , 203n87, 204n96
James Madison Center for Free Speech,
"Journalist's Guide to Legal Policy Experts" (Federalist Society),
_Judges and Their Audiences_ (Baum), ,
Judicial activism vs. restraint, –; and core principles of Federalist Society, –, , ; and intellectual capital, –; and judicial audience role of Federalist Society, –; and "living constitution," 172; and Originalism, ; and Second Amendment, , ; and Supreme Court influence of Federalist Society, –
Judicial audience, , , , –, –
Judicial signaling,
Justification clause of Second Amendment,
Kagan, Elena,
Karlan, Pamela, ,
Kates, Don B., , –, , , 189n22, 192n67
Katsas, Gregory G., , 224n71
Kavanaugh, Brett, ,
_Keeping Faith with the Constitution_ (Liu, Karlan, & Schroeder),
Keisler, Peter, 213n39
Kendall, Douglas T., 193n98, 196n122
Kennedy, Anthony: on campaign finance, , , , , , , ; on Commerce Clause, ; and "Greenhouse Effect," 20; on Second Amendment, ; on state sovereignty, , ,
Kerr, Orin,
Killian, Bryan M., 191n62
Kmiec, Douglas: on Commerce Clause, , _99_ ;
on constitutional change climate, ; on Federalist Society founding principles, 195n110; on judicial audience role, , ; on Lawson, 222n43; on Markman, 209n10; on Second Amendment, , _56_, _57_, _191_ n67, _192_ n71; on separation of powers, 183n13, 184n17
Kovner, Rachel P., 191n62
Kozinski, Alex,
Kuhn, Thomas,
Kyl, Jon, –
Lamberth, Royce,
Law, Steven J., , , 203n91
_Law's Allure_ (Silverstein), ,
Lawson, Colleen,
Lawson, Gary, , –n43
Lee, Mike, ,
Lee, Rex, , 213n40
Leo, Leonard S., , ,
Leon, Richard J.,
Levinson, Sandy, ,
Levy, Robert A., , , , , , 191n65
Liu, Goodwin, , –, ,
_The Living Constitution_ (Strauss),
"Living constitutionalism," –
_Living Originalism_ (Balkin),
Livingston, Debra Ann,
_Lochner_ era jurisprudence,
_Lopez, United States v_. (1995), , , , , –,
Lovell, Charles C.,
Low-Level Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985,
Lund, Nelson, –, , , , 188n16, 192n67
Luttig, Michael, , , 216n71
Lynch, Timothy, , 216n75
Mack, Richard,
Madison, James, , –, , –, , , 214n47, 221n40
Maggs, Gregory, 229n1
Malbin, Michael,
_Marbury v. Madison_ (1803), , 183n15
Markman, Stephen, , , , nn9–
Marshall, John, , , 183n15
Marshall, Thurgood,
Marshall, William, , 201n57
Martin, Kevin, , 194n102
McCain, John, , 199n27
McCain-Feingold Act. _See_ Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002
McConnell, Michael W., , , , , , , , , , ,
McConnell, Mitch, , ,
_McConnell v. FEC_ (2003), , , , ,
_McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission_ (2014), –
McDonald, Otis, ,
_McDonald v. City of Chicago_ (2010), , , , –
McGinnis, John O., , , , –,
McIntosh, David, , –, , , , , , , –
McKenna, Robert M., , 192n67, 193n98, 224n68
McReynolds, Clark,
Medicaid, , , , ,
Meese, Edwin, III: on campaign finance, ; on Commerce Clause, ; Federalist Society credentials of, , 192n68; on Federalist Society's influence, ; on Originalism, , nn24–; as Reagan's Chief of Staff, ; on Second Amendment, , _50_, _191_ n67, _192_ n71, _193_ n98, _196_ n122; on state sovereignty, ,
Merrill, Thomas W., ,
Meyer, Eugene, , , , , , , 185n25
Meyer, Frank S., , 183n10
Miller, Banks,
_Miller v. Texas_ (1894), , ,
_Miller, United States v_. (1939),
"Money is speech," , 198n14
Moore, John Norton, , 201n58
_Moore v. Madigan_ (2013),
Morrison, Antonio,
_Morrison, United States v_. (2000), , , , –, ,
Myers, Harriet, , 186n34
Nadler, Jerrold,
_National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius_ (2012), , , , ,
National Firearms Act (NFA),
_National Labor Relations Board v. Laughlin Jones & Laughlin Steel Co_. (1937), 209n7
_National League of Cities v. Usery_ (1976), , , ,
National Organization for Women (NOW),
National Rifle Association (NRA), , , ,
Necessary and Proper Clause, 222n42
Neily, Clark M., , , , 191n64, 193n98, 196n122
Nelson, Caleb, , 215n59
New Deal era, ,
New Federalism Initiative, ,
_New York v. United States_ (1992), , , , –, , , , , ,
Ninth Amendment,
Norton, Gale A., , 220n33
_No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights_ (Curtis), ,
Obama, Barack: on _Citizens United_ , ; and health care legislation, , ; Supreme Court nominees, –
O'Connor, Sandra Day: on campaign finance, , ; on Commerce Clause, , ; on state sovereignty, , , ,
Olin, John,
Olson, Joseph Edward, 194n104
Olson, Theodore, , –, , , 185n24, 204n96
O'Neill, Jonathan,
Operative clause of Second Amendment,
Originalism: and campaign finance, ; and Commerce Clause, –, –, ; Scalia on, ; and Second Amendment, –, , ; as unifying principle of Federalist Society, , , , 194n109
_Originalism: A Quarter-Century of Debate_ (Federalist Society), , , 185n24
_Originally Speaking_ (online debate series),
Ortiz, Daniel, , 184n19
Otis, Lee Liberman, , , , , 184n17, 195n110
Owen, Priscilla,
Parker, Barrington D., Jr.,
Parker, Shelly,
_Parker v. District of Columbia_ (2003),
Paterson, William, 214n47
Path-dependence,
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. _See_ Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA)
Pelosi, Nancy,
Phillips, Carter, , , 181n3, 183n14, 213n39, 229n1
Pickerill, J. Mitchell,
Pilon, Roger, , , 201n59, 217n76
Pinckney, Charles, 214n47
Political epistemic network (PEN), –, –,
Polsby, Daniel D., , , , , –n60, 215n57
Posner, Richard A., , , 197n135
Post, Robert, ,
Potter, Trevor,
Powell, Lewis F., –, ,
Prakash, Saikrishna, , , 215n59
_Presser v. Illinois_ (1886), , ,
Printz, Jay,
_Printz v. United States_ (1997), , –, , , , , ,
Privileges and Immunities Clause, –
_Property_ (Madison),
Pryor, William H., , , 216n72
Public choice theory, ,
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978, 219n5
Rabkin, Jeremy, , , 218n96
Randolph, A. Raymond, , , 205n110
Randolph, Edmund, 214n47
Rappaport, Michael, , 184n17, –n25
Reagan, Ronald, , –, 185n24
Reagan Revolution, ,
Redish, Martin, –
Regime politics theory,
Rehnquist, William, , , , , , , , ,
Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993, 217n90
Republican Party, ,
Ribstein, Larry E., , , 201n52
Rice, Charles E., ,
Right to keep and bear arms. _See_ Second Amendment
Rivkin, David B., , , ,
Roberts, John G., Jr.: appointment of, , , –; on campaign finance, , , , , , –, , , , , ; Federalist Society credentials of, , , 181n3; on judicial restraint, ; on Second Amendment, ; on state sovereignty, , , , ,
Roberts, Richard,
Rocky Mountain Low-Level Radioactive Waste Compact,
Rosenthal, Steven,
Rosman, Michael, , 217n78
Scaife, Richard,
Scalia, Antonin: on campaign finance, , , , , , ; clerks for, 191n62, 193n101; on Commerce Clause, , , , , ; Federalist Society credentials of, , , , 181n3; on Originalism, , , 185n24; on Second Amendment, , –, , , , , , , ; on state sovereignty, , , , , , , , –; and Tea Party, ,
Scherer, Nancy,
Schlafly, Phyllis, , 216n74
Schoenbrod, David, , 223n44
Schroeder, Christopher,
Schumer, Charles,
Scientific paradigm model,
Second Amendment, –; applicability to states via Fourteenth Amendment, –; Federalist Society network on, , –, –; _Heller_ case (2008), –; individual rights view of, –, , –; justification clause, ; _McDonald v. Chicago_ (2010), –; operative clause, ; originalist reading of, –; and state sovereignty, ; Supreme Court on, –
Second Amendment Foundation, Inc.,
Seidman, Louis Michael,
Seitz, Virginia,
Sekulow, Jay Alan, –, , 192n67, 193n98, 196n123, 204n97
Sentelle, David, , ,
Separation of powers, –; and Commerce Clause, –; Federalist Society network on, , , –; media coverage of, 211n18; and state sovereignty, –; and Tenth Amendment, –
Shapiro, Martin, , , 203n92
Shapiro, Steven, ,
_Shelby County v. Holder_ (2013),
Siegel, Reva,
Silberman, Laurence, , , 193n101
Silverstein, Gordon, , ,
Simpson, Steve,
Skocpol, Theda,
_Slaughterhouse Cases_ (1873), , , , ,
Smith, Bradley A., –, , , , , , 205n115, 206n126
Smith, Dennis G.,
Smith, Jerry,
Smith, Loren A., , , , 183n14, 195n110
Smith, Thomas,
Social capital,
Somin, Ilya,
Sotomayor, Sonia, , –, 230n11
Souter, David, ,
Southworth, Ann, ,
Spitzer, Robert J.,
Sprecher, Robert A., , , , ,
_Stare decisis_ , , , , , , ,
Starr, Kenneth, , , 182n6, 213n41
State exists to preserve freedom, –; First Amendment and campaign finance, –; as founding principle of Federalist Society, –, –; Second Amendment, –
State sovereignty, –; Federalist Society network on, –; _National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius_ (2012), –; _Printz v. United States_ (1997), –; Supreme Court on, –
Stevens, John Paul: on campaign finance, , –, ; on Commerce Clause, ; and "Greenhouse Effect," 20; on Second Amendment, ; on state sovereignty,
Stewart, Potter,
Stone, Geoffrey,
Stone, Harlan F., ,
Story, Joseph, ,
Strauss, David A.,
_The Struggle for Judicial Supremacy_ (Jackson),
Substantive Due Process,
Sullivan, Emmet,
Sunstein, Cass, ,
Supreme Court, U.S.: approval-seeking by, ; on campaign finance, –; clerks, , , , , , 187n37, 216n71; on Commerce Clause, –; conservative renaissance of, ; Federalist Society influence in, , , –, –, –; on First Amendment, –; on Second Amendment, , –; on state sovereignty, –. _See also_ _specific cases_
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, 219n4
Sutton, Jeffrey, , , 216n73
Sykes, Diane A., , , 197n133
Taft, William Howard,
"Take-title" provision,
Tea Party, , –
Teles, Steven M., –, , , , –, , –
Tenth Amendment, –; and Commerce Clause, , , ; Federalist Society network on, –; individual rights in, ; _National Federation of Independent Business_ case (2012), –; _Printz_ case (1997), –; provisions, 213n36; Supreme Court on, –
Terwilliger, George J., III, 191n67
Textualist-originalist interpretations, –,
Thomas, Clarence: appointment of, ; on campaign finance, , , , , ; clerks for, 203n87, nn59–; on Commerce Clause, , , , , –, , ; Federalist Society credentials of, , 181n3; on judicial restraint, , ; judicial signaling by, ; on Second Amendment, –, , , , , , , , , , ; on state sovereignty, , , , , ,
Thompson, David H., , , , 203n86
Thought collective model,
Thurmond, Strom,
Toobin, Jeffrey,
Tribe, Laurence, ,
Troy, Daniel, , , 184n19
Tushnet, Mark,
Tymkovich, Timothy, , , , 220n34
_Unfree Speech_ (Smith), ,
_United Auto Workers, United States v_. (1957), ,
_United States v_. _See_ _name of opposing party_
University of Chicago Law School,
Urbanowicz, Peter,
Valeo, Francis R.,
Van Alstyne, William, –, –, ,
Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA), , ,
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994,
Volokh, Eugene, –, , , , , 188n18, 192n67
Voting Rights Act of 1965,
Wallace, Michael B., , 224n69
Wallop, Malcolm, , ,
_Watters v. Wachovia_ (2007),
Weaver, Richard S.,
Wesley, Richard C.,
White, Byron, 198n14
_Wickard v. Filburn_ (1942), 209n7
Wiley, Richard E.,
Wilkinson, J. Harvie, , , , ,
Will, George,
Willard, Richard K., , 186n25, –n67, 210n10
Williams, Stephen F.,
Winkler, Adam, 197n137
Winter, Ralph,
_Wisconsin Right to Life, Federal Election Commission v_. (2007), , –, 202n74
Yale Law School,
Yoo, John C., , , , , , , , , 215n61
1. Title Page
2. Copyright Page
3. Dedication
4. Contents
5. Acknowledgments
6. Introduction
7. 1. Understanding Federalist Society Network Influence
8. Part I. The State Exists to Preserve Freedom
1. 2. The Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms: Lost and Found
2. 3. Judicial Activism, Inc.: The First Amendment, Campaign Finance, and Citizens United
9. Part II. The Separation of Governmental Powers Is Central to Our Constitution
1. 4. Federalism and the Commerce Power: Returning to "First Principles"
2. 5. State Sovereignty and the Tenth Amendment: The Anti-Commandeering Doctrine
10. Part III. It Is Emphatically the Province and Duty of the Judiciary Branch to Say What the Law Is, Not What It Should Be
1. 6. Saying What the Law Is: The Federalist Society and the Conservative Counterrevolution
11. Epilogue: An Agenda for Future Research: Looking Back, Looking Forward
12. Appendix: List of Interviews
13. Notes
14. References
15. Index
1. i
2. ii
3. iii
4. iv
5. v
6. vi
7. vii
8. viii
9. ix
10. x
11. xi
12. xii
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|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaBook"
}
| 5,155
|
namespace {
using GOOGLE_NAMESPACE::INFO;
using GOOGLE_NAMESPACE::WARNING;
using GOOGLE_NAMESPACE::ERROR;
using GOOGLE_NAMESPACE::glog_testing::ScopedMockLog;
using std::string;
using testing::_;
using testing::HasSubstr;
using testing::InSequence;
using testing::InvokeWithoutArgs;
// Tests that ScopedMockLog intercepts LOG()s when it's alive.
TEST(ScopedMockLogTest, InterceptsLog) {
ScopedMockLog log;
InSequence s;
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(WARNING, HasSubstr("/mock-log_test.cc"), "Fishy."));
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(INFO, _, "Working..."))
.Times(2);
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(ERROR, _, "Bad!!"));
LOG(WARNING) << "Fishy.";
LOG(INFO) << "Working...";
LOG(INFO) << "Working...";
LOG(ERROR) << "Bad!!";
}
void LogBranch() {
LOG(INFO) << "Logging a branch...";
}
void LogTree() {
LOG(INFO) << "Logging the whole tree...";
}
void LogForest() {
LOG(INFO) << "Logging the entire forest.";
LOG(INFO) << "Logging the entire forest..";
LOG(INFO) << "Logging the entire forest...";
}
// The purpose of the following test is to verify that intercepting logging
// continues to work properly if a LOG statement is executed within the scope
// of a mocked call.
TEST(ScopedMockLogTest, LogDuringIntercept) {
ScopedMockLog log;
InSequence s;
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(INFO, __FILE__, "Logging a branch..."))
.WillOnce(InvokeWithoutArgs(LogTree));
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(INFO, __FILE__, "Logging the whole tree..."))
.WillOnce(InvokeWithoutArgs(LogForest));
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(INFO, __FILE__, "Logging the entire forest."));
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(INFO, __FILE__, "Logging the entire forest.."));
EXPECT_CALL(log, Log(INFO, __FILE__, "Logging the entire forest..."));
LogBranch();
}
} // namespace
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
GOOGLE_NAMESPACE::InitGoogleLogging(argv[0]);
testing::InitGoogleMock(&argc, argv);
return RUN_ALL_TESTS();
}
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 8,033
|
Motorists who have signed up for Fast Lane transponders for use on the Massachusetts Turnpike have always thought they were being smart, beating the crowds and saving themselves some money through discounts. And so they were and are � most of the time.
The Boston Herald reported yesterday, however, that as many as a million transactions in recent months have resulted in motorists at the wheel of two-axle cars and trucks being charged the higher rate that applies to vehicles with three to five axles, such as tractor trailers. The apparent culprit is our blessed New England weather. According to Turnpike officials, grime or snow on the Fast Lane cameras can cause them to malfunction and misinterpret the size of the vehicle.
It�s troubling enough that such a glitch occurred, but the fact that it comes to light immediately following news of another hike in tolls adds insult to injury � or surcharge to overpayment, in this case. Compounding the situation is the fact that many of the roughly 720,000 folks who hold Fast Lane transponders elect not to receive paper statements, and may not yet be aware they were overcharged. They should check their statements online within 60 days.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
| 4,110
|
During the past 3 years, I have had the opportunity to learn a lot about the importance of having high internet speeds in a community and in agriculture, as part of the Nebraska Broadband Initiative. Three years ago, the average rural community in Nebraska had an average broadband speed of less than 3 megabits per second. In most communities, that hasn't changed that much. With newer smartphones we have more speed than that with the 4LTE cell coverage. Continuing at that level will not be a plus for communities and regions surrounding communities as many of today's technologies require 6-10 and even up to 20 mbps of speed.
As extension educators, it is important to provide encouragement to community leaders in agriculture and within communities to develop plans to increase broadband. The next generation of young families may bypass a job in a community without high speed, dependable and affordable internet.
Next week is the Nebraska Broadband Conference. If you have interest, you might consider attending. Some info and a link to the registration site is available below. I do have two FREE registrations to the first folks that drop me an email.
LINCOLN, Neb. — The 2014 Broadband Connecting Nebraska Conference Oct. 1-2 will give people a chance to share their success stories, as well as hear from experts about the latest developments in Internet technology.
The conference will be at the Younes Conference Center in Kearney.
Rod Armstrong, vice president of strategic partnerships for AIM, said the conference will cover topics of interest not only to IT professionals, but also to anyone who wants to increase their business's productivity through broadband technology.
Topics include: "Moving to the Cloud: Things to Understand and Consider; Driving Community and Economic Growth Through Broadband; Cool Tools and Mobile Apps for Business; Security Do's and Don'ts; Developing the IT Pipeline; Remote Video and Sensing; and Broadband Availability and Affordability.
– Gene Hand, Nebraska Public Service Commission, "E-Rate and Other Broadband Regulatory Changes.
Registration is available at aimforbrilliance.org/broadband.
This conference is offered as part of the Nebraska Broadband Initiative. This Broadband Mapping and Planning Initiative is funded through a grant to the Nebraska Public Service Commission by the U.S. Department of Commerce's National Telecommunications and Information Administration and aims to increase broadband adoption and use. Project partners include the University of Nebraska, Nebraska Department of Economic Development, Nebraska Information Technology Commission, Nebraska Public Service Commission, and the AIM Institute. For more information, check http://broadband.nebraska.gov.
This will be a good conference. Plan to go if you can.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
| 6,410
|
{"url":"https:\/\/electronics.stackexchange.com\/questions\/511525\/how-does-load-resistance-affect-rc-low-pass-filter","text":"# How does load resistance affect RC low pass filter?\n\nI am building a low pass filter. This is the equation I'm using to calculate what frequencies I want to pass though, but I have a couple questions on details.\n\n$$f_c = \\frac{1}{2\\pi RC}$$\n\nWhat goes into R? Does the resistance of the load (R2) affect R? Say R2 is fixed, are there any rules for selectring R1, like load matching?\n\nsimulate this circuit \u2013 Schematic created using CircuitLab\n\n\u2022 Use Req=R1\/\/R2 = R and attenuation is R2\/(R1+R2) at DC Jul 21 '20 at 6:53\n\u2022 Jul 21 '20 at 7:03\n\nYou can use the Thevenin equivalent circuit to see what your capacitor \"sees\".\n\nYour capacitor will see an input voltage of Vin*R2\/(R1+R2) in series with a resistor equal to (R1||R2). Hence your load will affect your voltage amplitude and also your cut-off frequency. If it is a problem, you may use an op-amp configured as a voltage follower between the output of your filter and your load.\n\nThis simple circuit can be solved by inspection instantaneously either by using Th\u00e9venin as correctly highlighted by Wheatley but also by using the fast analytical circuits techniques or FACTs. Simply consider the circuit for $$\\s=0\\$$ and determine the dc transfer function. Then turn the stimulus off - short the input source - and \"look\" through the capacitor terminals to determine the resistance $$\\R\\$$ you see in this mode. Multiply the result by the capacitor to get the time constant. For a 1st-order circuit, the inverse of the time constant is the pole $$\\\\omega_p\\$$ you want. The below drawing illustrates the work:\n\nThen assemble the pieces and write the transfer function in a low-entropy form as follows:\n\nIf you want to check if the equation is applicable (and what is \"R\" ?), you should use the definition for the cut-off frequency wo. For this purpose you need the transfer function.\n\nIt is a first-order lowpass - hence, the general expression applies:\n\nH(jw)=Ao\/(1+jw\/wo).\n\nAo: Transfer function for w=0\n\nwo=1\/T with T=time constant of the RC product relevant for discharging the capacitor.\n\n\u2022 It would be interesting for me to learn if something is wrong in my answer...has the \"downvoter\" the courage to reveal his secret? It was my aim not to present the answer but enable the questioner to find it by his own...\n\u2013\u00a0LvW\nJul 21 '20 at 10:35","date":"2021-11-29 08:55:26","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 1, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 4, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.5311762690544128, \"perplexity\": 879.8967442541915}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": true, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2021-49\/segments\/1637964358702.43\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20211129074202-20211129104202-00517.warc.gz\"}"}
| null | null |
This paper characterises the residual stress in nuclear reactor pressure vessel steel clad with nickel-based alloy and investigates the interaction between residual and thermal stresses during thermal shock. Residual stress measurements were made on two plates of SA508 Grade 4N steel, clad with Alloy 82 nickel-based alloy. The techniques used to measure the residual stresses were: deep hole drilling, centre hole drilling, and the contour method. One plate was as-welded, the other post-weld heat-treated. The post-weld heat-treated plate was subjected to thermal shock by heating it up and then spraying the surface of the cladding with cold water. The residual stress was measured again afterwards. A finite element simulation was made to investigate the physical mechanisms causing residual stress redistribution during thermal shock. Thermal shock caused significant residual stress redistribution in the cladding due to elastic-plastic interaction between the thermal stress and the cladding residual stress. The results demonstrate that an assessment of the safety of a reactor pressure vessel during thermal shock could be conservative for small surface defects if it is assumed that residual and thermal stresses combine elastically.
|
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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| 5,138
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Unexploded shells, an outbreak of a tree-killing disease in Europe and even pesky Canadian squirrels have failed to defeat Monty McDonald.
McDonald, 72, remains determined to fulfil his dream of building a living memorial of oak trees at Vimy Ridge to honour Canadians who fought there 100 years ago.
"I have done half a billion dollars' worth of projects and this is the most frustrating," said McDonald, who used to work in the petrochemical industry.
There have been so many issues that time has run out; The trees won't be planted in France for the centenary of the battle as first planned.
"But we'll get it done," said McDonald firmly. No one who works with him has any doubts.
McDonald and a group of volunteers have grown enough trees to fill a forest, more than 1,000 alone at a nursery in West Flamborough, Ont.
Unfortunately, none of them can be shipped to France and planted near the famous Vimy Memorial, which was the original idea.
So, in one of many "contingency plans" McDonald has been forced to develop, the special "Vimy Oaks" are being shipped to communities across Canada. Orders are coming in from across the country, with many of the trees expected to be planted near cenotaphs or legion halls.
"The trees for Canada program is working out a lot better than the trees for Europe," McDonald said wryly.
The entire project traces its roots back to a handful of acorns picked up by a Canadian soldier back in 1917.
When the battle at Vimy ended, Leslie Miller surveyed the barren landscape and, with the instinct of a tree farmer, gathered some acorns from a fallen English oak. Miller sent them home to Ontario, where his family planted them.
Years later, they had grown into an impressive stand of trees and Miller named the farm "Vimy Oak." About that time, Miller hired Monty McDonald to work on the farm and when McDonald's father died became a mentor to the young man — "like a grandfather" — and one whose memory is still treasured.
The farm is long gone, but some of the trees still stand on a small woodlot next to a church in what is now a suburban area of Toronto. A trail offers visitors a chance to walk among the Vimy Oaks and remember the battle and the fallen.
But when McDonald toured the memorial at Vimy Ridge more than a dozen years ago he was disappointed.
"I didn't see any oak trees there," he said.
He immediately thought of the oaks from Vimy on the farm in Canada.
He set the idea aside but came back to it in a big way as the 100th anniversary of Vimy Ridge approached.
McDonald's dream developed. He envisioned 100 carefully planted trees, with a landscaped area were visitors could walk, sit and and contemplate the risks taken and sacrifices made by Leslie Miller's generation.
The Vimy Foundation offered support and a team of volunteers came together. The project had momentum.
However, at a key moment, the trees in Canada refused to co-operate. When McDonald went to collect acorns from the trees in the fall two years ago, there were almost none to be found.
McDonald built special traps to catch the acorns and protect them from hungry squirrels. He put up plastic owls and even built rubber snakes, hoping that might help.
The harvest, however, was miniscule.
With time running out, McDonald came up with a new plan. The oaks were scaled, and the cuttings — called scions — were taken and grafted to rootstock brought in from British Columbia.
It worked, producing about 200 healthy oak trees, still connected genetically to the acorns Leslie Miller collected at Vimy in 1917 — and big enough to be shipped to France for planting.
"Unfortunately, along comes a new pathogen that is ravaging trees in Europe," said McDonald.
There is fear that Xylella fastidiosa will do huge damage to trees in many countries. So late last year, McDonald was told that, despite all the testing and precautions he had been working on, the Vimy Oaks weren't going to be allowed into France.
Not quite. McDonald had quietly hatched another of his contingency plans.
Last fall, when he was still hoping the grafted trees would be allowed into France, the Vimy Oaks produced huge quantities of acorns. They rained down faster than squirrels could grab them.
McDonald collected thousands and shipped a few hundred to a nursery near Paris, just in case.
The acorns in France are now sprouting. They aren't big enough to put in the ground yet, but the ground isn't ready. A crew is still searching for unexploded ordnance in the area set aside for the trees — another last-minute complication.
McDonald now hopes to get the landscaping work completed and trees planted by Remembrance Day 2018.
He has to, he said. Leslie Miller, the soldier who collected the original acorns and helped him through difficult times would expect him to finish the job.
What a great project! Repatriate some of the oak trees from their offspring.
Thank you Monty McDonald for your patriotism. I wish you luck to bring back the mighty oak to Vimy ridge. I plan on visiting some day.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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| 9,452
|
Q: angular share data between controllers and do something with that data and show it in page I watched this:
http://www.thinkster.io/pick/9jfpSmbx1j/angularjs-sharing-data-between-controllers
and now trying to adjust the code so I could understand more.
So here is what I made:
<!doctype html>
<html >
<head>
<script src="http://code.angularjs.org/1.2.8/angular.min.js"></script>
<script src="main.js"></script>
</head>
<body>
<div ng-app="myApp">
<div ng-controller="FirstCtrl">
<input type="text" ng-model="data.message">
<h1>{{ data.message }}</h1>
</div>
<div ng-controller="SecondCtrl">
<input type="text" ng-model="data2.length">
<h1>{{ data2.message }}</h1>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
and main.js
var myApp = angular.module('myApp', []);
myApp.factory('Data', function () {
return { message: "I'm data from a service" };
});
/*
This Data service can be injected into each of the controllers as a parameter.
By doing this, we are now attaching the data.model to an app service, which repairs
the binding between the two controller models.
*/
function FirstCtrl($scope, Data) {
$scope.data = Data;
}
function SecondCtrl($scope, Data) {
console.log(Data.message.length);
console.log(Data);
$scope.data = Data;
this.getLength = function() {
console.log('called');
return $scope.data.message.length;
}
var data2 = Data;
data2.length = this.getLength();
$scope.data2 = data2;
//$scope.data.length = Data.message.length;
// $scope.data.message = 'a';
}
And from logs I see that this.getLength is called only once. Why it is not called everytime the data changes? I want to update string lenght in html on every string update update.
Update
Fixed:
var myApp = angular.module('myApp', []);
myApp.factory('Data', function () {
return { message: "I'm data from a service" };
});
/*
This Data service can be injected into each of the controllers as a parameter.
By doing this, we are now attaching the data.model to an app service, which repairs
the binding between the two controller models.
*/
function FirstCtrl($scope, Data) {
$scope.data = Data;
}
function SecondCtrl($scope, Data) {
$scope.data = Data;
$scope.getLength = function() {
return $scope.data.message.length;
}
var data2 = Data;
$scope.data2 = data2;
data2.length = $scope.getLength();
$scope.$watch(function () {
return $scope.data.message;
},
function (newValue, oldValue) {
if(newValue == oldValue)return; // do nothing if old value equals to old one
data2.length = $scope.getLength();
/****/
}, true);
}
A: The data.message model refers to input. Generally when you type something in input field what really changes is data.message. But if you want to fire other logic on change use $watch. (See DOCS HERE)
So add to your code:
$scope.$watch(function () {
return $scope.data.message;
},
function (newValue, oldValue) {
if(newValue == oldValue)return; // do nothing if old value equals to old one
this.getLength(); // I would use $scope.getLength();
/****/
}, true);
|
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| 6,129
|
Q: How to display values using Multiple Join in SQL I have to show the names of each pair of friends, based on the data in the friends table using JOIN.
i have attached the my expected result image below
Here is my code:
CREATE TABLE persons (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
fullname TEXT,
age INTEGER);
INSERT INTO persons (fullname, age) VALUES ("Bobby McBobbyFace", "12");
INSERT INTO persons (fullname, age) VALUES ("Lucy BoBucie", "25");
INSERT INTO persons (fullname, age) VALUES ("Banana FoFanna", "14");
INSERT INTO persons (fullname, age) VALUES ("Shish Kabob", "20");
INSERT INTO persons (fullname, age) VALUES ("Fluffy Sparkles", "8");
CREATE table hobbies (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
person_id INTEGER,
name TEXT);
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (1, "drawing");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (1, "coding");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (2, "dancing");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (2, "coding");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (3, "skating");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (3, "rowing");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (3, "drawing");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (4, "coding");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (4, "dilly-dallying");
INSERT INTO hobbies (person_id, name) VALUES (4, "meowing");
CREATE table friends (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
person1_id INTEGER,
person2_id INTEGER);
INSERT INTO friends (person1_id, person2_id)
VALUES (1, 4);
INSERT INTO friends (person1_id, person2_id)
VALUES (2, 3);
A: So you basically needs an INNER JOIN :
SELECT t.fullname,s.fullname
FROM persons t
INNER JOIN friends f
ON(t.id = f.person1_id)
INNER JOIN persons s
ON(f.person2_id = s.id)
A: MySQL Query
SELECT p1.fullname, p2.fullname
FROM friends f
JOIN persons p1 on f.person1_id = p1.id
JOIN persons p2 on f.person2_id = p2.id
|
{
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| 315
|
Q: Which server configuration should I buy? I'm buying a poweredge T310
Intel® Xeon® X3430, 2.4 GHz, 8M Cache, Turbo,
for memory should I get:
8GB Memory (4x2GB), 1333MHz, Dual Ranked RDIMM
or
16GB Memory (4x4GB), 800MHz, Quad Ranked RDIMM
How would the memory bus speed play a role in this configuration?
A: I cannot urge you more strongly - GET THE X3440 FOR THE EXTRA £40/$WHATEVER!!! - the X3430 is the only bin of that chip that has hyperthreading switched off - it's really worth the extra.
Now your question - get neither the 8GB nor the 16GB options - go for the 12GB - Nehalem's are optimised for blocks of 3 memory modules at a time (i.e 3 x 4GB). This configuration will benefit you way more that actual chip speed.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
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| 169
|
Q: Azure pipeline ndk version error gradle build React Native Android Azure pipeline getting ndk version error while gradle build React Native Android.
*
*What went wrong:
Execution failed for task ':app:stripReleaseDebugSymbols'.
No version of NDK matched the requested version 21.4.7075529. Versions available locally: 23.2.8568313, 24.0.8215888, 25.0.8775105, 25.0.8775105
*
*Try:
Run with --stacktrace option to get the stack trace. Run with --info or --debug option to get more log output. Run with --scan to get full insights.
*Get more help at https://help.gradle.org
BUILD FAILED in 7m 15s
549 actionable tasks: 549 executed
Error: The process '/Users/runner/work/1/s/android/gradlew' failed with exit code 1
at ExecState._setResult (/Users/runner/work/_tasks/Gradle_8d8eebd8-2b94-4c97-85af-839254cc6da4/2.200.2/node_modules/azure-pipelines-task-lib/toolrunner.js:944:25)
at ExecState.CheckComplete (/Users/runner/work/_tasks/Gradle_8d8eebd8-2b94-4c97-85af-839254cc6da4/2.200.2/node_modules/azure-pipelines-task-lib/toolrunner.js:927:18)
at ChildProcess. (/Users/runner/work/_tasks/Gradle_8d8eebd8-2b94-4c97-85af-839254cc6da4/2.200.2/node_modules/azure-pipelines-task-lib/toolrunner.js:840:19)
at ChildProcess.emit (events.js:198:13)
at maybeClose (internal/child_process.js:982:16)
at Socket.stream.socket.on (internal/child_process.js:389:11)
at Socket.emit (events.js:198:13)
at Pipe._handle.close (net.js:607:12)
##[error]Error: The process '/Users/runner/work/1/s/android/gradlew' failed with exit code
here is image of error when pipeline fail
A:
No version of NDK matched the requested version 21.4.7075529. Versions available locally: 23.2.8568313, 24.0.8215888, 25.0.8775105, 25.0.8775105
From the error message, the root cause of this issue is that the Android NDK version 21.4.7075529 doesn't exists on the agent.
Refer to this ticker: Android NDK 21 will be replaced in favor of 25 on August, 1st
We are replacing r21 with r25 as we support two latest LTS versions according to our Software and image guidelines(we support 1 latest non-LTS and 2 latest LTS versions of NDK)
The Android NDK version on Microsoft-hosted agent has been upgraded to version 25.
To solve your issue, you need to add a step to your Pipeline to install the Android NDK version 21.4.7075529 .
Windows
$sdkRoot = "C:\Android\android-sdk"
$sdkManager = "$sdkRoot\cmdline-tools\latest\bin\sdkmanager.bat"
Install-AndroidSDKPackages -AndroidSDKManagerPath $sdkManager `
-AndroidSDKRootPath $sdkRoot `
-AndroidPackages "ndk;21.4.7075529"
macOS
ANDROID_HOME=$HOME/Library/Android/sdk
SDKMANAGER=$ANDROID_HOME/cmdline-tools/latest/bin/sdkmanager
echo y | $SDKMANAGER "ndk;21.4.7075529"
Ubuntu
ANDROID_ROOT=/usr/local/lib/android
ANDROID_SDK_ROOT=${ANDROID_ROOT}/sdk
SDKMANAGER=${ANDROID_SDK_ROOT}/cmdline-tools/latest/bin/sdkmanager
echo "y" | $SDKMANAGER "ndk;21.4.7075529"
A: I have updated the NDK version from 21.4.7075529 to 25.0.8775105.
When we are updating the NDK version, we also need to update our project Gradle version which supports the updated NDK version.
|
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
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| 1,277
|
{"url":"http:\/\/mymathforum.com\/probability-statistics\/338502-how-many-ways-can-9-people-made-into-3-groups-3-a.html","text":"My Math Forum How Many Ways Can 9 People Be Made Into 3 Groups Of 3?\n\n Probability and Statistics Basic Probability and Statistics Math Forum\n\n January 8th, 2017, 07:01 PM #1 Senior Member \u00a0 Joined: Oct 2013 From: New York, USA Posts: 522 Thanks: 74 How Many Ways Can 9 People Be Made Into 3 Groups Of 3? How many ways can 9 people be made into 3 groups of 3 without any two people being in the same group more than once?\n January 8th, 2017, 08:22 PM #2 Senior Member \u00a0 \u00a0 Joined: Feb 2010 Posts: 618 Thanks: 96 I'll take a stab and let others correct me if I'm wrong. I think it is $\\displaystyle \\dfrac{\\binom{9}{3}\\binom{6}{3}}{3!}=280$\nJanuary 9th, 2017, 05:19 AM \u00a0 #3\nSenior Member\n\nJoined: Oct 2013\nFrom: New York, USA\n\nPosts: 522\nThanks: 74\n\nQuote:\n Originally Posted by mrtwhs I'll take a stab and let others correct me if I'm wrong. I think it is $\\displaystyle \\dfrac{\\binom{9}{3}\\binom{6}{3}}{3!}=280$\nThat's not what I'm looking for. Two people cannot be in the same group in multiple arrangements. Each person will be grouped with 2 of the other 8 people, so that limits it to 4 arrangements, but I don't know if the answer is 4 or less than 4.\n\nJanuary 9th, 2017, 03:46 PM \u00a0 #4\nSenior Member\n\nJoined: Sep 2015\nFrom: CA\n\nPosts: 1,238\nThanks: 637\n\nQuote:\n Originally Posted by EvanJ How many ways can 9 people be made into 3 groups of 3 without any two people being in the same group more than once?\nI can make 4\n\n$\\{(1,2,3), (4,5,6), (7,8,9)\\}$\n\n$\\{(1,4,7), (2,5,8 ), (3,6,9)\\}$\n\n$\\{(1,5,9), (2,6,7), (3,4,8 )\\}$\n\n$\\{(1,6,8 ), (2,4,9), (3,5,7)\\}$\n\nsince each member shares exactly 1 group with every other member I don't think it's possible that there are any additional arrangements that can be added.\n\nit's possible that there is another set of 4 arrangements but 4 is going to be the maximum size of any set of valid arrangements.\n\n January 11th, 2017, 04:44 PM #5 Member \u00a0 Joined: Jan 2017 From: California Posts: 62 Thanks: 5 Is there a formula for this?\nJanuary 11th, 2017, 05:36 PM \u00a0 #6\nSenior Member\n\nJoined: Sep 2015\nFrom: CA\n\nPosts: 1,238\nThanks: 637\n\nQuote:\n Originally Posted by dthiaw Is there a formula for this?\nlet $n = \\text{ # of people total}$\n\nlet $m = \\text{ # of people per group}$\n\nand note that $n \\pmod{m} = 0$\n\nI suspect the formula is\n\n$\\text{# arrangements } = \\dfrac{n-1}{m-1}$\n\nJanuary 11th, 2017, 06:56 PM \u00a0 #7\nSenior Member\n\nJoined: Sep 2015\nFrom: CA\n\nPosts: 1,238\nThanks: 637\n\nQuote:\n Originally Posted by romsek let $n = \\text{ # of people total}$ let $m = \\text{ # of people per group}$ and note that $n \\pmod{m} = 0$ I suspect the formula is $\\text{# arrangements } = \\dfrac{n-1}{m-1}$\nnah, this can't be right. I'll keep looking\n\nJanuary 11th, 2017, 06:59 PM \u00a0 #8\nMember\n\nJoined: Jan 2017\nFrom: California\n\nPosts: 62\nThanks: 5\n\nQuote:\n Originally Posted by romsek nah, this can't be right. I'll keep looking\nyeah I bet it involves some computations without replacement\n\n Thread Tools Display Modes Linear Mode\n\n Similar Threads Thread Thread Starter Forum Replies Last Post RedBarchetta Probability and Statistics 8 June 29th, 2014 09:15 PM Sheila496 Abstract Algebra 0 October 20th, 2011 09:45 AM lime Abstract Algebra 3 October 25th, 2010 07:30 AM math92037 Applied Math 3 October 7th, 2009 04:38 PM\n\n Contact - Home - Forums - Cryptocurrency Forum - Top","date":"2017-06-26 15:40:15","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 1, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 0, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.7875305414199829, \"perplexity\": 1825.4897760851563}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": true, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2017-26\/segments\/1498128320823.40\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20170626152050-20170626172050-00513.warc.gz\"}"}
| null | null |
U.S. Solar Installations Increase 10% in Q1: 3 Stocks to Buy
U.S. solar stocks rallied 28.7% through the first quarter of 2019. Favorable state clean energy policy, market dynamics and increasing corporate investments in renewable energy led to a 10% increase in solar installations in the country in the first quarter from the year-ago period.
In particular, the U.S. solar market installed 2.7 gigawatts direct current (GWdc) of solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity, reflecting the strongest Q1 in the industry's history, per the latest Solar Market Insight Report published by Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA). The solar market has recorded a solid 71.8% increase so far this year compared with the S&P 500 composite's rise of 16.5%.
We have briefly mentioned some factors that led the solar industry to deliver such an outperformance and issue optimistic projections.
Factors Driving Solar Installations
Florida played a key role in driving solar installations in the United States. The Sunshine State occupied the top position in solar installations during the first quarter, surpassing California that has been leading the space for the past couple of years. Thanks to Florida's geographical situation, strong resource fundamentals boosted the growth of the solar market in the state. Also, recent policy developments in the state contributed to growth of the solar market. Florida Public Service Commission recently made solar leasing available to companies like Tesla TSLA, which has emerged as a heavyweight solar installer in the nation, after its acquisition of Solar City.
Moreover, plummeting price of solar modules and panels have lowered the cost of producing solar power rapidly over the last decade. This has set the stage for more solar installations in the country. Impressively, the quarter was buoyed by 1.6 GW of utility-scale installations, with new project procurement growing the pipeline to nearly 28 GW.
Will Growth Continue?
Impressive installation trend in the solar market coupled with unexpected rapid growth in Florida and Texas boosted expectations. Wood Mackenzie Power & Renewables now projects more than 13 GW of solar capacity additions in 2019, indicating 25% growth year over year.
Notably, increased solar procurements and shifts in the market have led Wood Mackenzie to increase its forecast for 2019 utility-scale installations by 1.2 gigawatts and by 5.1 gigawatts for the 2019-24 period. Such solid projections should make investors confident about the below mentioned solar stocks' capability to post solid operating results in the upcoming quarters.
Our Choices
With the help of the Zacks Stock Screener, we have identified three solar stocks that possess a favorable Zacks Rank and solid bottom-line growth potential.
JinkoSolar Holding Company Ltd. JKS, a solar panel manufacturer, is expected to record earnings growth of 81.7% year over year in 2019. It currently sports a Zacks Rank #1 (Strong Buy). You can see the complete list of today's Zacks #1 Rank stocks here.
Enphase Energy Inc. ENPH, a solar inverter producer, expects its earnings to increase a whopping 420% year over year in 2019. It currently carries a Zacks Rank #2 (Buy).
Azure Power Global Ltd AZRE, a solar power developer, expects earnings to increase a solid 123.1% year over year in fiscal 2020. It currently carries a Zacks Rank #2.
Looking for Stocks with Skyrocketing Upside?
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{"url":"http:\/\/mathoverflow.net\/revisions\/63096\/list","text":"2 fixed typo\n\n1\n\nExtending maps on Riemman surfaces\n\nSuppose you have a map $g:\\Sigma \\rightarrow G$ from a Riemann surface $\\Sigma$ to a compact Lie group $G$. What is the obstruction to finding a $3$-manifold $W$, such that $\\partial W = \\Sigma$, and an extension of $g$ to a map $\\tilde{g}:W\\rightarrow G$? In the paper I'm reading they say it lies in $H_2(G,\\mathbb{Z})$. Why is this true? I mean, the obstruction class to extending $g$ to $\\tilde{g}$ is an element in $H^3(W,\\pi_2(G))$, which vanishes since $\\pi_2(G)=0$ for compact $G$, right? So does this mean that the obstruction to finding a $3$-manifold $W$ with boundary $\\Sigma$ lies in $H_2(G,\\mathbb{Z})$? By the way, the paper I'm referring is here http:\/\/projecteuclid.org\/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&handle=euclid.cmp\/1104180750 , see section 4.1 (page 405). Thanks.","date":"2013-05-19 15:30:37","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 1, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 0, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.9419443607330322, \"perplexity\": 89.57345919043837}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": false, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 5, \"enable\": false}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2013-20\/segments\/1368697745221\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20130516094905-00061-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz\"}"}
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\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:introd}
Phononic materials have been attracting much attention in the materials physics and engineering communities because of their rich scope of acoustic and elastodynamic properties \cite{MeadJSV1996,HusseinAMR2014,Deymier2013,Khelif2015,Laude2015}. There are two classes of phononic materials: phononic crystals \cite{SigalasJSV1992,KushwahaPRL1993} and locally resonant acoustic/elastic metamaterials \cite{LiuScience2000}. Phononic crystals resemble atomic-scale crystals in that they consist of repeated units in space. The dispersion curves for elastic wave propagation in a phononic crystal, or a periodic material in general, appear in bands and in some cases band gaps may arise. Bragg scattering is the prime band-gap opening mechanism in a phononic crystal. Metamaterials are usually also periodic, although not by necessity. The prefix \it{meta-}\rm ~(meaning ``beyond") is associated with the notion that through deliberate design of the internal structure, these materials manifest unusual properties that exceed those of conventional composites and phononic crystals. In the context of wave propagation, local resonances are generally the key feature in metamaterials leading to salient properties such as subwavelength band gaps \cite{LiuPRB2002,WangPRL2004,PennecPRB2008,WuAPL2008}, negative effective material properties \cite{LiPRE2004,DingPRL2007,AoWRCM2010,LiuAPL2011}, enhanced dissipation \cite{HusseinJSV2013,AntoniadisJSV2015,Chen_Sun_2016}, and thermal conductivity reduction \cite{DavisHusseinPRL2014}, among others.\\
\indent At present, much of the phenomena of wave propagation in phononic materials is understood from the perspective of conservative linear elasticity. Realizing their full potential, however, requires an account of energy dissipation from damping. Already, metamaterials possessing internal resonating bodies have been shown to demonstrate enhanced dissipation under certain conditions (i.e., beyond which may be attributed to the sum of the individual material constituents) \cite{HusseinJSV2013,AntoniadisJSV2015,Chen_Sun_2016}. This property is beneficial where enhanced dissipation in a structure is needed but without appearing at the expense of stiffness. There are numerous avenues for the treatment of damping in material or structural models, including those representing phononic materials. A common approach is to consider viscous damping, for which a simple version is known as Rayleigh \cite{Rayleigh1877}, or proportional, damping$-$whereby the matrix of damping coefficients is assumed to be proportional to the mass and/or stiffness matrices \cite{CaugheyJAM1965,AdhikariJSV2006,AdhikariJVA2009}. If the proportionality condition is not met, then the model is described as \it{generally damped}\rm ~\cite{WoodhouseJSV1998,AdhikariJSV2001}. Experiments are used to determine an appropriate damping model for a given material or structure \cite{PhaniJSV2007}.\\
\indent Beyond the choice of the damping model, an important consideration is whether the frequency or the wavenumber is selected to be real and, consequently, which is permitted to be complex. There are two classes of problems dealing with damped phononic materials. In one class, the frequencies are assumed \it{a priori}\rm ~to be real thus allowing the effects of damping to manifest only in the form of complex wavenumbers. Physically, this represents a medium experiencing wave propagation due to a sustained driving frequency and dissipation taking effect in the form of spatial attenuation only. This approach follows a $\kappa=\kappa(\omega)$ formulation (where $\kappa$ and $\omega$ denote wavenumber and frequency, respectively) resulting from either a linear \cite{TassillyIJES1987,LangleyJSV1994,LaudePRB2009,RomeroNJP2010,MoiseyenkoPRB2011,AndreassenJVA2013} or a quadratic \cite{MeadJSV1973,FarzbodJVA2011,ColletIJSS2011} eigenvalue problem (EVP). In the other class, the frequencies are permitted to be complex thus allowing dissipation to take effect in the form of temporal attenuation. Physically, this represents a medium admitting free dissipative wave motion, e.g., due to impulse loading. Here, a $\omega=\omega(\kappa)$ formulation leading to a linear EVP is the common route (in some cases with the aid of a state-space transformation); see Refs.~\cite{MukherjeeCS1975,SprikSSC1998,HusseinPRB2009,HusseinJAP2010,PhaniJVA2013,AndreassenJVA2013}. \\
\indent In the `driven waves' path, a real frequency is prescribed and the underlying EVP is solved for a corresponding pair of real and imaginary wavenumbers, representing propagation and attenuation constants, respectively. All modes are described by complex wavenumbers due to the dissipation. In the `free waves' path, on the other hand, a real wavenumber is specified, and complex frequencies emerge as the solution (the real and imaginary parts respectively provide the loss factor and the frequency for each mode). Because of the common association of the driven waves problem to an EVP for which the frequency is the independent variable and, in contrast, the free waves problem to an EVP for which the wavenumber is the independent variable, it is often viewed that the two only available options are: real frequencies and complex wavenumbers versus real wavenumbers and complex frequencies~\cite{Achenbach1999,MaceJSV2008,ManconiJSV2010}. However, if the medium permits spatial attenuation in its undamped state$-$which is the case for phononic materials within band-gap frequencies$-$then, in principle, there should be an imaginary wavenumber component (in addition to the real wavenumber component) even when the frequencies are complex. This, in fact, represents a more complete picture of the dispersion curves for damped free wave motion in media that contain inherent mechanisms for spatial attenuation, such as Bragg scattering and local resonance. Since this scenario pertains only to free waves, one expects to see complex frequencies for bands admitting only spatial propagation as well as bands admitting evanescent waves (with the real part of the wavenumber being either zero or $\pi$ divided by the lattice spacing$-$the two values that represent the limits of the irreducible Brillouin zone). For a proportionally damped problem, a solution that permits both the frequencies and wavenumbers to be complex has been obtained using the transfer matrix method which gives a $\kappa=\kappa(\omega)$ linear EVP~\cite{HusseinHB2013}. For a generally damped problem, however, an all-complex
solution cannot be obtained from a linear EVP, nor from directly solving a quadratic EVP.\\
\indent In this paper, we consider damped free motion in 1D systems and provide an algorithm$-$based on a quadratic EVP$-$that provides the dispersion curves and damping ratio constants for both spatially propagating and attenuating waves. As an example, we focus on a viscously damped mass-in-mass chain representing a locally resonant acoustic/elastic metamaterial~\cite{HuangIJES2009}. With a complex wavenumbers-complex frequencies band structure at hand, we also compute a frequency-dependent effective mass. In the absence of dissipation, this effective mass is real and negative in the region of the band gap. As damping alters the dispersion characteristics, we observe the effective mass to transition to complex form and its region of negativity diminishes as the intensity of the damping increases.\\
\section{Theory: Dispersion Relations}
We consider a nested 1D lumped parameter mass-spring-dashpot model similar to what is investigated in Ref.~\cite{HuangIJES2009}. Infinite in extent, a model of a locally resonant acoustic/elastic metamaterial is constructed by appending copies \it{ad infinitum}\rm~of the unit cell depicted in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_01_Model}a along the line of motion. Prior to application of boundary conditions, there are three degrees of freedom (DOF) in this unit cell with $u_\mathrm{L}$, $u_1$, and $u_2$ denoting the displacement of the left and right cell boundaries and an internal DOF, respectively. Each of these have an associated mass: $m_\mathrm{L}=0$, $m_1$, and $m_2$. On the boundaries, the forces $f_\mathrm{L}$ and $f_1$ apply. Springs with stiffness $k$ and dashpots with viscosity $c$ connect the DOFs.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale= 0.8]{FIG_01_Model.pdf}
\caption{One-dimensional, discrete unit cell for a periodic material with lattice spacing $a$: (a) 2-DOF acoustic/elastic metamaterial; (b) equivalent 1-DOF material}
\label{fig:FIG_01_Model}
\end{figure}
Balancing all dynamic forces, the motion of each DOF in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_01_Model}a is described by the following equations:
\begin{subequations}
\label{eq:eom_nodal}
\begin{align}
&m_1\ddot{u}_1+(c_1+c_2)\dot{u}_1-c_2\dot{u}_2-c_1\dot{u}_\mathrm{L}+(k_1+k_2)u_1-k_2u_2-k_1u_\mathrm{L}=f_1,\\
&m_2\ddot{u}_2-c_2(\dot{u}_1-\dot{u}_2)-k_2(u_1-u_2)=0,\\
&m_\mathrm{L}\ddot{u}_\mathrm{L}-c_1(\dot{u}_1-\dot{u}_\mathrm{L})-k_1(u_1-u_\mathrm{L})=f_\mathrm{L}.
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
Together, Eqs. \eqref{eq:eom_nodal} may be assembled into a system of equations
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eom_mat_1}
\mathbf{M}\ddot{\mathbf{u}}+\mathbf{C}\dot{\mathbf{u}}+\mathbf{K}\mathbf{u}=\mathbf{f},
\end{equation}
where $\mathbf{M}$, $\mathbf{C}$, and $\mathbf{K}$ are the assembled mass, damping, and stiffness matrices, respectively. Collecting and arranging the nodal displacements $\mathbf{u}^\mathrm{T}=[u_1\;\;u_2\;\;u_\mathrm{L}]$ and forces $\mathbf{f}^\mathrm{T}=[f_1\;\;0\;\;f_\mathrm{L}]$, allows the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to be defined as follows:
\begin{subequations}
\begin{align}
&\mathbf{M}=m_2\mathbf{M}_\mathrm{r}=m_2
\begin{bmatrix}
1/r_\mathrm{m} & 0 & 0\\
0 & 1 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 0
\end{bmatrix},\\
&\mathbf{C}=c_2\mathbf{C}_\mathrm{r}=c_2
\begin{bmatrix}
1/r_\mathrm{c}+1 & -1 & -1/r_\mathrm{c}\\
-1 & 1 & 0\\
-1/r_\mathrm{c} & 0 & 1/r_\mathrm{c}
\end{bmatrix},\\
&\mathbf{K}=k_2\mathbf{K}_\mathrm{r}=k_2
\begin{bmatrix}
1/r_\mathrm{k}+1 & -1 & -1/r_\mathrm{k}\\
-1 & 1 & 0\\
-1/r_\mathrm{k} & 0 & 1/r_\mathrm{k}
\end{bmatrix},
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
where we utilize the ratios $r_\mathrm{m}=m_2/m_1$, $r_\mathrm{c}=c_2/c_1$, and $r_\mathrm{k}=k_2/k_1$ to write the matrices in terms of the resonator parameters.
Dividing by $m_2$, the system in Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_mat_1} is written as
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eom_mat_2}
\mathbf{M}_\mathrm{r}\ddot{\mathbf{u}}+\beta\mathbf{C}_\mathrm{r}\dot{\mathbf{u}}+\omega_0^2\mathbf{K}_\mathrm{r}\mathbf{u}=\mathbf{f}/m_2,
\end{equation}
where $\beta=c_2/m_2$ is a measure of damping intensity (which varies with $c_2$,) and $\omega_0^2=k_2/m_2$ is the resonance frequency.
In the periodic material, $u_\mathrm{L}$ is tied to $u_1$ of the previous unit cell; likewise, $u_1$ is tied to $u_\mathrm{L}$ of the subsequent unit cell. For the material to support Bloch wave propagation, the displacements at the boundaries are related according to $u_\mathrm{L}=\mathrm{e}^{-\mathrm{i}\kappa{a}}u_1$. If we define the essential set of displacements as $\bar{\mathbf{u}}^\mathrm{T}=[\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{b}\;\;\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{i}]$ ($\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{b}$ gathers the essential boundary displacements and $\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{i}$ collects all the internal displacements), then the complete set of displacements may be written in terms of $\bar{\mathbf{u}}$ and the translational operator $\mathbf{T}$ as follows:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:bloch_boundaries}
\mathbf{u}=\mathbf{T}\bar{\mathbf{u}}.
\end{equation}
Given $\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{b}=u_1$ and $\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{i}=u_2$,
\begin{equation}
\mathbf{T}=
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0\\
0 & 1\\
\gamma & 0
\end{bmatrix}, \hspace{2mm} \gamma=\mathrm{e}^{-\mathrm{i}\kappa{a}}.
\end{equation}
The Bloch boundary condition is applied via the matrix $\mathbf{T}$.
Substituting Eq. \eqref{eq:bloch_boundaries} into Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_mat_2} and premultiplying by $\mathbf{T}^*$ (the conjugate transpose of $\mathbf{T}$), we arrive at
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eom_mat_3}
\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}\ddot{\bar{\mathbf{u}}}+\beta\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}\dot{\bar{\mathbf{u}}}+\omega_0^2\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}\bar{\mathbf{u}}=\mathbf{0},
\end{equation}
where
\begin{subequations}
\label{eq:mat_def}
\begin{align}
&\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}=\mathbf{T}^*\mathbf{M}_\mathrm{r}\mathbf{T},\\
&\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}=\mathbf{T}^*\mathbf{C}_\mathrm{r}\mathbf{T},\\
&\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}=\mathbf{T}^*\mathbf{K}_\mathrm{r}\mathbf{T}.
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
Equilibrium in the region between unit cells leads to $\mathbf{T}^*\mathbf{f}=\mathbf{0}$ \cite{FarzbodJVA2011propagation}. For general wave motion, a displacement solution takes the form $\bar{\mathbf{u}}=\tilde{\mathbf{u}}\mathrm{e}^{\lambda{t}}$. For driven waves, $\lambda=-\mathrm{i}\omega$, while for free waves, $\lambda$ is generally complex and yet to be determined. Applying this solution form to Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_mat_3} yields
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eom_mat_4}
(\lambda^2\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}+\lambda\beta\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}+\omega_0^2\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r})\tilde{\mathbf{u}}=\mathbf{0},
\end{equation}
which, upon simplification, gives the following quadratic matrix relationship for a non-trivial solution:
\begin{equation}
\lambda^2\mathbf{A}+\lambda\mathbf{B}+\mathbf{I}=\mathbf{0},
\end{equation}
where $\mathbf{A}={1/\omega_0^2}\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}^{-1}\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}$ and $\mathbf{B}={\beta/\omega_0^2}\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}^{-1}\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}$. This formulation may proceed along two paths resulting in either generalized frequency solutions, $\lambda(\kappa)$, or generalized wavenumber solutions, $\kappa(\lambda)$.
\subsection{Frequency Solutions from Linear Eigenvalue Problem} \label{sec:solution_freq}
In the case of a prescribed, real-valued wavenumber, the matrices in Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_mat_3} are written explicitly as follows:
\begin{subequations}
\label{eq:mat_def_freq}
\begin{align}
&\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}=
\begin{bmatrix}
1/r_\mathrm{m} & 0\\
0 & 1
\end{bmatrix},\\
&\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}=
\begin{bmatrix}
2(1-\cos\kappa{a})/r_\mathrm{c}+1 & -1\\
-1 & 1
\end{bmatrix}, \label{eq:mat_def_freq_b}\\
&\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}=
\begin{bmatrix}
2(1-\cos\kappa{a})/r_\mathrm{k}+1 & -1\\
-1 & 1
\end{bmatrix}. \label{eq:mat_def_freq_c}
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
In general, $\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}$ is not simultaneously diagonalizable with $\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}$ and/or $\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}$ \cite{Rayleigh1877} except if specific conditions are met to allow for a Rayleigh damping model \cite{CaugheyJAM1965,AdhikariJSV2006,AdhikariJVA2009}. Reference~\cite{HusseinPRB2009} has conveniently considered the Rayleigh damping scenario and demonstrated that dissipation, especially when intense, can generate unique phenomena in the band structure such as branch overtaking and wavenumber cut-offs and cut-ons. Additional analysis on the effects of damping on the band structure, including in generally damped models, is offered in Ref.~\cite{PhaniJVA2013}. \\
\indent Presently, Eq.~\eqref{eq:eom_mat_4} represents a nonlinear eigenvalue problem. In order to recover a linear form, we first apply a state-space transformation to Eq.~\eqref{eq:eom_mat_3} \cite{HusseinJAP2010}
\begin{equation}
\begin{bmatrix}
\mathbf{0} & \bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}\\
\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r} & \beta\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}
\end{bmatrix}\dot{\bar{\mathbf{y}}}+
\begin{bmatrix}
-\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r} & \mathbf{0}\\
\mathbf{0} & \omega_0^2\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}
\end{bmatrix}\bar{\mathbf{y}}=\mathbf{0},
\end{equation}
where $\bar{\mathbf{y}}^\mathrm{T}=[\dot{\bar{\mathbf{u}}}\;\;\bar{\mathbf{u}}]$. Assuming a state-space solution $\mathbf{y}=\tilde{\mathbf{y}}\mathrm{e}^{\lambda{t}}$, where $\tilde{\mathbf{y}}$ is a complex wave amplitude vector, we formulate the following generalized linear eigenvalue problem in $\lambda$:
\begin{equation}\left(
\begin{bmatrix}
\mathbf{0} & \bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r}\\
\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r} & \beta\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}
\end{bmatrix}\lambda+
\begin{bmatrix}
-\bar{\mathbf{M}}_\mathrm{r} & \mathbf{0}\\
\mathbf{0} & \omega_0^2\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}
\end{bmatrix}\right)\tilde{\mathbf{y}}=\mathbf{0}.
\end{equation}
The associated characteristic equation takes the form
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:char_eq_freq}
\lambda^4+a\lambda^3+b\lambda^2+c\lambda+d=0,
\end{equation}
where
\begin{subequations}
\begin{align}
&a=\frac{\beta[r_\mathrm{c}(1+r_\mathrm{m})+2r_\mathrm{m}(1-\cos\kappa{a})]}{r_\mathrm{c}},\\
&b=\frac{r_\mathrm{c}r_\mathrm{k}\omega_0^2(1+r_\mathrm{m})+2r_\mathrm{m}(1-\cos\kappa{a})(r_\mathrm{k}\beta^2+r_\mathrm{c}\omega_0^2)}{r_\mathrm{c}r_\mathrm{k}},\\
&c=\frac{2r_\mathrm{m}\beta\omega_0^2(r_\mathrm{c}+r_\mathrm{k})(1-\cos\kappa{a})}{r_\mathrm{c}r_\mathrm{k}},\\
&d=\frac{2r_\mathrm{m}\omega_0^4(1-\cos\kappa{a})}{r_\mathrm{k}}.
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
In general, the solutions $s=1,n$ (where $n$ is equal to the number of DOF) to Eq.~\eqref{eq:char_eq_freq} are complex and take the form
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:freq_cplx}
\lambda_s(\kappa)=-\xi_s(\kappa)\omega_{\mathrm{r},s}(\kappa)\pm\mathrm{i}\omega_{\mathrm{d},s}(\kappa).
\end{equation}
\noindent Specifically, $\omega_\mathrm{d}(\kappa)$ is the damped wave frequency and $\xi(\kappa)\omega_\mathrm{r}(\kappa)$ is the temporal rate of decay of the wave amplitude. The quantity $\xi(\kappa)$ is the dimensionless damping ratio (loss factor) and $\omega_\mathrm{r}(\kappa)$ is referred to as the ``resonant frequency". Explicitly, retaining the solutions for which $\mathrm{Im}[\lambda_s]\geq0$, the damped frequency relation for branch $s$ is
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:damped_freq}
\omega_{\mathrm{d},s}(\kappa)=\mathrm{Im}[\lambda_s(\kappa)],
\end{equation}
and the complementary wavenumber-dependent damping ratio relation is
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:damping_ratio}
\xi_s(\kappa)=-\frac{\mathrm{Re}[\lambda_s(\kappa)]}{|\lambda_s(\kappa)|}.
\end{equation}
\subsection{Wavenumber Solutions from Quadratic Eigenvalue Problem} \label{sec:solution_wave}
The preceding linear eigenvalue formulation is applicable only for prescribed, real-valued wavenumbers, $\kappa=\kappa_\mathrm{R}$. In general, however, the wavenumber is complex regardless if we are considering driven waves or free waves, as explained in Section~\ref{sec:introd}. The wavenumber in complex form is expressed as $\kappa=\kappa_\mathrm{R}+\mathrm{i}\kappa_\mathrm{I}$, with $\kappa_\mathrm{R}$ representing the wave spatial oscillation and $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ representing the spatial amplitude decay. In order to determine these quantities for a wave of a given frequency, $\lambda$, the problem must be reformulated to deliver wavenumber solutions in exchange.
In Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_mat_4}, we leave the value of the wavenumber (and, therefore, $\gamma$) to be determined. Taking the determinate of the coefficient matrix in Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_mat_4}, the characteristic equation in $\gamma$ takes the following quadratic form:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:char_eq_wave}
\hat{A}\gamma^2+\hat{B}\gamma+1=0,
\end{equation}
where $\hat{A}=1$, $\hat{B}=\hat{B}_1/\hat{B}_2$ and
\begin{subequations}
\begin{align}
\begin{split}
\hat{B_1}&=\frac{\lambda^4}{r_\mathrm{m}}+\frac{(2+r_\mathrm{c})r_\mathrm{m}+r_\mathrm{c}}{r_\mathrm{m}r_\mathrm{c}}\beta\lambda^3+\left(2\frac{\beta^2}{r_\mathrm{c}}+\frac{(2+r_\mathrm{k})r_\mathrm{m}+r_\mathrm{k}}{r_\mathrm{m}r_\mathrm{k}}\omega_0^2\right)\lambda^2\\
&\quad+\frac{2(r_\mathrm{c}+r_\mathrm{k})\beta\omega_0^2}{r_\mathrm{c}r_\mathrm{k}}\lambda+2\frac{\omega_0^4}{r_\mathrm{k}},
\end{split} \\
\hat{B_2}&=-\frac{[\lambda(\beta+\lambda)+\omega_0^2](r_\mathrm{k}\beta\lambda+r_\mathrm{c}\omega_0^2)}{r_\mathrm{c}r_\mathrm{k}}.
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
Upon solving for $\gamma$, $\kappa_\mathrm{R}$ and $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ are extracted as follows:
\begin{subequations}
\label{eq:wavenumber}
\begin{align}
\kappa_\mathrm{R}=\frac{1}{a}|\mathrm{Re}[\mathrm{i\cdot ln}\gamma]|,\\
\kappa_\mathrm{I}=\frac{1}{a}|\mathrm{Im}[\mathrm{i\cdot ln}\gamma]|.
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
In the absence of energy dissipation, $\lambda=\mathrm{i}\omega$, where $\omega$ is a real number representing the wave frequency, and $\kappa$ is obtained directly by solving Eq.~\eqref{eq:char_eq_wave} for a given value of $\omega$. In the presence of energy dissipation, $\kappa$ is obtained also directly by solving Eq.~\eqref{eq:char_eq_wave} for waves with a prescribed frequency, $\omega$, i.e., driven waves. However, for free waves, energy dissipation results in the frequency being complex, as is the wavenumber, as discussed above. Thus the frequencies take the form $\lambda=-\xi\omega_\mathrm{r}+\mathrm{i}\omega_\mathrm{d}$.
From earlier work on viscous problems, e.g.,~\cite{HusseinJAP2010}, we understand that damped, free wave propagation produces two band diagrams representing the real and imaginary components of the frequency, respectively. Additionally, for locally resonant metamaterials, each free waves band diagram can be divided into band segments featuring only propagating waves (i.e., purely real wavenumbers) and band segments featuring evanescent waves. In the latter case, there are two possible subsegments: one with complex wavenumbers and one with purely imaginary wavenumbers, both of which take place only within a band gap. In a subsegment where the wavenumber is complex, the real part is equal to $\pi/a$. Thus a band gap bounded by pass bands from the bottom and the top has a subsegment where $\kappa_\mathrm{R}=0$ and a subsegment where $\kappa_\mathrm{R}=\pi/a$, as illustrated in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_02_Resonance_Gap}b. Following the state-space $\omega=\omega(\kappa)$ formulation in Sec.~\ref{sec:solution_freq}, the propagating segments are readily obtained~\cite{HusseinJAP2010}. However, a complete solution featuring all available imaginary wavenumbers is not possible with this formulation.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale= 0.8]{FIG_02_Resonance_Gap.pdf}
\caption{Undamped band structure of the locally resonant metamaterial of Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_01_Model}a. (a) Uppermost branch is obtained by a standard $\omega=\omega(\kappa)$ formulation as well as by the proposed algorithm, thus providing a verification on the accuracy of the algorithm. (b) Illustration of wavenumber subsegments inside the band gap. Separated by an anti-resonance frequency, the lower subsegment has $\kappa_\mathrm{R}=\pi/a$ and the upper subsegment has $\kappa_\mathrm{R}=0$.}
\label{fig:FIG_02_Resonance_Gap}
\end{figure}
We approach this problem also by using Eq.~\eqref{eq:char_eq_wave}. However, a unique combination of the real and imaginary components of $\lambda$ does not exist without constraints. Following from the above discussion, a free wave does not allow any propagating component (other than $\kappa_\mathrm{R}=\pi/a$) to exist inside a band gap. Thus a damped, free wave at a particular frequency is either outside a band gap and is purely propagating or inside a band gap and is evanescent. Based on these characteristics, we develop an algorithm to find the ($\xi,\omega_\mathrm{d}$) pair that satisfies Eq.~\eqref{eq:char_eq_wave} with $\kappa_\mathrm{I}>0$ which gives us the attenuation constant inside band gaps. The propagating portion of the band structure on the other hand is easily determined from Eqs.~\eqref{eq:damped_freq} and \eqref{eq:damping_ratio}. Nevertheless, the algorithm may be readily modified to determine the propagating part of the band structure as well. Although this procedure is developed following a quadratic eigenvalue formulation, a similar algorithm based on a linear formulation is a subject for future research.
\\\\
\textbf{Algorithm for all-complex band structure for free waves:}\\
\it{This algorithm is specific to the evanescent part of the band structure}.\rm
\begin{enumerate}
\item Set $\beta>0$.
\item Determine $\lambda_\mathrm{I}(\kappa)=\mathrm{Im}[\lambda(\kappa)]$ and $\lambda_\mathrm{R}(\kappa)=-\mathrm{Re}[\lambda(\kappa)]$ following the method in Sec. \ref{sec:solution_freq} for $\kappa=\kappa_\mathrm{R}$.
\item Define a two-dimensional search space $\lambda_\mathrm{I}\textrm{-}\lambda_\mathrm{R}$ corresponding to the gap regions in the $\lambda_\mathrm{I}(\kappa)$ plot.
\item Discretize the $\lambda_\mathrm{I}\textrm{-}\lambda_\mathrm{R}$ domain into a grid of points ($\lambda_{\mathrm{I},i},\lambda_{\mathrm{R},j}$).
\item For each $\lambda_{i,j}=-\lambda_{\mathrm{R},j}+\mathrm{i}\lambda_{\mathrm{I},i}$, calculate $\kappa_{\mathrm{I},i,j}$ following the method in Sec. \ref{sec:solution_wave}.
\item Set a target value for $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ (maintaining that $\kappa_\mathrm{I}>0$) and a target $\kappa_\mathrm{R}=0,\pi$.
\item Of the $\lambda_{i,j}$ that produce $\kappa_{\mathrm{I},i,j}$ within tolerance of the target $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$, retain the one or more $\lambda_{i,j}$ that correspond to $\kappa_{\mathrm{R},i,j}$ closest to the target $\kappa_\mathrm{R}$.
\item Extract $\omega_{\mathrm{d},{i,j}}$ and $\xi_{i,j}$ from the retained $\lambda_{i,j}$ using Eqs. \eqref{eq:damped_freq} and \eqref{eq:damping_ratio}, respectively.
\item Repeat steps 6--8 for different target $\kappa_\mathrm{I}>0$ until the evanescent band structure is constructed.\\
\end{enumerate}
The outcome of the above algorithm is an approximation of the evanescent frequencies and the damping ratios for a particular damping intensity. In addition to setting up a finer grid over the $\lambda_\mathrm{R}\textrm{-}\omega_\mathrm{d}$ domain for a better approximation of $\lambda_{i,j}$, a more clear picture of the evanescent band structure obviously results from decreasing the separation between subsequent target $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ values.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale= 0.8]{FIG_03_Loops.pdf}
\caption{Demonstration of all-complex band-structure calculation algorithm. (a) For a $\beta\neq0$ value, a $\lambda_\mathrm{I}\text{-}\lambda_\mathrm{R}$ search space is defined corresponding to the gap regions seen in $\lambda_\mathrm{I}$ following Eq. \eqref{eq:freq_cplx} (Steps 1--3). After discretizing the 2D search space, Eq. \eqref{eq:wavenumber} is used to determine the set of $\lambda_{i,j}$ giving approximations (within a preset set tolerance threshold) to the target $\kappa_\mathrm{I}a=0.19$ (red) (Steps 4-6). Of these, the one $\lambda_{i,j}$ that best approximates the target $\kappa_\mathrm{R}a\approx0$ (blue) is taken as the solution from which $\omega_{\mathrm{d},{i,j}}$ and $\xi_{i,j}$ are extracted (Steps 7 and 8). (b) Demonstration of the same procedure in the corresponding $\xi\textrm{-}\omega_\mathrm{d}$ domain.}
\label{fig:FIG_03_Loops}
\end{figure}
Figure~\ref{fig:FIG_03_Loops} gives a visual example of an application of the algorithm for a specific set of material parameters ($r_\mathrm{m}=9$, $r_\mathrm{c}=1$, $r_\mathrm{k}=1/10$, $\omega_0=149.07$ rad/s and $\beta/\omega_0=0.2)$. Shown later in Figs.~\ref{fig:FIG_04_Dispersion}b and \ref{fig:FIG_04_Dispersion}c are the band-gap ranges used to bound the $\lambda_\mathrm{I}\text{-}\lambda_\mathrm{R}$ domain for this example. In the closed, discretized $\lambda_\mathrm{R}\textrm{-}\lambda_\mathrm{I}$ domain of Figure \ref{fig:FIG_03_Loops}a,
we isolate the set of points that satisfy, separately, the conditions (targets) $\kappa_\mathrm{I}a=0.19$ and $\kappa_\mathrm{R}a\approx0$. At the intersection of the $\kappa_\mathrm{I}a=0.19$ and $\kappa_\mathrm{R}a\approx0$ loci is the $\lambda_{i,j}$ value which is retained as an approximate solution. The intersection moves along the $\kappa_\mathrm{R}a\approx0$ curve for each new target $\kappa_\mathrm{I}a$, generating new $\lambda_{i,j}$ approximations which ultimately construct the evanescent frequency and damping ratio band diagrams over the range of the targeted $\kappa_{\mathrm{I}}$ values. More than one physical solution may exist for a given $\kappa_{\mathrm{I}}$. To validate the algorithm, we examine the $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ values corresponding to the uppermost band gap, which for an undamped system is practically unbounded (see Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_02_Resonance_Gap}a). This upper branch is unique in that it may be obtained by both the state-space $\omega=\omega(\kappa)$ formulation given in Sec.~\ref{sec:solution_freq} (as demonstrated in Ref.~~\cite{HusseinJAP2010}) as well as by the algorithm. Both independent routes yield the same $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ values for any level of damping intensity.
\section{Theory: Equivalent Mass Model}
Figure \ref{fig:FIG_01_Model}b shows the equivalent lattice model, which we require to exhibit the same dynamic behavior as the original nested-mass model. The equivalent lattice model has the same construction as the original metamaterial (i.e., $k_1$ and $c_1$ are the same) except the motion of the internal resonator is considered unobservable, although its influence is accounted for by $m_\mathrm{e}$, the effective mass. The value $m_\mathrm{e}$ varies with frequency, satisfying its own dynamic equilibrium, and concurrently matching the complex frequency of the original mass-in-mass metamaterial. This concept was also applied in Ref.~\cite{MiltonPRSA2007} where a rigid bar conceal periodically distributed internal resonators. Expectedly, at low frequencies, the value of $m_\mathrm{e}$ converges to the static value, $m_\mathrm{st}=m_1+m_2$. The terms ``static" and ``nominal" are used to indicate values attained in the long-wavelength limit.
The equation of motion for each degree of freedom in the equivalent lattice model (Fig. \ref{fig:FIG_01_Model}b) is given by:
\begin{subequations}
\label{eq:eom_nodal_equiv}
\begin{align}
&m_\mathrm{e}\ddot{u}_\mathrm{e}+c_1(\dot{u}_\mathrm{e}-\dot{u}_\mathrm{L})+k_1(u_\mathrm{e}-u_\mathrm{L})=f_\mathrm{e},\\
&m_\mathrm{L}\ddot{u}_\mathrm{L}+c_1(\dot{u}_\mathrm{L}-\dot{u}_\mathrm{e})+k_1(u_\mathrm{L}-u_\mathrm{e})=f_\mathrm{L}.
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
Assembling Eqs. \eqref{eq:eom_nodal_equiv} into a system of equations as in Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_mat_1}, the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices are defined as follows:
\begin{subequations}
\begin{align}
&\mathbf{M}=
\begin{bmatrix}
m_\mathrm{e} & 0\\
0 & 0
\end{bmatrix},\\
&\mathbf{C}=\frac{c_2}{r_\mathrm{c}}
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & -1\\
-1 & 1
\end{bmatrix},\\
&\mathbf{K}=\frac{k_2}{r_\mathrm{k}}
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & -1\\
-1 & 1
\end{bmatrix},
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
with the nodal displacements and forces organized as $\mathbf{u}^\mathrm{T}=[u_\mathrm{e}\;\;u_\mathrm{L}]$ and $\mathbf{f}^\mathrm{T}=[f_\mathrm{e}\;\;f_\mathrm{L}]$, respectively. The essential set of displacements is simply $\bar{u}=u_\mathrm{e}$. Assuming a real-valued wavenumber, we apply the Bloch boundary conditions through $\mathbf{T}^\mathrm{T}=[1\;\;\gamma]$. This leads to
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eom_equiv_1}
\frac{(1+r_\mathrm{m})m_\mathrm{r}}{r_\mathrm{m}}\ddot{u}_\mathrm{e}+2(1-\cos\kappa{a})\left(\frac{\beta}{r_\mathrm{c}}\dot{u}_\mathrm{e}+\frac{\omega_0^2}{r_\mathrm{k}}u_\mathrm{e}\right)=0,
\end{equation}
in which the effective mass ratio has been normalized by the static mass, $m_\mathrm{r}=m_\mathrm{e}/m_\mathrm{st}$, and the previously defined ratios $r_\mathrm{m}$, $r_\mathrm{c}$, $r_\mathrm{k}$, $\beta$, and $\omega_0^2$ have been taken advantage of. Applying the harmonic displacement solution $u_\mathrm{e}=\tilde{u}_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}^{\lambda{t}}$, Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_equiv_1} gives
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eom_equiv_2}
\frac{(1+r_\mathrm{m})m_\mathrm{r}}{r_\mathrm{m}}\lambda^2+2\left(\frac{\beta}{r_\mathrm{c}}\lambda+\frac{\omega_0^2}{r_\mathrm{k}}\right)(1-\cos\kappa{a})=0,
\end{equation}
however, in preparation for substitution, Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_equiv_2} is algebraically manipulated into the following form:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eom_equiv_3}
-\frac{(1+r_\mathrm{m})m_\mathrm{r}}{\left(\frac{\beta}{r_\mathrm{c}}\lambda+\frac{\omega_0^2}{r_\mathrm{k}}\right)r_\mathrm{m}}\lambda^2=2(1-\cos\kappa{a}).
\end{equation}
Now, we tie the dynamic characteristics of the equivalent model to the original metamaterial model by simultaneously substituting Eq. \eqref{eq:eom_equiv_3} into Eqs. \eqref{eq:mat_def_freq_b} and \eqref{eq:mat_def_freq_c}.
\begin{subequations}
\begin{align}
&\bar{\mathbf{C}}_\mathrm{r}=
\begin{bmatrix}
-\frac{(1+r_\mathrm{m})m_\mathrm{r}}{\left(\frac{\beta}{r_\mathrm{c}}\lambda+\frac{\omega_0^2}{r_\mathrm{k}}\right)r_\mathrm{m}r_\mathrm{c}}\lambda^2+1 & -1\\
-1 & 1
\end{bmatrix},\\
&\bar{\mathbf{K}}_\mathrm{r}=
\begin{bmatrix}
-\frac{(1+r_\mathrm{m})m_\mathrm{r}}{\left(\frac{\beta}{r_\mathrm{c}}\lambda+\frac{\omega_0^2}{r_\mathrm{k}}\right)r_\mathrm{m}r_\mathrm{k}}\lambda^2+1 & -1\\
-1 & 1
\end{bmatrix}.
\end{align}
\end{subequations}
Using these new matrix definitions for the damping and stiffness matrices, we proceed with Bloch state-space treatment. This process delivers the following characteristic equation:
\begin{equation}
[1-m_\mathrm{r}(1+r_\mathrm{m})]\lambda^4+(1-m_\mathrm{r})(1+r_\mathrm{m})(\beta\lambda+\omega_0^2)\lambda^2=0,
\end{equation}
which we subsequently solve for $m_\mathrm{r}(\lambda)$:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:eff_mass}
m_\mathrm{r}(\lambda)=1-\frac{r_\mathrm{m}\lambda^2}{(1+r_\mathrm{m})[\lambda(\beta+\lambda)+\omega_0^2]}.
\end{equation}
The quantity $m_\mathrm{r}(\lambda)$ is evaluated for the damped free waves problem by substituting $\lambda$ with the values obtained from the solution of Eq.~\eqref{eq:char_eq_freq} and the execution of the algorithm.
\section{Numerical Examples}
In this section, we present a suite of numerical examples to demonstrate all-complex band structures for damped free wave propagation. The examples are for the mass-in-mass metamaterial model shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_01_Model}a, which allows us to examine, in a general manner, the role of dissipation in acoustic/elastic metamaterials, both in terms of the dispersion curves and the effective mass. The damping intensity is varied to give a broad representation of dissipative effects. The same set of material parameters used for the Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_03_Loops} demonstration is used here as an example for our exposition. These parameters are consistent with the relatively high material contrast characteristic of metamaterials and are similar to those selected in Ref.~\cite{HusseinJAP2010} thus providing an opportunity for direct comparison with some of the results presented in that publication.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale= 0.8]{FIG_04_Dispersion.pdf}
\caption{Dispersion band diagrams. (a) The frequency band diagram for driven waves generated by direct solving of $\kappa=\kappa(\lambda)$ where, for $\beta/\omega_0>0$, $\kappa$ is complex for all prescribed $\lambda=\mathrm{i}\omega$. The incomplete frequency (b) and damping ratio (c) band diagrams for free waves generated by direct solving of $\lambda=\lambda(\kappa)$ for all prescribed $\kappa=\kappa_\mathrm{R}$ where $\kappa_\mathrm{R}\in[0,\pi/a]$.}
\label{fig:FIG_04_Dispersion}
\end{figure}
As a consequence of the unit cell's two-DOF character, in the undamped case ($\beta/\omega_0=0$), there are two modes of wave propagation comprising an acoustical (lower) branch and an optical (upper) branch. These are shown in the dispersion band diagrams in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_04_Dispersion}. Separating the two branches, there is a resonance-induced band-gap region where $\kappa_\mathrm{R}=0,\pi$ and $\kappa_\mathrm{I}>0$ describing evanescent modes for which waves do not propagate and their amplitudes spatially decay at rates dictated by the value of $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$. In addition to a closed band-gap region, an unbounded region of evanescent modes exists above the optical branch. For compact presentation, we plot the imaginary wavenumbers within the range $\kappa_\mathrm{I}a\in[0,\pi]$. Without an algorithm, a band diagram with complex wavenumbers can only be determined for damped waves with prescribed real frequencies, that is, $\kappa=\kappa(\lambda=0+\mathrm{i}\omega)$ (Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_04_Dispersion}a). In this scenario, the band gap closes and becomes progressively more obscure with greater damping intensity. Alternatively, the complex frequencies of damped free waves can only be directly calculated for $\lambda=\lambda(\kappa=\kappa_\mathrm{R}+\mathrm{i}0)$ (Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_04_Dispersion}b). The frequency band gaps for free waves are shown to shift but remain intact with increased damping intensity. At extreme damping levels, however, branch overtakings and cut-offs and/or cut-ins are observed to take place. Figure \ref{fig:FIG_04_Dispersion} contrasts each of these ``either/or" scenarios for various values of $\beta/\omega_0$. A complete band structure description featuring generally a complex $\lambda$ and a complex $\kappa$ is made possible by the algorithm presented in Section~\ref{sec:solution_wave}.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale= 0.8]{FIG_05_Dispersion.pdf}
\caption{All-complex dispersion curves. The complete frequency (a) and damping ratio (b) band diagrams for free waves generated by the proposed algorithm for all prescribed $\kappa=\kappa_\mathrm{R}+\mathrm{i}\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ where $\kappa_\mathrm{R},\kappa_\mathrm{I}\in[0,\pi/a]$.}
\label{fig:FIG_05_Dispersion}
\end{figure}
Now, we apply the algorithm and present the resulting all-complex band structure in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_05_Dispersion}. This band structure is, by definition, for the damped free waves case. Inspection of the effects of damping can now be done for both the propagating and evanescent modes. We note an intense responsiveness from the optical branch and the upper portion of the evanescent curves to increases in dissipation, in contrast to the still significant but milder effects on the acoustical branch and the lower portion of the evanescent curves. As damping increases, the concavity of the optical branch in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_05_Dispersion}a changes. This points to a damping-induced change in the sign of the wave group velocity from positive (longer wavelengths) to negative (shorter wavelengths). In addition, as mentioned above, the more rapid decent of the optical branch compared to the acoustical branch closes the band gap and inevitably leads to branch overtaking. Thus the optical and acoustical modes exchange order in the frequency spectrum over specific wavenumber values. Similarly in the evanescent modes, damping will induce a change in concavity in the upper portion of the $\kappa_\mathrm{I}$ curves. One interesting aspect of the behavior displayed in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_05_Dispersion}b is that the damping ratio of the lower, non-propagating portion of the evanescent curves appears to peak at approximately $\kappa_\mathrm{I}a\approx0.25$ regardless of the level of damping.
We turn to the effective mass, which is shown by Eq.~\eqref{eq:eff_mass} to be frequency dependent. Without damping, the effective mass approaches its static value in the long wavelength limit ($\kappa,\lambda\rightarrow0$), as expected. That is, $m_\mathrm{r}\rightarrow1$ in the long wavelength limit, indicating that $m_\mathrm{e}\rightarrow{m_\mathrm{st}}$. Several studies have shown the effective mass to become negative over a frequency range in the region of the band gap, e.g., Refs.~\cite{HuangIJES2009,NematNasserAIP2011}. Here and in Refs.~\cite{HusseinPRB2009,HusseinJAP2010}, we see that viscous damping narrows and eventually closes the band gap. Thus the natural question is: how does damping affect the effective mass? This question is addressed by using Eq.~\eqref{eq:eff_mass} with the complex frequencies determined by the algorithm in Sec.~\ref{sec:solution_wave}. Figure~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass} shows that damping acts to narrow the frequency region at which the effective mass is negative. Also shown is that in the presence of damping, increasing $r_\mathrm{m}$ widens this frequency region up to a point after which the effect abruptly reverses and the region narrows.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale= 0.8]{FIG_06_Effective_Mass.pdf}
\caption{Dynamic effective mass curves. (a) Real component of effective mass; (b) imaginary component of effective mass; (c) zero (solid curves) and asymptote (dashed curves) of Eq.~\eqref{eq:eff_mass} enclosing the region of negative effective mass. The dashed vertical lines in (a) and (b) represent the real and imaginary asymptotes of Eq.~\eqref{eq:eff_mass}, respectively. In (c), the negative frequency range for $\beta/\omega_{0}=0.2$ is highlighted as an example.}
\label{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}
\end{figure}
We observe that damping causes the effective mass to separate into real and imaginary components, as presented in Figs.~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}a and ~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}b, respectively, and still displays negativity over certain frequency ranges. In Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}a, regardless of the damping intensity, the value of the real component of the effective mass converges to that of the static mass as $\lambda\rightarrow0$. As expected, the imaginary component of the effective mass (Fig. \ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}b) is zero under the same condition. In Figs.~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}a and ~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}b, the dashed vertical lines are the asymptotes of, respectively, the real and imaginary components of the normalized effective mass obtained by setting the denominator of Eq.~\eqref{eq:eff_mass} equal to zero and solving for the frequency for the chosen value of $r_\mathrm{m}$. In the undamped case, this marks the bifurcation $\kappa_\mathrm{R}a$ experiences as the wave frequency crosses the resonance frequency from below (in the band gap, $\kappa_\mathrm{R}a=\pi$ switches to $\kappa_\mathrm{R}a=0$), but such a correlation cannot be made in the presence of damping. As seen in Fig. \ref{fig:FIG_05_Dispersion}, overdamping causes portions of the band structure to collapse to $\omega_\mathrm{d}/\omega_{0}=0$ (even far from the long wavelength limit). Consequently, in the frequency dependent $m_\mathrm{r}$ diagram of Fig. \ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}a, $m_\mathrm{e}$ converges to ${m_\mathrm{st}}$ at one instance of $\omega_\mathrm{d}=0$ (long wavelength limit) but tends toward another value at a separate instance of $\omega_\mathrm{d}/\omega_{0}=0$ (effect of damping). We also observe that at high damping, there are no longer any frequencies in which the effective mass is only negative. Although the closure of the frequency region of negative effective mass may be difficult to distinguish for some damping scenarios in Fig. \ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}a, the effect is made clear in Fig. \ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}c.
The metamaterial considered in our model relies on a massive internal resonator to produce a negative effective mass. In Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}c, we illustrate the importance of the internal resonator by varying $r_\mathrm{m}$, which has the effect of changing the mass of $m_1$ while keeping all other material parameters constant. The solid curves in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}c are produced by setting Eq.~\eqref{eq:eff_mass} equal to zero and solving for the complex $\lambda(r_\mathrm{m})$. The frequency at which the effective mass becomes zero marks the frequency at which there is a sign change in the value of the effective mass for both the real and imaginary components. The dashed curves in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}c represent the asymptotes and are the result of setting the denominator of Eq.~\eqref{eq:eff_mass} equal to zero and solving for the complex $\lambda(r_\mathrm{m})$. These two curves bound the frequency ranges where $\mathrm{Re}[m_\mathrm{r}]<0$. When $r_\mathrm{m}\ll1$, that is, when $m_1\gg{m_2}$, the effect of the internal resonator diminishes and the identity of our metamaterial becomes ambiguous as it approaches the dynamic behavior of an ordinary phononic crystal. Consequently, in Fig.~\ref{fig:FIG_06_Effective_Mass}c, as $m_2$ loses influence, the frequency region over which the effective mass is negative shrinks to near nonexistence.
\section{Conclusions}
In this work, we investigated the notion that damped free waves are in principle governed by a dispersion relation in which both the frequency and the wavenumber are generally complex, not only one or the other being complex as commonly assumed. An algorithm based on a $\kappa=\kappa(\lambda)$ formulation, guided by first solving the $\lambda=\lambda(\kappa=\kappa_\mathrm{R}+\mathrm{i}0)$ problem, was presented for 1D periodic chains. The algorithm was applied to a mass-in-mass unit cell representing a viscously damped locally resonant acoustic/elastic metamaterial. This analysis allows one to examine the effects of damping not only on the propagating modes of free waves, but also on the evanescent modes. For both mode sets, the effects of damping appear in both the frequency and the damping ratio band diagrams. A dynamic effective mass for the damped metamaterial model was also calculated and was shown to exhibit negative values over a frequency region near the band gap, as in the undamped case. However, for relatively high levels of damping, no frequencies are found in which the effective mass is only negative. Future work will explore multi-dimensional systems and the effects of other types of damping, e.g., nonviscous damping, in the context of the generalized, all-complex Bloch formulation presented in this paper.
\section{Acknowledgment}
This research has been supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Grant No. DGE 1144083 and CAREER Grant No. 1254931. Support was also provided by the Department of Education GAANN program.
\bibliographystyle{ieeetr}
|
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
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While at a 3CX Training Event in Atlanta, Georgia, recently I received a call from one of my 'old' Response Point customers. He had bought the system when Microsoft still liked it and it has been doing a good job for him even still. It seems an ATM service technician had knocked the RP server off its shelf. It's not clear what happened next but stories give the impression that it hit him on the head first and then crashed to the floor. The tech was not forthcoming with the story so there is no first had corroboration. Jeff said he would be okay until the next day when I would be back in town and get him set up with a new 3CX Business Phone System. On the phone I told Jeff I would see if I might be able to use his old phones – he liked that. While at the conference I asked a few people about redeploying Syspine RP phones for 3CX and no one knew that it had been done satisfactorily before. I emailed to the Director at Syspine that is/was very involved with the RP system to see if there were a firmware flash needed to use their phones as regular IP phones. I heard back promptly from Bob but frankly wasn't sure how to use the stuff he sent me. It seemed to be the standard package to convert their RP server to their new non-RP system. Anyway, I just started tinkering around in the phone management web interface and found I could get the functionality that would make the phones useful to the customer. The customer is a Retail store with a half dozen phones and only need/want basics from the phones. This configuration provided message waiting indicator light, voice mail button, call transfer button and hold.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
| 8,960
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Q: Playing Video On Hover, Hiding Video On Mouseout Won't Restart & Show Video I'm making a gallery and I have some video thumbnails that play on hover and are supposed to go back to the background on mouseout. It seems to be working just fine, but I ran into a problem getting the video to play again when I mouseenter again. Any tips? Here's the code I was using:
var figure = $(".video").mouseenter( hoverVideo );
function hoverVideo(e) {
$('video', this).get(0).play().show();
}
var figure = $(".video").mouseleave( hideVideo );
function hideVideo(e) {
$('video', this).load().hide();
}
A: Please refer this code
var figure = $(".video").hover( hoverVideo, hideVideo );
function hoverVideo(e) {
$('video', this).get(0).play();
}
function hideVideo(e) {
$('video', this).get(0).load();
}
#videosList {
max-width: 600px;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video {
background-image: url('https://img.youtube.com/vi/nZcejtAwxz4/maxresdefault.jpg');
height: 330px;
width: 600px;
margin-bottom: 50px;
}
/* Hide Play button + controls on iOS */
video::-webkit-media-controls {
display:none !important;
}
<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/2.1.1/jquery.min.js"></script>
<div id="videosList">
<div class="video">
<video class="thevideo" loop preload="none">
<source src="https://giant.gfycat.com/VerifiableTerrificHind.mp4" type="video/mp4">
<source src="https://giant.gfycat.com/VerifiableTerrificHind.webm" type="video/webm">
Your browser does not support the video tag.
</video>
</div>
Hover mouse over video. Desktop only [ Obviously! ;) ]
</div>
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 1,660
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Q: Integral of $\int e^{2x} \sin 3x\, dx$ I am suppose to use integration by parts but I have no idea what to do for this problem
$$\int e^{2x} \sin3x dx$$
$u = \sin3x dx$ $du = 3\cos3x$
$dv = e^{2x} $ $ v = \frac{ e^{2x}}{2}$
From this I get something really weird that makes it just as complicated
$\frac{e^{2x}\sin3x}{2} - \int \frac{e^{2x}}{2}3\cos2x$
This looks like it will again require integration by parts which from what I saw will require the same again, and it does not help solve the problem.
Another problem I am having is that I do not know what the dx in $u = \sin3x dx$ means. I know it is suppose to be the shorthand representation for the derivative with repsect to x I think but I am not sure when and why it goes away, basically I have just memorized that it dissapears and it not important in the answer so I can ignore it for the most part. It turns into a 1 pretty much.
A: You're correct. The integral does indeed require integration by parts. But, it's a little trick. You have to use the method twice, each time using what you consider the differentiated term the trig one or exp it doesn't matter as long as you're consistent. Here's the sketch of the idea. I'll do it in the general case.
$$\int e^{ax}\sin(bx)dx=\frac{1}{a}e^{ax}\sin(bx)-\frac{1}{a}\int be^{ax}\cos(bx)dx$$ Now, we do it again.
$$\frac{b}{a} \int e^{ax}\cos(bx)dx=\frac{b}{a}\left(\frac{b}{a^2}e^{ax}\cos(x)-\frac{b^2}{a^2}\int e^{ax}[-\sin(bx)]\right)dx= \dots$$
Now, you take it from here, noticing that that last integral is your original one (with a negative). Set $\displaystyle I=\int e^{ax}\sin(bx)dx$, and solve for $I$ after substituting the above expression into the original one.
A: Since you reposted this, I will go ahead and add in an anwer, here, that will hopefully give you a better sense of what is going on. Iterated (repeated) integration by parts does the trick, but first, I want to address your question regarding the differential operator.
Now, if I wrote (say) that $\frac{dv}{dx}=x^2$, it means that $v$ is some function in the single variable $x$ with derivative $x^2$. That means that $$v=\int\,dv=\int\frac{dv}{dx}\,dx=\int x^2dx.$$ In a sense, we are treating $\frac{dv}{dx}$ just like a fraction when we "cancel" the $dx$ terms for the middle equality, so this suggests that in a way, we may treat $dv$ and $dx$ as separate entities, and $d$ just means "derivative". However, we must be careful about this. Consider the following example:
If we let $y=2x$, then $\frac{dy}{dx}=2$, and so $dy=2dx$. It is tempting when starting out to say $dy=d(2x)=2$, since we're used to thinking "the derivative of $2x$ is $2$". But hold on...that's the derivative with respect to $x$. There is a difference between $\frac{d}{dx}$ and just $d$, in that $d$ treats everything like a function of one variable, so we have to remember the chain rule! For example, suppose we had $x=\sin t$. Well, in that case, we'd have $y=2\sin t$, so then $\frac{dy}{dt}=2\cos t=2\frac{dx}{dt}=\frac{dy}{dx}\frac{dx}{dt}$, another way that we treat those things exactly like fractions. Also, $dy=2\cos t dt=2 d(\cos t)=2dx$, as we saw before.
In summary, we will never have an equation like $d(\mathrm{something})=\mathrm{nondifferential\: stuff}$. $d(\mathrm{something})$ will always be paired somehow with $d(\mathrm{something\: else})$, either as a fraction on one side of the equation ($e.g.$: $\frac{dy}{dt}=2\cos t$), or with one on each side as a multiple ($e.g.$: $du=3\cos 3x\,dx$). Now, let's get back to your problem.
I am going to solve a problem very similar to yours. You should be able to apply the same principles to your problem. Let $I=\int e^{5x}\sin 4x\,dx$. Keep in mind that our goal is to solve for $I$. First, we will start as you have, corrected for paired differentials, with $u=\sin 4x$ and $dv=e^{5x}\,dx$, so that $I=\int u\,dv$ and we can integrate by parts. At this point, we still need to find $du,v$.
Since $\frac{du}{dx}=4\cos 4x$, then $du=4\cos 4x dx$. We find $v$ as an antiderivative of $dv$, but it could be anything of the form $\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}+C$, couldn't it? In fact, yes! Fortunately, that won't change a thing. If instead of $v$, we chose $v^*=v+C$ for some constant $C$, then $\cfrac{dv}{dx}=\cfrac{dv^*}{dx}$, so $dv=dv^*$, and our integration by parts formula is
$\begin{eqnarray*}\int u\,dv^* & = & uv^*-\int v^*du\\& = & u(v+C)-\int(v+C)\,du\\& = & uv+uC-\int C\,du-\int v\,du\\& = & uv+Cu-Cu-\int v\,du\\& = & uv-\int v\,du.
\end{eqnarray*}$
Thus, when choosing our antiderivative $v$ for integration by parts, we will always ignore the integration constant (choose it to be $0$), for simplicity. In this case in particular, we take $v=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}.$ By the formula, we have $$I=uv-\int v\,du=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\sin 4x-\frac{4}{5}\int e^{5x}\cos 4x\,dx.$$
Now, we will once again use integration by parts on the integral $J=\int e^{5x}\cos 4x\, dx$. This time, we will let $u=\cos 4x$, $dv=e^{5x}\,dx$. From there, $du=-4\sin 4x\,dx$ and $v=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}$, so our integration by parts formula gives us $$J=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\cos 4x-\frac{-4}{5}\int e^{5x}\sin 4x\,dx=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\cos 4x + \frac{4}{5}\int e^{5x}\sin 4x\, dx.$$ But we've seen the integral on the far right before, haven't we? It's $I$! Thus, we have derived two equations:
$$I = \frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\sin 4x-\frac{4}{5}J,$$ and $$J=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\cos 4x +\frac{4}{5}I.$$
Subbing in for $J$ in the first equation, we have $$I=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\sin 4x-\frac{4}{5}\left[\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\cos 4x +\frac{4}{5}I\right]=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\left[\sin 4x-\frac{4}{5}\cos 4x\right]-\frac{16}{25}I.$$ Hence, we have $$\frac{41}{25}I=\frac{1}{5}e^{5x}\left[\sin 4x-\frac{4}{5}\cos 4x\right],$$ and so $$I = \frac{5}{41}e^{5x}\sin 4x - \frac{4}{41}e^{5x}\cos 4x.$$ A quick check by differentiation shows that $\frac{dI}{dx}=e^{5x}\sin 4x$, as desired. There's only one thing missing...the constant of integration! After all, $I$ is an indefinite integral, so our final answer is in fact $$\int e^{5x}\sin 4x\,dx=\frac{5}{41}e^{5x}\sin 4x - \frac{4}{41}e^{5x}\cos 4x+C.$$
Note that we can rewrite this in the form $$\int e^{5x}\sin 4x\,dx= e^{5x}\left(\frac{5}{5^2+4^2}\sin 4x - \frac{4}{5^2+4^2}\cos 4x\right)+C.$$ But there's nothing special about the constants $5,4$, so more generally, we can use the exact same approach on any integral of similar form to get $$\int e^{ax}\sin bx\,dx= e^{ax}\left(\frac{a}{a^2+b^2}\sin bx - \frac{b}{a^2+b^2}\cos bx\right)+C,$$ whenever $a,b$ are real constants not both zero, as Peter showed you using methods of complex variables, and as Chris got you started with. (Of course, if $a=b=0$, then the integral is easy.)
Now, it's nice to know that formula, but you don't have to memorize it! It is far more important that you be comfortable using the method of iterated (repeated) integration by parts. There are many cases where it can come in handy. Generally, you'll use it whenever you've got a "mixed pair" integrand--that is, when your integrand is a product of two functions of the following types: $\mathbf{L}\mathrm{ogarithmic}$ ($e.g$: $\ln x$), $\mathbf{I}\mathrm{nverse\: trigonometric}$ ($e.g.$: $\arcsin x$), $\mathbf{A}\mathrm{lgebraic}$ (any polynomial), $\mathbf{T}\mathrm{rigonometric}$, $\mathbf{E}\mathrm{xponential}$ ($e.g.$: $e^x$).
A good rule of thumb is to take your $u$ to be whichever of the functions is of the type earliest on the LIATE list. For example, in this problem, we let our $u$ be the $\mathbf{T}\mathrm{rigonometric}$ function, while our $dv$ was the $\mathbf{E}\mathrm{xponential}$ part of the product. The very nice thing here, is that hitting the exponential with an antiderivative just gives us some constant multiples, and if we hit the sine function twice with a derivative, we just end up with a constant multiple of the sine function, so (as we saw above) we end up having the starting integral show up again! The same thing works with a cosine function instead of a sine function.
If we'd had to find $\int p(x)e^{ax}$ with $p(x)$ some polynomial, we'd possibly have to iterate several times with this, but eventually, the algebraic term would vanish altogether, and leave us with an integral of an exponential function, which we know how to do. Similar with $\int p(x)\sin(ax)\,dx$. Taking derivatives of logarithms or inverse trig functions give us some nice functions, but taking antiderivatives gets nasty. That's why we tend to favor those as our $u$ terms.
UPSHOT: Remember the LIATE method of choosing parts. Remember that sometimes you'll have to integrate by parts more than once, and it may lead to a nice integral, or it may lead to the integral you started with reappearing--in the first case, we're fine, and in the second, we will do something like what I've done above, in solving for $I$.
A: David has indicated what to do, in the comments. I'll expand on Arturo's comment on setting up the integration by parts. What you wanted to do was $$u=\sin3x,\quad dv=e^{2x}\,dx$$ Then you get $$du=3\cos3x\,dx,\quad v=(1/2)e^{2x}$$ Now the formula $$\int u\,dv=uv-\int v\,du$$ becomes $$\int e^{2x}\sin3x\,dx=(1/2)e^{2x}\sin3x-\int(1/2)e^{2x}3\cos3x\,dx$$ and all the $du$ and $dv$ and $dx$ terms match up correctly.
A: Integration by parts will work but you may want to try as follows. $$I = \int \exp(2x) \sin(3x) dx = \int \exp(2x) \text{Imag}(\exp(3ix)) dx = \text{Imag} \left(\int \exp((2+3i)x) dx \right)$$
Move your mouse over the gray area for the answer.
$$I = \int \exp(2x) \sin(3x) dx = \int \exp(2x) \text{Imag}(\exp(3ix)) dx = \text{Imag} \left(\int \exp((2+3i)x) dx \right)\\ = \text{Imag} \left( \dfrac{\exp((2+3i)x)}{2+3i} \right) = \text{Imag} \left( \dfrac{\exp((2+3i)x)(2-3i)}{2^2 + 3^2} \right) = \dfrac{\exp(2x)}{13} \left( 2 \sin(3x) - 3 \cos(3x)\right)$$
A: Another option is to consider the following integral:
$$J=\int e^{(2+3i)x}dx=\frac{e^{(2+3i)x}}{2+3i}=\frac{e^{(2+3i)x}(2-3i)}{(2+3i)(2-3i)}=\frac{e^{2x}}{13}\left[\left(2\cos3x+3\sin3x\right)+i\left(2\sin3x-3\cos3x\right)\right]$$
Your integral is the imaginary part of the above
A: This will help you in the general case.
Another slick trick is noting
$$\int {{e^{ibx}}{e^{ax}}dx} = \int {{e^{ax}}\cos bxdx} + i\int {{e^{ax}}\sin bxdx} $$
Now $$\int {{e^{ibx}}{e^{ax}}dx} = \frac{{{e^{ibx}}{e^{ax}}}}{{a + bi}} = \frac{{{e^{ibx}}{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}}\left( {a - bi} \right) = \frac{{a{e^{ibx}}{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} - i\frac{{b{e^{ibx}}{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}}$$
Using the Euler Formula
$$\eqalign{
& \left( {i\sin bx + \cos bx} \right)\left( {\frac{{a{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} - i\frac{{b{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}}} \right) = i\sin bx\frac{{a{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} + \cos bx\frac{{a{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} - i\sin bxi\frac{{b{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} - i\cos bx\frac{{b{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} \cr
& \left( {i\sin bx + \cos bx} \right)\left( {\frac{{{ae^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} - i\frac{{b{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}}} \right) = i\left( {a\sin bx - b\cos bx} \right)\frac{{{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} + \left( {a\cos bx + b\sin bx} \right)\frac{{{e^{ax}}}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}} \cr} $$
and equating real and imaginary parts gives
$$\eqalign{
& \int {{e^{ax}}\cos bxdx} = {e^{ax}}\left( {\frac{{a\cos bx + b\sin bx}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}}} \right) + C \cr
& \int {{e^{ax}}\sin bxdx} = {e^{ax}}\left( {\frac{{a\sin bx - b\cos bx}}{{{a^2} + {b^2}}}} \right) + C \cr} $$
|
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| 6,857
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'Havana Quartet': Tom Fontana Joins Antonio Banderas Starz Series As EP
Posted by Nalip on August 05, 2016
Starz is stepping up its efforts to get its Havana Quartet drama series project starring Antonio Banderas off the ground, bringing in veteran showrunner Tom Fontana as executive producer. He is bringing a steady and experienced hand to the ambitious production, which is looking to be the first U.S. series to film in Cuba on a continuous basis.
At TCA, Starz CEO Albrecht said that Havana Quartet remains a priority for the network, with efforts focused on the logistics of filming portions of the show in Cuba.
Known Cuban playwright Eduardo Machado (Starz's Magic City), who lives in the U.S., is the writer on the project, based on the popular four-book series of detective novels Havana Blue, Havana Gold, Havana Red and Havana Black by another Cuban writer that is well known internationally, novelist Leonardo Padura. Fontana is taking a look at the multiple Havana Quartet scripts penned under Starz's model of setting up writers rooms in anticipation of a series order.
Set in the 1990s, Havana Quartet follows hard-drinking, romantic Cuban Police Detective Mario Conde (Banderas) who longs to be a writer but settled for a job as a detective.
Entertainment One Television is producing. Starz will retain all U.S. network pay TV and initial SVOD rights to the project, and eOne controls all other rights to the series worldwide. Fontana is executive producing alongside Machado, Banderas, Peter Nadermann of Nadcon Film, as well as Jennifer Kawaja and Julia Sereny of Sienna Films.
Check this out on deadline.com
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
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| 8,942
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{"url":"https:\/\/infinitescript.com\/tag\/dimensionality-reduction\/","text":"## Random Projection\n\nIntroduction In mathematics and statistics, random\u00a0projection is a technique used to reduce the dimensionality of a set of points which lie in Euclidean space. Random projection methods are powerful methods known for their simplicity and less erroneous output compared with other methods. According to experimental results, random projection preserve distances well, but empirical results are sparse. Consider a problem as follows: We have a set of n points in a high-dimensional Euclidean space $\\mathbf{R}^d$. We want to project the points onto a space of low dimension $\\mathbf{R}^k$ in such a way that pairwise distances of the points are approximately the same as before. Formally, we are looking for a map f:$\\mathbf{R}^d\\rightarrow\\mathbf{R}^k$ such that for any pair of original points u,v,$\\|f(u)-f(v)\\|$","date":"2022-05-16 17:54:53","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 4, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 0, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.7154010534286499, \"perplexity\": 160.70591481009222}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": true, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2022-21\/segments\/1652662512229.26\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20220516172745-20220516202745-00554.warc.gz\"}"}
| null | null |
"""Tools for manipulating of large commutative expressions. """
from sympy.core.add import Add
from sympy.core.mul import Mul
from sympy.core.power import Pow
from sympy.core.basic import Basic
from sympy.core.sympify import sympify
from sympy.core.numbers import Rational
from sympy.core.singleton import S
from sympy.core.coreerrors import NonCommutativeExpression
def decompose_power(expr):
"""
Decompose power into symbolic base and integer exponent.
Example
=======
>>> from sympy.core.exprtools import decompose_power
>>> from sympy.abc import x, y
>>> decompose_power(x)
(x, 1)
>>> decompose_power(x**2)
(x, 2)
>>> decompose_power(x**(2*y))
(x**y, 2)
>>> decompose_power(x**(2*y/3))
(x**(y/3), 2)
"""
base, exp = expr.as_base_exp()
if exp.is_Number:
if exp.is_Rational:
if not exp.is_Integer:
base = Pow(base, Rational(1, exp.q))
exp = exp.p
else:
base, exp = expr, 1
else:
exp, tail = exp.as_coeff_mul()
if exp.is_Rational:
if not exp.is_Integer:
tail += (Rational(1, exp.q),)
base, exp = Pow(base, Mul(*tail)), exp.p
else:
base, exp = expr, 1
return base, exp
class Factors(object):
"""Efficient representation of ``f_1*f_2*...*f_n``. """
__slots__ = ['factors', 'gens']
def __init__(self, factors=None):
if factors is None:
factors = {}
self.factors = factors
self.gens = frozenset(factors.keys())
def __hash__(self):
return hash((tuple(self.factors), self.gens))
def __repr__(self):
return "Factors(%s)" % self.factors
def as_expr(self):
return Mul(*[ factor**exp for factor, exp in self.factors.iteritems() ])
def normal(self, other):
self_factors = dict(self.factors)
other_factors = dict(other.factors)
for factor, self_exp in self.factors.iteritems():
try:
other_exp = other.factors[factor]
except KeyError:
continue
exp = self_exp - other_exp
if not exp:
del self_factors[factor]
del other_factors[factor]
else:
if exp > 0:
self_factors[factor] = exp
del other_factors[factor]
else:
del self_factors[factor]
other_factors[factor] = -exp
return Factors(self_factors), Factors(other_factors)
def mul(self, other):
factors = dict(self.factors)
for factor, exp in other.factors.iteritems():
if factor in factors:
exp = factors[factor] + exp
if not exp:
del factors[factor]
continue
factors[factor] = exp
return Factors(factors)
def div(self, other):
quo, rem = dict(self.factors), {}
for factor, exp in other.factors.iteritems():
if factor in quo:
exp = quo[factor] - exp
if exp <= 0:
del quo[factor]
if exp >= 0:
if exp:
quo[factor] = exp
continue
exp = -exp
rem[factor] = exp
return Factors(quo), Factors(rem)
def quo(self, other):
return self.div(other)[0]
def rem(self, other):
return self.div(other)[1]
def pow(self, other):
if type(other) is int and other >= 0:
factors = {}
if other:
for factor, exp in self.factors.iteritems():
factors[factor] = exp*other
return Factors(factors)
else:
raise ValueError("expected non-negative integer, got %s" % other)
def gcd(self, other):
factors = {}
for factor, exp in self.factors.iteritems():
if factor in other.factors:
exp = min(exp, other.factors[factor])
factors[factor] = exp
return Factors(factors)
def lcm(self, other):
factors = dict(self.factors)
for factor, exp in other.factors.iteritems():
if factor in factors:
exp = max(exp, factors[factor])
factors[factor] = exp
return Factors(factors)
def __mul__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, Factors):
return self.mul(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
def __divmod__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, Factors):
return self.div(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
def __div__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, Factors):
return self.quo(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
__truediv__ = __div__
def __mod__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, Factors):
return self.rem(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
def __pow__(self, other):
if type(other) is int:
return self.pow(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
def __eq__(self, other):
return self.factors == other.factors
def __ne__(self, other):
return not self.__eq__(other)
class Term(object):
"""Efficient representation of ``coeff*(numer/denom)``. """
__slots__ = ['coeff', 'numer', 'denom']
def __init__(self, term, numer=None, denom=None):
if numer is None and denom is None:
if not term.is_commutative:
raise NonCommutativeExpression('commutative expression expected')
coeff, factors = term.as_coeff_mul()
numer, denom = {}, {}
for factor in factors:
base, exp = decompose_power(factor)
if base.is_Add:
cont, base = base.primitive()
coeff *= cont**exp
if exp > 0:
numer[base] = exp
else:
denom[base] = -exp
numer = Factors(numer)
denom = Factors(denom)
else:
coeff = term
if numer is None:
numer = Factors()
if denom is None:
denom = Factors()
self.coeff = coeff
self.numer = numer
self.denom = denom
def __hash__(self):
return hash((self.coeff, self.numer, self.denom))
def __repr__(self):
return "Term(%s, %s, %s)" % (self.coeff, self.numer, self.denom)
def as_expr(self):
return self.coeff*(self.numer.as_expr()/self.denom.as_expr())
def mul(self, other):
coeff = self.coeff*other.coeff
numer = self.numer.mul(other.numer)
denom = self.denom.mul(other.denom)
numer, denom = numer.normal(denom)
return Term(coeff, numer, denom)
def inv(self):
return Term(1/self.coeff, self.denom, self.numer)
def quo(self, other):
return self.mul(other.inv())
def pow(self, other):
if other < 0:
return self.inv().pow(-other)
else:
return Term(self.coeff ** other,
self.numer.pow(other),
self.denom.pow(other))
def gcd(self, other):
return Term(self.coeff.gcd(other.coeff),
self.numer.gcd(other.numer),
self.denom.gcd(other.denom))
def lcm(self, other):
return Term(self.coeff.lcm(other.coeff),
self.numer.lcm(other.numer),
self.denom.lcm(other.denom))
def __mul__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, Term):
return self.mul(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
def __div__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, Term):
return self.quo(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
__truediv__ = __div__
def __pow__(self, other):
if type(other) is int:
return self.pow(other)
else:
return NotImplemented
def __eq__(self, other):
return (self.coeff == other.coeff and
self.numer == other.numer and
self.denom == other.denom)
def __ne__(self, other):
return not self.__eq__(other)
def _gcd_terms(terms):
"""Helper function for :func:`gcd_terms`. """
if isinstance(terms, Basic):
terms = Add.make_args(terms)
if len(terms) <= 1:
if not terms:
return S.Zero, S.Zero, S.One
else:
return terms[0], S.One, S.One
terms = map(Term, terms)
cont = terms[0]
for term in terms[1:]:
cont = cont.gcd(term)
for i, term in enumerate(terms):
terms[i] = term.quo(cont)
denom = terms[0].denom
for term in terms[1:]:
denom = denom.lcm(term.denom)
numers = []
for term in terms:
numer = term.numer.mul(denom.quo(term.denom))
numers.append(term.coeff*numer.as_expr())
cont = cont.as_expr()
numer = Add(*numers)
denom = denom.as_expr()
if numer.is_Add:
_cont, numer = numer.primitive()
cont *= _cont
return cont, numer, denom
def gcd_terms(terms):
"""
Compute the GCD of ``terms`` and put them together.
Example
=======
>>> from sympy.core import gcd_terms
>>> from sympy.abc import x, y
>>> gcd_terms((x + 1)**2*y + (x + 1)*y**2)
y*(x + 1)*(x + y + 1)
"""
from sympy.polys.polytools import _keep_coeff
cont, numer, denom = _gcd_terms(sympify(terms))
coeff, factors = cont.as_coeff_Mul()
return _keep_coeff(coeff, factors*numer/denom)
|
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| 7,781
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Atlanta Harp Center is the Southeast's largest showroom for new, used, and consignment pedal and lever harps from Camac, Dusty Strings, and Lyon & Healy. Since 2007 the Atlanta Harp Center has offered a unique rental program, a large selection of harp music and harp accessories, and a friendly, knowledgeable staff. Be sure to visit the showroom conveniently located in Alpharetta , Georgia.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
}
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\section{Abstract}
Magnetic properties of the multi-walled nanotubes have been investigated. Heisenberg model, which is a suitable model
for the system consist of atoms with localized wave functions has been used. Effective field theory in two spin cluster for spin-1/2
has been numerically solved and critical properties such as phase diagrams as well as the behavior
of the order parameter and hysteresis loops obtained.
Keywords: \textbf{ Multi-walled nanotube; Anisotropic Heisenberg model;
hysteresis loops }
\section{Introduction}\label{introduction}
Nanotubes are the promising materials and paid attention to these systems especially after the discovery of carbon nanotubes
\cite{ref1}, in both theoretically and experimentally. Since that day many
types
of nanotubes fabricated as well as ferromagnetic
nanotubes \cite{ref2,ref3}. These materials are promising materials for various
technological applications \cite{ref4,ref5}.
Experimental works followed by determination of the magnetic properties with some theoretical methods, such as
mean field approximation (MFA), effective field theory (EFT) and Monte Carlo simulation techniques (MC).
Various nanotubes, such as $FePt$ and $Fe_3O_4$ nanotubes \cite{ref6},
can be modeled by core-shell models. Handling theoretical solutions within the core-shell models widely adopted in the literature,
starting from the most basic model of the statistical physics namely Ising model
\cite{ref7}.
It is a well-known fact that magnetic order is originated from the exchange interaction between atoms that have magnetic
dipole moments, come from the spin magnetic moment. Models can be grouped into two classes namely, related to the magnetism comes from the localized moments and related to the itinerant magnetism. Itinerant magnetism occurs mostly in transition metal alloys and comes from the filled delocalized states by electrons. Hubbard model
\cite{Hubbard} is the well-suited model in this case. On the other hand if the wave
functions
are don't overlap significantly each other, magnetism comes from the localized moments. In other words, if atoms of the system are
well separated, and wave functions are localized, then we can say that we are far from itinerant magnetism and using
Heisenberg model is appropriate. Although Heisenberg model is the general model, its anisotropic limit Ising model on the core-shell structured nanotube geometry is the most widely studied in the name of the magnetic properties
of the nanotubes. There has been less attention paid on the Heisenberg model
on
the nanotube geometry within the core-shell models.
Classical Heisenberg model on a
single wall ferromagnetic nanotubes has been solved with MC \cite{ref8,ref9}
and
many-body Green's function method \cite{ref10}.
Also slightly different geometry, namely three-leg quantum spin
tube \cite{ref11} has been solved with numerical exact diagonalization within
the finite-cluster \cite{ref12}.
Core-shell treatments have tubular geometry but contain only two interacted cylindrical structures. On the other hand, this class of treatment covers a tiny part of the nanotubes.
Thus treatments with more
general geometries necessary such as multi-walled
nanotubes (MWNT). What is the effect of the number of walls of the nanotube on the magnetic properties of it? This is the central
question of this work. Phase diagrams, thermodynamical quantities
(magnetization, magnetic susceptibility) and hysteresis
characteristics will be obtained for MWNT. As a formulation, we use the EFT
formulation in a 2-spin cluster (EFT-2).
EFT can provide results that are superior to those obtained within
the MFA, due to the consideration of self-spin correlations, which are omitted
in the MFA.
EFT-2 formulation \cite{ref13} mostly used for the Heisenberg model.
The paper is organized as follows: In Sec. \ref{formulation} we
briefly present the model and formulation. The results and
discussions are presented in Sec. \ref{results}, and finally Sec.
\ref{conclusion} contains our conclusions.
\section{Model and Formulation}\label{formulation}
The schematic representation of the system can be seen in Fig. \ref{sek1} in
two
different perspective. The system consist
of a nested number of $L$ interacted tubular system which all of them contain hexagonal lattice in it.
\begin{figure}[h]\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=carbonnanotubes3_1.eps, width=7.2cm}
\epsfig{file=carbonnanotubes3_2.eps, width=7.2cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Schematic representation of the system} \label{sek1}\end{figure}
The Hamiltonian of the spin-1/2 anisotropic Heisenberg model on MWNT geometry
is
given by
\eq{denk1}{\mathcal{H}=-\summ{<i,j>}{}{J_{ij}\left[\Delta_{ij}\paran{
S_i^xS_j^x+S_i^yS_j^y}+ S_i^zS_j^z\right]}-
H\summ{i}{}{S_i^z}}
where $S_i^x,S_i^y$ and $S_i^z$ denote the Pauli spin-1/2 operators at a site
$i$. $J_{ij}$ and $\Delta_{ij}$ are the
exchange interaction and anisotropy in the exchange interactions between the
nearest
neighbor spins located at sites $i$ and $j$, respectively.
In our system, all spins are under the influence of the longitudinal magnetic field $H$. In Eq. \re{denk1}
the first sum is carried over the nearest neighbors of the lattice, while the second one is overall the lattice sites.
EFT with finite cluster has a simple strategy: constructing finite cluster which spin-spin interactions in the cluster
treated exactly and making an approximation with using local fields to
treat interaction between the cluster and outside of it.
With using exact spin identities such as Callen-Suzuki identities
\cite{ref14,ref15} or generalization of them \cite{ref16}
we can calculate any observable of the system. Due to the avoid mathematical
difficulties,
the interaction between the cluster and outside of it treated within the Ising
type
interaction namely axial approximation \cite{ref17}.
To include Heisenberg character of the interaction to the formulation, minimum cluster size choice should be two. Then we use
EFT-2 here \cite{ref18}. In this approximation we assume also the translational
invariance of the $i^{th}$ cylinder, i.e. in $i^{th}$
cylinder all sites are equivalent. Under these assumptions magnetization of the
$i^{th}$ cylinder can be calculated via
\eq{denk2}{
m_i=\sandd{S_i^z}=\sandd{\frac{Tr_{2}S_i^z\exp{\paran{-\beta
\mathcal{H}_i^{(2)}}}}{Tr_{2}
\exp{\paran{-\beta \mathcal{H}_i^{(2)}}}}}, \quad i=1,2,\ldots, L
}
Here, $Tr_2$ stands for the trace operation over the spins which are
belong to the chosen cluster and $\mathcal{H}_i^{(2)}$ is the finite cluster
Hamiltonian constructed in $i^{th}$ cylinder:
\eq{denk3}{
-\beta \mathcal{H}_i^{(2)}=\beta J_i\left[\Delta_i\paran{
S_{i,1}^xS_{i,2}^x+S_{i,1}^yS_{i,2}^y}+S_{i,1}^zS_{i,2}^z\right]+\beta
\paran{H+h_1^{(i)}}S_{i,1}^z+\beta\paran{H+h_2^{(i)}}S_{i,2}^z
} where $i=1,2,\ldots,L$ and $J_i,\Delta_i$ are the intralayer exchange
interaction and anisotropy in the exchange interaction about
the $i^{th}$ cylinder. $\beta=1/(k_BT)$, where $k_B$ is Boltzmann constant and
$T$ is the absolute temperature. In finite cluster Hamiltonians $S_{i,1},
S_{i,2}$ are the spins belong to the chosen cluster
in $i^{th}$ cylinder, and $h_1^{(i)},h_2^{(i)}$ are stand for the interaction
of these spins with other spins which are outside of the cluster. Let
$S_{i,3},S_{i,4}$ are the nearest neighbor spins
(which are outside of the cluster) of the $S_{i,1}$ and $S_{i,5},S_{i,6}$ are
the nearest neighbor spins
of the $S_{i,2}$.
Let the pair $(J_{1},\Delta_{1})$ be the exchange interaction and the
anisotropy in the exchange interaction related to
the outer and inner cylinder, i.e. the nearest neighbor spins which are in the
interacted via these couple. Let all the
other interactions given by $(J_{2},\Delta_{2})$. Then interactions with the
outside of the cluster are given as
\eq{denk4}{
\begin{array}{lcl}
h_1^{(1)}&=&J_1\paran{S_{1,3}^z+S_{1,4}^z}+J_2S_{2,1}^z\\
h_2^{(1)}&=&J_1\paran{S_{1,5}^z+S_{1,6}^z}+J_2S_{2,2}^z\\
h_1^{(k)}&=&J_2\paran{S_{k,3}^z+S_{k,4}^z+S_{k-1,1}^z+S_{k+1,1}^z}\\
h_2^{(k)}&=&J_2\paran{S_{k,5}^z+S_{k,6}^z+S_{k-1,2}^z+S_{k+1,2}^z}\\
h_1^{(L)}&=&J_1\paran{S_{L,3}^z+S_{L,4}^z}+J_2S_{L-1,1}^z\\
h_2^{(L)}&=&J_1\paran{S_{L,5}^z+S_{L,6}^z}+J_2S_{L-1,2}^z\\
\end{array}
}
In order to calculate Eq. \re{denk2} we need to calculate the matrix
representation of finite cluster Hamiltonian
$\mathcal{H}_k^{(2)}$, then exponentiate it. After some algebra, expression for
the order parameter of the system which is defined by
\eq{denk5}{
m_i=\frac{1}{2}\paran{\sandd{S_{i,1}^z}+\sandd{S_{i,2}^z}},}
can be written as
\eq{denk6}{
\begin{array}{lcl}
m_k&=&\sandd{\frac{\sinh{\paran{\beta X_0^{(k)}}}}{\cosh{\paran{\beta
X_0^{(k)}}}+
\exp{\paran{-2\beta J_1}}\cosh{\paran{\beta Y_0^{(k)}}}}}\\
m_l&=&\sandd{\frac{\sinh{\paran{\beta X_0^{(l)}}}}{\cosh{\paran{\beta
X_0^{(l)}}}+
\exp{\paran{-2\beta J_2}}\cosh{\paran{\beta Z_0^{(l)}}}}}\\
\end{array},
}
where
\eq{denk7}{\begin{array}{lcl}
X_0^{(n)}&=&(h_1^{(n)}+h_2^{(n)}+2H),\quad n=1,2,\ldots,L\\
Y_0^{(k)}&=&\left[4J_1^2\Delta_1^2+(h_1^{(n)}-h_2^{(n)})^2\right]^{1/2}, \quad
k=1,L\\
Z_0^{(l)}&=&\left[4J_2^2\Delta_2^2+(h_1^{(n)}-h_2^{(n)})^2\right]^{1/2}, \quad
l=1,2,\ldots, L \\
\end{array}}where $\beta=1/(k_B T)$ where $k_B$ is Boltzmann
constant and $T$ is the temperature.
Magnetization expressions given in closed form in Eq. \re{denk6} can be
calculated via differential operator technique with
decoupling approximation \cite{ref19}. Similar procedure can be found in Ref.
\cite{ref20}. With the help of the Binomial expansion, Eq. \re{denk6} can be
written in the form
\eq{denk8}{\begin{array}{lcl}
m_1&=&\summ{p=0}{2}{}\summ{q=0}{2}{}\summ{r=0}{1}{}\summ{s=0}{1}{}K_1\paran{p,q,
r,s}m_1^{p+q} m_2^{r+s}\\
m_2&=&\summ{p=0}{1}{}\summ{q=0}{1}{}\summ{r=0}{3}{}\summ{s=0}{3}{}K_2\paran{p,q
,r,s}m_1^{p+q} m_2^{r+s}\\
m_k&=&\summ{p=0}{1}{}\summ{q=0}{1}{}\summ{r=0}{2}{}\summ{s=0}{2}{}\summ{t=0}{1}{
}\summ{v=0}{1}{}K_2\paran{p,q,r,s,t,v}m_{k-1}^{p+q} m_k^{r+s}m_{k+1}^{t+v}\\
m_{L-1}&=&\summ{p=0}{1}{}\summ{q=0}{1}{}\summ{r=0}{3}{}\summ{s=0}{3}{}K_2\paran
{p,q,r,s}m_L^{p+q} m_{L-1}^{r+s}\\
m_L&=&\summ{p=0}{2}{}\summ{q=0}{2}{}\summ{r=0}{1}{}\summ{s=0}{1}{}K_1\paran{p,q,
r,s}m_L^{p+q} m_{L-1}^{r+s}\\
\end{array}} where
\eq{denk9}{\begin{array}{lcl}
K_1\paran{p,q,r,s}&=&\komb{2}{p}\komb{2}{q}A_{1x}^{2-p}A_{1y}^{2-q}A_{2x}^{1-r}
A_{2y}^{1-s}B_{1x}^{p}B_{1y}^{q}B_{2x}^{r}B_{2y}^{s}f_1\paran{x,y,H_1,H_2}|_{x=0
,y=0}\\
K_2\paran{p,q,r,s,t,v}&=&\komb{2}{r}\komb{2}{s}A_{2x}^{4-(p+r+t)}A_{2y}^{
4-(q+s+v)}B_{2x}^{p+r+t}B_{2y}^{q+s+v}f_2\paran{x,y,H_1,H_2}|_{x=0,y=0}.\\
\end{array}} Here,
\eq{denk10}{\begin{array}{lcl}
A_{km}&=&\cosh{\paran{J_k^z\nabla_m}}\\
B_{km}&=&\sinh{\paran{J_k^z\nabla_m}},\quad k=1,2; m=x,y
\end{array}
} and
\eq{denk11}{f_n\paran{x,y,H_1,H_2}=
\frac{x+y+H_1+H_2}{X_0^{(n)}}\frac{\sinh{\paran{\beta
X_0^{(n)}}}}{\cosh{\paran{\beta X_0^{(n)}}}+
\exp{\paran{-2\beta J_1}}\cosh{\paran{\beta Y_0^{(n)}}}}.}
The effect of the exponential
differential operator to an arbitrary function $g(x)$ is given by
\eq{denk12}{\exp{\paran{a\nabla_x}}\exp{\paran{b\nabla_x}}g\paran{x,y}=g\paran{
x+a,y+b}} with arbitrary
constants $a,b$.
These coefficients in nonlinear equation system given in Eq. \re{denk8} and
defined in Eq. \re{denk9} can be calculated from the definitions given in Eq.
\re{denk10} and Eq. \re{denk12}. After obtaining these coefficients, one can
solve the nonlinear equation system given by Eq. \re{denk8} numerically by
standard methods such as Runge-Kutta methods. The order parameter of the whole
system is defined by the sum of the magnetizations of each cylinder,
\eq{denk13}{m=\frac{1}{L}\summ{i=1}{L}{m_i}.}
We can construct the hysteresis loops which are nothing but the variation
of the $m$ with the magnetic field by sweeping field $-H\rightarrow H$ and calculation magnetization en each step and then the sweeping field to the reverse direction and again calculating magnetizations.
The quantity that characterizes the hysteresis loops is hysteresis loop area (HLA) will be calculated in this work. HLA
corresponds to the energy loss due to the hysteresis, and it is simply the area of the closed hysteresis loop.
\section{Results and Discussion}\label{results}
In order to obtain dimensionless Hamiltonian parameters let us define
\eq{denk14}{r=\frac{J_1}{J_2}, t=\frac{k_BT}{J_2}, h=\frac{H}{J_2}.
} Also, $\Delta_1=\Delta_2=\Delta$ has been used throughout the calculations.
\subsection{Phase Diagrams}
The critical temperature of the system can be obtained from the solutions of the linearized forms of the nonlinear equation system Eq. \re{denk8}. The variation of the critical temperature with $r$ can be seen in Fig. \ref{sek2} for
different thickness and two limiting cases namely, (a) Ising case and (b)
isotropic Heisenberg case. The phase diagrams in $(t,r)$ plane intersects at
one
point, namely special point. This situation is typical of all layered structures such as thin films \cite{ref20}. The special point makes the critical temperature of the MWNT independent of the thickness, while left of it the critical temperature of the system increases with rising thickness, the reverse is true for the right side of the special point. The temperature coordinate of this special point is indeed the critical temperature of the corresponding bulk system. Note that, the corresponding bulk system is in the hexagonal geometry.
The special point coordinates ($t^*,r^*$) of the Ising model on this MWNT
geometry found as ($4.039,1.469$) and for the isotropic Heisenberg model it
is
($3.864,1.548$). The temperature coordinate of the special point of the Ising
model ($t^*=4.039$) lies between the critical temperature obtained within the
same formulation of the square lattice $t_c=3.025$ and simple cubic lattice
$t_c=5.039$ \cite{ref21}. This is consistent since bulk counterpart of the MWNT
is hexagonal geometry which has a lower critical temperature than the cubic geometry, due to the fewer number of nearest neighbors of it.
This value of isotropic Heisenberg case can be compared with the result of the
simple cubic thin film geometry within the same formulation, which is
($4.891,1.345$) \cite{ref20}. We can say that the value $t^*=1.548$ is higher
than the value for cubic isotropic Heisenberg thin film ($t_c=1.345$) with the same
reasoning as explained above.
We can say that, the special point shifts towards to the right lower regions of
the $(t,r)$ plane when the system goes from the Ising model to the isotropic
Heisenberg model with passing $XXZ$ type anisotropic Heisenberg model.
\begin{figure}[h]\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=phase_diag-Del-0.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=phase_diag-Del-1.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Phase diagrams of then MWNT that have different thickness in $(t_c,r)$
plane for (a) Ising model and (b) isotropic Heisenberg model}
\label{sek2}\end{figure}
\subsection{Thermodynamical properties}
\begin{figure}[h]\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=man-LL-3-Delta-0.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=man-LL-3-Delta-1.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=man-LL-7-Delta-0.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=man-LL-7-Delta-1.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Variation of magnetization in $(t,r)$ plane of MWNT for selected values
of
(a) $L=3, \Delta=0.0$ (a) $L=3, \Delta=1.0$ (a) $L=7, \Delta=0.0$ and (a) $L=7,
\Delta=1.0$. }
\label{sek3}\end{figure}
We can see the variation of the magnetization in $(t,r)$ plane as contour
surface, for selected values of $L$ and
$\Delta$ in Fig. \re{sek3}. By comparing Figs. \re{sek3} and \re{sek2} we can
say that, variation of magnetization is consistent
with the phase diagrams. The magnetization of the system gradually decreases when one move in $(t,r)$ to the phase boundary. After
this boundary, the magnetization of the system is zero. Changing of magnetization by temperature is gradually decreasing behavior as expected. Behavior in $r$ direction depends on the temperature and the other parameters of Hamiltonian. For instance, when
the temperature is $3.0$, rising $r$ could strengthen the ferromagnetic phase of
the system (see, for instance Fig. \re{sek3} (c)), or
induce the phase transition from the paramagnetic phase to the ferromagnetic
phase (see, for instance Fig. \re{sek3} (a)). In general, we can say that ordered phase covers a smaller area of $(t,r)$ plane for isotropic Heisenberg limit, in comparison with Ising limit
(compare Figs. \re{sek3} (b) with (a) and (d) with (c)). Thus in general,
decreasing of the anisotropy in the
exchange interaction (means that rising $\Delta$), shrinks the ferromagnetic region in $(t,r)$ plane. This shrinking behavior is more apparent for lower values
of $L$.
These facts are related to the effect of anisotropy in the exchange interaction. In the
Ising limit $(\Delta=0)$, model is extremely anisotropic,
thus more energy needed to destroy the effect of the exchange interaction. This means that a higher critical temperature. In the opposite, isotropic Heisenberg limit $(\Delta=1.0)$ it is more easy to destroy the ferromagnetic order due to the more isotropic
interactions between the spins, in comparing with Ising case.
On the other hand, nanotubes that have more layer have bigger "exchange interaction per spin" due to the number of layers. Then the critical temperature
is higher than the nanotube that has little
$L$ value, when the other values of parameters of Hamiltonian are the same.
\begin{figure}[h]\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=suscep-Delta-LL-3.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=suscep-Delta-LL-10.eps, width=7.4cm}
\end{center}\caption{Variation of magnetic susceptibility with different
thickness of MWNT with temperature
for selected values of $r=1.0$ (a) $L=3$ and (b) $L=10$. }
\label{sek4}
\end{figure}
Another important thermodynamical property is magnetic susceptibility which can be measured in experiments. Magnetic susceptibility
is a response of the system by magnetization to the external magnetic field.
Behaviors of magnetic susceptibilities by changing temperature can be seen
in Fig. \re{sek4}. As seen Fig. \re{sek4} (a) and (b), rising anisotropy in the exchange interaction causes in the peak of the curve, shifts toward to the right in $(\xi,t)$ plane. This behavior is consistent with the phase diagrams. The peak of the susceptibility
curve occurs at the critical temperature of the system. As seen in Fig.
\re{sek2}, for the value of $r=1.0$, critical temperature rises
by decreasing $\Delta$, means rising anisotropy in the exchange interaction.
Besides we can say from Fig. \re{sek4} that, rising
anisotropy in the exchange interaction causes to more intense response to the magnetic field for lower values of the number of layers. This
fact can be seen from the peak values of the susceptibility curves in Fig.
\re{sek4} (a). When the nanotube has a higher number of layers, this situation getting reverse, i.e., more intense reply comes from the less anisotropic case $(\Delta=1.0)$.
\subsection{Hysteresis properties}
Reply of the system to the magnetic field is indeed history dependent. This causes to hysteresis loops. Typical hysteresis loops of the
MWNT can be seen in Fig. \re{sek5} for some selected values of parameters of Hamiltonian and temperature. At first
sight, the effect of the temperature on the hysteresis loops can be seen by comparing Figs. \re{sek5} (a) with (b). Rising temperature
shrinks the loops. This is obvious since rising temperature weakens the order of the system due to the rising thermal fluctuations. On
the other hand, rising $r$ enlarge the loops as seen in Fig. \re{sek5} (compare
(c), (a) and (d) ). This is due to the strengthened exchange
interaction, which means that strengthened magnetic order of the nanotube. But,
we cannot say these previous type general conclusions
about the effect of the changing number of layers. For instance, while loop
related to the $L=3$ lies inside of the
loop related to the $L=7$ for the values of the parameters of $t=1.9,
\Delta=1.0, r=1.0$ (see Fig. \re{sek5} (a)), by raising $r$,
$L=3$ curve lies out of the curve related to the $L=7$ (see Fig. \re{sek5} (d)).
Moreover, at some values of the parameters, $L=3$ curve
is paramagnetic while $L=7$ is ferro (see Fig. \re{sek5} (b)).
In conclusion, the variation of the hysteresis loop with the number of the layer depends on the values of the other parameters.
\begin{figure}[h]\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=hyst-xx-1.9.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=hyst-xx-3.3.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=hyst-JJ-0.1.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=hyst-JJ-2.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Selected hysteresis loops of MWNT with $\Delta=1.0$, $L=3$ and $L=7$
for the values of
(a) $t=1.9, r=1.0$ (b) $t=3.3, r=1.0$ (c) $t=1.9, r=0.1$ and (d)
$t=1.9, r=2.0$. }
\label{sek5}\end{figure}
One quantity related to the hysteresis loop is hysteresis loop area (HLA) which is nothing but the area covered by the
closed hysteresis loop. HLA is the measure of the energy loss due to the hysteresis.
The behavior of the HLA in $(t,r)$ plane can be seen in
Fig. \re{sek6}, for selected values of $L=3,7$ and $\Delta=0.0,1.0$.
\begin{figure}[h]\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=hla-LL-3-Delta-0.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=hla-LL-3-Delta-1.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=hla-LL-7-Delta-0.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=hla-LL-7-Delta-1.0.eps, width=7.4cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Variation of HLA in $(t,r)$ plane of MWNT for selected values of
(a) $L=3, \Delta=0.0$ (b) $L=3, \Delta=1.0$ (c) $L=7, \Delta=0.0$ and (d) $L=7,
\Delta=1.0$. }
\label{sek6}\end{figure}
In general, we can say about the relation between the number of layers and HLA, a rising number of layers causes an increment of the HLA.
In other words, thicker nanotubes have higher HLA than the thinner ones. This is valid for any value of anisotropy in the exchange interaction (see Fig. \re{sek5}). One other point is related to the regions that have non zero HLA in $(t,r)$ plane.
Consistent with Fig. \re{sek2}, thicker nanotubes have a broader region in $(t,r)$ plane which has nonzero HLA. This result is consistent
by Fig. \re {sek2}, since nonzero HLA corresponds to the ferromagnetic order of the nanotube.
\section{Conclusion}\label{conclusion}
Heisenberg model for the spin-1/2 particles on MWNT geometry has been solved within the formulation EFT-2. Effect of the anisotropy in the exchange interaction and thickness of MWNT on the thermodynamical properties have been obtained. By this way, two limits of the model namely, Ising
model and isotropic Heisenberg model compared on a MWNT geometry.
Firstly, as in the layered systems such as thin films, phase diagrams of the MWNT displays a special point. At this point (special value of $r^*$), the critical temperature of the system gets independent of the number of layers. For the values that provide
$r<r^*$, thicker nanotubes have higher critical temperature and vice versa. Remember that, the value of $r$ is the ratio between the exchange interactions of the nanotube. Since exchange interaction is related to the overlapping of the atomic orbitals which constitute the nanotube, we can conclude that effect of the thickness of the MWNT on the critical temperature depends on the constituent atoms of the nanotube. While some MWNTs, thicker nanotubes have a higher critical temperature in comparison by the thinner ones, some other nanotubes which composed of different atoms this relationship may be in
the opposite form.
Another difference between the MWNT materials is anisotropy in the exchange interaction.
Rising anisotropy in the exchange interaction means that, changing model from the isotropic Heisenberg model to the Ising model.
In general critical temperature rises for the same values of the other Hamiltonian parameters. This is also valid for bulk materials.
After analysis of the order parameter, some conclusions about the behavior of the magnetic susceptibility obtained.
We can conclude about the measure of the reply to the magnetic field at the critical temperature that, for lower valued $L$ response to
the magnetic field becomes more intense when the anisotropy in the exchange interaction rises (i.e., $\Delta: 1\rightarrow 0$).
On the other hand, when the MWNT gets thicker, this relation get reverse, i.e., the peak value of the
MWNT decreases, when the anisotropy in the exchange interaction rises (i.e., $\Delta: 1\rightarrow 0$).
Last observations are on the hysteresis loops of the MWNT. After detailed investigations on the loops and HLAs, we conclude that relation between the HLA values of the thicker and thinner nanotubes depends on the $r$ value of the system.
We hope that the results obtained in this work may be beneficial
form both theoretical and experimental point of view.
\newpage
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
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2 years Continue
His first child was born when he was 17. By the time he reached age 40, Rueben Brock had been parenting for more than half of his life. Needless to say, he was looking forward to regaining his freedom when his children launched into adulthood. But, a marriage to a much younger bride who wanted children of her own made Brock a reluctant father again late in life. Unlike his earlier experience, when he was a young father, Brock suddenly found himself experiencing a whole new side of fatherhood as a middle-aged dad.
Fatherhood on the Back Nine is a new vlog from Dr. Rueben Brock, a husband, father and professor of psychology at California University of Pennsylvania. Brock's voice is witty and insightful, with a tone that feels genuine and familiar. He has a unique ability to be introspective and open while reflecting on thoughts and feelings that are all too common among parents. Anyone who is raising children will relate to Brock's stories about everyday life as a parent. He will pull on the heartstrings and challenge the minds all at the same time. The Back Nine presents a refreshingly honest take on the life of a parent in today's world.
Fatherhood on the Back Nine is available only on Youtube.
In this first entry, Dr. Rueben Brock explains his parenting journey to this point. You also get an introduction to Baby Ella, the newest addition to the family.
In the wake of the George Floyd murder, he offers a bit of insight into what this feels like for Black mothers and fathers.
Building a fence with his son and explore the difficulties of parenting during the teen years.
Sonny Boy flying for the first time. He didn't love it.
In this entry, he reflects on parenting as he builds a playset for Baby Ella.
In this entry, Doc Brock talks about the challenges of raising a Black daughter, the joys of being a girl dad, and the ways we instill that Black Girl Magic.
In this entry, He reflects on the traditions that mean the most to me and my family as his wife makes her grandmother's legendary peach cobbler.
In this entry, Dr. Rouben take a quick break from parenting in order to get a bit of rest. He does it with one of his favorite relaxation tools: fishing.
In this entry, he reflects on what it's like to be a father, without having a father to show him the way. he also reflects on his relationship with his father-in-law.
In this entry, he reflects on the lengths Baby Ella will go to get time with him. he is going to enjoy it while it lasts.
Deja un comentario X
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
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MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA. The South African mining and minerals sector has for nearly 150 years, been a pillar of the South African economy while also shaping the country"s socio-political and cultural development.
mining beneficiation in south africa ndp The National Development Plan (NDP) required an accelerated effort towards ensuring mining's continued contribution to economic growth and the elimination of the triple challenge of unemployment, inequality and poverty, South Africas new Mineral Resources Minister Ngoako Ramatlhodi said on Friday.
South Africa, despite being the most developed and diversified economy on the continent, is no different. To this end, President Zuma appointed the National Planning Commission in 2010, who through a process of rigorous consultation, put forward what is today known as South Africa's National Development Plan (NDP) or Vision 2030.
The National Development Plan. By 2012, South Africa was in need of a clear, realistic and predictable path towards a world-class mineral regulatory regime, capable of delivering decent jobs and livelihoods in an equitable and sustainable manner.
The technological readiness pillar of the South Africa's National Development Plan (NDP) measures the agility with which the economy adopts existing technologies to enhance the productivity of its industries. No industry or sector is immune from the growing need to use innovation as a competitive advantage.
"Promoting Beneficiation in South Africa" ... (beneficiation) to South Africa's minerals. ... production in mining (big contribution to the NDP).
NDP focus. All the plans of Government and the Minerals Ministry align with the National Development Plan (NDP) in order to improve the lives of citizens by 2030, stated Ramatlhodi. He said that the stability of South Africa's mining industry remained important to driving the vision of a robust socio-economic transformation.
South Africa's National Development Plan (NDP) is virtually quiet on the beneficiation issue and its long-range plan perpetuates a country that will forever remain a raw material-intensive country that will be supported by an infrastructure roll-out such as rail and roads to the ports, reckons FAWU.
The Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) briefed the Committee on mineral beneficiation in South Africa. The background to the concept of beneficiation was outlined, and reference made to the White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy, which had specifically noted that this policy would develop South Africa's mineral wealth to its full potential.
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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Q: docx with track change producing incorrect output in Apache Tika I am parsing docx files using apache tika.
AutoDetectParser parser = new AutoDetectParser();
ContentHandler contentHandler = new BodyContentHandler();
inputStream = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(inputFileName));
Metadata metadata = new Metadata();
OfficeParserConfig officeParserConfig = new OfficeParserConfig();
officeParserConfig.setIncludeDeletedContent(false);
parseContext.set(OfficeParserConfig.class, officeParserConfig);
parser.parse(inputStream, contentHandler, metadata, parseContext);
System.out.println(contentHandler.toString());
When I am sending track_revised docx file it's adding all the text deleted with the actual text and inserted text. Is there a way to tell parser to exclude the deleted text?
A: I did figure it out
AutoDetectParser parser = new AutoDetectParser();
ContentHandler contentHandler = new BodyContentHandler();
inputStream = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(inputFileName));
Metadata metadata = new Metadata();
ParseContext parseContext = new ParseContext();
OfficeParserConfig officeParserConfig = new OfficeParserConfig();
officeParserConfig.setUseSAXDocxExtractor(true);
officeParserConfig.setIncludeDeletedContent(false);
parseContext.set(OfficeParserConfig.class, officeParserConfig);
parser.parse(inputStream, contentHandler, metadata, parseContext);
System.out.println(contentHandler.toString());
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
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\section{A Taxonomy of Spatial Prediction Methods}\label{sec:approach}
\begin{figure*}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=6in]{figs/taxonomy.pdf}
\caption{A taxonomy of spatial prediction methods}
\label{fig:taxonomy}
\end{figure*}
This section provides a taxonomy of existing spatial prediction methods, as shown in Figure~\ref{fig:taxonomy}. Methods are first categorized by the unique challenge they address, including spatial autocorrelation, spatial heterogeneity, limited ground truth, and multiple spatial scales and resolutions. Within each category, we further group the methods based on the strategies they use to address the challenge. When reviewing a method, we start from the intuition behind it, highlight underlying assumptions, explain the key ideas, and discuss its advantages and disadvantages. We also discuss spatiotemporal extensions of methods in the end.
\subsection{Spatial Autocorrelation (Dependency)}\label{subsec:sa}
Addressing the challenge of spatial autocorrelation or dependency requires spatial prediction algorithms to go beyond the independence assumption. Common strategies
include spatial contextual feature generation for model inputs, spatial dependency constraint within model structure, and spatial regularization for model objective function.
\subsubsection{Spatial contextual feature generation}\label{subsubsec:scf}
One way of incorporating spatial dependency into prediction methods is to augment input data with additional spatial contextual features. The spatial context of a sample location refers to information surrounding it, such as relationships to other objects or locations, attributes of nearby samples, auxiliary semantic information from additional data sources. Once spatial contextual information is added into explanatory features, traditional non-spatial prediction methods can be used. We now introduce several approaches to generate spatial contextual features.
\emph{Spatial relationship features}: Spatial contextual features can be generated based on spatial relationships with other locations or objects, such as distance or direction, touching, lying within or overlapping with another object. Spatial relationship features can be readily used in rule-based or decision tree-based models. Examples of techniques include spatiotemporal probability tree model to classify meteorological data on storms~\cite{mcgovern_spatiotemporal_2008,mcgovern_enhanced_2013}, multi-relational spatial classification~\cite{frank_multi-relational_2009}, prediction based on spatial association rules~\cite{ding_discovery_2009}.
\emph{Spatial contextual features on raster data}: Spatial contextual features have long been used in classifying raster data (e.g., earth observation imagery) to reduce salt-and-pepper noise~\cite{lu2007survey}. Specific methods include neighborhood window filters (e.g., median filter~\cite{chan2005salt}, weighted median filter~\cite{brownrigg1984weighted}, adaptive median filter~\cite{hwang1995adaptive}, decision-based filter~\cite{chan2005salt,esakkirajan2011removal}, etc.), spatial contextual variables and textures~\cite{puissant2005utility}, neighborhood spatial autocorrelation statistics~\cite{jiang2015focal,jiang_focal-test-based_2013}, morphological profiling~\cite{benediktsson2005classification}, and object-based image analysis (e.g., mean, variance, texture of object segments)~\cite{hay2008geographic}. Sometimes, these methods are used in the post-processing step~\cite{tarabalka2009spectral}.
\emph{Spatial contextual features from multi-source data fusion}: One unique property of spatial data is that information from different sources can be fused into the same spatial framework, providing important spatial contexts for learning samples. For example, when predicting a fine-grained air quality map for an entire city, we can generate contextual features by fusing air quality records at ground stations, weather information, road network and traffic data, as well as POIs~\cite{zheng2013u}. When predicting human behaviors from location history, auxiliary data from geosocial media can provide important semantic annotations~\cite{wu2015semantic,wu2016did}. Generating contextual features through data fusion can have its own challenges (e.g., multi-modality, sparsity, noise). Various techniques have been explored such as coupled matrix factorization, and context-aware tensor decomposition with manifold~\cite{zheng2015methodologies}.
Spatial contextual feature generation is important in many practical applications (e.g., urban computing) due to two main advantages. First, generating appropriate contextual features can significantly enhance prediction accuracy due to the effectiveness of those features in explaining the response variable. Second, after spatial contextual features are generated, many traditional non-spatial predictive models can be used (e.g., random forest, support vector machine). This is sometimes convenient since there is no need to modify non-spatial prediction models or learning algorithms. At the same time, spatial contextual feature generation may require significant knowledge about the application domain.
\subsubsection{Spatial dependency within model structure}\label{sec:sainm}
Instead of generating spatial contextual features and utilizing traditional non-spatial prediction methods, we can directly incorporate spatial dependency in model structure. There are three different strategies to do that, including Markov random field based models for areal data, Gaussian process based models for point reference data, and hierarchical models with latent variables which provide a new perspective of capturing spatial dependency for both areal data and point reference data.
\emph{(1) Markov Random Field Based Models}
Markov random field (MRF) is a widely used model for areal data such as earth observation images, MRI medical images, and county level disease count map. An MRF is a random field that satisfies the Markov property: the conditional probability of the observation at one cell given observations at all remaining cells only depends on observations at its neighbors. This property is consistent with the first law of geography that ``nearby things are more related than distant things". According to the Brook's lemma~\cite{brook1964distinction}, the joint distribution of cell observations can be uniquely determined based on conditional probability specified in the Markov property. Furthermore, according to the Hammersley-Clifford theorem~\cite{clifford1990markov}, the corresponding joint distribution of MRF has a unique structure: it can be expressed by a set of potential functions on spatial neighbor cliques (i.e., symmetric functions that are unchanged by any permutations of input variables within a clique). Such a joint distribution is also called Gibb's distribution. Equation~\ref{eq:gibbs} is an example. Its potential function is $W_{i,j}(y(\mathbf{s_i})-y(\mathbf{s_j}))^2$ based on cliques of size two ($\mathbf{s_i},\mathbf{s_j}$).
The Markov property simplifies the modeling process: as long as the neighborhood structure is specified, the joint distribution of an MRF can be expressed by a potential function on neighbor cliques. Spatial prediction methods based on MRF include ones that explicitly capture spatial dependency such as Simultaneous Autoregressive models (SAR), ones that implicitly capture spatial dependency such as Conditional Autoregressive models, and ones integrating MRF with other models such as Bayesian classifiers and support vector machines.
\begin{equation}\label{eq:gibbs}
P(y(\mathbf{s_1}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n}))\propto exp\{-\frac{1}{2\sigma^2}\sum_{i,j}W_{i,j}(y(\mathbf{s_i})-y(\mathbf{s_j}))^2\}
\end{equation}
\emph{Simultaneous Autoregressive (SAR) models} (also called \emph{spatial autoregressive models} in spatial econometrics)
explicitly express spatial dependency across response
variables~\cite{anse-88}\cite{banerjee2014hierarchical}. SAR models can be better explained by comparison with linear regression. Classical linear regression model is expressed as Equation~\ref{eq:lr}, where $\mathbf{Y}$ is a $n$ by $1$ column vector
\begin{equation}\label{eq:lr}
\mathbf{Y} = \mathbf{X}\boldsymbol{\beta} + \boldsymbol{\epsilon}
\end{equation}
of all response variables, $\mathbf{X}$ is a $n$ by $m$ sample covariate (feature) matrix, $\boldsymbol{\beta}$ is a $m$ by $1$ column vector of coefficients, and $\boldsymbol{\epsilon}$ is a $n$ by $1$ column vector of i.i.d. Gaussian noise (residual errors). In contrast, the SAR model extends traditional linear regression with an additional spatial autoregressive term, as shown in Equation~\ref{eq:sar}, where $\mathbf{W}$ is row-normalized W-matrix, and $\rho$ reflects the strength of spatial
\begin{equation}\label{eq:sar}
\mathbf{Y} = \rho \mathbf{W} \mathbf{Y} + \mathbf{X} \boldsymbol{\beta} + \boldsymbol{\epsilon}
\end{equation}
dependency effect. The $i$th row of the spatial autoregressive term $\mathbf{W} \mathbf{Y}$ is a weighted average of response variables at all neighboring locations of $\mathbf{s_i}$. Another way to look at SAR is that it multiplies a ``smoother" term $(\mathbf{I}-\rho \mathbf{W})^{-1}$ to the mean and residual error of classical linear regression, i.e., $\mathbf{Y} = (\mathbf{I}-\rho \mathbf{W})^{-1}\mathbf{X} \boldsymbol{\beta} + (\mathbf{I}-\rho \mathbf{W})^{-1}\boldsymbol{\epsilon}$. Parameters in SAR can be estimated based on the maximum likelihood method. SAR model can also be extended for spatial classification via logit transformation. It is worth noting that the spatial autoregressive term can also be added into other variables than the responses, such as covariates as in the spatial Durbin model or residual errors as in the spatial error model~\cite{viton2010notes}.
\emph{Conditional autoregressive (CAR) models} implicitly express spatial dependency via conditional distribution. One common example in the Gaussian case is shown in Equation~\ref{eq:car},
\begin{equation}\label{eq:car}
y(\mathbf{s_i})|y(\mathbf{s_{j}})_{j\neq i}\sim N(\sum_j \frac{W_{ij}}{W_{i+}}y(\mathbf{s_j}), \frac{\sigma^2}{W_{i+}})
\end{equation}
where $W_{ij}$ is an element of W-matrix, and $W_{i+}$ is the sum of the $i$th row. In this case, the conditional distribution of a random variable $y(\mathbf{s_i})$ given all other random variables $y(\mathbf{s_{j}})_{j\neq i}$ follows a Gaussian distribution with a mean of neighborhood weighted average. It has been shown in~\cite{banerjee2014hierarchical} that the corresponding joint distribution is the same as Equation~\ref{eq:gibbs}. The main advantage of CAR models is that spatial dependency can be easily captured via potential functions on neighboring cliques. However, the joint distribution can be improper (the integral of the CAR model above is not equal to one). In practice, such CAR models are often used as a prior distribution for Bayesian models~\cite{assunccao2009neighborhood}.
\emph{Integrating MRF with other models}: MRF models can also be integrated with other classification and regression methods to incorporate spatial dependency. One important example is MRF-based Bayes classifiers. Bayes classifiers are classification models that utilize maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) estimate in Bayes theorem, i.e.,
\begin{equation}\label{eq:bc}
\begin{split}
\widehat{\mathbf{Y}}&=\arg\max_{\mathbf{Y}} \ln P(\mathbf{Y}|\mathbf{X}) \\
&= \arg\max_{\mathbf{Y}} \ln P(\mathbf{Y}) + \ln P(\mathbf{X}|\mathbf{Y}) \\
&= \arg\max_{\mathbf{Y}} \sum_i \ln P(y(\mathbf{s_i})) + \sum_i \ln P(\mathbf{x(s_i)}|y(\mathbf{s_i}))
\end{split}
\end{equation}
where $\mathbf{X}$ and $\mathbf{Y}$ are features and class labels for all samples respectively. The last step of Equation~\ref{eq:bc} is based on the i.i.d. assumption. MRF-based Bayes classifier~\cite{li2009markov} replaces the i.i.d. assumption with spatial dependency via MRF models in order to reduce salt-and-pepper noise~\cite{chawla_modeling_2001,Shekhar-02}. Specifically, the joint distribution $P(\mathbf{Y})$ is expressed as a Markov random field with potential functions defined on neighbor cliques. For example,
\begin{equation}\label{eq:mrfbc}
\begin{split}
\widehat{\mathbf{Y}}&=\arg\max_{\mathbf{Y}} \ln P(\mathbf{Y}|\mathbf{X}) \\
&= \arg\max_{\mathbf{Y}} \ln P(\mathbf{Y}) + \ln P(\mathbf{X}|\mathbf{Y}) \\
&= \arg\max_{\mathbf{Y}}~\left\{ \sum_{ij}\lambda W_{ij}(1-\delta(y(\mathbf{s_i}),y(\mathbf{s_j})))\right. \\
&~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\left.+ \sum_i \ln P(\mathbf{x(s_i)}|y(\mathbf{s_i}))\right\}
\end{split}
\end{equation}
where $\lambda$ is the weight for spatial dependency, the term $1-\delta(y(\mathbf{s_i}),y(\mathbf{s_j}))$ is a potential function with $\delta$ as Kronecker delta function (i.e., $\delta(y(\mathbf{s_i}),y(\mathbf{s_j}))=1$ if $y(\mathbf{s_i})=y(\mathbf{s_j})$, and $\delta(y(\mathbf{s_i}),y(\mathbf{s_j}))=0$ otherwise). The posterior probability shown in Equation~\ref{eq:mrfbc} can be considered as an energy function, which is the sum of potential functions on neighboring classes $y(\mathbf{s_i})$ and $y(\mathbf{s_j})$ as well as between the feature $\mathbf{x(s_i)}$ and class $y(\mathbf{s_j})$ for each sample. Parameters in MRF-based Bayes classifiers can be estimated via graph cut~\cite{boykov2001fast} and iterations~\cite{besag1986statistical,jackson2002adaptive}. MRF-based models with other potential functions have been applied to earth science problems such as drought detection~\cite{fu_drought_2012}.
Another model similar to MRF is \emph{conditional random field} (CRF)~\cite{lafferty2001conditional}, which directly models spatial dependency within the conditional probability function $P(\mathbf{Y}|\mathbf{X})$ in Equation~\ref{eq:mrfbc}. Its potential function on class labels within a clique is conditioned on feature vector $\mathbf{X}$. Several variants of CRF have been proposed including decoupled conditional random field~\cite{lee_efficient_2006}, discriminative random field~\cite{kumar2003discriminative} and support vector random field~\cite{lee_support_2005}. The difference between MRF and CRF is that the former is generative while the latter is discriminative.
The advantage of MRF-based models is that spatial dependency can be modeled in a very intuitive and simple way (designing potential functions). The limitations include high computational cost in parameter estimation and strong assumptions on the structure of joint probability distribution. In addition, neighborhood relationships are assumed to be given as inputs. Thus, fixed neighborhoods such as square windows are often used for simplicity. For applications where spatial data is anisotropic, determining spatial neighborhood structure is also a challenge.
\emph{(2) Gaussian process based (Kriging)}
Different from MRF based models that are used for areal data, Gaussian process based models are used for spatial prediction (interpolation) on point reference data~\cite{banerjee2014hierarchical}. Given observations of a variable at sample locations in continuous space, the problem aims to interpolate the variable at an unobserved location. Gaussian process assumes that observations at any set of sample locations jointly follow a multivariate Gaussian distribution. The mean term at a location is determined by its local covariates. The residual error term at a location is assumed to be weakly stationary and isotropic, so that the covariance matrix can be expressed as a function of distance (covariogram).
Specifically, Gaussian process (Kriging) assumes that any set of sample observations $\mathbf{Y}=[y(\mathbf{s_1}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n})]^T$ follows a multivariate Gaussian distribution $N(\boldsymbol{\mu},\boldsymbol{\Sigma})$, where $\boldsymbol{\mu}=\mathbf{X}\boldsymbol{\beta}$ and $\boldsymbol{\Sigma}$ is the covariance matrix $\Sigma_{ij}=Cov(y(\mathbf{s_i}),y(\mathbf{s_j}))=C(\mathbf{s_i}-\mathbf{s_j})$. The main difference of Gaussian process from classical regression is that the residual errors are not mutually independent (the covariance matrix is not diagonal, and the non-diagonal elements can be determined based on covariogram $C(\mathbf{h})$). It can be shown that the optimal predictor (minimizing expected square loss) of $y(\mathbf{s_0})$ given other observations $y(\mathbf{s_1}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n})$ is the conditional expectation as shown in Equation~\ref{eq:gp}, which can be estimated based on the covariance structure from covariogram~\cite{banerjee2014hierarchical}. This method is
also called \emph{universal} Kriging since it involves covariates $\mathbf{X}$. Special cases without covariates include \emph{simple Kriging} (with known constant mean) and \emph{ordinary Kriging} (with unknown constant mean)~\cite{zimmerman1999experimental}.
\begin{equation}\label{eq:gp}
\widehat{y}(\mathbf{s_0})=E[y(\mathbf{s_0})|y(\mathbf{s_1}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n})]
\end{equation}
\begin{comment}
\[
\left (
\begin{tabular}{c}
$Y_1$ \\
$Y_2$ \\
\end{tabular}
\right )
\sim
N\left (
\begin{tabular}{c}
$\mu_1$ \\
$\mu_2$ \\
\end{tabular}
,
\left [
\begin{tabular}{cc}
$\Sigma_{11}$&$\Sigma_{12}$ \\
$\Sigma_{21}$&$\Sigma_{22}$ \\
\end{tabular}
\right ]
\right )
\]
then $E(Y_1|Y_2)=\mu_1+\Sigma_{12}\Sigma_{22}^{-1}(Y_2-\mu_2)$. In our case, $Y_1=y(s_0)$, $Y_2=(y(s_1),...,y(s_n))^T$, thus the optimal predictor can be specified as $\widehat{y}(s_0)=x(s_0)^T\beta+C_{0*}^T C^{-1}(y-X\beta)$. The parameter $\beta$ as well as covariances $C_{0*}$ and $C$ can be estimated separately from data.
\end{comment}
\begin{table}
\centering
\caption{Comparison between Markov random field and Gaussian process}
\label{tab:mrfgp}
\begin{tabular}{p{0.6in}p{1.1in}p{1.2in}}\hline
Method & Markov random field & Gaussian process \\ \hline
Spatial data & Areal data & Point reference data\\ \hline
Spatial dependency & Neighborhood adjacency matrix & Variogram (covariance function on distance)\\ \hline
Assumption & Conditional independence given neighbors & Isotropy (covariance depends on distance only)\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Gaussian process shares some similarities with MRF in that both of them incorporate spatial dependency (autocorrelation) across sample locations into model structure. There are several differences, however, as summarized in Table~\ref{tab:mrfgp}: first, Gaussian process is developed for point reference data while MRF is developed for areal data; second, MRF models spatial dependency through W-matrix ($W$) while Gaussian process models spatial dependency through covariance function on spatial distance (covariogram). Similar to MRF which assumes a given neighborhood structure and the Markov property, Gaussian process has assumptions on spatial stationarity and isotropy.
\emph{(3) Hierarchical model with latent variables}
Spatial autocorrelation or dependency can be incorporated into predictive models by adding some spatially autocorrelated latent variables into Bayesian hierarchical models (graphical models). Indeed, the Markov random field based models and Gaussian process models discussed above can be considered as special cases or building blocks for hierarchical models with latent variables.
For instance, in Gaussian process (Kriging), sample observations $\mathbf{Y}$ is assumed to follow a multivariate Gaussian distribution $N(\boldsymbol{\mu}, \boldsymbol{\Sigma})$ where $\boldsymbol{\mu}=\mathbf{X}\boldsymbol{\beta}$, and the covariance matrix $\boldsymbol{\Sigma}$ can be decomposed into two components, one is $\sigma^2\mathbf{I}$ for i.i.d. Gaussian noise, and the other is a non-diagonal matrix $\mathbf{H}$ to capture covariance based on covariogram $H_{ij}=C(\mathbf{s_i}-\mathbf{s_j})$ (introduced in Section~\ref{subsubsec:sa}). This formulation can be rewritten as a hierarchical model in Equation~\ref{eq:hier1}, where $\omega\mathbf{(s_i)}$ is a latent
\begin{equation}\label{eq:hier1}
y(\mathbf{s_i}) = \mathbf{x(s_i)}^T\boldsymbol{\beta} + \omega\mathbf{(s_i)} + \epsilon\mathbf{(s_i)}
\end{equation}
variable and the vector $[\omega\mathbf{(s_1)},...,\omega\mathbf{(s_n)}]^T$ follows a multivariate Gaussian distribution with zero mean and covariance matrix $\mathbf{H}$~\cite{banerjee2014hierarchical}. The hierarchical model expresses the response variables by adding i.i.d. noise and non-i.i.d. variables for spatial effect. It is illustrated in Figure~\ref{fig:hiegp}, in which $\epsilon\mathbf{(s_i)}$ and $\epsilon\mathbf{(s_j)}$ (as well as $\mathbf{x(s_i)}$ and $\mathbf{x(s_j)}$) are independent, $y(\mathbf{s_i})$ and $y(\mathbf{s_j})$ are conditionally independent given latent variables $\omega\mathbf{(s_i)}$ and $\omega\mathbf{(s_j)}$. Latent variables $\omega\mathbf{(s_i)}$ at different locations $\mathbf{s_i}$ reflect the spatial (autocorrelation) effect since they follow a joint Gaussian distribution with a non-diagonal covariance matrix (i.e., correlation exists across neighboring $\omega\mathbf{(s_i)}$ and $\omega\mathbf{(s_j)}$).
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=2in]{figs/hieGP.pdf}
\caption{Hierarchical model view for Gaussian process}
\label{fig:hiegp}
\end{figure}
Another instance of example is disease risk mapping on areal data~\cite{banerjee2014hierarchical}. The count of disease events at one county $\mathbf{s_i}$ can be assumed to follow a Poisson distribution $Po(n(\mathbf{s_i}) r(\mathbf{s_i}))$ where $n(\mathbf{s_i})$ is the known number of high risk people, $r(\mathbf{s_i})$ is the variable for disease risk ($r(\mathbf{s_i})\in[0,1]$), and $n(\mathbf{s_i}) r(\mathbf{s_i})$ is the expectation of the Poisson distribution in county $\mathbf{s_i}$. We assume the distribution in Equation~\ref{eq:hier2a}, where $\mathbf{x(s_i)}$ is the covariate vector, $\boldsymbol{\beta}$ is the
\begin{equation}\label{eq:hier2a}
r(\mathbf{s_i})=exp\{\mathbf{x(s_i)}^T\boldsymbol{\beta} + \epsilon(\mathbf{s_i})\}
\end{equation}
coefficient vector, and $\epsilon(\mathbf{s_i})$ is i.i.d. Gaussian noise, then the problems becomes a non-spatial problem, i.e., each county is independent from each other. However, in reality, though disease risk at different counties may be different, nearby counties have a high tendency to have similar risks. To reflect this phenomena, we can further model the disease risks at different counties as in Equation~\ref{fig:hier2}, where $\omega\mathbf{(s_i)}$ is an
\begin{equation}\label{eq:hier2}
r(\mathbf{s_i})=exp\{\mathbf{x(s_i)}^T\boldsymbol{\beta} + \omega\mathbf{(s_i)} + \epsilon(\mathbf{s_i})\}
\end{equation}
additive term for the spatial autocorrelation effect. For instance, $\omega\mathbf{(s_i)}$ can be a conditional autoregressive (CAR) model. This hierarchical model has a similar structure as the one in Figure~\ref{fig:hiegp} based on the similar conditional independence assumption.
Latent variable can also be used to incorporate spatial autocorrelation for corrupted observation data. Observations of a target variable may be corrupted or missing due to noise or errors in data collection process, even though the true values of the variable should be uncorrupted with a high spatial autocorrelation. Corrupted observations will impact the performance of predictive models since training samples are inaccurate. To address this issue, a latent variable approach has been proposed~\cite{DBLP:conf/kdd/KimYTM15}, in which a corrupted observation $y(\mathbf{s_i})$ depends on a corresponding uncorrupted (spatially autocorrelated) latent variable $z(\mathbf{s_i})$, i.e., $y(\mathbf{s_i})=f(z(\mathbf{s_i}))$, and the latent variable depends on covariates $z(\mathbf{s_i})=g(\mathbf{x(s_i)})$. The entire model is hierarchical as illustrated in Figure~\ref{fig:hier2}. Model learning involves estimating parameters for functions $f$ and $h$.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1.92in]{figs/hieSTSequence.pdf}
\caption{Hierarchical model view for spatial sequence with corrupted class labels $y$}
\label{fig:hier2}
\end{figure}
The advantage of using hierarchical models with latent variables to incorporate spatial dependency is that the modeling process is simple and intuitive, providing flexibility in model design. For example, such models have been used in real estate appraisal~\cite{DBLP:conf/kdd/FuXGYZZ14} and event forecasting from social media data~\cite{DBLP:conf/sdm/ZhaoCLR15}.
The main issue is the computational cost. Learning parameters involves iterative methods such as EM algorithms or Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation. The computational cost can be high for large data with many nodes (variables).
\subsubsection{Spatial regularization in objective function}\label{sect:sasr}
In addition to explicitly modify model structure to capture spatial dependency, we can also extend the objective (or loss) function with an additional spatial regularization term. In this way, the learning algorithm favors parameter values that not only make accurate prediction at individual locations but also show high spatial autocorrelation in predicted map. The model here can refer to a single model such as linear regression or a composite of multiple models with one at each location.
\begin{table*}
\centering
\caption{Comparison of different methods addressing spatial autocorrelation}
\label{tab:compauto}
\begin{tabular}{p{1.2in}p{2.5in}p{2.5in}}\hline
Method &Advantages& Disadvantages\\ \hline
Spatial contextual feature generation & Easy to use, do not require modifying models and learning algorithms, no restriction on model types & Subjective, need to regenerate all candidate features for each problem \\ \hline
Spatial dependency in model structure & Intuitive, clear theoretical properties & Restricted to fixed type of models and distributions, model learning is computational expensive\\ \hline
Spatial regularization in object function & Intuitive, clear theoretical properties, less restriction on types of models & Requiring models with differentiable objective functions, no guarantee with optimal solutions, computationally expensive\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table*}
\emph{Spatial regularization in multi-model prediction:} Multi-model prediction utilizes a composite of local models with one model at each location (or sub-region) in the study area. Each local model has its own parameters that can be learned by minimizing prediction errors on learning samples at this location. However, independently learning these local models at individual locations risks overfitting due to the large number of parameters in multiple models. To solve this issue, spatial autocorrelation constraint on model parameters can be added to the objective function. The main idea is to create an overall loss function by summing up individual loss of local models with a regularization term that penalizes inconsistent model parameters at neighboring locations. The underlying assumption is that nearby models should have similar parameters due to spatial autocorrelation.
One common spatial regularizer based on the spatial autocorrelation effect is graph Laplacian regularizer~\cite{weinberger2007graph}. The idea is to consider each local model as a node and spatial neighborhood relationships between locations as edges, and to penalize neighboring nodes with very different parameters. Approaches have been proposed with different types of base models, including linear regression~\cite{subbian_climate_2013}, logistic regression~\cite{DBLP:conf/sdm/DataKKBK14}, and support vector machine~\cite{stoeckel_svm_2005,DBLP:conf/sdm/DataKKBK14}. Consider linear regression base model as an example, the traditional loss function is the sum of square errors, i.e.,
\begin{equation}
L(\boldsymbol{\Theta})=\sum_i \|\mathbf{X(s_i)}\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_i)}-\mathbf{Y(s_i)}\|_2^2
\end{equation}
where $\mathbf{s_i}$ is the location (or region) for the $i$th model (task), $\mathbf{X(s_i)}$ and $\mathbf{Y(s_i)}$ are the feature matrix and response vector for all samples at $s_i$, and $\boldsymbol{\Theta}=[\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_1)},...,\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_n)}]$ is a $m$ by $n$ matrix of all model parameters. Minimizing $L(\boldsymbol{\Theta})$ is equivalent to minimize loss functions on each location $s_i$ independently since there parameters $\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_i)}$ and $\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_j)}$ are independent for $i\neq j$. This leads to a large number of parameters and potential risks for model overfitting. To address this issue, graph Laplacian regularizer is added, penalizing differences of model parameters at neighboring locations. Specifically, the regularization term is
\begin{equation}
\Omega(\boldsymbol{\Theta})=\frac{1}{2}\sum_{ij}W_{ij}\|\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_i)}-\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_j)}\|_2^2=Trace(\boldsymbol{\Theta} \mathbf{L} \boldsymbol{\Theta}^T)
\end{equation}
where $W_{ij}$ is the element of W-matrix with $W_{ij}=1$ when $\mathbf{s_i}$ and $\mathbf{s_j}$ are neighbors and $W_{ij}=0$ otherwise, $\mathbf{L}$ is a graph Laplacian matrix.
The combined loss function will be Equation~\ref{eq:sploss}, where $\lambda$ controls the degree of spatial smoothness among parameters.
\begin{equation}\label{eq:sploss}
L(\boldsymbol{\Theta})=\sum_i \|\mathbf{X(s_i)}\boldsymbol{\theta}\mathbf{(s_i)}-\mathbf{Y(s_i)}\|_2^2+\lambda Trace(\boldsymbol{\Theta} \mathbf{L} \boldsymbol{\Theta}^T)
\end{equation}
The advantage of this approach is that the model is very intuitive, easily interpretable, and generally applicable to different base models as long as their loss function is differentiable. In practice, parameters can be estimated iteratively via Newton Raphson methods~\cite{avriel2003nonlinear}. It is worth noting that the graph Laplacian regularizer here has subtle differences from the one often used in semi-supervised learning. In semi-supervised learning, there is only one model instead of multiple models, and the regularizer penalizes parameter values whose model predictions at neighboring locations are inconsistent.
\emph{Spatial decision trees:} Decision tree classifiers have been widely used for spatial classification problem in earth science~\cite{hansen2000global,pal2003assessment} due to simplicity, interpretability, computational efficiency, and being non-parametric. However, decision tree implicitly assumes that samples are independent and identically distributed. This assumption is often violated in spatial data due to spatial autocorrelation, resulting in artifacts in prediction results. To address this limitation, \emph{spatial decision trees} have been proposed~\cite{jiang_learning_2012,li_spatial_2006,stojanova2011global,stojanova2012dealing,jiang2015focal} that incorporate the spatial autocorrelation effect into decision tree learning algorithms. This is usually done by modifying the entropy or information gain heuristic. The main idea is that selection of a tree node test should be based on not only class purification but also the spatial arrangement of samples being split on the map.
Specifically, decision trees often use entropy and information gain measures to select tree node tests. Entropy measures the impurity of class distribution. Its value is high when the probabilities of different classes are close with each other (high class impurity). Information gain is defined as the decrease of entropy after training samples are split by a tree node test. Decision tree learning algorithms select a tree node test with the maximum information gain each time. However, this heuristic ignores the spatial pattern on how training samples are split on a map. According to spatial autocorrelation, we can assume that nearby training samples with the same class should be split into the same subset, such that they are likely to be predicted into the same class. Several approaches have been proposed that extend the traditional entropy or information gain definition with spatial regularization, including spatial entropy based on spatial distance~\cite{li_spatial_2006}, spatial information gain based on spatial autocorrelation statistics such as Moran's I and Geary's C~\cite{stojanova2011global,stojanova2012dealing} and Gamma index~\cite{jiang_learning_2012}.
Different spatial entropy or information gain definitions make different assumptions on the ground truth class map. Distance based spatial entropy assumes that samples from each class form a globally compact cluster with high inter-class sample distance and low inner-class sample distance. Spatial autocorrelation statistics based spatial information gain assumes that there are good tree node tests that can separate neighboring samples from different classes into different subsets while keeping neighboring samples from the same class within the same subset.
Spatial decision tree inherits the merits of decision tree model family such as interpretability and non-parametric nature. However, since entropy and information gain is only a greedy heuristic, there is no guarantee on global optimality. For example, if all input feature maps tend to have poor spatial autocorrelation, spatial entropy or information gain will still select one among them. In this scenario, extending the candidate tree node tests to incorporate neighborhood autocorrelation statistics will help~\cite{jiang2015focal}.
{\it Spatial accuracy objective function:} In traditional classification problems, the objective function is often measured on each sample, e.g., if a sample is misclassified or not, regardless how far the predicted class is away from the nearest true class. Consider the example of classifying raster cells into ``with bird nest" and ``without bird nest". If a cell that is mistakenly predicted as ``with bird nest" is very close to an actual bird nest cell, the prediction accuracy on this sample should be considered higher than zero. Thus, spatial accuracy~\cite{chawla_modeling_2001} has been proposed to measure not only how accurate each cell is predicted by itself but also how far it is from the nearest location of its true class.
Table~\ref{tab:compauto} compares the three different strategies to incorporate spatial autocorrelation (or dependency) into spatial prediction, including spatial contextual feature generation, spatial dependency within model structure, and spatial regularization in objective function. Spatial feature generation is simple and intuitive, without the need of modifying model structures and learning algorithms. But selecting candidate features can be subjective, requiring strong knowledge related to the application domain. The process needs to be repeated for a different problem instance. The latter two approaches are intuitive with clear theoretical properties, making it easy to design models and learning algorithms. But they rely on strong assumptions on model types, and are often computationally expensive.
\subsection{Spatial Heterogeneity}\label{sect:sh}
Spatial heterogeneity is another major challenge in spatial prediction problems. Spatial data samples often do not follow an identical distribution in the entire study area. A global model that is learned from samples in the entire study area may produce poor predictions for local regions. For example, the relationships between house price and house age may differ dramatically between suburb and urban areas. There are several approaches in the literature to address the challenge of spatial heterogeneity, including location dependent model parameters, decomposition based spatial ensemble, and multi-task learning. The main idea behind these methods is to use a composite of local or regional models that are location sensitive to replace a single global model.
\subsubsection{Spatial coordinate features}
One simple strategy to make a model location sensitive is to incorporate spatial coordinates into the feature (covariate) vector. For example, incorporating spatial coordinate features into regression can fit a trend surface that is location dependent. Similarly, spatial coordinate features in decision trees can split samples not only in the feature space but also in the geographic space. However, due to the fact that spatial locations are multi-dimensional, considering spatial coordinates as separate features cannot effectively model heterogeneous spatial data where homogeneous sub-regions have arbitrary footprint shapes. For example, a decision tree model learned from data with spatial coordinate features often partitions the geographical space in parallel with the vertical or horizontal axis, and thus cannot effectively partition the geographic space into irregular footprints.
\begin{table*}
\centering
\caption{Comparison of different methods addressing spatial heterogeneity}
\label{tab:comphetero}
\begin{tabular}{p{1.2in}p{2.5in}p{2.5in}}\hline
Method &Advantages& Disadvantages\\ \hline
Geographical weighted model & Simple and intuitive, clear theoretical properties, no restriction on types of models & Underlying assumption of isotropy can be invalid\\ \hline
Decomposition based spatial ensemble &No restriction on types of models and shapes of homogeneous zones &Decomposing space into homogeneous zones for local models can be non-trivial \\ \hline
Multi-task learning & No restriction on shapes of homogeneous zones, capturing spatial dependency between local models & Restriction to local models with differentiable objective functions, decomposing space into homogeneous zones for local models can be non-trivial\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table*}
\subsubsection{Geographically Weighted Models}
A geographically weighted model addresses the challenge of spatial heterogeneity, particularly spatial non-stationarity, by learning a distinct model at each location so that the model parameters are location dependent. When learning a local model, training samples are geographically weighted so that nearby samples have higher weights.
One common example is geographically weighted regression (GWR)~\cite{fotheringham2002geographically}. GWR can be better explained through comparison with classical linear regression. In linear regression, $y(\mathbf{s_i})=\mathbf{x(s_i)}^T\boldsymbol{\beta} + \epsilon(\mathbf{s_i})$, model coefficients $\boldsymbol{\beta}$ are assumed to be identical for the entire study area. In contrast, the model coefficients of GWR is location dependent $y(\mathbf{s_i})=\mathbf{x(s_i)}^T\boldsymbol{\beta}(\mathbf{s_i}) + \epsilon(\mathbf{s_i})$. The coefficient
$\boldsymbol{\beta}(\mathbf{s_0})$ at a new location $\mathbf{s_0}$ can be learned by weighted least square errors, where the weight for each training sample is determined by its distance to $\mathbf{s_0}$. Specifically, this is shown in Equation~\ref{eq:gwr},
\begin{equation}\label{eq:gwr}
\beta(\mathbf{s_0})=\mathrm{argmin}_{\beta(\mathbf{s_0})} \sum_i w(\mathbf{s_i},\mathbf{s_0})(y(\mathbf{s_i})-\mathbf{x(s_i)}^T\boldsymbol{\beta(s_0)})^2
\end{equation}
where $w(\mathbf{s_i},\mathbf{s_0})$ is determined by a spatial kernel weighting function, e.g., $w(\mathbf{s_i},\mathbf{s_0})=exp\{-\frac{1}{2}\|\mathbf{s_i}-\mathbf{s_0}\|_2^2\}$. A sample that is closer to the current model location has a higher weight following the spatial autocorrelation effect, as illustrated by Figure~\ref{fig:gwr}. It is worth noting that both GWR and SAR (Section~\ref{sec:sainm}) are spatial regression models that incorporates spatial autocorrelation or dependency. The main difference is that SAR still assumes that model coefficients are same for all locations, and thus does not address the challenge of spatial heterogeneity, while GWR addresses spatial heterogeneity by learning a set of model parameters at each location.
The main idea of geographically weighted models using spatial kernel weighting has been extended to general linear models~\cite{nakaya2005geographically} and principle component analysis~\cite{harris2011geographically}. It can also be generalized to many other methods, such as decision trees, support vector machines. In these cases, we only need to precompute the relative weights for all other samples to a location of interest so that a local model can be learned for that location.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{figs/kernels.pdf}
\caption{Illustration of geographically weighted model based on kernel function (source of image:\cite{fotheringham2002geographically})}
\label{fig:gwr}
\end{figure}
The advantages of geographically weighted models include simplicity and effectiveness in incorporating local effects. Two main limitations exist though. First, the computational cost is high since a model needs to be learned for each location of interest in the continuous space. Second, geographical weights of samples are determined by spatial kernel functions assuming that the geographical influence of samples to a location only depends on their distances (spatial isotropy). This assumption is often violated by real world geographic data due to spatial anisotropy when homogeneous sub-regions have arbitrary shape.
\subsubsection{Decomposition based ensemble}
The assumption is that spatial data consists of a number of homogeneous sub-population within which the relationship between sample features and class labels is consistent. Based on this assumption, decomposition based ensemble learning uses a divide-and-conquer strategy to first partition data into different homogeneous sub-groups, and then learns a local model in each sub-group. This approach generally belongs to ensemble learning~\cite{ren2016ensemble,zhou2012ensemble,dietterich2000ensemble}, which aims to boost predictive accuracy by learning multiple based models.
Several decomposition based ensemble methods partition multi-modular input data in feature vector space, including
mixture of experts~\cite{jacobs1991adaptive,jordan1994hierarchical} and multimodal ensemble~\cite{KarpatneK15,karpatne2015ensemble}.
Partitioning is often done via feature clustering, or a gating network. However, partitioning input data in feature vector space may not effectively separate samples with class ambiguity, i.e., samples with similar explanatory features belong to different classes in different spatial regions. Several approaches have been proposed to partition spatial samples in the geographical space. One approach is to use auxiliary information such as road networks and census blocks together with spectral information to segment satellite imagery into different sub-regions~\cite{vatsavai_hybrid_2011}. Similarly, a two-step spatial ensemble method has been proposed that first segments sample locations into homogeneous patches, then group patches into different zones via a bisecting algorithms~\cite{jiang_ensemble_2017}. Another approach is based on competition strategy~\cite{radosavljevic_spatio-temporal_2008}, which involves an initial partitioning, and sample shifting across boundaries.
Decomposition based ensemble has several advantages. First, the spatial footprints of local models can have arbitrary shapes. This overcomes the limitations of geographically weighted models, which assume spatial isotropy (circular shapes). Second, once spatial decomposition is done in preprocessing, traditional classification models can be used for each sub-region without the need of developing new classification algorithms. Several limitations exist as well. First, finding a good decomposition in geographic space is computationally challenging. Second, most decomposition-based spatial ensemble approaches assume that future test samples lie within the same spatial framework as training samples. Thus, methods cannot be applied to test samples beyond the training area.
\subsubsection{Multi-task learning}
Multi-task learning is a common machine learning technique for heterogeneous data~\cite{Caruana1997}. The main idea is to group learning samples into different tasks, and to simultaneously learn models in different tasks according to task relatedness (e.g., models from related tasks share the same set of features). When used to address spatial heterogeneity, multi-task learning approach is similar to decomposition based ensemble approach above in that it also learns local models (tasks) in different regions or locations, but it is different in that parameters of local models are jointly learned together according to the task relatedness (nearby models tend to have similar parameters).
The main question is how to identify different tasks and task relationships. One approach is to use each location (spatial point or raster cell) as a task and to use spatial neighborhood relationships as task relatedness, which can be determined by spatial distance or cell adjacency~\cite{subbian_climate_2013,DBLP:conf/kdd/ZhaoSYCLR15}.
Another approach is to conduct spatial clustering on sample locations. Each cluster is a task, and clusters that are closer to each other are more related~\cite{DBLP:conf/sdm/DataKKBK14}. Task relatedness can also be determined by inferring conditional independence of class probability distribution~\cite{gonccalves2015multi}. When learning models from related tasks, a graph Laplacian regularizer can be used to enforce that nearby models have similar parameters~\cite{subbian_climate_2013,DBLP:conf/sdm/DataKKBK14} (details are in spatial regularization for multiple model prediction in Section~\ref{sect:sasr}). Graph Laplacian regularizer will not only incorporate spatial autocorrelation effect, but also reduce overfitting when the number of training samples is limited. The base models can be linear model, or generalized linear model such as logistic regression, as well as other models as long as the objective function is differentiable.
Similar to decomposition based ensemble, multi-task learning approach has the advantage of flexibility in spatial footprint shapes of sub-regions. It has additional advantages of incorporating spatial autocorrelation and avoiding overfitting with limited training samples. However, it also has more constraints on the choice of base models (those with differentiable objective functions). In addition, determining sub-regions for local tasks as well as relationships between tasks can be non-trivial. A detailed comparison of geographically weighted models, decomposition based spatial ensemble, and multi-task learning approaches are summarized in Table~\ref{tab:comphetero}.
\subsection{Limited Ground Truth}\label{subsec:limited}
In real world spatial prediction problems, input data often contains abundant explanatory features but very limited ground truth. For example, in earth image classification for land cover mapping, a large number of learning samples (image pixels) are collected with explanatory features (spectral band values) but only a small set of these samples have ground truth (land cover types). Collecting ground truth is both expensive and time consuming, requiring to send a field crew on the ground or recruit visual interpreters. There are two general strategies to address the challenge, including semi-supervised learning and active learning.
\subsubsection{Semi-supervised learning}
Semi-supervised learning methods utilize labeled samples together with unlabeled samples in model learning to improve prediction performance. There are many different semi-supervised learning methods, including generative models such as mixture of Gaussian with EM algorithm, graph-based methods, transductive support vector machine, co-training and self-training (more details can be found in a survey~\cite{zhu2005semi}). Due to space limit, we briefly introduce three popular methods that have been used in spatial classification and prediction problems.
\emph{Generative mixture of models and EM algorithm:} This method assumes that feature values of samples from different classes follow a mixture model such as mixture of Gaussian. Unlabeled samples are used to improve the estimate of conditional distribution of feature values under each class.
For example, in Gaussian mixture model, the joint distribution of features and classes is $P(\mathbf{x(s_i)},y(\mathbf{s_i})=c_j)=\alpha_{c_j} N(\mathbf{x(s_i)};\boldsymbol{\mu}_{c_j},\boldsymbol{\Sigma}_{c_j})$, where $\alpha_{c_j}$ is the prior probability $P(y(\mathbf{s_i})=c_j)$, $\boldsymbol{\mu}_{c_j}$ and $\boldsymbol{\Sigma}_{c_j}$ are the mean and covariance of the normal distribution for conditional probability $P(\mathbf{x(s_i)}|y(\mathbf{s_i})=c_j)$.
Unlabeled samples can be incorporated in the maximum likelihood estimation of model parameters. Specifically, the log likelihood function with both labeled and unlabeled samples can be written as
\begin{equation}\label{eq:semi}
\begin{split}
LL(\mathbf{X},\mathbf{Y};\boldsymbol{\Phi})=\sum_{1\leq i\leq n_L} \log\left(\alpha_{y(\mathbf{s_i})} N(\mathbf{x(s_i)};\boldsymbol{\mu}_{y(\mathbf{s_i})},\boldsymbol{\Sigma}_{y(\mathbf{s_i})})\right)+\\
\sum_{n_L+1\leq i\leq n_L+n_U} \log\left(\sum_{y(\mathbf{s_i})\in \mathcal{C}}\alpha_{y(\mathbf{s_i})} N(\mathbf{x(s_i)};\boldsymbol{\mu}_{y(\mathbf{s_i})},\boldsymbol{\Sigma}_{y(\mathbf{s_i})})\right)
\end{split}
\end{equation}
where $\boldsymbol{\Phi}$ represents all parameters, $n_L$ and $n_U$ are the numbers of labeled and unlabeled samples respectively. The log likelihood of unlabeled samples are incorporated in the second term of Equation~\ref{eq:semi}, where their unknown class labels (latent variables) are marginalized out (summation over $y(\mathbf{s_i})\in \mathcal{C}$). Expectation and Maximization (EM) algorithm can be used~\cite{dempster1977maximum} to iteratively update model parameters and the hidden classes of unlabeled samples (latent variables).
Gaussian mixture model has been used in semi-supervised classification of earth imagery with the maximum likelihood classifiers~\cite{DBLP:conf/icdm/VatsavaiSB08,DBLP:conf/igarss/VatsavaiBSB08}. Its advantages include clear assumptions and theoretical properties. The main limitation is that the assumptions of i.i.d. distribution and Gaussian class conditional distribution can be violated by real world spatial data. Ideas have been explored that incorporate the Markov property into semi-supervised max likelihood classifiers~\cite{DBLP:journals/paapp/VatsavaiSB07}.
\emph{Graph-based methods:} The graph-based approach first constructs a graph, in which nodes are spatial data samples (both labeled and unlabeled) and the edges are determined by the distance or similarity between samples (e.g., feature similarity, geographical proximity, or both via composite kernels~\cite{camps2007semi}). The main assumption is that samples that are close with each other have a high chance to share the same class labels. The loss function thus consists of two components, one for the prediction accuracy on labeled samples, and the other for the smoothness of predictions on neighboring samples. Specifically,
\begin{equation}
L(\mathbf{Y},\widehat{\mathbf{Y}})=\sum_i (y(\mathbf{s_i})-\widehat{y}(\mathbf{s_i}))^2 + \lambda\sum_{i,j} W_{ij}(\widehat{y}(\mathbf{s_i})-\widehat{y}(\mathbf{s_j}))^2
\end{equation}
where $y(\mathbf{s_i})$ and $\widehat{y}(\mathbf{s_i})$ are the true response and predicted response for the sample at location $\mathbf{s_i}$, $W_{ij}$ is the element of W-matrix corresponding to $\mathbf{s_i}$ and $\mathbf{s_j}$ whose value can be determiend by feature similarity or spatial proximity. Various computational algorithms exist to estimate class labels that minimize the loss function, including graph min-cut algorithm, iterations with neighborhood updates, or a closed form solution when the loss function is differentiable~\cite{zhu2005semi}.
Graph regularizer has also been used with support vector machines for hyperspectral earth image classification~\cite{gomez2008semisupervised}.
The graph-based method looks similar to the graph Laplacian regularization method in Section~\ref{sect:sasr}. The main difference is that in semi-supervised learning, there is only one model and the graph regularizer smoothes model predictions on nearby samples, while in multiple model prediction in Section~\ref{sect:sasr}, there are multiple models at different locations and the graph regularizer smoothes the parameters of nearby models.
The advantage of graph-based methods for semi-supervised spatial prediction is its simplicity and intuitiveness. However, its performance may be degraded if the assumption on the smoothness of neighboring classes is violated.
\emph{Self-training and co-training:} Self-training methods iteratively expand the set of training samples by adding predicted classes on unlabeled samples. Predictions with the highest confidence will be selected and added into the training set. The model is iteratively updated based on the expanded training set. In spatial classification, spatial neighborhood expansion is often used to select unlabeled samples, i.e., we can select unlabeled samples that are spatial neighbors of a labeled sample~\cite{dopido2013semisupervised,tan2015novel}. This follows the first law of geography, i.e., nearby samples tend to resemble each other in their class labels. Co-training is another semi-supervised learning method. Similar to self-training, it augments the training set by selecting samples with the highest confidence from model prediction. The difference is that co-training uses multiple conditionally independent feature sets (or views) and learns one classifier for each feature set (or view). Each classifier selects an unlabeled sample with highest prediction confidence and adds it to the shared expanded training set. Co-training has been used for spatial classification problems, particularly earth image classification. In this case, different feature sets (views) can be spectral versus spatial features~\cite{hong2015spatial}, derived features from different image sub-blocks~\cite{zhang2014modified}, or features from different data sources with various resolutions such as Landsat~\cite{landsat}, MODIS~\cite{modis}, and high resolution aerial photos.
The advantages of self-training and co-training include that the method is general for many different model families and that the process is automated without need for extra human intervention. The limitation is that the methods rely on accurate model predictions. If a model prediction with the highest confidence is still erroneous, adding the predicted samples into training sets can further impact model performance. In addition, the computational cost is high since a model needs to be re-trained for each iteration.
\subsubsection{Active learning}
Active learning~\cite{settles2010active,tuia2011survey} addresses the challenge of limited ground truth by manually labeling a carefully selected subset of unlabeled samples. The main question is how to select the subset of unlabeled samples that can enhance prediction performance the most and with the minimum labeling costs. There are several strategies to do this, including selecting samples with the highest uncertainty, samples on which a committee of models disagree the most, samples that have the highest expected model change, or samples with the best expected error reduction. The process is often iterative: models are re-trained after new training samples are added. More details can be found in a survey~\cite{settles2010active}.
For spatial prediction, sample locations need to be considered when selecting unlabeled samples because collecting class labels often involves sending a field crew traveling between locations on the ground. If selected locations of unlabeled samples are spatially disperse, the travel costs will be high. Thus, unlabeled samples that are spatially clustered are preferred over those that are spatially disperse. To this end, a region-based active learning method~\cite{stumpf2014active} has been proposed for remote sensing image classification. In each iteration, the method selects a window of pixels that have the most overall disagreement by a committee of models. Another spatial cost-sensitive active learning~\cite{liu_spatially_2009}, in order to find a travel route that covers the top-K most uncertain samples with the minimum travel cost.
The advantage of active learning approach is that it can improve labeling efficiency since samples with the most uncertainty are first labeled. Its main limitation is that human labor is still needed so the amount of ground truth data being collected is often limited. In addition, human experts who manually collect ground truth labels may need to wait for model re-training in each iteration.
\subsection{Multiple Scales and Resolutions}
Another challenge in spatial prediction is that spatial data may exist in multiple spatial scales and resolutions. For example, resolutions of earth observation imagery range from sub-meter to hundreds of meters. In addition to raster imagery, spatial data can also contain point reference data such as soil samples. Many existing predictive models assume that data samples are from the same scale and resolution, and thus are not directly applicable to multi-scale and multi-resolution data. Moreover, spatial patterns or relationships between explanatory features and the target response variable can be scale dependent (also called the Modifiable Area Unit Problem (MAUP)~\cite{wong2009modifiable}).
One existing strategy to address this challenge is to build spatial hierarchical models. A hierarchical model has multiple layers ordered by spatial scales, and each layer consists of spatial units at the same scale or resolution. Each spatial unit in a layer has its own predictive model, and relationships between parameters in different models can be established based on the scale hierarchy.
As a specific example, a hierarchical multi-source feature learning framework~\cite{DBLP:conf/kdd/ZhaoYCLR16} has been proposed to forecast spatiotemporal events based on features from multiple scales including cities, states, and countries. Another example is the problem of modeling count of caries in human teeth. Each subject (person) has a number of tooth, and a tooth has different surfaces. Spatial neighborhood relationships exist across nearby tooth surface in the same subject. A Bayesian hierarchical model has been used to capture such spatial hierarchy~\cite{bandyopadhyay2009bayesian}.
Spatial hierarchical models have also been used in crime event forecasting~\cite{yu2016hierarchical}. In this work, distributed spatio-temporal patterns from multi-resolution data are ensembled in predictive modeling.
Hierarchical spatial models have several advantages, including intuitive model design, utilizing data from different sources in different scales or resolutions, and capturing spatial dependency within and across spatial scales. The main limitation lies in model complexity, e.g., high computational cost, and risk of overfitting.
\section{Future Research Opportunities}\label{sec:future}
This section summarizes future research opportunities. Most existing spatial prediction methods focus on the challenge of spatial autocorrelation. A few methods address spatial heterogeneity in the aspect of non-stationarity. Challenges of heterogeneous spatial data with anisotropic spatial dependency, multi-scale and multi-modality are largely underexplored. Moreover, the emergence of deep learning and spatial big data also represent new frontiers of spatial prediction research.
\subsection{Prediction for Heterogeneous Spatial Data}
Existing prediction methods addressing spatial heterogeneity focus on non-stationarity, assuming that training and test samples are within the same spatial framework, and that sample distribution is isotropic. However, in real world, spatial dependency can be anisotropic and test samples can be beyond the training area. Thus, novel spatial prediction methods need to be developed.
\emph{Prediction with anisotropic spatial dependency}: In real world spatial data, spatial dependency across sample locations can be anistropic, instead of being uniform in all directions in the Euclidean space. For example, dependency between observations on spatial networks (e.g., pollutants in river networks or traffic accidents on road networks) often follow network topology (e.g., river flow directions, traffic directions). As another instance of example, flood water locations (pixels) in an earth observation imagery implicitly follow terrains and topography due to gravity (i.e., water flows to a lower elevation). Anisotropic prediction on spatial networks poses unique challenges due to directional spatial dependency, and expensive network distance computation. Recently, several spatial statistical methods have been generalized from Euclidean space to spatial network space, e.g., network spatial autocorrelation, network kernel density, and network Kriging~\cite{okabe2012spatial}. However, little research has been done on prediction methods that incorporate anisotropic spatial dependency (i.e., spatial dependency along certain directions). Existing Markov random field methods only reflect undirected spatial dependency, and thus cannot be easily applied. Bayesian networks have been used to model directed dependency, but it is unscalable to a large number of nodes (locations). Recently, a hidden Markov tree model has been proposed to capture anisotropic spatial dependency by a reverse tree structure in the hidden class layer, but is studied in the context of flood mapping applications~\cite{jiangkdd2018,jiang2019hidden,jiang2019geographical,sainju2020hidden}. Addressing the challenge requires innovations in model structure, regularizers in objective functions, as well as effective and efficient learning algorithms.
\emph{Model transfer across heterogeneous spatial regions}: Due to the effect of spatial heterogeneity, prediction models learned from one region may not perform well in another. This is an issue since in many spatial prediction problems, test samples may not lie within the same spatial domain as training samples. In machine learning, similar issues have been studied through transfer learning~\cite{pan2010survey} and domain adaptation~\cite{daume2006domain}, but their corresponding methods for spatial prediction are largely under-explored. Addressing the challenge may require assumptions on the relationships or structure of spatial sample distributions between one region and another, as well as the fusion of auxiliary data to provide common spatial (or spatiotemporal) contexts.
\subsection{Data Fusion of Multi-scale Spatial Data from Different Sources}
Data fusion is the process of combining data from multiple sources to improve inference. Existing research on data fusion include multi-sensor fusion from signal processing perspective~\cite{hall1997introduction,waltz2001principle,khaleghi2013multisensor} and data integration from data management perspective~\cite{bleiholder2009data,dong2009data}. For spatial prediction, we are more interested in spatial data fusion that can improve predictive performance. A recent survey summarizes techniques to fuse cross-domain data for big data analytics~\cite{zheng2015methodologies}. Methods are categorized into stage-based, feature-level-based, and semantic meaning-based.
\emph{Data fusion for multi-resolution earth imagery classification}: Earth observation imagery from different satellite and airborne platforms have different spatial, temporal, and spectral resolutions and coverage. Moreover, imagery from each single source is imperfect with noise, cloud, and obstacles. Spatial prediction methods that can utilize a diverse portfolio of earth imagery with multiple resolutions are of great practical value. Potential research directions include multi-view learning and multi-instance learning~\cite{karpatne2016monitoring}.
\emph{Data fusion for multi-modal spatial data}: In many spatial prediction applications, spatial data comes in different representations (e.g., points, line-strings, polygons, and raster imagery) and modalities (e.g., geo-social media, geotagged imagery and videos). For example, in precision agriculture, hyperspectral imagery often has high spatial details and complete spatial coverage, ground soil samples are only taken at several point locations, and crop yield are recorded at per-plot level. The goal is to predict crop yield in an early growing phase to optimize fertilizer allocation. Utilize such multi-modal data in spatial prediction requires data fusion and uncertainty quantification.
\subsection{Deep Learning Methods for Spatial Prediction}
Deep learning is a set of machine learning algorithms that use a multi-layer graph structure to extract a hierarchy of features at different levels~\cite{goodfellow2016deep}. High-level features in a top layer is built upon low-level features in lower layers. Deep learning models (e.g., deep convolutional neural network, deep recurrent neural network) have been shown successful in computer vision and natural language processing tasks. In the last couple of years, deep learning has been applied to spatial prediction problems, particularly on remote sensing imagery. Two recent surveys~\cite{zhang2016deep,zhu2017deep} summarize progress of utilizing deep learning techniques in classifying hyperspectral imagery for land cover mapping, radar imagery for target recognition, as well as high-resolution aerial imagery for scene classification and object detection. Based on the types of inputs and outputs, methods can be categorized into per-pixel classification and per-image classification. In \emph{per-pixel} classification, the input network layer consists of spectral and spatial features extracted from spectral band values within the neighborhood of a pixel, and the output layer consists of thematic class categories for that pixel (e.g., land cover types). Based on a sliding window method, all pixels in the image can be classified. Recently, there are works that predict the classes of all pixels in one network architecture end-to-end, such as U-Net~\cite{ronneberger2015u}. In \emph{per-image} classification, the input layer consists of all pixels of an image, and the output layer consists of class categories of the entire image (e.g., scenes or object types). This research area is still growing rapidly with open challenges to address.
\emph{Limited ground truth class labels}: Large amount of training data is one important factor for the success of deep learning methods. Unfortunately, in remote sensing applications, collecting ground truth is both expensive and time consuming, as discussed in Section~\ref{subsec:limited}. There are several potential directions to address the challenge. In some problems such as high-resolution aerial imagery classification, we can leverage existing well-known datasets with similar data types (e.g., ImageNet dataset~\cite{deng2009imagenet}, IARPA functional map of the world challenge dataset~\cite{iarpa}, UC Merced land use dataset~\cite{yang2010bag}) to train a deep model or adapt well-trained deep models to a new application. For other problems, however, existing datasets and models may not be readily useful. In this case, collecting ground truth labels by well-trained experts at a large scale is infeasible. Several promising directions include utilizing crowd-sourcing from volunteered geographic information (e.g., Amazon Mechanical Turk, Tomnod.com by DigitalGlobe) and geotagged social media (e.g., tweets, Facebook posts), as well as leveraging physics-based modeling and simulation.
\emph{Enhancing interpretability}: One major limitation of deep learning is the lack of interpretability. This may not be a major concern in business applications, but in scientific fields such as climate science and hydrological science, interpretability is critical for the theoretical development of the field. One potential direction is to incorporate physical theories and constraints in model design and architecture, as generally discussed in theory-guided data science~\cite{karpatne2017theory}.
\subsection{Spatial Big Data Prediction}
Spatial big data (SBD)~\cite{shekhar2012spatial} refers to geo-referenced data whose volume, velocity, and variety exceed the capability of traditional spatial computational platforms. Examples of spatial big data include earth observation imagery (NASA collects petabytes of imagery each year~\cite{vatsavai2012spatiotemporal}), GPS trajectories, temporally detailed road networks, and cellphone check-in histories. Making predictions on spatial big data provides unique opportunities for large scale scientific studies such as national water forecasting and global land cover change analysis, but is also technically challenging due to the large data volume.
In recent years, spatial big data techniques have been developed, including HadoopGIS~\cite{planthaber2012earthdb} and SpatialHadoop~\cite{eldawy2015spatialhadoop}, GeoSpark~\cite{yu2015geospark}, GPU-based algorithms~\cite{prasad2015vision,puri2013efficient,zhang2012speeding}, distributed database systems EarthDB~\cite{planthaber2012earthdb}, as well as Google Earth Engine~\cite{googleearthengine}. Currently, these existing platforms currently mostly focus on basic spatial operations (e.g., spatial joins), or traditional non-spatial prediction algorithms. Thus, future research is needed to develop parallel spatial prediction algorithms on spatial big data platforms.
\emph{Parallel spatial prediction algorithms}: Algorithm design and platform selection are determined by the computational structure of spatial prediction algorithms. Common computational structure includes filter-and-refine~\cite{shekhar2003spatial}, divid-and-conquer, matrix operations, and iterations (iteration is common in Expectation and Maximization, Newton Raphson, Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation). Thus, GPUs and Spark platforms are potentially appropriate platforms.
\subsection{Societal Applications}
Spatial prediction is of great importance in societal applications related to various agencies, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Department of Defense, the Department of Transportation, the Department of Homeland Security, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Here we categorize application examples into four major areas including earth science, urban informatics, geosocial media analytics, and public health.
\emph{Earth science}: Earth science is a major application area for spatial prediction~\cite{jiang2017spatial}. Remote sensors from satellites, airplanes, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have collected petabytes of geo-referenced earth imagery. Particularly, the recent deployment of CubeSat fleets by commercial companies (e.g., Planet Labs Inc.) help collect high-resolution imagery that covers the entire earth surface almost every day. In addition, numerous ground sensors deployed on land or rivers collect real-time information on soil properties, river flow volume, and air quality.
Spatial prediction on earth data plays an important role in mapping land use and land cover, understanding global deforestation~\cite{hansen2013high}, monitoring surface water dynamics~\cite{pekel2016high}, improving the situational awareness during disasters (e.g., mapping hurricane flood and earthquakes)~\cite{brivio2002integration,jiangkdd2018}, predicting crop yield~\cite{moran1997opportunities}, estimating the spatial distribution of species~\cite{austin2002spatial,elith2009species}, and mapping soil properties~\cite{chang2001near,hengl2004generic}.
\emph{Urban informatics}: Another important application area is urban informatics. Relevant spatial data includes temporally detailed road networks with real-time travel costs on individual road segments, GPS trajectories of taxis and trucks, data from video cameras and high-resolution sensors on traffic volume and occupancy close to highway intersections, passenger transactions on public transit systems such as subways and buses, high-resolution street view imagery, geo-referenced crime and accident records, and cellphone location history collected from communication towers.
Spatial prediction plays an important role in routing and navigation services (e.g., speed profile and travel volume prediction)~\cite{Meng2017}, spatially detailed demand forecasting for sharing economy (e.g., ride-hailing, bike sharing)~\cite{demandPredAAAI18}, law enforcement management (e.g., patrol route planning targeted at predicted crime or crash hotspots), monitoring environment pollution, as well as predictive maintenance of critical urban infrastructures.
\emph{Geosocial media}: Geosocial media analytics is an important emerging application area. With the popularity of smart phones and mobile apps, large amounts of geo-referenced social media data are collected from billions of users. Examples include geo-tagged tweets and Facebook posts, geo-tagged photos and videos, online articles with named entities for locations, as well as check-in records. Geosocial media
provides a new way to collect near real-time information about what is happening on the earth surface at a large scale and with low costs. Spatial prediction on geosocial media data has been applied to real-time spatial event detection (e.g., earthquake, flood, landslide) for disaster management~\cite{sakaki2010earthquake,zhang2017triovecevent}, spatiotemporal event forecasting (e.g., political unrest)~\cite{DBLP:conf/kdd/ZhaoSYCLR15}, and travel destination recommendations in tourism~\cite{majid2013context}. With the area growing rapidly, more applications are being developed in agriculture, environment monitoring, transportation, education, and finance.
\emph{Public health}: Public health has long been an important application area for spatial prediction. Examples of spatial data related to public health includes demographic information on district blocks, electronic health records with patient home addresses, aggregated disease count maps at city, county or state level, population mobility data, environmental data such as air quality and water quality, and other online data such as search engine queries related to diseases. Spatial prediction plays a critical role in automatic medical diagnosis from MRI imagery, monitoring infectious disease and mapping disease risk~\cite{best2005comparison}, detecting disease outbreak, analyzing environmental factors that cause diseases~\cite{rappaport2010environment}, understanding drug epidemics~\cite{lee2016mind}, as well as providing early alert for individuals on environmental triggers of asthma.
It is important to note that the application areas listed above are not isolated but cross-cutting with each other. For example, spatial prediction on geosocial media data can help mapping flood disasters in earth science applications, detecting damage and failures of critical urban infrastructures, and monitoring disease transmission in public health. Earth observation data has been used in land use modeling for urban planning, and in modeling environment factors for public health. Such cross-cutting applications often represent new interdisciplinary research opportunities.
\subsection{Input Spatial Data}
\emph{Spatial data representation}: A geographic information system (GIS)~\cite{worboys2004gis} represents spatial data in two ways: \emph{object} and \emph{field}. In the object representation, spatial data consists of identifiable geometric objects including points, lines, and polygons. For example, cities are often represented as points on a map, while rivers and states are represented as line-strings and polygons respectively. In the field representation, spatial data consists of a spatial framework that tessellates continuous space into regular or irregular cells, together with a function that maps each cell into a value. Examples include earth observation imagery and a county-level median house income map.
\begin{table}
\centering
\caption{Math symbols and descriptions}
\label{tab:symbols}
\begin{tabular}{cp{0.72in}p{1.8in}}\hline
Symbol & Domain & Description \\ \hline
$n$ & $\mathbb{N}$ & The number of sample locations\\ \hline
$\mathbf{s}$ & $\mathbb{R}^{2\times1}$ & Sample location coordinates\\ \hline
$\mathbf{x}(\mathbf{s})$ & $\mathbb{R}^{m\times1}$ & $m$-dimensional feature vector of a sample at location $\mathbf{s}$\\ \hline
$y(\mathbf{s})$ & $\mathbb{R}$ or $\mathcal{C}$ & Continuous or categorical response of a sample at location $\mathbf{s}$\\ \hline
$\widehat{y}(\mathbf{s})$ & $\mathbb{R}$ or $\mathcal{C}$ & Predicted response of sample at location $\mathbf{s}$, $\mathcal{C}$ is the set of class categories\\ \hline
$\mathbf{X}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times m}$& Feature matrix of $n$ samples\\ \hline
$\mathbf{Y}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times 1}$ or $\mathcal{C}^{n\times 1}$& Response vector of $n$ samples\\ \hline
$\widehat{\mathbf{Y}}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times 1}$ or $\mathcal{C}^{n\times 1}$& Predicted response vector\\ \hline
$\mathbf{W}$ &$\mathbb{R}_{0+}^{n\times n}$&W-matrix\\ \hline
$W_{ij}$ &$\mathbb{R}_{0+}$& An element of W-matrix\\ \hline
$C(\mathbf{h})$ &$\mathbb{R}^{2\times1}\mapsto\mathbb{R}_{0+}$& Covariogram function\\ \hline
$\rho,\lambda$ &$\mathbb{R}_{0+}$ & Weight of spatial effect\\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\mu}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{m\times1}$ & Mean feature vector\\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\Sigma}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{m\times m}$ & Covariance matrix of features\\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\beta}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{m\times1}$ & Coefficient vector\\ \hline
$\epsilon(\mathbf{s_i})$ &$\mathbb{R}$& Noise (residual error) of a sample\\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\epsilon}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times 1}$ &Noise (residual error) of $n$ samples \\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\theta}(\mathbf{s_i})$ &$\mathbb{R}^{m\times1}$ &Coefficients for samples at $\mathbf{s_i}$ \\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\Theta}$ &$\mathbb{R}^{m\times n}$ & All coefficients at different locations \\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\Phi}$ & Set&A set of all model parameters \\ \hline
$w(\mathbf{s_i},\mathbf{s_0})$ &$\mathbb{R}_{0+}$ & Spatial kernel weight between location $\mathbf{s_i}$ and location $\mathbf{s_0}$\\ \hline
$\mathbf{x}(\mathbf{s},t)$ & $\mathbb{R}^{m\times1}$ & $m$-dimensional feature vector of a sample at location $\mathbf{s}$ and time $t$\\ \hline
$y(\mathbf{s},t)$ & $\mathbb{R}$ or $\mathcal{C}$ & Continuous or categorical response of sample at location $\mathbf{s}$ and time $t$\\ \hline
$\mathbf{X}(t)$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times m}$&Feature matrix of samples at time $t$ \\ \hline
$\mathbf{Y}(t)$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times 1}$ or $\mathcal{C}^{n\times 1}$&Responses (observations) at time $t$ \\ \hline
$\mathbf{Z}(t)$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times 1}$ or $\mathcal{C}^{n\times 1}$&Hidden variable vector at time $t$ \\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{e}(t)$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times 1}$& Residual errors for hidden process variables at time $t$ \\ \hline
$\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)$ &$\mathbb{R}^{n\times 1}$& Residual errors for observation variables at time $t$ \\ \hline
$C(\mathbf{h},r)$ &$\mathbb{R}^{2\times1}\times \mathbb{R}\mapsto\mathbb{R}_{0+}$&Spatiotemporal covariogram\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\emph{Spatial data sample}: In traditional prediction problems, input data is often viewed as a collection of sample records. Similarly, in spatial prediction, input spatial data can be viewed as a collection of spatial data samples, whereby each sample corresponds to a spatial object (e.g., point, line or polygon), or a raster cell.
A spatial data sample has multiple non-spatial attributes, one of which is the target response variable to be predicted and the others are explanatory features. Additionally, a spatial data sample also has location information and spatial attributes (e.g., distance to another point, length of a line, area of a polygon). These additional information distinguish spatial data samples out from traditional data samples in two important ways: first, the location information and corresponding spatial attributes can provide additional contextual features in the explanatory feature list; second and more important, implicit spatial relationships exist based on sample locations, making samples not independent and identically distributed (non-i.i.d.) For example, in ground sensor observations on soil properties, a sample corresponds to information from one geo-located sensor. Explanatory features can include soil texture, nutrient level, and moisture. The response variable can be whether a type of plant can grow at the location.
Formally, spatial data is a set of spatial data samples $\{(\mathbf{x(s_i)}, y(\mathbf{s_i}))|i\in \mathbb{N}, 1\leq i \leq n\}$, where $n$ is the total number of samples, $\mathbf{s_i}$ is a $2$ by $1$ spatial coordinate vector for the $i$th sample, $\mathbf{x(s_i)}$ is a $m$ by $1$ explanatory feature vector ($m$ is the feature dimension), and $y(\mathbf{s_i})$ is a scalar response (it is categorical for classification, and continuous for regression). The set of spatial samples can also be written in the matrix format, $(\mathbf{X},\mathbf{Y})$, where $\mathbf{X}=[\mathbf{x(s_1)},\mathbf{x(s_2),...,\mathbf{x(s_n)}}]^T$ is a $n$ by $m$ feature matrix, and $\mathbf{Y}=[y(\mathbf{s_1}),y(\mathbf{s_2}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n})]^T$ is a $n$ by $1$ response vector.
\subsection{Formal Problem Definition}
Given a set of spatial data samples with explanatory features $\mathbf{X}=[\mathbf{x(s_1)},\mathbf{x(s_2),...,\mathbf{x(s_n)}}]^T$ and responses $\mathbf{Y}=[y(\mathbf{s_1}),y(\mathbf{s_2}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n})]^T$, the spatial prediction problem aims to learn a model (or function) $f$ such that $\mathbf{Y}=f(\mathbf{X})$. Once the model is learned, it can be used to predict the responses at other locations based on their explanatory features. The problem can be further categorized into \emph{spatial classification} for categorical response and \emph{spatial regression} for continuous response.
For example, in earth imagery classification for land cover mapping, input spatial data samples are training pixels whose spectral band values (e.g., red, green, blue, and near-infrared bands) are explanatory features, and whose land cover classes (e.g., forest, water) are response. The output is a classification model that can predict the land cover classes of other pixels based on spectral band values.
Spatial prediction is unique from traditional prediction in data mining. In traditional prediction problems, samples are commonly assumed to be independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.). Thus, a same model can be used to predict every sample independently, i.e., $y(\mathbf{s})=f(\mathbf{x(s)})$ for $\forall \mathbf{s}$. However, the i.i.d. assumption is often violated in spatial data due to implicit spatial relationships between sample locations. According to the first law of geography, ``everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things"~\cite{tobler1970computer}. Ignoring spatial relationships can results in incorrect model assumption and poor prediction performance.
\subsection{Challenges}
Spatial prediction poses unique challenges as compared to traditional prediction due to the special characteristics of spatial data. Here we describe these special characteristics in an intuitive way. More mathematically rigorous discussions are in Section~\ref{sec:stat}.
\emph{Spatial autocorrelation (dependency)}: According to Tobler's first law of geography~\cite{tobler1970computer}, ``everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." In real world spatial data, nearby locations tend to resemble each other, instead of being statistically independent. For example, the temperatures of two nearby cities are often very close. This phenomenon is also called the spatial autocorrelation effect. The existence of spatial autocorrelation is a challenge because it violates a common assumption by many traditional prediction models, i.e., learning samples are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.). Ignoring the spatial autocorrelation effect may produce prediction models that are inaccurate or inconsistent with data. For instance, when applying a linear regression model to spatial data, the residual errors are often correlated, instead of being i.i.d. as the model assumes. In earth imagery classification, running classification models that rely on the i.i.d. assumption (e.g., decision tree, random forest) often produces results with artifacts (e.g., salt-and-pepper noise)~\cite{jiang2015focal}.
\emph{Spatial heterogeneity}: Another unique characteristic of spatial data is that sample distribution is often not identical in the entire study area, often called the spatial heterogeneity effect. Specifically, spatial heterogeneity can be reflected in two ways, including spatial non-stationarity and spatial anisotropy. Spatial non-stationarity means that sample distribution varies across different sub-regions. For example, the same spectral signature in earth image pixels may correspond to different land cover types from tropical to temperate regions. This is a challenge because a model learned from global samples may not perform well in each sub-regions (also referred to as ``ecological fallacy"~\cite{ess2001culture}). Spatial anisotropy means that spatial dependency between sample locations is non-uniform along different directions. For example, climate data distribution is often influenced by geographical terrains (e.g., mountain range), showing unique patterns along different directions. Modeling anisotropic spatial dependency is a challenge because such dependency cannot be simply modeled as a function of distance (should be a function of direction as well).
\emph{Limited ground truth}: Real world spatial data often contains a large amount of information on explanatory features due to advanced data collection techniques (e.g., GPS, remote sensor). However, availability of ground truth data (e.g., land cover classes) is often very limited because collecting ground truth involves sending a field crew or hiring well-trained visual interpreters, which is both expensive and time consuming. While limited ground truth is a common challenge in many other non-spatial prediction problems, the cost of collecting ground truth for spatial data is unique in that it includes not only the labeling time cost but also the time cost for the field crew to travel on the ground between sample locations. In addition, the selection of sample locations should also consider the geographical representativeness of samples for rigorous evaluations~\cite{congalton1991review}.
\emph{Multiple scales and resolutions}: The last major challenge is that spatial data often exists in multiple spatial scales or resolutions. For example, resolutions of earth observation imagery pixels range from sub-meter (high-resolution aerial photos) to over hundreds of meters (MODIS satellite image). In precision agriculture, soil properties are recorded by ground sensors at isolated point locations, spectral signatures of crops are measured in aerial imagery that covers the entire study area, and crop yields are often measured at per plot level. This poses a challenge since traditional prediction methods often assume that data samples are at the same scale or resolution. Thus, these models cannot be directly applied. A simple approach of preprocessing to aggregate data into the same scale or resolution may cause the loss of critical information. Other approaches (e.g., statistical downscaling~\cite{wilby2004guidelines}) have been studied, but mostly for particular applications such as climate science. The challenge is still largely underexplored for broad spatial prediction applications.
\subsection{Comparison with Existing Surveys}
Most existing related surveys focus on general spatial data mining. Ester et al.~\cite{ester1997spatial} and Koperski et al.~\cite{koperski1996spatial} provide early surveys on spatial data mining from a database perspective. Miller et al.~\cite{miller2009geographic} have a book on geographic data mining and knowledge discovery that contains spatial prediction as a chapter. The chapter compares a couple of common methods in case studies but does not provide a systematic survey. Shekhar et al.~\cite{shekhar2003trends,shekhar2011identifying,shekhar2015spatiotemporal} and Atluri et al.~\cite{atluri2017spatio} provide surveys on general spatial and spatiotemporal data mining, highlighting the unique challenges of mining spatial data and spatial statistical foundation but without systematic review on prediction methods. To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic survey on spatial prediction methods in the literature.
To fill in the gap, we provide a systematic review on the principles and methods on spatial prediction. We provide a taxonomy of methods based on the unique challenge they address, including spatial autocorrelation (or dependency), spatial heterogeneity, limited ground truth, and multiple spatial scales and resolutions. When introducing each method, we start with the intuition and underlying assumption, then introduce key ideas and theoretical foundation, and finally discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
We also introduce several spatiotemporal extensions of methods. Future research opportunities are also identified.
\subsection{Scope and Outline}
Due to space limit, we only focus on spatial prediction problems in which samples have fixed locations. Prediction for moving object data such as location prediction and recommendation are beyond our scope. We also do not include methods in computer vision unless input images are geo-referenced such as earth observation imagery. We do not particularly distinguish spatial classification and regression since methods are often exchangeable through logistic transformation.
The outline of the paper is as follows. Section~\ref{sec:stat} introduces spatial statistics foundations. Section~\ref{sec:approach} provides a taxonomy of spatial prediction methods based on the key challenge they address, and also introduces spatiotemporal extensions of methods. Future research opportunities are discussed in Section~\ref{sec:future}. Section~\ref{sec:con} concludes the paper.
\section{Problem Statement}\label{sec:prob}
This section introduces basic concepts and formally defines the spatial classification and prediction problem. We focus on the uniqueness of spatial data and spatial classification and prediction as compared with their traditional non-spatial counterparts.
\subsection{Basic Concepts}
\emph{Spatial relationships and operations}: In GIS, the spatial relationships between two objects are categorized according to the underlying space in which the objects reside, such as set space, topological space and metric space~\cite{worboys2004gis}. Set-based spatial relationships view each spatial object as a set of points, and defines set relationships or operations such as \emph{subset of}, \emph{member of}, \emph{union} and \emph{intersection}. Topological relationships consider objects in the topological space, where each object has a boundary, interior, and exterior. One object can \emph{overlap with}, \emph{touch}, or \emph{contain} another according to whether their interior, boundary, and exterior intersect with each other. Metric space relationships consider objects in the metric space such as Euclidean space where distance and directions can be defined. The above three categories are not mutually exclusive. As shown in Figure~\ref{fig:sprelation}, the topological space is a special set space in which topological operations are defined in addition to default set-based operations. Similarly, the metric (e.g., Euclidean) space is a special topological space in which distance is defined in addition to default topological operations. Based on distance, more metric space operations can be defined such as direction, area, perimeter, and shape.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\subfigure[Examples of set-based, topological and metric space operations]{\includegraphics[width=1.8in]{figs/objectOperation.pdf}}
\subfigure[Relationship between objects in different spaces]{\includegraphics[width=1.5in]{figs/operationContain.pdf}}
\caption{Spatial operations on object data}
\label{fig:sprelation}
\end{figure}
For spatial field data (e.g., raster imagery), there are local, focal, zonal and global operations defined on the cells. As illustrated in Figure~\ref{fig:mapalg}, the local operators are functions on the value of a cell itself; focal operators are functions on the values of a cell together with its neighbors; zonal operators are functions on the values of a set of cells beyond a neighborhood; global operators are functions on the values of all cells. For example, computing the Normalized Digital Vegetation Index for a remote sensing imagery is a local operation because only the spectral band values of a pixel itself is used, while computing slope is a focal operation since the elevation of both current pixel and its neighbors are used.
\begin{figure}[h]
\includegraphics[width=3in]{figs/mapalgebra.pdf}
\caption{Spatial operations on raster data (map algebra)}
\label{fig:mapalg}
\end{figure}
One important type of spatial relationship is \emph{neighborhood relationship}, which captures the range of spatial dependency between spatial data samples. Two spatial data samples are neighbors if their distance are within a threshold (for points), or their boundaries touch each other (for cells). Neighborhood relationships can be represented by an adjacency matrix called \emph{W-matrix} $W_{n\times n}$, where the element $W_{i,j}$ is non-zero when samples $i$ and $j$ are neighbors.
\emph{Spatial learning sample}: In classification and prediction problems, data is generally viewed as a set of learning samples, and each sample is a minimum classification or prediction unit. For spatial data, a learning sample can be a point, line, polygon, or a raster cell. Each spatial object or raster cell can be associated with a set of spatial attributes and non-spatial attributes. Spatial attributes are related to the spatial footprint of an object or a raster cell. Examples include coordinates for points or polygon centers, the length of line-strings, and the extent, area or perimeter of polygons. Non-spatial attributes are the ones that are not related to spatial footprints. Examples include the GPD of a city, the name of a river, and the age of a house. One of the non-spatial attributes is considered as the target class label or response variable, and the other non-spatial attributes together with spatial attributes are considered as explanatory features. Thus, a spatial learning sample can generally be noted by a triplet $(x,s,y)$, where $x$ is a vector of non-spatial features, $s$ is a vector of spatial features, and $y$ is the target class label or response.
\subsection{Problem Definition}
Given a set of spatial learning samples $(x_i,s_i,y_i)$, as well as spatial relationships between samples $R(s_i,s_j)$, $1\leq i \leq n, 1\leq j \leq n$, the spatial classification and prediction problem aims to learn a model $f$ such that $Y=f(X,R)$, where $X=(x_1, x_2,...,x_n)^T$, $Y=(y_1,y_2,...,y_n)^T$ are maps of features and target response respectively. The problem can be categorized into \emph{spatial classification} for categorical response variable and \emph{spatial prediction (or regression)} for continuous response variable. The prediction model $f$ is defined on feature maps and target response maps ($X,Y$) instead of a single sample ($x_i,y_i$) due to the existence of spatial relationships between samples. In other words, samples are not independent and identically distributed (non-i.i.d.). Moreover, the spatial relationship between samples can be of multiple kinds (both in topological space and in metric space). Such relationships are much more complicated than relationships between non-spatial data (i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio variables). Due to these reasons, classical non-spatial models are often insufficient for spatial classification and prediction problems.
Figure~\ref{fig:appEg} shows one example of spatial classification in the application of wetland mapping. The input spatial samples are pixels in an earth observation imagery. Feature maps are spectral layers of earth imagery as shown in Figure~\ref{fig:appEg}(a-b). The ground truth class map consists of categorical land cover types of pixels (wetland or dry land) as shown in Figure~\ref{fig:appEg}(c). Spatial relationships such as neighborhoods are established based on pixel locations. The prediction of a traditional decision tree classifier are shown in Figure~\ref{fig:appEg}(d). Compared with the ground truth class map, decision tree predictions have lots of artifacts (e.g., salt-and-pepper noise), requiring tedious and time-consuming post-processing. The reason is that decision trees ignore the spatial relationships between samples, and classify each sample independently from each other. This is a general issue for other model families such as maximum likelihood classifiers, neural networks, and support vector machines. Thus, spatial classification methods are needed.
It is worth noting that in our definition of spatial prediction, the response variable $y$ is a non-spatial attribute at fixed locations. This does not include problems in which the response variable $y$ is a spatial location (i.e., locations are random variables). Examples of such problems are location prediction and location recommendation for moving object data, which have been extensively studied in the data mining literature. Due to space limit, these problems are not included in the survey.
\section{Introduction}\label{sec:introduction}}
\input{intro}
\input{statistics}
\input{approaches}
\input{stprediction}
\input{future}
\section{Conclusion}\label{sec:con}
This survey provides a systematic overview on spatial prediction techniques. Spatial prediction is of great importance in various application areas, such as earth science, urban informatics, social media analytics, and public health, but is technically challenging due to the unique characteristics of spatial data. We provide a taxonomy of spatial prediction methods based on the challenge they address and discuss several spatiotemporal extensions. We also identify future research opportunities.
\ifCLASSOPTIONcompsoc
\section*{Acknowledgments}
\else
\section*{Acknowledgment}
\fi
This material is based upon work supported by the NSF under Grant No. IIS-1850546, IIS-2008973, CNS-1951974, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR).
\ifCLASSOPTIONcaptionsoff
\newpage
\fi
\bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}
\section{Spatial Statistical Foundations}\label{sec:stat}
Spatial statistics~\cite{schabenberger2005statistical,banerjee2014hierarchical,cressie2015statistics} provides a theoretical framework to do exploratory analysis and make inference on spatial data. In spatial statistics, samples corresponding to fixed point locations in continuous space are called \emph{point reference data}, while samples corresponding to fixed cells in the field representation are called \emph{areal data}, as summarized in Table~\ref{tab:sptype}. Samples corresponding to random point locations are called \emph{spatial point process}, which are beyond our scope. This section reviews some important spatial statistics concepts that are the foundation of many spatial prediction methods, including spatial autocorrelation, stationarity, isotropy, variogram, covariogram, and spatial heterogeneity.
\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Types of spatial data}
\label{tab:sptype}
\begin{tabular}{ccc}\hline
\multicolumn{2}{c}{Data Representation View} & Spatial Statistics View\\ \hline
\multirow{4}{*}{Object} & \multirow{2}{*}{Points} & Point reference data\\
& & Spatial point process\\
& Lines & \\
& Polygons & \\ \hline
\multirow{2}{*}{Field} & Regular cells & \multirow{2}{*}{Areal data}\\
&Irregular cells & \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\subsection{Spatial Autocorrelation (Dependency)}\label{subsec:ssa}
The first law of geography indicates that spatial data samples are not statistically independent but correlated, particularly across nearby locations. This effect is also called the \emph{spatial autocorrelation} effect. We exchange the usage of ``autocorrelation" and ``dependency" on spatial data to mean the same effect. The specific statistics of spatial autocorrelation vary between areal data and point reference data, which are introduced separately below.
\subsubsection{Spatial autocorrelation on areal data}
\emph{Spatial neighborhood and W-matrix}: On areal data, spatial data samples are regular or irregular cells in a discrete tessellation of continuous space. The range of spatial dependency is assumed to be within \emph{spatial neighborhood}, which can be defined based on cell adjacency or distance. Most often, two samples (cells) are spatial neighbors if they share boundaries (rook neighborhood), or if they share corners or boundaries (queen neighborhood). Spatial neighborhood relationships across all samples (cells) can be represented by a $n$ by $n$ square matrix called W-matrix $\mathbf{W}$, where $n$ is the number of samples, element $W_{ij}>0$ if the $i$th sample and the $j$th sample are spatial neighbors, and $W_{ij}=0$ otherwise (by default, $W_{ii}=0$, i.e., samples are not neighbors of themselves).
\emph{Spatial autocorrelation}:
Based on the definition above, spatial autocorrelation statistics is defined as the correlation between observations of the same variable at neighboring cells. One example for continuous response
$y$ is Moran's $I$, which is defined as
\begin{equation}
I=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n\sum_{j=1}^n W_{ij}(y(\mathbf{s_i})-\bar{y})(y(\mathbf{s_j})-\bar{y})}
{(\sum_{i=1}^n\sum_{j=1}^n W_{ij})\sum_{i=1}^n(y(\mathbf{s_i})-\bar{y})^2/n}
\end{equation}
where $\bar{y}=\sum_{i=1}^n y(\mathbf{s_i})/n$ with $n$ as the total number of samples (cells). Similar to Pearson's correlation, the value of Moran's $I$ is within $[-1,1]$. A positive Moran's $I$ indicates that nearby locations tend to have similar values, while a negative $I$ indicates that nearby locations tend to have different values. There are also other spatial autocorrelation statistics, such as Geary's $C$, $G$ statistic, Black-Black joint count~\cite{schabenberger2005statistical}.
\subsubsection{Spatial autocorrelation on point reference data}\label{subsubsec:sa}
Spatial autocorrelation statistics on point reference data are different from those on areal data in that they measure correlation between variables at any two locations in continuous space, only based on observations at a limited number of point locations. In order to make such measures possible, further assumptions on data distribution have to be made, including spatial stationarity and isotropy.
\emph{Spatial stationarity}: Spatial stationarity is an assumption that sample statistical properties are location invariant. There are different levels of stationarity assumption according to which statistical properties stay invariant when locations are shifted. The strongest assumption is \emph{strict stationarity}, meaning that the joint distribution of variables at several locations stay unchanged if their locations are shifted by a same distance and direction, i.e.,
$P(y(\mathbf{s_1}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n}))\equiv P(y(\mathbf{s_1}+\mathbf{h}),...,y(\mathbf{s_n}+\mathbf{h})), \forall \mathbf{s_1}, \mathbf{s_2}, ..., \mathbf{s_n},\mathbf{h}$.
This assumption is the strongest because the joint distribution determines all other statistical properties. \emph{Weak stationarity} assumes that the first and second moments of spatial variables are invariant with location shifting, i.e.,
$E(y(\mathbf{s}))\equiv \boldsymbol{\mu}$ and $Cov(y(\mathbf{s}+\mathbf{h}),y(\mathbf{s}))\equiv C(\mathbf{h})$ for $\forall \mathbf{s},\mathbf{h}$. With the assumption of weak stationarity, the covariance between any two locations is a function $C(\mathbf{h})$ on the relative location difference $\mathbf{h}$, which is called \emph{covariogram}. Another weaker assumption is \emph{intrinsic stationarity}, formally,
$E(y(\mathbf{s}+\mathbf{h})-y(\mathbf{s}))^2\equiv \gamma(\mathbf{h})$ for $\forall\mathbf{s},\mathbf{h}$. The function $\gamma(\mathbf{h})$ here is also called \emph{variogram}. In practice, a spatial variable usually has a non-constant mean (also called trend) $E(y(\mathbf{s}))$, so weak (or intrinsic) stationarity is often assumed on residual errors $y(\mathbf{s})-E(y(\mathbf{s}))$.
\emph{Spatial isotropy}: Weak or intrinsic stationarity assumes that the second order statistical property of a variable at two locations is a function of location difference vector only. \emph{Spatial isotropy} further assumes that the properties only depend on distance regardless of direction, i.e., covariogram $C(\mathbf{h})\equiv C(h)$ and variogram $\gamma(\mathbf{h})\equiv \gamma(h)$, where $h=\|\mathbf{h}\|_2$. In other words, covariance between variables at any two locations only depends on their relative distance.
In a point reference data, assuming weak stationarity and isotropy, we can empirically estimate the variogram or covariogram function by fitting a curve (e.g., linear, spherical, exponential) based on observations at several point locations. Once the curve is fitted, we can get covariance between variables at any two locations simply based on their distance.
From the discussions above, we can observe that the spatial autocorrelation effect (dependency) is measured differently on areal data and point reference data. On areal data, it is based on the definition of spatial neighborhood, while on point reference data, it is based on covariance function (covariogram).
The existence of spatial autocorrelation poses a challenge in spatial prediction, since the common assumption that samples are statistically independent in many traditional prediction models is no longer valid. Ignoring this challenge can lead to poor prediction performance.
\subsection{Spatial heterogeneity}
If a spatial distribution is stationary and isotropic, it is called \emph{homogeneous}~\cite{banerjee2014hierarchical}. Thus, a spatial distribution is \emph{heterogeneous} if it is either non-stationarity or anisotropy. The terms of \emph{homogeneity} and \emph{heterogeneity} should not be confused with homoscedasticity and heteroscedasticity, which specifically refer to properties on variance.
From discussions in Section~\ref{subsec:ssa}, we can see that assuming spatial homogeneity (stationarity and isotropy) can greatly simplify the statistical modeling of spatial data. Thus, this assumption is made in many spatial prediction methods. However, the assumption can be violated by real world spatial data, which is often spatially heterogeneous (spatially non-stationary or anisotropic). For example, spectral features of forest, land and water in earth imagery vary from tropical regions to temperate regions. As another instance of example, when classifying earth observation imagery pixels into water and land, spatial dependency across nearby water locations is anisotropic following geographic terrain and topography (water flows from a higher elevation to a nearby lower elevation due to gravity). Spatial heterogeneity poses a challenge in spatial prediction since a model learned from an entire study area may perform poorly in some local regions.
\subsection{Spatiotemporal Extensions to Prediction Methods}\label{sec:stprediction}
In many spatial prediction problems, both space and time are critically important. For example, the time of day (e.g., rush hour versus non-rush hour) plays an important role in air quality prediction due to its impacts on the amount of traffic emissions. Adding the time dimension into spatial data creates new data representation and statistical concepts. More details can be found in a recent survey on spatiotemporal data mining~\cite{shekhar2015spatiotemporal}.
Compared with spatial prediction, spatiotemporal prediction poses two unique challenges: spatiotemporal autocorrelation and temporal non-stationarity. The effect of \emph{spatiotemporal autocorrelation} means that samples tend to resemble each other not only in nearby locations but also at close times. The effect of \emph{temporal non-stationarity} means that statistical properties are dynamic over time. Addressing these challenges require extensions to existing spatial prediction methods. Due to space limit, we only introduce a few well-known examples.
\subsubsection{Spatiotemporal Autocorrelation}
\emph{Spatiotemporal contextual features}: Many methods discussed in Section~\ref{subsubsec:scf} that generate spatial contextual features can be readily used or extended for spatiotemporal data. For example, additional contextual features can be generated in temporal sequences of raster data (e.g., earth imagery) based on sample attributes in spatiotemporal neighborhoods~\cite{mennis2005cubic}. Contextual features can also be generated by fusing data from multiple sources into a common spatiotemporal framework (e.g., spatial grid cells and time intervals)~\cite{zheng2015methodologies}. After features are generated, we can apply traditional non-spatiotemporal prediction methods.
\emph{Spatial panel data model}: Spatial panels refer to spatiotemporal data containing time series observations at a number of spatial locations (e.g., zip codes, cities, states)~\cite{fischer2009handbook}. Spatial panel data models, therefore, refer to prediction models whose response variables are spatial panels. One simple form is a pooled linear regression model with spatial specific effects but without spatial interaction effects,
\begin{equation}\label{eq:spdm1}
y(\mathbf{s_i},t)=\mathbf{x}(\mathbf{s_i},t)^T\boldsymbol{\beta}+\mu(\mathbf{s_i})+\epsilon(\mathbf{s_i},t)
\end{equation} where $i\in\mathbb{N},1\leq i\leq n$, $t\in\mathbb{N},1\leq t\leq T$, $n$ and $T$ are the numbers of locations and time steps respectively, $\mu(\mathbf{s_i})$ is the spatial specific term (depending on location regardless of time), and $\epsilon(\mathbf{s_i},t)$ is i.i.d. Gaussian noise. The model can also be represented in matrix form,
\begin{equation}\label{eq:spdm2}
\mathbf{Y}(t) = \mathbf{X}(t)\boldsymbol{\beta}+\boldsymbol{\mu}+\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)
\end{equation}
where $\mathbf{Y}(t)=[y(\mathbf{s_1},t),...,y(\mathbf{s_n},t)]^T$ is a $n$ by $1$ response vector at time $t$, $\mathbf{X}(t)=[\mathbf{x}(\mathbf{s_1},t),...,\mathbf{x}(\mathbf{s_n},t)]^T$ is a $n$ by $m$ covariate (feature) matrix at time $t$, $\boldsymbol{\mu}$ is a $n$ by $1$ vector for spatial specific effect, and $\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)$ is a $n$ by $1$ vector with i.i.d. Gaussian residual errors. Based on the simple form, spatial autoregressive (interaction) term (Section~\ref{sec:sainm}) can be added to the response vector $\mathbf{Y}(t)$ (Equation~\ref{eq:spdm2}), or to the covariate matrix $\mathbf{X}(t)$ (Equation~\ref{eq:spdm3}), or to residual errors (Equation~\ref{eq:spdm4} with $\boldsymbol{\phi}(t) = \rho\mathbf{W}\boldsymbol{\phi}(t)+\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)$).
\begin{equation}\label{eq:spdm3}
\mathbf{Y}(t) =\rho \mathbf{W}\mathbf{Y}(t)+\mathbf{X}(t)\boldsymbol{\beta}+\boldsymbol{\mu}+\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eq:spdm4}
\mathbf{Y}(t) = \rho \mathbf{W}\mathbf{X}(t) + \mathbf{X}(t)\boldsymbol{\beta}+\boldsymbol{\mu}+\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eq:spdm5}
\mathbf{Y}(t) = \mathbf{X}(t)\boldsymbol{\beta}+\boldsymbol{\mu}+\boldsymbol{\phi}(t)
\end{equation}
Spatial panel data models extend simple pooled linear regression with spatial specific effects and spatial interaction effects, but without considering the temporal autocorrelation effect (dependency at nearby time steps).
\emph{Spatiotemporal autoregressive model (STAR)}: Spatiotemporal autoregressive model (STAR) extends spatial autoregressive model (SAR) by incorporating temporal autoregression. Specifically, the SAR model can be generally written as $(\mathbf{I}-\rho \mathbf{W})\mathbf{Y}=\mathbf{X}\boldsymbol{\beta}+\boldsymbol{\epsilon}$. The term $\mathbf{I}-\rho \mathbf{W}$ helps to remove spatial autoregressive effect from the response vector $\mathbf{Y}$ so that residual errors $\boldsymbol{\epsilon}$ are i.i.d. Spatiotemporal autoregressive model generalizes $\mathbf{X}$ and $\mathbf{Y}$ from spatial data to spatiotemporal data (stacking all samples into different rows), and also extends $\mathbf{I}-\rho \mathbf{W}$ to incorporate temporal autoregressive effect $\mathbf{I}-\rho_S \mathbf{W}_S-\rho_T \mathbf{W}_T$ or spatiotemporal autoregressive effect $(\mathbf{I}-\rho_S \mathbf{W}_S)(\mathbf{I}-\rho_T \mathbf{W}_T)$, where $\mathbf{W}_S$ and $\mathbf{W}_T$ model spatial neighbors and temporal neighbors respectively.
\emph{Spatiotemporal Kriging}: Spatiotemporal Kriging is an extension of Kriging for spatiotemporal interpolation. It assumes that $n$ observations in continuous space and time $\{y(\mathbf{s_i},t_i)|i\in \mathbb{N}, 1\leq i\leq n\}$ follow a multi-variate Gaussian distribution $N(\boldsymbol{\mu},\boldsymbol{\Sigma})$. The mean vector $\boldsymbol{\mu}$ can be modeled as a linear function of sample covariates and coefficients, and the covariance matrix $\boldsymbol{\Sigma}$ can be determined based on \emph{spatiotemporal covariogram}. Assuming both spatial and temporal stationarity, covariance between two variables are location and time invariant, as in Equation~\ref{eq:stcovariogram}. The function
\begin{equation}\label{eq:stcovariogram}
Cov(y(\mathbf{s},t),y(\mathbf{s+h},t+r))\equiv C(\mathbf{h},r)
\end{equation}
$C(\mathbf{h},r)$ is called spatiotemporal covariogram. Similar to Kriging, once spatiotemporal covariogram function is empirically estimated, we can derive the covariance matrix of joint Gaussian distribution based on sample location and time differences. Unknown observation at a new location and time $y(\mathbf{s_0},t_0)$ can be estimated through conditional expectation as shown in Equation~\ref{eq:stkriging}.
\begin{equation}\label{eq:stkriging}
E(y(\mathbf{s_0},t_0)|y(\mathbf{s_i},t_i),1\leq i\leq n)
\end{equation}
\subsubsection{Temporal Non-stationarity}
Temporal non-stationarity means that sample distribution can be varying over time. This poses a challenge in that we cannot fit a same prediction model for all time steps. Addressing the challenge often requires the design of spatiotemporal dynamic models.
\emph{Spatiotemporal dynamic models}: Spatiotemporal dynamic models consider spatiotemporal observation data as a sequence of temporal snapshots, $\{\mathbf{Y}(t)|t\in\mathbb{N},1\leq t \leq T\}$, where $\mathbf{Y}(t)=[y(\mathbf{s_1},t),...,y(\mathbf{s_n},t)]^T$, and $n$ is the number of spatial locations~\cite{cressie2015statistics2}. Moreover, observations depend on a corresponding sequence of temporal snapshots in the form of hidden variables (hidden process) $\{\mathbf{Z}(t)|t\in\mathbb{N},1\leq t \leq T\}$. Temporal autocorrelation (dependency) is usually modeled via Markov property on the hidden process. This is formally written in Equation~\ref{eq:stdynamic1} and Equation~\ref{eq:stdynamic2}, where $\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)$ and $\mathbf{e}(t)$ are noise, $f_t$ is a function that captures dependency
of observations on hidden variables at a specific time step, and $g_t$ is a function that captures transitions of hidden variables over time. In the most simple form, $f_t$ and $g_t$ are linear, and $\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)$ and $\mathbf{e}(t)$ are Gaussian. There are other more complicated cases to incorporate spatial heterogeneity and temporal dynamics~\cite{stroud2001dynamic}. The hidden process variables can be configured based on physics or theories from an application domain, making spatiotemporal dynamic models useful tools in many fields such as meteorology and climate science.
\begin{equation}\label{eq:stdynamic1}
\mathbf{Y}(t)=f_t(\mathbf{Z}(t))+\boldsymbol{\epsilon}(t)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eq:stdynamic2}
\mathbf{Z}(t)=g_t(\mathbf{Z}(t-1))+\mathbf{e}(t)
\end{equation}
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
| 8,343
|
tinyMCE.addI18n('fr.advanced',{
style_select:"Styles",
font_size:"Taille de la police",
fontdefault:"Famille de police",
block:"Format",
paragraph:"Paragraphe",
div:"Div",
address:"Adresse",
pre:"Preformatt\u00E9",
h1:"Titre 1",
h2:"Titre 2",
h3:"Titre 3",
h4:"Titre 4",
h5:"Titre 5",
h6:"Titre 6",
blockquote:"Citation",
code:"Code",
samp:"Exemple de code",
dt:"Terme \u00E0 d\u00E9finir",
dd:"D\u00E9finition du terme",
bold_desc:"Gras (Ctrl+B)",
italic_desc:"Italique (Ctrl+I)",
underline_desc:"Soulign\u00E9 (Ctrl+U)",
striketrough_desc:"Barr\u00E9",
justifyleft_desc:"Align\u00E9 \u00E0 gauche",
justifycenter_desc:"Centr\u00E9",
justifyright_desc:"Align\u00E9 \u00E0 droite",
justifyfull_desc:"Justifi\u00E9",
bullist_desc:"Liste non-num\u00E9rot\u00E9e",
numlist_desc:"Liste num\u00E9rot\u00E9e",
outdent_desc:"Retirer l'indentation",
indent_desc:"Indenter",
undo_desc:"D\u00E9faire (Ctrl+Z)",
redo_desc:"Refaire (Ctrl+Y)",
link_desc:"Ins\u00E9rer/\u00C9diter le lien",
unlink_desc:"D\u00E9lier",
image_desc:"Ins\u00E9rer/\u00C9diter l'image",
cleanup_desc:"Nettoyer le code non propre",
code_desc:"\u00C9diter source HTML",
sub_desc:"Indice",
sup_desc:"Exposant",
hr_desc:"Ins\u00E9rer trait horizontal",
removeformat_desc:"Enlever formattage",
custom1_desc:"Votre description personnalis\u00E9e ici",
forecolor_desc:"Choisir la couleur du texte",
backcolor_desc:"Choisir la couleur de surlignage",
charmap_desc:"Ins\u00E9rer caract\u00E8res sp\u00E9ciaux",
visualaid_desc:"Activer/d\u00E9sactiver les guides et les \u00E9l\u00E9ments invisibles",
anchor_desc:"Ins\u00E9rer/\u00C9diter ancre",
cut_desc:"Couper",
copy_desc:"Copier",
paste_desc:"Coller",
image_props_desc:"Propri\u00E9t\u00E9s de l'image",
newdocument_desc:"Nouveau document",
help_desc:"Aide",
blockquote_desc:"Citation",
clipboard_msg:"Copier/Couper/Coller n'est pas disponible sous Mozilla et sous Firefox.\n\r\n Voulez-vous plus d'information sur ce probl\u00E8me\u00A0?",
path:"Chemin",
newdocument:"\u00CAtes-vous s\u00FBr de vouloir effacer l'enti\u00E8ret\u00E9 du document\u00A0?",
toolbar_focus:"Aller aux boutons de l'\u00E9diteur - Alt+Q, Aller \u00E0 l'\u00E9diteur - Alt-Z, Aller au chemin de l'\u00E9l\u00E9ment - Alt-X",
more_colors:"Plus de couleurs"
});
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 513
|
Home Must Reads Parents Touched by Act of Kindness When Autistic Son Melts Down
Parents Touched by Act of Kindness When Autistic Son Melts Down
Written by Craig Rogers, Posted on August 28, 2016 , in Section Must Reads
Not Enough Understanding, Empathy, and Compassion?
Parent's with autistic children understand the horror of their child's public meltdown. Many families with autistic children do not have "public time" out of fear of a public meltdown. They want to avoid the embarrassment and humiliation, but also the stares from onlookers, and the mean comments from people who lack understanding.
Random acts of kindness are "random" and therefore they are not technically planned events. However, in the case of Cynthia Tipton and her son, the random act of kindness they received from a stranger seemed to be an opportunity taken advantage of, and therefore not random. This act of empathy from a stranger seemed to come about through a shared understanding, and a common concern - and very much planned.
This rare act of kindness, whether it was planned or not, was very cool. A meaningful act of love that touched the heart and soul of many.
What Should Be Our First Reaction to a Child's Public Display of a Meltdown?
Unless you've been there, very few people truly understand what it is like to be a parent of an autistic child. Unless you've had an intimate and personal experience, most people do not know what parents go through in their day-to-day life of raising a child with autism. Kids who are nonverbal and somewhat aggressive can cause a public display that is very disruptive and painful to watch. These parents struggle to go about their lives with any semblance of normalcy.
So, when Cynthia Tipton went to pay for her family's meal at Bandana's Bar-B-Q only to find that someone had paid their for their dinner, at that moment she felt understood. The flow of empathy toward her, her autistic child, and her family couldn't have been more precious.
I would conclude that instead of judgment and ridicule, we all need to have a deeper well of compassion and understanding. When we don't know the exact circumstances of a child's public meltdown, our first reaction could be empathy and compassion, instead of annoyance and anger... you never know how valuable empathy and understand can be until you are the one receiving it.
Read the full article here by 13WMAZ.com on August 26, 2016
ROCK HILL, MO. - At a time when parents are often harshly judged by others, a local family acted out of empathy for total strangers.
They covered the tab for another family's dinner after a child with autism had a meltdown. Dinner at Bandana's Bar-B-Q in Rock Hill will certainly never be the same for Cynthia Tipton.
Thursday night she and her family had just finished eating at their table when she received an unexpected note. "When we went to ask for our bill, we were told another family had paid for us," Tipton said.
Moments before this happened, Tipton's 10-year-old son Noland had a full meltdown in the restaurant. Tipton said Noland, who has autism, started screaming and crying very loudly.
After a few moments, he eventually calmed down. At the time, Tipton was just grateful she wasn't getting any dirty looks. Just then a server brought over a note from another family sitting nearby.
"This family didn't even know our circumstances but yet were so compassionate," Tipton said. "It just really touched us."
13WMAZ.com
Parents of boy with autism touched by act of kindness | 13wmaz.com
"This family didn't even know our circumstances but yet were so compassionate," Cynthia Tipton said. "It just really touched us."
Mother of boy with autism 'touched' after restaurant patron pays her ...9news.com.au
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7 Bad Habits That Are Holding You Back And How To Break Them
If you're trying to improve your life, then you probably know how difficult it can be to overcome bad habits you've already established. This list is meant to give p..
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7 Tips for Parenting Children with Character
As a parent, you have many things you need to do during the day. However, it is still important to remember that providing a safe and healthy environment for your ch..
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|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 4,077
|
Tag Archives: where the water tastes like wine
The Insight: Where The Water Tastes Like Wine Is Insightful, Literary Popular Art
By Harold Goldberg It's the rare game with a penchant for literary works, conceits and pretensions. "Where The Water Tastes Like Wine," released today on Steam for PC, takes place as a road trip by foot, by car and on the rails during the Great Depression. It has a group of generally unknown actors doing voice work, with…
February 28, 2018 in The Moment.
Awards! Where The Water Tastes Like Wine Trailer Premiere!
We're proud to announce the premiere of a new trailer from the narratively rich "Where The Water Tastes Like Wine." The trailer for the upcoming game will premiere the New York Game Awards on January 24th. Three of our New York Vidoegame Critics Circle writers have contributed story to "Where The Water Tastes Like Wine," which…
January 16, 2018 in Awards.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 7,750
|
Q: Drawing Unicode box in C: the inner one of 2 nested for loop doesn't exit upon hitting the test condition I'm trying to draw a box from Unicode chars and the problem is that the inner for loop doesn't seem to exit after hitting the condition of reaching 26 iterations, which leaves the output scrambled in one line and split in half.
I've tried replacing the initial values of loop counters with 2 (since it appears as if the first decision condition is skipped due to 0%2 == 0 producing an error, but to no avail.)
I've also tried replacing the spaces with 0 and add some printf tests, but it seems like the main issue is with my inability to decompose this program into modules and I have no idea how it can be performed, giving that the only basic action the function can do is print a character depending on the condition.
Should I try to generalize the edge cases and pass loop counters and the code of printable chars to a function, testing them on each iteration?
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
#include <locale.h>
wchar_t edgeLU = 0x250c;
wchar_t vert = 0x2502;
wchar_t leftMid = 0x251c;
wchar_t edgeLB = 0x2514;
wchar_t botMid = 0x2534;
wchar_t horiz = 0x2500;
wchar_t edgeRB = 0x2518;
wchar_t rightMid = 0x2524;
wchar_t edgeRU = 0x2510;
wchar_t upMid = 0x252c;
wchar_t cross = 0x253c;
int i, j;
int main() {
setlocale(LC_CTYPE, "");
for (i = 0; i < 27; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < 27; j++) {
if (i == 0) {
if (j == 0) {
wprintf(L"%lc", edgeLU);
}
else if (j%2 == 1) {
wprintf(L"%lc", horiz);
}
else if (j%2 == 0 && !(j == 0 || j == 26)) {
wprintf(L"%lc", upMid);
}
else {
wprintf(L"%lc", edgeRU);
}
}
else if (i%2 == 1) {
if (j%2 == 0) {
wprintf(L"%lc", vert);
}
else {
printf(" ");
}
}
else if (i%2 == 0 && !(i == 0 || i == 26)) {
if (j == 0) {
wprintf(L"%lc", leftMid);
}
else if (j%2 == 1) {
wprintf(L"%lc", horiz);
}
else if (j%2 == 0 && !(j == 0 || j == 26)) {
wprintf(L"%lc", cross);
}
else {
wprintf(L"%lc", rightMid);
}
}
else if (i == 26) {
if (j == 0) {
wprintf(L"%lc", edgeLB);
}
else if (j%2 == 1) {
wprintf(L"%lc", horiz);
}
else if (j%2 == 0 && !(j == 0 || j == 26)) {
wprintf(L"%lc", botMid);
}
else {
wprintf(L"%lc", edgeRB);
}
}
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
To avoid confusion, ┤ ┴ ├ ┬ are denoted as rightMid, botMid, leftMid and upMid respectively.
That is the output, the program first prints spaces from the (i%2 == 1) condition and newlines, following termination of the inner loop in some haphazard fashion.
A: In is undefined behaviour to mix wide and narrow character output to the same file. Replace printf calls with corresponding wprintf.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 5,798
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Q: How to do PngCrush for my images of iOS app?
Possible Duplicate:
What is PngCrush in iOS?
I'm having a doubts about image optimisation technique of iOS apps Pngcrush
My doubt is,
Is pngcrush built-in to xcode or do we need to explicitly download pngcrush tool and optimise our images?
If we want to do it explicitly how can we achieve this?
A: This question may solve your problem: Skipping the 'CompressResources' build step for XCode iPhone apps
Another thing is there might chances that the PNGs are of type JPG's and the Extentation has been modified with png.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 9,152
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Q: Mount&Blade Warband Steam Version Problem So I bought Mount and Blade Warband a month ago on steam and for some reason I'm not getting any achievements and everytime I turn on the game one small window is popping up with a CD key and asking me to activate it. Anyone know or have any idea how to fix this?
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 6,072
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Q: How to create a shortcut using PowerShell I want to create a shortcut with PowerShell for this executable:
C:\Program Files (x86)\ColorPix\ColorPix.exe
How can this be done?
A: Beginning PowerShell 5.0 New-Item, Remove-Item, and Get-ChildItem have been enhanced to support creating and managing symbolic links. The ItemType parameter for New-Item accepts a new value, SymbolicLink. Now you can create symbolic links in a single line by running the New-Item cmdlet.
New-Item -ItemType SymbolicLink -Path "C:\temp" -Name "calc.lnk" -Value "c:\windows\system32\calc.exe"
Be Carefull a SymbolicLink is different from a Shortcut, shortcuts are just a file. They have a size (A small one, that just references where they point) and they require an application to support that filetype in order to be used. A symbolic link is filesystem level, and everything sees it as the original file. An application needs no special support to use a symbolic link.
Anyway if you want to create a Run As Administrator shortcut using Powershell you can use
$file="c:\temp\calc.lnk"
$bytes = [System.IO.File]::ReadAllBytes($file)
$bytes[0x15] = $bytes[0x15] -bor 0x20 #set byte 21 (0x15) bit 6 (0x20) ON (Use –bor to set RunAsAdministrator option and –bxor to unset)
[System.IO.File]::WriteAllBytes($file, $bytes)
If anybody want to change something else in a .LNK file you can refer to official Microsoft documentation.
A: I don't know any native cmdlet in powershell but you can use com object instead:
$WshShell = New-Object -comObject WScript.Shell
$Shortcut = $WshShell.CreateShortcut("$Home\Desktop\ColorPix.lnk")
$Shortcut.TargetPath = "C:\Program Files (x86)\ColorPix\ColorPix.exe"
$Shortcut.Save()
you can create a powershell script save as set-shortcut.ps1 in your $pwd
param ( [string]$SourceExe, [string]$DestinationPath )
$WshShell = New-Object -comObject WScript.Shell
$Shortcut = $WshShell.CreateShortcut($DestinationPath)
$Shortcut.TargetPath = $SourceExe
$Shortcut.Save()
and call it like this
Set-ShortCut "C:\Program Files (x86)\ColorPix\ColorPix.exe" "$Home\Desktop\ColorPix.lnk"
If you want to pass arguments to the target exe, it can be done by:
#Set the additional parameters for the shortcut
$Shortcut.Arguments = "/argument=value"
before $Shortcut.Save().
For convenience, here is a modified version of set-shortcut.ps1. It accepts arguments as its second parameter.
param ( [string]$SourceExe, [string]$ArgumentsToSourceExe, [string]$DestinationPath )
$WshShell = New-Object -comObject WScript.Shell
$Shortcut = $WshShell.CreateShortcut($DestinationPath)
$Shortcut.TargetPath = $SourceExe
$Shortcut.Arguments = $ArgumentsToSourceExe
$Shortcut.Save()
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 8,231
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Martin Poustka (born 2 December 1975) is a Czech football manager, who is currently working for Slavia Prague.
Poustka was announced as the caretaker manager of Gambrinus liga side Slavia Prague in March 2012, following the resignation of František Straka, who he had previously served under as assistant manager. At the age of 36, he became the fourth-youngest Slavia manager in history. Poustka was appointed until a permanent appointment could be made. However, after Vítězslav Lavička refused an offer to take over, Poustka's spell continued.
References
1975 births
Living people
Czech footballers
Czech football managers
Czech First League managers
SK Slavia Prague managers
Footballers from Prague
Association footballers not categorized by position
SK Slavia Prague non-playing staff
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaWikipedia"
}
| 3,860
|
How To Watch PGA TOUR
Welcome to a kinder, gentler Royal St. George's. Will it stay that way?
2yBob Harig
Jordan Spieth, Josh Allen & Co. hit Pebble Beach, Augusta announces field and more golf world happenings
17hMark Schlabach
McIlroy vs. Reed in Dubai, Max Homa's rise and more from the PGA Tour
3dMark Schlabach
Pebble Beach adjusts dangerous par-4 8th hole
9hPaolo Uggetti
Fitzpatrick enters busy stretch with neck injury
11hPaolo Uggetti
Augusta Women's Amateur gets top 45 in world
Blue Bay LPGA canceled for third time in 4 years
Fitter Mickelson expecting a 'really good year'
Bubba eager to return to Masters, join festivities
LIV's plea to subpoena Augusta members denied
The 25 most influential names in golf right now
34dMark Schlabach
How to watch PGA Tour's AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am on ESPN+
McIlroy tops Reed to Dubai title in tense finish
3dAssociated Press
Homa rallies from 5 shots down to win Farmers
McIlroy leads by 3 ahead of final day in Dubai
Reed uses binoculars to ID ball stuck in tree
Rory, Reed tied two behind leaders in Dubai
Rahm surges at Torrey Pines, within 2 of Ryder
Ryder pulls away, Rahm heats up at Torrey Pines
Reed leads McIlroy in wet Dubai Classic
Rahm struggles with 73, well back at Farmers
Welcome to a kinder, gentler Royal St. George's at The Open ... but will it stay that way?
Bob HarigESPN Senior Writer
Senior golf writer for ESPN.com
Covered golf for more than 20 years
Earned Evans Scholarship to attend Indiana University
SANDWICH, England -- The mean-spirited among us prefer to see whitecaps on the English Channel, umbrellas breaking in half, waterproofs as the preferred clothing. If the wind wants to howl at a reasonably high rate, that would be good, too.
That is Open weather. The kind that showcases -- and sometimes exposes -- the best golfers in the world. It can be maddening and frustrating, but it is pure entertainment for the golf public that enjoys seeing professionals endure the elements at the game's oldest championship.
Of course, Mother Nature does not always cooperate. And there are many who were just fine with the rather pleasant day that unfolded at Royal St. George's for the opening round of the final major championship of 2021.
There was sunshine for a good while and not a hint of rain. There was plenty of wind, however, but not enough to keep several players from breaking par. Watching Thursday would make you wonder what all the fuss was about.
EPA/NEIL HALL
Royal St. George's, near Sandwich Bay and within view of France, has rarely stoked the passions of links lovers. It doesn't rate high in terms of Open venues, either. What it lacks in beauty it often makes up for in brawn, although that was missing in relatively benign conditions over the course of the first round.
"Why don't we love it?'' said England's Paul Casey, who began the tournament with a 68. "Because it's so damn difficult. It is.''
Casey grew up in Weybridge in the county of Surrey and recalled matches against the county of Kent played at Royal St. George's when he was an amateur.
The place beat him up.
"It was just hard; a hard, hard golf course to play,'' he said. "It wasn't enjoyable.''
And yet on Thursday, Louis Oosthuizen shot 64 to take the first-round lead, just the sixth score of 64 or better in the 15 Opens played at Royal St. George's dating to the late 1800s.
Bryson rips driver, apologizes after rep tees off
Spieth (65) in mix at Open: 'Like where I'm at'
Mickelson tied for last, shoots first-round 80
Jordan Spieth and Brian Harman are a shot back. There were nearly 50 players under par. And the average score for the day was only slightly over par. That is unheard of for an Open, especially one at Royal St. George's, where Tiger Woods hit the fairway with his opening tee shot in 2003, then saw it bounce into the rough. The ball was never found. He started with a 2-shot penalty and a triple-bogey 7.
He ended up finishing 2 strokes behind Ben Curtis.
"Slightly out of order, isn't it?'' Casey said of what happened to Woods. "I think that is why setup can kill people's enjoyment of this golf course. The setup this week is phenomenally good.''
And perhaps that is why the scoring was rather good. And perhaps why there have been less shots taken at the course.
Brooks Koepka was just being honest when he said early in the week that it wasn't his favorite, due to all the blind shots. Rory McIlroy pretty much hated it 10 years ago when he came to Royal St. George's as the reigning U.S. Open champion and walked away frustrated after a tie for 25th.
But McIlroy noted that some of the hard edges have since been lessened. Some of the moonscape that the course is noted for -- the mounds and humps in the middle of fairways -- are less severe due to summer rain and, perhaps, with some direction to the Royal St. George's crew via the R&A.
America's Caddie
Michael Collins is back for an all-new season of America's Caddie. He'll take you inside the world of golf with exclusive looks at some of the top courses, feature stories, celebrity guests and interviews with the biggest stars in golf. Stream on ESPN+
"We're very conscious that this course has got a lot of very severe undulations in the fairways and in the landing areas,'' R&A chief executive Martin Slumbers said. "We've been conscious right the way through to ensure that a ball that lands on that doesn't get kicked off at a pace that could take it into deep, deep rough. It is a bit greener out there than you would have seen at some other courses, and that's purposeful.''
It is pretty rare for those in charge of setting up tournaments to admit they were concerned about a course being unfair.
But that is part of what is going on this week, and part of the reason you are seeing a lot more smiles than frowns.
"I would say if anything just a little bit of softness,'' said Spieth, who played the course for the first time in competition and shot 5-under 65. "I kind of got away with a couple tee shots in the first cut that maybe if it was firmer may have worked their way just into the fescue. I'm sure for a lot of people it's the same way.
"It's a course where you have so much undulation in the fairways that if it gets firmer, it gets very bounce-dependent. That's what I had heard coming in. Then after playing it you can see that. The wind is up, and the pins are on knobs and crowns and they've done ... they put a few pins in some really fun spots for us [Thursday] where you could get at them in some bowls. But that's only a few of the holes. The rest of them, they're on some of the more difficult locations to kind of separate the field out. If you're really striking it well or you're not, you end up in better positions versus not.''
Spieth was aware of the course's reputation before he arrived and tried to keep an open mind.
"Historically I've come into venues I've never seen before in any tournament and I've always just tried to find something I love about it,'' he said. "I came in here and I've been in a really good mood about it. I thought, 'Man, this could be a really fun kind of cool, tricky track.' It's certainly odd compared to some of the other ones.''
The forecast for the rest of the tournament calls for temperatures in the high 60s and a pretty brisk breeze that could gust up to 25 mph. That can cause fits, as the best in the world are filled with doubt when they are unsure what impact the wind will have, especially on a links where there are so many odd bounces and breaks.
Continued wind means the course is likely to get firmer and faster, bringing some of those old concerns that gave Royal St. George's a less-than-stellar reputation back into play. Unless, of course, the powers-that-be step in.
"I think the architecture is absolutely phenomenal,'' Casey said. "Some of the best bunkering and green approaches. The only reason it never makes my top sort of five in the U.K. is one too many blind tee shots for my liking. And that's my personal preference. But that's kind of a weak excuse for not putting it in my top five, isn't it? But there's several. You tend to lose sight of the golf ball quite frequently on the tee shots.
"But the fact that they moved the first fairway slightly left this year is a great example. Tiger's tee shot right down the middle [in 2003] rolled off to the side and he lost the golf ball. Crazy. I think that is why setup can kill people's enjoyment of this golf course. The setup this week is really good.''
The setup is good. The weather is good. And, so far, the golf is good.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 7,684
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class GameNotStartedError:
pass
class GameHasBeenEnded:
pass
class Player1Wins:
pass
class Player2Wins:
pass
class InvalidPlayerId:
pass
class InvalidPlayerNumber:
pass
class AtFirstStartNewGame:
pass
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 6,689
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Whistleblower Edward Snowden shares 40-year-old interview where the CIA created FAKE NEWS and DISINFORMATION to con Congress and the American public
SD Wells
(Natural News) Remember Snowden? He's the man who revealed that the US government says it's not a crime to spy on the American people, only a crime to expose that illegal and unconstitutional spying. Well, forty years ago, fake news and disinformation coming from the US government was revealed by one of the greatest whistleblowers of all time, Edward Snowden. A clip of an interview with him is embedded below, where he confesses how FAKE NEWS was basically invented and utilized by the CIA to con the American public and Congress into supporting lies about wars, enemies, and the funding of those wars. Back in 1983, Edward Snowden was a CIA analyst, interrogator, and press briefer.
Here's some of what Snowden said was going on then, and how he was a key player in disseminating disinformation. "When we, the CIA, wanted to circulate disinformation on a particular issue – disinformation is not necessarily a lie, maybe a half-truth, and we would pick out a journalist, I would go do the briefing, and hope that he would put the information in print."
He goes on to say that the percentage of planting this kind of (false) data was 70 to 80 percent. He went on to say, "…the correspondents we targeted were those who had terrific influence, the most respected journalists…" He was talking about journalists in Saigon during the Vietnam War who would help the CIA spread lies about the North Vietnamese invading South Vietnam. This was propaganda that neither the journalist, nor the American people, could disprove, so usually, it was printed as fact and believed to be real and happening.
Snowden also describes how he "cultivated" relationships for spreading this propaganda and half-truths with top reporters and journalists from leading mass media outlets like the New York Times, Los Angeles Times, US News and World Report, Chicago Times, and Newsweek Magazine, to name a few. He said the CIA would "go after these gentlemen" as the CIA directed him to "cultivate them" and "slowly but surely try to gain their confidence by dolloping out valid information – information which was true, and then I would drop in, into a conversation the data which we wanted to get across, which might not be true."
The CIA used disinformation and fake news to con the American public and Congress to support the Vietnam War
Snowden said one of the reasons they would plant this information was to try to persuade the US Congress to send more aid to South Vietnam and convince Congress that the North Vietnamese were the "chief violators of the cease fire accord." In other words, the CIA fabricates information to influence wars, the financing of wars, and the opinion of the American public about those wars.
Here's the big rub. Snowden, in this key interview, explains exactly how the CIA lies and propaganda worked so well, saying, "If I planted a piece of information with a reporter, I would ordinarily then try to create an environment which he could not check the information. I would go to the British Ambassador and brief him on the disinformation I had just given the reporter, so when the reporter wanted to cross-check what I had told him, with say, the British Ambassador, New Zealand Ambassador, or what-have-you, he would get false-confirmation–the same message coming back at him, and he'd say, ah-ha, I've got proof that (Frank Smith) told me the truth, that when in fact, what he'd gotten was simply an echo of what I had given him in the first place…"
Snowden confesses later in the interview about how he was opposed to the disinformation practices of the CIA, in which he was involved, and he admits that he was involved, and that it is not the CIA's job to propagandize Congress or the American public.
Bookmark Censored.news to your favorite websites for truth news about unnecessary wars and the scamdemic that's being censored from the rest of media as you read this.
Revolver.news
Black Career Criminal in Washington D.C., Who Pushed for City's Soft-On-Crime Bill, Shot and Killed by Fellow Black Male in the Week the Bill Is Passed…
Drop the covid "vaccine" mandate or no more defense funding, say GOP members of Congress to military
Why Are So Many Major Volcanoes Suddenly Exploding All Over The World?
DISNEY'S GAY BLACK HOLE – where money goes to disappear
Why Did Sundown Towns Exist Again? Because of High Rates of Black Youth Crime, Philadelphia City Council Approves Permanent Curfew for Philly Teens
SECRET CDC REPORT: Since the launch of Operation Warp Speed, at least 1.1 million Americans have "died suddenly"
Previous articleBlack Career Criminal in Washington D.C., Who Pushed for City's Soft-On-Crime Bill, Shot and Killed by Fellow Black Male in the Week the Bill Is Passed…
Next articleSoros-linked "fact checker" scheme to be implemented at Google and YouTube to suppress truth and catapult official LIES
Top 5 causes of HEART ATTACKS you may not know about
German intelligence agency: Ukraine losing HUNDREDS of soldiers daily… the situation...
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{
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{"url":"https:\/\/labs.tib.eu\/arxiv\/?author=Simon%20Driver","text":"\u2022 ### Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): 'No Smoking' zone for giant elliptical galaxies?(1704.09029)\n\nApril 15, 2018 astro-ph.GA\nWe study the radio emission of the most massive galaxies in a sample of dynamically relaxed and un-relaxed galaxy groups from Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA). The dynamical state of the group is defined by the stellar dominance of the brightest group galaxy, e.g. the luminosity gap between the two most luminous members, and the offset between the position of the brightest group galaxy and the luminosity centroid of the group. We find that the radio luminosity of the most massive galaxy in the group strongly depends on its environment, such that the brightest group galaxies in dynamically young (evolving) groups are an order of magnitude more luminous in the radio than those with a similar stellar mass but residing in dynamically old (relaxed) groups. This observation has been successfully reproduced by a newly developed semi-analytic model which allows us to explore the various causes of these findings. We find that the fraction of radio loud brightest group galaxies in the observed dynamically young groups is ~2 times that in the dynamically old groups. We discuss the implications of this observational constraint on the central galaxy properties in the context of galaxy mergers and the super-massive blackhole accretion rate.\n\u2022 ### The New Galaxy Evolution Paradigm Revealed by the Herschel Surveys(1710.01314)\n\nOct. 11, 2017 astro-ph.GA\nThe Herschel Space Observatory has revealed a very different galaxyscape from that shown by optical surveys which presents a challenge for galaxy-evolution models. The Herschel surveys reveal (1) that there was rapid galaxy evolution in the very recent past and (2) that galaxies lie on a a single Galaxy Sequence (GS) rather than a star-forming main sequence' and a separate region of passive' or red-and-dead' galaxies. The form of the GS is now clearer because far-infrared surveys such as the Herschel ATLAS pick up a population of optically-red star-forming galaxies that would have been classified as passive using most optical criteria. The space-density of this population is at least as high as the traditional star-forming population. By stacking spectra of H-ATLAS galaxies over the redshift range 0.001 < z < 0.4, we show that the galaxies responsible for the rapid low-redshift evolution have high stellar masses, high star-formation rates but, even several billion years in the past, old stellar populations - they are thus likely to be relatively recent ancestors of early-type galaxies in the Universe today. The form of the GS is inconsistent with rapid quenching models and neither the analytic bathtub model nor the hydrodynamical EAGLE simulation can reproduce the rapid cosmic evolution. We propose a new gentler model of galaxy evolution that can explain the new Herschel results and other key properties of the galaxy population.\n\u2022 MSE is an 11.25m aperture observatory with a 1.5 square degree field of view that will be fully dedicated to multi-object spectroscopy. More than 3200 fibres will feed spectrographs operating at low (R ~ 2000 - 3500) and moderate (R ~ 6000) spectral resolution, and approximately 1000 fibers will feed spectrographs operating at high (R ~ 40000) resolution. MSE is designed to enable transformational science in areas as diverse as tomographic mapping of the interstellar and intergalactic media; the in-situ chemical tagging of thick disk and halo stars; connecting galaxies to their large scale structure; measuring the mass functions of cold dark matter sub-halos in galaxy and cluster-scale hosts; reverberation mapping of supermassive black holes in quasars; next generation cosmological surveys using redshift space distortions and peculiar velocities. MSE is an essential follow-up facility to current and next generations of multi-wavelength imaging surveys, including LSST, Gaia, Euclid, WFIRST, PLATO, and the SKA, and is designed to complement and go beyond the science goals of other planned and current spectroscopic capabilities like VISTA\/4MOST, WHT\/WEAVE, AAT\/HERMES and Subaru\/PFS. It is an ideal feeder facility for E-ELT, TMT and GMT, and provides the missing link between wide field imaging and small field precision astronomy. MSE is optimized for high throughput, high signal-to-noise observations of the faintest sources in the Universe with high quality calibration and stability being ensured through the dedicated operational mode of the observatory. (abridged)\n\u2022 ### A concise overview of the Maunakea Spectroscopic Explorer(1606.00060)\n\nMay 31, 2016 astro-ph.IM\nThis short document is intended as a companion and introduction to the Detailed Science Case (DSC) for the Maunakea Spectroscopic Explorer. It provides a concise summary of the essential characteristics of MSE from the perspective of the international astronomical community. MSE is a wide field telescope (1.5 square degree field of view) with an aperture of 11.25m. It is dedicated to multi-object spectroscopy at several different spectral resolutions in the range R ~ 2500 - 40000 over a broad wavelength range (0.36 - 1.8{\\mu}m). MSE will enable transformational science in areas as diverse as exoplanetary host characterization; stellar monitoring campaigns; tomographic mapping of the interstellar and intergalactic media; the in-situ chemical tagging of the distant Galaxy; connecting galaxies to the large scale structure of the Universe; measuring the mass functions of cold dark matter sub-halos in galaxy and cluster-scale hosts; reverberation mapping of supermassive black holes in quasars. MSE is the largest ground based optical and near infrared telescope in its class, and it will occupy a unique and critical role in the emerging network of astronomical facilities active in the 2020s. MSE is an essential follow-up facility to current and next generations of multi-wavelength imaging surveys, including LSST, Gaia, Euclid, eROSITA, SKA, and WFIRST, and is an ideal feeder facility for E-ELT, TMT and GMT.\n\u2022 ### Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): Understanding the wavelength dependence of galaxy structure with bulge-disc decompositions(1605.04720)\n\nMay 16, 2016 astro-ph.GA\nWith a large sample of bright, low-redshift galaxies with optical$-$near-IR imaging from the GAMA survey we use bulge-disc decompositions to understand the wavelength-dependent behavior of single-S\\'ersic structural measurements. We denote the variation in single-S\\'ersic index with wavelength as $\\mathcal{N}$, likewise for effective radius we use $\\mathcal{R}$. We find that most galaxies with a substantial disc, even those with no discernable bulge, display a high value of $\\mathcal{N}$. The increase in S\\'ersic index to longer wavelengths is therefore intrinsic to discs, apparently resulting from radial variations in stellar population and\/or dust reddening. Similarly, low values of $\\mathcal{R}$ ($<$ 1) are found to be ubiquitous, implying an element of universality in galaxy colour gradients. We also study how bulge and disc colour distributions vary with galaxy type. We find that, rather than all bulges being red and all discs being blue in absolute terms, both components become redder for galaxies with redder total colours. We even observe that bulges in bluer galaxies are typically bluer than discs in red galaxies, and that bulges and discs are closer in colour for fainter galaxies. Trends in total colour are therefore not solely due to the colour or flux dominance of the bulge or disc.\n\u2022 ### H-ATLAS\/GAMA: Quantifying the Morphological Evolution of the Galaxy Population Using Cosmic Calorimetry(1506.05466)\n\nJune 19, 2015 astro-ph.CO, astro-ph.GA\nUsing results from the Herschel Astrophysical Terrahertz Large-Area Survey and the Galaxy and Mass Assembly project, we show that, for galaxy masses above approximately 1.0e8 solar masses, 51% of the stellar mass-density in the local Universe is in early-type galaxies (ETGs: Sersic n > 2.5) while 89% of the rate of production of stellar mass-density is occurring in late-type galaxies (LTGs: Sersic n < 2.5). From this zero-redshift benchmark, we have used a calorimetric technique to quantify the importance of the morphological transformation of galaxies over the history of the Universe. The extragalactic background radiation contains all the energy generated by nuclear fusion in stars since the Big Bang. By resolving this background radiation into individual galaxies using the deepest far-infrared survey with the Herschel Space Observatory and a deep near-infrared\/optical survey with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and using measurements of the Sersic index of these galaxies derived from the HST images, we estimate that approximately 83% of the stellar mass-density formed over the history of the Universe occurred in LTGs. The difference between this and the fraction of the stellar mass-density that is in LTGs today implies there must have been a major transformation of LTGs into ETGs after the formation of most of the stars.\n\u2022 ### Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): Trends in galaxy colours, morphology, and stellar populations with large scale structure, group, and pair environments(1505.05518)\n\nMay 20, 2015 astro-ph.GA\nWe explore trends in galaxy properties with Mpc-scale structures using catalogues of environment and large scale structure from the Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey. Existing GAMA catalogues of large scale structure, group and pair membership allow us to construct galaxy stellar mass functions for different environmental types. To avoid simply extracting the known underlying correlations between galaxy properties and stellar mass, we create a mass matched sample of galaxies with stellar masses between $9.5 \\leq \\log{M_*\/h^{-2} M_{\\odot}} \\leq 11$ for each environmental population. Using these samples, we show that mass normalised galaxies in different large scale environments have similar energy outputs, $u-r$ colours, luminosities, and morphologies. Extending our analysis to group and pair environments, we show galaxies that are not in groups or pairs exhibit similar characteristics to each other regardless of broader environment. For our mass controlled sample, we fail to see a strong dependence of S\\'{e}rsic index or galaxy luminosity on halo mass, but do find that it correlates very strongly with colour. Repeating our analysis for galaxies that have not been mass controlled introduces and amplifies trends in the properties of galaxies in pairs, groups, and large scale structure, indicating that stellar mass is the most important predictor of the galaxy properties we examine, as opposed to environmental classifications.\n\u2022 ### Connecting the Baryons: Multiwavelength Data for SKA HI Surveys(1501.01082)\n\nJan. 6, 2015 astro-ph.CO, astro-ph.GA\nThe science achievable with SKA HI surveys will be greatly increased through the combination of HI data with that at other wavelengths. These multiwavelength datasets will enable studies to move beyond an understanding of HI gas in isolation to instead understand HI as an integral part of the highly complex baryonic processes that drive galaxy evolution. As they evolve, galaxies experience a host of environmental and feedback influences, many of which can radically impact their gas content. Important processes include: accretion (hot and cold mode, mergers), depletion (star formation, galactic winds, AGN), phase changes (ionised\/atomic\/molecular), and environmental effects (ram pressure stripping, tidal effects, strangulation). Governing all of these to various extents is the underlying dark matter distribution. In turn, the result of these processes can significantly alter the baryonic states in which material is finally observed (stellar populations, dust, chemistry) and its morphology (galaxy type, bulge\/disk ratio, bars, warps, radial profile). To fully understand the evolution of HI and the role it plays in galactic evolution requires the ability to quantify each of these separate processes, and hence to coordinate SKA HI surveys with extensive multi-band photometric and spectroscopic campaigns. In addition, multiwavelength data is essential for statistical methods of HI analysis such as HI stacking and intensity mapping cross-correlations. In this chapter, we examine some of the principal science motivations for acquiring multiwavelength data to match that from the extragalactic SKA HI surveys, and review the currently planned capacity to achieve this (eg. LSST, Euclid, W-FIRST, SPICA, ALMA, and 4MOST).\n\u2022 ### Galaxy And Mass Assembly: Deconstructing Bimodality - I. Red ones and blue ones(1408.5984)\n\nAug. 26, 2014 astro-ph.CO, astro-ph.GA\nWe measure the mass functions for generically red and blue galaxies, using a z < 0.12 sample of log M* > 8.7 field galaxies from the Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey. Our motivation is that, as we show, the dominant uncertainty in existing measurements stems from how 'red' and 'blue' galaxies have been selected\/defined. Accordingly, we model our data as two naturally overlapping populations, each with their own mass function and colour-mass relation, which enables us characterise the two populations without having to specify a priori which galaxies are 'red' and 'blue'. Our results then provide the means to derive objective operational definitions for the terms 'red' and 'blue', which are based on the phenomenology of the colour-mass diagrams. Informed by this descriptive modelling, we show that: 1.) after accounting for dust, the stellar colours of 'blue' galaxies do not depend strongly on mass; 2.) the tight, flat 'dead sequence' does not extend much below log M* ~ 10.5; instead, 3.) the stellar colours of 'red' galaxies vary rather strongly with mass, such that lower mass 'red' galaxies have bluer stellar populations; 4.) below log M* ~ 9.3, the 'red' population dissolves into obscurity, and it becomes problematic to talk about two distinct populations; as a consequence, 5.) it is hard to meaningfully constrain the shape, including the possibility of an upturn, of the 'red' galaxy mass function below log M* ~ 9. Points 1-4 provide meaningful targets for models of galaxy formation and evolution to aim for.\n\u2022 ### Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): the wavelength-dependent sizes and profiles of galaxies revealed by MegaMorph(1404.0377)\n\nJune 6, 2014 astro-ph.GA\nWe investigate the relationship between colour and structure within galaxies using a large, volume-limited sample of bright, low-redshift galaxies with optical to near-infrared imaging from the GAMA survey. We fit single-component, wavelength-dependent, elliptical Sersic models to all passbands simultaneously, using software developed by the MegaMorph project. Dividing our sample by Sersic index and colour, the recovered wavelength variations in effective radius (R_e) and Sersic index (n) reveal the internal structure, and hence formation history, of different types of galaxies. All these trends depend on n; some have an additional dependence on galaxy colour. Late-type galaxies (n_r < 2.5) show a dramatic increase in Sersic index with wavelength. This might be a result of their two-component (bulge-disk) nature, though stellar population gradients within each component and dust attenuation are likely to play a role. All galaxies show a substantial decrease in R_e with wavelength. This is strongest for early-types (n_r > 2.5), even though they maintain constant n with wavelength, revealing that ellipticals are a superimposition of different stellar populations associated with multiple collapse and merging events. Processes leading to structures with larger R_e must be associated with lower metallicity or younger stellar populations. This appears to rule out the formation of young cores through dissipative gas accretion as an important mechanism in the recent lives of luminous elliptical galaxies.\n\u2022 ### Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA): Fine filaments of galaxies detected within voids(1401.7331)\n\nJan. 28, 2014 astro-ph.CO\nBased on data from the Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey, we report on the discovery of structures that we refer to as tendrils' of galaxies: coherent, thin chains of galaxies that are rooted in filaments and terminate in neighbouring filaments or voids. On average, tendrils contain 6 galaxies and span 10 $h^{-1}$ Mpc. We use the so-called line correlation function to prove that tendrils represent real structures rather than accidental alignments. We show that voids found in the SDSS-DR7 survey that overlap with GAMA regions contain a large number of galaxies, primarily belonging to tendrils. This implies that void sizes are strongly dependent on the number density and sensitivity limits of a survey. We caution that galaxies in low density regions, that may be defined as void galaxies,' will have local galaxy number densities that depend on such observational limits and are likely higher than can be directly measured.\n\u2022 ### Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): The large scale structure of galaxies and comparison to mock universes(1311.1211)\n\nNov. 5, 2013 astro-ph.CO\nFrom a volume limited sample of 45,542 galaxies and 6,000 groups with $z \\leq 0.213$ we use an adapted minimal spanning tree algorithm to identify and classify large scale structures within the Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey. Using galaxy groups, we identify 643 filaments across the three equatorial GAMA fields that span up to 200 $h^{-1}$ Mpc in length, each with an average of 8 groups within them. By analysing galaxies not belonging to groups we identify a secondary population of smaller coherent structures composed entirely of galaxies, dubbed tendrils' that appear to link filaments together, or penetrate into voids, generally measuring around 10 $h^{-1}$ Mpc in length and containing on average 6 galaxies. Finally we are also able to identify a population of isolated void galaxies. By running this algorithm on GAMA mock galaxy catalogues we compare the characteristics of large scale structure between observed and mock data; finding that mock filaments reproduce observed ones extremely well. This provides a probe of higher order distribution statistics not captured by the popularly used two-point correlation function.\n\u2022 ### Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA): galaxy radial alignments in GAMA groups(1306.4963)\n\nJune 20, 2013 astro-ph.CO\nWe constrain the distributions of projected radial alignment angles of satellite galaxy shapes within the Galaxy And Mass Assembly survey group catalogue. We identify the galaxy groups using spectroscopic redshifts and measure galaxy projected ellipticities from Sloan Digital Sky Survey imaging. With a sample of 3,850 groups with 13,655 satellite galaxies with high quality shape measurements, we find a less than 2-sigma signal of radial alignments in the mean projected ellipticity components and the projected position angle when using galaxy shape estimates optimized for weak lensing measurements. Our radial alignment measurement increases to greater than 3-sigma significance relative to the expectation for no alignments if we use 2-D S\\'ersic model fits to define galaxy orientations. Our weak measurement of radial alignments is in conflict with predictions from dark matter N-body simulations, which we interpret as evidence for large mis-alignments of baryons and dark matter in group and cluster satellites. Within our uncertainties, that are dominated by our small sample size, we find only weak and marginally significant trends of the radial alignment angle distributions on projected distance from the group centre, host halo mass, and redshift that could be consistent with a tidal torquing mechanism for radial alignments. Using our lensing optimized shape estimators, we estimate that intrinsic alignments of galaxy group members may contribute a systematic error to the mean differential projected surface mass density of groups inferred from weak lensing observations by -1 +\/- 20% at scales around 300 kpc\/h from the group centre assuming a photometric redshift r.m.s. error of 10%, and given our group sample with median redshift of 0.17 and median virial masses ~10^{13} h^{-1}M_{sun}.\n\u2022 ### The Infrared Properties of Sources Matched in the WISE all-sky and Herschel-ATLAS Surveys(1204.2020)\n\nApril 10, 2012 astro-ph.CO\nWe describe the infrared properties of sources detected over ~36 deg^2 of sky in the GAMA 15-hr equatorial field, using data from both the Herschel Astrophysical Terahertz Large-Area Survey (H-ATLAS) and Wide-field Infrared Survey (WISE). With 5-sigma point-source depths of 34 and 0.048 mJy at 250 micron and 3.4 micron, respectively, we are able to identify 50.6% of the H-ATLAS sources in the WISE survey, corresponding to a surface density of ~630 deg^{-2}. Approximately two-thirds of these sources have measured spectroscopic or optical\/near-IR photometric redshifts of z<1. For sources with spectroscopic redshifts at z<0.3, we find a linear correlation between the infrared luminosity at 3.4 micron and that at 250 micron, with +-50% scatter over ~1.5 orders of magnitude in luminosity, ~10^9 - 10^{10.5} L_sun. By contrast, the matched sources without previously measured redshifts (r>~20.5) have 250-350 micron flux density ratios that suggest either high-redshift galaxies (z>~1.5) or optically faint low-redshift galaxies with unusually low temperatures (T<~20). Their small 3.4-250 micron flux ratios favor a high-redshift galaxy population, as only the most actively star-forming galaxies at low redshift (e.g., Arp 220) exhibit comparable flux density ratios. Furthermore, we find a relatively large AGN fraction (~30%) in a 12 micron flux-limited subsample of H-ATLAS sources, also consistent with there being a significant population of high-redshift sources in the no-redshift sample.\n\u2022 ### Galaxy And Mass Assembly: Estimating galaxy group masses via caustic analysis(1204.0510)\n\nApril 2, 2012 astro-ph.CO\nWe have generated complementary halo mass estimates for all groups in the Galaxy And Mass Assembly Galaxy Group Catalogue (GAMA G3Cv1) using a modified caustic mass estimation algorithm, originally developed by Diaferio & Geller (1997). We calibrate the algorithm by applying it on a series of 9 GAMA mock galaxy light cones and investigate the effects of using different definitions for group centre and size. We select the set of parameters that provide median-unbiased mass estimates when tested on mocks, and generate mass estimates for the real group catalogue. We find that on average, the caustic mass estimates agree with dynamical mass estimates within a factor of 2 in 90.8 +\/- 6.1% groups and compares equally well to velocity dispersion based mass estimates for both high and low multiplicity groups over the full range of masses probed by the G3Cv1.\n\u2022 ### Deep Near-IR Surface Photometry of 57 Galaxies in the Local Sphere of Influence(0808.2529)\n\nAug. 19, 2008 astro-ph\nWe present H-band surface photometry of 57 galaxies drawn from the Local Sphere of Influence (LSI) with distances of less than 10 Mpc from the Milky Way. The images with a typical surface brightness limit 4 mag fainter than 2MASS (24.5 mag arcsec^-2 < sb_lim < 26 mag arcsec ^-2) have been obtained with IRIS2 on the 3.9 m Anglo-Australian Telescope. A total of 22 galaxies that remained previously undetected in the near-IR and potentially could have been genuinely young galaxies were found to have an old stellar population with a star density 1-2 magnitudes below the 2MASS detection threshold. The cleaned near-IR images reveal the morphology and extent of many of the galaxies for the first time. For all program galaxies, we derive radial luminosity profiles, ellipticities, and position angles, together with global parameters such as total magnitude, mean effective surface brightness and half-light radius. Our results show that 2MASS underestimates the total magnitude of galaxies with <mu_H>_eff between 18-21 mag arcsec^-2 by up to 2.5 mag. The Sersic parameters best describing the observed surface brightness profiles are also presented. Adopting accurate galaxy distances and a H-band mass-to-light ratio of Upsilon_H=1.0 +\/- 0.4, the LSI galaxies are found to cover a stellar mass range of 5.6 < log_10 (M_stars) < 11.1. The results are discussed along with previously obtained optical data. Our sample of low luminosity galaxies is found to follow closely the optical-infrared B versus H luminosity relation defined by brighter galaxies with a slope of 1.14 +\/- 0.02 and scatter of 0.3 magnitudes. Finally we analyse the luminosity - surface brightness relation to determine an empirical mass-to-light ratio of Upsilon_H=0.78 +\/- 0.08 for late-type galaxies in the H-band.\n\u2022 ### Deepest Near-IR Surface Photometry of Galaxies in the Local Sphere of Influence(0709.2192)\n\nSept. 14, 2007 astro-ph\nWe present near-IR, deep (4 mag deeper than 2MASS) imaging of 56 Local Volume galaxies. Global parameters such as total magnitudes and stellar masses have been derived and the new near-IR data combined with existing 21cm and optical B-band data. We present multiwavelength relations such as the HI mass-to-light ratio and investigate the maximum total baryonic mass a galaxy can have.\n\u2022 ### Internal colour gradients for E\/S0 galaxies in Abell 2218(astro-ph\/0411646)\n\nNov. 23, 2004 astro-ph\nWe determine colour gradients of $-0.15 \\pm 0.08$ magnitudes per decade in radius in F450W$-$F606W and $-0.07 \\pm 0.06$ magnitudes per decade in radius in F606W$-$F814W for a sample of 22 E\/S0 galaxies in Abell 2218. These gradients are consistent with the existence of a mild ($\\sim -0.3$ dex per decade in radius) gradient in metal abundance, (cf. previous work at lower and higher redshift for field and cluster galaxies). The size of the observed gradients is found to be independent of luminosity over a range spanning $M^*-1$ to $M^*+1.5$ and also to be independent of morphological type. These results suggest a fundamental similarity in the distributions of stellar populations in ellipticals and the bulges of lenticular galaxies. These results are not consistent with simple models of either monolithic collapse or hierarchical mergers.\n\u2022 ### The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: the local E+A galaxy population(astro-ph\/0408536)\n\nAug. 29, 2004 astro-ph\nWe select a sample of low-redshift (z ~ 0.1) E+A galaxies from the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dFGRS). The spectra of these objects are defined by strong hydrogen Balmer absorption lines (H-delta, H-gamma, H-beta) combined with a lack of [OII] 3727A emission, together implying a recently-truncated burst of star formation. The E+A spectrum is thus a signpost to galaxies in the process of evolution. We quantify the local environments, clustering properties and luminosity function of the E+A galaxies. We find that the environments are consistent with the ensemble of 2dFGRS galaxies: low-redshift E+A systems are located predominantly in the field, existing as isolated objects or in poor groups. However, the luminosity distribution of galaxies selected using three Balmer absorption lines H-delta-gamma-beta appears more typical of ellipticals. Indeed, morphologically these galaxies are preferentially spheroidal (E\/S0) systems. In a small but significant number we find evidence for recent major mergers, such as tidal tails. We infer that major mergers are one important formation mechanism for E+A galaxies, as suggested by previous studies. At low redshift the merger probability is high in the field and low in clusters, thus these recently-formed spheroidal systems do not follow the usual morphology-density relation for ellipticals. Regarding the selection of E+A galaxies: we find that basing the Balmer-line criterion solely on H-delta absorption leads to a significant sub-population of disk systems with detectable H-alpha emission. In these objects the [OII] emission is presumably either obscured by dust or present with a low signal-to-noise ratio, whilst the (H-gamma, H-beta) absorption features are subject to emission-filling.\n\u2022 ### Substructure Analysis of Selected Low Richness 2dFGRS Clusters of Galaxies(astro-ph\/0405021)\n\nMay 3, 2004 astro-ph\nComplementary one-, two-, and three-dimensional tests for detecting the presence of substructure in clusters of galaxies are applied to recently obtained data from the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey. The sample of 25 clusters used in this study includes 16 clusters not previously investigated for substructure. Substructure is detected at or greater than the 99% CL level in at least one test for 21 of the 25 clusters studied here. From the results, it appears that low richness clusters commonly contain subclusters participating in mergers. About half of the clusters have two or more components within 0.5 h^{-1} Mpc of the cluster centroid, and at least three clusters (Abell 1139, Abell 1663, and Abell S333) exhibit velocity-position characteristics consistent with the presence of possible cluster rotation, shear, or infall dynamics. The geometry of certain features is consistent with influence by the host supercluster environments. In general, our results support the hypothesis that low richness clusters relax to structureless equilibrium states on very long dynamical time scales (if at all).\n\u2022 ### The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: The blue galaxy fraction and implications for the Butcher-Oemler effect(astro-ph\/0402652)\n\nFeb. 26, 2004 astro-ph\nWe derive the fraction of blue galaxies in a sample of clusters at z < 0.11 and the general field at the same redshift. The value of the blue fraction is observed to depend on the luminosity limit adopted, cluster-centric radius and, more generally, local galaxy density, but it does not depend on cluster properties. Changes in the blue fraction are due to variations in the relative proportions of red and blue galaxies but the star formation rate for these two galaxy groups remains unchanged. Our results are most consistent with a model where the star formation rate declines rapidly and the blue galaxies tend to be dwarfs and do not favour mechanisms where the Butcher-Oemler effect is caused by processes specific to the cluster environment.\n\u2022 ### The Millennium Galaxy Catalogue: Star counts and the Structure of the Galactic Stellar Halo(astro-ph\/0308200)\n\nAug. 12, 2003 astro-ph\nWe derive a star catalogue generated from the images taken as part of the 37.5 sq. deg Millennium Galaxy Catalogue. These data, alone and together with colours gained from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Early Data Release, allow the analysis of faint star counts (B(MGC) < 20) at high Galactic latitude (41 < b < 63), as a function of Galactic longitude (239 < l < 353). We focus here on the inner stellar halo, providing robust limits on the amplitude of substructure and on the large-scale flattening. In line with previous results, the thick disk, an old, intermediate-metallicity population, is clearly seen in the colour-magnitude diagram. We find that the Galactic stellar halo within ~10 kpc (the bulk of the stellar mass) is significantly flattened, with an axial ratio of (c\/a) =0.56 +\/- 0.01, again consistent with previous results. Our analysis using counts-in-cells, angular correlation functions and the Lee 2D statistic, confirms tidal debris from the Sagittarius dwarf but finds little evidence for other substructure in the inner halo, at heliocentric distances of < 5 kpc. This new quantification of the smoothness in coordinate space limits the contribution of recent accretion\/disruption to the build-up of the bulk of the stellar halo.\n\u2022 ### The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: The environmental dependence of galaxy star formation rates near clusters(astro-ph\/0203336)\n\nMarch 21, 2002 astro-ph\nWe have measured the equivalent width of the H-alpha emission line for 11006 galaxies brighter than M_b=-19 (LCDM) at 0.05<z<0.1 in the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dF), in the fields of seventeen known galaxy clusters. The limited redshift range ensures that our results are insensitive to aperture bias, and to residuals from night sky emission lines. We use these measurements to trace mustar, the star formation rate normalized to Lstar, as a function of distance from the cluster centre, and local projected galaxy density. We find that the distribution of mustar steadily skews toward larger values with increasing distance from the cluster centre, converging to the field distribution at distances greater than ~3 times the virial radius. A correlation between star formation rate and local projected density is also found, which is independent of cluster velocity dispersion and disappears at projected densities below ~1 galaxy (brighter than M_b=-19) per Mpc^2. This characteristic scale corresponds approximately to the mean density at the cluster virial radius. The same correlation holds for galaxies more than two virial radii from the cluster centre. We conclude that environmental influences on galaxy properties are not restricted to cluster cores, but are effective in all groups where the density exceeds this critical value. The present day abundance of such systems, and the strong evolution of this abundance, makes it likely that hierarchical growth of structure plays a significant role in decreasing the global average star formation rate. Finally, the low star formation rates well beyond the virialised cluster rule out severe physical processes, such as ram pressure stripping of disk gas, as being completely responsible for the variations in galaxy properties with environment.\n\u2022 ### Variations in the Bivariate Brightness Distribution with different galaxy types(astro-ph\/0202131)\n\nFeb. 6, 2002 astro-ph\nWe present Bivariate Brightness Distributions (BBDs) for four spectral types discriminated by the 2dFGRS. We discuss the photometry and completeness of the 2dFGRS using a deep, wide-field CCD imaging survey. We find that there is a strong luminosity-surface brightness correlation amongst galaxies with medium to strong emission features, with gradient $\\beta_{\\mu}=0.25\\pm0.05$ and width $\\sigma_{\\mu}=0.56\\pm0.01$. Strong absorption line galaxies, show a bimodal distribution, with no correlation between luminosity and surface brightness.\n\u2022 ### The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: A targeted study of catalogued clusters of galaxies(astro-ph\/0109167)\n\nFeb. 6, 2002 astro-ph\nWe have carried out a study of known clusters within the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dFGRS) observed areas and have identified 431 Abell, 173 APM and 343 EDCC clusters. Precise redshifts, velocity dispersions and new centroids have been measured for the majority of these objects, and this information has been used to study the completeness of these catalogues, the level of contamination from foreground and background structures along the cluster's line of sight, the space density of the clusters as a function of redshift, and their velocity dispersion distributions. We find that the Abell and EDCC catalogues are contaminated at the level of about 10%, whereas the APM catalogue suffers only 5% contamination. If we use the original catalog centroids, the level of contamination rises to approximately 15% for the Abell and EDCC catalogues, showing that the presence of foreground and background groups may alter the richness of clusters in these catalogues. There is a deficiency of clusters at $z \\sim 0.05$ that may correspond to a large underdensity in the Southern hemisphere. From the cumulative distribution of velocity dispersions for these clusters, we derive an upper limit to the space density of $\\sigma > 1000 \\kms$ clusters of $3.6 \\times 10^{-6} \\hdens$. This result is used to constrain models for structure formation; our data favour low-density cosmologies, subject to the usual assumptions concerning the shape and normalization of the power spectrum.","date":"2021-03-03 05:41:49","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 1, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 1, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.5649386048316956, \"perplexity\": 3015.869613200367}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": true, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2021-10\/segments\/1614178365454.63\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20210303042832-20210303072832-00105.warc.gz\"}"}
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Q: Large image causing sidescroll in Jquery-UI pop-up <tr width="900px;">
<td colspan="2">#trim(messages.message)#</td>
</tr>
.dialog({
autoOpen: false,
draggable: false,
maxHeight: 600,
overflow: scroll,
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I have inserted a large image over 900px (using tinymce plugin) in width and it causes sidescrolling. How can I prevent this and shrink the image instead
A: Setting the width of the image to a percentage might fix your problem.
<img src="smiley.gif" alt="Smiley face" class="maxWidthImage" width="100%">
Or from css:
.maxWidthImage{
max-width:100%;
}
This will set the image width to the width of the above element.(when it's bigger than the above element)
In your case this is the dialog.
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Home Community News Amazing Kids Florida's Retired LEO K-9s Get Helping Hand for Their Service with SB226
Florida's Retired LEO K-9s Get Helping Hand for Their Service with SB226
Danielle Anderson
Bunnell, Fla. (June 10, 2022) Making an early stop in Bunnell to sign Senate Bill 226, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis was surrounded by members of law enforcement as well as staunch supporters of the canine community at the Kim C. Hammond Justice Center as he put pen to paper, making the 'Care for Retired Police Dogs' official.
With a $300,000 recurring appropriation for the Florida Department of Law Enforcement program which will be administered by a non-profit organization, handlers of K-9s who have served five years as a member of law enforcement or three with an on duty injury are eligible for up to $1,500 of veterinary or annual wellness support.
Emma Loves K9s founder Emma Stanford addresses the assembled during the bill signing ceremony on June 10, 2022 at the Kim C. Hammond Justice Center in Bunnell, Florida.
Among those present for the bill signing was Flagler County's own advocate for the local K-9 unit, Emma Stanford, founder of Emma Loves K9s.
Since creating her non-profit organization several years ago, she has become synonymous with the Flagler County Sheriff's Office K-9 Unit. Fundraising to help support their needs, her own journey with the K-9 unit began when her family started their search for a therapeutic canine and reached out to the sheriff's office for advice.
Since then, Emma, the K-9 Unit and Flagler County Sheriff Rick Staly have become close, so much so, that during the bill signing ceremony, Staly remarked on the mutual admiration.
Flagler County Sheriff Rick Staly addresses Florida Governor Ron DeSantis during the bill signing ceremony at the Kim C. Hammond Justice Center on June 10, 2022 in Bunnell, Florida.
"In our community, I couldn't ask for a better community to serve. They really support law enforcement," he said.
"To have Emma live in our community, I'm not sure who adopted who, either Emma adopted us or we adopted Emma, but it's a great friendship and partnership. It proves that you can have a vision, in this case at 11-years old, and take it to fruition, and keep building on it, which is what she is doing," said Staly.
Expressing appreciation for the overall support Governor DeSantis and the Legislature have shown for law enforcement, Staly and St. Johns County Sheriff Rob Hardwick applauded the governor during their remarks.
"It's extremely exciting to host the governor in Flagler County as he signs a pro-law enforcement bill, in this case, for our 4-legged partners," said Staly. "It's great to be in law enforcement in Florida."
Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signs SB226 at the Kim C. Hammond Justice Center in Bunnell, Florida on June 10, 2022.
Attending the bill signing, DeSantis was flanked by both Florida Senator Tom Wright (R-Brevard) and Senator Travis Hutson (R-Palm Coast), in addition to the bill's sponsor, Florida Representative Sam Killebrew (R-Winter Haven), also an Emma Loves K9s fan.
"I started the bill but Emma is the one behind it," said Rep. Killebrew modestly, known for his soft spot for animals.
"I used to rescue dogs with a group, out of puppy mills and I've just always been a dog i.e. animal person. Anytime a bill comes up about animals, they usually come to me in the House," he shared.
"Last year I got the one about the EMT's to be able to transport them, that was my bill last year, and then I got this one, this year, and that's how I met Emma. I tell you, she is a sweet little girl and you don't see many kids like that."
Florida Rep. Sam Killebrew and the Stanford family – Emma, Tim and Carmen, attend the bill signing ceremony on June 10, 2022 at the Kim C. Hammond Justice Center in Bunnell, Florida.
DeSantis' longstanding support for canine causes dates back to his time as a U.S. Congressman, and in 2015 he partnered with K9s for Warriors' CEO Rory Diamond to sponsor the PAWS Act, legislation providing qualifying veterans with service animals as part of their therapeutic recovery.
K9s for Warriors CEO Rory Diamond attends the bill signing ceremony on June 10, 2022 at the Kim C. Hammond Justice Center in Bunnell, Florida.
Diamond was on hand to see the bill, set to take effect July 1, signed into law.
"This is incredible for all the working dogs across the state who are protecting people. They get beat up for six, seven years of service and we need to take care of them," said Diamond.
"Dogs are making the world better everywhere and the more we can do that, the better."
An engraved memorial stood in front of the courthouse for all entering to see the names of K-9s who had served, retired and passed away.
"They were not killed in the line of duty, but this is an example, all these handlers had to take care, when they retired with the handler, they absorbed all the costs until these dogs passed. That's what I corrected internally last year, that's what this bill does," explained Sheriff Staly.
Florida Rep. Sam Killebrew and Flagler County Sheriff Rick Staly pause at the K-9 monument.
The support of Governor DeSantis and the Florida Legislature has inspired the Stanford family. Emma's parents, Tim and Carmen watched with pride as their daughter helped make history.
"Today is just incredible. That's the only way to describe it, unbelievable. I think recognizing what kids do outside of school, for Emma specifically, it's not just the recognition that it's not just an incentive to continue, but it's her passion," said Carmen Stanford. "Her passion being recognized by those who really matter to her I think it's just going to push her into bigger and better things."
As for Emma, the day was another milestone in her efforts to continue helping others.
"I'm extremely excited that I got invited by the governor and Sam Killebrew to come here because it means a lot to me for helping the retired dogs," said Emma humbly. "With more people knowing about this, hopefully we can reach out to more K-9 Units and help more K-9s across America or even out of America," she said.
Flagler County School Board member Janet McDonald joins Renee Lee-Rogers, Bunnell City Commissioner John Rogers and Palm Coast Mayor David Alfin for the signing of SB226 at the Kim C. Hammond Justice Center in Bunnell, Florida on June 10, 2022.
Emma Loves K9s
Emma Stanford
Governor DeSantis
K9s for Warriors
Rick Staly
Rob Hardwick
Sam Killebrew
Travis Hutson
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Danielle Anderson has been a Florida journalist for over a decade after discovering her passion for news as a radio reporter at WNZF NewsRadio in 2010. As the publisher and editor of Flagler News Weekly, she appreciates the opportunity to share the meaningful stories of every day people across America.
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{"url":"https:\/\/research.snu.edu.in\/publication\/anomalous-magnetic-moments-of-mn13-and-mn19-clusters","text":"X\nAnomalous magnetic moments of Mn13 and Mn19 clusters\nTina Briere M., Marcel Sluiter H.F., Yoshiyuki Kawazoe\nPublished in\n2002\nVolume: 43\n\nIssue: 3\nPages: 424 - 427\nAbstract\nRecently, sharply reduced magnetic moments were measured in Mn13 and Mn19 clusters with values of about 0.5 $\\mu$B\/atom, while other clusters had moments of 1 to 1.4$\\mu$B\/atom. It was postulated that this sharply reduced magnetic moment results from the icosahedral growth sequence. We confirm the stability of the icosahedral structures. The icosahedral Mn13 and Mn19 clusters have several nearly degenerate low energy states, each with a low magnetic moment. It is shown that the mixture of ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic coupling is responsible for the low net magnetic moments.","date":"2022-05-22 19:44:20","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 1, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 0, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.3396671414375305, \"perplexity\": 5144.045972278177}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": false, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 20, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2022-21\/segments\/1652662546071.13\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20220522190453-20220522220453-00004.warc.gz\"}"}
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\section{Introduction}
In 1974, L. Welch proved the following milestone result which revolutioned the study of finite set of vectors in finite dimensional Hilbert spaces.
\begin{theorem}\cite{WELCH}\label{WELCHTHEOREM} (\textbf{Welch bounds})
Let $n\geq d$. If $\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n$ is any collection of unit vectors in $\mathbb{C}^d$, then
\begin{align*}
\sum_{j=1}^n\sum_{k=1}^n|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |^{2m}\geq \frac{n^2}{{d+m-1\choose m}}, \quad \forall m \in \mathbb{N}.
\end{align*}
In particular,
\begin{align*}
\sum_{j=1}^n\sum_{k=1}^n|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |^{2}\geq \frac{n^2}{{d}}.
\end{align*}
Further,
\begin{align}\label{FIRST123}
\text{(\textbf{Higher order Welch bounds})} \quad \max _{1\leq j,k \leq n, j\neq k}|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |^{2m}\geq \frac{1}{n-1}\left[\frac{n}{{d+m-1\choose m}}-1\right], \quad \forall m \in \mathbb{N}.
\end{align}
In particular,
\begin{align*}
\text{(\textbf{First order Welch bound})}\quad \max _{1\leq j,k \leq n, j\neq k}|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |^{2}\geq\frac{n-d}{d(n-1)}.
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
A very powerful application of Welch bounds is the lower bound on root-mean-square (RMS) absolute cross relation of unit vectors $\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n$ which is defined as
\begin{align*}
I_{\text{RMS}} (\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n)\coloneqq \left(\frac{1}{n(n-1)}\sum _{1\leq j,k \leq n, j\neq k}|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |^{2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}.
\end{align*}
Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM} says that
\begin{align*}
I_{\text{RMS}} (\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n) \geq \left(\frac{n-d}{d(n-1)}\right)^\frac{1}{2}.
\end{align*}
Another powerful application of Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM} is the lower bound for frame potential which is introduced by Benedetto and Fickus \cite{BENEDETTOFICKUS} and further studied in \cite{CASAZZAFICKUSOTHERS, BODMANNHAASPOTENTIAL}. Let us recall that given a collection of unit vectors $\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n$, the frame potential is defined as
\begin{align*}
FP(\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n)\coloneqq \sum_{j=1}^n\sum_{k=1}^n|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |^{2}.
\end{align*}
Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM} directly tells
\begin{align*}
FP(\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n)\geq \frac{n^2}{{d}}.
\end{align*}
There are several practical applications of Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM} such as correlations \cite{SARWATE}, codebooks \cite{DINGFENG}, numerical search algorithms \cite{XIA, XIACORRECTION}, quantum measurements
\cite{SCOTTTIGHT}, coding and communications \cite{TROPPDHILLON, STROHMERHEATH}, code division multiple access (CDMA) systems \cite{CHEBIRA1, CHEBIRA2}, wireless systems \cite{YATES}, compressed sensing \cite{TAN}, `game of Sloanes' \cite{JASPERKINGMIXON}, equiangular tight frames \cite{SUSTIKTROPP}, etc.
\\
A decade ago, a continuous version of Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM} appeared in the paper \cite{DATTAHOWARD} which states as follows.
\begin{theorem}\cite{DATTAHOWARD}\label{DATTATHEOREM}
Let $\mathbb{C} \mathbb{P}^{n-1}$ be the complex projective space and $\mu$ be a normalized measure on $\mathbb{C} \mathbb{P}^{n-1}$. If $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha \in \mathbb{C} \mathbb{P}^{n-1}}$ is a continuous frame for a $d$-dimensional subspace $\mathcal{H}$ of a Hilbert space $\mathcal{H}_0$, then
\begin{align*}
\int_{\mathbb{C} \mathbb{P}^{n-1}}\int_{\mathbb{C} \mathbb{P}^{n-1}}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)\geq \frac{1}{{d+m-1\choose m}}, \quad \forall m \in \mathbb{N}.
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
Drawback of Theorem \ref{DATTATHEOREM} is that it works only for the measures defined on complex projective spaces. Further, we need a generalization of Inequality (\ref{FIRST123}) for measure spaces.
Therefore it is desirable to improve Theorem \ref{DATTATHEOREM}.and to get a continuous version of Inequality (\ref{FIRST123}) by replacing maximum by supremum. For the sake of completeness, we note that there are some further refinements of Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM}, see \cite{CHRISTENSENDATTAKIM, DATTAWELCHLMA, WALDRONSH}.\\
The goal of this article is to derive Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM} for arbitrary measure spaces (Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}). We give some applications of Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}. We also ask some problems for further research.
\section{Continuous Welch bounds}
Our proof of the result stated in the abstract is using the theory of continuous frames. This is generalization of frames indexed by discrete sets to measurable sets. Continuous frames are introduced independently by Ali, Antoine and Gazeau \cite{ALIANTOINEGAZEAU} and Kaiser \cite{KAISER}. In the paper, $\mathbb{K}$ denotes $\mathbb{C}$ or $\mathbb{R}$ and $\mathcal{H}$ denotes a finite dimensional Hilbert space.
\begin{definition}\cite{ALIANTOINEGAZEAU, KAISER}
Let $(\Omega, \mu)$ be a measure space. A collection $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ in a Hilbert space $\mathcal{H}$ is said to be a \textbf{continuous frame} (or generalized frame) for $\mathcal{H}$ if the following holds.
\begin{enumerate}[\upshape(i)]
\item For each $h \in \mathcal{H}$, the map $\Omega \ni \alpha \mapsto \langle h, \tau_\alpha \rangle \in \mathbb{K}$ is measurable.
\item There are $a,b>0$ such that
\begin{align*}
a\|h\|^2\leq \int_{\Omega}|\langle h, \tau_\alpha \rangle|^2\,d\mu(\alpha)\leq b \|h\|^2, \quad \forall h \in \mathcal{H}.
\end{align*}
\end{enumerate}
If $a=b$, then the frame is called as a tight frame and if $\|\tau_\alpha\|=1$, $\forall \alpha \in \Omega$, then we say that the frame is normalized. If $a=b=1$, then the frame is called as a Parseval frame. If we do not demand the first inequality in (ii), then we say it is a \textbf{continuous Bessel family} for $\mathcal{H}$.
\end{definition}
We first observe that there is an abundance of continuous frames for finite dimensional Hilbert spaces. Further, it is known that given any finite mesure space $(\Omega, \mu)$ and a finite dimensional space $\mathcal{H}$, there exists a continuous frame $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathcal{H}$ \cite{RAHIMIDARABYDARVISHI}. Given a continuous Bessel family, the analysis operator
\begin{align*}
\theta_\tau:\mathcal{H} \ni h \mapsto \theta_\tau h \in \mathcal{L}^2(\Omega); \quad \theta_\tau h:\Omega \ni \alpha \mapsto \langle h, \tau_\alpha \rangle \in \mathbb{K}
\end{align*}
is a well-defined bounded linear operator. Its adjoint, the synthesis operator is given by
\begin{align*}
\theta_\tau^*:\mathcal{L}^2(\Omega)\ni f \mapsto \int_{\Omega}f (\alpha)\tau_\alpha \,d\mu(\alpha)\in \mathcal{H}.
\end{align*}
By combining analysis and synthesis operators, we get the frame operator, defined as
\begin{align*}
S_\tau\coloneqq \theta_\tau^* \theta_\tau:\mathcal{H} \ni h \mapsto\int_{\Omega}\langle h, \tau_\alpha \rangle \tau_\alpha \,d\mu(\alpha)\in \mathcal{H}.
\end{align*}
Note that the integrals are weak integrals (Pettis integrals \cite{TALAGRAND}). Following result captures the trace of frame operator using Bessel family.
\begin{theorem}\label{TRACEFORMULA}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$. Then
\begin{align*}
& \text{Tra}(S_\tau)=\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^2\, d \mu(\alpha),\\
& \text{Tra}(S_\tau^2)=\int_\Omega\int_\Omega |\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta).
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Let $\{\omega_j\}_{j=1}^d$ be an orthonormal basis for $\mathcal{H}$, where $d$ is the dimension of $\mathcal{H}$. Then
\begin{align*}
\text{Tra}(S_\tau)&=\sum_{j=1}^d\langle S_\tau\omega_j, \omega_j \rangle=\sum_{j=1}^d\left \langle \int_\Omega \langle \omega_j, \tau_\alpha \rangle \tau_\alpha\, d \mu(\alpha), \omega_j\right \rangle \\
&=\sum_{j=1}^d\int_\Omega \langle \omega_j, \tau_\alpha \rangle\langle \tau_\alpha,\omega_j \rangle\, d \mu(\alpha)=\int_\Omega\left\langle \sum_{j=1}^d\langle \tau_\alpha,\omega_j \rangle\omega_j, \tau_\alpha \right\rangle \, d \mu(\alpha)\\
&=\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^2\, d \mu(\alpha).
\end{align*}
Further,
\begin{align*}
\text{Tra}(S_\tau^2)&=\sum_{j=1}^d\langle S_\tau^2\omega_j, \omega_j \rangle=\sum_{j=1}^d\langle S_\tau\omega_j, S_\tau\omega_j \rangle=\sum_{j=1}^d\left \langle \int_\Omega \langle \omega_j, \tau_\alpha \rangle \tau_\alpha\, d \mu(\alpha), S_\tau\omega_j\right \rangle \\
&=\sum_{j=1}^d\int_\Omega \langle \omega_j, \tau_\alpha \rangle\langle \tau_\alpha,S_\tau\omega_j \rangle\, d \mu(\alpha)=\int_\Omega\left\langle \sum_{j=1}^d\langle \tau_\alpha,S_\tau\omega_j \rangle\omega_j, \tau_\alpha \right\rangle \, d \mu(\alpha)\\
&=\int_\Omega\left\langle \sum_{j=1}^d\langle S_\tau^*\tau_\alpha,\omega_j \rangle\omega_j, \tau_\alpha \right\rangle \, d \mu(\alpha)=\int_\Omega \langle S_\tau^*\tau_\alpha, \tau_\alpha\rangle \, d \mu(\alpha)\\
&=\int_\Omega \langle S_\tau\tau_\alpha, \tau_\alpha\rangle \, d \mu(\alpha)=\int_\Omega\left\langle \int_\Omega\left\langle \tau_\alpha,\tau_\beta\right\rangle \tau_\beta\, d \mu(\beta),\tau_\alpha\right\rangle \, d \mu(\alpha)\\
&=\int_\Omega\int_\Omega |\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta).
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
Note that a finite spanning set is a frame for finite dimensional Hilbert space \cite{HANKORNELSONLARSON}. Thus it is not required to assume any condition on set of vectors in the discrete case to derive Theorem \ref{TRACEFORMULA}. However, we need to assume the Besselness for continuous family of vectors to assure the existence of frame operator. With Theorem \ref{TRACEFORMULA} we derive continuous Welch bounds. First we need a lemma.
\begin{lemma}\label{LEMMAFINITE}
If $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$ with bound $b$, then $\mu(\Omega)\leq b \operatorname{dim}(\mathcal{H})$. In particular, $\mu(\Omega)<\infty$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Let $\operatorname{dim}(\mathcal{H})=d$ and $\{\omega_j\}_{j=1}^{d}$ be an orthonormal basis for $\mathcal{H}$. Then
\begin{align*}
\mu(\Omega)&= \int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)= \int_\Omega \sum_{j=1}^{d}|\langle x_\alpha, \omega_j \rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)=\sum_{j=1}^{d}\int_\Omega|\langle x_\alpha, \omega_j \rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\\
&=\sum_{j=1}^{d}\int_\Omega|\langle \omega_j, x_\alpha \rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\leq \sum_{j=1}^{d}b\|\omega_j\|^2=bd.
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}\label{FIRSTORDERCONTINUOUS}
Let $(\Omega, \mu)$ be a measure space and $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$ of dimension $d$. If the diagonal $\Delta\coloneqq \{(\alpha, \alpha):\alpha \in \Omega\}$ is measurable in the measure space $\Omega\times \Omega$, then
\begin{align}\label{1}
\int_{\Omega\times\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)=\int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)\geq \frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}.
\end{align}
Equality holds in Inequality (\ref{1}) if and only if $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a tight continuous frame.
Further, we have the \textbf{first order continuous Welch bound}
\begin{align*}
\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle |^{2}\geq \frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right].
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Let $\lambda_1, \dots, \lambda_d$ be eigenvalues of the frame operator $ S_{\tau}$. Then $\lambda_1, \dots, \lambda_d\geq0$. Now using the diagonalizability of $ S_{\tau}$, Cauchy-Schwarz inequality and Theorem \ref{TRACEFORMULA} we get
\begin{align*}
\mu(\Omega)^2&=\left(\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\right)^2= (\operatorname{Tra}(S_{\tau}))^2=\left(\sum_{k=1}^d
\lambda_k\right)^2\leq d \sum_{k=1}^d
\lambda_k^2\\
&=d\operatorname{Tra}(S^2_{\tau})=d\int_\Omega\int_\Omega |\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta).
\end{align*}
Equality holds if and only if we have equality in Cauchy-Schwarz inequality if and only if the frame is tight. Since the measure is finite (Lemma \ref{LEMMAFINITE}), using Fubini's theorem,
\begin{align*}
\frac{ \mu(\Omega)^2}{d}&=\int_\Omega\int_\Omega |\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)=\int_{\Omega\times\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&=\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)+\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&=\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\alpha\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)+\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&=(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)+\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&\leq(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)+\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle |^{2}(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta).
\end{align*}
which gives the required inequality after rearrangement.
\end{proof}
Under the stronger assumption that $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a continuous frame for $\mathcal{H}$, Inequality (\ref{1}) appears in Chapter 16 of \cite{WALDONBOOK}. We now illustrate Theorem \ref{FIRSTORDERCONTINUOUS} using the following example.
\begin{example}
Let $\Omega\coloneqq [0,2\pi]$ and $\mu$ be the Lebesgue measure on $\Omega$. Define
\begin{align*}
\tau_\alpha \coloneqq (\cos \alpha, \sin \alpha ), \quad \forall \alpha \in \Omega.
\end{align*}
Then
\begin{align*}
\int_\Omega |\langle (x,y), \tau_\alpha \rangle |^2\, d\alpha&=\int_{0} ^{2\pi} |\langle (x,y), (\cos \alpha, \sin \alpha ) \rangle |^2\, d\alpha=\int_{0} ^{2\pi} (x\cos \alpha+ y \sin \alpha )^2\, d\alpha\\
&=\int_{0} ^{2\pi} (x^2\cos^2 \alpha+ y^2 \sin^2 \alpha +2 xy \sin \alpha \cos \alpha )\, d\alpha\\
&=\pi (x^2+y^2)= \pi \left\| (x,y) \right\|^2, \quad \forall (x,y) \in \mathbb{R}^2.
\end{align*}
Therefore $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha \in \Omega}$ is a normalized continuous frame for $\mathbb{R}^2$ \cite{WALDONBOOK}. Next we verify inequalities in Theorem \ref{FIRSTORDERCONTINUOUS}:
\begin{align*}
& \int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)=\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\int_{0} ^{2\pi}|\langle (\cos \alpha, \sin \alpha ), (\cos \beta, \sin \beta) \rangle |^2\, d\alpha\, d\beta\\
&=\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\int_{0} ^{2\pi} (\cos \alpha \cos \beta+\sin \alpha \sin \beta)^2\, d\alpha\, d\beta\\
&=\left(\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\cos^2 \alpha\, d\alpha\right)\left(\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\cos^2 \beta\, d\beta \right)+2 \left(\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\cos \alpha \sin \alpha \, d\alpha \right)\left(\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\cos\beta \sin \beta\, d\beta \right)+\\
&\quad \left(\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\sin^2 \alpha\, d\alpha\right)\left(\int_{0} ^{2\pi}\sin^2 \beta\, d\beta \right)\\
&=2\pi^2=\frac{(2\pi)^2}{2}=\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}
\end{align*}
and
\begin{align*}
\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle |^{2}&= \sup _{\alpha, \beta \in [0,2\pi], \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle (\cos \alpha, \sin \alpha ), (\cos \beta, \sin \beta) \rangle |^2\\
&= \sup _{\alpha, \beta \in [0,2\pi], \alpha\neq \beta}|\cos \alpha \cos \beta+\sin \alpha \sin \beta|^2\\
&=\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in [0,2\pi], \alpha\neq \beta}|\cos^2(\alpha-\beta)|=1>\frac{1}{4\pi^2}\left[\frac{4\pi^2}{2}-0\right]\\
&=\frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right].
\end{align*}
\end{example}
Our next goal is to derive higher order continuous Welch bounds. We are going to use the following result.
\begin{theorem}\cite{COMON, BOCCI}\label{SYMMETRICTENSORDIMENSION}
If $\mathcal{V}$ is a vector space of dimension $d$ and $\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{V})$ denotes the vector space of symmetric m-tensors, then
\begin{align*}
\text{dim}(\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{V}))={d+m-1 \choose m}, \quad \forall m \in \mathbb{N}.
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{theorem}\label{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}
Let $(\Omega, \mu)$ be a measure space and $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$ of dimension $d$. If the diagonal $\Delta\coloneqq \{(\alpha, \alpha):\alpha \in \Omega\}$ is measurable in the measure space $\Omega\times \Omega$, then
\begin{align}\label{WELCHCONTINUOUS1}
\int_{\Omega\times\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)= \int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)\geq \frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{{d+m-1\choose m}}, \quad \forall m \in \mathbb{N}.
\end{align}
Equality holds in Inequality (\ref{WELCHCONTINUOUS1}) if and only if $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a tight continuous frame.
Further, we have the \textbf{higher order continuous Welch bounds}
\begin{align}\label{WELCHCONTINUOUS2}
\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle |^{2m}\geq \frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)} \left[\frac{ \mu(\Omega)^2}{{d+m-1 \choose m}}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right], \quad \forall m \in \mathbb{N}.
\end{align}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
First note that $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a normalized continuous Bessel family for the Hilbert space $\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{H})$. We execute the proof of Theorem \ref{FIRSTORDERCONTINUOUS} for the space $\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{H})$. Let $\lambda_1, \dots, \lambda_{\text{dim}(\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{H}))}$ be eigenvalues of $S_{\tau}$. Then using Theorem \ref{SYMMETRICTENSORDIMENSION} we get
\begin{align*}
\mu(\Omega)^2&=\left(\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\right)^2=\left(\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha^{\otimes m}\|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\right)^2= (\operatorname{Tra}(S_{\tau}))^2\\
&=\left(\sum_{k=1}^{\text{dim}(\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{H}))}
\lambda_k\right)^2\leq \text{dim}(\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{H})) \sum_{k=1}^{\text{dim}(\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{H}))}
\lambda_k^2\\
&={d+m-1 \choose m}\operatorname{Tra}(S^2_{\tau})={d+m-1 \choose m}\int_\Omega\int_\Omega |\langle \tau_\alpha^{\otimes m}, \tau_\beta^{\otimes m}\rangle|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)\\
&={d+m-1 \choose m}\int_\Omega\int_\Omega |\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)
\end{align*}
and hence
\begin{align*}
\frac{ \mu(\Omega)^2}{{d+m-1 \choose m}}&=\int_\Omega\int_\Omega |\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)=\int_{\Omega\times\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&=\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\alpha\rangle|^{2m}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)+\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&=(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)+\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&\leq(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)+\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle |^{2m}(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)
\end{align*}
which gives Inequality (\ref{WELCHCONTINUOUS2}).
\end{proof}
\begin{corollary}
Theorem \ref{WELCHTHEOREM} is a corollary of Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}.
\end{corollary}
\begin{proof}
Take $\Omega=\{1,\dots,n\} $ and $\mu$ as the counting measure.
\end{proof}
\begin{corollary}
Theorem \ref{DATTATHEOREM} is a corollary of Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}.
\end{corollary}
\begin{proof}
Take $\Omega=\mathbb{C} \mathbb{P}^{n-1}$ and $\mu$ as the normalized measure on $\mathbb{C} \mathbb{P}^{n-1}$.
\end{proof}
We observe that given a measure space $\Omega$, the diagonal $\Delta$ need not be measurable (see \cite{DRAVECKY}). This is the reason behind the measurability of diagonal in Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}. Further, we see that the measurability of the diagonal $\Delta$ was used only in deriving Inequality (\ref{WELCHCONTINUOUS2}) and not in Inequality (\ref{WELCHCONTINUOUS1}). \\
In \cite{WALDRON2003}, Waldron generalized Welch bounds to vectors which need not be normalized. In the following result we state such a result for continuous Bessel family whose proof is similar to the proof of Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}.
\begin{theorem}\label{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAINSECOND}
Let $(\Omega, \mu)$ be a $\sigma$-finite measure space and $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$ of dimension $d$. If the diagonal $\Delta\coloneqq \{(\alpha, \alpha):\alpha \in \Omega\}$ is measurable in the measure space $\Omega\times \Omega$, then
\begin{align}\label{WELCHCONTINUOUS3}
\int_{\Omega\times\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)= \int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)\geq \frac{1}{{d+m-1\choose m}}\left(\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\right)^2, \quad \forall m \in \mathbb{N}.
\end{align}
Equality in Inequality (\ref{WELCHCONTINUOUS3}) holds if and only if $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a tight continuous frame.
Further, we have the \textbf{generalized higher order continuous Welch bounds}
\begin{align}\label{WELCHCONTINUOUS4}
\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle |^{2m}\geq \frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)} \left[\frac{1}{{d+m-1 \choose m}}\left(\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^{2m}\, d \mu(\alpha)\right)^2-\int_{\Delta}\| \tau_\alpha\|^{4m}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right],
\end{align}
for all $m \in \mathbb{N}.$
\end{theorem}
Note that we imposed $\sigma$-finiteness of measure in Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAINSECOND} to use Fubini's theorem whereas we derived in Lemma \ref{LEMMAFINITE} that measure is finite for normalized continuous Bessel family. Also note that Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAINSECOND} remains valid as long as Fubini's theorem is valid (for instance, it is valid for complete measure spaces). Since Fubini's theorem is not valid for arbitrary measure spaces, we are finally left with the following problem.
\begin{question}
\textbf{Classify measure spaces $(\Omega, \mu) $ such that Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAINSECOND} holds?} In other words, \textbf{given a measure space $(\Omega, \mu) $, does the validity of Inequality (\ref{WELCHCONTINUOUS3}) or Inequality (\ref{WELCHCONTINUOUS4}) implies conditions on meausre space $(\Omega, \mu) $, say $\sigma$-finite?}
\end{question}
In a recent work, Christensen, Datta and Kim derived Welch bounds for dual frames \cite{CHRISTENSENDATTAKIM}. We now extend this result to continuous frames. For this we recall the notion of dual frame. A continuous frame $\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathcal{H}$ is said to be a dual for a continuous frame $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathcal{H}$ if $\theta_\omega^*\theta_\tau=I_\mathcal{H}$ or $\theta_\tau^*\theta_\omega=I_\mathcal{H}$, the identity operator on $\mathcal{H}$. In terms of weak integrals, this is same as
\begin{align*}
\int_{\Omega}\langle h, \tau _\alpha \rangle \omega_\alpha \, d \mu (\alpha)=h, ~ \forall h \in \mathcal{H} \quad \text{ or } \quad \int_{\Omega}\langle h, \omega _\alpha \rangle \tau_\alpha \, d \mu (\alpha)=h, ~ \forall h \in \mathcal{H}.
\end{align*}
We now see that the frame $\{S_\tau^{-1}\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is always a dual to a frame $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathcal{H}$. Further, if $\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is any dual for $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$, then
\begin{align}\label{BEST}
\int_{\Omega}|\langle h, \omega_\alpha\rangle |^2\,d\mu(\alpha)\geq \int_{\Omega}|\langle h, S_\tau^{-1}\tau_\alpha\rangle|^2\,d\mu(\alpha), \quad \forall h \in \mathcal{H}.
\end{align}
We need two more results before we derive continuous Welch bounds for dual frames.
\begin{theorem}\label{TRACETHEOREM}
If $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a continuous frame for $\mathcal{H}$, then for any linear operator $T:\mathcal{H}\to \mathcal{H}$, we have
\begin{align*}
\operatorname{Tra}(T)=\int_{\Omega}\langle TS_\tau^{-\frac{1}{2}}\tau _\alpha, S_\tau^{-\frac{1}{2}}\tau _\alpha\rangle \, d \mu (\alpha).
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
First we prove the theorem for Parseval frames. Assume that $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is Parseval. Let $\{\omega_j\}_{j=1}^d$ be an orthonormal basis for $\mathcal{H}$, where $d$ is the dimension of $\mathcal{H}$. Then
\begin{align*}
\operatorname{Tra}(T)&=\sum_{j=1}^d\langle T\omega_j, \omega_j \rangle=\sum_{j=1}^d\left \langle \int_\Omega \langle T\omega_j, \tau_\alpha \rangle \tau_\alpha\, d \mu(\alpha), \omega_j\right \rangle \\
&=\sum_{j=1}^d\int_\Omega \langle T\omega_j, \tau_\alpha \rangle\langle \tau_\alpha,\omega_j \rangle\, d \mu(\alpha)=\int_\Omega\left\langle \sum_{j=1}^d\langle \tau_\alpha,\omega_j \rangle T\omega_j, \tau_\alpha \right\rangle \, d \mu(\alpha)\\
&=\int_\Omega \langle T\tau_\alpha, \tau_\alpha \rangle \, d \mu(\alpha).
\end{align*}
Now the theorem follows by noting that $\{S_\tau^{-1/2}\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a Parseval frame for $\mathcal{H}$.
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}\label{DIMBOUNDED}
If $\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a dual continuous frame for $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$, then
\begin{align*}
\int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta\rangle|^{2}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)\geq \operatorname{dim}(\mathcal{H}).
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Inequality (\ref{BEST}) says that
\begin{align*}
\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta \rangle|^2\,d\mu(\beta)\geq \int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, S_\tau^{-1}\tau_\beta\rangle|^2\,d\mu(\beta), \quad \forall \alpha \in \Omega.
\end{align*}
Therefore
\begin{align*}
\int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta\rangle|^{2}\, d \mu(\beta)\, d \mu(\alpha)\geq \int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, S_\tau^{-1}\tau_\beta\rangle|^2\,d\mu(\beta)\, d \mu(\alpha).
\end{align*}
Now we simplify the right side and use Theorem \ref{TRACETHEOREM} to get
\begin{align*}
\int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, S_\tau^{-1}\tau_\beta\rangle|^2\,d\mu(\beta)\, d \mu(\alpha)&=\int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle S_\tau^{-\frac{1}{2}}\tau_\alpha, S_\tau^{-\frac{1}{2}}\tau_\beta\rangle|^2\,d\mu(\beta)\, d \mu(\alpha) \\
&=\int_{\Omega}\|S_\tau^{-\frac{1}{2}}\tau_\alpha\|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)=\int_{\Omega}\langle S_\tau^{-\frac{1}{2}}\tau_\alpha, S_\tau^{-\frac{1}{2}}\tau_\alpha\rangle\, d \mu(\alpha)\\
&=\operatorname{Tra}(I_\mathcal{H})=\operatorname{dim}(\mathcal{H}).
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}\label{DUALWELCHCONTINUOUS}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a continuous frame for $\mathcal{H}$ of dimension $d$. Assume that $\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a dual continuous frame for $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ and
\begin{align*}
\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\alpha \rangle = \langle \tau_\beta, \omega_\beta \rangle, \quad \forall \alpha, \beta \in \Omega.
\end{align*}
If the diagonal $\Delta\coloneqq \{(\alpha, \alpha):\alpha \in \Omega\}$ is measurable in the measure space $\Omega\times \Omega$, then
\begin{align*}
\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta\rangle |^{2}\geq \frac{d(\mu(\Omega)^2-d(\mu \times \mu)(\Delta)}{\mu(\Omega)^2(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}.
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Since $\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a dual for $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ we have $\theta_\omega^*\theta_\tau=I_\mathcal{H}$.
Let $\{\rho_j\}_{j=1}^d$ be an orthonormal basis for $\mathcal{H}$. Then
\begin{align*}
d&=\operatorname{dim}(\mathcal{H})=\sum_{j=1}^d\langle \rho_j, \rho_j \rangle=\sum_{j=1}^d\left\langle \int_{\Omega}\langle \rho_j, \tau _\alpha \rangle \omega_\alpha \, d \mu (\alpha), \rho_j \right \rangle\\
&=\int_{\Omega}\sum_{j=1}^{d}\langle \rho_j, \tau _\alpha \rangle \langle \omega_\alpha, \rho_j \rangle \, d \mu (\alpha)=\int_{\Omega}\left\langle \omega_\alpha, \sum_{j=1}^{d}\langle \tau _\alpha , \rho_j\rangle \rho_j\right\rangle \, d \mu (\alpha)\\
&=\int_{\Omega}\langle \omega_\alpha, \tau_\alpha\rangle \,d\mu(\alpha)=\int_{\Omega}\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\alpha\rangle \,d\mu(\alpha).
\end{align*}
Set $\gamma \coloneqq \langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\alpha \rangle$ which is independent of $\alpha$ by the assumption. Then
\begin{align*}
\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\alpha\rangle |^2\,d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta) &=\int_{\Delta}|\gamma|^2\,d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)=\int_{\Delta}\left|\frac{1}{\mu(\Omega)}\int_{\Omega}\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\alpha\rangle\,d\mu(\alpha)\right|^2\,d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&=\int_{\Delta}\left|\frac{d}{\mu(\Omega)}\right|^2\,d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)=\frac{d^2(\mu\times \mu)(\Delta)}{\mu(\Omega)^2}.
\end{align*}
Theorem \ref{DIMBOUNDED} then gives
\begin{align*}
& \sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta\rangle |^{2}\geq \frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)} \int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&~=\frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[\int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta\rangle|^{2}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)-\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\alpha\rangle|^2\,d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right]\\
&~\geq \frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[d-\frac{d^2(\mu \times \mu)(\Delta)}{\mu(\Omega)^2}\right]=\frac{d}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[1-\frac{d(\mu \times \mu)(\Delta)}{\mu(\Omega)^2}\right].
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
\begin{corollary}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a continuous frame for $\mathcal{H}$ of dimension $d$. Assume that $\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a dual continuous frame for $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$. If the diagonal $\Delta\coloneqq \{(\alpha, \alpha):\alpha \in \Omega\}$ is measurable in the measure space $\Omega\times \Omega$, then
\begin{align*}
\sup _{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\beta\rangle |^{2}\geq \frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[d-\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \omega_\alpha\rangle|^2\,d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right].
\end{align*}
\end{corollary}
Higher order continuous Welch bounds leads to the following question which we do not have answer at present.
\begin{question}
Is there a higher order version of Theorem \ref{DUALWELCHCONTINUOUS} like Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN}?
\end{question}
It is natural to ask whether we have continuous Welch bounds by replacing natural number $m$ in Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN} by arbitrary positive real $r$. We now derive such results.
In the discrete case, the first result for normalized tight frames is derived in \cite{HAIKINZAMIRGAVISH} and the second result is derived in \cite{EHLEROKOUDJOU}.
\begin{theorem}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$ of dimension $d$. Then
\begin{align*}
\frac{1}{\mu(\Omega)} \operatorname{Tra}(\theta_\tau^*\theta_\tau)^r\geq \left(\frac{\mu(\Omega)}{d}\right)^{d-1} ,\quad \forall r \in [1, \infty)
\end{align*}
and
\begin{align*}
\frac{1}{\mu(\Omega)} \operatorname{Tra}(\theta_\tau^*\theta_\tau)^r\leq \left(\frac{\mu(\Omega)}{d}\right)^{d-1} ,\quad \forall r \in (0,1).
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Let $\lambda_1, \dots, \lambda_{\text{dim}(\text{Sym}^m(\mathcal{H}))}$ be eigenvalues of $ S_{\tau}$. Let $r \in [1, \infty)$. Using Jensen's inequality
\begin{align*}
\left(\frac{1}{d}\sum_{k=1}^d\lambda_k\right)^r\leq \frac{1}{d}\sum_{k=1}^d\lambda_k^r.
\end{align*}
Since $S_{\tau}$ is diagonalizable we get
\begin{align*}
\left(\frac{\mu(\Omega)}{d}\right)^r=\left(\frac{1}{d}\int_\Omega \| \tau_\alpha\|^2\, d \mu(\alpha)\right)^r= \left(\frac{1}{d}\operatorname{Tra}(S_\tau)\right)^r\leq \frac{1}{d}\operatorname{Tra}(S_\tau)^r=\frac{1}{d}\operatorname{Tra}(\theta_\tau^*\theta_\tau)^r.
\end{align*}
Similarly the case $ r \in (0,1) $ follows by using Jensen's inequality.
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}\label{PWELCH}
Let $2<p<\infty$. Let $(\Omega, \mu)$ be a measure space and $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$ of dimension $d$. If the diagonal $\Delta\coloneqq \{(\alpha, \alpha):\alpha \in \Omega\}$ is measurable in the measure space $\Omega\times \Omega$, then
\begin{align*}
\int_{\Omega\times\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{p}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)&= \int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{p}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta)\\
&\geq \frac{1}{(\mu\times \mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)^{\frac{p}{2}-1}} \left(\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right)^\frac{p}{2}+(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta).
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Define $r\coloneqq 2p/(p-2)$ and $q$ be the conjugate index of $p/2$. Then $q=r/2$. Using Theorem \ref{FIRSTORDERCONTINUOUS} and Holder's inequality, we have
\begin{align*}
\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)&\leq \int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&\leq \left(\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}||\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2|^\frac{p}{2}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right)^\frac{2}{p}\left(\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right)^\frac{1}{q}\\
&=\left(\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^p\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right)^\frac{2}{p}(\mu\times \mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)^\frac{1}{q}\\
&=\left(\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^p\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right)^\frac{2}{p}(\mu\times \mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)^\frac{2}{r}\\
&=\left(\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^p\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right)^\frac{2}{p}(\mu\times \mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)^\frac{p-2}{p}
\end{align*}
which gives
\begin{align*}
\left(\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right)^\frac{p}{2}\leq \left(\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^p\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right)(\mu\times \mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)^{\frac{p}{2}-1}.
\end{align*}
Therefore
\begin{align*}
&\frac{1}{(\mu\times \mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)^{\frac{p}{2}-1}} \left(\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right)^\frac{p}{2}+(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\\
&~=\frac{1}{(\mu\times \mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)^{\frac{p}{2}-1}} \left(\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right)^\frac{p}{2}+\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\alpha\rangle|^p\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&~\leq \int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^p\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)+\int_{\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\alpha\rangle|^p\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\\
&~=\int_{\Omega\times\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{p}\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta).
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
There are four more bounds which are in line with Welch bounds. To state them we need a definition.
\begin{definition}\cite{JASPERKINGMIXON}
Given $d\in \mathbb{N}$, define \textbf{Gerzon's bound}
\begin{align*}
\mathcal{Z}(d, \mathbb{K})\coloneqq
\left\{ \begin{array}{cc}
d^2 & \quad \text{if} \quad \mathbb{K} =\mathbb{C}\\
\frac{d(d+1)}{2} & \quad \text{if} \quad \mathbb{K} =\mathbb{R}.\\
\end{array} \right.
\end{align*}
\end{definition}
\begin{theorem}\cite{JASPERKINGMIXON, XIACORRECTION, MUKKAVILLISABHAWALERKIPAAZHANG, SOLTANALIAN, BUKHCOX, CONWAYHARDINSLOANE, HAASHAMMENMIXON, RANKIN} \label{LEVENSTEINBOUND}
Define $m\coloneqq \operatorname{dim}_{\mathbb{R}}(\mathbb{K})/2$. If $\{\tau_j\}_{j=1}^n$ is any collection of unit vectors in $\mathbb{K}^d$, then
\begin{enumerate}[\upshape(i)]
\item (\textbf{Bukh-Cox bound})
\begin{align*}
\max _{1\leq j,k \leq n, j\neq k}|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |\geq \frac{\mathcal{Z}(n-d, \mathbb{K})}{n(1+m(n-d-1)\sqrt{m^{-1}+n-d})-\mathcal{Z}(n-d, \mathbb{K})}\quad \text{if} \quad n>d.
\end{align*}
\item (\textbf{Orthoplex/Rankin bound})
\begin{align*}
\max _{1\leq j,k \leq n, j\neq k}|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |\geq\frac{1}{\sqrt{d}} \quad \text{if} \quad n>\mathcal{Z}(d, \mathbb{K}).
\end{align*}
\item (\textbf{Levenstein bound})
\begin{align*}
\max _{1\leq j,k \leq n, j\neq k}|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |\geq \sqrt{\frac{n(m+1)-d(md+1)}{(n-d)(md+1)}} \quad \text{if} \quad n>\mathcal{Z}(d, \mathbb{K}).
\end{align*}
\item (\textbf{Exponential bound})
\begin{align*}
\max _{1\leq j,k \leq n, j\neq k}|\langle \tau_j, \tau_k\rangle |\geq 1-2n^{\frac{-1}{d-1}}.
\end{align*}
\end{enumerate}
\end{theorem}
Theorem \ref{LEVENSTEINBOUND} leads to the following problem.
\begin{question}
Whether there is a continuous version of Theorem \ref{LEVENSTEINBOUND}?. In particular, does there exists a continuous version of
\begin{enumerate}[\upshape(i)]
\item Bukh-Cox bound?
\item Orthoplex/Rankin bound?
\item Levenstein bound?
\item Exponential bound?
\end{enumerate}
\end{question}
\section{Applications}
Our first application of Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN} is to the continuous version of RMS correlation of vectors which we define as follows.
\begin{definition}\label{CRMSDEFINITION}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$. If the diagonal $\Delta$ is measurable, then the \textbf{continuous root-mean-square} (CRMS) absolute cross relation of $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is defined as
\begin{align*}
I_{\text{CRMS}}(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})\coloneqq \left(\frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\int_{(\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^2\, d(\mu\times\mu)(\alpha,\beta)\right)^\frac{1}{2}.
\end{align*}
\end{definition}
Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN} now gives the following estimate.
\begin{proposition}
Under the set up as in Definition \ref{CRMSDEFINITION}, one has
\begin{align*}
1\geq I_{\text{CRMS}}(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}) \geq \left(\frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right]\right)^\frac{1}{2}.
\end{align*}
\end{proposition}
Our second application of Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN} is to the continuous version of frame potential which is defined as follows.
\begin{definition}\label{CONTINUOUSPOTENTIALDEFINITION}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$. The \textbf{continuous frame potential} of $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is defined as
\begin{align*}
FP(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})\coloneqq \int_{\Omega}\int_{\Omega}|\langle \tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta\rangle|^{2}\, d \mu(\alpha)\, d \mu(\beta).
\end{align*}
\end{definition}
Note that the order of integration does not matter in Definition \ref{CONTINUOUSPOTENTIALDEFINITION}. Further, finiteness of measure says that potential is finite. In general, it is difficult to find potential using Definition \ref{CONTINUOUSPOTENTIALDEFINITION}. Following theorem simplifies it to a greater extent.
\begin{theorem}
If $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ is a normalized continuous Bessel family for $\mathcal{H}$, then
\begin{align*}
FP(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})= \text{Tra}(S_\tau^2)= \text{Tra}((\theta_\tau^*\theta_\tau)^2).
\end{align*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
This follows from Theorem \ref{TRACEFORMULA}.
\end{proof}
Using Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN} we have following estimates.
\begin{proposition}\label{FPESTIMATE}
Given a normalized continuous Bessel family $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathcal{H}$, one has
\begin{align*}
\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}\leq FP(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})\leq \mu(\Omega)^2.
\end{align*}
Further, if the diagonal $\Delta$ is measurable, then one also has
\begin{align*}
(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\leq FP(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})\leq \mu(\Omega)^2.
\end{align*}
\end{proposition}
Proposition \ref{FPESTIMATE} and the study of paper \cite{BENEDETTOFICKUS} leads to the following problem.
\begin{question}
\textbf{Is there a characterization of continuous frames using continuous frame potential (like Theorem 7.1 in \cite{BENEDETTOFICKUS})?}
\end{question}
Our third application of Theorem \ref{CONTINUOUSWELCHMAIN} is to the continuous frame correlations defined as follows.
\begin{definition}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous frame for $\mathcal{H}$. We define the \textbf{continuous frame correlation} of $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ as
\begin{align*}
\mathcal{M}(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})\coloneqq \sup_{\alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta}|\langle\tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta \rangle|.
\end{align*}
\end{definition}
In discrete frame theory the notion which comes along with frame correlation is the notion of Grassmannian frames defined in \cite{STROHMERHEATH}. We next set up the notion of continuous Grassmannian frames.
\begin{definition}
A normalized continuous frame $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathcal{H}$ is said to be a \textbf{continuous Grassmannian frame} for $\mathcal{H}$ if
\begin{align*}
\mathcal{M}(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})=\inf\left\{\mathcal{M}(\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}):\{\omega_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}\text{ is a normalized continuous frame for }\mathcal{H} \right\}.
\end{align*}
\end{definition}
Using compactness and continuity arguments it is known that Grassmannian frames exist in every dimension with any number of vectors (greater than or equal to dimension) \cite{BENEDETTONKOLESAR}. However we can not use this argument for measures. Therefore we state the following open problem.
\begin{question}
\textbf{Classify measure spaces and (finite dimensional) Hilbert spaces so that continuous Grassmannian frames exist}.
\end{question}
The notion which is associated to Grassmannian frames is the notion of equiangular frames (see \cite{STROHMERHEATH}). For the continuous case, we set the definition as follows.
\begin{definition}
A continuous frame $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathcal{H}$ is said to be \textbf{$\gamma$-equiangular} if there exists $\gamma\geq0$ such that
\begin{align*}
|\langle\tau_\alpha, \tau_\beta \rangle|=\gamma, \quad \forall \alpha, \beta \in \Omega, \alpha\neq \beta.
\end{align*}
\end{definition}
There is a celebrated Zauner's conjecture for equiangular tight frames (see \cite{APPLEBY}). For the purpose of record, we set the continuous version of Zauner's conjecture as follows.
\begin{conjecture}
(\textbf{Continuous Zauner's conjecture}) \textbf{For a given measure space $(\Omega, \mu)$ and for every $d\in \mathbb{N}$, there exists a $\gamma$-equiangular tight continuous frame $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ for $\mathbb{C}^d$ such that $\mu(\Omega)=d^2$}.
\end{conjecture}
\begin{theorem}\label{CNG2}
Let $\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega}$ be a normalized continuous frame for $\mathcal{H}$. Then
\begin{align}\label{EQUIANGULARINEQUALITY}
\mathcal{M}(\{\tau_\alpha\}_{\alpha\in \Omega})\geq \left(\frac{1}{(\mu\times\mu)((\Omega\times\Omega)\setminus\Delta)}\left[\frac{\mu(\Omega)^2}{d}-(\mu\times\mu)(\Delta)\right]\right)^\frac{1}{2}\eqqcolon\gamma.
\end{align}
If the frame is $\gamma$-equiangular, then we have equality in Inequality (\ref{EQUIANGULARINEQUALITY}).
\end{theorem}
In the case of (discrete) Grassmannian frames, the converse statement of Theorem \ref{CNG2} is valid (see \cite{STROHMERHEATH}). There are also relations between number of elements in the frame and dimension of the space (Theorem 2.3 in \cite{STROHMERHEATH}). We do not know any such \textbf{relation between measure of $\Omega$ and the dimension of $\mathcal{H}$}.
\section*{Acknowledgements}
I thank Dr. P. Sam Johnson, Department of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal for some discussions.
\bibliographystyle{plain}
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\section{Introduction}
The main goal of machine learning algorithms lies in seeking supervision for solving a target task. Traditionally, the supervision is extracted from a set of labeled examples. The learner constructs a decision function that generalizes beyond the seen examples. While this paradigm has been tremendously successful for many NLP problems, an inherent drawback exists in it: the learner can only be as good as the provided data \cite{DBLPldwasserR14}. Learning, therefore, relies on annotating a large volume of training data, an expensive and time-consuming process. To alleviate the costly demand for task-specific annotation (referred as $\mathcal{S}_0$ hereafter), the human learning process suggests at least two sources of alternative supervision: one is to accumulate knowledge from tasks learned in the past ($\mathcal{S}_1$) \cite{montague1970universal,DBLPThrunM95,chomsky2009syntactic}; the other is to learn from natural instructions ($\mathcal{S}_2$) describing a high-level story about target tasks \cite{DBLPldwasserR14}. Unfortunately, we rarely see the joint power of $\mathcal{S}_1$ and $\mathcal{S}_2$.
In this work, we present a new learning paradigm \texttt{ConTinTin}~ -- \textbf{contin}ual Learning from \textbf{t}ask \textbf{in}structions. In \texttt{ConTinTin}, each task is given an instruction describing the target concept directly and a few instances exemplifying it. The system is required to incrementally learn a stream of tasks, so that the knowledge gained in the past can be used to address subsequent tasks. Apparently, this new problem tries to integrate the $\mathcal{S}_1$ and $\mathcal{S}_2$ into a single learning paradigm while decreasing the necessity of $\mathcal{S}_0$. More specifically, \texttt{ConTinTin}~ is expected to carry the properties listed in Table \ref{tab:properties}.
\begin{table*}[ht]
\setlength{\belowcaptionskip}{-10pt}
\setlength{\abovecaptionskip}{5pt}
\centering
\small
\begin{tabular}{l|l}
Item & Explanation \\\hline
Instruction-driven supervision & Each task is explained by an instruction and a couple of instances exemplifying it.\\
Fixed model capacity & The system's structure and parameter size are constant regardless of its learning status. \\
Knowledge maintenance & The system is not inclined to catastrophic forgetting. \\
Forward transfer & The system uses knowledge acquired from upstream tasks to help solve downstream tasks.\\
Backward transfer & The system uses knowledge acquired from downstream tasks to help solve upstream tasks.\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Desiderata of \texttt{ConTinTin}, inspired by \cite{DBLPesialskaBC20}.}
\label{tab:properties}
\end{table*}
Our data set is restructured from the \textsc{Natural-Instructions}\enspace \cite{DBLP08773}. \textsc{Natural-Instructions}\enspace is a benchmark that studies if a model can make appropriate use of natural language instructions to answer inputs accordingly. It comprises 61 tasks; each task is associated with a piece of instruction consisting of \texttt{Title}, \texttt{Definition}, \texttt{Caution}, \texttt{Prompt}, \texttt{Things to avoid}, \texttt{Examples}, etc. \textsc{Natural-Instructions}\enspace originally focuses on conventional supervised learning: give a bunch of tasks out of the 61 as the training tasks, and evaluate the remaining tasks in a batch. In order to fit the formulation of \texttt{ConTinTin}, we reorganize the 61 tasks in \textsc{Natural-Instructions}: a few tasks (e.g., size $k$) out of the 61 act as training tasks, and the remaining $61-k$ tasks as an ordered list of new tasks. The learner is expected to first learn from the $k$ training tasks about how to use instructions to solve problems; then it evolves task by task along with the new task chain.
Our system \texttt{InstructionSpeak}\enspace is based on BART \cite{DBLPLGGMLSZ20} with two proposed strategies aiming at making the best use of instructions. The first strategy, ``\textsc{Negative Training}'', makes use of unfavorable clues, such as \texttt{Things to avoid}, from the instruction to promote the task understanding and forward-transfer. The second strategy, ``\textsc{History Training}'', revisits instructions of earlier tasks during continual learning to alleviate the catastrophic forgetting issue in backward-transfer. We evaluate \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~on a wide range of transferring distances (from 1 to 40), which shows that \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~can generally help both forward-transfer and backward-transfer.\footnote{"Transferring distance" refers to the task numbers between the model at a new status and the model at an earlier status.}
Overall, this work has made three-fold contributions. First, \texttt{ConTinTin}\enspace is the first time to be formulated and studied in the NLP community. Second, we propose \texttt{InstructionSpeak}, a promising approach to \texttt{ConTinTin}. Third, we conduct intensive analyses, aiming to give a better understanding of this new challenge.
\begin{figure*}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.98\linewidth]{ACL22TCLNLItask.pdf}
\caption{The setup in \texttt{ConTinTin}. The whole learning process consists of two stages: \textit{initialization process} and \textit{evolution process}. A few training tasks $S=\{s_1, \cdots, s_k\}$ equipped with instructions and labeled examples are adopted to initialize the model \texttt{M}, then \texttt{M} incrementally learns from each unseen task $u_i$ by its instruction only. Once finishing the continual learning on the task $u_i$, the model \texttt{M}$_i$ is expected to be able to evaluate on all $\{u_1, u_2, \cdots, u_i\}$. } \label{fig:taskfigure}
\end{figure*}
\section{Related Work}
This section retrospects \textit{continual learning} and \textit{learning from task instructions}, two machine learning paradigms that try to explore supervisions $\mathcal{S}_1$ and $\mathcal{S}_2$, respectively.
\paragraph{Continual learning.} Since the advent of continual learning\footnote{Continual learning in the literature is also referred to as: lifelong learning \cite{DBLPSilverM02}, incremental learning \cite{solomonoff1989system}, sequential learning \cite{mccloskey1989catastrophic}, and never-ending learning \cite{DBLPnBKSHM10}.} \cite{DBLPThrunM95}, this learning problem was mainly studied in computer vision or robotics domains, and most work concentrated on mitigating catastrophic forgetting \cite{mccloskey1989catastrophic,DBLPrraSMK18,DBLPfmanningerPBP20}. Continual learning can be summarized into three categories: class continual learning (\texttt{CCL}), domain continual learning (\texttt{DCL}), and task continual learning (\texttt{TCL}).
\texttt{CCL} learns a sequence of classes (e.g., visual object categories, text labels, etc.) to build one overall multi-label classifier for all the classes seen so far \cite{DBLPYanX021}. For example, \newcite{DBLPgXYGCW19} studied incrementally learning new relations for two entity mentions in an input sentence, and each relation has many labeled examples.
\newcite{DBLPXiaYFY21} proposed few-shot \texttt{CCL} in which multi-round of new text tags (e.g., intents or relations expressed in the input text) are encountered sequentially, and each new tag is only accompanied by a couple of examples.
\texttt{DCL} essentially studies the same task but in different domains. The system is expected to evolve along with learning from a stream of datasets of the same task and different data distributions. Typical work in NLP includes sentiment classification \cite{DBLPnM015,DBLPXiaJH17}, conversational agents \cite{DBLP09943}, text classification, and question answering \cite{DBLPumeRKY19}, etc.
\texttt{TCL} tries to learn distinct tasks sequentially. Systems in \cite{DBLPunHL20,DBLPunWZZ20} incrementally learned among five disparate NLP tasks.
\newcite{ntinually} further extended the size of the task stream (one benchmark has 26 tasks, the other covers 55) and studied \texttt{TCL} in a few-shot scenario. It is worth mentioning that all the listed work in \texttt{TCL} consistently transformed all tasks into question answering format (as pointed out in \cite{DBLP8730}, many NLP tasks can be formulated as
question answering), thus \texttt{TCL} in these literature was actually converted into \texttt{DCL}.
Similar with \cite{DBLPXiaYFY21, ntinually}, our work also focuses on low-resource continual learning; in contrast, our learning problem belongs to \texttt{TCL} while \textit{each task in our formulation is expressed by instructions instead of labeled examples}.
\paragraph{Learning from textual instructions.} This learning paradigm was first presented by \newcite{DBLPldwasserR14}. They investigated the challenges on Solitaire card game where an instruction is a short sentence such as ``\textit{you can move any top card to a free cell if it is empty}'', then this instruction is mapped into logical expression via semantic parsing so that an automated agent can understand and execute the instruction.
More recent work tried to examine the ability of large-scale pretrained language models to follow natural language instructions of varying complexity. For example, \newcite{DBLP982} tested GPT-2 \cite{radford2019language} to understand instructions like ``\textit{listing nouns}'', ``\textit{output the $n$th word or char}'' and real-world MTurk instructions to annotate some popular datasets. They concluded that GPT-2 works poorly when the supervision comes from those instructions. A dominant instruction format nowadays is called ``prompt'' which mostly is a short piece of text describing the core concept of the task. Representative work includes \cite{radford2019language,DBLP1926,DBLPchickS21}, etc. (Please refer to the survey \cite{DBLP586} for more details.)
While these prompt-based results are encouraging, such prompts are often too simplistic, whereas many real NLP problems cannot be effectively formulated as short prompts or a few positive examples. Motivated, \newcite{DBLP08773} collected more than 60 distinct NLP tasks with real-world MTurk instructions, and claimed that pretrained language models, such as BART and GPT-3 \cite{DBLPBrownMRSKDNSSAA20}, benefit from instructions to generalize across tasks.
To our knowledge, the only work somehow resembling ours is \cite{DBLPRostamiIE20}, in which task descriptions were incorporated into lifelong learning for zero-shot transfer. We differ in three aspects: (i) they focused on robot controlling problems, (ii) their tasks are from a single domain, and (iii) in addition to the associated instruction, they assumed that each task has a large number of labeled examples.
\section{Problem formulation}
\subsection{\texttt{ConTinTin}}
A system in our \texttt{ConTinTin}~comprises two stages, as illustrated in Figure \ref{fig:taskfigure}. The first stage describes its starting status before learning the first new task; the second stage describes how it evolve continually with a sequence of instruction-equipped unseen tasks. To make it easier to understand, we first introduce the \textit{evolution process}, then the \textit{initialization process}.
\paragraph{Evolution process.} \texttt{ConTinTin}~ tries to build a model $\texttt{M}$ that is able to deal with unseen tasks ($U$) appearing consecutively by understanding merely the instruction of each task. We denote the task sequence as $U$ = [$u_1$, $u_2$, $\cdots$, $u_i$, $\cdots$]. Each task $u_i$ has a piece of textual description $d_{u_i}$, and a set of evaluation instances $\{(x_{u_i}^j, y_{u_i}^j)\}_{j=1}^n$ where $y_{u_i}^j$ is the expected output of the input $x_{u_i}^j$. An example $d_{u_i}$ will be shown in Section \ref{sec:data}. We denote the model \texttt{M}, having learned [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_i$], as \texttt{M}$_i$. For each task $u_i$, \texttt{M}$_i$ is required to generate the output for $x_{u_i}^i$ based on the instruction in $d_{u_i}$.
\paragraph{Initialization process.} How to teach a system some basic knowledge to understand task instructions and learn continually? We prepare a few training tasks ($S$=[$s_1$, $s_2$, $\cdots$, $s_k$]) to equip the machine with the ability to annotate the task instances given instructions. Each training task $s_i$ also has its instruction $d_{s_i}$ and $n$ labeled examples \{($x_{s_i}^j$, $y_{s_i}^j$)\}$_{j=1}^n$. Note that here we want to control $k$ to be small; otherwise, if \texttt{ConTinTin}~ requires a large number of training tasks at the initialization stage, there is no point anymore to make use of instructions to alleviate the burden of data annotation.
\subsection{Evaluation protocol}\label{sec:evaluationprotocol}
\paragraph{Forward-transfer evaluation.}
\begin{algorithm}[t]
\caption{Forward-transfer metric calculation}
\label{alg:forwardmetric}
\begin{algorithmic}[1]
\Require{The model \texttt{M}, all unseen tasks in $U$, two hyperparameter $m$ and $i$}
\Ensure{$\overrightarrow{g}_i$}
\For{task $t$ in $U$}
\For{$j<m$ times}
\State {$k$ = random.randint(1, |U|-$i$)};
\State {sample [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{k-1}$, $u_{k}$, $\cdots$, $u_{k+i-1}$] from $U$-\{t\};}
\State {\texttt{M}$_k$ = \texttt{M} evolves over [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{k-1}$, $t$];}
\State {\texttt{M}$_{k+i}$ = \texttt{M} evolves over [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{k+i-1}$, $t$];}
\State {$\overrightarrow{g}_{i,t}^j$=\texttt{M}$_{k+i}$($t$) - \texttt{M}$_{k}$($t$);}
\EndFor
\State {$\overrightarrow{g}_{i,t}=\frac{1}{m}\sum_{j=1}^m{\overrightarrow{g}_{i,t}^j}$};
\EndFor
\State {$\overrightarrow{g}_i=\frac{1}{|U|}\sum_{t\in U}{\overrightarrow{g}_{i,t}}$}
\end{algorithmic}
\end{algorithm}
\begin{algorithm}[t]
\caption{Backward-transfer metric calculation}
\label{alg:backwardmetric}
\begin{algorithmic}[1]
\Require{The model \texttt{M}, all unseen tasks in $U$, two hyperparameter $m$ and $i$}
\Ensure{$\overleftarrow{g}_i$}
\For{task $t$ in $U$}
\For{$j<m$ times}
\State {$k$ = random.randint(1, |U|-$i$)};
\State {sample [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{k-1}$, $t$, $u_{k+1}$, $\cdots$, $u_{k+i}$] from $U$;}
\State {\texttt{M}$_k$ = \texttt{M} evolves over [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{k-1}$, $t$];}
\State {\texttt{M}$_{k+i}$ = \texttt{M} evolves over [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{k+i}$];}
\State {$\overleftarrow{g}_{i,t}^j$=\texttt{M}$_{k+i}$($t$) - \texttt{M}$_{k}$($t$);}
\EndFor
\State {$\overleftarrow{g}_{i,t}=\frac{1}{m}\sum_{j=1}^m{\overleftarrow{g}_{i,t}^j}$};
\EndFor
\State {$\overleftarrow{g}_i=\frac{1}{|U|}\sum_{t\in U}{\overleftarrow{g}_{i,t}}$}
\end{algorithmic}
\end{algorithm}
For this metric, we attempt to quantify the effectiveness of learning more prior tasks before solving a target task. Intuitively, more prior tasks, better downstream performance. We define metric $\overrightarrow{g}_i$ (hereafter, ``$\rightarrow$'' refers to forward-transfer and ``$\leftarrow$'' refers to backward-transfer): the \textit{average gained performance} over all new tasks in $U$ when each of them is learned after $k+i-1$ previous tasks, compared with learning them merely after $k-1$ tasks ($i$ is transferring distance). As Algorithm \ref{alg:forwardmetric} shows, computing $\overrightarrow{g}_i$ needs two loops. First, iterate on all tasks in $U$, select one task $t$ as (i) the $k$th task and randomly sample its upstream tasks [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{k-1}$] from remaining tasks in $U$, getting one online learning score $\texttt{M}_k(t)$, or as (ii) the $(k+i)$th task for another online learning score $\texttt{M}_{k+i}(t)$. $\texttt{M}_{k+i}(t)$ - $\texttt{M}_k(t)$ is one instance of the forward-transfer score, which indicates how much improvement the extra upstream tasks of size $i$ bring to the target task $t$. For this particular task $t$, repeat its upstream tasks $m$ times and calculate the average as a final score of $t$, denoted as $\overrightarrow{g}_{i,t}$. Second, the same procedure is applied to all tasks in $U$ and finally average $\overrightarrow{g}_{i,t}$ over all $t$ to get the $\overrightarrow{g}_i$ value.
$\overrightarrow{g}_i$ always measures the expected performance gain our system can get when it has continually leaned $i$ more tasks. For forward-transfer, we expect $\overrightarrow{g}_i$ is positive and increases when $i$ gets larger.
\paragraph{Backward-transfer evaluation.} In contrast to the forward-transfer evaluation, we define $\overleftarrow{g}_i$ as the backward-transfer metric, which tells how much better our system can handle a task learned $i$ steps ago, compared with the performance on the same the task last time. As Algorithm \ref{alg:backwardmetric} describes, two loops to calculate $\overleftarrow{g}_i$. Firstly, for a given task $t$ from $U$, put $t$ in a random position $k$ in the task chain, followed by $i$ other tasks. Subtract its performance when the model \texttt{M} learned it the first time (i.e., \texttt{M}$_k(t)$) by its performance when the model finished learning all the $k+i$ tasks in the chain (i.e., \texttt{M}$_{k+i}(t)$). This operation generates a score given this chain; repeat this process $m$ times to get an average gain $\overleftarrow{g}_{i,t}$ for the task $t$. Secondly, average the $\overleftarrow{g}_{i,t}$ over all $t$ to get the $\overleftarrow{g}_i$ value.
If a system can always make use of downstream tasks to help upstream tasks, $\overleftarrow{g}_i$ should be positive; otherwise, $\overleftarrow{g}_i$ will be negative due to catastrophic forgetting.
\subsection{Data} \label{sec:data}
There are no NLP datasets for \texttt{ConTinTin}~particularly. This work is based on \textsc{Natural-Instructions}\enspace \cite{DBLP08773} after data reorganization. Next, we first introduce \textsc{Natural-Instructions}, then describe our revised version specific to our problem.
\textsc{Natural-Instructions}~was constructed in the following pipeline: \newcite{DBLP08773} first collected some popular NLP benchmarks (e.g., CosmosQA \cite{DBLPangBBC19}, Quoref \cite{DBLPgiLMSG19}, Winogrande \cite{DBLPguchiBBC20}, etc.) with their crowdsourcing instructions through engaging with their authors. Since all the crowdsourcing instructions include multiple steps to guide annotators to gather task instances, they further broke raw crowdsourcing instructions down into their individual steps, generating a larger number of subtasks that are minimal and standalone. At last, a total of 61 tasks are obtained, covering six categories: 13 question generation tasks (QG), 16 answer generation tasks (AG), 12 classification tasks (CF), 8 incorrect answer generation tasks (IAG), 10 minimal modification tasks (MM) and 2 verification tasks (VF). An instruction example is presented in Figure \ref{fig:instruction}.
\begin{figure}[t]
\setlength{\belowcaptionskip}{-10pt}
\setlength{\abovecaptionskip}{5pt}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.9\linewidth]{ACL22TCLNLI.pdf}
\caption{An instruction example for the task ``answering science questions (misc)'' in \textsc{Natural-Instructions}~\cite{DBLP08773}. \textcolor{green}{Green} parts present favorable clues while \textcolor{red}{red} parts express unfavorable predictions.} \label{fig:instruction}
\end{figure}
\paragraph{Our data split.} For training tasks $S$, we randomly select $k$ tasks from the 61 tasks. All training tasks in $S$ have instructions and keep their labeled example set. The remaining 61-$k$ tasks are treated as unseen task set $U$. Each task in $U$ has only instruction; the labeled example set is used for evaluation rather than model training.
It is noteworthy that task order in continual learning should influence the final performance. We do not attempt to release a fixed split of $S$ and $U$. In experiments, we will randomly generate them multiple times to form different task chains and report the average performance.
\section{Our method \texttt{InstructionSpeak}}
Most prior studies about continual learning focused on backward-transfer \cite{DBLPrraSMK18,DBLPumeRKY19} while paying less attention to the forward-transfer performance.
Next, we introduce our approach to promoting both of them.
\textit{The big story of our strategies lies in better understanding of the textual instruction of $u_i$}. Two concrete strategies as follows.
\paragraph{\textsc{Negative Training}:} \textit{to distinguish favorable and unfavorable clues in instructions}.
Unfavorable clues, such as the red items in Figure \ref{fig:instruction}, are essential for humans to make decisions while not being successfully leveraged by machine learning. For example, \newcite{DBLP08773} found discarding negative examples can even improve the performance. We believe this indicates the approach failed to learn from negative examples rather than those examples being truly useless. Then, how can we make machines extract effective supervision from negative samples?
First, we introduce a method that was tried but did not work well -- \textit{minimizing the probability of generating negative output}. Maximizing the probabilities of gold output is widely used in text generation. It sounds intuitive to minimize that for unwanted output, such as \cite{DBLPHeG20}. We tried a joint training on maximizing positive and minimizing negative examples, which is even worse than maximizing the positive alone. Since many ``negative'' outputs contain tokens that exist in the gold answers, we suspect that minimizing their probabilities will let the model have more difficulty decoding the correct output.
After further study of those negative examples and their explanations, we decide to treat those negative examples as positive and move the negative learning phase as pretraining, i.e., pretrain on negative examples first, then finetune on positive examples. The inspiration comes from the fact that negative examples, despite the tag ``negative'', can still provide useful information about the expected output. Take a look at the negative example in Figure \ref{fig:instruction}, its output ``C i.e., color and shape of the rock'' is discouraged just because it does not follow some rules of automatic evaluation rather than it is really wrong. Apparently, as a first step, optimizing the system to generate the so-called ``negative output'' is still better than any general-purpose pretrained BART.
For each unseen task in $U$, we directly adopt its negative examples if available. For the $k$ training tasks in $S$, positive instances (including positive examples in instructions and those labeled task instances) are much more than the negative examples, we use the pretrained model on $S$ to do prediction on all inputs of $S$, if the output is not equal to the gold output, we treat this (input, predicted output) as a negative example. It means we have a loose definition of what ``negative output'' is: it is negative once it is not equal to the ground truth. Since the pretrained model on $S$ can already guarantee generation quality, those generated negative outputs are mostly related with the gold outputs (measured by ROUGE metrics).\footnote{We also tried to \textit{build a negative-output generator given available negative examples in instructions}. This type of negative output was planed for pretraining in both $S$ and $U$. However, due to the tiny size of negative examples in instructions (most tasks have at most 2 negative examples, a couple of them have zero), the learned negative-output generator yields outputs that are over unreasonable.}
\paragraph{\textsc{History Training}:} \textit{revisit instructions of previous tasks}. To mitigate catastrophic forgetting, many prior works about continual learning tried to store a couple of labeled examples of upstreaming tasks to replay. In our \texttt{ConTinTin}~formulation, each new task is described merely by the instruction. Instead of storing some examples of previous tasks, we keep their instructions. When learning the $i$th task in $U$, our model will first learn all the instructions of prior $i-2$ tasks in a batch with a lower learning rate. Revisiting precedent instructions is cost-effective since each instruction is as short as a couple of conventionally annotated examples but with much more supervision.
Overall, our two strategies work jointly to enhance the forward-transfer and the backward-transfer performance. Our system \texttt{InstructionSpeak}\enspace is based on BART, treating all tasks as a text-to-text problem. The full input format of encoder: \textcolor{purple}{[\texttt{Input}] input string} \textcolor{orange} {[\texttt{Title}] title string [\texttt{Prompt}] prompt string [\texttt{Definition}] definition string [\texttt{Avoid}] things to avoid string [\texttt{Caution}] caution string} \textcolor{blue}{[\texttt{POS1}] [\texttt{Input}] input string [\texttt{Output}] output string [\texttt{Explanation}] explanation string $\cdots$ [\texttt{POS$n$}] [\texttt{Input}] input string [\texttt{Output}] output string [\texttt{Explanation}] explanation string}. Note that we put the input at the beginning of this encoder's input template to prevent from being discarded due to long text truncation. When pretrain on training tasks $S$, the full input pattern is used; when continually learn on $U$, since the \textcolor{purple}{input} at the beginning comes from positive or negative examples of the instruction, we do not include the positive examples in the input template (i.e., the blue part is dropped).
Given $S$ and $U$, the whole learning pipeline in \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~is: (i) pretrain on $S$ to get model \texttt{M}$^*$; (ii) use \texttt{M}$^*$ to make predictions on $S$ to collect negative example set $S^{-}$; (iii) pretrain on $S^{-}$ and finetune on $S$ to get boosted model \texttt{M} which is the starting model status for continual learning on $U$; (iv) for the $i$th unseen task $u_i$ in $U$, tune \texttt{M} on instructions of all earlier tasks [$u_1$, $\cdots$, $u_{i-2}$] in a batch; (v) tune on negative examples of $u_i$, if available; (vi) tune on positive examples of $u_i$.
\section{Experiments}
\begin{table*}[ht]
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{2.7pt}
\centering
\begin{tabular}%
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}
\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \multicolumn{5}{c||}{forward-transfer} & \multicolumn{5}{c}{backward-transfer}\\
& $\overrightarrow{g}_1$ & $\overrightarrow{g}_{10}$ & $\overrightarrow{g}_{20}$ & $\overrightarrow{g}_{30}$ & $\overrightarrow{g}_{40}$ & $\overleftarrow{g}_1$ & $\overleftarrow{g}_{10}$ & $\overleftarrow{g}_{20}$ & $\overleftarrow{g}_{30}$ & $\overleftarrow{g}_{40}$\\\hline
Seq-finetune & 1.44 \scriptsize{$\pm$7.15} & 3.28 \scriptsize{$\pm$19.46} & -3.74 \scriptsize{$\pm$8.73} & 2.9 \scriptsize{$\pm$16.42} & -0.36 \scriptsize{$\pm$17.23} &1.57 \scriptsize{$\pm$3.28} & 0.04 \scriptsize{$\pm$12.46} & -0.19 \scriptsize{$\pm$21.75} & -6.48 \scriptsize{$\pm$19.17} & -9.46 \scriptsize{$\pm$19.57} \\
LAMOL \cite{DBLPunHL20} &-1.34 \scriptsize{$\pm$4.46}& 1.41 \scriptsize{$\pm$13.55} & 3.31 \scriptsize{$\pm$14.32} & -5.40 \scriptsize{$\pm$20.44} & -0.03 \scriptsize{$\pm$12.68} &2.67 \scriptsize{$\pm$12.52}& 2.21 \scriptsize{$\pm$7.98} & 9.42 \scriptsize{$\pm$12.88} & 6.33 \scriptsize{$\pm$20.13} & 7.21 \scriptsize{$\pm$14.81} \\\hline
Our \texttt{InstructionSpeak} & \textbf{2.16} \scriptsize{$\pm$6.46}& \textbf{5.06} \scriptsize{$\pm$20.87} & 2.29 \scriptsize{$\pm$18.03} & \textbf{4.07} \scriptsize{$\pm$7.95} & \textbf{4.39} \scriptsize{$\pm$14.56} &1.44 \scriptsize{$\pm$9.28}& \textbf{5.21} \scriptsize{$\pm$18.20} & 7.33 \scriptsize{$\pm$13.48} & \textbf{14.99} \scriptsize{$\pm$20.21} & \textbf{12.31} \scriptsize{$\pm$16.53}\\
\enspace\enspace w/o \textsc{Negative Training} & -2.89 \scriptsize{$\pm$13.12} &1.06 \scriptsize{$\pm$17.21} & 1.33 \scriptsize{$\pm$13.09} & 2.21 \scriptsize{$\pm$14.42} & 1.78 \scriptsize{$\pm$17.90} &2.21 \scriptsize{$\pm$12.23}& 3.37 \scriptsize{$\pm$13.23} & \textbf{11.44} \scriptsize{$\pm$11.03} & 10.36 \scriptsize{$\pm$21.34} & 8.94 \scriptsize{$\pm$19.41}\\
\enspace\enspace w/o \textsc{History Training} &1.88 \scriptsize{$\pm$17.73} &3.32 \scriptsize{$\pm$12.76} & \textbf{4.41} \scriptsize{$\pm$20.24} & 3.22 \scriptsize{$\pm$16.66} & 2.97 \scriptsize{$\pm$14.93} &\textbf{4.74} \scriptsize{$\pm$16.54} & -2.78 \scriptsize{$\pm$19.38} & -0.83 \scriptsize{$\pm$12.93} & 1.35 \scriptsize{$\pm$15.95} & 3.49 \scriptsize{$\pm$14.05} \\\hline
Multi-task (upperbound) &\multicolumn{10}{c}{\enspace\enspace\enspace 7.98\scriptsize{$\pm$20.47}} \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{The main results of \texttt{ConTinTin}.}
\label{tab:mainresult}
\end{table*}
\begin{table*}[ht]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ll||rrrrrr|c}
\multicolumn{2}{l||}{Method} & QG & AG & CF & IAG & MM & VF & mean \\\hline
\multirow{2}{*}{\cite{DBLP08773}} & paper report &52.xx & 30.xx & 50.xx &25.xx & 47.xx & 8.xx & 35.33 \\
& reimplement & 53.55 & 17.45 & 63.79 & 11.06 & 82.86 & 7.40 & 39.35 \\\hline
\multirow{2}{*}{Seq-finetune}&forward& 49.61 & 21.46 & 48.74 & 9.70 &57.31 &7.61 & 32.40 \\
&backward &47.09 &21.17 &7.45 & 9.61 & 88.84 & \textbf{14.98} & 31.52\\\hline
\multirow{2}{*}{LAMOL}& forward & 52.23 & 20.45 & 67.74 &8.81 & 82.29& 8.83 & 40.05\\
& backward & 52.14 & 22.76 & 7.98& 8.33 & 88.45& 9.91&31.59 \\\hline
\multirow{3}{*}{\texttt{InstructionSpeak}} &w/o CL & 51.07 & 23.40 & 70.68 & \textbf{11.43} & 88.13 & 6.22 & 41.82\\
&forward &51.30 &24.89 &\textbf{70.96} & 9.36& \textbf{90.41} &10.70 & \textbf{42.93}\\
& backward &53.04 & \textbf{24.93} &7.51 & 8.56 &88.09 & 13.86 & 32.66\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{The results on standard split of \textsc{Natural-Instructions}. We use ``52.xx'' just because the original paper by \newcite{DBLP08773} did not report the ``xx'' numbers.}
\label{tab:benchmarkresult}
\end{table*}
\paragraph{Setup.} We use the pretrained BART-base model released by Huggingface. Hyperparameters: $m=10$ in Algorithms \ref{alg:forwardmetric}-\ref{alg:backwardmetric}; $k=5$ for the task set $S$; max input length 1024 tokens, learning rate 5e-5, 3 epochs as suggested by \cite{DBLP08773} for most phases of training (except for 5e-6 and one epoch for \textsc{History Training}); batch size 5 for training on $S$ and 2 for continual learning on $U$. All unseen tasks $U$ randomly select 1k labeled examples for performance evaluation. Note that the official evaluation metric for \textsc{Natural-Instructions}\enspace is ROUGE-L \cite{lin2004rouge}. According to the definitions of our evaluation metrics, $\overrightarrow{g}_i$ and $\overleftarrow{g}_i$ numbers are the same meaning as ROUGE-L.
\paragraph{Baselines.} There are no prior systems that can fit the formulation of \texttt{ConTinTin}~exactly. In addition, as the \texttt{ConTinTin}~properties in Table \ref{tab:properties} indicate, ideally, \texttt{ConTinTin}~prefers a fixed model capacity. Therefore, we do not compare with systems that incorporate extra memory modules or adaptors, such as \cite{DBLPumeRKY19,ntinually,DBLeXL21}. The following systems are considered:
\textbullet\enspace \textit{Seq-finetune}: first pretrain a BART on $S$, then fine-tune it on $U$ sequentially. It does not pay special attention to catastrophic forgetting.
\textbullet\enspace \textit{Multi-task}: first pretrain a BART on $S$, then train on instructions of all tasks in $U$ simultaneously. It, acting as the upperbound of continual learning, does not distinguish between forward-transfer and backward-transfer.
\textbullet\enspace \textit{LAMOL} \cite{DBLPunHL20}: A state-of-the-art system that uses pretrained language models for task continual learning.
All tasks are converted into QA and a single language model is used for the continual learning; before training on a new task, the language model first generates pseudo-examples for previous tasks; those pseudo-examples are mixed with the examples of the new task to train the language model.
The original language model in LAMOL is a smallest pretrained GPT-2, we replace it with BART for a fair comparison.
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.9\linewidth]{acl2022TACLNLItrainingSizeforward.pdf}
\caption{Influence of training task size (i.e., $k$ value in $S$=[$s_1$, $s_2$, $\cdots$, $s_k$]) on forward-transfer. $k\in\{1,5,10,20\}$. Please note that $k=5$ is what we used to report Table \ref{tab:mainresult}.}
\label{fig:influenceoftrainingsize}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure*}[t]
\setlength{\belowcaptionskip}{-10pt}
\setlength{\abovecaptionskip}{5pt}
\centering
\subfigure[Forward-transfer]
{ \label{fig:categoryforward}
\includegraphics[width=0.44\linewidth]{acl2022TACLNLItaskcategoryforwardnew.pdf}
}
\subfigure[Backward-transfer]
{ \label{fig:categorybackward}
\includegraphics[width=0.44\linewidth]{acl2022TACLNLItaskcategorybackwardnew.pdf}
}
\caption{Different transferabilities on tasks of six categories.}
\label{fig:influenceoftaskcategory}
\end{figure*}
\subsection{Results}
Table \ref{tab:mainresult} shows the comparison between our system \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~and those baselines. We have three threads of observations.
Firstly, our system \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~consistently outperforms all baselines for both forward-transfer and backward-transfer evaluations. For forward-transfer, all systems cannot beat the multi-task learning, but in backward-transfer, \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~even outperforms the multi-task competitor; this is because multi-task learning, though widely treated as upperbound for continual learning, only trained on all $U$ tasks for 3 epochs. Our method, equipped with \textsc{History Training}, actually learns many times of earlier $U$ tasks during the continual learning. Despite a few exceptions, generally speaking, both the forward and backward transfer performance increase when the transferring distance increases from 1 to 40.
Secondly, the ablation study verifies the effectiveness of our two strategies. \textsc{Negative Training}~plays the leading role in forward-transfer while doing a moderate favor to the backward-transfer. A totally opposite phenomenon is noticed for \textsc{History Training}: it clearly contributes to the backward-transfer evaluation while influencing the forward-transfer to some extent.
Thirdly, the standard deviations are mostly large; this should be due to the fact that the 61 tasks in \textsc{Natural-Instructions}~ contains 6 distinct categories; each category benefits from the model generalization by different degrees.
To further figure out the exact performance of our system on different task categories, we report on the standard split of \textsc{Natural-Instructions}~ as \newcite{DBLP08773} did: they have a fixed set of 12 tasks for testing (2 for each category), and all remaining tasks as training data. Since their 12 test tasks have no order, for each of the test category, we put it as the sixth (resp. first) task in the chain for forward-transfer (resp. backward-transfer). Once the position of the test category is fixed, we randomly order the remaining five categories in the sequence for 10 times and report the average performance. Thus, each test category will have two numbers for every continual learning approach: one for forward-transfer, the other for backward-transfer. In addition, we also report our system \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~ without continual learning (w/o CL), i.e., using the system pretrained on 49 tasks in $S$ to predict.
Table \ref{tab:benchmarkresult} lists the results of all continual learning systems on \textsc{Natural-Instructions}. We notice that (i) the results of different task categories vary a lot. For example, minimal modification tasks (MM) easily get ROUGE-L score above 80, but it is pretty challenging to obtain ROUGE-L score over 10 for Verification (VF); (ii) Classification tasks (CF) seem suffering from backward-transfer. We suspect CF is too sensitive to classification-specific supervision, such as label spaces; the continual learning on many subsequent tasks of different categories will mislead the model in solving CF. This is further supported by looking at the results of three systems: \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~ w/o CL, \cite{DBLP08773} and \texttt{InstructionSpeak}~forward-transfer. The first two systems start predicting on $U$ once finish the training on $S$. Note that CF in $U$ has 10 CF tasks in $S$; it means the first two systems, although they did not learn the CF in $U$, still obtained enough supervision for this category from $S$. That's why all three systems get high performance on CF. Once they get tuned on more different categories, the supervision disappears increasingly.
\subsection{Analysis}
In addition to the results in Tables \ref{tab:mainresult}-\ref{tab:benchmarkresult}, we are further interested in the following two questions.
\paragraph{$\mathcal{Q}_1$: how many training tasks does a system need to learn from instructions?} Recall that apart from the $U$ in the evolution process, we use $k$ tasks ($S$=[$s_1$, $s_2$, $\cdots$, $s_k$]) to initialize the model. $S$ can have maximal 20 tasks (due to the limited size of \textsc{Natural-Instructions}) and our system only used 5 out of them. Here, we further explore the model's behavior when $k$ varies.
Figure \ref{fig:influenceoftrainingsize} depicts the influence of $k$ on forward-transfer. For forward-transfer, larger $k$ values (i.e., more training tasks to initialize the model) consistently improve performance. We think that more training tasks tend to teach the model better at understanding the task instructions, which can further improve the model's transferability when it learns $i$ more tasks to report $\overrightarrow{g}_i$ on a downstream task $u_i$. We notice that \textsc{Natural-Instructions}~v2 \footnote{\url{https://github.com/allenai/natural-instructions}} has over 1.7k tasks. We leave it as future work to further explore the potential of increasing training tasks.
\paragraph{$\mathcal{Q}_2$: how do tasks of different categories in $U$ benefit?} In Section \ref{sec:data}, we mentioned that all tasks can be organized into six categories.
We check their separate performances here. Note that both Algorithms \ref{alg:forwardmetric}-\ref{alg:backwardmetric} obtain the final score by averaging over all tasks in $U$, here we average those tasks that belong to the same category to get category-wise forward-transfer and backward-transfer performances.
From Figure \ref{fig:categoryforward} and Figure \ref{fig:categorybackward}, we notice that: (i) tasks of distinct categories indeed demonstrate different performances for both forward-transfer and backward-transfer evaluations; (ii) the phenomena on the two evaluations are similar: some categories consistently benefit more, such as ``classification'', ``answer generation'', ``question generation'', while some keep obtaining worse scores, such as ``minimal modification'' and ``verification'' categories. We think this discrepancy origins from two factors; one is how many tasks a particular category has, the other is how similar or relevant the tasks in that category are with tasks of other categories. Intuitively, a category with more tasks occupying the task chain and resembling other tasks, such as ``classification'', ``answer generation'' and ``question generation'', can be easier solved when the model comes up to it or comes back to it.
\section{Conclusions}
This work introduced a novel learning problem: continual learning from task instructions. The goal is to explore the potential of exiting pretrained language models in solving new tasks by understanding instructions rather than labeled examples. With our problem formulation and a well-performing system, we pave the way for future study of this challenge in the community.
\section*{Acknowledgement}
We thank Daniel Khashabi from AI2 and Swaroop Mishra from ASU for help during this work.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
| 461
|
\section{Introduction/Motivation}
Atmospheric aerosols are small particles suspended ubiquitously throughout the Earth's atmosphere. These particles have important impacts on the Earth's climate \cite{Myhre_2013} and public health \cite{Burnett_2018}, which are governed by aerosol properties such as concentration, size, and composition. These properties can change drastically in time and space. A conceptually simple but powerful method for characterizing the variable properties of an aerosol sample is to measure the angular distribution of light that is scattered from it. Such multi-angle light scattering measurements can be performed both in situ (aerosol sample drawn from the atmosphere into an instrument known as a polar nephelometer; e.g. \cite{Barkey_2012}) and remotely (using satellite, aircraft-borne, or ground-based sensors, e.g. \cite{Dubovik2019}). The resulting measurements contain substantial information about the concentration, size, shape, and complex refractive index of the aerosol being probed. Inversion methods are then required to retrieve this information.
The most sophisticated inversion methods rely on iterative optimization algorithms that solve forward models describing the underlying physics of light scattering by gas molecules and small particles \cite{Bohren1998}. In the simplified case when the particles are assumed to be spherically shaped, the forward models are based on Mie theory, which provides an analytical solution to Maxwell's equations for a plane monochromatic wave incident on a homogeneous sphere of arbitrary radius \cite{Mie1908}. For the more realistic case of arbitrarily shaped aerosol particles, more complex and computationally expensive superposition-based forward models are required such as the multi-sphere T-matrix method \cite{Mishchenko_1996}, or those based on the Discrete Dipole Approximation \cite{Draine_1994}. Efficient and optimized computer codes that implement these types of forward models (e.g. \cite{Mishchenko_2000, Draine_2013,gmd-11-2739-2018}), as well as their use in iterative inversion schemes (e.g. GRASP-OPEN \cite{Dubovik_2011}) are now freely available.
The main limitation of iterative, physics-based retrieval algorithms is that they are too computationally expensive and slow for some important applications. In the remote sensing context, such applications include the operational processing in near real-time or reanalysis of large volumes of satellite data for downstream use in climate, air quality and weather models (e.g. \cite{Benedetti_2009}). In the in situ context, such applications include the near real-time processing of polar nephelometer measurements to retrieve particular aerosol properties, which is becoming increasingly important with the development of distributed sensor networks, and the corresponding drive to miniaturize instruments (e.g. \cite{Chen_2020}).
The traditional approach for solving the problem of retrieval speed is to use pre-computed look-up tables (LUTs). LUTs contain limited sets of simulated multi-angle light scattering signals that correspond to discrete sets of combinations of the parameters to be retrieved. A retrieval is performed by selecting the set of parameters whose simulated signals most closely matches a particular measurement. The LUT approach is currently the most widely used method for the operational processing of satellite-obtained aerosol remote sensing data \cite{Dubovik2019}. However, although LUTs are able to solve the problem of retrieval speed, they do so at the cost of retrieval accuracy, since they necessarily involve parameter selectivity and discretization. This problem is becoming even more of a limitation with the continued development of advanced polarimetric light scattering measurements (remote sensing and in situ) \cite{Dolgos_2014, Dubovik2019}, which have higher information content concerning a larger number of free parameters, in particular also for combined multi-parameter retrievals using data from multiple sensors. E.g. combined surface reflectivity and aerosol property retrieval.
Machine learning algorithms present new opportunities for solving the aerosol property retrieval problem with sufficient speed and accuracy to overcome some of the limitations of previous approaches. Some very early efforts in this direction began already in the 1990s and involved the application of neural networks to different forms of light scattering data \cite{Ishimaru_1990, Wang_1999, Ulanowski_1998, Berdnik_2004, Berdnik_2009}. Since then, much work has focused on remotely sensed light scattering data, as reviewed recently in \cite{Di_noia_2018}. In the remote sensing context, it seems that a combination of tools (e.g. neural networks as providers of initial guesses or as forward models in iterative optimization schemes) may ultimately prove to be the most effective way of operationally processing the large amounts of data collected by satellite-borne and ground-based sensors \cite{Fan_2019, Shi_2020, Di_noia_2015, Di_noia_2017}.
In the present study, we return to the comparatively less-studied problem of the inversion of in situ light scattering phase function measurements using neural networks. Although similar in principle to remote sensing measurements, in situ measurements are unique in that the single scattering approximation is typically valid (i.e., additional light scattering between the sensitive volume and detector is negligible.), and there is no need to account for light reflections from different types of Earth surfaces (e.g., water, ice, different land types) as is necessary in satellite or airborne remote sensing. This simpler configuration makes it possible to keep the problem constrained on light scattering phase functions and associated aerosol property retrieval.
This study has a concrete and practical motivation: to train models that will be applied to measurements obtained with the new polarized, laser-imaging type polar nephelometer \cite{Dolgos_2014} that is currently being developed within the Aerosol Physics Group at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI). This instrument will eventually be used in laboratory experiments to measure angular distribution of light scattering $y$ (e.g. phase functions and polarized phase functions at multiple wavelengths) for different types of aerosols described with the properties $x$ (e.g. size distribution parameters, complex refractive index). We present here a proof of concept showing that neural network models can be successfully applied to the problem of quickly and accurately retrieving the aerosol properties $x$ from the light scattering measurements $y$ that will be obtained with this instrument. For this purpose, we use synthetic data sets with realistically simulated measurement uncertainties. In follow up studies, experiments will be performed with the instrument to further evaluate the performance of the neural network based retrievals presented here, as well as to evaluate the performance of common physics-based retrieval algorithms used in aerosol remote sensing (e.g. \cite{Schuster_2019}).
A key novelty of the present study relative to other recent studies (e.g. \cite{Berdnik_2016, Xu_2021}) is the model architecture that we consider. In particular, we focus on a class of neural network models known as invertible neural networks (INNs) \cite{Ardizzone2018}. A single INN model trained in one direction on a particular data set has the unique feature that it can be run in both the forward (aerosol properties to light scattering data, $x \to y$) and inverse (light scattering data to aerosol properties, $y \to x$) directions with negligible computational cost. This feature creates great flexibility with respect to the model application.
In Section 2 we present a theoretical overview of the problem and INN model architecture. Section 3 introduces the synthetic data sets we use for model training and validation, while Section 4 discusses the implementation of the model including the data preprocessing steps. In Section 5 we present the results and in Section 6 we discuss the conclusions and outlook of the study.
\section{Theory}
\subsection{Problem description}\label{sec:problem_description}
In this work we retrieve aerosol properties from multi-angle multi-wavelength and polarized light scattering data. Let $x \in X\subseteq \mathbb{R}^N$, denote the aerosol properties, like spectral complex refractive index or particle size distribution parameters, where $N$ is the total number of properties. The functions obtained by the measurement device are the phase function $P_{11}=P_{11}(\theta)$ (i.e. angularly-resolved scattered light intensity) and the polarized phase function $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}=-\frac{P_{12}(\theta)}{P_{11}(\theta)}$ (i.e. angularly resolved relative degree of linear polarization of scattered light for unpolarized incident light), where $\theta$ is the angle.
These are (normalized) elements of the scattering matrix used in the Stokes formalism, see e.g. \cite{Dolgos_2014, amt-2021-251} for more details.
The forward problem is now to compute the phase and polarized phase functions $y \in \{P_{11}, -\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}} \}$ from aerosol properties $x \in X$: $y = F(x)$. Where $F$ indicates the underlying Mie theory or other theories of aerosol light scattering.
The inverse problem is to retrieve the aerosol properties from the measurement data ($y^{\delta}$) : $\hat{x} = F^{-1}(y^{\delta})$, where the $\hat{}$ symbol indicates that $\hat{x}$ is an estimate of the true values $x$.
Due to the ill-posed nature of inverse problems, i.e. either there exists no solution, or the solution is not unique or small errors in the data $y^{\delta}$ can lead to huge errors in the retrieval of $x$, special solution methods, including e.g. regularization, need to be applied to solve inverse problems.
In our work, we focus on so-called invertible neural networks. A detailed description can be found in section \ref{sec:INN}. The main advantage of this method is, that the forward and the inverse problem are solved simultaneously, even though only one model needs to be trained. This is due to the architecture of the INN.
The general concept of building the model is depicted in Figure \ref{fig:model_concept}. Training the INN requires data, which can be obtained either from simulations or measurements. The trained model can then be used to either predict light scattering measurement data from a given set of aerosol properties, or to retrieve a set of aerosol properties from measured or simulated light scattering data. One key advantage of having forward and inverse pass:
it is possible to assess how well the retrieved simplified surrogate aerosol model represents the measured phase functions (even angularly resolved if needed).
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width =\textwidth]{figures/Model_development_concept.pdf}
\caption{Concept of how to build and use the INN model. To use the invertible neural network model in the inverse direction, a best-of-$n$ strategy is applied, so for a given measurement, $n$ sets of aerosol properties are retrieved, and the best one, according to the forward pass is chosen.}
\label{fig:model_concept}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Invertible neural networks}
\label{sec:INN}
The used invertible neural network was first introduced by Ardizzone et al. \cite{Ardizzone2018}, and is described here for the benefit of readability. Input and output of the network are divided randomly into two halves, $x=(x_1,x_2)$, $y = (y_1,y_2)$. The main components of the INN are so called, affine coupling blocks, having the following simplified structure
\begin{align*}
y_1 &= x_1 \odot \exp{(s \cdot \arctan (\mathrm{NN}(x_2)))}+\mathrm{NN}(x_2) \\
y_2 &= x_2 \odot \exp{(s \cdot \arctan (\mathrm{NN}(y_1)))}+\mathrm{NN}(y_1) \\
x_1 &= (y_1-\mathrm{NN}(x_2)) \odot \exp{(-s \cdot \arctan(\mathrm{NN}(x_2)))} \\
x_2 &= (y_2-\mathrm{NN}(x_1))\odot \exp{(-s \cdot \arctan (\mathrm{NN}(y_1)))},
\end{align*}
where $s$ is a scaling variable, that damps, together with $\arctan$, the exponential function, and $\mathrm{NN}$ stands for an arbitrary neural network. In theory, four different neural networks could be used, but this would increase the number of hyperparameters - so in this work, all $\mathrm{NN}$ are dense and have the same width and depth. Hence it is clear, that $x_1, x_2, y_1$ and $y_2$ need to have the same dimension. This is guaranteed by padding both input and output by zero or low noise, $x_{pad} \in \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_x}}$, $y_{pad} \in \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_y}}$, where $d_{P_x}$ and $d_{P_y}$ are the corresponding dimensions, that can be zero as well. With this choice, the invertibility of the INN is also assured.
The INN is then given by a concatenation of affine coupling blocks and permutation layers. The permutation layers guarantee that the splitting of input and output into two parts is not always the same. To capture the information about $x$ that is not contained in the measurements $y \in \mathbb{R}^{2M}$, a latent output variable $z \in \mathbb{R}^{d_Z}$, with dimension $d_Z$,
is introduced. The dimension $M$ for the measurements denotes the number of measured angles, so it varies between 2 and 178. During the inverse pass, these latent variables are sampled from a standard normal distribution.
The forward pass of the INN, $\hat{F}$, is then given by:
\begin{align*}\hat{F}:\mathbb{R}^N \times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_x}} & \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^{2M}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_Z}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_y}} \\
(x, x_{pad} )&\mapsto (\hat{y}, z, y_{pad}) \\
\text{s.t. } \hat{y} &\approx f(x)
\end{align*}
and the inverse pass, $\hat{F}^{-1}$, is:
\begin{align*}\hat{F}^{-1}:\mathbb{R}^{2M}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_Z}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_y}} &\rightarrow \mathbb{R}^N \times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_x}} \\
(y,z, y_{pad}) &\mapsto (\hat{x}, x_{pad}) \\
\text{s.t. } \hat{x} &\approx f^{-1}(y)
\end{align*}
and it holds that $\hat{F}(\hat{F}^{-1}(y,z,y_{pad}))= (y,z,y_{pad})$ and $\hat{F}^{-1} (\hat{F}(x,x_{pad}))= (x,x_{pad})$.
To train the neural network a loss function needs to be defined. In this case, it is a composition of numerous loss functions:
\begin{equation*}
L_{inv} = w_x L_{x} + w_y L_{y}
+ w_z L_{z} + w_r L_{r}
+ w_{p} L_{p}.
\end{equation*}
The loss $L_x=\|p_x(\hat{x})-p_x(x)\|^2$ ensures that the sampled aerosol property distributions, $p_x(x)$, match the distributions of the aerosol properties in the data set, $p_x(\hat{x})$. Likewise, the loss $L_z= \|p_z(z|\hat{y})-p_z(z) \|^2$ assures that the latent variable is sampled from the desired normal distribution. The losses $L_y= \sum^{N}_{i=1}{\|\hat{F}(x_i)-y_i\|^2}$ and $L_r = \sum^{N}_{i=1}{\|\hat{F}^{-1}(\hat{F}(x_i)+\varepsilon)-x_i\|^2} $ make sure that the forward and inverse predictions, resp., mimic the data. Through the introduction of Gaussian noise $\varepsilon \sim \mathcal{N}(0, \sigma_r)^{2M+d_z+d_{P_y}}$ in $L_r$, robustness of the inverse prediction should be guaranteed. Lastly, the loss $L_p= \|x_{pad} \|^2 + \|y_{pad}\|^2$ ensures that the amplitude of the noise fed into the model through the padding dimensions is low, so that no information is encoded there.
Further details on INNs can be found in the work of Ardizzone et al., \cite{Ardizzone2018}.
The model is trained w.r.t the forward pass, meaning that the input consists of a set of aerosol properties and that the output, or predictions, consists of the phase and polarized phase functions. Due to the structure of the INN, the inverse pass comes with no additional effort, meaning, the network does not need to be trained in addition with the (polarized) phase functions as input and the aerosol properties as output. Although, of course, the loss function contains forward and inverse prediction errors.
As discussed in Section \ref{sec:problem_description}, we are faced with the challenge that the inverse direction is not unique, such that several sets of aerosol properties can lead to similar phase and polarized phase functions. The INN architecture considers this problem on the one hand by the special loss function and on the other hand by the introduction of the latent space. Therefore, for the retrieval of aerosol properties, we apply a best-of-$n$ strategy, meaning that for a given measurement of angular resolved scattering data $n$ aerosol properties are predicted. The variation of the measurements to get the $n$ predictions is done via the latent space. All of these $n$ properties are then handed back to the forward pass, and the set of aerosol properties whose associated phase functions are closest to the given data are chosen to be the predicted aerosol properties.
\section{Synthetic data sets}
The GRASP-OPEN forward model \cite{Dubovik_2011} is used to generate the synthetic data to train the INN models.
In this work, two types of data, corresponding to two different applications of in situ multi-angle light scattering measurements are considered. These applications are chosen because they mimic the type of measurements that will be performed with the PSI polar nephelometer.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Simulation of aerosol measurements in a laboratory: specifically, measurements of spherical, monodisperse, pure-component aerosols. Such aerosols can be routinely generated in the laboratory using common aerosol generation techniques (e.g. nebulization of aqueous solutions of known composition) combined with size classification (e.g. by particle electrical mobility or by particle aerodynamic diameter).
\item Simulation of aerosol measurements in the field. This represents the situation of taking the instrument into the field to measure multi-component, ambient aerosols. In this case bi-lognormal modes are chosen to represent atmospheric aerosol size distributions over the diameter range from $\sim$ 50 nm up to $\sim$ 10 µm, with different refractive indices in each mode and allowance for non-spherical particles in the upper-most mode (defined as the coarse mode, see further discussion below in \ref{space_variable_x_field}).
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Measurement space variables $y$: virtual polar nephelometer instrument configurations} \label{space_variable_y}
The simulated measurements are chosen such that they match the measurement output of the PSI polar nephelometer. The instrument is designed to measure both scattering phase functions, $P_{11}$ and polarized phase functions, $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at three different wavelengths $\lambda$ (450, 532, and 630 nm), over the polar scattering angle range from 0° to 179°. Both, $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, will be measured at an angular resolution of approximately 1°.
There are numerous technical challenges associated with polar nephelometry that can result in the loss of measurement information in real experimental setups relative to the ideal measurement configuration. We consider the following real-world artefacts in our simulations:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Scattered light truncation. Due to physical design limitations, nephelometers can not perform scattered light measurements at extreme forward and backward angles, beyond the so-called truncation angles (e.g. \cite{Moosmuller_2003}). We consider forward and backward truncation angles of 0°-5° and 175°-179°. In addition, we also consider the situation where measurements can not be performed over the range from 85° to 95°, since these angles are associated with higher measurement uncertainties in the PSI polar nephelometer.
\item Loss of information on polarization dependence (i.e., only $P_{11}$ is measured)
\item Loss of spectral information (i.e., measurements only performed at 1 or 2 wavelengths).
\end{enumerate}
To investigate the impact of these practical artefacts on INN model performance we study 22 different cases as outlined in Table \ref{tab:case_study}. First, we simulate the ideal case of having available $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at all angles from 0° to 179° and with three wavelengths. (Note that since $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ is always zero at the angle 0°, this point is ignored for training, validation and testing even in this ideal case). Then, 21 additional cases are examined that only take into account angles from 5° to 85° and 95° to 175° to better represent actual measurements. These 21 cases correspond to different polarization and spectral combinations: i.e., the different combinations of either $P_{11}$ and/or $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, measured with one, two or three wavelengths.
To have a baseline for the quality of the models, results are compared to the measurement device errors. These errors are not yet fully characterized for the PSI polar nephelometer. Therefore we choose values that slightly overestimate the errors reported for the instruments similiar to the PSI polar nephelometer \cite{Dolgos_2014}. Specifically, we consider the relative error in $P_{11}$ to be $5\%$ and the absolute error in $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ to be $0.1$.
\subsection{State space variables $x$: describing spherical, monodisperse aerosols measured in the laboratory}
In the first data set we assume the aerosol particles are homogeneous spheres for three reasons: i) Mie theory is applicable, ii) spherical particles can be generated easily in the laboratory (e.g. polystyrene latex spheres, organic aerosols) and iii) it is a common assumption for retrieving fine mode properties from polarimetric data.
As described in Section \ref{sec:problem_description}, phase and polarized phase function depend on the aerosol size and shape distributions and the complex refractive index.
The volume size distributions of monomodal aerosols $V(r)$ (where $r$ represents aerosol particle radius) can be represented by lognormal functions, which can be described by three parameters: the total volume concentration, $V_{tot}$, the mean radius $R_{mean}$ and the geometric standard deviation $\sigma_g$:
\begin{equation}\label{size_distribution}
V(r) = \sum^{N}_{i=1}{\frac{V_{tot}}{\sqrt{2 \pi}\ln(\sigma_{g,i})}}\exp{\left(\frac{-(\ln(r)-\ln(R_{mean,i}))^2))}{2(\ln(\sigma_{g,i}))^2}\right)},
\end{equation}
where $N=1$ for the monomodal case and $N=2$ for the bimodal case (described in Section \ref{space_variable_x_field}).
The complex refractive index is wavelength-dependent and contains two parts: real and imaginary, i.e., $m_{\lambda}=n_{\lambda}+ik_{\lambda}$.
Typically for atmospheric aerosols, variations in refractive index values are minor, or at least smooth, over the range of visible wavelengths that we consider here. To incorporate this knowledge into our simulated data we use the following relationships, which can be considered as approximately valid for aerosols over the $\lambda$ range from 450 to 630 nm. For the real part of the refractive index we assume $n_{\lambda_2}= n_{\lambda_1}$, for two different wavelengths $\lambda_1$, $\lambda_2$. For the complex part of the refractive index we assume
$k_{\lambda_2} \approx k_{\lambda_1}(\lambda_2/\lambda_1)^{1-AAE}$. Here $AAE$ is an often reported parameter known as the absorption Angstrom exponent, which is defined through the empirical relationship $b_{abs, \lambda_1}/b_{abs, \lambda_2} \approx (\lambda_2/\lambda_1)^{-AAE}$ (with the relationship to $k$ then given by $b_{abs, \lambda} \propto C_N k/ \lambda$, which is valid for fixed particle size and $n$, and where $C_N$ represents the particle number density \cite{Moosmuller_2009, Laskin_2015}). The parameter $b_{abs, \lambda}$ is known as the aerosol light absorption coefficient, and it is easily measurable. Therefore, $AAE$ values are reported widely in the aerosol literature. For black carbon aerosols (i.e., highly absorbing carbonaceous aerosols) with small particle size, $AAE \approx 1$ over the visible range, which is a consequence of $k$ being approximately wavelength-independent across visible wavelengths for such aerosols. For brown carbon (i.e. moderately absorbing carbonaceous aerosols) $AAE>1$, which is a consequence of $k$ decreasing with increasing $\lambda$ across visible wavelengths.
Given these relationships, simulating measurements for the 3-$\lambda$ version of the instrument only requires one extra state space variable – $AAE$ – than is required for the 1-$\lambda$ simulations.
Summarized, the state space consists of at most $4+l$ variables, where $l$ is the number of wavelengths. The variables, together with their lower and upper bounds are listed in Table \ref{tab:monomodal_variables}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrr}
\textbf{Variables }& \textbf{Lower bound} & \textbf{Upper bound} \\
$V_{tot}$ [µm$^3$ cm$^{-3}$] & 1 & 5000 \\
$R_{mean}$ [nm] & 150 & 2500 \\
$\sigma_g$ [ ] & 1.4 & 1.45 \\
$n$ [ ] & 1.33 & 1.6 \\
$k_{450}, k_{532}, k_{630}$ [ ]\footnotemark[1] & 1e-4 & 0.2 \\
$AAE$ [ ]\footnotemark[1] & 1 & 7
\end{tabular}
\caption{Parameter space covered by the simulations of monomodal, spherical, laboratory-generated aerosols, as defined by the maximum and minimum values for each of the included state space variables.
\newline \tiny{1: As stated in the description $k_{450}, k_{532}, k_{630}$ and $AAE$ are dependent of each other.}}
\label{tab:monomodal_variables}
\end{table}
\subsection{State space variables $x$ describing atmospheric aerosols measured in the field}
\label{space_variable_x_field}
The second data set represents the application of a polar nephelometer to measure ambient atmospheric aerosols in a field setting. This is generally a more complicated and less-controlled use case for the instrument than laboratory use. Atmospheric aerosols are typically complex mixtures of particles of different sizes (covering the diameter range from a few nm's to 10s of µm), chemical components (i.e., with different complex RIs), and shapes.
Typical simplifications used to represent this complexity:
\begin{itemize}
\item Bi-lognormal distributions are used to represent volume size distributions over a broad range, diameters from 50 nm to 10 µm. The smaller size mode peaks at diameters less than 1 µm and is commonly called the 'fine' aerosol mode. The larger size mode peaks at diameters greater than 1 µm and is commonly called the 'coarse' aerosol mode. In this case, the full size distribution is represented by 6 parameters (3 lognormal parameters for the fine mode, 3 for the coarse mode): Total volume concentration, $V_{tot}$, fine mode fraction, $\chi$, coarse and fine radii, $R_{mean_{fine}}$, $R_{mean_{coarse}}$ and geometric standard deviations, $\sigma_{g_{fine}}$, $\sigma_{g_{coarse}}$. In the present work it is assumed, that the coarse and fine mode mean radii do not overlap. The fine and coarse mode volume concentrations, $V_{fine}$ and $V_{coarse}$ are defined with respect to the total volume concentration $V_{tot}$ and the fine mode fraction, $\chi$: $V_{fine}=\chi V_{tot}$ and $V_{coarse}=(1-\chi) V_{tot}$. This is, what we use in our case, see equation \ref{size_distribution} with $N=2$ and $i=1$ denotes the coarse and $i=2$ the fine mode.
It should be stressed out that the bi-lognormal representation is still a simplified representation of true atmospheric aerosol size distributions. Greater complexity can be considered by representing size distributions with concentration values in discrete size bins (i.e., a sectional representation). Typically, 10 - 22 size bins may be considered. Therefore, sectional representations involve a greater number of aerosol state parameters than modal representations, although smoothness constraints can be applied to limit this number.
\item In some studies, like Espinosa et al. \cite{Espinosa_2019}, a single, effective complex refractive index (still $\lambda$ dependent) is used to describe the optical properties of the complex atmospheric aerosol as a whole. However, GRASP-OPEN has the ability to simulate the more realistic but still simplified situation where two effective refractive indices are used to describe the aerosol: one for fine mode particles and one for coarse mode particles. We apply this approach here. Also in this bi-modal case, the refractive index values at different wavelengths are strongly related and should not vary independently from each other. Thus, we will again consider the following relationships: $n(\lambda_2)= n(\lambda_1)$ and $k(\lambda_2)= k(\lambda_1)(\lambda_2/\lambda_1)^{1-AAE}$.
\item Particle non-sphericity is either accounted for with a single parameter (e.g. the fraction of spherical particles in the ensemble, which we denote with the symbol $\phi$), or size-resolved spherical particle fractions (e.g. in up to 22 discrete size bins), \cite{Dubovik_2006,Dubovik_2011}). We will use a single parameter $\phi$ for our data set. Notice that non-spherical particle fraction is only considered in the coarse mode. All particles in fine mode are assumed to be spherical.
\end{itemize}
To obtain parameter ranges for simplified bi-modal atmospheric aerosol models we use the comprehensive, airborne polar-nephelometer measurements of Espinosa et al. \cite{Espinosa_2019} performed over the USA. The combined data set can be considered as reasonably representative of the different types of aerosols encountered over continents. They used GRASP-OPEN to retrieve the aerosol parameters (bi-modal size distribution, spherical fraction, complex refractive index) corresponding to the measurements. The results were categorized according to aerosol types (e.g. urban, biogenic, biomass burning, dust-containing aerosols) \footnote{the dust-containing category is termed 'CO Storms' in the original paper}. We use the minimum and maximum values obtained across the different aerosol types for the bi-modal size distribution and spherical fraction parameters. However, we use broader ranges for the complex refractive index parameters since only a single effective refractive index was retrieved by these authors, whereas we choose to simulate the more atmospherically relevant case where the fine and coarse mode aerosols each have their own effective refractive index.
Considering the above, the state space for this type of modal data set will consist of a maximum of $11+2j$, where $j$
is 0, if only one wavelength is used, otherwise it is 1. A list of all variables with their lower and upper bounds is given in Table \ref{tab:bimodal_variables}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrr}
\textbf{Variable (units)} & \textbf{Lower bound} & \textbf{Upper bound} \\
$V_{tot}$ $[\mu m^3 cm^{-3}]$ & 9.3 & 24 \\
$\chi$ & 0.53 & 0.93 \\
$R_{mean_{fine}}$ $[\mathrm{\mu m}]$ & 0.126 & 0.163 \\
$R_{mean_{coarse}}$ $[\mathrm{\mu m}]$ & 0.87 & 1.3 \\
$\sigma_{g_{fine}}$ [ ] & 1.38 & 1.57 \\
$\sigma_{g_{coarse}}$ [ ] & 1.4 & 1.49 \\
$n_{fine}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 1.33 & 1.6 \\
$k_{fine}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 1e-5 & 0.2 \\
$AAE_{fine}$ [ ] & 1 & 7 \\
$n_{coarse}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 1.45 & 1.6 \\
$k_{coarse}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 0.0001 & 0.02 \\
$AAE_{coarse}$ [ ] & 1.5 & 2.4 \\
$\phi$ [\%] & 17 & 85
\end{tabular}
\caption{Parameter space covered by the simulations of atmospheric aerosols in a bimodal representation, as defined by the maximum and minimum values for each of the included state space variables}
\label{tab:bimodal_variables}
\end{table}
\subsection{Summary of simulated data sets}
The data sets were created with GRASP-OPEN using the Latin hypercube sampling method based on the parameter spaces stated in Tables \ref{tab:monomodal_variables} and \ref{tab:bimodal_variables}. Both data sets included 100 000 samples. The numbers of measurement and state space variables are summarized in Table \ref{tab:datasets_nr}
.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrrr}
\textbf{Data set ID} & \textbf{\begin{tabular}[x]{@{}r@{}} Number of measurement \\ space variables\end{tabular}} & \textbf{\begin{tabular}[x]{@{}r@{}} Number of state \\ space variables\end{tabular}} \\
Lab 1 & 1077 & 5 or 6 \\
Lab 2 & $162 \cdot i \cdot j$ & 5 or 6 \\
Atmos-bimodal 1 & 1077 & 11 or 13 \\
Atmos-bimodal 2 & $162 \cdot i \cdot j$ & 11 or 13 \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Summary and description of simulated data sets used in this study. "Lab" stands for the case of monomodal, spherical, laboratory-generated aerosols, and "Atmos-bimodal" for the simulations with aerosols in a bimodal representation. The numbers in the Data set ID denote, whether all data are at hand (1), or some data are missing (2). The numbers of measurement space variables include $i = {1,2}$, for either $P_{11}$ or $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ or both and $j= 1$ for one and $j=2$ for two or three wavelengths. The numbers for the state space variables depend on the number of wavelengths.}
\label{tab:datasets_nr}
\end{table}
\section{Implementation and Data Preprocessing}
The models are implemented in Python using the TensorFlow framework and Keras together with the Ray Tune library for the hyperparameter scan. According to the INN architecture, the following hyperparameters need to be chosen: number, depth and width of affine coupling blocks, batch size, learning rate, type of activation function, number of epochs and weights and noise in the loss function. The details are described in section \ref{sec:hyperparameters}.
All computations were done at the Merlin 6 Cluster at Paul Scherrer Institut using one core. Each cluster node provides \SI{384}{GB} of memory and contains two Intel$^\circledR$ Xeon$^\circledR$ Gold 6152 Processors, with 22 cores and 2 threads per physical core. For the implementations in this work only one core was used.
\subsection{Preprocessing the data}
Some examples of simulated $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ functions are shown in Fig. \ref{fig:P11_pre}. Each data set consisting of $100\ 000$ of these functions is divided into a training data set and a test data set with a ratio of $80:20$. The training data set in turn is split up into a sub-training data set and a validation data set at each epoch. The validation data set is used to pick the best hyperparameters as discussed in Section \ref{sec:hyperparameters}. Preprocessing is applied to the state space variables $x$ and the measurement space variables $y$ with the goal of achieving a broad spread of the simulated data across all angles. The scikit-learn (\cite{scikit-learn}) {\tt MinMaxScaler} preprocessing function turned out to give good results for the state space variables $x$. The measurement space is divided into the two parts $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, where for $P_{11}$ first the logarithm is applied and then on both parts the scikit-learn {\tt StandardScaler} preprocessing function. As can be seen in Figure~\ref{fig:P11_pre} this preprocessing (second row, second and third column) spreads the data per angle.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/preprocessing/preprocessing_unimodal.pdf}
\caption{The effects of preprocessing on $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ for a series of randomly chosen spherical, monodisperse aerosols probed with an incident light beam of wavelength \SI{532}{nm}. The left column contains $P_{11}$, the second column $\log(P_{11})$ and the third column $P_{\operatorname{ppf}}$. The first row shows the unscaled versions and the second row the application of the StandardScaler.}
\label{fig:P11_pre}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Hyperparameters} \label{sec:hyperparameters}
An initial random hyperparameter scan was performed for the first model being trained on simulated data: i.e., the model corresponding to the ideal measurement configuration with three wavelengths and all angles. By taking the hyperparameter values from the best model, all but 3 hyperparameters were fixed and used for all the further trained models, also to make the models more comparable amongst each other. For all models, 3 affine coupling blocks with a depth of 2 and a width of 92 together with a batch size of 8 and a learning rate of $9\times10^{-5}$ were used. The activation functions were chosen to be rectified linear units for the hidden layers and linear for the last layer. The number of epochs was kept at $50$. For the loss function, the artificial weight was kept small, $w_p=0.0005$ and the weight $w_y$ was set to $350$. The noise $\epsilon$ used in the loss $L_r$ was set to $0.1$.
It turned out, that the remaining weights have a non-negligible influence on the performance of the models, hence a further hyperparameter scan based on grid search was performed for all models. For each weight three values, actually the values of the three best previous hyperparameter scans, where chosen: $w_x \in \{138,142,146\}$, $w_z \in \{291,330,339\}$ and $w_r \in \{258,308,323\}$. Summarized, for the 22 models of the case study, 27 different sets of hyperparameters were chosen to train the corresponding models. Among those models, the best one according to the $R^2$ value of the inverse direction evaluated with the validation data set was selected to be the final model for each case.
\section{Results}
In the following, the results for different cases are presented. Within all models in the hyperparameter scans the best model was chosen according to the highest coefficient of determination $R^2$, scored on the validation data set for the inverse process at the last epoch of training. Notice that this model must not necessarily have the highest coefficient of determination for the forward pass, but the main target of the research is on the inverse model, namely to retrieve aerosol properties.
To get an idea of the quality of the trained models, the models are further used to make predictions about the previously unseen test data set. Therefore, the relative, absolute and weighted mean absolute percentage errors ($\operatorname{wMAPE}$) are valuable error metrics. Since the absolute error is not suited for comparing results across the parameters, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ is used for that. The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ has the additional advantage over the relative error, that it does not explode when the actual value is zero or very close to zero. The formulae for computing these error metrics are given in the \ref{App:Metrics}.
\subsection{Monomodal case with ideal measurement configuration: $P_{11}$, $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at all three wavelengths and all angles}
\label{sec:results-monomodal-ideal}
The first case, that is considered, is the monomodal case with all available training and validation data used, i.e. three wavelengths, $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ and all angles. The $R^2$ value for the validation data set for the inverse process at the last epoch of training is $R^2= 0.993$. The $R^2$ value for the forward pass scored on the validation data set is $R^2 = 0.9978$. So, for both directions, the values are very close to the optimal and theoretical maximum value of $1$. In Figure \ref{fig:history_uni} the history of the mean absolute error (MAE) for the forward (left) and inverse (right) model over all epochs is depicted. The tendency of the curves is clearly decreasing, this means, that the models in forward and inverse direction are getting better the more epochs are used. In addition, the blue (training data) and red (validation) curves overlap until 50 epochs, so there is no sign of overfitting visible in this plot.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/history_MAE_fw_inv_uni_lo.jpg}
\caption{Performance of the best model in forward and inverse direction in terms of mean absolute error (MAE) over the number of epochs. The blue dots denote the MAE for the training data and the red crosses for the validation data.}
\label{fig:history_uni}
\end{figure}
This best model is then used for testing with the so far unseen data (i.e., with the test data set consisting of 20 000 data points). For the forward model this results in a maximum relative error for $\log(P_{11})$ of $1.5\%$ and a maximum absolute error of $0.06$ for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ both at confidence interval of $95\%$. The mean $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s are given by $\operatorname{wMAPE}(P_{11})= 4.29\%$ and $\operatorname{wMAPE}(-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}) = 4.20\%$. These results compare very favourably with respect to possible real measurement device errors, which we take as $5\%$ relative error for $P_{11}$ and $0.1$ absolute error for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ as explained in Section \ref{space_variable_y}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrrrrrrr}
Aerosol Properties& $V_{tot}$ & $R_{mean}$& $\sigma_g$ & n & $k_{450}$ &$k_{532}$& $k_{630}$ \\
Mean Abs. Error & 22.04 & 0.0067 & 0.0015 & 0.0013 & 0.0013 & 0.00078 & 0.00060 \\
Abs. Error 95\% max. & 58.55 & 0.02 & 0.005 & 0.003 & 0.004 & 0.002 & 0.002\\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$[\%] & 0.88 & 0.50 & 0.11 & 0.09 & 1.34 & 1.23 & 1.40 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$[\%] noise & 1.58 & 1.01 & 0.34 & 1.93 & 2.15 & 1.93 & 2.17
\end{tabular}
\caption{Aerosol property retrieval error results in terms of the Mean Absolute Error, the maximal Absolute Error at a confidence level of 95\%, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ and the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for the case of noisy test data (assuming 5\% Gaussian noise), for the monomodal data set with ideal measurement configuration ($P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at three wavelengths and all angles).}
\label{tab:inv_pass}
\end{table}
For the inverse model, the results of the aerosol property retrieval are summarized in Table \ref{tab:inv_pass}. There the mean absolute error and the maximal absolute error at a confidence level of 95\% as well as the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ are stated. The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for all aerosol properties stays below 1.5\%. The aerosol properties that are predicted best, according to the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s, are the real part of the refractive indices and the geometric standard deviation, whereas the parameters that are predicted worst, are the complex parts of the refractive indices. Also in the case of noisy test data, here we assumed 5\% Gaussian noise added to the test data, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ is stated in Table \ref{tab:inv_pass}. It stays below 2.2\% for all aerosol properties, which clearly shows that the proposed method for aerosol property retrieval is robust against possible random measurement noise.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/Test_Pred_V.jpg}
\caption{Comparison of the predicted and simulated test data. First and third column show correlation plots of the predicted versus the test data values of the (polarized) phase functions for all three wavelengths. Second and fourth column depict the simulated (black line) versus predicted (polarized) phase functions (colored dots) in a qualitative representation. Six different data samples were chosen. In the last line, the qualitative representation of the simulated versus the predicted total volume concentration over the particle radii for the according six samples is shown. The table in the lower right corner states the simulated aerosol property values of these six samples. }
\label{fig:test_pred_uni}
\end{figure}
The qualitative comparison of the forward prediction for different wavelengths and the inverse prediction of the particle size distribution and the according test data for six randomly chosen data samples each are depicted in Figure \ref{fig:test_pred_uni}. Although the forward prediction follows the path of the test data quite good, they look a bit noisy, as can be seen in the figure (colored curves), nevertheless, this is due to the nature of the used prediction method, i.e. each data point of the simulated data set is seen as a single point and not part of a mathematical function, which would make the curve looking smoother. The colors across all images in this figure belong together and refer to the aerosol property values stated in the table in the lower right edge of the figure. In addition, the correlation plots for the whole test data set are shown for the predicted versus the test data for the (polarized) phase function at different wavelengths. In general, a good fit for all the data can be seen here, since all the grey dots are located close to the black line, which marks a perfect fit between test data and prediction.
Concerning the computation time, one forward prediction with the INN model takes approximately 0.46 ms, compared to GRASP-OPEN which took around 4 s for these simulations. For one inverse prediction, the INN model needs around 2.64 ms, compared to approximately 6 s for the GRASP-OPEN inversion.
So for the monomodal case with all possible measurement data available, the proposed invertible neural network turns out to be fast and accurate.
\subsection{Monomodal case with imperfect measurement configurations: results with missing angles, wavelengths and polarimetric information}
In this section, the results from the case studies inspired by real measurements are presented for the monomodal aerosol data set. As stated in section \ref{space_variable_y} the polar nephelometer usually can not measure all angles, hence in these case studies, all neural networks are trained assuming that the angles 0°-5°, 85°-95°, 175°-179° are missing in the data set.
Furthermore, it can happen that not both the phase functions and polarized phase functions can be measured at all 3 wavelengths. Hence, we compare networks trained with either $P_{11}$ or $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, at either 1, 2 or 3 wavelengths to see the performance of the neural network under different measurement data conditions (see Table \ref{tab:case_study}).
In forward direction the performance of all models is similar, the $R^2$ values for the test data are at least $0.997$ as can be seen in Figure \ref{fig:r2_test_qoi} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}. This is also visible in the box plots of the errors of the forward models shown in Figure \ref{fig:qoi_abs_err_uni}. On the x-axis the different wavelength combinations are depicted and on the y-axis the relative errors for $P_{11}$ and the absolute errors for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$. The colors denote whether the INN was trained to predict only truncated $P_{11}$ (blue), only truncated $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ (red), both truncated phase functions (green) or both phase functions without angle truncation (brown). The errors are lower, when only single type functions (red and blue) are used, compared to the models that use all the available functions. This is most likely because, for the case with two functions available, the amount of data points is doubled. Hence, not only more failures can happen, but probably also more training data or an adaption of the INN layers would be necessary to get the same performance for all cases.
The solid brown lines indicate the median errors of the full data case and one sees that all the models behave similarly. To place the retrieval errors in context the figure also displays target error limits (solid black lines), which are defined as the corresponding measurement errors expected in $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ (i.e., 5\% and 0.1, respectively). It is clear that for all wavelength combinations the INN forward model retrieval errors are within the measurement error limits, which indicates that the error associated with the INN models are minor.
In Figure \ref{fig:abs_uni} the boxplots of the mean absolute errors for the aerosol properties, so the inverse prediction are depicted for comparison among the different cases. Each subplot displays the mean absolute errors for another aerosol quantity. It can be seen that the volume concentration can't be predicted at all if only the normalized polarized phase functions (red) are available. This is expected since absolute light intensity information (which is strongly proportional to the aerosol volume concentration) is lost in the ratio of $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$. Also the retrieval of the radius $R_{mean}$, the real part of the refractive index $n$ and the geometric standard deviation $\sigma_g$ is worse, if only $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ is at hand. Whereas for the complex part of the refractive index it seems, that both functions are equally suited for prediction. In general, for all aerosol properties the best results are gained if both functions are accessible. Concerning the wavelengths, the absolute error is the biggest, if only one wavelength is used. Whereas the retrieval works best if all three wavelengths can be utilized. For the three wavelengths case with $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, the network performs just slightly better if all angles can be measured. In general, one sees that increasing the measurement space is an advantage in the inverse model, but not in the forward model. Summarized, it can be emphasized, that except the case with only $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, all other cases give similar results as the full data case and can hence be used also in practice for the retrieval of aerosol properties for the application involving a monomodal homogeneous aerosol.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\textwidth]{figures/results_new/comparison_abs_error_uni_AAE_fw.jpg}
\caption{Forward model performance: Box plots of the relative error for the phase function and the absolute errors for the polarized phase functions for all 22 models for the monomodal case. Each model is depicted by a box extending from the first quartile to the third quartile and a horizontal line running through the box at the median. The whiskers show the range of the absolute errors over the 20 000 data points in the test set. The brown solid lines indicate the median errors of the full data case, whereas the solid black lines show the assumed measurement device errors.}
\label{fig:qoi_abs_err_uni}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/comparison_abs_error_uni_AAE_iv.jpg}
\caption{Inverse model performance: Boxplots of the absolute errors of each aerosol property. Each box describes the lower and upper quartile values and the median(line). The range of the absolute errors over all data points in the test set is shown with the whiskers.}
\label{fig:abs_uni}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Bimodal case with ideal measurement configuration: $P_{11}$, $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at all 3 wavelengths and all angles}
In this section, the results for the more complex bimodal aerosol test case, see Table \ref{tab:bimodal_variables}, with all available data are presented (i.e., assuming an ideal measurement configuration). The results are similar to the more simple monomodal case (see Section \ref{sec:results-monomodal-ideal}).
The coefficient of determination of the validation data set in forward direction is $R^2 = 0.9975$ and for the inverse pass $R^2= 0.985$.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/history_MAE_bim.jpg}
\caption{Performance of the best model in forward and inverse direction in terms of mean absolute error (MAE) over the number of epochs for the bimodal case. The blue dots denote the MAE for the training data and the red crosses for the validation data.}
\label{fig:history_bim}
\end{figure}
Figure \ref{fig:history_bim} shows the mean absolute error for the best inverse and forward model for training and validation data evolving along the epochs, which is in both cases clearly decreasing, meaning that the model improves over the number of epochs. This best trained model is validated with the so far unseen test data set. The maximum relative error for $log(P_{11})$ is $0.33\%$ and the maximum absolute error for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ is $0.03$ at a confidence level of 95\%. The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s are as following: $\operatorname{wMAPE}(P_{11})=1.34\%$ and $\operatorname{wMAPE}(-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}})=1.89\%$. Also in the bimodal case, the prediction errors are lower than the assumed device measurement errors and are even better than for the monomodal case. The mean absolute errors and the maximal absolute errors at a 95\% confidence level and the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s for all aerosol properties are stated in Table \ref{tab:inv_pass_bim}. The properties that are retrieved best according to the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ are the real parts of the refractive indices followed by the geometric standard deviations and the radii for both, the coarse and fine mode. Again the complex parts of the refractive indices for all wavelengths and all modes are predicted worst. But in general, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ stays below 3.4\% for all quantities. This shows that, first, the spectral polarized light scattering phase functions also contain ample information on aerosol absorptive properties and, second, that the INN is capable of retrieving these. However, in practical applications the retrieval of aerosol absorptive properties from phase function measurements will often be hampered by the fact that a simplified representation of the state space is typically inappropriate in the presence of light absorbing black carbon particles, see e.g. \cite{Schuster_2019}.
For completeness, the correlation plots of test and predicted test data for the forward model and the qualitative comparison between test and predicted test data for the forward model and the bimodal particle size distribution for six randomly chosen test data is depicted in Figure \ref{fig:test_pred_bim} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}. The according values of the particle properties are given in Table \ref{fig:pred_plot_values_bim} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrrrrrr}
Aerosol Properties& $V_{tot}$ & $R_{mean_{fine}}$ & $R_{mean_{coarse}}$ & $\sigma_{g_{fine}}$ & $\sigma_{g_{coarse}}$ \\
Mean Abs. Err. & 0.12 & 0.00018 & 0.0031 & 0.0018 & 0.0021 \\
Abs. Err. 95\% max. & 0.305 & 0.0005 & 0.0084 & 0.0046 &0.0056 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] & 0.694 & 0.127 & 0.283 & 0.124 & 0.147 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy & 2.24 & 0.62 & 0.98 & 0.46 & 0.72 \\
\hline\hline
Aerosol Properties &$k_{450_{fine}}$ &$k_{450_{coarse}}$ &$k_{532_{fine}}$&$k_{532_{coarse}}$ & $k_{630_{fine}}$ \\
Mean Abs. Err. & 0.0020 & 0.0003 & 0.0013 & 0.00026 & 0.0012 \\
Abs. Err. 95\% max. & 0.0053 & 0.0009 & 0.0037 & 0.0007 & 0.0037 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] & 1.988 & 3.003 & 2.118 & 3.087 & 2.745 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy & 6.47 & 8.67 & 7.21 & 8.56 & 8.87 \\
\hline\hline
Aerosol Properties &$k_{630_{coarse}}$& $n_{fine}$ & $n_{coarse}$ & $\phi$ & $\chi$ \\
Mean Abs. Err.& 0.00024 & 0.0018 & 0.0012 & 0.0057 & 0.0023 \\
Abs. Err. 95\% max. & 0.0007& 0.0044 & 0.0035 & 0.0151 & 0.006 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] & 3.336& 0.124 & 0.08 & 1.109 & 0.319 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy & 8.77 & 0.41 & 0.28 & 3.58 & 1.34
\end{tabular}
\caption{Results in terms of the Mean Absolute Error, the maximal Absolute Error at a confidence level of 95\%, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ and the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for the case of noisy test data, assuming 5\% Gaussian noise, for the aerosol property retrieval for the bimodal data set with three wavelengths, all angles and $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$.}
\label{tab:inv_pass_bim}
\end{table}
Table \ref{tab:inv_pass_bim} also shows the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$, when 5\% Gaussian noise is added to the test data, which is closer to real measurements, than noise-free test data ($\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy). The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for all aerosol properties stays below 9\% and still the best predicted properties are the radii, the geometric standard deviations and the real parts of the refractive indices for both modes, with $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ below 1\%. This shows that the architecture of the invertible neural network is robust against random measurement errors.
The computation times for one forward and inverse pass are similar to the monomodal case, 0.46 ms and 2.66 ms, respectively.
Hence, as in the monomodal case, also in the bimodal case, the invertible neural network method proofs to be an accurate, robust and fast retrieval method for aerosols from measurement data.
\subsection{Bimodal case with imperfect measurement configurations: results with missing angles, wavelengths and polarimetric information}
For the bimodal case, again the same case study is performed as in the monomodal case, meaning that networks were trained, with different numbers and values of wavelengths, different presence of the (polarized) phase functions and missing angles (0°-5°, 85°-95°, 175°-179°). For the forward pass the comparison of the $R^2$ values shows as expected, that the prediction is similarly good for all models, see Figure \ref{fig:r2_test_qoi_bim} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}. The boxplots of the relative and mean absolute errors for the forward model are depicted in Figure \ref{fig:abs_err_qoi_bim} as well in the Appendix. The errors show a similar behaviour over the different cases as for the monomodal data set. Again the results for all models are much better compared to the assumed measurement device errors (solid black lines).
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/comparison_abs_error_bim_AAE_iv.jpg}
\caption{Boxplots of the absolute errors of each aerosol property for the bimodal case. Each box describes the lower and upper quartile values and the median(line). The range of the absolute errors over all data points in the test set is shown with the whiskers.}
\label{fig:abs_bim}
\end{figure}
For the inverse pass, as before, it can be clearly seen at the boxplots in Figure \ref{fig:abs_bim} of the absolute errors, that solely the polarized phase function is not suited for the prediction of the volume concentration, independently of the wavelength, for the reason already explained for the monomodal examples. In general the absolute error is smallest for all aerosol properties, if all 3 wavelengths, $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ are available. The missing angles hardly influence the retrieval.
Even if not all the wavelengths can be measured, it is important to have the polarized phase functions and the phase functions available, because the mixture of these two decreases the retrieval uncertainty for all aerosol properties. For the prediction of the radius, $R_{mean_{fine}}$, and the real part of the refractive index, $n_{fine}$, $P_{11}$ seems to be better suited, whereas $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ solely, gives better results for the spherical fraction and all the complex parts of the refractive indices. No significant statement can be drawn, whether one or the other wavelength, or a combination of two wavelengths is better for the aerosol retrieval.
Also in this bimodal case study it turned out that except solely $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ all other combinations of possible data are suited for the retrieval of aerosol properties from measurement data.
\section{Conclusion, Discussion and Outlook}
In summary, we introduced a novel method for aerosol property retrieval from in situ measurement data using invertible neural networks. The special structure of the neural networks allows to not only retrieve the aerosol properties, so solve the inverse problem, but also to simulate the forward model, which is to calculate measurement data from aerosol properties. By simulating laboratory and field in situ measurements with GRASP-OPEN and by using them for training and testing, we have shown the practical applicability of the proposed method. The quality achievable with the forward model is sufficient, since the current measurement device errors exceed the errors introduced by the model. This demonstrates that when it comes to application to atmospheric aerosols with complex size distribution and mixing state, the major errors will arise from the need to choose a simplified state space to represent the aerosol (i.e., from the ill-posedness of the inverse problem) rather than from limitations of INN capability. In addition, one forward simulation of the INN lasts not only a millisecond, which is much faster compared to physics based simulations that typically require seconds for one simulation. Also the performance of the inverse model, so the retrieval of the aerosol properties turned out to be satisfying, with a weighted mean absolute percentage error for all aerosol properties except the complex part of the refractive index from monomodal and bimodal case staying below 1.2\% (and for the complex part of the refractive index below 3.4\%), and a simulation time for one retrieval 1000 times faster than e.g. with GRASP-OPEN. This enables the near-real-time usage of the aerosol property retrieval from measurements and hence, could be a step further for processing of data from new sensors in real-time.
To reproduce real measurement conditions, we tested the method with data including 5\% Gaussian measurement noise. The results showed that the method is robust against measurement errors, meaning that the errors for the retrieval in terms of the weighted mean absolute percentage error still stay below 3.6\% for all aerosol properties except the complex part of the refractive index, for which it is less than 9\%.
In addition, a case study was performed to see how the models deal with missing data. Therefore, neural networks were trained and tested for 22 different cases of missing angles, wavelengths and/or (polarized) phase functions. Although the results for the retrieval are best if all data are available, nearly all the models with missing data achieved comparably good results, such that they are useful in practice. Additional noteworthy results include the fact that the addition of polarized phase function information offers a distinct performance benefit for retrieval of particle morphology information (i.e., the fraction of non-spherical particles in the coarse mode).
This proves, that invertible neural networks are a fast, accurate and robust method to retrieve aerosol properties from in situ, multi-angle light scattering measurements. Hence, invertible neural networks seem to be a promising alternative to commonly used pre-computed look-up tables and iterative, physics-based inversion methods.
After all, we see some options to improve the methods and datasets for future work:
If a need for higher accuracy arose, the model architecture itself could be improved, by allowing different neural networks in the affine coupling blocks or by performing a more sophisticated hyperparameter scan.
If physical knowledge is at hand, it is advisable to incorporate this, e.g. adding barrier functions to the loss to guarantee that physical quantities are within reasonable physical ranges or adding loss terms including Mie scattering theory, so using physics informed neural networks, \cite{RAISSI2019686}.
Additionally, in further studies we aim to relax some of the simplifying assumptions concerning the data set that we have used here. Like for example allowing multiple state parameters describing $n(\lambda)$ in order to capture any spectral dependence, even if such dependence is only minor. Given the good results presented here and the fact that iterative models such as GRASP-OPEN are capable of capturing such spectral dependence, we expect that INN models will also be capable of capturing this.
As discussed above, we considered here a relatively simplified bimodal representation of atmospheric aerosol size distributions where the fine and coarse aerosol modes are well-separated, which is consistent with ambient measurements processed with a state-of-the-art in classical retrieval scheme (GRASP-OPEN) \cite{Espinosa_2019}. In future work, we intend to explore inversion performance also for the cases of overlapping size distribution modes, as well as for the case when the size distribution is represented in a sectional manner with a greater number of state parameters.
\section{Funding source}
Romana Boiger was funded by the PSI Career Return Program. Financial support was also received from MeteoSwiss through a science project in the framework of the Swiss contribution to the global atmosphere watch programme (GAW-CH).
\section{Acknowledgement}
We acknowledge
Oleg Dubovik, Tatsiana Lapionak, Anton Lopatin and David Fuertes (GRASP-SAS, Remote sensing developments, Université de Lille, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France) for their support with GRASP-OPEN.
\section{Introduction/Motivation}
Atmospheric aerosols are small particles suspended ubiquitously throughout the Earth's atmosphere. These particles have important impacts on the Earth's climate \cite{Myhre_2013} and public health \cite{Burnett_2018}, which are governed by aerosol properties such as concentration, size, and composition. These properties can change drastically in time and space. A conceptually simple but powerful method for characterizing the variable properties of an aerosol sample is to measure the angular distribution of light that is scattered from it. Such multi-angle light scattering measurements can be performed both in situ (aerosol sample drawn from the atmosphere into an instrument known as a polar nephelometer; e.g. \cite{Barkey_2012}) and remotely (using satellite, aircraft-borne, or ground-based sensors, e.g. \cite{Dubovik2019}). The resulting measurements contain substantial information about the concentration, size, shape, and complex refractive index of the aerosol being probed. Inversion methods are then required to retrieve this information.
The most sophisticated inversion methods rely on iterative optimization algorithms that solve forward models describing the underlying physics of light scattering by gas molecules and small particles \cite{Bohren1998}. In the simplified case when the particles are assumed to be spherically shaped, the forward models are based on Mie theory, which provides an analytical solution to Maxwell's equations for a plane monochromatic wave incident on a homogeneous sphere of arbitrary radius \cite{Mie1908}. For the more realistic case of arbitrarily shaped aerosol particles, more complex and computationally expensive superposition-based forward models are required such as the multi-sphere T-matrix method \cite{Mishchenko_1996}, or those based on the Discrete Dipole Approximation \cite{Draine_1994}. Efficient and optimized computer codes that implement these types of forward models (e.g. \cite{Mishchenko_2000, Draine_2013,gmd-11-2739-2018}), as well as their use in iterative inversion schemes (e.g. GRASP-OPEN \cite{Dubovik_2011}) are now freely available.
The main limitation of iterative, physics-based retrieval algorithms is that they are too computationally expensive and slow for some important applications. In the remote sensing context, such applications include the operational processing in near real-time or reanalysis of large volumes of satellite data for downstream use in climate, air quality and weather models (e.g. \cite{Benedetti_2009}). In the in situ context, such applications include the near real-time processing of polar nephelometer measurements to retrieve particular aerosol properties, which is becoming increasingly important with the development of distributed sensor networks, and the corresponding drive to miniaturize instruments (e.g. \cite{Chen_2020}).
The traditional approach for solving the problem of retrieval speed is to use pre-computed look-up tables (LUTs). LUTs contain limited sets of simulated multi-angle light scattering signals that correspond to discrete sets of combinations of the parameters to be retrieved. A retrieval is performed by selecting the set of parameters whose simulated signals most closely matches a particular measurement. The LUT approach is currently the most widely used method for the operational processing of satellite-obtained aerosol remote sensing data \cite{Dubovik2019}. However, although LUTs are able to solve the problem of retrieval speed, they do so at the cost of retrieval accuracy, since they necessarily involve parameter selectivity and discretization. This problem is becoming even more of a limitation with the continued development of advanced polarimetric light scattering measurements (remote sensing and in situ) \cite{Dolgos_2014, Dubovik2019}, which have higher information content concerning a larger number of free parameters, in particular also for combined multi-parameter retrievals using data from multiple sensors. E.g. combined surface reflectivity and aerosol property retrieval.
Machine learning algorithms present new opportunities for solving the aerosol property retrieval problem with sufficient speed and accuracy to overcome some of the limitations of previous approaches. Some very early efforts in this direction began already in the 1990s and involved the application of neural networks to different forms of light scattering data \cite{Ishimaru_1990, Wang_1999, Ulanowski_1998, Berdnik_2004, Berdnik_2009}. Since then, much work has focused on remotely sensed light scattering data, as reviewed recently in \cite{Di_noia_2018}. In the remote sensing context, it seems that a combination of tools (e.g. neural networks as providers of initial guesses or as forward models in iterative optimization schemes) may ultimately prove to be the most effective way of operationally processing the large amounts of data collected by satellite-borne and ground-based sensors \cite{Fan_2019, Shi_2020, Di_noia_2015, Di_noia_2017}.
In the present study, we return to the comparatively less-studied problem of the inversion of in situ light scattering phase function measurements using neural networks. Although similar in principle to remote sensing measurements, in situ measurements are unique in that the single scattering approximation is typically valid (i.e., additional light scattering between the sensitive volume and detector is negligible.), and there is no need to account for light reflections from different types of Earth surfaces (e.g., water, ice, different land types) as is necessary in satellite or airborne remote sensing. This simpler configuration makes it possible to keep the problem constrained on light scattering phase functions and associated aerosol property retrieval.
This study has a concrete and practical motivation: to train models that will be applied to measurements obtained with the new polarized, laser-imaging type polar nephelometer \cite{Dolgos_2014} that is currently being developed within the Aerosol Physics Group at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI). This instrument will eventually be used in laboratory experiments to measure angular distribution of light scattering $y$ (e.g. phase functions and polarized phase functions at multiple wavelengths) for different types of aerosols described with the properties $x$ (e.g. size distribution parameters, complex refractive index). We present here a proof of concept showing that neural network models can be successfully applied to the problem of quickly and accurately retrieving the aerosol properties $x$ from the light scattering measurements $y$ that will be obtained with this instrument. For this purpose, we use synthetic data sets with realistically simulated measurement uncertainties. In follow up studies, experiments will be performed with the instrument to further evaluate the performance of the neural network based retrievals presented here, as well as to evaluate the performance of common physics-based retrieval algorithms used in aerosol remote sensing (e.g. \cite{Schuster_2019}).
A key novelty of the present study relative to other recent studies (e.g. \cite{Berdnik_2016, Xu_2021}) is the model architecture that we consider. In particular, we focus on a class of neural network models known as invertible neural networks (INNs) \cite{Ardizzone2018}. A single INN model trained in one direction on a particular data set has the unique feature that it can be run in both the forward (aerosol properties to light scattering data, $x \to y$) and inverse (light scattering data to aerosol properties, $y \to x$) directions with negligible computational cost. This feature creates great flexibility with respect to the model application.
In Section 2 we present a theoretical overview of the problem and INN model architecture. Section 3 introduces the synthetic data sets we use for model training and validation, while Section 4 discusses the implementation of the model including the data preprocessing steps. In Section 5 we present the results and in Section 6 we discuss the conclusions and outlook of the study.
\section{Theory}
\subsection{Problem description}\label{sec:problem_description}
In this work we retrieve aerosol properties from multi-angle multi-wavelength and polarized light scattering data. Let $x \in X\subseteq \mathbb{R}^N$, denote the aerosol properties, like spectral complex refractive index or particle size distribution parameters, where $N$ is the total number of properties. The functions obtained by the measurement device are the phase function $P_{11}=P_{11}(\theta)$ (i.e. angularly-resolved scattered light intensity) and the polarized phase function $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}=-\frac{P_{12}(\theta)}{P_{11}(\theta)}$ (i.e. angularly resolved relative degree of linear polarization of scattered light for unpolarized incident light), where $\theta$ is the angle.
These are (normalized) elements of the scattering matrix used in the Stokes formalism, see e.g. \cite{Dolgos_2014, amt-2021-251} for more details.
The forward problem is now to compute the phase and polarized phase functions $y \in \{P_{11}, -\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}} \}$ from aerosol properties $x \in X$: $y = F(x)$. Where $F$ indicates the underlying Mie theory or other theories of aerosol light scattering.
The inverse problem is to retrieve the aerosol properties from the measurement data ($y^{\delta}$) : $\hat{x} = F^{-1}(y^{\delta})$, where the $\hat{}$ symbol indicates that $\hat{x}$ is an estimate of the true values $x$.
Due to the ill-posed nature of inverse problems, i.e. either there exists no solution, or the solution is not unique or small errors in the data $y^{\delta}$ can lead to huge errors in the retrieval of $x$, special solution methods, including e.g. regularization, need to be applied to solve inverse problems.
In our work, we focus on so-called invertible neural networks. A detailed description can be found in section \ref{sec:INN}. The main advantage of this method is, that the forward and the inverse problem are solved simultaneously, even though only one model needs to be trained. This is due to the architecture of the INN.
The general concept of building the model is depicted in Figure \ref{fig:model_concept}. Training the INN requires data, which can be obtained either from simulations or measurements. The trained model can then be used to either predict light scattering measurement data from a given set of aerosol properties, or to retrieve a set of aerosol properties from measured or simulated light scattering data. One key advantage of having forward and inverse pass:
it is possible to assess how well the retrieved simplified surrogate aerosol model represents the measured phase functions (even angularly resolved if needed).
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width =\textwidth]{figures/Model_development_concept.pdf}
\caption{Concept of how to build and use the INN model. To use the invertible neural network model in the inverse direction, a best-of-$n$ strategy is applied, so for a given measurement, $n$ sets of aerosol properties are retrieved, and the best one, according to the forward pass is chosen.}
\label{fig:model_concept}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Invertible neural networks}
\label{sec:INN}
The used invertible neural network was first introduced by Ardizzone et al. \cite{Ardizzone2018}, and is described here for the benefit of readability. Input and output of the network are divided randomly into two halves, $x=(x_1,x_2)$, $y = (y_1,y_2)$. The main components of the INN are so called, affine coupling blocks, having the following simplified structure
\begin{align*}
y_1 &= x_1 \odot \exp{(s \cdot \arctan (\mathrm{NN}(x_2)))}+\mathrm{NN}(x_2) \\
y_2 &= x_2 \odot \exp{(s \cdot \arctan (\mathrm{NN}(y_1)))}+\mathrm{NN}(y_1) \\
x_1 &= (y_1-\mathrm{NN}(x_2)) \odot \exp{(-s \cdot \arctan(\mathrm{NN}(x_2)))} \\
x_2 &= (y_2-\mathrm{NN}(x_1))\odot \exp{(-s \cdot \arctan (\mathrm{NN}(y_1)))},
\end{align*}
where $s$ is a scaling variable, that damps, together with $\arctan$, the exponential function, and $\mathrm{NN}$ stands for an arbitrary neural network. In theory, four different neural networks could be used, but this would increase the number of hyperparameters - so in this work, all $\mathrm{NN}$ are dense and have the same width and depth. Hence it is clear, that $x_1, x_2, y_1$ and $y_2$ need to have the same dimension. This is guaranteed by padding both input and output by zero or low noise, $x_{pad} \in \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_x}}$, $y_{pad} \in \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_y}}$, where $d_{P_x}$ and $d_{P_y}$ are the corresponding dimensions, that can be zero as well. With this choice, the invertibility of the INN is also assured.
The INN is then given by a concatenation of affine coupling blocks and permutation layers. The permutation layers guarantee that the splitting of input and output into two parts is not always the same. To capture the information about $x$ that is not contained in the measurements $y \in \mathbb{R}^{2M}$, a latent output variable $z \in \mathbb{R}^{d_Z}$, with dimension $d_Z$,
is introduced. The dimension $M$ for the measurements denotes the number of measured angles, so it varies between 2 and 178. During the inverse pass, these latent variables are sampled from a standard normal distribution.
The forward pass of the INN, $\hat{F}$, is then given by:
\begin{align*}\hat{F}:\mathbb{R}^N \times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_x}} & \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^{2M}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_Z}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_y}} \\
(x, x_{pad} )&\mapsto (\hat{y}, z, y_{pad}) \\
\text{s.t. } \hat{y} &\approx f(x)
\end{align*}
and the inverse pass, $\hat{F}^{-1}$, is:
\begin{align*}\hat{F}^{-1}:\mathbb{R}^{2M}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_Z}\times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_y}} &\rightarrow \mathbb{R}^N \times \mathbb{R}^{d_{P_x}} \\
(y,z, y_{pad}) &\mapsto (\hat{x}, x_{pad}) \\
\text{s.t. } \hat{x} &\approx f^{-1}(y)
\end{align*}
and it holds that $\hat{F}(\hat{F}^{-1}(y,z,y_{pad}))= (y,z,y_{pad})$ and $\hat{F}^{-1} (\hat{F}(x,x_{pad}))= (x,x_{pad})$.
To train the neural network a loss function needs to be defined. In this case, it is a composition of numerous loss functions:
\begin{equation*}
L_{inv} = w_x L_{x} + w_y L_{y}
+ w_z L_{z} + w_r L_{r}
+ w_{p} L_{p}.
\end{equation*}
The loss $L_x=\|p_x(\hat{x})-p_x(x)\|^2$ ensures that the sampled aerosol property distributions, $p_x(x)$, match the distributions of the aerosol properties in the data set, $p_x(\hat{x})$. Likewise, the loss $L_z= \|p_z(z|\hat{y})-p_z(z) \|^2$ assures that the latent variable is sampled from the desired normal distribution. The losses $L_y= \sum^{N}_{i=1}{\|\hat{F}(x_i)-y_i\|^2}$ and $L_r = \sum^{N}_{i=1}{\|\hat{F}^{-1}(\hat{F}(x_i)+\varepsilon)-x_i\|^2} $ make sure that the forward and inverse predictions, resp., mimic the data. Through the introduction of Gaussian noise $\varepsilon \sim \mathcal{N}(0, \sigma_r)^{2M+d_z+d_{P_y}}$ in $L_r$, robustness of the inverse prediction should be guaranteed. Lastly, the loss $L_p= \|x_{pad} \|^2 + \|y_{pad}\|^2$ ensures that the amplitude of the noise fed into the model through the padding dimensions is low, so that no information is encoded there.
Further details on INNs can be found in the work of Ardizzone et al., \cite{Ardizzone2018}.
The model is trained w.r.t the forward pass, meaning that the input consists of a set of aerosol properties and that the output, or predictions, consists of the phase and polarized phase functions. Due to the structure of the INN, the inverse pass comes with no additional effort, meaning, the network does not need to be trained in addition with the (polarized) phase functions as input and the aerosol properties as output. Although, of course, the loss function contains forward and inverse prediction errors.
As discussed in Section \ref{sec:problem_description}, we are faced with the challenge that the inverse direction is not unique, such that several sets of aerosol properties can lead to similar phase and polarized phase functions. The INN architecture considers this problem on the one hand by the special loss function and on the other hand by the introduction of the latent space. Therefore, for the retrieval of aerosol properties, we apply a best-of-$n$ strategy, meaning that for a given measurement of angular resolved scattering data $n$ aerosol properties are predicted. The variation of the measurements to get the $n$ predictions is done via the latent space. All of these $n$ properties are then handed back to the forward pass, and the set of aerosol properties whose associated phase functions are closest to the given data are chosen to be the predicted aerosol properties.
\section{Synthetic data sets}
The GRASP-OPEN forward model \cite{Dubovik_2011} is used to generate the synthetic data to train the INN models.
In this work, two types of data, corresponding to two different applications of in situ multi-angle light scattering measurements are considered. These applications are chosen because they mimic the type of measurements that will be performed with the PSI polar nephelometer.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Simulation of aerosol measurements in a laboratory: specifically, measurements of spherical, monodisperse, pure-component aerosols. Such aerosols can be routinely generated in the laboratory using common aerosol generation techniques (e.g. nebulization of aqueous solutions of known composition) combined with size classification (e.g. by particle electrical mobility or by particle aerodynamic diameter).
\item Simulation of aerosol measurements in the field. This represents the situation of taking the instrument into the field to measure multi-component, ambient aerosols. In this case bi-lognormal modes are chosen to represent atmospheric aerosol size distributions over the diameter range from $\sim$ 50 nm up to $\sim$ 10 µm, with different refractive indices in each mode and allowance for non-spherical particles in the upper-most mode (defined as the coarse mode, see further discussion below in \ref{space_variable_x_field}).
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Measurement space variables $y$: virtual polar nephelometer instrument configurations} \label{space_variable_y}
The simulated measurements are chosen such that they match the measurement output of the PSI polar nephelometer. The instrument is designed to measure both scattering phase functions, $P_{11}$ and polarized phase functions, $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at three different wavelengths $\lambda$ (450, 532, and 630 nm), over the polar scattering angle range from 0° to 179°. Both, $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, will be measured at an angular resolution of approximately 1°.
There are numerous technical challenges associated with polar nephelometry that can result in the loss of measurement information in real experimental setups relative to the ideal measurement configuration. We consider the following real-world artefacts in our simulations:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Scattered light truncation. Due to physical design limitations, nephelometers can not perform scattered light measurements at extreme forward and backward angles, beyond the so-called truncation angles (e.g. \cite{Moosmuller_2003}). We consider forward and backward truncation angles of 0°-5° and 175°-179°. In addition, we also consider the situation where measurements can not be performed over the range from 85° to 95°, since these angles are associated with higher measurement uncertainties in the PSI polar nephelometer.
\item Loss of information on polarization dependence (i.e., only $P_{11}$ is measured)
\item Loss of spectral information (i.e., measurements only performed at 1 or 2 wavelengths).
\end{enumerate}
To investigate the impact of these practical artefacts on INN model performance we study 22 different cases as outlined in Table \ref{tab:case_study}. First, we simulate the ideal case of having available $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at all angles from 0° to 179° and with three wavelengths. (Note that since $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ is always zero at the angle 0°, this point is ignored for training, validation and testing even in this ideal case). Then, 21 additional cases are examined that only take into account angles from 5° to 85° and 95° to 175° to better represent actual measurements. These 21 cases correspond to different polarization and spectral combinations: i.e., the different combinations of either $P_{11}$ and/or $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, measured with one, two or three wavelengths.
To have a baseline for the quality of the models, results are compared to the measurement device errors. These errors are not yet fully characterized for the PSI polar nephelometer. Therefore we choose values that slightly overestimate the errors reported for the instruments similiar to the PSI polar nephelometer \cite{Dolgos_2014}. Specifically, we consider the relative error in $P_{11}$ to be $5\%$ and the absolute error in $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ to be $0.1$.
\subsection{State space variables $x$: describing spherical, monodisperse aerosols measured in the laboratory}
In the first data set we assume the aerosol particles are homogeneous spheres for three reasons: i) Mie theory is applicable, ii) spherical particles can be generated easily in the laboratory (e.g. polystyrene latex spheres, organic aerosols) and iii) it is a common assumption for retrieving fine mode properties from polarimetric data.
As described in Section \ref{sec:problem_description}, phase and polarized phase function depend on the aerosol size and shape distributions and the complex refractive index.
The volume size distributions of monomodal aerosols $V(r)$ (where $r$ represents aerosol particle radius) can be represented by lognormal functions, which can be described by three parameters: the total volume concentration, $V_{tot}$, the mean radius $R_{mean}$ and the geometric standard deviation $\sigma_g$:
\begin{equation}\label{size_distribution}
V(r) = \sum^{N}_{i=1}{\frac{V_{tot}}{\sqrt{2 \pi}\ln(\sigma_{g,i})}}\exp{\left(\frac{-(\ln(r)-\ln(R_{mean,i}))^2))}{2(\ln(\sigma_{g,i}))^2}\right)},
\end{equation}
where $N=1$ for the monomodal case and $N=2$ for the bimodal case (described in Section \ref{space_variable_x_field}).
The complex refractive index is wavelength-dependent and contains two parts: real and imaginary, i.e., $m_{\lambda}=n_{\lambda}+ik_{\lambda}$.
Typically for atmospheric aerosols, variations in refractive index values are minor, or at least smooth, over the range of visible wavelengths that we consider here. To incorporate this knowledge into our simulated data we use the following relationships, which can be considered as approximately valid for aerosols over the $\lambda$ range from 450 to 630 nm. For the real part of the refractive index we assume $n_{\lambda_2}= n_{\lambda_1}$, for two different wavelengths $\lambda_1$, $\lambda_2$. For the complex part of the refractive index we assume
$k_{\lambda_2} \approx k_{\lambda_1}(\lambda_2/\lambda_1)^{1-AAE}$. Here $AAE$ is an often reported parameter known as the absorption Angstrom exponent, which is defined through the empirical relationship $b_{abs, \lambda_1}/b_{abs, \lambda_2} \approx (\lambda_2/\lambda_1)^{-AAE}$ (with the relationship to $k$ then given by $b_{abs, \lambda} \propto C_N k/ \lambda$, which is valid for fixed particle size and $n$, and where $C_N$ represents the particle number density \cite{Moosmuller_2009, Laskin_2015}). The parameter $b_{abs, \lambda}$ is known as the aerosol light absorption coefficient, and it is easily measurable. Therefore, $AAE$ values are reported widely in the aerosol literature. For black carbon aerosols (i.e., highly absorbing carbonaceous aerosols) with small particle size, $AAE \approx 1$ over the visible range, which is a consequence of $k$ being approximately wavelength-independent across visible wavelengths for such aerosols. For brown carbon (i.e. moderately absorbing carbonaceous aerosols) $AAE>1$, which is a consequence of $k$ decreasing with increasing $\lambda$ across visible wavelengths.
Given these relationships, simulating measurements for the 3-$\lambda$ version of the instrument only requires one extra state space variable – $AAE$ – than is required for the 1-$\lambda$ simulations.
Summarized, the state space consists of at most $4+l$ variables, where $l$ is the number of wavelengths. The variables, together with their lower and upper bounds are listed in Table \ref{tab:monomodal_variables}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrr}
\textbf{Variables }& \textbf{Lower bound} & \textbf{Upper bound} \\
$V_{tot}$ [µm$^3$ cm$^{-3}$] & 1 & 5000 \\
$R_{mean}$ [nm] & 150 & 2500 \\
$\sigma_g$ [ ] & 1.4 & 1.45 \\
$n$ [ ] & 1.33 & 1.6 \\
$k_{450}, k_{532}, k_{630}$ [ ]\footnotemark[1] & 1e-4 & 0.2 \\
$AAE$ [ ]\footnotemark[1] & 1 & 7
\end{tabular}
\caption{Parameter space covered by the simulations of monomodal, spherical, laboratory-generated aerosols, as defined by the maximum and minimum values for each of the included state space variables.
\newline \tiny{1: As stated in the description $k_{450}, k_{532}, k_{630}$ and $AAE$ are dependent of each other.}}
\label{tab:monomodal_variables}
\end{table}
\subsection{State space variables $x$ describing atmospheric aerosols measured in the field}
\label{space_variable_x_field}
The second data set represents the application of a polar nephelometer to measure ambient atmospheric aerosols in a field setting. This is generally a more complicated and less-controlled use case for the instrument than laboratory use. Atmospheric aerosols are typically complex mixtures of particles of different sizes (covering the diameter range from a few nm's to 10s of µm), chemical components (i.e., with different complex RIs), and shapes.
Typical simplifications used to represent this complexity:
\begin{itemize}
\item Bi-lognormal distributions are used to represent volume size distributions over a broad range, diameters from 50 nm to 10 µm. The smaller size mode peaks at diameters less than 1 µm and is commonly called the 'fine' aerosol mode. The larger size mode peaks at diameters greater than 1 µm and is commonly called the 'coarse' aerosol mode. In this case, the full size distribution is represented by 6 parameters (3 lognormal parameters for the fine mode, 3 for the coarse mode): Total volume concentration, $V_{tot}$, fine mode fraction, $\chi$, coarse and fine radii, $R_{mean_{fine}}$, $R_{mean_{coarse}}$ and geometric standard deviations, $\sigma_{g_{fine}}$, $\sigma_{g_{coarse}}$. In the present work it is assumed, that the coarse and fine mode mean radii do not overlap. The fine and coarse mode volume concentrations, $V_{fine}$ and $V_{coarse}$ are defined with respect to the total volume concentration $V_{tot}$ and the fine mode fraction, $\chi$: $V_{fine}=\chi V_{tot}$ and $V_{coarse}=(1-\chi) V_{tot}$. This is, what we use in our case, see equation \ref{size_distribution} with $N=2$ and $i=1$ denotes the coarse and $i=2$ the fine mode.
It should be stressed out that the bi-lognormal representation is still a simplified representation of true atmospheric aerosol size distributions. Greater complexity can be considered by representing size distributions with concentration values in discrete size bins (i.e., a sectional representation). Typically, 10 - 22 size bins may be considered. Therefore, sectional representations involve a greater number of aerosol state parameters than modal representations, although smoothness constraints can be applied to limit this number.
\item In some studies, like Espinosa et al. \cite{Espinosa_2019}, a single, effective complex refractive index (still $\lambda$ dependent) is used to describe the optical properties of the complex atmospheric aerosol as a whole. However, GRASP-OPEN has the ability to simulate the more realistic but still simplified situation where two effective refractive indices are used to describe the aerosol: one for fine mode particles and one for coarse mode particles. We apply this approach here. Also in this bi-modal case, the refractive index values at different wavelengths are strongly related and should not vary independently from each other. Thus, we will again consider the following relationships: $n(\lambda_2)= n(\lambda_1)$ and $k(\lambda_2)= k(\lambda_1)(\lambda_2/\lambda_1)^{1-AAE}$.
\item Particle non-sphericity is either accounted for with a single parameter (e.g. the fraction of spherical particles in the ensemble, which we denote with the symbol $\phi$), or size-resolved spherical particle fractions (e.g. in up to 22 discrete size bins), \cite{Dubovik_2006,Dubovik_2011}). We will use a single parameter $\phi$ for our data set. Notice that non-spherical particle fraction is only considered in the coarse mode. All particles in fine mode are assumed to be spherical.
\end{itemize}
To obtain parameter ranges for simplified bi-modal atmospheric aerosol models we use the comprehensive, airborne polar-nephelometer measurements of Espinosa et al. \cite{Espinosa_2019} performed over the USA. The combined data set can be considered as reasonably representative of the different types of aerosols encountered over continents. They used GRASP-OPEN to retrieve the aerosol parameters (bi-modal size distribution, spherical fraction, complex refractive index) corresponding to the measurements. The results were categorized according to aerosol types (e.g. urban, biogenic, biomass burning, dust-containing aerosols) \footnote{the dust-containing category is termed 'CO Storms' in the original paper}. We use the minimum and maximum values obtained across the different aerosol types for the bi-modal size distribution and spherical fraction parameters. However, we use broader ranges for the complex refractive index parameters since only a single effective refractive index was retrieved by these authors, whereas we choose to simulate the more atmospherically relevant case where the fine and coarse mode aerosols each have their own effective refractive index.
Considering the above, the state space for this type of modal data set will consist of a maximum of $11+2j$, where $j$
is 0, if only one wavelength is used, otherwise it is 1. A list of all variables with their lower and upper bounds is given in Table \ref{tab:bimodal_variables}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrr}
\textbf{Variable (units)} & \textbf{Lower bound} & \textbf{Upper bound} \\
$V_{tot}$ $[\mu m^3 cm^{-3}]$ & 9.3 & 24 \\
$\chi$ & 0.53 & 0.93 \\
$R_{mean_{fine}}$ $[\mathrm{\mu m}]$ & 0.126 & 0.163 \\
$R_{mean_{coarse}}$ $[\mathrm{\mu m}]$ & 0.87 & 1.3 \\
$\sigma_{g_{fine}}$ [ ] & 1.38 & 1.57 \\
$\sigma_{g_{coarse}}$ [ ] & 1.4 & 1.49 \\
$n_{fine}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 1.33 & 1.6 \\
$k_{fine}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 1e-5 & 0.2 \\
$AAE_{fine}$ [ ] & 1 & 7 \\
$n_{coarse}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 1.45 & 1.6 \\
$k_{coarse}$ $[450\,\mathrm{nm}]$ & 0.0001 & 0.02 \\
$AAE_{coarse}$ [ ] & 1.5 & 2.4 \\
$\phi$ [\%] & 17 & 85
\end{tabular}
\caption{Parameter space covered by the simulations of atmospheric aerosols in a bimodal representation, as defined by the maximum and minimum values for each of the included state space variables}
\label{tab:bimodal_variables}
\end{table}
\subsection{Summary of simulated data sets}
The data sets were created with GRASP-OPEN using the Latin hypercube sampling method based on the parameter spaces stated in Tables \ref{tab:monomodal_variables} and \ref{tab:bimodal_variables}. Both data sets included 100 000 samples. The numbers of measurement and state space variables are summarized in Table \ref{tab:datasets_nr}
.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrrr}
\textbf{Data set ID} & \textbf{\begin{tabular}[x]{@{}r@{}} Number of measurement \\ space variables\end{tabular}} & \textbf{\begin{tabular}[x]{@{}r@{}} Number of state \\ space variables\end{tabular}} \\
Lab 1 & 1077 & 5 or 6 \\
Lab 2 & $162 \cdot i \cdot j$ & 5 or 6 \\
Atmos-bimodal 1 & 1077 & 11 or 13 \\
Atmos-bimodal 2 & $162 \cdot i \cdot j$ & 11 or 13 \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Summary and description of simulated data sets used in this study. "Lab" stands for the case of monomodal, spherical, laboratory-generated aerosols, and "Atmos-bimodal" for the simulations with aerosols in a bimodal representation. The numbers in the Data set ID denote, whether all data are at hand (1), or some data are missing (2). The numbers of measurement space variables include $i = {1,2}$, for either $P_{11}$ or $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ or both and $j= 1$ for one and $j=2$ for two or three wavelengths. The numbers for the state space variables depend on the number of wavelengths.}
\label{tab:datasets_nr}
\end{table}
\section{Implementation and Data Preprocessing}
The models are implemented in Python using the TensorFlow framework and Keras together with the Ray Tune library for the hyperparameter scan. According to the INN architecture, the following hyperparameters need to be chosen: number, depth and width of affine coupling blocks, batch size, learning rate, type of activation function, number of epochs and weights and noise in the loss function. The details are described in section \ref{sec:hyperparameters}.
All computations were done at the Merlin 6 Cluster at Paul Scherrer Institut using one core. Each cluster node provides \SI{384}{GB} of memory and contains two Intel$^\circledR$ Xeon$^\circledR$ Gold 6152 Processors, with 22 cores and 2 threads per physical core. For the implementations in this work only one core was used.
\subsection{Preprocessing the data}
Some examples of simulated $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ functions are shown in Fig. \ref{fig:P11_pre}. Each data set consisting of $100\ 000$ of these functions is divided into a training data set and a test data set with a ratio of $80:20$. The training data set in turn is split up into a sub-training data set and a validation data set at each epoch. The validation data set is used to pick the best hyperparameters as discussed in Section \ref{sec:hyperparameters}. Preprocessing is applied to the state space variables $x$ and the measurement space variables $y$ with the goal of achieving a broad spread of the simulated data across all angles. The scikit-learn (\cite{scikit-learn}) {\tt MinMaxScaler} preprocessing function turned out to give good results for the state space variables $x$. The measurement space is divided into the two parts $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, where for $P_{11}$ first the logarithm is applied and then on both parts the scikit-learn {\tt StandardScaler} preprocessing function. As can be seen in Figure~\ref{fig:P11_pre} this preprocessing (second row, second and third column) spreads the data per angle.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/preprocessing/preprocessing_unimodal.pdf}
\caption{The effects of preprocessing on $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ for a series of randomly chosen spherical, monodisperse aerosols probed with an incident light beam of wavelength \SI{532}{nm}. The left column contains $P_{11}$, the second column $\log(P_{11})$ and the third column $P_{\operatorname{ppf}}$. The first row shows the unscaled versions and the second row the application of the StandardScaler.}
\label{fig:P11_pre}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Hyperparameters} \label{sec:hyperparameters}
An initial random hyperparameter scan was performed for the first model being trained on simulated data: i.e., the model corresponding to the ideal measurement configuration with three wavelengths and all angles. By taking the hyperparameter values from the best model, all but 3 hyperparameters were fixed and used for all the further trained models, also to make the models more comparable amongst each other. For all models, 3 affine coupling blocks with a depth of 2 and a width of 92 together with a batch size of 8 and a learning rate of $9\times10^{-5}$ were used. The activation functions were chosen to be rectified linear units for the hidden layers and linear for the last layer. The number of epochs was kept at $50$. For the loss function, the artificial weight was kept small, $w_p=0.0005$ and the weight $w_y$ was set to $350$. The noise $\epsilon$ used in the loss $L_r$ was set to $0.1$.
It turned out, that the remaining weights have a non-negligible influence on the performance of the models, hence a further hyperparameter scan based on grid search was performed for all models. For each weight three values, actually the values of the three best previous hyperparameter scans, where chosen: $w_x \in \{138,142,146\}$, $w_z \in \{291,330,339\}$ and $w_r \in \{258,308,323\}$. Summarized, for the 22 models of the case study, 27 different sets of hyperparameters were chosen to train the corresponding models. Among those models, the best one according to the $R^2$ value of the inverse direction evaluated with the validation data set was selected to be the final model for each case.
\section{Results}
In the following, the results for different cases are presented. Within all models in the hyperparameter scans the best model was chosen according to the highest coefficient of determination $R^2$, scored on the validation data set for the inverse process at the last epoch of training. Notice that this model must not necessarily have the highest coefficient of determination for the forward pass, but the main target of the research is on the inverse model, namely to retrieve aerosol properties.
To get an idea of the quality of the trained models, the models are further used to make predictions about the previously unseen test data set. Therefore, the relative, absolute and weighted mean absolute percentage errors ($\operatorname{wMAPE}$) are valuable error metrics. Since the absolute error is not suited for comparing results across the parameters, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ is used for that. The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ has the additional advantage over the relative error, that it does not explode when the actual value is zero or very close to zero. The formulae for computing these error metrics are given in the \ref{App:Metrics}.
\subsection{Monomodal case with ideal measurement configuration: $P_{11}$, $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at all three wavelengths and all angles}
\label{sec:results-monomodal-ideal}
The first case, that is considered, is the monomodal case with all available training and validation data used, i.e. three wavelengths, $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ and all angles. The $R^2$ value for the validation data set for the inverse process at the last epoch of training is $R^2= 0.993$. The $R^2$ value for the forward pass scored on the validation data set is $R^2 = 0.9978$. So, for both directions, the values are very close to the optimal and theoretical maximum value of $1$. In Figure \ref{fig:history_uni} the history of the mean absolute error (MAE) for the forward (left) and inverse (right) model over all epochs is depicted. The tendency of the curves is clearly decreasing, this means, that the models in forward and inverse direction are getting better the more epochs are used. In addition, the blue (training data) and red (validation) curves overlap until 50 epochs, so there is no sign of overfitting visible in this plot.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/history_MAE_fw_inv_uni_lo.jpg}
\caption{Performance of the best model in forward and inverse direction in terms of mean absolute error (MAE) over the number of epochs. The blue dots denote the MAE for the training data and the red crosses for the validation data.}
\label{fig:history_uni}
\end{figure}
This best model is then used for testing with the so far unseen data (i.e., with the test data set consisting of 20 000 data points). For the forward model this results in a maximum relative error for $\log(P_{11})$ of $1.5\%$ and a maximum absolute error of $0.06$ for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ both at confidence interval of $95\%$. The mean $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s are given by $\operatorname{wMAPE}(P_{11})= 4.29\%$ and $\operatorname{wMAPE}(-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}) = 4.20\%$. These results compare very favourably with respect to possible real measurement device errors, which we take as $5\%$ relative error for $P_{11}$ and $0.1$ absolute error for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ as explained in Section \ref{space_variable_y}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrrrrrrr}
Aerosol Properties& $V_{tot}$ & $R_{mean}$& $\sigma_g$ & n & $k_{450}$ &$k_{532}$& $k_{630}$ \\
Mean Abs. Error & 22.04 & 0.0067 & 0.0015 & 0.0013 & 0.0013 & 0.00078 & 0.00060 \\
Abs. Error 95\% max. & 58.55 & 0.02 & 0.005 & 0.003 & 0.004 & 0.002 & 0.002\\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$[\%] & 0.88 & 0.50 & 0.11 & 0.09 & 1.34 & 1.23 & 1.40 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$[\%] noise & 1.58 & 1.01 & 0.34 & 1.93 & 2.15 & 1.93 & 2.17
\end{tabular}
\caption{Aerosol property retrieval error results in terms of the Mean Absolute Error, the maximal Absolute Error at a confidence level of 95\%, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ and the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for the case of noisy test data (assuming 5\% Gaussian noise), for the monomodal data set with ideal measurement configuration ($P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at three wavelengths and all angles).}
\label{tab:inv_pass}
\end{table}
For the inverse model, the results of the aerosol property retrieval are summarized in Table \ref{tab:inv_pass}. There the mean absolute error and the maximal absolute error at a confidence level of 95\% as well as the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ are stated. The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for all aerosol properties stays below 1.5\%. The aerosol properties that are predicted best, according to the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s, are the real part of the refractive indices and the geometric standard deviation, whereas the parameters that are predicted worst, are the complex parts of the refractive indices. Also in the case of noisy test data, here we assumed 5\% Gaussian noise added to the test data, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ is stated in Table \ref{tab:inv_pass}. It stays below 2.2\% for all aerosol properties, which clearly shows that the proposed method for aerosol property retrieval is robust against possible random measurement noise.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/Test_Pred_V.jpg}
\caption{Comparison of the predicted and simulated test data. First and third column show correlation plots of the predicted versus the test data values of the (polarized) phase functions for all three wavelengths. Second and fourth column depict the simulated (black line) versus predicted (polarized) phase functions (colored dots) in a qualitative representation. Six different data samples were chosen. In the last line, the qualitative representation of the simulated versus the predicted total volume concentration over the particle radii for the according six samples is shown. The table in the lower right corner states the simulated aerosol property values of these six samples. }
\label{fig:test_pred_uni}
\end{figure}
The qualitative comparison of the forward prediction for different wavelengths and the inverse prediction of the particle size distribution and the according test data for six randomly chosen data samples each are depicted in Figure \ref{fig:test_pred_uni}. Although the forward prediction follows the path of the test data quite good, they look a bit noisy, as can be seen in the figure (colored curves), nevertheless, this is due to the nature of the used prediction method, i.e. each data point of the simulated data set is seen as a single point and not part of a mathematical function, which would make the curve looking smoother. The colors across all images in this figure belong together and refer to the aerosol property values stated in the table in the lower right edge of the figure. In addition, the correlation plots for the whole test data set are shown for the predicted versus the test data for the (polarized) phase function at different wavelengths. In general, a good fit for all the data can be seen here, since all the grey dots are located close to the black line, which marks a perfect fit between test data and prediction.
Concerning the computation time, one forward prediction with the INN model takes approximately 0.46 ms, compared to GRASP-OPEN which took around 4 s for these simulations. For one inverse prediction, the INN model needs around 2.64 ms, compared to approximately 6 s for the GRASP-OPEN inversion.
So for the monomodal case with all possible measurement data available, the proposed invertible neural network turns out to be fast and accurate.
\subsection{Monomodal case with imperfect measurement configurations: results with missing angles, wavelengths and polarimetric information}
In this section, the results from the case studies inspired by real measurements are presented for the monomodal aerosol data set. As stated in section \ref{space_variable_y} the polar nephelometer usually can not measure all angles, hence in these case studies, all neural networks are trained assuming that the angles 0°-5°, 85°-95°, 175°-179° are missing in the data set.
Furthermore, it can happen that not both the phase functions and polarized phase functions can be measured at all 3 wavelengths. Hence, we compare networks trained with either $P_{11}$ or $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, at either 1, 2 or 3 wavelengths to see the performance of the neural network under different measurement data conditions (see Table \ref{tab:case_study}).
In forward direction the performance of all models is similar, the $R^2$ values for the test data are at least $0.997$ as can be seen in Figure \ref{fig:r2_test_qoi} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}. This is also visible in the box plots of the errors of the forward models shown in Figure \ref{fig:qoi_abs_err_uni}. On the x-axis the different wavelength combinations are depicted and on the y-axis the relative errors for $P_{11}$ and the absolute errors for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$. The colors denote whether the INN was trained to predict only truncated $P_{11}$ (blue), only truncated $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ (red), both truncated phase functions (green) or both phase functions without angle truncation (brown). The errors are lower, when only single type functions (red and blue) are used, compared to the models that use all the available functions. This is most likely because, for the case with two functions available, the amount of data points is doubled. Hence, not only more failures can happen, but probably also more training data or an adaption of the INN layers would be necessary to get the same performance for all cases.
The solid brown lines indicate the median errors of the full data case and one sees that all the models behave similarly. To place the retrieval errors in context the figure also displays target error limits (solid black lines), which are defined as the corresponding measurement errors expected in $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ (i.e., 5\% and 0.1, respectively). It is clear that for all wavelength combinations the INN forward model retrieval errors are within the measurement error limits, which indicates that the error associated with the INN models are minor.
In Figure \ref{fig:abs_uni} the boxplots of the mean absolute errors for the aerosol properties, so the inverse prediction are depicted for comparison among the different cases. Each subplot displays the mean absolute errors for another aerosol quantity. It can be seen that the volume concentration can't be predicted at all if only the normalized polarized phase functions (red) are available. This is expected since absolute light intensity information (which is strongly proportional to the aerosol volume concentration) is lost in the ratio of $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$. Also the retrieval of the radius $R_{mean}$, the real part of the refractive index $n$ and the geometric standard deviation $\sigma_g$ is worse, if only $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ is at hand. Whereas for the complex part of the refractive index it seems, that both functions are equally suited for prediction. In general, for all aerosol properties the best results are gained if both functions are accessible. Concerning the wavelengths, the absolute error is the biggest, if only one wavelength is used. Whereas the retrieval works best if all three wavelengths can be utilized. For the three wavelengths case with $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, the network performs just slightly better if all angles can be measured. In general, one sees that increasing the measurement space is an advantage in the inverse model, but not in the forward model. Summarized, it can be emphasized, that except the case with only $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$, all other cases give similar results as the full data case and can hence be used also in practice for the retrieval of aerosol properties for the application involving a monomodal homogeneous aerosol.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\textwidth]{figures/results_new/comparison_abs_error_uni_AAE_fw.jpg}
\caption{Forward model performance: Box plots of the relative error for the phase function and the absolute errors for the polarized phase functions for all 22 models for the monomodal case. Each model is depicted by a box extending from the first quartile to the third quartile and a horizontal line running through the box at the median. The whiskers show the range of the absolute errors over the 20 000 data points in the test set. The brown solid lines indicate the median errors of the full data case, whereas the solid black lines show the assumed measurement device errors.}
\label{fig:qoi_abs_err_uni}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/comparison_abs_error_uni_AAE_iv.jpg}
\caption{Inverse model performance: Boxplots of the absolute errors of each aerosol property. Each box describes the lower and upper quartile values and the median(line). The range of the absolute errors over all data points in the test set is shown with the whiskers.}
\label{fig:abs_uni}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Bimodal case with ideal measurement configuration: $P_{11}$, $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ at all 3 wavelengths and all angles}
In this section, the results for the more complex bimodal aerosol test case, see Table \ref{tab:bimodal_variables}, with all available data are presented (i.e., assuming an ideal measurement configuration). The results are similar to the more simple monomodal case (see Section \ref{sec:results-monomodal-ideal}).
The coefficient of determination of the validation data set in forward direction is $R^2 = 0.9975$ and for the inverse pass $R^2= 0.985$.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/history_MAE_bim.jpg}
\caption{Performance of the best model in forward and inverse direction in terms of mean absolute error (MAE) over the number of epochs for the bimodal case. The blue dots denote the MAE for the training data and the red crosses for the validation data.}
\label{fig:history_bim}
\end{figure}
Figure \ref{fig:history_bim} shows the mean absolute error for the best inverse and forward model for training and validation data evolving along the epochs, which is in both cases clearly decreasing, meaning that the model improves over the number of epochs. This best trained model is validated with the so far unseen test data set. The maximum relative error for $log(P_{11})$ is $0.33\%$ and the maximum absolute error for $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ is $0.03$ at a confidence level of 95\%. The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s are as following: $\operatorname{wMAPE}(P_{11})=1.34\%$ and $\operatorname{wMAPE}(-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}})=1.89\%$. Also in the bimodal case, the prediction errors are lower than the assumed device measurement errors and are even better than for the monomodal case. The mean absolute errors and the maximal absolute errors at a 95\% confidence level and the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$s for all aerosol properties are stated in Table \ref{tab:inv_pass_bim}. The properties that are retrieved best according to the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ are the real parts of the refractive indices followed by the geometric standard deviations and the radii for both, the coarse and fine mode. Again the complex parts of the refractive indices for all wavelengths and all modes are predicted worst. But in general, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ stays below 3.4\% for all quantities. This shows that, first, the spectral polarized light scattering phase functions also contain ample information on aerosol absorptive properties and, second, that the INN is capable of retrieving these. However, in practical applications the retrieval of aerosol absorptive properties from phase function measurements will often be hampered by the fact that a simplified representation of the state space is typically inappropriate in the presence of light absorbing black carbon particles, see e.g. \cite{Schuster_2019}.
For completeness, the correlation plots of test and predicted test data for the forward model and the qualitative comparison between test and predicted test data for the forward model and the bimodal particle size distribution for six randomly chosen test data is depicted in Figure \ref{fig:test_pred_bim} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}. The according values of the particle properties are given in Table \ref{fig:pred_plot_values_bim} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}.
\begin{table}[]
\begin{tabular}{lrrrrrr}
Aerosol Properties& $V_{tot}$ & $R_{mean_{fine}}$ & $R_{mean_{coarse}}$ & $\sigma_{g_{fine}}$ & $\sigma_{g_{coarse}}$ \\
Mean Abs. Err. & 0.12 & 0.00018 & 0.0031 & 0.0018 & 0.0021 \\
Abs. Err. 95\% max. & 0.305 & 0.0005 & 0.0084 & 0.0046 &0.0056 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] & 0.694 & 0.127 & 0.283 & 0.124 & 0.147 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy & 2.24 & 0.62 & 0.98 & 0.46 & 0.72 \\
\hline\hline
Aerosol Properties &$k_{450_{fine}}$ &$k_{450_{coarse}}$ &$k_{532_{fine}}$&$k_{532_{coarse}}$ & $k_{630_{fine}}$ \\
Mean Abs. Err. & 0.0020 & 0.0003 & 0.0013 & 0.00026 & 0.0012 \\
Abs. Err. 95\% max. & 0.0053 & 0.0009 & 0.0037 & 0.0007 & 0.0037 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] & 1.988 & 3.003 & 2.118 & 3.087 & 2.745 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy & 6.47 & 8.67 & 7.21 & 8.56 & 8.87 \\
\hline\hline
Aerosol Properties &$k_{630_{coarse}}$& $n_{fine}$ & $n_{coarse}$ & $\phi$ & $\chi$ \\
Mean Abs. Err.& 0.00024 & 0.0018 & 0.0012 & 0.0057 & 0.0023 \\
Abs. Err. 95\% max. & 0.0007& 0.0044 & 0.0035 & 0.0151 & 0.006 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] & 3.336& 0.124 & 0.08 & 1.109 & 0.319 \\
$\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy & 8.77 & 0.41 & 0.28 & 3.58 & 1.34
\end{tabular}
\caption{Results in terms of the Mean Absolute Error, the maximal Absolute Error at a confidence level of 95\%, the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ and the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for the case of noisy test data, assuming 5\% Gaussian noise, for the aerosol property retrieval for the bimodal data set with three wavelengths, all angles and $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$.}
\label{tab:inv_pass_bim}
\end{table}
Table \ref{tab:inv_pass_bim} also shows the $\operatorname{wMAPE}$, when 5\% Gaussian noise is added to the test data, which is closer to real measurements, than noise-free test data ($\operatorname{wMAPE}$ [\%] noisy). The $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ for all aerosol properties stays below 9\% and still the best predicted properties are the radii, the geometric standard deviations and the real parts of the refractive indices for both modes, with $\operatorname{wMAPE}$ below 1\%. This shows that the architecture of the invertible neural network is robust against random measurement errors.
The computation times for one forward and inverse pass are similar to the monomodal case, 0.46 ms and 2.66 ms, respectively.
Hence, as in the monomodal case, also in the bimodal case, the invertible neural network method proofs to be an accurate, robust and fast retrieval method for aerosols from measurement data.
\subsection{Bimodal case with imperfect measurement configurations: results with missing angles, wavelengths and polarimetric information}
For the bimodal case, again the same case study is performed as in the monomodal case, meaning that networks were trained, with different numbers and values of wavelengths, different presence of the (polarized) phase functions and missing angles (0°-5°, 85°-95°, 175°-179°). For the forward pass the comparison of the $R^2$ values shows as expected, that the prediction is similarly good for all models, see Figure \ref{fig:r2_test_qoi_bim} in the \ref{App:DetailedResults}. The boxplots of the relative and mean absolute errors for the forward model are depicted in Figure \ref{fig:abs_err_qoi_bim} as well in the Appendix. The errors show a similar behaviour over the different cases as for the monomodal data set. Again the results for all models are much better compared to the assumed measurement device errors (solid black lines).
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figures/results_new/comparison_abs_error_bim_AAE_iv.jpg}
\caption{Boxplots of the absolute errors of each aerosol property for the bimodal case. Each box describes the lower and upper quartile values and the median(line). The range of the absolute errors over all data points in the test set is shown with the whiskers.}
\label{fig:abs_bim}
\end{figure}
For the inverse pass, as before, it can be clearly seen at the boxplots in Figure \ref{fig:abs_bim} of the absolute errors, that solely the polarized phase function is not suited for the prediction of the volume concentration, independently of the wavelength, for the reason already explained for the monomodal examples. In general the absolute error is smallest for all aerosol properties, if all 3 wavelengths, $P_{11}$ and $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ are available. The missing angles hardly influence the retrieval.
Even if not all the wavelengths can be measured, it is important to have the polarized phase functions and the phase functions available, because the mixture of these two decreases the retrieval uncertainty for all aerosol properties. For the prediction of the radius, $R_{mean_{fine}}$, and the real part of the refractive index, $n_{fine}$, $P_{11}$ seems to be better suited, whereas $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ solely, gives better results for the spherical fraction and all the complex parts of the refractive indices. No significant statement can be drawn, whether one or the other wavelength, or a combination of two wavelengths is better for the aerosol retrieval.
Also in this bimodal case study it turned out that except solely $-\frac{P_{12}}{P_{11}}$ all other combinations of possible data are suited for the retrieval of aerosol properties from measurement data.
\section{Conclusion, Discussion and Outlook}
In summary, we introduced a novel method for aerosol property retrieval from in situ measurement data using invertible neural networks. The special structure of the neural networks allows to not only retrieve the aerosol properties, so solve the inverse problem, but also to simulate the forward model, which is to calculate measurement data from aerosol properties. By simulating laboratory and field in situ measurements with GRASP-OPEN and by using them for training and testing, we have shown the practical applicability of the proposed method. The quality achievable with the forward model is sufficient, since the current measurement device errors exceed the errors introduced by the model. This demonstrates that when it comes to application to atmospheric aerosols with complex size distribution and mixing state, the major errors will arise from the need to choose a simplified state space to represent the aerosol (i.e., from the ill-posedness of the inverse problem) rather than from limitations of INN capability. In addition, one forward simulation of the INN lasts not only a millisecond, which is much faster compared to physics based simulations that typically require seconds for one simulation. Also the performance of the inverse model, so the retrieval of the aerosol properties turned out to be satisfying, with a weighted mean absolute percentage error for all aerosol properties except the complex part of the refractive index from monomodal and bimodal case staying below 1.2\% (and for the complex part of the refractive index below 3.4\%), and a simulation time for one retrieval 1000 times faster than e.g. with GRASP-OPEN. This enables the near-real-time usage of the aerosol property retrieval from measurements and hence, could be a step further for processing of data from new sensors in real-time.
To reproduce real measurement conditions, we tested the method with data including 5\% Gaussian measurement noise. The results showed that the method is robust against measurement errors, meaning that the errors for the retrieval in terms of the weighted mean absolute percentage error still stay below 3.6\% for all aerosol properties except the complex part of the refractive index, for which it is less than 9\%.
In addition, a case study was performed to see how the models deal with missing data. Therefore, neural networks were trained and tested for 22 different cases of missing angles, wavelengths and/or (polarized) phase functions. Although the results for the retrieval are best if all data are available, nearly all the models with missing data achieved comparably good results, such that they are useful in practice. Additional noteworthy results include the fact that the addition of polarized phase function information offers a distinct performance benefit for retrieval of particle morphology information (i.e., the fraction of non-spherical particles in the coarse mode).
This proves, that invertible neural networks are a fast, accurate and robust method to retrieve aerosol properties from in situ, multi-angle light scattering measurements. Hence, invertible neural networks seem to be a promising alternative to commonly used pre-computed look-up tables and iterative, physics-based inversion methods.
After all, we see some options to improve the methods and datasets for future work:
If a need for higher accuracy arose, the model architecture itself could be improved, by allowing different neural networks in the affine coupling blocks or by performing a more sophisticated hyperparameter scan.
If physical knowledge is at hand, it is advisable to incorporate this, e.g. adding barrier functions to the loss to guarantee that physical quantities are within reasonable physical ranges or adding loss terms including Mie scattering theory, so using physics informed neural networks, \cite{RAISSI2019686}.
Additionally, in further studies we aim to relax some of the simplifying assumptions concerning the data set that we have used here. Like for example allowing multiple state parameters describing $n(\lambda)$ in order to capture any spectral dependence, even if such dependence is only minor. Given the good results presented here and the fact that iterative models such as GRASP-OPEN are capable of capturing such spectral dependence, we expect that INN models will also be capable of capturing this.
As discussed above, we considered here a relatively simplified bimodal representation of atmospheric aerosol size distributions where the fine and coarse aerosol modes are well-separated, which is consistent with ambient measurements processed with a state-of-the-art in classical retrieval scheme (GRASP-OPEN) \cite{Espinosa_2019}. In future work, we intend to explore inversion performance also for the cases of overlapping size distribution modes, as well as for the case when the size distribution is represented in a sectional manner with a greater number of state parameters.
\section{Funding source}
Romana Boiger was funded by the PSI Career Return Program. Financial support was also received from MeteoSwiss through a science project in the framework of the Swiss contribution to the global atmosphere watch programme (GAW-CH).
\section{Acknowledgement}
We acknowledge
Oleg Dubovik, Tatsiana Lapionak, Anton Lopatin and David Fuertes (GRASP-SAS, Remote sensing developments, Université de Lille, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France) for their support with GRASP-OPEN.
|
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
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\section{Introduction} \label{sec:Introduction}
\input{Sections/01-intro.tex}
\section{RISC-V Performance Monitor} \label{sec:RVHPM}
\input{Sections/02-RV-HPM}
\section{Proposed Approach and new extensions} \label{sec:Proposed}
\input{Sections/03-Solution.tex}
\section{Developments and results} \label{sec:Developed}
\input{Sections/04-Developed.tex}
\section{Conclusions and Next Steps} \label{sec:Conclusions}
\input{Sections/06-conclusions.tex}
\begin{acks}
This work was partially supported by national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) under projects\\
UIDB/50021/2020, and by funds from the European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme under grant agreement No. 826647, European Processor Initiative EPI.
We acknowledge the Institute of Computer Science (ICS) team at the Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas (FORTH), in particular to the Computer Architecture and VLSI Systems (CARV) personel: Nick Kossifidis, Georgios Ieronymakis, Nikolaus Dimou, and Vassilis Papaefstathiou, for all the heavily appreciated support, tools and guidance.
\end{acks}
\balance
\bibliographystyle{ACM-Reference-Format}
\subsection{Early specifications}
The first RISC-V privileged specification, version 1.7, introduced the first attempt at monitoring core's performance. The implementation, supporting three fixed counters \ac{CTI}, allowed for baseline performance monitoring of a RISC-V implementation, enough for calculating the \ac{IPC} metric. At v1.7, the \ac{PMU} had all the counters accessible at user and supervisor privileges, lacking control over non-privileged access.
Version 1.9 \cite{waterman_risc-v_2016} introduced control over the privileged counter accesses, a counter-enable mask was introduced by means of three registers accessible only at machine-level, and imposing read control over the \ac{CTI} counters at hypervisor, supervisor and user level. In addition, v1.9 introduced a set of counter deltas, a counter would keep the difference between each of the lower privilege counters and the respective machine-level counter (e.g., stime-mtime=mstime\_delta). These delta counters were removed after version 1.9. At the time, RISC-V performance monitoring was still limited to the set of three fixed registers, without support for general purpose or fixed-event performance monitoring registers.
\subsection{Configurable events and counters}
Support for 29 additional performance monitor registers was introduced with version 1.10. The \ac{HPM} counters, ranging from \HPMcounter{hpmcounter3} to \HPMcounter{hpmcounter31}, can be individually configured by setting an event identifier in the corresponding \HPMcounter{hpmevent} registers, a set of XLEN-bits registers (e.g., XLEN = 64 in a 64-bits implementation). This amounts for, virtually, $2^{64}$ selectable events for a single register, a value that surpasses any realistic implementation, providing an overly large design flexibility. The RISC-V specification states that the number, width and supported events of each \HPMcounter{hpmcounter} is platform-/implementation-specific. Even so, HPM counters are limited to a maximum width of 64-bits.
When setting the \HPMcounter{hpmevent} registers, event 0 is considered as the null event, and both the event configuration and the counter registers can be hardwired to 0, indicating that no event counting can occur.
Each event counter (\HPMcounter{hpmcounter\#}) is writable in an WARL (write any, read logical) scheme, allowing for each counter to be individually reset/set \cite{waterman_risc-v_2016-1}.
\subsection{Additional Features and Future Objectives}
In the latest ratified specification, version 1.11 \cite{watermanRISCVInstructionSet2019a}, individual counter inhibition (i.e., stop counting) was introduced, allowing the software to atomically sample events. This is accomplished through the introduction of the \HPMcounter{mcountinhibit} register, where each of the 32-bits can be set to inhibit the respective \ac{HPM} counter.
Current specifications suggest that future versions could include support for common event standardization, as to count ISA-level metrics, such as executed floating-point or integer instructions. Similarly, some very common and widely supported micro-architectural metrics could be standardized (e.g, L1 instruction cache misses). Another feature that may appear in future specifications is the support for counter overflow interrupts, allowing the software to accurately count events that overflow the counters at a faster pace than the event sampling occurs. Although, the occurrence of such continuous overflowing is unlikely, considering implementations with 64-bits counters.
\subsection{Summary}
At the time, the RISC-V \ac{HPM} is still significantly less complex than the x86 counterpart \cite{intel_intel_2016} and not comparable to the dedicated performance analysis tools like ARM's coresight and Intel's PCM-based monitoring solutions \cite{kleen_intel_2015,su_multi-core_2011,zeinolabedin_real-time_2021,lee_using_2017}. Even so, the RISC-V HPM specification is a flexible generic performance monitoring solution, and being open-source allows any degree of implementation freedom. Considering the current state of the RISC-V privileged specification, we propose, in the following section, an approach to monitor the performance counters in RISC-V through Linux Perf.
\subsection{OpenSBI HPM Extension}
To define an interface between software and hardware and provide the required privileged access to machine-level registers, the Hardware Performance Monitoring OpenSBI extension is herein adopted. The added OpenSBI functions are detailed in \autoref{tab:HPMExtension}. It allows to support reading and writing to all the privileged registers defined in version 1.11 of the specification, namely:
\begin{itemize}
\item Generic Performance counters: \HPMcounter{mcycle}, \HPMcounter{mtime}, \HPMcounter{minstret}.
\item Performance counters: \HPMcounter{mhpmcounter\#}.
\item Event configuration registers: \HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#}.
\item Lower privilege counter access: \HPMcounter{mcounteren}.
\item Inhibiting counter increment, \HPMcounter{mcountinhibit}.
\end{itemize}
\begin{table*}[t!]
\centering
\caption{OpenSBI HPM extension function calls definition.}
\label{tab:HPMExtension}
\vspace*{-3mm}
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l}
\bf HPM Function & \bf Output & \bf Arguments & \bf Errors \\ \hline
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_mevent & event id & mHPM event id (3 - 31) & *A: if register not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_mevent & & mHPM event id, event id & *A: if register not implemented \\
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_{[}m/u{]}counter & value & mHPM counter id (0 - 31) & *A: if counter not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_{[}m/u{]} & & mHPM counter id, value & *A: if counter not implemented \\
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_{[}m/s{]}counteren & 32-bits bitmask & & *A: if not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_{[}m/s{]}counteren & & 32-bits bitmask & *A: if not implemented \\
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_mcountinhibit & 32-bits bitmask & & *A: if not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_mcountinhibit & & 32-bits bitmask & \begin{tabular}[c]{@{}l@{}}*A: if not implemented\\ *B: on trying to inhibit time counter\end{tabular}
\end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{l}
\rowcolor[HTML]{FFFFFF}
*A: SBI\_ERR\_NOT\_SUPPORTED; *B: SBI\_ERR\_DENIED
\end{tabular}
\vspace*{-2mm}
\end{table*}
Moreover, we also add support for reading and writing directly to the supervisor privilege \HPMcounter{scounteren} register and to the user-level \HPMcounter{hpmcounter} performance counters. While this is not an absolutely necessary feature, considering that the Linux Kernel will have sufficient privilege level, it allows the code to access the counters through an unified interface. This may be deprecated in the future if the performance impact is non-negligible and if there is no actual benefit at software level.
Considering the return structure of the OpenSBI handler for the RISC-V environmental call (\textit{ecall}):
\verbatimfont{\footnotesize}%
\begin{lstlisting}
struct sbi_ret {
long value;
long error;
}
\end{lstlisting}
it was determined that each counter/register read could be executed in a single environmental call. Taking into account that the return variable \textit{value} is of type \textit{long}, the variable size will be the same of the implementation scalar registers (i.e., 64-bits in a 64-bit implementation, and 32-bits in a 32-bits implementation). Taking this into account, for a 32-bits system, the process of reading any HPM counter must be unfold in, at least, two calls, reading separately the lower and higher 32-bits portions of \HPMcounter{mhpmcounter\#}. Additional calls may eventually be necessary to compensate for the lower 32-bits counter overflow.
The proposed OpenSBI extension will be named HPM, after the RISC-V Hardware Performance Monitor specification, and should be identified by the value 0x48504d (as the direct conversion of "HPM" from ASCII to hexadecimal). Currently, the HPM is experimental, and thus is included in the experimental extension space with the corresponding ID (0x0848504d).
\subsection{Linux Kernel Driver Modifications}
The software-level changes proposed in this work do not impact the majority of the Linux kernel source-code. In particular, they are limited to specific areas, such as the Perf tool code and the Perf related RISC-V kernel portion (arch/riscv/kernel).
As mentioned in the beginning of this section, the current \mbox{RISC-V} Perf kernel implementation gives basic support for the RISC-V HPM specification, being restricted to fixed-event counters, i.e., each event can only be counted from a continuously running, non-stopable, and non-changeable counter. Moreover, the only supported events are the cycle and instret counters, having no process for reading other HPM counters. Hence, it is not compatible with the current RISC-V HPM specification, that allows for event configuration, counter inhibition and to control counter access. However, it does provide a basic structure to work on, which we extend in this work. We also build upon a Request for Comments kernel patch suggested by Zong Li \cite{li_lkml_2020}, that introduced support for the HPM counters, through raw events, and device-tree bindings to support platform-specific hardware events (although such patch was not merged into the kernel).
The introduced support for raw events allows the kernel driver to configure raw, not general, performance monitoring events, providing the necessary interfaces for adding, enabling, disabling and removing events that are related with the HPM counters. In addition, the support for device-tree bindings, allows for each platform to specify its own features, such as:
\begin{itemize}
\item Width of Base Counters (cycle, time, instret)
\item Width of Event Counters (\HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#})
\item Number of Event Counters
\item Hardware Event Map
\item Hardware Cache Event Map
\end{itemize}
The Hardware Event Map is provided as a list of key-value pairs, where each pair matches a hardware event generic to Perf (key) to an implementation raw hardware event (value). An example is to use a key-value pair of \texttt{branch\_misses: 0x05}, where the hardware event 0x05 matches the Perf branch\_misses event. The Hardware Cache Event Map is a similar structure to Hardware Event Map, however it maps events related to cache structures, such as L1 Read Misses or L2 Write Accesses.
The kernel Perf implementation is responsible for two processes: event sampling (in a general way) and interaction with the CPU Performance Monitoring Unit (through OpenSBI, or directly).
While any event is being sampled, the kernel driver will enable and start an event, proceed to take samples, and then, stop and disable the respective event. The interaction with the CPU PMU is handled at each of the mentioned steps. The introduced modifications include the interaction between the driver and the configuration registers (\HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#}, \HPMcounter{mcounteren}), which are accomplished through OpenSBI, to provide machine-level access. Furthermore, and to decrease performance monitoring overheads, we configure \HPMcounter{mcounteren} to allow for supervisor-level read access, to achieve direct read access from the kernel to the HPM counters.
Additionally, we introduced changes to how the events are matched to each counter. While an event could be matched to any counter, where an implementation would provide from 0 to 29 completely generic HPM counters, we alternatively propose that the mapping of each event is constrained to a specific set of counters (providing native support for hardware-friendly implementations where counters and associated events are constrained to specific pipeline stages). To achieve this, any raw event identifier contains two parameters: the event itself and the counter map. The event identifier is a numeric value to be interpreted by the CPU PMU through the \HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#} registers, not constrained to any particular logic (e.g., event classes and sub-classes). In contrast, the counter map is proposed as a 32-bit value, each event has one and only one associated counter map, where each active bit indicates that the corresponding HPM counter is unable to count the event, as depicted in \autoref{fig:CounterMap}. This additional parameter allows any event to be matched to any number and selection of HPM counters.
\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.44\textwidth]{Figures/CounterMap.pdf}
\caption{Counter Map for event to HPM counter matching.}
\label{fig:CounterMap}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Perf Tool Modifications}
The kernel driver is responsible for the actual sampling, the Perf tool acts as the frontend for event counting, providing a user interface for event listing (perf list), performance analysis (perf stat, monitor, record, report), and a set of simple benchmarks (perf bench). The modifications introduced by this work attempt to give support for raw events in a flexible and platform-specific way. In particular, the modifications can be separated in two sets, CPU identification and events mapping.
To be able to map the set of events available in a specific processor, system or platform, we need to identify which CPU is executing Perf. According to the RISC-V ISA and OpenSBI specifications, each RISC-V implementation has a publicly available architecture ID \cite{risc-v_foundation_open-source_2021}, that is readable through an OpenSBI read of the RISC-V CSR \textit{marchid}. Considering specific implementations can be under the same architecture ID, it is possible to get additional identification of the implemented CPU through another OpenSBI read to the CSR \textit{mimpid}, getting the specific implementation identifier. Taking into account the architecture and implementation identifiers, we consider that an absolute identification can be made by merging together the lower 24-bits of the architecture identifier to the lower 8-bits of the implementation identifier (see \autoref{fig:CPUID}). The choice of value widths can provide up to $2^{24} \approx 17~million$ different architectures and $2^{8} = 256$ implementations of each architecture, it is expect that these values will not be a future constraint.
\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.45\textwidth]{Figures/CPUIdentifier.pdf}
\caption{CPU unique identification for Perf events.}
\label{fig:CPUID}
\end{figure}
Each CPU Identifier can be mapped to a set of files containing fully described events. This is achieved through a mapping file in CSV format, with the example structure:
\begin{lstlisting}
CPU ID, File Vers. , Events Filename, Events Type
0x300 , 0 , CVA6 , core
0x500 , 0 , SPIKE , core
0x200 , 0 , BOOM , core
...
\end{lstlisting}
Where the CPU Identifier is defined according to the mentioned rules, the File Version is currently unused, the Events Filename is set to the name of directory containing the events description, and the Events Type describes the type of events the PMU specifies.
Each directory specified by the Events Filename column can contain multiple files in the Java Script Object Notation (JSON) format. Usually each file describes an event group from one specific category (e.g., pipeline, memory, instructions, etc.), and each of the JSON files will contain one to multiple events, with the following structure:
\begin{lstlisting}
{
"Public Description": "This is an example event,
for demonstration purposes.",
"Brief Description": "This is an example event."
"Event Code" : "0x11",
"Counter Mask" : "0xF8FF",
"Event Name" : "EXAMPLE_EVENT",
}
\end{lstlisting}
For this example, the Event Code 0x11 will be used to configure the \HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#} registers of the available counters selected by the Counter Mask value, where 0xF8FF specifies that the counters 8, 9 and 10 can be used to sample the event.
When monitoring performance, the selected events will be forwarded to the kernel driver, that in turn will handle the event to counter mapping and HPM event configuration. The kernel driver will, in turn, schedule each event or, in alternative, multiplex a set of events in the respective register, allowing for multiple events to be sampled in one workload execution, at the cost of samples accuracy. This process is depicted in \autoref{fig:SystemOverview}.
\subsection{Summary}
The modifications to the kernel, Perf and OpenSBI (enfatised in \autoref{fig:SystemOverview}), allowed us to take advantage of the RISC-V HPM specification. However, the retro-compatibility, and the divergence in the already implemented platforms poses challenges which must be faced during setup and testing of the performance monitoring software. In our current implementation, the hardware event and cache event maps (defined through the device tree bindings) are working as fixed-events, each mapping attaches the respective event to a specific counter. Consequently, this works for defined fixed-event counters, and does not have the flexibility of Perf mapping solution. Therefore, due to the inferior capabilities and increased difficulty of maintaining both solutions, the device-tree configurable events may be removed. Moreover, to better identify which processor features are available, we aim at using OpenSBI to discover registers capabilities and determine, at run-time, which features are implemented. Additionally, and to prevent illegal access to registers, the OpenSBI extension may be modified to prevent accesses that are not available in the platform, returning a descriptive error indicating that the feature is not supported. Through the OpenSBI capabilities and the Perf kernel driver we seek to achieve a good balance between a low performance overhead and powerful performance monitoring capabilities.
\subsection{Early specifications}
The first RISC-V privileged specification, version 1.7, introduced the first attempt at monitoring core's performance. The implementation, supporting three fixed counters \ac{CTI}, allowed for baseline performance monitoring of a RISC-V implementation, enough for calculating the \ac{IPC} metric. At v1.7, the \ac{PMU} had all the counters accessible at user and supervisor privileges, lacking control over non-privileged access.
Version 1.9 \cite{waterman_risc-v_2016} introduced control over the privileged counter accesses, a counter-enable mask was introduced by means of three registers accessible only at machine-level, and imposing read control over the \ac{CTI} counters at hypervisor, supervisor and user level. In addition, v1.9 introduced a set of counter deltas, a counter would keep the difference between each of the lower privilege counters and the respective machine-level counter (e.g., stime-mtime=mstime\_delta). These delta counters were removed after version 1.9. At the time, RISC-V performance monitoring was still limited to the set of three fixed registers, without support for general purpose or fixed-event performance monitoring registers.
\subsection{Configurable events and counters}
Support for 29 additional performance monitor registers was introduced with version 1.10. The \ac{HPM} counters, ranging from \HPMcounter{hpmcounter3} to \HPMcounter{hpmcounter31}, can be individually configured by setting an event identifier in the corresponding \HPMcounter{hpmevent} registers, a set of XLEN-bits registers (e.g., XLEN = 64 in a 64-bits implementation). This amounts for, virtually, $2^{64}$ selectable events for a single register, a value that surpasses any realistic implementation, providing an overly large design flexibility. The RISC-V specification states that the number, width and supported events of each \HPMcounter{hpmcounter} is platform-/implementation-specific. Even so, HPM counters are limited to a maximum width of 64-bits.
When setting the \HPMcounter{hpmevent} registers, event 0 is considered as the null event, and both the event configuration and the counter registers can be hardwired to 0, indicating that no event counting can occur.
Each event counter (\HPMcounter{hpmcounter\#}) is writable in an WARL (write any, read logical) scheme, allowing for each counter to be individually reset/set \cite{waterman_risc-v_2016-1}.
\subsection{Additional Features and Future Objectives}
In the latest ratified specification, version 1.11 \cite{watermanRISCVInstructionSet2019a}, individual counter inhibition (i.e., stop counting) was introduced, allowing the software to atomically sample events. This is accomplished through the introduction of the \HPMcounter{mcountinhibit} register, where each of the 32-bits can be set to inhibit the respective \ac{HPM} counter.
Current specifications suggest that future versions could include support for common event standardization, as to count ISA-level metrics, such as executed floating-point or integer instructions. Similarly, some very common and widely supported micro-architectural metrics could be standardized (e.g, L1 instruction cache misses). Another feature that may appear in future specifications is the support for counter overflow interrupts, allowing the software to accurately count events that overflow the counters at a faster pace than the event sampling occurs. Although, the occurrence of such continuous overflowing is unlikely, considering implementations with 64-bits counters.
\subsection{Summary}
At the time, the RISC-V \ac{HPM} is still significantly less complex than the x86 counterpart \cite{intel_intel_2016} and not comparable to the dedicated performance analysis tools like ARM's coresight and Intel's PCM-based monitoring solutions \cite{kleen_intel_2015,su_multi-core_2011,zeinolabedin_real-time_2021,lee_using_2017}. Even so, the RISC-V HPM specification is a flexible generic performance monitoring solution, and being open-source allows any degree of implementation freedom. Considering the current state of the RISC-V privileged specification, we propose, in the following section, an approach to monitor the performance counters in RISC-V through Linux Perf.
\subsection{OpenSBI HPM Extension}
To define an interface between software and hardware and provide the required privileged access to machine-level registers, the Hardware Performance Monitoring OpenSBI extension is herein adopted. The added OpenSBI functions are detailed in \autoref{tab:HPMExtension}. It allows to support reading and writing to all the privileged registers defined in version 1.11 of the specification, namely:
\begin{itemize}
\item Generic Performance counters: \HPMcounter{mcycle}, \HPMcounter{mtime}, \HPMcounter{minstret}.
\item Performance counters: \HPMcounter{mhpmcounter\#}.
\item Event configuration registers: \HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#}.
\item Lower privilege counter access: \HPMcounter{mcounteren}.
\item Inhibiting counter increment, \HPMcounter{mcountinhibit}.
\end{itemize}
\begin{table*}[t!]
\centering
\caption{OpenSBI HPM extension function calls definition.}
\label{tab:HPMExtension}
\vspace*{-3mm}
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l}
\bf HPM Function & \bf Output & \bf Arguments & \bf Errors \\ \hline
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_mevent & event id & mHPM event id (3 - 31) & *A: if register not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_mevent & & mHPM event id, event id & *A: if register not implemented \\
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_{[}m/u{]}counter & value & mHPM counter id (0 - 31) & *A: if counter not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_{[}m/u{]} & & mHPM counter id, value & *A: if counter not implemented \\
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_{[}m/s{]}counteren & 32-bits bitmask & & *A: if not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_{[}m/s{]}counteren & & 32-bits bitmask & *A: if not implemented \\
\rowcolor[HTML]{E0E0E0}
hpm\_get\_mcountinhibit & 32-bits bitmask & & *A: if not implemented \\
hpm\_set\_mcountinhibit & & 32-bits bitmask & \begin{tabular}[c]{@{}l@{}}*A: if not implemented\\ *B: on trying to inhibit time counter\end{tabular}
\end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{l}
\rowcolor[HTML]{FFFFFF}
*A: SBI\_ERR\_NOT\_SUPPORTED; *B: SBI\_ERR\_DENIED
\end{tabular}
\vspace*{-2mm}
\end{table*}
Moreover, we also add support for reading and writing directly to the supervisor privilege \HPMcounter{scounteren} register and to the user-level \HPMcounter{hpmcounter} performance counters. While this is not an absolutely necessary feature, considering that the Linux Kernel will have sufficient privilege level, it allows the code to access the counters through an unified interface. This may be deprecated in the future if the performance impact is non-negligible and if there is no actual benefit at software level.
Considering the return structure of the OpenSBI handler for the RISC-V environmental call (\textit{ecall}):
\verbatimfont{\footnotesize}%
\begin{lstlisting}
struct sbi_ret {
long value;
long error;
}
\end{lstlisting}
it was determined that each counter/register read could be executed in a single environmental call. Taking into account that the return variable \textit{value} is of type \textit{long}, the variable size will be the same of the implementation scalar registers (i.e., 64-bits in a 64-bit implementation, and 32-bits in a 32-bits implementation). Taking this into account, for a 32-bits system, the process of reading any HPM counter must be unfold in, at least, two calls, reading separately the lower and higher 32-bits portions of \HPMcounter{mhpmcounter\#}. Additional calls may eventually be necessary to compensate for the lower 32-bits counter overflow.
The proposed OpenSBI extension will be named HPM, after the RISC-V Hardware Performance Monitor specification, and should be identified by the value 0x48504d (as the direct conversion of "HPM" from ASCII to hexadecimal). Currently, the HPM is experimental, and thus is included in the experimental extension space with the corresponding ID (0x0848504d).
\subsection{Linux Kernel Driver Modifications}
The software-level changes proposed in this work do not impact the majority of the Linux kernel source-code. In particular, they are limited to specific areas, such as the Perf tool code and the Perf related RISC-V kernel portion (arch/riscv/kernel).
As mentioned in the beginning of this section, the current \mbox{RISC-V} Perf kernel implementation gives basic support for the RISC-V HPM specification, being restricted to fixed-event counters, i.e., each event can only be counted from a continuously running, non-stopable, and non-changeable counter. Moreover, the only supported events are the cycle and instret counters, having no process for reading other HPM counters. Hence, it is not compatible with the current RISC-V HPM specification, that allows for event configuration, counter inhibition and to control counter access. However, it does provide a basic structure to work on, which we extend in this work. We also build upon a Request for Comments kernel patch suggested by Zong Li \cite{li_lkml_2020}, that introduced support for the HPM counters, through raw events, and device-tree bindings to support platform-specific hardware events (although such patch was not merged into the kernel).
The introduced support for raw events allows the kernel driver to configure raw, not general, performance monitoring events, providing the necessary interfaces for adding, enabling, disabling and removing events that are related with the HPM counters. In addition, the support for device-tree bindings, allows for each platform to specify its own features, such as:
\begin{itemize}
\item Width of Base Counters (cycle, time, instret)
\item Width of Event Counters (\HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#})
\item Number of Event Counters
\item Hardware Event Map
\item Hardware Cache Event Map
\end{itemize}
The Hardware Event Map is provided as a list of key-value pairs, where each pair matches a hardware event generic to Perf (key) to an implementation raw hardware event (value). An example is to use a key-value pair of \texttt{branch\_misses: 0x05}, where the hardware event 0x05 matches the Perf branch\_misses event. The Hardware Cache Event Map is a similar structure to Hardware Event Map, however it maps events related to cache structures, such as L1 Read Misses or L2 Write Accesses.
The kernel Perf implementation is responsible for two processes: event sampling (in a general way) and interaction with the CPU Performance Monitoring Unit (through OpenSBI, or directly).
While any event is being sampled, the kernel driver will enable and start an event, proceed to take samples, and then, stop and disable the respective event. The interaction with the CPU PMU is handled at each of the mentioned steps. The introduced modifications include the interaction between the driver and the configuration registers (\HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#}, \HPMcounter{mcounteren}), which are accomplished through OpenSBI, to provide machine-level access. Furthermore, and to decrease performance monitoring overheads, we configure \HPMcounter{mcounteren} to allow for supervisor-level read access, to achieve direct read access from the kernel to the HPM counters.
Additionally, we introduced changes to how the events are matched to each counter. While an event could be matched to any counter, where an implementation would provide from 0 to 29 completely generic HPM counters, we alternatively propose that the mapping of each event is constrained to a specific set of counters (providing native support for hardware-friendly implementations where counters and associated events are constrained to specific pipeline stages). To achieve this, any raw event identifier contains two parameters: the event itself and the counter map. The event identifier is a numeric value to be interpreted by the CPU PMU through the \HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#} registers, not constrained to any particular logic (e.g., event classes and sub-classes). In contrast, the counter map is proposed as a 32-bit value, each event has one and only one associated counter map, where each active bit indicates that the corresponding HPM counter is unable to count the event, as depicted in \autoref{fig:CounterMap}. This additional parameter allows any event to be matched to any number and selection of HPM counters.
\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.44\textwidth]{Figures/CounterMap.pdf}
\caption{Counter Map for event to HPM counter matching.}
\label{fig:CounterMap}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Perf Tool Modifications}
The kernel driver is responsible for the actual sampling, the Perf tool acts as the frontend for event counting, providing a user interface for event listing (perf list), performance analysis (perf stat, monitor, record, report), and a set of simple benchmarks (perf bench). The modifications introduced by this work attempt to give support for raw events in a flexible and platform-specific way. In particular, the modifications can be separated in two sets, CPU identification and events mapping.
To be able to map the set of events available in a specific processor, system or platform, we need to identify which CPU is executing Perf. According to the RISC-V ISA and OpenSBI specifications, each RISC-V implementation has a publicly available architecture ID \cite{risc-v_foundation_open-source_2021}, that is readable through an OpenSBI read of the RISC-V CSR \textit{marchid}. Considering specific implementations can be under the same architecture ID, it is possible to get additional identification of the implemented CPU through another OpenSBI read to the CSR \textit{mimpid}, getting the specific implementation identifier. Taking into account the architecture and implementation identifiers, we consider that an absolute identification can be made by merging together the lower 24-bits of the architecture identifier to the lower 8-bits of the implementation identifier (see \autoref{fig:CPUID}). The choice of value widths can provide up to $2^{24} \approx 17~million$ different architectures and $2^{8} = 256$ implementations of each architecture, it is expect that these values will not be a future constraint.
\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.45\textwidth]{Figures/CPUIdentifier.pdf}
\caption{CPU unique identification for Perf events.}
\label{fig:CPUID}
\end{figure}
Each CPU Identifier can be mapped to a set of files containing fully described events. This is achieved through a mapping file in CSV format, with the example structure:
\begin{lstlisting}
CPU ID, File Vers. , Events Filename, Events Type
0x300 , 0 , CVA6 , core
0x500 , 0 , SPIKE , core
0x200 , 0 , BOOM , core
...
\end{lstlisting}
Where the CPU Identifier is defined according to the mentioned rules, the File Version is currently unused, the Events Filename is set to the name of directory containing the events description, and the Events Type describes the type of events the PMU specifies.
Each directory specified by the Events Filename column can contain multiple files in the Java Script Object Notation (JSON) format. Usually each file describes an event group from one specific category (e.g., pipeline, memory, instructions, etc.), and each of the JSON files will contain one to multiple events, with the following structure:
\begin{lstlisting}
{
"Public Description": "This is an example event,
for demonstration purposes.",
"Brief Description": "This is an example event."
"Event Code" : "0x11",
"Counter Mask" : "0xF8FF",
"Event Name" : "EXAMPLE_EVENT",
}
\end{lstlisting}
For this example, the Event Code 0x11 will be used to configure the \HPMcounter{mhpmevent\#} registers of the available counters selected by the Counter Mask value, where 0xF8FF specifies that the counters 8, 9 and 10 can be used to sample the event.
When monitoring performance, the selected events will be forwarded to the kernel driver, that in turn will handle the event to counter mapping and HPM event configuration. The kernel driver will, in turn, schedule each event or, in alternative, multiplex a set of events in the respective register, allowing for multiple events to be sampled in one workload execution, at the cost of samples accuracy. This process is depicted in \autoref{fig:SystemOverview}.
\subsection{Summary}
The modifications to the kernel, Perf and OpenSBI (enfatised in \autoref{fig:SystemOverview}), allowed us to take advantage of the RISC-V HPM specification. However, the retro-compatibility, and the divergence in the already implemented platforms poses challenges which must be faced during setup and testing of the performance monitoring software. In our current implementation, the hardware event and cache event maps (defined through the device tree bindings) are working as fixed-events, each mapping attaches the respective event to a specific counter. Consequently, this works for defined fixed-event counters, and does not have the flexibility of Perf mapping solution. Therefore, due to the inferior capabilities and increased difficulty of maintaining both solutions, the device-tree configurable events may be removed. Moreover, to better identify which processor features are available, we aim at using OpenSBI to discover registers capabilities and determine, at run-time, which features are implemented. Additionally, and to prevent illegal access to registers, the OpenSBI extension may be modified to prevent accesses that are not available in the platform, returning a descriptive error indicating that the feature is not supported. Through the OpenSBI capabilities and the Perf kernel driver we seek to achieve a good balance between a low performance overhead and powerful performance monitoring capabilities.
\section{Introduction} \label{sec:Introduction}
\input{Sections/01-intro.tex}
\section{RISC-V Performance Monitor} \label{sec:RVHPM}
\input{Sections/02-RV-HPM}
\section{Proposed Approach and new extensions} \label{sec:Proposed}
\input{Sections/03-Solution.tex}
\section{Developments and results} \label{sec:Developed}
\input{Sections/04-Developed.tex}
\section{Conclusions and Next Steps} \label{sec:Conclusions}
\input{Sections/06-conclusions.tex}
\begin{acks}
This work was partially supported by national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) under projects\\
UIDB/50021/2020, and by funds from the European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme under grant agreement No. 826647, European Processor Initiative EPI.
We acknowledge the Institute of Computer Science (ICS) team at the Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas (FORTH), in particular to the Computer Architecture and VLSI Systems (CARV) personel: Nick Kossifidis, Georgios Ieronymakis, Nikolaus Dimou, and Vassilis Papaefstathiou, for all the heavily appreciated support, tools and guidance.
\end{acks}
\balance
\bibliographystyle{ACM-Reference-Format}
|
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TX-Sen. Candidate Beto O'Rourke Has an Arrest History
O'Rourke has been arrested twice, once for burglary and on another occasion for driving while intoxicated.
Rep. Beto O'Rourke (D-TX), who is challenging Sen. Ted Cruz (R-TX) to represent Texas in the U.S. Senate, has quite an arrest history, according to the fact-checkers at PolitiFact.
O'Rourke has been arrested twice, once for burglary and on another occasion for driving while intoxicated.
According to PolitiFact:
"Separately, we ran a background check of O'Rourke using the LexisNexis service. According to the results, O'Rourke's May 1995 misdemeanor arrest on the UTEP campus was later declined and his September 1998 misdemeanor DWI arrest in El Paso was dismissed."
"The check gave us case numbers for the arrests enabling us to fetch an El Paso County record stating that O'Rourke was initially arrested in May 1995 and that case was disposed of in February 1996. We saw too that after the DWI arrest, according to another county record, O'Rourke was referred to a misdemeanor diversion program in March 1999 and completed "DWI school" in May 1999. That document's last entry, dated Oct. 20, 1999, says: "Misdemeanor diversion completed successfully."
O'Rourke claimed that the 1995 misdemeanor arrest happened when he and "some friends were horsing around, and we snuck under the fence at the UTEP physical plant and set off an alarm. We were arrested by UTEP police."
A spokesperson for the O'Rourke campaign doesn't deny the arrests, telling Politifact that O'Rourke has addressed the arrests at multiple campaign events.
"O'Rourke's comments and records indicate that UTEP police arrested O'Rourke in 1995 for burglary, a misdemeanor charge disposed of the next year. In 1998, El Paso police arrested O'Rourke for DWI, a misdemeanor charge that was dismissed after he completed 'DWI school' the next year," Politifact ruled. "We rate the claim True."
|
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{"url":"http:\/\/eng.wealthfront.com\/2014\/03\/04\/marketside-chats-4-costs-of-replicating-an-sp-500-portfolio\/","text":"# Marketside Chats #4: Costs of replicating an S&P 500 portfolio\n\nMarch 04, 2014\n\nWhat are stock indexes?\n\n(For a stock index, this is the correct plural \u2013 not \u201cindices\u201d.)\n\nWikipedia says it is \u201ca method of measuring the value of a section of the stock market\u201d. An index includes stocks\n\n1. that are similar in some meaningful way. Examples: all technology stocks, the biggest 100 stocks trading at the NASDAQ stock exchange, all stocks trading at New York Stock Exchange.\n2. with meaningful weights. One accepted way is \u201cmarket-capitalization-weighted\u201d; e.g. Apple has 100x the market value of US Steel, so it will have a 100x bigger weight in such an index. Other ones are equal-weighted and, in the case of DJIA (Dow Jones Industrial Average) price-weighted.\nWhy do they exist?\nMost people use them\u00a0as reference points. In news & discussions, \u201cthe market was up today\u201d typically means the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) was up. This index includes 30 large stocks, and despite its deficiencies, it is the de facto most used index. Though most stocks are correlated, it is always possible for one subset of the market to go up and another to go down, so there\u2019s never a single definition of \u201cthe market is up\u201d.\n\nHowever, indexes are proprietary products. The creator of an index makes money licensing it to others. In a way, the real reason for their existence is that the creators want to make money. However, to do so, they need to create an index that others will want to mimic. As a counterexample, if I create an index that includes all stocks that start with a vowel, I cannot license it to any mutual fund, because nobody will want to match it.\n\nThere are many financial instruments (e.g. mutual funds, and exchange traded funds \u2013 ETFs) that attempt to mimic the performance of well-known indexes. The investing public likes those instruments because they provide exposure to a wide, diversified set of stocks. In addition, some are\u00a0cheap to own, i.e.\u00a0their expense ratio (annual fees as a %) tends to be low. Finally, some are also cheap to trade: the spread (ask price minus bid price) may be only $0.01 on average for e.g. SPY, an ETF that tracks the S&P 500 index (SPX), which currently trades around$185 \u2013 so less than 0.01% of its price.\n\nMarket practitioners typically follow SPX, because it is covers more stocks (500) than DJIA (30), but also because it uses a more reasonable weighting methodology. (*1)\n\nIndex vs fund that matches an index\n\nAn index is a calculation. You cannot trade an index directly. What you can\u00a0trade in most cases is:\n\n1. financial instruments (ETFs, mutual funds) that attempt to match an index. However, these have fees, and are subject to \u2018tracking error\u2019, as it is very difficult to hold all stocks in the index at exactly the right proportions, and to buy or sell stocks when they enter\/exit the index while doing it at the same price used in the index calculation. That is, the performance of an ETF matching an index will not be 100% the same as that of the index itself.\n2. futures contracts, which are essentially bets on how high\/low an index will go in a certain period of time. These also cannot match an index perfectly, although for different reasons. The chief reason is temporary supply\/demand dislocations that may cause them to trade away from their\u00a0fair value (beyond the scope of this post). Also, futures contracts are harder for retail traders (i.e. you and me) to trade, and they cover fewer indexes than ETFs do.\nFor instance, SPY is an ETF that you can actually buy and hold in your retail brokerage account.\n\nReplicating a portfolio\n\nOne is said to have a position that is\u2026\n\n\u2022 long N shares, when one owns N shares of a security\n\u2022 short N shares, when one owes N shares of a security\n\u2022 flat (or zero), if neither is true\n\nA portfolio is a set of positions. A replicating portfolio is a portfolio that behaves (almost) the same. For example, if portfolio A holds $1m of a single security that tracks SPX (e.g. the SPY ETF), and portfolio B holds$1m of the same 500 stocks in SPX & at the same weights (e.g. 50 Apple, 20 GOOG, etc.), then B is a\u00a0portfolio that replicates A.\n\nReplicating SPX\nIn some cases, you\u2019d want to replicate an SPX portfolio with all 500 stocks. \u201cWhy\u201d is beyond the scope of this article. Ignoring the real-life constraint that you cannot buy fractions of a share, you would accomplish this by splitting your money on all 500 stocks in the same proportion as SPX.\n\nNothing too complicated so far. However, how can one compare the trading costs of buying, say, $100k of SPX vs$100k of the underlying portfolio? If needed here, see marketside chat #1 for the definitions of bid price, ask price, fair value, and half-spread. A reasonable approach is to compare the spread of an instrument that tracks the SPX (e.g. the SPY ETF) \u00a0(*2) against all 500 spreads for the SPX stocks, weighted by each stock\u2019s relative weight in the index. E.g. if AAPL (Apple) makes 3% of the SPX index, its spread matters much more in the final result than that of a small stock.\n\nMethodology of comparison\n\nFor each individual stock, you need to use some average of its spread over the last few days, as it may jump around.\n\nA basis point is 0.01%. It\u2019s widely used in trading only because it is faster to say \u201cthree bips\u201d than saying \u201czero point zero 3 per cent\u201d, and because the human brain can process small whole numbers more intuitively.\nSPY has a spread of almost 1 cent (*3), so $0.01 \/$185 ~= 0.5 bps. What is the statistical distribution of spreads for the 500 US stocks? Using some unimpressive but expedient awk, we get:\nawk \u2018{s=int(100*$5)\/100; print( (s<0.1) ? s : \u201c0.10 or more\u201d)}\u2019 spx_all.2013-08-01.final | sort -rg | uniq -c 22 0.10 or more 4 0.09 5 0.08 7 0.07 12 0.06 12 0.05 17 0.04 30 0.03 65 0.02 326 0.01 These are counts of spreads that are rounded down. So 500-326=174 stocks have average spreads that are 2 cents or more. However, a more natural way to compare spreads across stocks is to express them as a fraction of stock price. A similar awk commands yields (in bps): 17 10 or more 5 9 11 8 23 7 44 6 40 5 87 4 135 3 108 2 30 1 The (unweighted) average of the distribution above is ~4.5 bps (computation not shown). However \u2013 and here is a key market insight \u2013 the stocks that have high weights in SPX (e.g. AAPL) tend to be large companies, which are heavily traded and have smaller % spreads than average. The correctly weighted spread is therefore 3.2 bps, vs. 0.6 bps for SPY, so ~5x more. This analysis assumes that one trades a small enough size to avoid market impact (see marketside chat #1). Also, this comparison is not applicable to retail trading, as the costs for an individual retail investor would likely be completely dominated by commissions; that is, the cost of buying$1m of SPY is way more than the cost of a few hundred individual stock trades.\n\n(*1) SPX weighs stocks based on the value of the company they represent. Instead, the DJIA is a straight sum of the nominal prices of stocks, which are somewhat arbitrary. Example: AA (Alcoa) trades around $12, while MMM (3M) trades around$130. However, the market capitalization (stock price times number of shares in the company) is $13b for AA and$90b for MMM. So the market cap of MMM stock is ~7x that of AA, while its stock price (and therefore its weight in DJIA) is 130\/12= ~11x > 7x. Using this reasoning, MMM has a higher weight in DJIA than market-cap weighting would imply.\n(*2) If e.g. a stock today had an earnings announcement, it would be more volatile, and market participants should demand a bigger price \u2018cushion\u2019 when trading it, resulting in higher spreads in the market. Therefore, it is better to take the average over many days, so as to smooth out this effect.\n(*3) In the US, stocks priced over $1 must be quoted in prices that are increments of 1 penny. This may be the subject of a future marketside chat, but for now consider the two extreme cases: 1. If the minimum quote increment is 10^-9, and Alice is bidding$10 + 10^-9, then Bob has very little to lose if he sends an order to\u00a0buy at $10 + 2*10^-9; he\u2019s only improving the market by a tiny amount), while if a market order comes to sell at the bid, Bob will get to buy (and make the \u2018half-spread\u2019) and Alice wouldn\u2019t. The result would be endless \u201cpennying\u201d, i.e. sending of orders a tiny bit better than the previous ones. 2. If the minimum quote increment were$50, then (assuming fair value is around $175), there would be tons of orders to buy at$150 and sell at $200, as everyone would want to buy a$175 stock at the cheaper price of $150. Conversely, few would want to \u201ccross the spread\u201d (e.g. sell at$150 or buy at \\$200) because that would be giving away too much value. Therefore, there would be very little to no trading activity.","date":"2017-11-23 01:57:29","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 1, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 0, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.35018160939216614, \"perplexity\": 2507.194926579226}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": true, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2017-47\/segments\/1510934806715.73\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20171123012207-20171123032207-00172.warc.gz\"}"}
| null | null |
\section{Introduction}
In standard black-box convex optimization \cite{NY83, Nes04, Bub15} first-order methods interact with an {\em oracle}: given a query point $x$, the oracle reports the value and gradient of the underlying objective function $f$ at $x$. In this paper we propose to replace the oracle by a {\em politician}. Instead of answering the original query $x$ the politician changes the question and answers a new query $y$ which is guaranteed to be better than the original query $x$ in the sense that $f(y) \leq f(x)$. The newly selected query $y$ also depends on the history of queries that were made to the politician. Formally we introduce the following definition (for sake of simplicty we write $\nabla f(x)$ for either a gradient or a subgradient of $f$ at $x$).
\begin{definition}
Let $\mathcal{X} \subset \mathbb{R}^n$ and $f : \mathcal{X} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$. A politician $\Phi$ for $f$ is a mapping from $ \mathcal{X} \times \cup_{k = 0}^{\infty} (\mathcal{X} \times \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}^n)^k$ to $\mathcal{X}$ such that for any $k \geq 0, x \in \mathcal{X}, h \in (\mathcal{X} \times \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}^n)^k$ one has $f(\Phi(x,h)) \leq f(x)$. Furthermore when queried at $x$ with history $h$ a politician for $f$ also output $f(\Phi(x,h))$ and $\nabla f(\Phi(x,h))$ (in order to not overload notation we do not include these outputs in the range of $\Phi$).
\end{definition}
Let us clarify the interaction of a first-order method with a politician. Note that we refer to the couple (first-order method, politician) as the {\em algorithm}. Let $M : \cup_{k=0}^{\infty} (\mathcal{X} \times \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}^n)^k \rightarrow \mathcal{X}$ be a first-order method and $\Phi$ a politician for some function $f: \mathcal{X} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$. The course of the algorithm $(M, \Phi)$ then goes as follows: at iteration $k+1$ one first calculates the method's query point $x_{k+1} = M(h_k)$ (with $h_0 = \emptyset$), then one calculates the politician's new query point $y_{k+1}=\Phi(x_{k+1}, h_k)$ and the first order information at this point $(f(y_{k+1}), \nabla f(y_{k+1}))$, and finally one updates the history with this new information $h_{k+1} = (h_k, (y_{k+1}, f(y_{k+1}), \nabla f(y_{k+1})))$. Note that a standard oracle simply corresponds to a politician $\mathcal{O}$ for $f$ such that $\mathcal{O}(x,h) = (x, f(x), \nabla f(x))$ (in particular the algorithm $(M, \mathcal{O})$ is the usual algorithm corresponding to the first-order method $M$).
The philosophy of the above definition is that it gives in some sense an automatic way to combine different optimization algorithms. Say for example that we wish to combine the ellipsoid method with gradient descent. One way to do so is to design an ``ellipsoidal politician": the politician keeps track of a feasible ellipsoidal region based on the previously computed gradients, and when asked with the query $x$ the politician chooses as a new query $y$ the result of a line-search on the line between $x$ and the center of current ellipsoid. Gradient descent with this ellipsoidal politician would then replace the step $x \leftarrow x - \eta \nabla f(x)$ by $x \leftarrow y - \eta \nabla f(y)$. The hope is that in practice such a combination would integrate the fast incremental progress of gradient descent with the geometrical progress of the ellipsoid method.
In this paper we focus on unconstrained convex optimization. We are particularly interested in situations where calculating a (sub)gradient has superlinear complexity (i.e., $\gg n$) such as in logistic regression and semidefinite programming. In such cases it is natural to try to make the most out of the computed gradients by incorporating geometric reasoning (such as in the ellipsoid method). We do so by introducing the {\em geometric politician} (Section \ref{sec:geopol}), which is based on a combination of the recent ideas of \cite{BLS15} with standard cutting plane/interior point methods machinery (through the notion of a ``center" of a set, see Section \ref{sec:center}). For a given first order method $M$, we denote by $M+$ the algorithm obtained by running $M$ with the geometric politician. We demonstrate empirically (Section \ref{sec:exp}) the effectiveness of the geometric politician on various standard first-order methods for convex optimization (gradient descent, Nesterov's accelerated gradient descent, non-linear conjugate gradient, BFGS). In particular we show that BFGS+ is a surprisingly robust and parameter-free algorithm with state of the art performance across a wide range of problems (both smooth and non-smooth).
\section{Affine invariant politician} \label{sec:affpol}
As mentioned above we assume that the complexity of computing the map $x \mapsto \nabla f(x)$ is superlinear. This implies that we can afford to have a politician such that the complexity of computing the map $(x, h) \mapsto \Phi(x,h)$ is $O(n \times \mathrm{poly}(k))$ (we think of the number of iterations $k$ as typically much smaller than the dimension $n$).
We show in this section that this condition is (essentially) automatically satisfied as long as the politician is affine invariant in the following sense (we use a slight abuse of language and refer to a map $f \mapsto \Phi_f$, where $\Phi_f$ is a politician for $f$, as a politician):
\begin{definition}
A politician $f \mapsto \Phi_f$ is called affine invariant if for any function $f$ and any affine map $T : \mathbb{R}^m \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$ such that $T(x) = z + Lx$ for some matrix $L$, $k \geq 0, x \in \mathbb{R}^n, (y_i, v_i, g_i) \in \mathbb{R}^m \times \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}^n$, one has
$$ T(\Phi_{f \circ T}(x,(y_i, v_i, L^{\top} g_i)_{i \in [k]})) = \Phi_f(T(x), (T(y_i), v_i, g_i)_{i \in [k]}) .$$
We say that an affine invariant politician has cost $\psi : \mathbb{N} \rightarrow \mathbb{N}$ if for any $f: \mathbb{R}^k \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ the map $(x,h) \in \mathbb{R}^k \times (\mathbb{R}^k \times \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}^k)^k \mapsto \Phi_f(x,h)$ can be computed in time $\psi(k)$.
\end{definition}
\begin{proposition} \label{prop:1}
Let $\Phi$ be an affine invariant politician with cost $\psi$. Then for any $f: \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$, $(y_i, v_i, g_i) \in \mathbb{R}^n \times \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}^n, i \in [k]$ and $x, y_i \in y_1 + \mathrm{Span}(g_1, \hdots, g_k)$ one can compute $\Phi_f(x,(y_i, v_i, g_i)_{i \in[k]}) \in \mathbb{R}^n$ in time $\psi(k) + O(n k^2)$.
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof}
Let $G$ be the $n \times k$ matrix with $i^{th}$ column given by $g_i$. We consider the $QR$ decomposition of $G$ which can be computed in time $O(n k^2)$, that is $Q$ is an $n \times k$ matrix and $R$ a $k\times k$ matrix such that $G = QR$ and $Q^{\top} Q = \mathrm{I}_k$. Let $T$ be the affine map defined by $T=y_1 + Q$. Note that since $x \in y_1 + \mathrm{Span}(g_1, \hdots, g_k)$ one has $x = T(Q^{\top}(x-y_1))$ (and similarly for $y_i$). Thus by affine invariance one has
\begin{align*}
\Phi_f(x, (y_i, v_i, g_i)) & = \Phi_f(T(Q^{\top}(x-y_1)), (T(Q^{\top}(y_i-y_1)), v_i, g_i)) \\
& = y_1 + Q \Phi_{f \circ T}(Q^{\top} (x-y_1), (Q^{\top} (y_i-y_1), v_i, R_i)) ,
\end{align*}
where $R_i$ is the $i^{th}$ column of $R$.
Furthermore by definition of the cost $\psi$ and since $f \circ T$ is defined on $\mathbb{R}^k$ we see that this last quantity can be computed in time $\psi(k) + O(n k^2)$, thus concluding the proof.
\end{proof}
The above proposition shows that with an affine invariant politician and a first order method $M$ verifying for any $(y_i, v_i, g_i)_{i \in [k]} \in (\mathbb{R}^n \times \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}^n)^k$,
$$M((y_i, v_i, g_i)_{i \in [k]}) \in y_1 + \mathrm{Span}(y_1, \hdots, y_k, g_1, \hdots, g_k) ,$$
one can run $k$ steps of the corresponding algorithm in time $O(n k^2 + k \psi(k))$ plus the time to compute the $k$ function values and gradients of the underlying function $f$ to be optimized. Note that one gets a time of $O(n k^2)$ instead of $O(n k^3)$ as one can store the $QR$ decomposition from one step to the next, and updating the decomposition only cost $O(n k)$.
\section{Geometric politician} \label{sec:geopol}
We describe in this section the {\em geometric politician} which is based on ideas developed in \cite{BLS15}. A key observation in the latter paper is that if $f$ is a $\alpha$-strongly convex function minimized at $x^*$ then one has for any $x$,
\[
\left\|x^{*}-x-\frac{1}{\alpha}\nabla f(x)\right\|^{2}\leq\frac{\|{\nabla f(x)}\|^{2}}{\alpha^{2}}-\frac{2}{\alpha}\left(f(x)-f(x^{*})\right).
\]
This motivates the following definition:
$$\mathrm{B}(x,\alpha,\bold{fval}) := \left\{ z \in \mathbb{R}^n : \left\|{z-x-\frac{1}{\alpha}\nabla f(x)}\right\|^{2} \leq \frac{\|{\nabla f(x)}\|^{2}}{\alpha^{2}}-\frac{2}{\alpha}\left(f(x)-\bold{fval}\right)\right\} .$$
In particular given the first order information at $y_1, \hdots, y_k$ one knows that the optimum $x^*$ lies in the region $R_k \subset \mathbb{R}^n$ defined by
\begin{equation}
R_k=\bigcap_{i\in[k]}B(y_i,\alpha,\bold{fval})\text{ where }\bold{fval}=\min_{i\in[k]}f(y_i).\label{eq:feasible_region}
\end{equation}
Now suppose that given this first order information at $y_1,\hdots, y_k$ the first order method asks to query $x$. How should we modify this query in order to take into account the geometric information that $x^* \in R_k$? First observe that for any $z$, $\mathrm{B}(z,\alpha, \bold{fval})$ is contained in a halfspace that has $z$ on its boundary (in the limiting case $\alpha \rightarrow 0$ the set $\mathrm{B}(z,\alpha, f(z))$ is exactly a halfspace). In particular if the next query point $y_{k+1}$ is the center of gravity of $R_k$ then we have that the volume of $R_{k+1}$ is at most $1-1/e$ times the volume of $R_k$ (see \cite{Gru60}), thus leading to an exponential convergence rate. However the region $R_k$ can be very large initially, and the center of gravity might have a large function value and gradient, which means that $R_k$ would be intersected with a large sphere (possibly so large that it is close to a halfspace). On the other hand the first order method recommends to query $x$, which we can think of as a local improvement of $y_k$, which should lead to a much smaller sphere. The issue is that the position of this sphere might be such that the intersection with $R_k$ is almost as large as the sphere itself. In order to balance between the geometric and function value/gradient considerations we propose for the new query to do a line search between the center of $R_k$ and the recommended query $x$. The geometric politician follows this recipe with two important modifications: (i) there are many choices of centers that would guarantee an exponential convergence rate while being much easier to compute than the center of gravity, and we choose here to consider the {\em volumetric center}, see Section \ref{sec:center} for the definition and more details about this notion; (ii) we use a simple heuristic to adapt online the strong convexity parameter $\alpha$, namely we start with some large value for $\alpha$ and if it happens that the feasible region $R_k$ is empty then we know that $\alpha$ was too large, in which case we reduce it. We can now describe formally the geometric politician, see Algorithm \ref{alg:geopoli}. Importantly one can verify that the geometric politician is affine invariant and thus can be implemented efficiently (see the proof of Proposition \ref{prop:1}).
\begin{algorithm2e}
\caption{Geometric Politician}
\label{alg:geopoli}
\SetAlgoLined
\textbf{Parameter: }An upper bound on the strong convexity parameter $\alpha$.
(Can be $+\infty$.)
\textbf{Input: } Query $x$, past queries and the corresponding first order information $(y_i, f(y_i), \nabla f(y_i))_{i\in[k]}$.
Let $\bold{fval}=\min_{i\in[k]}f(y_i)$ and the feasible region $R_k(\alpha)=\bigcap_{i\in[k]}\mathrm{B}(y_i,\alpha,\bold{fval}).$
\If{$R_k(\alpha)=\emptyset$}{
Let $\alpha$ be the largest number such that $R_k(\alpha)\neq\emptyset$.
$\alpha\leftarrow\alpha/4$.
}
Let $y_{k+1}=\mathop{\mathrm{argmin}}_{y \in \{t x + (1-t) c(R_k(\alpha)), t \in \mathbb{R}\}} f(y)$
where $c(R_k(\alpha))$
is the volumetric center of $R_k(\alpha)$ (see Section \ref{sec:center}).
\textbf{Output:} $y_{k+1}$, $f(y_{k+1})$ and $\nabla f(y_{k+1})$.
\end{algorithm2e}
\section{Volumetric center} \label{sec:center}
The volumetric barrier for a polytope was introduced in \cite{Vai96} to construct an algorithm with both the oracle complexity of the center of gravity method and the computational complexity of the ellipsoid method (see [Section 2.3, \cite{Bub15}] for more details and \cite{LSW15} for recent advances on this construction). Recalling that the standard logarithmic barrier $F_P$ for the polytope $P=\{x \in \mathbb{R}^n : a_i^{\top} x < b_i, i \in [m]\}$ is defined by
$$F_P(x) = - \sum_{i=1}^m \log(b_i - a_i^{\top} x) ,$$
one defines the volumetric barrier $v_P$ for $P$ by
$$v_P(x) = \mathrm{logdet}(\nabla^2 F_P(x) ) .$$
The volumetric center $c(P)$ is then defined as the minimizer of $v_P$. In the context of the geometric politician (see Algorithm \ref{alg:geopoli}) we are dealing with an intersection of balls rather than an intersection of halfspaces. More precisely the region of interest is of the form:
\[
R = \bigcap_{i=1}^{k}\left\{ x\in\mathbb{R}^n:\|x-c_{i}\|\leq r_{i}\right\} .
\]
For such a domain the natural self-concordant barrier to consider is:
\[
F_R(x) = -\frac{1}{2}\sum_{i=1}^{k}\log\left(r_{i}^{2}-\|x-c_{i}\|^{2}\right).
\]
The volumetric barrier is defined as before by
\[
v_R(x) = \mathrm{logdet} ( \nabla^{2} F_R(x) ) ,
\]
and the volumetric center of $R$ is the minimizer of $v_R$. It is shown in \cite{Ans04} that $v_R$ is a self-concordant barrier which means that the center can be updated
(when a new ball is added to $R$) via few iterations of Newton's method. Often in practice, it takes less than 5 iterations to update the minimizer of a self-concordant barrier \cite{GV99, BDGV95} when we add a new constraint. Hence, the complexity merely depends on how fast we can compute the gradient and Hessian of $F_R$ and $v_R$.
\begin{proposition}
For the analytic barrier $F_R$, we have that
\begin{align*}
\nabla F_{R}(x) = & A^{\top}1_{k\times1},\\
\nabla^{2}F_{R}(x) = & 2A^{\top}A+\lambda^{(1)}I
\end{align*}
where $d$ is a vector defined by $\left(r_{i}^{2}-\|x-c_{i}\|^{2}\right)^{-1}$,
$A$ is a $k\times n$ matrix with $i^{th}$ row given by $d_{i}(x)(x-c_{i})$,
$\lambda^{(p)}=\sum_{i\in[k]}d_{i}^{p}(x)$ and $1_{k\times1}$
is a $k\times1$ matrix with all entries being $1$.
For the volumetric center, we have that
\begin{align*}
\nabla v_{R}(x) & = \left(\left(2\mathtt{tr} H^{-1}\right)\mathrm{I}+4H^{-1}\right)A^{\top}d+8A^{\top}\sigma, \\
\nabla^{2}v_{R}(x) & = 48A^{\top}\Sigma A-64A^{\top}\left(A H^{-1}A^{\top}\right)^{(2)}A \\
& + \left(8 \mathtt{tr}(D \Sigma)+2\lambda^{(2)}\mathtt{tr}(H^{-1})\right)I +4\lambda^{(2)}H^{-1}\\
& +8 \mathtt{tr}(H^{-1})A^{\top}D A+16\mathtt{sym}\left(A^{\top}D A H^{-1}\right)\\
& -4 \mathtt{tr}(H^{-2})A^{\top}D \mathrm{J} D A-8H^{-1}A^{\top}D \mathrm{J} D A H^{-1}\\
& -8\mathtt{sym}(A^{\top}D \mathrm{J} D A H^{-2})-8\left(d^{\top}A H^{-1}A^{\top}d\right)H^{-1}\\
& -16\mathtt{sym}\left(A^{\top}\mathtt{diag}\left(A H^{-2}A^{\top}\right) \mathrm{J} D A\right)\\
& -32\mathtt{sym}\left(A^{\top}\mathtt{diag}(A H^{-1}A^{\top}d)A H^{-1}\right)
\end{align*}
where $H=\nabla^{2}F_{R}(x)$, $\sigma_{i}=e_{i}^{\top}A H^{-1}A^{\top}e_{i}$,
$e_{i}$ is the indicator vector with $i^{th}$ coordinate, $\mathrm{J}$
is a $k\times k$ matrix with all entries being 1, $\mathtt{sym}(B)=B+B^{\top}$,
$\mathtt{diag}(v)$ is a diagonal matrix with $\mathtt{diag}(v)_{ii}=v_{i}$, $\Sigma=\mathtt{diag}(\sigma)$,
and $B^{(2)}$ is the Schur square of $B$ defined by $B_{ij}^{(2)}=B_{ij}^{2}$.
\end{proposition}
The above proposition shows that one step of Newton method for analytic center requires 1 dense matrix multiplication and solving 1 linear system; and for volumetric center, it requires 5 dense matrix multiplications, 1 matrix inversion and solving 1 linear system if implemented correctly. Although the analytic center is a more popular choice for ``geometrical'' algorithms, we choose volumetric center here because it gives a better convergence rate \cite{Vai96,AV95} and the extra cost $\psi(k)$ is negligible to the cost of updating QR decomposition $nk$.
\section{Experiments} \label{sec:exp}
\input{experiments}
\section{Discussion} \label{sec:disc}
First order methods generally involve only very basic operations at each step (addition, scalar multiplication). In this paper we formalize each step's operations (besides the gradient calculation) as the work of the politician. We showed that the cost per step of an affine invariant politician $\psi(k)$ is negligible compared to the gradient calculation (which is $\Omega(n)$). This opens up a lot of possibilities: instead of basic addition or scalar multiplication one can imagine computing a center of gravity, solving a linear program, or even searching over an exponential space (indeed, say $k<30$ and $n>10^{10}$, then $2^k < n$). Our experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of this strategy. On the other hand from a theoretical point of view a lot remains to be done. For example one can prove results of the following flavor:
\begin{theorem}
Let $f$ such that $\alpha \mathrm{I} \preceq \nabla^2 f(x) \preceq \beta \mathrm{I}, \forall x \in \mathbb{R}^n$ and let $\kappa = \beta / \alpha$. Suppose that in the Geometric Politician we replace the volumetric center by the center of gravity or the center of the John ellipsoid. Let $y_k$ be the output of the $k^{th}$ step of SD$+$ with some initial point $x_0$. Then, we have that
$$f(y_k) - f(x^*) \leq \kappa \left (1-\frac{1}{\Theta(\min(n \log(\kappa), \kappa))} \right)^k \left(f(x_0) - f(x^*) \right ).$$
and
$$ f(y_k) - f(x^*) \leq \frac{2 \beta R^2}{k+4}$$
where $R = \max_{f(x)\leq f(x_0)} \| x - x^* \|$.
\end{theorem}
This claim says that, up to a logarithmic factor, SD$+$ enjoys simultaneously the incremental progress of gradient descent and the geometrical progress of cutting plane methods. There are three caveats in this claim:
\begin{itemize}
\item We use the center of gravity or the center of the John ellipsoid instead of the volumetric center.
Note however that it is well-known that the volumetric center is usually more difficult to analyze, \cite{Vai96,AV95}.
\item The extraneous $\log(\kappa)$ comes from the number of potential restart when we decrease $\alpha$.
Is there a better way to learn $\alpha$ that would not incur this additional logarithmic term?
\item \cite{BLS15} shows essentially that one can combine the ellipsoid method with gradient descent to achieve the optimal $1-\sqrt{1/\kappa}$ rate. Can we prove such a result for SD$+$?
\end{itemize}
The geometric politician could be refined in many ways. Here are two simple questions that we leave for future work:
\begin{itemize}
\item One can think that gradient descent stores 1 gradient information, accelerated gradient descent stores 2 gradient information, and our method stores all past gradient information. We believe that neither 1, 2 nor all is the correct answer. Instead, the algorithm should dynamically decide the number of gradients to store based on the size of its memory, the cost of computing gradients, and the information each gradient reveals.
\item Is there a stochastic version of our algorithm? How well would such a method compare with state of the art stochastic algorithms such as SAG \cite{LRSB12} and SVRG \cite{JZ13}?
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Details of Implementations\label{sub:implementation}}
The first algorithm we implement is the $\emptyset+$ algorithm which
simply repeatedly call the politician. As we will see, this algorithm
is great for non smooth problems but not competitive for smooth problems.
\begin{algorithm2e}
\caption{$\emptyset+$}
\SetAlgoLined
\textbf{Input: }$x_{0}$.
\For{$k\leftarrow 1, 2, \cdots$}{
Set $x_{k+1}\leftarrow\Phi_{f}(x_k, (x_i, f(x_i), \nabla f(x_i))_{i \in [k]})$.
}
\end{algorithm2e}
The second algorithm we implement is the accelerated gradient descent
proposed by Gonzaga and Karas \cite{gonzaga2013fine}. This algorithm uses line search to learn
the the smoothness parameter and strong convexity parameter, see Algorithm \ref{alg:GK}.
We disable the line ({*}) in the algorithm if $\Phi_{f}$ is a politician
instead of an oracle because $\gamma\geq\alpha$ does not hold for
the strong convexity parameter $\alpha$ if $\Phi_{f}$ is not an
oracle.
\begin{algorithm2e}[t]
\caption{Gonzaga-Karas's variant of Accelerated Gradient Descent} \label{alg:GK}
\SetAlgoLined
\DontPrintSemicolon
\textbf{Input: }$x_{1}$.
$\gamma=2\alpha$, $v_{0}=x_{0}$ and $y_{0}=x_{0}$.
\For{$k\leftarrow 1, 2, \cdots$}{
$y_{k}\leftarrow\Phi_{f}(y_{k-1})$.
$x_{k+1}=\mathtt{line\_search}(y_{k},-\nabla f(y_{k}))$.
\lIf{$\alpha\geq\gamma/1.02$ and we are using first order oracle}{$\alpha=\gamma/2$. ({*})}
\lIf{$\alpha\geq\frac{\|\nabla f(y_{k})\|^{2}}{2(f(y_{k})-f(x_{k+1}))}$}{$\alpha=\frac{\|\nabla f(y_{k})\|^{2}}{20(f(y_{k})-f(x_{k+1}))}$.}
$G=\gamma\left(\frac{\alpha}{2}\|v_{k}-y_{k}\|^{2}+\left\langle \nabla f(y_{k}),v_{k}-y_{k}\right\rangle \right).$
$A=G+\frac{1}{2}\|\nabla f(y_{k})\|^{2}+(\alpha-\gamma)(f(x_{k})-f(y_{k}))$.
$B=(\alpha-\gamma)(f(x_{k+1})-f(x_{k}))-\gamma(f(y_{k})-f(x_{k}))-G$.
$C=\gamma(f(x_{k+1})-f(x_{k}))$.
$\beta=\frac{-B+\sqrt{B^{2}-4AC}}{2A}$, $\gamma=(1-\beta)\gamma+\beta\alpha$.
$v_{k+1}=\frac{1}{\gamma}((1-\beta)\gamma v_{k}+\beta(\alpha y_{k}-\nabla f(y_{k}))$.
}
\end{algorithm2e}
The third algorithm we implemented is the Broyden\textendash Fletcher\textendash Goldfarb\textendash Shanno
(BFGS) algorithm. This algorithm uses the gradients to reconstruct
the Hessian and use it to approximate Newton's method, see Algorithm \ref{alg:BFGS}.
We note that another natural way to employ the politician with BFGS is to set $x_{k+1}=\mathtt{line\_search}(\Phi_{f}(x_{k}),p)$
and this runs faster in practice; however, this algorithm computes two gradients per iteration (namely $\nabla f(x_{k})$ and $\nabla f(\Phi_{f}(x_{k}))$) while we restrict ourselves to algorithms which compute one gradient per iteration.
\begin{algorithm2e}[t]
\caption{BFGS}
\label{alg:BFGS}
\SetAlgoLined
\DontPrintSemicolon
\textbf{Input: }$x_{1}$.
\For{$k\leftarrow 1, 2, \cdots$}{
$p=-\nabla f(x_{k})$.
\For{$i\leftarrow k-1, \cdots, 1$}{
$\alpha_{i}\leftarrow\left\langle s_{i},p\right\rangle /\left\langle s_{i},y_{i}\right\rangle $.
$p=p-\alpha_{i}y_{i}$.
}
$p=\left\langle s_{k-1},y_{k-1}\right\rangle /\left\langle y_{k-1},y_{k-1}\right\rangle p.$
\For{$i\leftarrow 1, \cdots, k-1$}{
$\beta_{i}\leftarrow\left\langle y_{i},p\right\rangle /\left\langle s_{i},y_{i}\right\rangle $.
$p=p+(\alpha_{i}-\beta_{i})y_{i}$.
}
$x_{k+1}=\Phi_{f}\left(\mathtt{line\_search}(x_{k},p)\right)$.
$s_{k}=x_{k+1}-x_{k}$, $y_{k}=\nabla f(x_{k+1})-\nabla f(x_{k})$.
}
\end{algorithm2e}
\subsection{Quadratic function}
We consider the function
\begin{equation} \label{eq:quad}
f(x)=(x-c)^{\top}D(x-c) ,
\end{equation}
where $D$ is a diagonal matrix with entries uniformly sampled from
$[0,1]$ and $c$ is a random vector with entries uniformly sampled
from the normal distribution $N(0,1)$. Since this is a quadratic
function, CG, BFGS and BFGS+ are equivalent and optimal, namely,
they output the minimum point in the span of all previous gradients.
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{Diagonal.pdf}
\caption{Comparison of first-order methods for the function (\ref{eq:quad})
with $n=10000$.}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Variant of Nesterov's Worst Function}
\cite{Nes04} introduced the function
\[
f(x)=(1-x[1])^{2}+\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}(x[k]-x[k+1])^{2}
\]
and used it to give a lower bound for all first-order methods. To
distinguish the performance between CG, BFGS and BFGS$+$, we consider
the following non-quadratic variant
\begin{equation}
f(x)=g(1-x[1])+\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}g(x[k]-x[k+1])\label{eq:variant_nesterov}
\end{equation}
for some function $g$ to be defined. If we pick $g(x)=\left|x\right|$ then
all first order methods takes at least $n$ iterations to minimize $f$ exactly. On the other hand with $g(x)=\max(\left|x\right|-0.1,0)$ one of the minimizer of
$f$ is $(1,\frac{9}{10},\frac{8}{10},\cdots,\frac{1}{10},0,0,\cdots,0)$, and thus it takes at least $11$ iterations for first order methods to minimize $f$ in this case.
We ``regularize'' the situation a bit and consider the function
\[
g(x)=\begin{cases}
\sqrt{\left(x-0.1\right)^{2}+0.001^{2}}-0.001 & \text{if }x\geq0.1\\
\sqrt{\left(x+0.1\right)^{2}+0.001^{2}}-0.001 & \text{if }x\leq-0.1\\
0 & \text{otherwise}
\end{cases}.
\]
Since this function is far from quadratic, our algorithms ($\emptyset+$, GK$+$, BFGS$+$) converge
much faster. This is thus a nice example where the geometric politician helps a lot because the underlying dimension of the problem is small.
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{EasyNesterov.pdf}
\caption{Comparison of first-order methods for the function (\ref{eq:variant_nesterov})
with $n=10000$.}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Binary regression with smoothed hinge loss}
We consider the binary classification problem on the datasets from \cite{chang2011libsvm}. The problem is to minimize
the regularized empirical risk:
\begin{equation}
f_{t}(x)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^{n}\varphi_{t}(b_{i}a_{i}^{T}x)+\frac{\lambda}{2}\left|x\right|^{2}\label{eq:log_regress}
\end{equation}
where $a_{i}\in\mathbb{R}^{d}$, $b_{i}\in\mathbb{R}$ are given by the datasets,
$\lambda$ is the regularization coefficient, $\varphi_{t}$ is the
smoothed hinge loss defined by
\[
\varphi_{t}(z)=\begin{cases}
0 & \text{if }z\leq-1\\
z+1-\frac{t}{2} & \text{if }z\geq-1+t\\
\frac{1}{2t}(z+1)^{2} & \text{otherwise}
\end{cases}
\]
and $t$ is the smoothness parameter. The usual choice for $t$ is
$1$, here we test both $t=1$ and $t=10^{-4}$. The latter
case is to test how well the algorithms perform when the function is
non-smooth.
We note that for this problem it would be natural to compare ourselves with SGD (stochastic gradient descent) or more refined stochastic algorithms such as SAG \cite{LRSB12} or SVRG \cite{JZ13}. However since the focus of this paper is on general black-box optimization we stick to comparing only to general methods. It is an interesting open problem to extend our algorithms to the stochastic setting, see Section \ref{sec:disc}.
In figures \ref{fig:smooth_profile} and \ref{fig:non_smooth_profile},
we show the performance profile for problems in the LIBSVM datasets (and with different values for the regularization parameter $\lambda$).
More precisely for a given algorithm we plot $x \in [1,10]$ versus the fraction of datasets that the algorithm can solve (up to a certain prespecified accuracy) in a number of iterations which is at most $x$ times the number of iterations of the best algorithm for this dataset.
Figure \ref{fig:smooth_profile} shows the case $t=1$ with the targeted
accuracy $10^{-6}$; Figure \ref{fig:non_smooth_profile} shows the
case $t=10^{-4}$ with the targeted accuracy $10^{-3}$. We see that TFOCS is slower than SD for many problems, this is simply because
SD uses the line search while TFOCS does not, and this
makes a huge difference for simple problems. Among algorithms taking
$O(n)$ time per iteration, CG and Geo perform the best, while
for the $O(n k)$ algorithms we see that BFGS, BFGS$+$ and GK$+$ perform the best.
The gap in performance is particularly striking in the non-smooth case where BFGS$+$ is the fastest algorithm on almost all problems and all other methods (except GK$+$) are lagging far behind (for 20\% of the problems all other methods take 10 times more iterations than BFGS$+$ and GK$+$).
Finally in figures \ref{fig:smooth} and \ref{fig:non_smooth} we test
five algorithms on three specific datasets (respectively in the smooth and non-smooth case). In both
figures we see that BFGS$+$ performs the best for all three datasets. BFGS
performs second for smooth problems while GK$+$ performs second for
nonsmooth problems.
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{smooth_profile.pdf}
\caption{Performance profile on problem (\ref{eq:log_regress}) with $t=1$
and $\lambda=10^{-4},10^{-5},10^{-6},10^{-7},10^{-8}$.\label{fig:smooth_profile}}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{non_smooth_profile.pdf}
\caption{Performance profile on problem (\ref{eq:log_regress}) with $t=10^{-4}$
and $\lambda=10^{-4},10^{-5},10^{-6},10^{-7},10^{-8}$.\label{fig:non_smooth_profile}}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{smooth.pdf}
\caption{Comparison between Geo, CG, BFGS, GK$+$, BFGS$+$ on problem (\ref{eq:log_regress})
with $t=1$ and $\lambda=10^{-4},10^{-6},10^{-8}$.\label{fig:smooth}}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{non_smooth.pdf}
\caption{Comparison between Geo, CG, BFGS, GK$+$, BFGS$+$ on problem (\ref{eq:log_regress})
with $t=10^{-4}$ and $\lambda=10^{-4},10^{-6},10^{-8}$.\label{fig:non_smooth}}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Summary}
The experiments show that BFGS$+$ and BFGS perform the best among all methods for smooth test problems while BFGS$+$ and GK$+$ perform the best for nonsmooth test problems. The first phenomenon is due to the optimality of these algorithm for quadratic problems. We leave the explanation for the second phenomenon as an open problem. At least, the experiments show that this is not due to the geometric oracle itself since $\emptyset+$ is much slower, and this is not due to the original algorithm since GK performs much worse than GK$+$ for those problems. Overall these experiments are very promising for the geometric oracle as a replacement of quasi Newton method for non-smooth problems and as a general purpose solver due to its robustness.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
| 7,465
|
Per Ostbahnhof (in tedesco "stazione orientale") si possono intendere:
a Berlino la stazione di Berlin Ostbahnhof, in attività dal 1867 al 1882;
a Berlino la stazione di Berlin Ostbahnhof, così denominata dal 1998;
a Monaco di Baviera la stazione di München Ost;
a Monaco di Baviera la stazione "Ostbahnhof" della metropolitana.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaWikipedia"
}
| 8,664
|
Q: how to perform command button operation which is placed in Excel sheet using selenium java I want to automate the command button(want to perform click operation) which is placed on Excel sheet using selenium java code. How to do this? If any code is there please share?
A: You can automate just browser interaction using selenium. You cannot interact with Microsoft Excel desktop version with selenium.
A: You are looking for keyword framework to automate selenium
Look below articles they have shown the all necessary details regarding same:-
https://www.guru99.com/creating-keyword-hybrid-frameworks-with-selenium.html
http://www.lessons99.com/keyword-driven-framework.html
Go through all links of Keyword driven in below URL. You will get the code also
http://toolsqa.com/selenium-webdriver/keyword-driven-framework/introduction/
Hope it will help you :)
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 1,793
|
Le Parti socialiste de Grèce (en grec : / Sosialistiko Komma Elladas, SKE) était un parti politique grec se réclamant du socialisme. Le Parti a été fondé en 1920 par une minorité dissidente du Parti socialiste ouvrier de Grèce (SEKE) qui s'opposait à l'entrée du SEKE au sein de l'Internationale communiste, le SEKE deviendra d'ailleurs le Parti communiste de Grèce en 1924. Le groupe qui était à l'origine de la fondation du Parti socialiste de Grèce était dirigé par A. Sideris. Le Parti était actif parmi les syndicats, notamment au sein de la Confédération générale des travailleurs grecs (GSEE), au point que l'un des principaux membres du Parti socialiste, Dimitris Stratis, fut élu secrétaire général à la tête de l'organisation syndicale. Contrairement à la majorité des socialistes grecs, le Parti socialiste de Grèce fut membre de l'Internationale ouvrière socialiste, à l'instar des aitres partis socialistes à travers le monde qui s'étaient opposés à la révolution d'Octobre et à la prise de pouvoir par les bolcheviks. Il en a été membre de 1923 à 1931, ainsi qu'en 1933.
En 1931, un groupe dirigé par Dimitris Stratis se sépara du Parti socialiste de Grèce pour fonder le Parti socialiste indépendant. Cependant, le Parti socialiste indépendant fut éphémère puisque dès l'année suivante, Dimitris Stratis, leader de la dissidence socialiste, retourna au sein du Parti socialiste et devint même membre du Comité central du Parti.
Durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale, le Parti lança l'Union de la démocratie populaire (ELD) en tant que front de résistance contre l'occupation de la Grèce par l'Axe (Italie, Allemagne, Bulgarie) et contre le fascisme en général. Néanmoins, l'ELD était une organisation de résistance minoritaire comparée à l'organisation communiste, le Front de libération nationale (EAM). Cela n'empêcha pas le professeur Alexandros Svólos, membre du Parti socialiste, d'être nommé Président au sein du gouvernement formé par la résistance grecque en 1944.
En février 1949, le Parti socialiste décida de rompre ses liens avec le Parti communiste. Hors, cette désunion eut un impact sur son électorat, impact qui fut particulièrement visible lors des élections de 1952 où le Parti dut faire face à un important échec.
En septembre 1953, les socialistes forment avec le Parti démocrate, le Parti démocratique des travailleurs. Deux mois plus tard, les socialistes du nouveau parti fondèrent en son sein la Ligue socialiste grecque, une organisation ayant pour but de garantir et de préserver la politique socialiste au sein du Parti démocratique des travailleurs.
Références
Parti politique en Grèce
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaWikipedia"
}
| 4,418
|
[](https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0)
[ ](https://bintray.com/reisub/maven/httpizza/_latestVersion)
[](http://www.methodscount.com/?lib=sexy.code%3Ahttpizza%3A0.3.0)
[](https://coveralls.io/github/reisub/HttPizza?branch=master)
Lightweight HTTP client using [HttpURLConnection](http://developer.android.com/intl/es/reference/java/net/HttpURLConnection.html) under the hood.
The primary use case is for apps, libraries and SDKs which don't need/want all the features ([and methods!](http://www.methodscount.com/?lib=com.squareup.okhttp3%3Aokhttp%3A3.0.1)) OkHttp provides.
It has the same limitations as HttpURLConnection like not supporting the PATCH method and not permitting request body in DELETE requests.
## Usage
Add the library as a dependency to your ```build.gradle``` to automatically download it from jcenter.
```groovy
compile 'sexy.code:httpizza:0.3.0'
```
We also maintain a [changelog](CHANGELOG.md).
### Create a client
```java
HttPizza client = new HttPizza();
```
### GET request
```java
Request request = client.newRequest()
.url(url)
.get()
.build();
Response response = client.newCall(request).execute();
```
### POST request
```java
Request request = client.newRequest()
.url(url)
.post(RequestBody.create(MediaType.parse("text/plain; charset=utf-8"), "requestBody"))
.build();
Response response = client.newCall(request).execute();
```
### Async GET request
```java
Request request = client.newRequest()
.url(url)
.build();
client.newCall(request).enqueue(new Callback() {
@Override
public void onResponse(Response response) {
if (response.isSuccessful()) {
Timber.d("Body: %s", response.body().string());
} else {
Timber.d("Status code: %s", response.code());
}
}
@Override
public void onFailure(Throwable t) {
Timber.e(t.getMessage());
}
});
```
### POST request with form parameters
```java
RequestBody formBody = new FormBody.Builder()
.add("search", "Airplane!")
.build();
Request request = client.newRequest()
.url(url)
.post(formBody)
.build();
Response response = client.newCall(request).execute();
```
## Credits
HttPizza reuses parts of [OkHttp](https://github.com/square/okhttp) and is largely based on [lighthttp](https://github.com/satorufujiwara/lighthttp).
It also draws inspiration from [OkHttp](https://github.com/square/okhttp) and [Retrofit](https://github.com/square/retrofit) APIs.
## Contributing
Feedback and code contributions are very much welcome. Just make a pull request with a short description of your changes. By making contributions to this project you give permission for your code to be used under the same [license](LICENSE).
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 4,794
|
Q: Function not picking up changed variable, is it not global? So I have a pretty simple quiz made up of 7 select boxes and a submit button. What I'm trying to achieve is to make a warning error pop up if none of the select boxes have been changed, and if they have been changed for it to bring up the score.
I've set up a variable called 'changed' which is false. When one of those select boxes is changed 'changed' becomes true...
This works and I have a console log which shows me its working, however when the submit button is pressed, which calls the function to show the scores or the warning it doesn't seem to recognise that 'changed' has changed to TRUE.
Heres the Jquery...
var changed = false;
$('select').on('change', function () {
var changed = true;
console.log('TRUE');
});
$("#button").click( function(){
var correct = 0;
var selectValue;
var questions = document.getElementsByClassName("question");
var numOfQuestions = questions.length;
for(var i = 0; i < questions.length; i++ ){//begin for loop
//get the value of the select element
selectValue = questions[i].options[questions[i].selectedIndex].value;
//if the value equals right
if(selectValue === "right"){//begin if then
//increment the correct variable
correct++;
}//end if then
}//end for loop
if(changed === false){
$('#scoreDisplay span').append('WARNING');
}
else{
$('#scoreDisplay span').append(correct);
}
});
you can see it in action here, but you will see it just shows 'WARNING' when you click submit, regardless of whether you've changed any select boxes... http://gogeye.com/connectquiz/index.html
A: The redefinition of var changed in this event handler:
$('select').on('change', function () {
// creates a new local variable that is only available inside this function
var changed = true;
console.log('TRUE');
});
makes a new local variable that "shadows" and "hides" the changed variable declared in a higher scope.
Remove the var from the one inside your function so it is not creating a new variable of that name, but is instead just setting the higher scoped one:
var changed = false;
$('select').on('change', function () {
// no var in front of this variable so you are just setting
// the earlier one, not creating a new one
changed = true;
console.log('TRUE');
});
Remember, anytime you declare a variable with var inside a function, it defines a new local variable that is only available within that function. If that happens to have the same name as a variable in a higher scope, then it overrides that variable name and the interpreter uses the local one instead of the higher scoped one anytime you reference it.
The Javascript interpret does a scope search to resolve a variable reference. First it looks in the local scope. If it is found there, then it uses the one it found there. If it is not found there, it then looks at the next higher scope. If not found there, it goes up to a higher scope until it gets up to the global scope. So, the closest scope it finds the variable name in is the one that is used - thus a var or let defined local variable will be used first.
A: remove the 'var' from 'var changed = true'
var changed = false;
$('select').on('change', function () {
changed = true;
console.log('TRUE');
});
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 2,492
|
//------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// <auto-generated>
// This code was generated by a tool
// Changes to this file will be lost if the code is regenerated.
// </auto-generated>
//------------------------------------------------------------------------------
namespace AVM.iFAB
{
using AVM;
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;
using System.Text;
public class ManufacturingModel : Model
{
public virtual List<ManufacturingModelParameter> ManufacturingModelParameter
{
get;
set;
}
}
}
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 8,275
|
Hotstar MOD APK (Premium Unlocked) Latest
Hotstar MOD APK (Premium Unlocked) is one of the most popular streaming player applications in the world. You can find the most popular sports and TV shows in India.
latestRequirements
in.startv.hotstar
Novi Digital
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Hotstar is a streaming application developed and focused on content in India. Therefore, you can experience eight languages, including Hin di, Bengali, Telugu, Malayalam, Tamil, Marathi, Kannada, and English. If you want to change them, you can go to settings. If you're going to receive Sub in more languages, you must sign up for the Premium plan.
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How to install the MOD version
We provide you with two MOD versions below the article. Because this application has restrictions for some Android devices, you should choose the version suited for your device. Specifically, the MOD version v1 works for most Android devices. If you use a Xiaomi phone, it may not work. You can try v2.
Also, if the MOD version doesn't work, try Netflix by onlycracked right now!
Download Hotstar MOD APK for Android
Despite the 5-year development period, Hotstar has recorded achievements that few applications have. The rich content and good service have made Hotstar an indispensable entertainment app for many people. And here, right below this article, is the download link. We have updated the latest version and edited it a bit to use the free Premium package. Do not hesitate to leave a 5-star review and an encouraging comment.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 4,613
|
Q: Adding a legend to ggplot linegraph of multiple dataframes in R I want to add a legend to a ggplot linegraph of multiple dataframes in R.
I read in several .csv files (see below) to dataframes, then plot them in R using the following code:
ggplot(data=ridge_u_s_summary,aes(x = times,y=means))+
geom_errorbar(data=ridge_u_s_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd),colour="red")+
geom_line(aes(y=means),colour="red")+
geom_line(data = valley_u_s_summary,aes(x=times,y=means))+
theme_classic()+
geom_errorbar(data=valley_u_s_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd))+
geom_line(data = edge_u_s_summary,aes(x=times,y=means),colour="blue")+
geom_errorbar(data=edge_u_s_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd),colour="blue")+
labs(x="Time",y="Temperature in understory during January to April")
In order to add a legend to this, I have tried
Habitat <- c("Edge")
ggplot(data=edge_u_summary,aes(x = times,y=means,color=Habitat))+
geom_errorbar(data=edge_u_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd),colour="red")+
geom_line(aes(y=means),colour="red")+
geom_line(data = ridge_u_summary,aes(x=times,y=means))+
geom_errorbar(data=ridge_u_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd))+
geom_line(data = valley_u_summary,aes(x=times,y=means),colour="blue")+
geom_errorbar(data=valley_u_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd),colour="blue")+
labs(x="Time",y="Temperature in understory all year")
This gets me almost what I want- except it changed the color of the plot for some reason, and when I attempt to add the other variables to the legend as R gives the error:
"Error: Aesthetics must be either length 1 or the same as the data (25): x, y, colour"
The data looks something like this:
edge_u_summary:
"","times","means","sd"
"1",1,23.8256278538813,1.08250700768145
"12",2,23.1031294452347,1.24911533974507
"19",3,23.4439617486339,1.1282693292488
"20",4,22.7613086770982,1.36975338509067
"21",5,23.2025956284153,1.20295088366619
"22",6,22.5241109530583,1.44166092397246
"23",7,23.1135422343324,1.26558498566579
"24",8,23.2541963015647,1.47021441335091
"25",9,25.1409536784741,1.58548666490834
"2",10,26.7320085166785,2.59539671383782
"3",11,27.6513358778626,2.5977168687079
"4",12,28.586775106082,2.87211533419383
"5",13,28.5709923664122,2.79577350516269
"6",14,29.5764872521246,3.26115806616442
"7",15,28.4104832104832,2.70542254623265
"8",16,28.3307583274274,2.5157045864679
"9",17,26.9131787175989,1.8371272211906
"10",18,26.3352232459249,1.71211772244667
"11",19,25.2531787175989,1.12498732015416
"13",20,24.652728561304,1.24019473277585
"14",21,24.4688591703057,0.99064927009491
"15",22,23.9340425531915,1.16463318058244
"16",23,24.0581058951965,0.987431147782684
"17",24,23.4854609929078,1.19542300490208
"18",25,23.6280334728033,0.977115814231141
ridge_u_summary:
"","times","means","sd"
"1",1,23.5870433511934,0.937068380991415
"12",2,23.0331950207469,1.1488061017937
"19",3,23.3496395963479,1.02861071580118
"20",4,22.682918395574,1.28095122645134
"21",5,23.1064616862839,1.11960341933558
"22",6,22.4135546334716,1.36699461456579
"23",7,22.9523592814371,1.19411131617966
"24",8,22.5736514522822,1.44525141078227
"25",9,24.0131017964072,1.20022890842346
"2",10,24.4016586040083,1.61518041063122
"3",11,25.6837805462386,1.49361866061128
"4",12,26.0852107809261,2.0335844646935
"5",13,26.5968368080518,1.80035938711879
"6",14,26.7841959972395,2.24353092250421
"7",15,26.6535363222249,1.7733853965812
"8",16,26.5494824016563,1.97883869059574
"9",17,25.9478177458034,1.47079061322174
"10",18,25.5847212663455,1.67334903054897
"11",19,24.9841852651788,1.13952974451756
"13",20,24.505099931082,1.34188808323866
"14",21,24.3428365730742,0.964465091164753
"15",22,23.8500345065562,1.1826679089188
"16",23,23.9638415366146,0.934203639374674
"17",24,23.4138716356108,1.13425784998453
"18",25,23.7044528659403,0.977776310460964
Valley_u_summary:
"","times","means","sd"
"1",1,23.8609523809524,0.941137931036436
"12",2,23.6167464114833,1.36368015448422
"19",3,23.6931023210199,1.09423013467475
"20",4,23.2622807017544,1.40370217291909
"21",5,23.444655116051,1.13978244673363
"22",6,22.9831738437002,1.37794014701823
"23",7,23.2909416748126,1.17933203457316
"24",8,23.2392657621708,1.35015918020873
"25",9,24.302705345502,1.07391752061927
"2",10,24.8187699680511,1.39386829705572
"3",11,25.7716009129442,1.36677999460727
"4",12,26.1712689545092,1.97824543923682
"5",13,26.5006523157208,1.62284855146781
"6",14,26.6692430278884,2.08567545174535
"7",15,26.502446183953,1.55882287684552
"8",16,26.28759936407,1.72625533400646
"9",17,25.8817558746736,1.24691066538137
"10",18,25.5448412698413,1.45728060915926
"11",19,25.1434910277325,1.08377131492575
"13",20,24.8136616362192,1.32224607164181
"14",21,24.6306135770235,1.00789058764099
"15",22,24.3593328038125,1.32214170798361
"16",23,24.2933093994778,1.02334054495071
"17",24,23.9780778395552,1.34031144743681
"18",25,24.1241503976862,1.16464232030193
The data appear scrambled due to a sorting artifact, but are okay.
A: The following works
edge_u_s_summary <- read.table(text = '"times","means","sd"
"1",1,23.8256278538813,1.08250700768145
"12",2,23.1031294452347,1.24911533974507
"19",3,23.4439617486339,1.1282693292488
"20",4,22.7613086770982,1.36975338509067
"21",5,23.2025956284153,1.20295088366619
"22",6,22.5241109530583,1.44166092397246
"23",7,23.1135422343324,1.26558498566579
"24",8,23.2541963015647,1.47021441335091
"25",9,25.1409536784741,1.58548666490834
"2",10,26.7320085166785,2.59539671383782
"3",11,27.6513358778626,2.5977168687079
"4",12,28.586775106082,2.87211533419383
"5",13,28.5709923664122,2.79577350516269
"6",14,29.5764872521246,3.26115806616442
"7",15,28.4104832104832,2.70542254623265
"8",16,28.3307583274274,2.5157045864679
"9",17,26.9131787175989,1.8371272211906
"10",18,26.3352232459249,1.71211772244667
"11",19,25.2531787175989,1.12498732015416
"13",20,24.652728561304,1.24019473277585
"14",21,24.4688591703057,0.99064927009491
"15",22,23.9340425531915,1.16463318058244
"16",23,24.0581058951965,0.987431147782684
"17",24,23.4854609929078,1.19542300490208
"18",25,23.6280334728033,0.977115814231141', sep = ",", header = T)
ridge_u_s_summary <- read.table(text = '"times","means","sd"
"1",1,23.5870433511934,0.937068380991415
"12",2,23.0331950207469,1.1488061017937
"19",3,23.3496395963479,1.02861071580118
"20",4,22.682918395574,1.28095122645134
"21",5,23.1064616862839,1.11960341933558
"22",6,22.4135546334716,1.36699461456579
"23",7,22.9523592814371,1.19411131617966
"24",8,22.5736514522822,1.44525141078227
"25",9,24.0131017964072,1.20022890842346
"2",10,24.4016586040083,1.61518041063122
"3",11,25.6837805462386,1.49361866061128
"4",12,26.0852107809261,2.0335844646935
"5",13,26.5968368080518,1.80035938711879
"6",14,26.7841959972395,2.24353092250421
"7",15,26.6535363222249,1.7733853965812
"8",16,26.5494824016563,1.97883869059574
"9",17,25.9478177458034,1.47079061322174
"10",18,25.5847212663455,1.67334903054897
"11",19,24.9841852651788,1.13952974451756
"13",20,24.505099931082,1.34188808323866
"14",21,24.3428365730742,0.964465091164753
"15",22,23.8500345065562,1.1826679089188
"16",23,23.9638415366146,0.934203639374674
"17",24,23.4138716356108,1.13425784998453
"18",25,23.7044528659403,0.977776310460964', sep = ",", header = T)
valley_u_s_summary <- read.table(text = '"times","means","sd"
"1",1,23.8609523809524,0.941137931036436
"12",2,23.6167464114833,1.36368015448422
"19",3,23.6931023210199,1.09423013467475
"20",4,23.2622807017544,1.40370217291909
"21",5,23.444655116051,1.13978244673363
"22",6,22.9831738437002,1.37794014701823
"23",7,23.2909416748126,1.17933203457316
"24",8,23.2392657621708,1.35015918020873
"25",9,24.302705345502,1.07391752061927
"2",10,24.8187699680511,1.39386829705572
"3",11,25.7716009129442,1.36677999460727
"4",12,26.1712689545092,1.97824543923682
"5",13,26.5006523157208,1.62284855146781
"6",14,26.6692430278884,2.08567545174535
"7",15,26.502446183953,1.55882287684552
"8",16,26.28759936407,1.72625533400646
"9",17,25.8817558746736,1.24691066538137
"10",18,25.5448412698413,1.45728060915926
"11",19,25.1434910277325,1.08377131492575
"13",20,24.8136616362192,1.32224607164181
"14",21,24.6306135770235,1.00789058764099
"15",22,24.3593328038125,1.32214170798361
"16",23,24.2933093994778,1.02334054495071
"17",24,23.9780778395552,1.34031144743681
"18",25,24.1241503976862,1.16464232030193', sep = ",", header = T)
ggplot(data=ridge_u_s_summary,aes(x = times,y=means))+
geom_errorbar(data=ridge_u_s_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd,colour="ridge"))+
geom_line(aes(y=means,colour="ridge"))+
geom_line(data = valley_u_s_summary,aes(x=times,y=means, color = "valley")) +
geom_errorbar(data=valley_u_s_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd, color = "valley"))+
geom_line(data = edge_u_s_summary,aes(x=times,y=means,colour="edge"))+
geom_errorbar(data=edge_u_s_summary,aes(ymin=means-sd,ymax=means+sd,colour="edge"))+
labs(x="Time",y="Temperature in understory during January to April") +
theme_classic() +
scale_color_manual(values = c("red", "green", "blue"), name = "Legend")
As to your first question about changing color. That is happening because you have included color = Habitat inside aes(). This means that you are mapping color to a constant aesthetic. ggplot will assign a default color to that mapping. That's why your color changed to the default scheme.
To change the actual values you can use scale_color_manual and specify the values you want as shown above. Basically, what it's doing is mapping the color aesthetic to user specified values instead of using default values. Note that you'll have to specify as many values as the number of aesthetic mappings you have used (3 in this case). You can also modify other aspects of the legend using that option.
There is an easier way of accomplishing what you want by binding your data frames together
edge_u_s_summary$variable <- "edge"
valley_u_s_summary$variable <- "valley"
ridge_u_s_summary$variable <- "ridge"
df <- rbind(edge_u_s_summary, valley_u_s_summary, ridge_u_s_summary)
ggplot(df, aes(times, means, color = variable)) +
geom_errorbar(aes(ymin = means - sd, ymax = means + sd)) +
geom_line() +
theme_classic() +
scale_color_manual(values = c("red", "green", "blue"), name = "Legend")
You'll get a similar plot:
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
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Thu, 29 Nov 2018 18:40:00 GMT the mahabharata penguin classics pdf - The MahÄbhÄrata (US: / m É™ h É'Ë Ëˆ b É'Ër É™ t É™ /, UK: / ËŒ m É'Ë h... The Kaushitaki Upanishad (Sanskrit: कौषीतकि उपनिषद्, Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad) is an ancient Sanskrit text contained inside the Rigveda. It is associated with the Kaushitaki shakha , but a Sāmānya Upanishad, meaning that it is "common" to all schools of Vedanta .
Holy Vedas ; Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda Commentaries on the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita: The Three Branches of India's Life-Tree The Wisdom of the Vedas (Theosophical Heritage Classics) Vedas - An Analytical Perspective Discovering the Vedas:... THE RIG VEDA PENGUIN CLASSICS Download The Rig Veda Penguin Classics ebook PDF or Read Online books in PDF, EPUB, and Mobi Format. Click Download or Read Online button to THE RIG VEDA PENGUIN CLASSICS book pdf for free now.
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The Rig Veda Classics. In order for Rhe to survive, it would have to accommodate itself to scientific and democratic ways of doing things and the prescriptions and proscriptions of the Koran would have, accordingly, to be fudged.
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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| 4,077
|
August Sebastianus Nouzenus (auch Sebastianus Nouzenus oder August Sebastian Nuzenus; * 23. April 1503 in Saeftingen an der Schelde; † 18. April 1536 in Marburg) war ein deutsch-niederländischer Theologe, Hebraist und Jurist.
Leben
Nouzenus absolvierte die niedere Schule seines Heimatortes. 1512 konnte er auf die Lateinschule von Aerschot wechseln, an der er für das Studium der Universität vorbereitet wurde. Er nahm das Studium der sieben freien Künste und der Theologie an der nahegelegenen Universität Löwen auf. Dort wurde er 1520 zum Magister der Künste graduiert. Nach einer Reise durch Flandern gab er Vorlesungen an der Universität in Löwen. Vier Jahre in Gent und kurz Antwerpen wirkte er als Lehrer insbesondere der Theologie und der Philosophie.
Nouzenus floh vor den Wirren der Reformation aus Flandern, um einer Verhaftung zu entgehen, gab damit auch seine Bibliothek auf, und ließ sich 1526 in Wittenberg nieder. An der Universität Wittenberg vertiefte er sein Wissen zur hebräischen Sprache, bevor er im Mai 1527 einem Ruf als Professor der Hebräischen Sprache an die Theologische Fakultät der Universität Marburg folgte. Dort widmete er sich neben seiner Professur dem Studium der Rechtswissenschaft und wurde in der Folge Hessischer Rat und Beisitzer am Hofgericht Marburg. Am 11. November 1535 wurde er von der Juristischen Fakultät zum Doktor der Rechte promoviert und qualifizierte sich zum Lehramt an dieser Fakultät. Er starb jedoch bereits im darauffolgenden Frühjahr.
Nouzenus amtierte über drei Amtszeiten im ersten und zweiten Halbjahr 1531 und sowie im zweiten Halbjahr 1533 als Rektor der Universität Marburg.
Schrift
De Literarum, vocum et accentuum hebraicorum natura, f. de prima fermonis hebraici lectione libellus..., Marburg 1532.
Literatur
Friedrich Wilhelm Strieder: Friedrich Wilhelm Strieders Grundlage zu einer hessischen Gelehrten- und Schriftsteller-Geschichte, Band 10, Griesbach, Kassel 1795, S. 104–107.
Franz Gundlach: Catalogus professorum academiae Marburgensis, Band 1, Von 1527 bis 1910, Elwert, Marburg 1927, Nr. 4.
Weblinks
Hebraist
Rechtswissenschaftler (16. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Philipps-Universität Marburg)
Rektor der Philipps-Universität Marburg
Lutherischer Theologe (16. Jahrhundert)
Richter (deutsche Geschichte)
Deutscher
Geboren 1503
Gestorben 1536
Mann
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaWikipedia"
}
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All | The U.S. | North America | South America | Europe | Africa | Asia | Oceania | World | Printables | Blog | FAQ
Home >> Geography Games >> The Seterra Blog >>
The Branches of Geography
Physical geography studies the features and dynamic processes of landform, climate, hydrology, soil and ecology.
Early exposure to the field of geography has left many people with the mistaken impression that its focus is limited to the logging of place locations and names, but geography is much more than that. In the broadest view, geography is the systematic study of our world and its characteristics.
While map analysis is integral, geographers study every facet of our environment, meticulously cataloging the nature and distribution of the world's features, and documenting the connections that humans have with their surroundings.
With such a massive scope, the field of geography has been divided and subdivided into myriad branches. The two primary divisions are physical geography and human geography. This article will provide an overview of the two disciplines and drill down into the subdivisions that refine their focus.
Physical geography focuses on all aspects of the natural environment, including land, water, and air, and the plants and animals that inhabit those domains. Considered an Earth science, physical geography attempts to explain the physical characteristics of the world's natural contents and examine the associated formative and destructive forces.
Due to the field's breath of focus, a good way to understand physical geography is to examine its many subbranches. Below is a list of the major divisions of physical geography.
Geomorphology is the study of the Earth's surface and how it is shaped.
Hydrology addresses the quantity and quality of the planet's water as it exists in the soil, rivers, lakes, and aquifers.
Glaciology is the branch of physical geography that studies glaciers and ice sheets.
Biogeography focuses on distribution patterns of plant and animal species and the forces that cause those patterns.
Climatology deals with climate, or weather viewed over an extended period.
Meteorology examines weather viewed over a short period, with an emphasis on forecasting.
Pedology is the science that deals with the study of soils in their natural environment.
Palaeogeography utilizes geological analysis of the rock strata to determine the distribution of the continents over time.
Coastal geography is the branch of physical geography that studies interaction between the ocean and the land.
Oceanography focuses on the planet's oceans and seas.
Quaternary geography limits its scope to the last 2.6 million years, examining the most recent ice age and creating conceptual models of environments during this period.
Landscape ecology combines ecology and geography to address how landscape variation affects ecological processes.
Geomatics, or geospatial science, deals with the gathering and management of geographic data.
Environmental geography looks at the spatial details of how humans interface with nature.
This may seem like a mind-bending collection of challenging disciplines, but when you consider that the study of physical geography must address essentially everything in the natural world, distilling the scope into a bounded set of subbranches like this is actually quite an accomplishment!
Emphasizing the study of geographic influences on human society, human geography focuses on people, their cultures, and the interactions they have with their surroundings, including the study of political, social, and economic factors.
Like physical geography, human geography includes numerous fields of study, so it helps to take an overview of its subdivisions, which are listed below.
Cultural geography focuses on Earth's cultures, examining norms, location-based variations, and the relationships between cultures.
Development geography deals with the standard of living and the quality of life that the planet's people experience.
Economic geography looks at the relationship between the economies of human civilization and the natural world.
Health geography uses geographical data and methodologies to examine health, disease, and health care.
Historical geography studies how humans have changed a place or region over time.
Political geography focuses on how spatial factors impact political processes.
Population geography deals with location-related variations in population makeup, size, growth, migration, and distribution.
Settlement geography is the study of urban and rural settlement, emphasizing the analysis of buildings and infrastructure.
Urban geography deals with dense settlements, including a focus on how cities are positioned in relation to their natural environment and how they are positioned relative to each other.
In this article, we've taken a high-level look at the two major branches of geography. Physical geography examines the natural environment, while human geography turns its attention to the man-made part of our environment.
Hopefully, this will be a jumping-off point for you to explore geography on your own and think about which branches of geography interest you the most.
A video on the branches of geography, by Youtuber Darron Gedge
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|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 4,661
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"""
Contains IOManager for managing access to input, output, error, and
debug file-like objects.
"""
"""
Copyright 2011-2013 Gregory Holt
Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
You may obtain a copy of the License at
http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
limitations under the License.
"""
import contextlib
import errno
import os
import sys
class IOManager(object):
"""
Manages access to IO in ways that are mostly specific to
:py:mod:`swiftly.cli` but might be generally useful.
:param stdin: The file-like object to use for default stdin or
sys.stdin if None.
:param stdout: The file-like object to use for default stdout or
sys.stdout if None.
:param stderr: The file-like object to use for default stderr or
sys.stderr if None.
:param debug: The file-like object to use for default debug
output or sys.stderr if None.
:param stdin_root: The root path to use for requests for pathed
stdin file-like objects.
:param stdout_root: The root path to use for requests for pathed
stdout file-like objects.
:param stderr_root: The root path to use for requests for pathed
stderr file-like objects.
:param debug_root: The root path to use for requests for pathed
debug file-like objects.
:param stdin_sub_command: A shell line to pipe any stdin
file-like objects through.
:param stdout_sub_command: A shell line to pipe any stdout
file-like objects through.
:param stderr_sub_command: A shell line to pipe any stderr
file-like objects through.
:param debug_sub_command: A shell line to pipe any debug
file-like objects through.
:param subprocess_module: The subprocess module to use; for
instance, you might use eventlet.green.subprocess instead of
the standard subprocess module.
:param verbose: A function to call with ``(msg)`` when waiting
for subcommands to complete and for logging the subcommands'
return codes.
"""
def __init__(self, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, debug=None,
stdin_root=None, stdout_root=None, stderr_root=None,
debug_root=None, stdin_sub_command=None,
stdout_sub_command=None, stderr_sub_command=None,
debug_sub_command=None, subprocess_module=None, verbose=None):
self.stdin = stdin or sys.stdin
self.stdout = stdout or sys.stdout
self.stderr = stderr or sys.stderr
self.debug = debug or sys.stderr
self.stdin_root = stdin_root
self.stdout_root = stdout_root
self.stderr_root = stderr_root
self.debug_root = debug_root
self.stdin_sub_command = stdin_sub_command
self.stdout_sub_command = stdout_sub_command
self.stderr_sub_command = stderr_sub_command
self.debug_sub_command = debug_sub_command
self.subprocess_module = subprocess_module
if not self.subprocess_module:
import subprocess
self.subprocess_module = subprocess
self.verbose = verbose
def client_path_to_os_path(self, client_path):
"""
Converts a client path into the operating system's path by
replacing instances of '/' with os.path.sep.
Note: If the client path contains any instances of
os.path.sep already, they will be replaced with '-'.
"""
if os.path.sep == '/':
return client_path
return client_path.replace(os.path.sep, '-').replace('/', os.path.sep)
def os_path_to_client_path(self, os_path):
"""
Converts an operating system path into a client path by
replacing instances of os.path.sep with '/'.
Note: If the client path contains any instances of '/'
already, they will be replaced with '-'.
"""
if os.path.sep == '/':
return os_path
return os_path.replace('/', '-').replace(os.path.sep, '/')
def _get_path(self, root, os_path):
path = None
if root:
if root.endswith(os.path.sep):
if os_path:
path = os.path.join(root, os_path)
else:
path = root
return path
def _get_in_and_path(self, default, root, sub_command, os_path):
inn = default
path = self._get_path(root, os_path)
if path:
inn = open(path, 'rb')
if sub_command:
inn = self.subprocess_module.Popen(
sub_command, shell=True, stdin=inn,
stdout=self.subprocess_module.PIPE)
return inn, path
def _get_out_and_path(self, default, root, sub_command, os_path):
out = default
path = self._get_path(root, os_path)
if path:
dirname = os.path.dirname(path)
if dirname:
try:
os.makedirs(dirname)
except OSError as err:
if err.errno != errno.EEXIST:
raise
out = open(path, 'wb')
if sub_command:
out = self.subprocess_module.Popen(
sub_command, shell=True, stdin=self.subprocess_module.PIPE,
stdout=out)
return out, path
def get_stdin(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False):
"""
Returns a stdin-suitable file-like object based on the
optional os_path and optionally skipping any configured
sub-command.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.stdin_sub_command
inn, path = self._get_in_and_path(
self.stdin, self.stdin_root, sub_command, os_path)
if hasattr(inn, 'stdout'):
return inn.stdout
return inn
def get_stdout(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False):
"""
Returns a stdout-suitable file-like object based on the
optional os_path and optionally skipping any configured
sub-command.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.stdout_sub_command
out, path = self._get_out_and_path(
self.stdout, self.stdout_root, sub_command, os_path)
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
return out.stdin
return out
def get_stderr(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False):
"""
Returns a stderr-suitable file-like object based on the
optional os_path and optionally skipping any configured
sub-command.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.stderr_sub_command
out, path = self._get_out_and_path(
self.stderr, self.stderr_root, sub_command, os_path)
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
return out.stdin
return out
def get_debug(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False):
"""
Returns a debug-output-suitable file-like object based on the
optional os_path and optionally skipping any configured
sub-command.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.debug_sub_command
out, path = self._get_out_and_path(
self.debug, self.debug_root, sub_command, os_path)
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
return out.stdin
return out
def _wait(self, item, path):
if hasattr(item, 'wait'):
if self.verbose:
msg = 'Waiting on sub-command'
if path:
msg += ' to close %s' % path
self.verbose(msg)
exit_code = item.wait()
if self.verbose:
msg = 'Sub-command exited with %s' % exit_code
if path:
msg += ' and closed %s' % path
self.verbose(msg)
def _close(self, item):
if item not in (self.stdin, self.stdout, self.stderr, self.debug):
if hasattr(item, 'close'):
item.close()
@contextlib.contextmanager
def with_stdin(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False,
disk_closed_callback=None):
"""
A context manager yielding a stdin-suitable file-like object
based on the optional os_path and optionally skipping any
configured sub-command.
:param os_path: Optional path to base the file-like object
on.
:param skip_sub_command: Set True to skip any configured
sub-command filter.
:param disk_closed_callback: If the backing of the file-like
object is an actual file that will be closed,
disk_closed_callback (if set) will be called with the
on-disk path just after closing it.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.stdin_sub_command
inn, path = self._get_in_and_path(
self.stdin, self.stdin_root, sub_command, os_path)
try:
if hasattr(inn, 'stdout'):
yield inn.stdout
else:
yield inn
finally:
if hasattr(inn, 'stdout'):
self._close(inn.stdout)
self._wait(inn, path)
self._close(inn)
if disk_closed_callback and path:
disk_closed_callback(path)
@contextlib.contextmanager
def with_stdout(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False,
disk_closed_callback=None):
"""
A context manager yielding a stdout-suitable file-like object
based on the optional os_path and optionally skipping any
configured sub-command.
:param os_path: Optional path to base the file-like object
on.
:param skip_sub_command: Set True to skip any configured
sub-command filter.
:param disk_closed_callback: If the backing of the file-like
object is an actual file that will be closed,
disk_closed_callback (if set) will be called with the
on-disk path just after closing it.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.stdout_sub_command
out, path = self._get_out_and_path(
self.stdout, self.stdout_root, sub_command, os_path)
try:
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
yield out.stdin
else:
yield out
finally:
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
self._close(out.stdin)
self._wait(out, path)
self._close(out)
if disk_closed_callback and path:
disk_closed_callback(path)
@contextlib.contextmanager
def with_stderr(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False,
disk_closed_callback=None):
"""
A context manager yielding a stderr-suitable file-like object
based on the optional os_path and optionally skipping any
configured sub-command.
:param os_path: Optional path to base the file-like object
on.
:param skip_sub_command: Set True to skip any configured
sub-command filter.
:param disk_closed_callback: If the backing of the file-like
object is an actual file that will be closed,
disk_closed_callback (if set) will be called with the
on-disk path just after closing it.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.stderr_sub_command
out, path = self._get_out_and_path(
self.stderr, self.stderr_root, sub_command, os_path)
try:
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
yield out.stdin
else:
yield out
finally:
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
self._close(out.stdin)
self._wait(out, path)
self._close(out)
if disk_closed_callback and path:
disk_closed_callback(path)
@contextlib.contextmanager
def with_debug(self, os_path=None, skip_sub_command=False,
disk_closed_callback=None):
"""
A context manager yielding a debug-output-suitable file-like
object based on the optional os_path and optionally skipping
any configured sub-command.
:param os_path: Optional path to base the file-like object
on.
:param skip_sub_command: Set True to skip any configured
sub-command filter.
:param disk_closed_callback: If the backing of the file-like
object is an actual file that will be closed,
disk_closed_callback (if set) will be called with the
on-disk path just after closing it.
"""
sub_command = None if skip_sub_command else self.debug_sub_command
out, path = self._get_out_and_path(
self.debug, self.debug_root, sub_command, os_path)
try:
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
yield out.stdin
else:
yield out
finally:
if hasattr(out, 'stdin'):
self._close(out.stdin)
self._wait(out, path)
self._close(out)
if disk_closed_callback and path:
disk_closed_callback(path)
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
}
| 856
|
{"url":"https:\/\/shawnlyu.com\/leetcode\/leetcode1589-maximum-sum-obtained-of-any-permutation\/","text":"# [Leetcode]1589. Maximum Sum Obtained of Any Permutation\n\nWe have an array of integers,\u00a0nums, and an array of\u00a0requests\u00a0where\u00a0requests[i] = [starti, endi]. The\u00a0ith\u00a0request asks for the sum of\u00a0nums[starti] + nums[starti\u00a0+ 1] + ... + nums[endi\u00a0- 1] + nums[endi]. Both\u00a0starti\u00a0and\u00a0endi\u00a0are\u00a00-indexed.\nReturn\u00a0the maximum total sum of all requests\u00a0among all permutations\u00a0of\u00a0nums.\nSince the answer may be too large, return it\u00a0modulo\u00a0109\u00a0+ 7.\n\n## Logic\n\nTo maximize the total sum, we can simply assign the larger weights to elements that are requested more frequently. The brute force approach could be implementing an array cnt of size n=len(nums) and for each request requests[i]=[start,end], we increase each element in nums[start:end+1] by 1. Finally the values stored in cnt would be the frequencies.\n\nHowever, that would result in O(n^2) time complexity in the worst cases. To achieve O(n), we can apply a small trick here. We don\u2019t have to increase every element in nums[start:end+1] for requests[i]=[start,end], in fact, we can only increase the element at the start and the end. And after processing all requests, we can scan the cnt and the prefix sum would be the frequencies.\n\nNote that for all intervals inputs, this method should be the first intuition you come up with.\n\n@lee215 from Leetcode\n\n## Code\n\nclass Solution:\ndef maxSumRangeQuery(self, nums: List[int], requests: List[List[int]]) -> int:\nn = len(nums)\ncnt = [0]*(n+1)\nfor s,e in requests:\ncnt[s] += 1\ncnt[e+1] -= 1\nfor i in range(1,n):\ncnt[i] += cnt[i-1]\nreturn sum(a*b for a,b in zip(sorted(cnt[:-1]),sorted(nums))) % (10**9+7)\n\n\nSubscribe\nNotify of","date":"2021-09-20 05:45:35","metadata":"{\"extraction_info\": {\"found_math\": true, \"script_math_tex\": 0, \"script_math_asciimath\": 0, \"math_annotations\": 0, \"math_alttext\": 0, \"mathml\": 0, \"mathjax_tag\": 0, \"mathjax_inline_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_display_tex\": 0, \"mathjax_asciimath\": 1, \"img_math\": 0, \"codecogs_latex\": 0, \"wp_latex\": 0, \"mimetex.cgi\": 0, \"\/images\/math\/codecogs\": 0, \"mathtex.cgi\": 0, \"katex\": 0, \"math-container\": 0, \"wp-katex-eq\": 0, \"align\": 0, \"equation\": 0, \"x-ck12\": 0, \"texerror\": 0, \"math_score\": 0.366662859916687, \"perplexity\": 1803.9162400236817}, \"config\": {\"markdown_headings\": true, \"markdown_code\": true, \"boilerplate_config\": {\"ratio_threshold\": 0.18, \"absolute_threshold\": 10, \"end_threshold\": 15, \"enable\": true}, \"remove_buttons\": true, \"remove_image_figures\": true, \"remove_link_clusters\": true, \"table_config\": {\"min_rows\": 2, \"min_cols\": 3, \"format\": \"plain\"}, \"remove_chinese\": true, \"remove_edit_buttons\": true, \"extract_latex\": true}, \"warc_path\": \"s3:\/\/commoncrawl\/crawl-data\/CC-MAIN-2021-39\/segments\/1631780057018.8\/warc\/CC-MAIN-20210920040604-20210920070604-00038.warc.gz\"}"}
| null | null |
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It is CSU policy to strive to ensure that duties, responsibilities, and skill levels assigned to staff and management positions reflect the appropriate classification and skill level in accordance with the CSU Classification and Qualification Standards.
The Office of Human Resources has the responsibility of conducting classification/skill level reviews and establishing classification/skill level and Fair Labor and Standards Act (FLSA) designation decisions. Position reviews include internal campus classification/skill level alignment and equity analysis in an effort to promote internal consistency across campus.
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In-person desk audits with incumbent, supervisor, and/or managers
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When HR has completed the review and analysis, a decision will be rendered and communicated to the requestor. If the review was employee-initiated, a copy of the decision will be sent to the manager.
HR will complete the Classification Review Request in 180 days or less from the date the request is received in the Office of Human Resources.
Any change in classification and/or compensation will be effective on the first of the month following receipt of the request in the Office of Human Resources. Any increase in salary will be funded by the incumbent's department.
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Managers may request a classification review by submitting the Classification Review Request Form and attaching a current position description, organization chart, and justification for the review. The Classification Review Request Form will then be routed to the President's Administrative Team and then HR for review.
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After the classification review request is received in HR, the assigned HR Analyst, or a Human Resources Manager, who is trained in classification methodology will review the revised job description and accompanying materials and conduct the review. The review may consist of an interview with the incumbent, supervisor and/or managers to discuss and clarify the duties; and a comparison of the position to other positions for similarities and differences in matters such as scope, responsibility, and skill level. The assigned HR Analyst analyzes and evaluates the information; compares the position description to the CSU Classification Standards; analyzes which classification best describes the body of work and responsibilities; and determines the appropriate classification level.
What is classifcation?
Position classification is a method of job evaluation that attempts to measure the worth of a position as a whole unit. A classification system organizes positions into groups (or classes) on the basis of similar duties, responsibilities, and qualification requirements.
Classification provides for common treatment in compensation, qualification requirements, expected responsibility, and other employment policies and procedures.
Positions at California State University San Marcos (CSUSM) are classified based on classification standards developed by the California State University (CSU) system. The CSU Classification and Qualification Standards are periodically updated by the Chancellor's Office.
What is the difference between a classification standard and a position description?
The CSU Classification and Qualification standards contain descriptions of the general body of work and typical qualifications for each position classification. They focus on the general type and nature of work rather than specific tasks and duties and are meant to be generic enough to meet the needs of all CSU campuses.
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The CSU Salary Schedule provides system wide salary ranges for each position classification and skill level. They are intended to be broad enough to accommodate individual campus differences with regard to cost of living and prevailing wage rates.
A salary range is established for each classification or skill level. Salary ranges specify the minimum, maximum, and service salary maximum salaries which can be paid for a classification or skill level.
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The CSU classification standards outline criteria that are used to distinguish positions from one another and to evaluate the classification level of each position. They typically address:
The purpose of the position.
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Each campus has been delegated the authority to implement and administer the CSU classification standards. The responsibility for the administration of classification and compensation programs on the campus has been delegated by the Office of the Chancellor to the President. The President in turn has delegated implementation of these programs to the Director of Human Resources (HR).
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Funding for reclassifications comes from department funds.
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Where authorized by their collective bargaining agreement, an employee may appeal a classification and/or skill level determination to the Director of Human Resources. The appeal must include the specific reasons for disagreement with the classification determination. Classification and skill level decisions are not subject to the grievance procedure.
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There is no formal appeal process for a supervisor who disagrees with the classification decision. HR works closely with managers to ensure complete understanding of how the classification determination is reached before finalizing the decision.
Classification Review Request Form
Classifcation Review Guidelines and Procedure
CSU Salary Schedule
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
}
| 4,077
|
\section{Introduction and Background}
The CDF Collaboration has reported the observation of an excess of events \cite{Aaltonen:2011mk} in the $\ell\nu jj$ channel with a statistical significance
of 3.2$\sigma$ corresponding to 4.3 fb$^{-1}$ of integrated luminosity. Recently, CDF has included an additional 3 fb$^{-1}$ to their data sample \cite{blois}, for a
total of 7.3 fb$^{-1}$, and the significance of this anomaly has grown to $\sim$4.8$\sigma$ ($\sim 4.1 \sigma$ including systematics).
This is now a serious situation. An examination of the
$m_{jj}$ distribution for these events reveals a peak that is compatible with Standard Model (SM) $WW+WZ$ production, as well as a second peak that is compatible
with a new resonance at $m_{jj} \sim 150$ GeV.
This state of affairs has gathered much attention, even before the inclusion of the additional data sample. Skeptics have been concerned about the detailed
shape of the Monte Carlo simulation modeling of the SM background, the jet-energy scale, as well as possible contamination from top-quark
production \cite{Sullivan:2011hu}\cite{Campbell:2011gp}. However, the CDF Collaboration has shown \cite{blois} that neither the
top background nor changes to the jet-energy scale is likely to account for this
excess. Optimists have offered several new physics explanations, including a new $Z'$ boson \cite{zprime1} \cite{zprime2}, technicolor \cite{Eichten:2011sh},
Supersymmetry with and without R-parity conservation \cite{susy}, color octet production \cite{Wang:2011ta}, and more \cite{AguilarSaavedra:2011zy}. More recently,
the D0 Collaboration has weighed in on this anomaly{\cite{Abazov:2011af}} and does not observe a signal at the same level as claimed by CDF in a luminosity sample
of 4.3 fb$^{-1}$. An understanding of this discrepancy between CDF and D0 has not yet been reached, and the situation most likely will only be clarified with results
from the LHC. Certainly, if new physics is really present, it's cross section is most likely to be at the low end of the range discussed by CDF.
Here, we will assume the excess excess observed by CDF is due to new physics, and
we will further examine the possibility of $Z'$ production, $p\bar p \rightarrow W+Z' \rightarrow \ell\nu+jj$, as the potential source.
Interestingly, we note that the CDF data shows a sharp dip, or valley, in the $m_{jj}$
spectrum between the first peak ({\it i.e.}, SM $WW+WZ$ production) and the second peak (the hypothetical $Z'$ boson); this is the behavior that one might
expect due to the destructive interference between the SM $W$ and $Z$ and a new gauge boson \cite{Rizzo:2006nw}.
Clearly, this new $Z'$ boson must have very leptophobic couplings in order to evade direct production at LEPII as well as the Tevatron and LHC $Z'$ Drell-Yan
dilepton searches. In addition, there must be some mechanism which prohibits any significant
$Z-Z'$ mixing ($\mathrel{\mathpalette\atversim<} 10^{-3}$) in order to be consistent with precision electroweak data and to avoid any `leakage' of the SM $Z$ leptonic couplings to the $Z'$. CDF
reports \cite{Aaltonen:2011mk} that there is no particular excess of b-quarks in the events near $m_{jj}\sim 150$ GeV, and thus we will assume that the $Z'$ decays
democratically to all kinematically accessible hadronic states, {\it i.e.}, the $Z'$ has generation-independent couplings{\footnote {Note, however, that a significant
b-quark content for these jets, $\mathrel{\mathpalette\atversim<} 20-30\%$, is consistent with the existing CDF data{\cite {private,blois}}.}}.
It has been known since long ago (in preparation for the SSC) \cite{Rizzo:1992sh}, that the associated production $W/Z/\gamma + Z'$ provides an excellent opportunity
to perform diagnostic tests on the coupling structure of a new gauge boson. In particular, if the $Z'$ explanation for the CDF excess is correct, then one
should at some point also observe $Z+Z'$ and $\gamma+Z'$ associated production. As we will show below, given the CDF result, one
can make relatively definitive predictions for the rates of these processes at both the Tevatron and the LHC.
In what follows, we will perform an analysis of the possible coupling structure and strength for the $Z'$ that is consistent with
the data and will determine the allowed regions for the left- and right-handed $Z'$ couplings. We will then be
armed to compute the predictions for $W/Z/\gamma+jj$ production. We find that the rates for $Z/\gamma+jj$ are likely too small to be observed at the Tevatron
with current data samples, and that a $Z'$ in $W/Z/\gamma+jj$ could be detected at the LHC with integrated luminosities of order a few fb$^{-1}$ once SM backgrounds are
under control. We provide the most general expressions for these cross sections. We also examine the $M_{WZ'}$, as well as other, kinematic distributions and
show that they can yield additional valuable coupling information, particularly for the left-handed quarks.
Our main conclusion is that the allowed regions of the $Z'$ couplings are relatively restricted, allowing for reasonably firm predictions for the associated
production rates and the rates for other kinematic distributions. If the CDF anomaly is due to a new $\sim 150$ GeV leptophobic $Z'$ boson, the LHC should confirm
this signal relatively soon.
\section{Analysis}
We define the couplings of the $Z'$ to the SM quarks in a manner similar to that for the conventional SM $Z$ boson,
\begin{equation}
{\cal{L}}={{g}\over {2c_W}} \bar q \gamma^\mu \big(v'_q-a'_q \gamma_5)q~Z'_\mu ~~~(q=u,d)\,,
\end{equation}
in order to make contact with our earlier analyses \cite{Rizzo:2006nw,Rizzo:1992sh}. It will also be convenient to define the chiral coupling
combinations $u_{L,R}=v'_u\pm a'_u$ (and similarly for $u\rightarrow d$) for the analysis below. For simplicity,
and to avoid possible issues with Flavor Changing Neutral Currents (FCNC),
we will assume that these couplings are generation-independent; this assumption has very little
(if any) direct impact in what follows as it is essentially only the $Z'$ couplings to the first generation quarks that determine its production cross sections at the
Tevatron and LHC. We will, however, return to this point later below when discussing the $Z'$ total decay width.
Since the observed excess is in the proposed $W^\pm +Z'$ channel, let us first examine the differential cross section for this process; it is easily
obtained from the expressions in the original Refs.~{\cite{Brown:1978mq},\cite{Brown:1979ux}} which describe the corresponding SM process with suitable
simple modifications:
\begin{equation}
{{d\sigma}\over {dz}}=K_W {{G_F^2M_Z^4}\over {48\pi \hat s}} (2c_W^2)\beta_W ~\Bigg[(u_L-d_L)^2 ~X +\Big[u_L^2 ~{{\hat s^2}\over {\hat u^2}}+d_L^2 ~{{\hat s^2}
\over {\hat t^2}}\Big]~Y +2u_Ld_L~(M_W^2+M_{Z'}^2)~{{\hat s}\over {\hat u \hat t}}\Bigg] \,,
\end{equation}
where $K_W$(taken to be 1.3 in our numerical analysis)
is a NLO K-factor, $c_W=\cos \theta_W$, $\beta_W(z)$ is the speed of the $W$ boson in the center of mass (CM) frame, $z$ is the CM scattering
angle $\cos \theta^*$, $Y=(\hat u \hat t-M_W^2M_{Z'}^2)/\hat s^2$ and the quantity $X$ is given by the expression
\begin{equation}
X= {{1}\over {M_W^2M_{Z'}^2}} ~\Bigg[{{1}\over {4}} (\hat u \hat t-M_W^2M_{Z'}^2) +{{1}\over {2}}(M_W^2+M_{Z'}^2)\hat s\Bigg]\,.
\end{equation}
Since the SM $W$ is purely left-handed, the right-handed couplings of the $Z'$ to the SM quarks are projected out in this amplitude so that only the
left-handed couplings of both $u$ and $d$ appear in this expression for the cross section. It is important to note that for large values of
$\hat s$, $X$ behaves as $\sim \hat s^2/M_W^2M_{Z'}^2 >>1$ and can provide a very significant cross section enhancement when $u_L\neq d_L$ as
was noted numerically by some previous authors {\cite{zprime1},\cite{zprime2},\cite{Rizzo:1992sh}}. In contrast, the other terms in the cross section are of
order unity (or parametrically smaller) in the same limit. As we will see below, the
presence of this term will allow for a large $W+Z'$ production rate, without necessarily
enhancing the corresponding $Z/\gamma+Z'$ cross sections.
However, we note that
the possibility of $u_L\neq d_L$ implies that the group generator, $Q'$, to which the $Z'$ couples does not commute with the usual $SU(2)_L$ isospin generators,
{\it i.e.}, $[Q',T_i]\neq 0$. This can have a number of implications elsewhere \cite{Hewett:1992nf}.
Requiring that
the $Z'$ decays only to two jets, integration of the above expression over $z=\cos \theta^*$ and the relevant parton densities leads to the numerical value
for the (pre-cut) $W+Z'$ cross sections at the Tevatron and LHC for arbitrary couplings given by
\begin{eqnarray}
\sigma_{W^\pm Z'} & \simeq & 4.945~(u_L-d_L)^2+0.719~(u_L^2+d_L^2)+5.083~u_Ld_L ~~(\rm {pb)\quad (Tevatron)}\,,
\nonumber\\
\sigma_{W^\pm Z'} & \simeq & 28.61~(u_L-d_L)^2+4.029~(u_L^2+d_L^2)+21.65~u_Ld_L ~~(\rm {pb)\quad (LHC)}\,.
\end{eqnarray}
These results explicitly show the enhancement arising in the case of $u_L\neq d_L$.
In performing these numerical calculations, and the ones found below, we make use of the CTEQ6.6M parton density functions {\cite{Nadolsky:2008zw}}.
Since the apparent excess in the Tevatron
$W+Z'$ cross section is observed {\cite{Aaltonen:2011mk}}, prior to acceptance and analysis cuts, to be in the range of $\sim 1-4$~pb, this results in an ellipse
of potentially allowed values in the $u_L-d_L$ plane{\footnote {The exact result is somewhat sensitive to acceptance corrections.}}. This is displayed in the
top panel of Fig.~\ref{ellipses}, assuming $M_{Z'}=150$ GeV; in this figure we show the allowed ellipses for $W+Z'$ cross section values ranging from 1.5-4.0 pb.
Of course, given the results from D0, the lower end of this range will be likely to be of interest to us in what follows.
Of course, a leptophobic $Z'$ boson will also be produced directly and contribute to dijet production and may be
observed as a resonance in the dijet invariant mass spectrum. Due to kinematics, the data from $Sp\bar pS$ has the best signal to background ratio for searches in
the dijet
channel in this low mass region. UA2 {\cite {UA2}} performed such a search in the dijet channel and constrained the cross section to be less than
roughly $\simeq 150$ pb for a $\sim 150$ GeV resonance. This places an additional constraint on the $Z'$ couplings that needs to be satisfied.
Employing the narrow width approximation (which we will justify below), the dijet rate induced by a $Z'$ at UA2 (recall the CM energy for the $Sp\bar pS$
was 630 GeV) resulting from the process $q\bar q\rightarrow Z' \rightarrow jj$ can be written numerically as
\begin{equation}
\sigma_{UA2} \simeq {{1}\over {2}}~[773~(u_L^2+u_R^2)+138~(d_L^2+d_R^2)] ~~(\rm {pb})\,,
\end{equation}
making use of the same procedure and assumptions as above. Given this result and the UA2 bound on the cross section, the {\it largest} corresponding constraint
ellipse that can be drawn in the $u_L-d_L$ plane denoting the UA2 allowed region is obviously obtained when the $Z'$ has only left-handed quark couplings,
{\it i.e.}, $u_R=d_R=0$. This bound is shown as the red ellipse in the top panel of Fig.~\ref{ellipses}. Clearly, if
non-zero values of $u_R$ or $d_R$ are also present, then this constraint ellipse will only {\it contract}. Here we note that the
UA2-allowed coupling ellipse intersects the corresponding ones obtained by evaluating the $W^\pm Z'$ cross section at the Tevatron at different values of the $Z'$
couplings depending upon the assumed value of
$\sigma_{W^\pm Z'}$. Note that the simultaneous consistency of the CDF result with the UA2 dijet data forbids very large $u_L$ couplings of either sign and
allows for the possibility of $u_L\neq d_L$.
The segments of these ellipses that are simultaneously allowed by both cross section constraints are highlighted in the lower panel
of Fig.~\ref{ellipses} and are color coded for comparisons with results to be shown in later figures.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{ellipse_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{coupl_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{Top: The blue ellipses show the values of the $u_L,d_L$ couplings leading to the Tevatron $W^\pm Z'$ cross section of (from inside out) 1.5-4.0
pb in steps of 0.5 pb. The red ellipse shows the {\it maximum} size of the UA2 allowed region in the $u_L-d_L$ plane. Bottom: The color-coded arcs shown here
are the line segments where the Tevatron (blue) ellipses intersect and are contained within the UA2 (red) ellipse in the top panel.}
\label{ellipses}
\end{figure}
For the case $u_R=d_R=0$, the upper panel in Fig.~\ref{ua2} shows the predicted UA2 dijet cross section along the allowed coupling line segments of
Fig.~\ref{ellipses}. The curves in this figure correspond to the upper set of arcs in Fig.~\ref{ellipses}; a corresponding set of curves can also
be obtained representing the bottom arcs and is obtained by flipping the values $u_L\rightarrow -u_L$ in Fig.~\ref{ua2}.
In all cases we see that the values along the parabolic shaped curves can lead to a dijet cross section that is
significantly far from the quoted upper
bound. However, this still implies that the possible values of $u_R,d_R$ must be restricted or the UA2 dijet bound would be exceeded.
Of course, for any arbitrary point along these parabolas one can perform a scan of the $u_R-d_R$ plane to obtain the
corresponding region which is allowed by UA2; the weakest bounds on the
right-handed couplings are clearly obtained when the predicted dijet cross section is minimized. These constraints on the maximal values
of the right-handed couplings are shown in the
$u_R-d_R$ plane in
the lower panel of Fig.~\ref{ua2} for various values of the Tevatron $W+Z'$ cross section.
Note that while the largest $u_R-d_R$ allowed region is obtained at the minimum of the parabolas in the top panel, the region will
shrink substantially at points where the dijet cross section arising from the left-handed couplings alone almost saturates the UA2 bound.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{ua2_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{coupl-R_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{Top: Predicted values of the UA2 dijet cross section along the color-coded arcs for
$u_L\,, d_L$ as shown in the previous Figure. Note that an additional set of solutions are present when $u_L \rightarrow -u_L$ as discussed in the text.
Bottom: Maximum allowed values of $u_R-d_R$ at the minima of the parabolas in the top panel. From inside out these correspond to Tevatron $W+Z'$ cross sections
of 1.5, 2., 2.5, 3, 3.5 and 4 pb, respectively.}
\label{ua2}
\end{figure}
Now that we have obtained constraints on the left- and right-handed $Z'$ couplings,
let us turn to the other relevant processes for associated production, namely $Z+Z'$ and $\gamma +Z'$. In analogy with our $W^\pm +Z'$
result above, the $q\bar q \rightarrow Z+Z'$ differential cross section can be obtained by a suitable modification of the corresponding result in the SM given
by {\cite{Brown:1978mq} \cite{Brown:1979ux}}
\begin{equation}
{{d\sigma}\over {dz}}=K_Z {{G_F^2M_Z^4}\over {48\pi \hat s}} \beta_Z ~\Big[(v_q+a_q)^2q_L^2+(v_q-a_q)^2q_R^2\Big]~P \,,
\end{equation}
where $(v,a)_q$ are the couplings of the quarks to the SM $Z$ boson, $K_Z, \beta_Z$ are the K-factor (=1.3 here)
for this process and speed of the SM $Z$ in the CM frame,
and $P$ represents the same kinematics as in the $W^\pm + Z'$ case above in the limit of equal couplings and with the replacement $M_W\rightarrow M_Z$, {\it i.e.} ,
\begin{equation}
P=\Big(\hat u \hat t-M_Z^2M_{Z'}^2\Big) \Big({{1}\over {\hat u^2}}+{{1}\over {\hat t^2}}\Big)+2 {{\hat s (M_Z^2+ M_{Z'}^2)}\over {\hat u \hat t}}\,.
\end{equation}
Since the SM $Z$ couplings are known, and folding in the SM $Z$ decay to lepton pairs (with $B=0.03366$ for $e$ or $\mu$ and then summing over both) this expression
can be
numerically evaluated for arbitrary $Z'$ couplings after integration over $z$ and the relevant parton densities at either the Tevatron or the LHC. Writing
\begin{equation}
\sigma_{ZZ'}\simeq {{1}\over {4}} \Big[ \alpha_Z u_L^2 +\beta_Z u_R^2 +\gamma_Z d_L^2 +\delta_Z d_R^2\Big]\,,
\end{equation}
we obtain, in units of fb and before any cuts, $\alpha_Z=381.5(1109)$, $\beta_Z=221(76.1)$, $\gamma_Z=1323(166.4)$ and $\delta_Z=44.1(5.54)$ for the case of the
Tevatron(LHC). It is important to note that the SM $Z$ leptonic branching fractions have been included here to ease comparison with experiment.
Analogously, we can obtain the corresponding numerical result for the case of the $\gamma +Z'$ final state; the analytic expression for the
differential cross section can be obtained from that for $Z+Z'$ production by taking $M_Z\rightarrow 0$ in $P$ and by a setting $v_Q \sim Q_q$ with $a_q=0$.
In this case we impose the experimental cuts $|\eta_\gamma|<1.1(2.5)$ and $p_T^\gamma >25(50)$ GeV at the Tevatron(LHC) and obtain numerically after integration
\begin{equation}
\sigma_{\gamma Z'}\simeq {{1}\over {2}} \Big[ f_u^\gamma (u_L^2+u_R^2) +f_d^\gamma (d_L^2+d_R^2)\Big]\,,
\end{equation}
where $f_u^\gamma=767(533)$ fb and $f_d^\gamma=72.7(114)$ fb at the Tevatron(LHC).
We are now ready to calculate the expected values of $\sigma_{ZZ',\gamma Z'}$ at both colliders. In evaluating the $Z'$ couplings, we proceed as follows: we select
a point on one of the
line segments in the bottom panel of Fig.~\ref{ellipses} which tells us the specific values of $u_L,d_L$. We then locate that point on the upper panel in
Fig.~\ref{ua2} and scan over the possible values in the $u_R-d_R$ plane which are consistent with the UA2 upper bound on the dijet cross section for those
$u_L,d_L$ couplings
and obtain the maximum and minimum values for both $\sigma_{ZZ',\gamma Z'}$ at the Tevatron and the LHC. The minimum values in all cases correspond, of course,
to the situation when $u_R=d_R=0$ as contributions arising from non-zero values of these couplings always add constructively. The results of this analysis for
the Tevatron and LHC are shown in Fig.~\ref{tev} and Fig.~\ref{LHC}, respectively,
employing the same color coding as before. We see that these cross sections are much
smaller than that for $W^\pm+Z'$ at the Tevatron (as well as for the LHC) and are possibly too
small to be observed at the Tevatron with present integrated luminosities given SM backgrounds. These
cross sections are, of course, much larger at the LHC and should be observable with
roughly 1 fb$^{-1}$ of integrated luminosity once SM backgrounds are sufficiently understood. The predicted results
for $\sigma_{W^\pm Z'}$ at the LHC, which are independent
of the possible values of $u_R,d_R$ as was the case for the Tevatron, can be found in Fig.~\ref{wzp}. Note that the branching fraction for the leptonic decays of
the SM $W$ are included in these results. We see that the cross section is quite large and should be
detectable soon.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{z_zp_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{gamma_zp_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{Predicted allowed values of the cross sections $\sigma_{ZZ',\gamma Z'}$ at the Tevatron for the parameter space regions associated with the color-coded
arcs shown in the previous Figures corresponding to $WZ'$ cross section of $1.5-4.0$ pb at the Tevatron.
The allowed region lies within the areas outlined in a specific color. For the $ZZ'$ final state the branching fractions for
leptonic decay of the $Z$ are included. Note that an additional region exists with $u_L\rightarrow -u_L$ as discussed above.}
\label{tev}
\end{figure}
We learn a number of things from examining these Figures: ($i$) The predicted values for $\sigma_{\gamma Z',ZZ'}$ at the Tevatron (and the LHC) are always
substantially lower than the corresponding ones for $\sigma_{W^\pm Z'}$. These processes should {\it not yet} have been observed at the Tevatron but will
eventually provide a test of the $Z'$ hypothesis once enough data accumulates at
the LHC. {\footnote {In fact, their observation at the Tevatron at relatively low luminosity would likely have ruled out the $Z'$ hypothesis.}}
($ii$) The predicted values of $\sigma_{\gamma Z',ZZ'}$ are relatively constrained and are determined by the CDF $W+Z'$ cross section itself, as well as by
the UA2 dijet constraints, except for possible NLO contributions. ($iii$) The $\gamma Z',ZZ'$ cross
sections at the LHC and the $ZZ'$ cross section at the Tevatron are found to be relatively insensitive to the specific values of $u_R,d_R$ due to the rather
strong constraints arising from the UA2 data. ($iv$) The $\gamma Z'$ process at the Tevatron could potentially be used to obtain further constraints on the values of
$u_R,d_R$ given sufficient integrated luminosity. ($v$) The $W^\pm Z'$ cross
section at the LHC is large and is well-predicted apart from possible NLO contributions. Lastly, ($vi$) we see that the {\it ratio} of the $W^+Z'$ and $W^-Z'$
cross sections at the LHC also has a weak coupling dependence which may also be useful as an additional handle on the left-handed quark couplings of the $Z'$.
Thus we see that even with four free coupling parameters, the $Z'$
explanation of the $Wjj$ excess seen by CDF leads to a very predictive scenario that can be further tested quite soon at both the Tevatron and the LHC.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{zzplhc_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{gzplhc_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{Same as the previous Figure but now for the LHC.}
\label{LHC}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{wzplhc_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{ratio.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{(Top) The predicted values for the sum of the cross section for $W^\pm Z'$ at the LHC based on the corresponding cross section observed by CDF at the Tevatron
along the parameter space arcs described above. The $W$ leptonic branching fraction is included.
Again, note that another set of solutions exist with $u_L\rightarrow -u_L$. (Bottom) The ratio of the $W^+Z'$ to the $W^-Z'$ cross sections at the LHC, with the same color
coding. }
\label{wzp}
\end{figure}
To be consistent, we need to demonstrate that our use of the narrow width approximation is valid in the $Z'$ scenario. Essentially, it suffices to show that
the $Z'$ total width, $\Gamma$, assuming decays to only SM particles, is always substantially smaller than the CDF dijet mass resolution, $\simeq 14.3$
GeV {\cite{Aaltonen:2011mk}}, for $M_{Z'}\sim 150$ GeV. Clearly,
this condition will be most difficult to satisfy when the $Z'$ couples in a generation-independent manner to all 3 generations (as we have assumed here)
instead of, {\it e.g.}, only to the first generation which can then lead to significant flavor physics issues. Using the $Z'$ coupling parameter scans above, we can
calculate the allowed regions for the predicted value of $\Gamma$; the results are shown in Fig.~\ref{width},
using the same color coding as before. Here
we see that in the generation-independent coupling scenario, $\Gamma$ always remains in the range $0.5-5.6$ GeV, {\it i.e.}, a set of values significantly below the
CDF dijet mass resolution. Thus the $Z'$ will always appear to be
quite narrow and, in particular, with $\Gamma/M_{Z'} \mathrel{\mathpalette\atversim<} 3.3\%$, validates our use of the narrow
width approximation above. It is also of some interest to notice that the corresponding branching fractions for the decay $Z'\rightarrow b\bar b$, under the assumption
of 3-generation coupling universality, are always found to lie in the approximate
range $\sim 0-0.33$, which is consistent with the $Wjj$ data from CDF {\cite {blois,private}}. The coupling dependence of this branching fraction can be seen in
detail in the lower panel of Fig.~\ref{width}. If lower values for this branching fraction are favored this would be an indication for couplings with
$|u_L|>|d_L|$.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{width_new.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{bbf.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{(Top) Predicted ranges for the value of the $Z'$ width, $\Gamma$, arising from the parameter space along the color-coded arcs described above.
(Bottom) The $b$-quark branching fraction of the $Z'$ for the corresponding range of coupling parameters.}
\label{width}
\end{figure}
Since the above analysis restricts the allowed values of $u_L,d_L$ for the new $Z'$ boson (while $u_R,d_R$ play a lesser role and may in fact be zero)
one would like to attempt to constrain these couplings further. Clearly a better determination of $\sigma_{WZ'}$ at the Tevatron and a measurement of
$\sigma_{\gamma,Z+Z'}$
at both the Tevatron and LHC will be useful in this regard. However, it may be possible to obtain additional information from the $W+Z'$ kinematic
distributions themselves. To this end, we return to our discussion of the $W+Z'$ differential cross section above. There, we saw that in the case of
$u_L \neq d_L$ an additional term contributes to the cross section, {\it i.e.}, the term denoted by $X$, which grows with increasing $\hat s$. If this term is absent,
the differential distribution for $d\sigma/dM_{WZ'}$ will peak at low values of $M_{WZ'}$, not far above threshold and then fall rapidly. However, the
presence of this term will push this peak in this distribution to significantly larger values of $M_{WZ'}$ and the corresponding
fall off of this differential cross section
will be far slower. Thus, in principle, a measurement of the $M_{WZ'}$ distribution could provide an additional useful handle on the $u_L,d_L$ coupling
relationship which is independent of the values for $u_R,d_R$.
Since the `discovery' channel, $W^\pm Z'$, has the largeset cross section, a detailed study of this reaction can provide us a way to pin down the values of
the $u_L,d_L$ couplings which will then further restrict $u_R,d_R$.
In Fig.~\ref{generator} we show the $d\sigma/dM_{WZ'}$ distribution at the Tevatron and the LHC for several different representative values of $u_L,d_L$
lying within the allowed coupling ellipses shown in Fig.~\ref{ellipses}. In the top panel for $W+Z'$ production at the Tevatron, we see that this distribution
is quite sensitive to the choice of these couplings. In particular, we see that when $u_L=d_L$ the peak in the distribution is at very low $M_{WZ'}$ values, not
far from threshold, as expected. However, the peak occurs at larger values of $M_{WZ'}$ when $u_L,d_L$ take on significantly different values.
We especially note the strong differences between the
cases of $u_L,d_L=(-0.5,0.5)$ and $u_L,d_L=(-0.5,-0.5)$. Fig.~\ref{generator} also shows the corresponding results for this distribution at the LHC which show
similar coupling sensitivity since the shape of the distributions is quite similar to those found at the Tevatron.
Further information can be obtained by examining other kinematic distributions involving the $W^\pm$ or the dijet system. Fig.~\ref{wzdist} shows the angular
distribution of the $W^\pm$ at both the Tevatron and the LHC. We notice several things: ($i$) The $d\sigma/dz$ distribution is very sensitive to the values of the
$u_L,d_L$ couplings which can be traced back to the various terms in Eq.(2) above. First, we see that when $u_L=d_L$ the distribution is forward and backward
peaked (due to the $u-$ and $t-$channel `poles') and is $z \rightarrow -z$ symmetric. In the other extreme, where the term proportional to $X$ in Eq.(2) dominates, we still have
$z\rightarrow -z$ symmetry but the distribution is much flatter being proportional to $\sim \hat u \hat t$. In the intermediate cases where all terms are comparable, the
$z\rightarrow -z$ symmetry is now lost and some forward and backward peaking is possible. However, the distributions are generally fairly flat for central values of $z$.
($ii$) The angular distributions are quite different from what one would expect from scalar production.
($iii$) As in the case of the $d\sigma/dM_{WZ'}$ spectrum, we note that the $W^\pm$ angular distributions look very similar at both colliders. This will remain
true for the other distributions we display below and so we will only show the results for the LHC.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{dist_tev.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{dist_lhc.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{$d\sigma/dM_{WZ'}$ distribution at the Tevatron(top) and LHC(bottom) for several different allowed values of $u_L,d_L$=(-0.5,0.5)(red),
(-0.5,-0.5)(green), (0,0.7)(blue), (-0.2,-0.8)(magenta), (-0.2,0.5)(cyan), respectively.}
\label{generator}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{w_dist.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{w_dist_lhc.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{$d\sigma/dz$ ($z=\cos \theta^*$, the CM scattering angle) distributions for the $W$ at the
Tevatron(top) and LHC(bottom) for the same set of coupling choices as in the previous figure.}
\label{wzdist}
\end{figure}
Figure~\ref{wdist2} shows both the $W^\pm$ rapidity ($y$) and $p_T$ distributions at the LHC for the same set of $u_L,d_L$ couplings as examined above. (As noted above,
very similar results are obtained at the Tevatron.) The rapidity distribution shows only a relatively weak dependence on the couplings. However, it is easy to see
that when $u_L=d_L$ it is quite flat in the central region, whereas, when $u_L$ and $d_L$ are very different it it much more peaked near $y=0$. On the otherhand,
the $p_T$ spectrum of the $W^\pm$ is seen to be highly sensitive to the $u_L,d_L$ couplings as we might have expected based on the shapes of the $d\sigma/dM_{WZ'}$
and the $d\sigma/dz$ distributions discussed above. In particular we see that when $u_L \neq d_L$ the $W^\pm$ $p_T$ spectrum is somewhat harder, growing more so
as the difference in couplings gets larger. Clearly information from this distribution will help in the determination of the left-handed quark couplings to the $Z'$.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{w_dist_lhc2.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{w_dist_lhc3.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{Rapidity (top) and $p_T$(bottom) distributions for the $W^\pm$ at the LHC for the same set of coupling choices as in the previous figure.}
\label{wdist2}
\end{figure}
Figure.~\ref{wdist3} displays the velocity distribution of the $Z'$ in the CM frame; this is of particular importance in the determination of the boost required to go to
the dijet CM frame in order to obtain the dijet angular distribution. A measurement of this quantity is necessary if one wants to verify the spin-1 nature of the $Z'$.
Again, we see that this distribution is quite sensitive to the $u_L,d_L$ couplings and peaks at significantly larger values when $u_L \neq d_L$.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=8.0cm,angle=90]{w_dist_lhc4.ps}}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\caption{Velocity ($\beta$) distribution for the $Z'$ at the LHC in the CM frame for the same set of coupling choices as in the previous figure.}
\label{wdist3}
\end{figure}
Lastly, we have also examined the possibility of observing $Z'$ bremsstrahlung in $q\bar q$ production in
$e^+e^-$ annihilation, {\it i.e.}, $e^+e^-\rightarrow q\bar q Z'$. We found that the rate for this
process is hopelessly small at LEPII energies and thus does not provide a constraint
on this scenario.
\section{Summary and Conclusions}
In summary, we have examined the hypothesis that a leptophobic $Z'$ boson accounts for the excess of events in the $Wjj$ channel as observed by CDF.
The quoted range for the production cross section places constraints on the left-handed couplings of the $Z'$ to the up- and down-quarks. Consistency with
the lack of observation by D0 forces us to the lower end of this cross section range. Further consistency with the
non-observation of dijet resonances at $m_{jj}\sim 150$ GeV at UA2 constrains these couplings, and severely limits the possible values
of the $Z'$ right-handed couplings to the light quarks. Assuming that these couplings are generation independent, these
results provide a relatively restrictive allowed region for the four hadronic couplings
of the $Z'$.
These allowed coupling regions translate into well-determined
rates for the associated production of $Z/\gamma+Z'$ at the Tevatron and LHC, as well as for $W+Z'$ at the LHC, apart from NLO corrections.
The $Wjj$ rate at the LHC is large and this channel
should be observed soon once the SM backgrounds are under control. The rates for $Z/\gamma+Z'$ associated production are smaller, and these processes
should not yet have been observed at the Tevatron given the expected SM backgrounds. Once detected, these processes will provide valuable information
on the $Z'$ boson couplings. Further information on the $u_L-d_L$ coupling relationship was shown to also be obtainable from measurements of the
$d\sigma/dM_{WZ'}$ as well as other kinematic distributions at both the Tevatron and the LHC.
Even with four free coupling parameters, this scenario is predictive, even more so once the $W+Z'$ cross section is better determined at the Tevatron, and can be
further tested at both the Tevatron itself as well as at the LHC in the near future. In particular, the LHC should confirm (or not) this scenario soon.
\newpage
\noindent{\Large\bf Acknowledgments}\\
The authors would like to thank Viviana Cavaliere for discussions and for answering so many of our questions about the CDF $Wjj$ analysis. The authors
would also like to thank Yang Bai for discussions about the $Wjj$ distributions.
\def\IJMP #1 #2 #3 {Int. J. Mod. Phys. A {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\MPL #1 #2 #3 {Mod. Phys. Lett. A {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\NPB #1 #2 #3 {Nucl. Phys. {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\PLBold #1 #2 #3 {Phys. Lett. {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\PLB #1 #2 #3 {Phys. Lett. B {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\PR #1 #2 #3 {Phys. Rep. {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\PRD #1 #2 #3 {Phys. Rev. D {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\PRL #1 #2 #3 {Phys. Rev. Lett. {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\PTT #1 #2 #3 {Prog. Theor. Phys. {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\RMP #1 #2 #3 {Rev. Mod. Phys. {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
\def\ZPC #1 #2 #3 {Z. Phys. C {\bf#1},\ #2 (#3)}
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
| 8,993
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Q: jQuery change href of parent link I am trying to change the href of the parent link to a header logo, but I am not successful. What am I doing wrong? Thanks!
HTML:
<a href="https://URL.IWANTO.CHANGE">
<img id="partner_logo" src="/partner_logos/P2.png" class="normal_logo">
</a>
I have the id of the img, I want to change the src of the parent a. I have tried these with no error nor success:
jQuery("#partner_logo").parent('a').attr('href', 'http://partner.web.site');
jQuery("#partner_logo").closest('a').attr('href', 'http://partner.web.site');
A: Works for me. You may want to change parent('a') to parent()
http://jsfiddle.net/upnrv7t2/
A: Your initial code is correct (using the ...parent('a')...).
I suspect that you are calling the code at the wrong time. Is the logo HTML inserted by another piece of code on page load or is it rendered with the initial html?
In any case, your call to .attr() should probably be in a $('document').ready() call.
$(document).ready(function () {
jQuery("#partner_logo").parent('a').attr('href', 'http://partner.web.site');
alert('set logo on load');
});
$('#partner_logo').on('click', function () {
jQuery("#partner_logo").parent('a').attr('href', 'http://partner.web.site');
alert('set logo on click');
});
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 2,968
|
# Dawn of Ash
### The Imdalind Series, Book Seven
## Rebecca Ethington
#### Imdalind Press
Text Copyright ©2015 by Rebecca Ethington
The Imdalind Series, characters, names, and related indicia are trademarks and © of Rebecca Ethington.
The Imdalind Series Publishing rights © Rebecca Ethington
All Rights Reserved.
Published by Market Street Books LLC
No Part of this publication may be reproduced, or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. For Information regarding permission, write to:
Rebecca Ethington – permissions@ Rebecca Ethington.com
* * *
Copyediting by C&D Editing
Production Management by Market Street Books
* * *
ISBN (e-book) 978-0-9964632-3-2
ISBN (print) 978-0-9964632-5-6
Printed in USA
This Edition, February 2016
Created with Vellum
# THE IMDALIND SERIES
BOOK ONE: _Kiss of Fire_
BOOK TWO: _Eyes of Ember_
BOOK THREE: _Scorched Treachery_
BOOK FOUR: _Soul of Flame_
BOOK FIVE: _Burnt Devotion_
BOOK SIX: _Brand of Betrayal_
BOOK SEVEN: _Dawn of Ash_
BOOK EIGHT: _Crown of Cinders_
BOOK NINE: _Ilyan_
This book is currently undergoing an expansion and edit. You will be able to upload a beautiful revision upon re-release.
* * *
**Sign up for my newsletter and get alerted right when the updates go live!**
* * *
For more information about what is happening and why, please visit my blog!
### Contents
Dedication
1. Ilyan
2. Joclyn
3. Joclyn
4. Joclyn
5. Sain
6. Ovailia
7. Ryland
8. Joclyn
9. Sain
10. Dramin
11. Wyn
12. Wyn
13. Wyn
14. Joclyn
15. Ovailia
16. Dramin
17. Dramin
18. Ovailia
19. Ovailia
20. Wyn
21. Ilyan
22. Ilyan
23. Joclyn
24. Joclyn
25. Ovailia
26. Ovailia
27. Wyn
28. Joclyn
29. Joclyn
30. Sain
31. Jaromir
Special Thanks From The Author
Enjoy This Sneak Peek of Book Eight in The Imdalind Series
Also by Rebecca Ethington
About the Author
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Acknowledgments
The End is Near, The Demon is Released...
To Duck
* * *
Who showed me sunshine,
Who reminded me how to laugh.
## 1
# Ilyan
"Ilyan!" Risha's voice cut through the explosion that shattered the building to my left. The ancient structure answered with a groan that threatened to send the building down on top of us all.
"Move!" Risha, the Skȓítek woman who had led the survivors from Edmund's raid and now served as my second, screamed again from where she fought alongside the others we were trapped with, even though it was becoming increasingly obvious there was no way we could fight them off alone.
That wouldn't stop me from trying.
Yells and shouts of fear increased over the already rampant noise of battle, the building heaving as the screams escalated, the attacks right along with it. More dirt, more dust, more debris fell over us, ripples of fear tensing through me at what was about to happen. I shoved it all aside, letting Risha's yell alert me to the much broader danger—my father's men who were rushing me, moments from destroying me.
With one flash of magic, I killed the two men before me, their power fading completely as their destruction became nothing more than shadows. Then I dodged the attack at my back, my attacker's powerful blast flying into the building that groaned loudly in warning.
Shards of brick continued to pour over us like hail, burning sparks of magic singeing my clothes and hair. I expected the building to tip with the impact, the powerful explosion being the final nail. However, it stayed, and the loud Trpaslíks' laughter rang in my ears as I turned to face them, my jaw a hard line of anger.
With one quick movement, my hand shot out to grab my would-be assassin by the throat. With my hand clenched around the soft, warm flesh of his neck, the pulse of his heart was a torrent of fear, beating in time with the explosions surrounding us. His fear increased alongside the heat of my magic, a sharp flare of warning moving into him.
"How did you get in?" I growled, watching the man's eyes for any sign that he might answer, but he only stared at me, his eyes bulging, red, and wild as I continued to hold him in place. "Tell me, and all this ends."
He gasped for breath, but I already knew it was not in an attempt to answer, not with the way he smiled, the way he tried to posture to me, the threat obvious in his expression, even if the fear in his eyes didn't make it believable.
A streak of red light erupted right above my head, and I turned. Keeping the Trpaslík debilitated under my palm, I fired toward the battle we had inadvertently walked into, expecting to hit whoever had tried to assault me. Instead, I was faced with a cavalcade of my father's men as they emerged between the destroyed buildings that surrounded us, the skies full of his Vilỳs.
My anger increased at the knowledge that one wrong turn had led us there, into the dead end with alleys and streets feeding into it like some sort of river basin. How was I to know they had built a new shopping mall last year? The street had always gone straight through. Modern invention continued to baffle me.
With one flare of power, I sent an attack into yet another of the Trpaslíks with my free hand, the other still holding the little man, his smile fading to nothing as one of his comrades collapsed to the ground lifelessly.
"I don't like killing innocents," I growled as I turned back to my captive, fully aware the anger in my voice would make that phrase unbelievable. "Tell me where Edmund is, and I can protect you."
The man's smug smile faded as fear clouded his eyes, his focus intent as he weighed his options. My chest tensed in fervent possibility, hoping perhaps this one would tell me. Perhaps this one would crack.
Just as he opened his mouth, though, an explosion erupted at our feet, rubble flying through the air around us. Instead of speaking, he then laughed.
"I obey only my master who saved me, who taught me what it is to be truly strong." His voice echoed around us, loud and disjointed. "We will defeat you all!"
The man screamed his last words before I let my magic flow through him, into him, ending his life with one flash of power against his heart. Quick and painless.
It was the humane way. They weren't all Trpaslíks, after all. Many of them, like the one I had killed, were Chosen—innocents my father had poisoned with his tainted Vilỳs, trained, and abused, just to send into the city we were trapped in with the sole purpose of attacking us, destroying us.
It wasn't their fault.
Stepping over the body, I rushed back into the battle, killing man after man as the tension in my body grew into a dangerous rage. I always had trouble controlling my temper, especially without Joclyn. Normally, I had her magic to comfort me, but she was asleep. Her Drak magic had pulled her under as it did every so often. As a result, I was walking a dangerous line.
With an explosion of sound and an eruption of power, a single stream of red light exploded from my hand, flying right into one of the many abandoned vehicles rotting in the dark, forgotten city. The broken thing flew through the air, right into the narrow opening of an alley to our left, hindering the advance of about thirty more attackers.
"Risha," I yelled as I raced toward her, heart pounding as I blocked another attack, sending one right back toward the source and into the heart of a man who fell to the ground.
"Help! Ilyan!" a voice came, one of my Chosen calling out in fear of the hissing creatures surrounding him.
With one quick slide of my hands through the stale air, another beam of light flew from my palm, and the two Vilỳs turned to ash and smoke as the earth reclaimed them.
"Risha!" I said again as I walked right to her side.
The tall Skȓítek woman didn't so much as look away from the fight. She simply turned, sending our enemy away as she protected the young Chosen woman who sat huddled behind her, crying as she bled profusely from her chest. She wasn't the only one huddled behind the warrior, but I was sure the elderly man she was leaning up against was already gone judging by the glossy look in his eyes.
"Focus your magic on stopping the bleeding," I yelled at her as another explosion sent my former blockade into us. My magic caught it moments before it landed on top of us.
With a burst of energy, I sent it to the left, speeding toward two of Edmund's men and pinning them between brick and twisted metal.
"I'm never leaving the cathedral again," Risha growled from somewhere behind me as yet another stream of light moved past me, my magic alerting me to the danger late enough that I watched the bright red blade cut through my hair, long lengths of gold falling to the ground.
For a moment, my heart stopped, scared the délka vedení královsk had been lost, but the long length of ribbon was still wrapped around my wrist, kept safe in the only way I knew how in these situations.
"You said that last week, Risha," I growled as I destroyed another man, the older gentleman crumpling to the ground like improperly made origami.
"This time, I mean it."
I clenched my teeth at her determination, jaw tightening as my shoulders did, my temper continued to rise dangerously.
Another man collapsed at my hand, my magic scurrying in a mad attempt to keep us ahead of the fray, only to freeze as the entirety of the narrow street lit up in a bright yellow blaze. Heat moved over us as the luminescence shone over every lifeless body, every smear of blood, revealing the destruction that Prague had become in ribbons of light that made the dilapidated city all the more frightening.
The light washed over us, waves of iron following behind, wrapping around me with the force of a weapon. It was a weapon that, if I didn't fight, would destroy us all, friend and foe.
Grimacing at the effort, I broke free of the attack, glittering trails of crimson streaking away from me and toward every one of my people. My scream of exertion ricocheted around us as my magic broke through the attack, ripping the bands from their bodies, releasing them from the deathly bind.
Heaving, I fell to the ground alongside Edmund's men, my body weak from the exertion, while Edmund's deformed army lay, gasping dying breaths, their own attack taking their lives in a slow, painful end.
I would rejoice in the luck of such a ploy, but I wasn't a fool.
I could already hear the wings.
The light would bring more Vilỳs to us, and with no quick escape route, our only chance was to go up right as Vilỳs were coming down.
Heart pounding violently, I jumped up, muscles shaking with exertion that I had to ignore. "Risha, I need you to take them up. Fly to the Young Prince, keep your head down, and move on to the Old Man. Use the river as a guide to mask the magic. Meet me on the high point. They are coming." I didn't need to say anything more. Risha was already nodding in understanding, not a moment passing before she shot ropes of green from her fingers, each powerful strand of magic attaching to one of the Skȓíteks, one of the survivors who had traveled with us.
The poor, undertrained Chosen screamed in fear as the power moved into them, connecting them to her in a tether they could not break. Risha's grating yell of exertion followed her into the air, her powerful magic forcing a wind to swirl and move as it swept her and her charges up and up, away from the battle. Away from the danger this city always provided. Away from me and what I was about to do.
I couldn't wait to verify their ascent.
Standing, I leered at my father's men who continued to move through the alleys, right to the lone man standing amidst destruction and death. I could see their anger, see their intent. And so, I let mine free. I let the temper, the anger, the magic free.
Free from the carefully crafted cage I always kept it locked in.
It moved into the monsters that surrounded me, attack after attack felling man, woman, and tiny, winged beasts. Everything was illuminated as I stood, surrounded by death. My heart was racing, muscles tensing, when out of nowhere, a scream I recognized broke through the death, broke through the light, broke through the battle I was trapped in.
Joclyn.
She was screaming. I could feel her fear, hear her cries as she lay miles from me, trapped in one of the many nightmares her sight had plagued her with for the past few months. Our connection opened up within me as I fought. My magic swelled, her fear ripping through me in agony, in an emotional prison that, even if I hadn't been preoccupied, I couldn't have saved her from.
Listening to her scream as I continued to fight, my chest constricted painfully, but I kept up the attacks, her magic continuing to move into me, strengthening me, filling me, controlling me in dangerous waves of frightening ability.
Joclyn's magic supercharged my own past what I was capable of, the darkness and terror of her sight pulling my magic into a deadly concoction that felled one after another, many of them turning to nothing more than smoke and faded memories.
Teeth clenched, chest heaving, I continued to fight, focusing on Joclyn's magic, on her fear, knowing what I needed to do. It was the only way I could calm her.
"Joclyn!" I yelled aloud, letting my magic smother her as Edmund's men kept coming, flowing through the streets, flooding the space that was growing smaller.
I smiled as my power grew within me like a warm water bottle of determination.
I was out of time.
With one powerful stream of magic, I turned, red and yellow light flying right into the broken foundation of the building that was threatening to collapse and, without warning, sending it to the ground.
Right on top of me.
Joclyn's magic erupted as mine did, the two joining together in a powerful force that encompassed me in a barrier so strong that, as I stood still, I could watch tons of ancient architecture crumbling around me.
The dust settled as I remained untouched, standing in an upturned fish bowl, witnessing the fall of something that had once been beautiful.
My heart rate increased as Joclyn's did, as images of her sight flashed before me, a battle eerily similar to the one I had ended replaying right before my very eyes.
"Wake up, můj navždy," I said, my voice echoing through the shield as I surveyed the damage, making one last sweep for any life that might choose to follow me before taking off into the sky, the shielded globe ascending around me, dust falling away from my movement like the tail of a kite.
"Wake up!" I spoke aloud to my mate as the blood of her sight flowed over her, her heart rate so fast within me I was sure some monster was trying to break free from the inside of my chest as well as hers.
With a graceful step, I landed on the rooftop of the highest point—the tall, lookout building I had told Risha to meet me at. My tension was still high with fear of the possibility that she and the others might not have made it as the shield fell away with the faintest pop, the solitary sound loud in the silence after the battle I had escaped.
There was only the faint red of the world, only the hot breeze that moved through my hair as I stood, heart pounding, on the high rooftop, looking over the city I was raised in, the city I was now trapped in. The city that had quickly become a prison.
_Wake up, mi lasko!_ I tried again, this time sending the call right into her mind, and I was grateful when her heart rate slowed, the heavy influx of her magic regulating.
I could still feel her fear, still feel her panic, but it was mixed with reality now, the uncertainty and anxiety of nightmares leaving. Still, she was silent, and even through the temporary calm, my heart rate picked up.
"Mi lasko?" I breathed, sending the words right into her mind as the fright left. "Are you all right?"
_Ilyan, s_ he finally replied, her voice a calm wave.
With one word, my heart relaxed, my soul calmed, and although I had escaped the literal destruction of yet another part of this beautiful city...
It was still home.
She made it that way.
## 2
# Joclyn
I could hear him crying, the boy's soft whimpers ringing through the cave in a mournful sound that tensed through me. The distorted sobs were so mangled I wasn't sure if he was laughing or crying. It was just the broken echo of pain and sadness, the feral growl of some beast following behind. The sounds rippled across the space in a pressure that was hard to breathe through, my heart tensing in expectation of what I was walking toward, of what was ahead.
Peering through the black and blue striation of light, I tried to find him, tried to see. But the deep blue of the moon cast confusing shadows over the rocks of the cave.
Everything shook as the child cried again, as though the sound of his cries would bring everything crumbling down. Dust fell like snow, covering me, smothering me, surrounding me until it was all I could see, the vision shifting, buzzing in my ears like television static that pulled me out of the reality I thought I was trapped in.
No, not a reality, only the distorted future that drifted in and out of focus before landing in the deep red glow of my sight, my vision shifting with a jolt to the same derelict, red-tinged streets of Prague that I walked every day, that I surveyed every day, that I fought in just as often.
That I fought in now.
A herd of running feet and heaving breaths surrounded me as the sight became clear. The crash of an attack resounded somewhere before us, and despite a part of me wanting to run the other way, I still continued forward, my prescience guiding me through a tight alley and right into the fray of battle where Ilyan and Risha were surrounded by men, Ilyan holding one by the neck as he fought more than a dozen others.
I fought, grunting, as I joined them. Magic exploded, exactly as it did every time Edmund's men attacked in the city, whether in premonition or in life. This time, however, it was broken by the same electronic noise that had haunted my sight for months. Everything cutting in and out until it stopped.
No, I stopped.
The battle continued as I stood there with flashes of magic beating through the sound of death. But I could not move. I stood, staring at a tall, muscular figure who was walking through the battle toward me, their body shrouded in a dark cape, face hidden.
Sound drained from the world, leaving only the thunder of my heart, as I stood, surrounded by death, the smell of blood, and heavy smoke.
While I watched in wide-eyed horror, the man before me slowly pulled down the hood, revealing not the man I expected, but Wyn with a wide, nefarious smile, the look so similar to Edmund's that, before I knew it, I was screaming.
The sound of my terror echoed in my ears, but I didn't know if it was trapped in sight or ricocheting through reality.
Wyn stared at me, the smile spreading farther as bloodstained teeth appeared behind thin lips. My scream grew before she turned away, leaving me standing in silence, leaving me surrounded by the bodies left behind: Ilyan who bled as he looked into the nothing before him, Thom who stayed lifeless against the red-tinged asphalt, my mother, Ryland, Talon, Risha. They were all there, their blood seeping into the leather of the worn shoes Ilyan had made me so long ago, seeping through the tiny hold that had formed near the toe.
The scream lingered, moving through me as the bodies faded, shifting to rock and darkness as the sight became the cave that had haunted me for months. It was dark and damp with the deep crimson blood that flowed over the jagged rocks like a river. Ilyan's body was spread-eagle over those same rocks, the river pouring from him, his eyes vacant, mouth agape.
The scream increased as the sound of Edmund's laugh joined it in a reprehensible harmony. I listened to it, dread ripping through me as I tried to wake up, as I pled to wake up. I begged for the twisted sight to leave.
"Wake up!"
I wasn't the only one.
With a jolt, I sat straight up in bed, my eyes wild as the sight faded to nothing. The tension and fear that ran through my body made it hard to see straight, let alone breathe at a normal rate.
_Mi lasko?_ His voice was as panicked as I was. I couldn't blame him. I knew he felt my fear and had probably seen some of the sight.
As long as he didn't see the last of it, however, we were good. I had kept him from that knowledge thus far, and I would do anything to keep it that way.
_Are you all right?_ he asked from the rooftop he stood on—the old, battered building he used as a lookout, miles away from where I lay, warm and supposedly safe in my bed.
"Ilyan," I said it aloud between heaving gasps, my eyes flashing to his side of the bed, despite knowing he was not there. If he had been, he would have been holding me. He would have been singing to me.
_Always,_ he whispered in hushed response to my thoughts, his magic moving into me steadily in a thick wave of warmth and love. _I will wrap my arms around you the moment I see you._
I knew he would. I could practically feel his arms around me now while his soft, hushed voice drifted into my mind in the melody that was embedded into my soul.
With a sigh, I wrapped myself up in the warmth, in the song, and fell back onto the bed, my breath slowing as the anxiety trickled away, leaving me with the unusually high level of anxiety I had quickly grown used to. War would do that to you.
My eyes finally pulled into focus as I lay there, the first light of day filtering through our tiny, blown glass window, making the ancient iron light fixture and plaster cracks that much more prominent.
"They are getting worse," I whispered more to myself than to him, but I knew he would hear it, anyway. I knew he would understand. I needed him to.
_I know._ The tension in his voice was heavy, the worry over me that he tried so hard to conceal leaking through. _Who was in the cloak this time?_
I tensed at his question, knowing it was coming, and turned over in the bed, pulling his pillow into me like a teddy bear, silently thanking the stars it still smelled like him.
_It was Wyn,_ I spoke into his mind, the relay of information bringing his confusion and frustration right back to me like a wave.
_Wynifred?_ He was confused. I was, too.
Ever since we had come to this city, ever since we had been trapped in this dome three months ago, my sights had been... changing.
At first, it was nothing bad, just things shown from different angles. Visions altered into a different future that I knew was correct, like when we had first found Risha and the refugees hidden away in the city, when I healed Dramin. Even though they had changed, I knew they were correct.
Now, it was different. Now, they were confusing fragments that didn't fit together, everything contradicting each other in cruel ways. I saw one thing, and then I saw something completely different. Sights kept changing, and everything I thought was real was now a broken and cruel contrivance.
It was as though I was only getting part of the information, like my receiver was broken. Just like that dumb television static I kept seeing. Who knew, maybe I was trying to predict a really good TV show.
One thing was perfectly clear: something was wrong. Though Ilyan and I had somehow moved into a silent agreement not to acknowledge it, we both knew it.
_Did it look like Wyn?_ he asked, his usual solve-every-problem demeanor coming on strong, his voice having already adopted the heavy powerful-leader strain I loved so much.
I cringed, not really wanting to pull up a recall, not wanting to feel that fear again. Luckily, this one I already knew the answer to. The look in her eyes, the way she smiled, it was too close to Ryland, or the Ryland Cail had created, anyway.
"Not really."
I could practically hear the gears turning in his head. I could even imagine him dragging his hand through his hair as he always did.
_You know me too well._
I smiled in spite of myself. He was right; I did. But that was how it was supposed to be, after all... when you loved someone.
_We could ask Sain..._
Just like that, the smile was gone. Oh, yes, my oh-so-loving father with his oh-so-perfect sights would be the logical choice of someone to ask. But I didn't want to. I didn't even want to ask my brother. I didn't want to hear either of them say to my face what I had heard whispered around the cathedral for the past few months. The whispers that I was sure Sain had started.
My sights were broken.
I couldn't control my magic.
The thought ran through me like acid, and I growled in frustration, rolling off the bed with the full intention to get ready and join Ilyan in the reconnaissance mission he was preparing to lead, only to be met by a million aches and pains.
I grumbled audibly, sounding like an angry bear.
The sound made Ilyan chuckle, but I felt like I had been tossed around in a cement mixer for the last twelve days.
"How long was I asleep?" _Please let it be more than two days. Please let it be more than two days._
_Enough, mi lasko._ He was sidestepping, and part of me didn't care. I had already pulled the pitiful "thirty-six hours" answer out of his head.
That wasn't nearly enough time.
I had been awake for two weeks, and if what Dramin had told me was correct, I would need at least three days to put my body back into the shape it needed to be. After all, it took time to heal broken bones and bruises from days of battles and raids. Those three days were very much needed, and thirty-six hours was nowhere near that.
Draks hardly slept as it was, but I _really_ didn't sleep.
I groaned louder, knowing there was nothing I could do. It wasn't the first time the sights had woke me up, or even kept me from sleeping, for that matter.
"Maybe next time, then," I muttered as I made my way to the long, battered dresser, ripples of dull aches and throbs running over my body.
_You could just sleep now,_ Ilyan whispered, despite knowing the answer to that. _You aren't due to run a raid for the next few days._
I knew he had a point. Running through the city, facing waves of Edmund's men, was definitely not what I needed right now. I knew what I needed, however.
"I want to see you." It was only half a lie. I could already feel my heart beat faster, a tense knot of eager anticipation forming in my belly at the possibility of seeing him.
_I want to see you, too._ His voice was deep and throaty as it came back to me in heavily accented English.
Far too quickly, I melted into teenage-romance goo, a wide smile spreading across my face as I giggled. The sound was far too loud and embarrassing for my own good.
_Hmmm. Sounds like you want to see me more than a little bit._
Moving over to an old, antique mirror and the odd, fuzzy object that Ilyan was still trying to convince me was a brush, I tried to wipe the smile off my face, but it was no good.
"It's mostly those arms I want to see," I teased, trying to hide the smile with a smirk, knowing full well he was looking at me through my eyes, right through the dirty mirror.
_Oh, is that all?_ Ilyan's voice filled my mind as I pulled the long, black tangles of my hair into a messy bun, wrapping the délka vedení královsk around the ponytail holder a few times before letting it trail down to the floor.
My hair was a mess no matter what I tried to do with it, but I really didn't care. I was sure Ilyan would remedy the situation the moment he saw me.
_I will, but you better hurry. This rooftop is awfully lonely._
_Is it now?_
He said nothing, but he didn't need to. I could hear it in his voice, feel the longing in his heart. It set me on fire, a heavy wave of desire running through me.
I fidgeted as I pulled on my red shoes, the smile growing into a wave of white teeth as the knot in my gut got stronger.
Getting a moment alone with him was impossible most of the time; I wasn't going to miss this. Ilyan would win over sleep every time.
_It could be more than a moment, but you need to get here._
Smiling like a twelve-year-old with a puppy at his comment, I tore from the room, sipping from a mug of freshly pulled Black Water.
"Mmmmm," I sighed as the heat from the deep magic moved through me, soothing away every ache and pain that had gripped me. Everything felt light for a moment, and for one second, I was worried another sight would come, but it was only me and the warm water and the sound of my shoes against the old, marble hallways.
_Sometimes, I wonder about you and that stuff. Addicted some?_
"You are not the first to say that." I laughed, taking another long sip before refilling the mug. _I'm always willing to share, you know._
This time, he laughed, the deep, rippling sound shivering through me enjoyably before his voice went silent, his magic withdrawing as Risha arrived on the rooftop with several others. His focus changed as a million images flashed in my mind and sent my heart rate stuttering beyond recognition.
_You were attacked?_ I knew as well as anyone, if you stepped one foot outside the cathedral Ilyan and I had shrouded, you were going to be attacked. Given that, I shouldn't be surprised. Still, it scared me. My temporarily calm heart had already accelerated into a panicked pace.
_Yes, mi lasko, but we are all fine. Jsi moje láska, můj život, já budu s vámi brzy._ He pulled my focus right from the frightening reality to sweet nothings that seeped through me in a whisper of deep love, rippling in warmth and contentment.
I smiled to myself as his focused shifted again to Risha, his muscles tensing in fear. I could see the elegant woman in my mind, looking so much like Ovailia it was unnerving. I had learned very quickly that Skȓíteks definitely shared some features.
At least she was nice. I didn't think Ilyan would have made her his second if she wasn't.
_Did everyone make it through alive? We need to get them back before another wave comes, by way of the large department store to the old warehouse near the wall and back._
The quick Czech as he spoke to Risha was like bees in my ears, so I tuned them out, looking at the high, stained glass windows that covered either side of the hallway. The images of ancient piety were framed by the span of buttresses that crisscrossed over the ceiling in a beautiful basket weave. The way the stone seemed to move, the light shimmering over everything like liquid gold, was magic. Magic the way I always imagined it as a child.
Taking another drink, I turned into a small alcove where there were two doors on either side of me, both heavy oak set with large metal nuts and grating, making it look like the entrance to a dungeon. If I didn't know better, I would say that was where I was, and I was sure certain people would agree with me.
And by certain people, I meant Wyn.
Of course, she might not feel that way if she ever left the room.
The door creaked with a harassing groan as I opened it to a dark room. Dust motes danced through the ribbon of light that trailed behind me, the cluttered, derelict room seeming alive, although the depressing space sucked against me oppressively.
I had come to this room daily for the past few months, not only to check on the girl in question and her sleeping beauty, but my brother, as well.
Even though we hadn't been able to tell exactly what the Vilỳ bite had done to Dramin's body, he wasn't the image of perfect health anymore, either. He looked like an old man, something that, given his age, would be accepted, except he hadn't looked old months before.
I was worried about him, a worry that had done nothing more than increase as he had decided to open up about my heritage in ways that Sain had deemed illegal before. You didn't do stuff like that. You didn't break unbreakable rules and talk about your history unless you were reaching the end. That was how it was for my grandmother, anyway.
Dramin lay, feigning sleep, on the other side of the room. His small, twin bed was pushed into the corner, surrounded by bookcases and dusty, leather-bound books with large, earthen mugs of Black Water tucked between them like a child who was trying to hide candy bars. It looked much like his room at the Abbey had, much as I imagined his little alcove in the cave had. Full of food for mind and body, all of it intermingled in an ordered mess.
Like a mad scientist, one who wasn't doing a very good job of pretending to sleep judging by the wink he gave me before he rolled over to give us privacy, not that you could get any in a room the size of a closet.
I would feel bad, but he wasn't who I had come in there for, anyway.
It was for Wyn.
She lay over the foot of Thom's bed, her arms wrapped around him as though she was afraid he would slip away sometime in the night.
My heart clenched from seeing her there, the parallels to how I was when Ilyan had been rendered unconscious too much for me. It was the same heartbreak, the same fear, the same heart-wrenching plea for life. It was the same love that held her there.
Even if she didn't see it yet, I did.
It was part of why I came there as often as I did, checking in on her, on him, part of me desperately wishing I would walk in and find them sitting and laughing as I was sure they had done so many centuries before.
Nothing.
I knew the chances of that happening were becoming less and less every day, and so did everyone else, even if no one wanted to admit it yet.
The ever increasing boils, the inability to wake, the way his body was collapsing in on itself, it was all part of the přetížení dávka—the magical overdose. And, according to Ilyan, it was something with no known cure, cause, or trigger.
Despite all of my ability, everything I had tried had bounced around inside of him like a ping-pong ball.
Besides the boils, besides the disheveled woman who had flung herself over him, Thom looked the same. He had the same dreads, the same smug smile plastered to his face as though he had told one of his little jokes and closed his eyes to enjoy it.
You would think he was sleeping; except, his side of the room looked nothing like him. While Dramin's was a glimpse into the soul of the ancient man, Thom's mirrored what had been slowly infecting us all for the last few months.
Tables were littered with a wild assortment of flora and fauna, poultices, and salves that sent a violent aroma into the air. Even a few battered mortal pill bottles lay among them all, a saline bag someone had tried to figure out how to use thrown into the corner. It was a hospital room of the worst sort, one formed in desperation and panic.
Anything to keep him alive.
My heart pulsed painfully at the thought, something I ignored as I pulled the doors shut behind me, locking myself into the room with a loud click that echoed with a rumble.
Wyn's head jerked away from Thom's bedside at the sound, her movements quick as I felt her magic flare in the air. The rough blankets had left heavy lines against one side of her face, and her hair was plastered into some kind of a half Mohawk.
"Talon," she mumbled, her voice calling out in longing as I pulled her from some dream about her former mate.
Her eyes were wide as she searched the darkness before her, the dark, wide orbs swallowing the world until they adjusted from sleep and saw me standing there in the darkness.
"That good, huh?" she said with a laugh, her hands automatically moving to flatten whatever mêlée had occurred on her head.
"I wouldn't bother." I laughed, the sound of my steps loud in the darkness. "I think you are fighting a losing battle."
"You are probably right. I guess you would have to sleep in a real bed every once in a while for it to do what you want, anyway." She said the words, but she didn't stop trying to flatten her hair.
"You could keep it going and get yourself some matching dreads." I smiled at her as I took a few quick steps over to the still feigning Dramin, putting the half-full mug on his nightstand.
"Don't think that the thought hasn't crossed my mind." She twisted her hair around her finger mindlessly as she turned to me. "I don't think I'd look good with dreads."
"You are probably right, but you can give it a shot. Who knows, you might fall in love with it."
I tried to smile, as did she, but neither smile stuck. They fell off our faces like undercooked pasta on the wall, sliding to the old stone floor in pools of hope that we had lost far too long ago.
I gazed at her as I watched the humor fade, the carefree nature that was so Wyn disappearing from a heartache I had seen before. It was a look I never wanted to see again, yet there it sat, feet from me, ripped and bleeding.
I said nothing, only extended my hand to her in comfort. After all, I didn't think any words would help. They hadn't for the past few months, and they wouldn't now.
Sometimes, words couldn't heal the way you thought they would. Sometimes, they made you bleed more.
Her hand was cold as it wrapped around mine, the skin slick with a clammy chill. She held on as if she was in danger of floating away, a grip I returned as we stood by his bedside, the vigil so heavy against my soul it was hard to inhale.
"When was the last time you left him?" I regretted asking the question as I watched her shoulders stiffen, her hand tightening around mine slightly as the pain and irritation moved through her in waves. "Left the room, Wyn." I quickly clarified, even though it didn't seem to help. The reaction was the same.
"I took a team to the yellow sector last night. We thought we saw a light..." Her voice was stiff, dangerous, and I cringed against it. "I need to leave again in a few hours."
"Another raid?" I would like to say it wouldn't happen, given the fight Ilyan had left, but I knew better.
"Grocery run," she said, her focus still on Thom. "We need more apples. I hope we don't lose anyone this time."
I tried to smile, tried to think of something to say, but it was hard. It was hard to think of anything besides _how are you?_ And if I was tired of that question, I knew she would be, too. Why couldn't people think of anything else to ask? Even discussions on rainstorms would be better or at least something to get your mind off the world.
"I have to go meet up with Ilyan, but do you want to spar later?" I asked hesitantly, knowing I would end up with a broken bone or two. She might be volatile and aggressive sometimes, but it was good practice for me.
"I'd like that." She looked away from me as she answered, her focus returning to Thom.
I waited for her to turn back, but she stayed still, her hand tight against mine, her heart beat a heavy throb against my palm.
I squeezed her hand, her focus undeviating as she released me, leaving me standing beside her in the darkened room, the stagnant air pressing against me in a painful mass.
Part of me didn't want to leave, but another part knew I had no choice. I had to walk away from the darkness and back into the hallway. I had to walk away from her, from Thom, and in some strange way, from the hope that Edmund would stop hurting those I loved.
It was a dumb hope, really, and one I had tried to let go of many times.
I knew it was inevitable. No matter how much I tried to push the images of everyone dead in the street, of Ilyan bleeding in the cave, back into the black pit of my mind...
Edmund would still come.
It was a good thing I had learned how to push back. It was a good thing I wanted to win.
And I would.
## 3
# Joclyn
The hallway was far too bright and active for this early in the morning. Where the building had been half-asleep and empty moments before, now it was slowly filling with people, people who looked at me as they passed, head bowed in respect, hushed reverences on their lips.
You would think I would be used to it by now, but I wasn't. Besides, I couldn't ignore the tiny voice in my head that said they were talking about me, and not just mumbling the usual polite formalities.
Sometimes, my brain was too high school for its own good.
I had moved into a wider and much busier hallway when the sound of thunder and drums resounded through the sky. The clamor grew louder as the massive building began to shake, old, lead windows rattling, a fresh layer of dust falling over me like snow and confetti.
My heart clenched, the recall from this morning's sight coming right to the forefront. The falling of ash, the cave collapsing over me. I knew it wasn't the same, but I couldn't stop the reaction.
I couldn't stop the fear.
After all, I already knew what it was, and it was so much worse.
_How many?_ I asked the question into Ilyan's mind in a rush, and his focus moved away from Risha as I ran to the windows beside me, looking at all of the black specks that were now circling around the high dome. Like drops to a windowpane, everyone around me followed suit, their eyes to the sky as the gasps and murmurs resounded down the hall.
Ilyan's fear built as mine did while the building he stood on shifted below his feet.
I closed my eyes as I focused. My magic seeped right to him in a mad attempt to discover the security of the building, despite knowing anything I could do would be worthless. We really didn't need another one of our tall, lookout buildings to come down. The building, the Young Prince, was already becoming unstable.
_In the west._ He tensed, the way his magic was flowing through me making it clear he was moving to another building _. Looks like there are about twenty today._
Twenty. That was almost double from the last few days. They must be getting desperate... or scared.
Silly, really. The mortals were scared of the cage Edmund had made, the cage that we were trapped in. We were terrified of what would happen if they brought it down.
I'm sure they had some idea of what was inside, but even their imaginations couldn't predict the horrors they would be unleashing—powerful, dark magic and poisoned Vilỳs that lay sleeping in the streets, their tiny, mutated faces trained to the sky as ours were, waiting, hoping, and praying the barrier would break so they could feast on a new batch of victims lying on the other side of the barrier.
We were just as trapped here with Edmund's army—no, _the war_ right on the other side.
Once those walls came down, everything would be unleashed. The barrier was a ticking time bomb, one the mortals were trying to detonate.
Everything shook further, the sound of broken thunder rumbling with a high groan that made it sound like we were trapped in a bass drum.
That one was big. Maybe too big.
_It looked like a nuke, but it couldn't be..._ Ilyan provided, and my heart sunk. _It didn't work._
They had never used one of those before. I hadn't assumed they ever would. But when all their other weaponry had failed, I guessed they had put it on the table.
Nevertheless, even man's most powerful weapon of destruction wasn't enough to conquer the magic Edmund had concealed us within. The bombs held little more destructive power than a child banging pots together.
If a nuclear bomb wasn't enough to break Edmund's barrier, to break his magic, it made me wonder how much power was inside of me, if everything they said about me was correct. It must be more than the lightning that still flowed through me. More than flame. If I was the one to break the barrier, as the sights had said, then I would have to be pretty powerful.
The thought was both terrifying and exhilarating.
One after another, they came, lines of little, black planes dropping bombs against the barrier and erupting into spirals of color that blossomed and fanned over the surface like oil on water.
Purple, blue, gold—a rainbow of color, a mesmerizing dance of movement. It was beautiful, or at least, it would be if it wasn't for the massive destructive power behind it.
I watched the colors blossom, my head spinning and pulsing as dust continued to fall over my head.
I could feel it tickle my neck. I could feel it fall on my nose. I barely cared. I barely even saw the colorful paroxysms anymore. I barely felt the fear.
All I could feel was the comfortable weight of my magic, the warmth as it pulsed through me in waves, as it forced the broken imagery of a recall into the black lines of my eyes.
I gasped at the image, the overlay of sight so perfect that, for a moment, I wasn't sure if I was tapped in to my magic or not. Nonetheless, I couldn't deny the way it felt, the way my magic moved through me with a powerful reliance, exactly like it used to.
_Do you feel that?_ I asked Ilyan as the recall faded away, leaving me staring at a reality so similar I was momentarily lost between two worlds.
_Feel what?_ he asked, concerned. He was so focused on the planes and the bombs they were dropping on us that he hadn't even noticed.
Before I had a chance to explain, my eyes widened at the sight of the rings of color that rippled over us, and then my magic swelled again, the same recall returning. The same sight replayed.
Thunder rattled my bones with the powerful crash of the explosion, fire and smoke breaking free of the barrier as the dome popped like a soap bubble. The barricade of color faded away, dropping to the ground as though it had never been, the bright blue sky that had been so missed shimmering to life.
I gasped as I saw it, my eyes widening as a new terror gripped me. I had barely caught a peek of the blue of the sky before it was swarmed by hordes of black wings that took off from the ground, millions of the screaming things swirling through the now active air, leaving their cage and ready to attack, ready to create a new army.
_No!_ I screamed, my hands a tight fist around the windowsill.
Ilyan's dread heightened at my shout, his fear running right into me in a wave more violent than my own.
_Joclyn?_
The planes were above us like large, black birds with their bellies bare and open, witnessing the same thing I was and, I was sure, ready to drop another deadly weapon in order to stop whatever they had unveiled. Only, this time, it would hit. This time, it would destroy us all.
_Ilyan,_ I gasped, knowing what came next, knowing I wasn't fully ready. This wasn't what I had seen before. Yet, it was. _They did it. You need to get back..._
_What are you—_
"It's time!" I yelled over him, the words more a gasp than a command I was sure a queen was supposed to give at a time like this. "They've done it. We need to move!"
_Joclyn! What?_ I heard Ilyan's voice, felt his mounting confusion, but I couldn't think through the panic, through the Vilỳs screams that were ringing through the open window.
The light was dazzling, the sound ravaging, my magic a violent spiral through me. It was hard to think, but it didn't matter.
I turned from the window, ready to face the fear and panic of my people, ready to take control. But they merely stood there, staring at me in confusion.
"We need to move," I said, the dread growing from seeing them remaining motionless. We weren't that ill prepared, were we? We had trained for this. They had all trained for this. "The barrier is down. We need to move."
I tried to put the forceful power into my voice, but I could already feel it wavering. What little confidence I had ebbed as everyone looked at me in confusion, their eyes downcast as they whispered to each other, a fear I had never seen moving into their eyes.
Seeing them, watching them whisper, watching their eyes, an anger mixed with the disorientation the screams of the Vilỳs had given me, the emotion clashing with the way my magic was swollen and painful inside of me.
_Mi Lasko..._
"What are you waiting for? We need to move!" I practically yelled, my hands spreading out from me in a frantic plea. Still, no one moved, the fear and confusion growing as they looked at each other and at me.
"Perhaps we are waiting for the barrier to break."
I knew that voice, that slow, snide, and overly calm voice. I knew the falseness of it and the hateful man it was attached to.
Turning toward Sain, my eyes widened at seeing him before me, surrounded by people, a look of confusion and worry plastered on his brow. He stood there like some distorted holy man: his clothes baggy, his hair unkempt, his beard untrimmed, looking as out of place as I felt. Yet, he fit. People swarmed around him while taking a step away from me.
He looked at me for a moment before whispering something to the girl next to him. Her eyes widened as he took a step toward me, a look of worry hitting his face, even if it didn't hit his eyes.
"But the barrier _is_ down!" I snapped at him. Having to deal with him never did anything good for my temper.
_Joclyn, I need you to calm down._ Ilyan was pleading with me, his voice worried, concerned, and at any other time, it would have snapped me right out of it, but not when I faced my father.
"Child," Sain cooed, the ever-present sound of irritation in his voice rattling me further. "Daughter, my child, can't you see...? The barrier..." He gestured toward the window, his eyes sad.
Right as he said it, the screams of the Vilỳs stopped, silence resonating for the briefest of moments before the television static erupted inside of me, the grinding, electrical noise that had taken over my sights invading my reality. The sound moved through me, loud, abrasive, and painful.
I shook my head to rid myself of it, freezing in place with the knowledge of what had happened.
Sain looked at me with that same false concern, the whispers of those around him increasing.
I didn't want to turn around. I didn't want to see what lay outside the window, even though I already knew. I didn't have another choice.
_Joclyn, I need you to talk to me. Snap out of it, Silnỳ. Everything's okay._ He was scared, concerned.
I didn't care.
"What did you do, Sain?" I growled, the anger in my voice causing several around me to flinch.
It should have been my cue to calm down, to just go to Ilyan as he had asked, to forget all of this, but I couldn't. Not with the way my anger pulsed, not with the way my muscles seized. Not with the way he was looking at me.
"What do you mean?" His feigned innocence ground against me. "I didn't—"
"I know you did something!" It was a scream, followed by a lunge, my magic trying to fly out of me to attack him, even if that meant clawing his eyes out, all of which would have succeeded if it wasn't for the strong arm that wrapped around my stomach, pulling me into a hard chest that I knew all too well.
Apparently, rugby muscles didn't fade into nothing after spending a year going crazy and being tortured.
"Let me go, Ry," I growled as I fought against his hold, fully aware that was the most I had spoken to him since the night in the cave on our way to Prague, since the day I had healed Jaromir, the little boy Ilyan had pulled from his mother's arms.
"Not going to happen, Jos." His grip was tight yet even. I could tell by the tension in his voice that he was having a hard time keeping a good hold on me. "You're making a fool of yourself, _Your Highness._ "
Two words and, just like that, the reality of what I had been about to do, of what I had done, came crashing down on me. The faces of everyone came into sharp focus, the fear in their expressions increasing as they looked from me to Ryland to Sain. But mostly at me, the queen who had, for all they knew, hallucinated the fall of the barrier then turned and attacked her father.
Great.
_Joclyn,_ Ilyan's voice rushed into my mind, his magic moving into me so fast I was certain I had been blocking it until that moment. _You are okay. Everything is all right._
I began to calm, my breath heavy as I stopped pushing against the wall that Ryland had captured me in.
He didn't let go, and I didn't blame him. I still felt dangerous. At least skin contact with him wasn't violently painful anymore.
"What did you do?" I asked my father again, the same volatile anger grinding through my tone.
Sain looked at me, his eyes pushed open wide, his mouth agape as he shook his head, looking to those around him in loss and confusion. "I didn't do anything, darling."
_Darling_? That was a new addition to his repertoire.
It boiled my blood.
"Are you okay?" For the first time, Sain seemed genuinely concerned, but I knew better. "What can I do?"
_Stay calm, Jos. I am right here. I am with you. You can face him. Be who you are. Handle him like the queen you are._
"You can tell me what you did." I tried to keep my voice calm, tried to sound diplomatic. I wasn't sure either worked. "With the sights. First the Vilỳs, that attack last month, and now this. What did you do?"
I was getting angry again, and Ryland sensed it, his hold increasing. Meanwhile, Ilyan's magic picked up, trying frantically to help.
"I did nothing. The sight was broken with the choices you made, dear child. It is one of the Zlomený now. I have explained this all before." There it was, the same excuse he had used for months—my sight was broken. I was seeing things that could never be. My lack of ability had somehow infected _his_ perfect sight. It was how he had gotten away with everything: lying about the Vilỳ attack, with every broken sight since. "Perhaps, if you cannot control your power, you are not fit to be a Drak."
I lost it.
Lightning shot from my fingers as I jutted toward the old man, a scream breaking from my lips. Ryland clung to me as he pulled me back, the force of his action calming me as everyone took a step back, several ready to turn and run.
"The power is too much for you," he continued, standing still before me as though nothing had happened. "I am worried of the risk you are putting us all in."
"I am not—"
"Even your behavior is not fit for what you are. I stand by what I said before: 'You are going to kill us all.' You must learn to control yourself."
"Sain!" I yelled, but he said nothing more before turning and walking away. More than half the people surrounding him followed him like sheep. The other half lagged behind for barely a moment before they, too, turned away.
I tried one last time to escape Ryland's hold, but he held on, his hands clasped one over the other like he was going to wrestle me to the floor, something I was sure he had very seriously considered. He had done it plenty of times before, after all.
"What was all that about?" he asked, his voice tense, as everyone around us began to leave.
"What was _what_ about?" I growled as I finally shook him off, both of us knowing Sain was long gone, and I wasn't stupid enough to follow him.
"Oh, I dunno... you screaming that the barrier was down and then trying to attack your father—"
"Don't call him that." I turned to him, my teeth grinding together, hating the familiarity he gave me.
I hated the way he continually glanced at the chain around my neck. It was almost enough to make me want to take it off. Almost.
"The barrier _was_ down," I growled, folding my arms over my chest in a move that was all too familiar for him. It was taking everything in him not to smile, but I still saw his lip twitch. "I saw it."
"I'm not saying you didn't." Ryland dragged his hand through his curls, his blue eyes growing dark for a minute.
I recoiled, the resemblance to his father making me uncomfortable. Luckily, Ryland didn't seem to notice.
"It's just..."
"What?"
"Is what Sain is saying true? About your magic? About you?"
I blinked, my jaw clenching. I hadn't expected that.
"I wouldn't believe all the garbage Sain spews," I spat, taking a step in full expectation of continuing down the hallways as though nothing had happened.
"But he's your father."
"I told you not to call him that, Ry. You of all people should know how I feel about him." I stopped dead, a small bubble of hurt forming in the pit of my stomach as I turned to him. His eyes had an odd mix of hard and sad. "You had a crappy father, too."
"Sain is my friend—"
"Ryland!" Ryland's rebuttal was interrupted by an overexcited voice, accompanied by the loud sound of steps from behind us as we were bombarded by Ryland's protégé and full-time shadow. The eagerness of the child spread over his face in a smile that squished the kiss on his cheek together until it looked like a burn.
He was as excited as he always was. That was, until he caught sight of me, and his smile faded to something akin to horror, his youthful eyes wide, lanky limbs freezing in place. Then everything about him was more irritating than endearing.
I guessed gossip traveled faster than I thought.
Thanks, _Dad_.
"Hello, Jaromir," I cooed, hoping it would take the edge off, but he took a step back, his eyes widening more if that was possible.
Jaromir looked between Ryland and me like a confused child trying to gauge which parent to side with and, instead, chose to stay still, an odd expression twisting his face as he tried to communicate nonverbally with Ry.
"I would pick who your friends are more carefully," I whispered to Ry, my focus refusing to leave the kid, who was looking more scared by the minute.
"Interesting advice coming from you."
My focus snapped to him, my eyes hard as he met me with a smile, the grin tentative as he pulled his hand through his hair.
"I'm sorry?"
"You're my friend, Jos," he said with a sigh, his eyes looking to the chain that still hung around my neck before looking back out the window, back to the barrier that had caused all the problems in the first place. "I still choose for you to be, and I don't think you are a bad choice."
I stared at him, my tongue tied in a large knot, shock pressing against my chest in an oddly comforting weight.
_Joclyn_ , Ilyan pressed into my mind, his worry paramount.
I flinched a bit at the infiltration, my focus so heavy on Ry I had forgotten he was there for a minute.
"Right," I finally said, knowing it was a lame retort. "I would still be careful."
He smiled in that goofy way he always had, the look sending a shock up my spine that I hadn't expected.
I gawked at him, expecting him to say something, expecting me to say something. However, I couldn't find the words, so instead, I nodded my head.
Ryland's smile stretched even farther as I walked past him and Jaromir with my eyes stubbornly pulled forward.
I could hear his voice as he spoke in quick Czech. I could hear the tiny squeak of Jaromir as he asked a question. Still, I walked, ignoring them, pretending I still didn't understand the Czech, though I did. Three months living amongst native speakers, trapped in a Cathedral where that was the only language, had done me wonders.
At least now I could ask for more than the bathroom, although I would gladly choose to speak nothing except English any time I could.
_Joclyn?_ Ilyan's voice was terrified, desperate, and I felt bad he was trapped there, unable to leave the rooftop while all of this was going on. _Are you okay?_
_Did you see?_ I asked, already knowing the answer.
_Yes. All of it._ His tone said it all. _I want you to come right to me._
_I want nothing more._
For the first time in the last few minutes, I realized I was fighting back tears, anger, and adrenaline, everything seeping away into an emotional drainage that was trying to take over.
His magic filled me in a frantic attempt to comfort me as my head spun again. The hallway seemed to tilt head-over-heels as my vision shifted, my magic coming to life.
In desperation, I stretched my arm to the wall, grasping for some kind of support, for some kind of reality before my magic pulled me into a sight, before the world around me sunk to black.
Precognition blazed through me in a powerful torrent, pulling me right into the dark, derelict streets of Prague, the streets I had been in a million times.
I ran through them as I had in so many other sights, and like in a million other sights, I knew what was coming.
The cloaked man.
He flashed before me, running from street to street as I tried to follow, as I waited for him to turn and remove the hood as he always did. This time, he kept running.
My heart beat in fear and excitement, my magic a heavy weight on my chest.
One more turn, one more flash of the tail of his cloak.
I turned with him, following him. In place of the same scene I usually faced, there was a lone man, someone I recognized all too well.
Edmund.
My heart accelerated to a pace that vibrated through me, my entire body tensing in fear. I couldn't move. I couldn't escape the sight. I stood, staring at him where he was in the middle of the street with Ovailia by his side, Sain huddled off to the side like a wounded kitten, and a small child I had never seen before standing before him.
My sight flashed as I watched, red and black skittering over my vision before the street came back into view, my heart plummeting at the way the child fidgeted, the way she tried to move away, but something held her in place; something was keeping her there. She twitched and tried to run, but she couldn't move. Her sobs echoed, the pained sounds increasing my fear.
The closer the sight took me, the more in focus she became. She was no older than five; a long, tattered nightgown hung over her emaciated frame, dirty brown hair falling past her waist. Blood dripped from her fingers in a slow rhythm then fell into pools of carmine that covered her feet, sprinkling over her bare calves like a Jackson Pollock painting.
She turned to me slowly, and the red of the blood splattered down the front of her nightgown, seeping from the ragged gash in her throat, her eyes crying tears of the same color.
"Auntie," she whispered, and I recoiled, the alarm in my sight increasing. "You've got to stop him. He has it. He's going to hurt her."
I wanted to scream at the sound of her voice, at the way she looked at me, but the sound never came.
The sight melted away in an ember burn, leaving me standing in the middle of the hall, the low chatter of Ryland and his protégé still coming from somewhere behind me.
I stared ahead, my mind still trying to process what had happened, what I had seen. It had changed again, but this time, it hadn't changed in the normal way. The sight was different. It was stronger.
More than the cloaked man, more than Edmund standing in the street, the way it moved was different. Like the first time Dramin had pulled me into sight, pulled me into the truth of my magic, it felt real.
_Ilyan,_ I called to him, needing his advice, needing his connection. Judging by the way his heart beat thundered inside of me, he had already seen. He already knew. _Did you see?_
_Come here, now._ He hadn't needed to say it.
I was already running.
## 4
# Joclyn
I moved at a dead run, my ribbon pulling against my sloppy bun as it trailed behind me in a bright line of color. I ran past the hordes of people who looked at me with a combination of horror and fear. However, my mind was still too trapped on that dark, blood covered street to even dwell on what was going through their minds.
I had one task—get to Ilyan.
Throwing up my shield, I ran past the thin, white line that covered the cobbles and through the barrier Ilyan and I had made to protect everyone inside.
The tension in my heart increased as the pressure of the barrier pushed against me like cellophane and a suction cup. It was hard to breathe, hard to think, but I didn't stop. I kept moving, propelling my feet through the pressurized space and out into the open where fear and tension combined with the painful reality of what the world around us had become.
Within Ilyan's barrier, the space still held shadows of the war we were stuck in, streaks of blood no one could remove, broken windows and shutters still waiting for repair. But it was clean, safe. Here, underneath the bright red glow of Edmund's dome, trapped in the city he had designed to be a death sentence, the safety was gone.
Out here were silence and fresh streaks of blood. Out here were carcasses and remnants of life, burned out cars, and belongings scattered over bloodstained streets from when people had attempted to escape. Out here it was an active war.
With a tight knot forming in my gut, I took one look back to the cathedral. All signs of life were gone now, wiped out by the shield, leaving me looking at a cathedral and courtyard as broken down and devoid of life as the one I now stood in, exactly how it would look to Edmund's men.
_Can you show me again?_
I knew what he was asking. I could hear his terror as he tried to play back over the sight, as his brain picked apart every change in a mad yet useless attempt to make sense of it.
_I'm almost to you,_ I said as I took off into the air, my wind and magic catching me as I jumped, propelling me forward and toward the heavy pull that Ilyan's magic always gave me.
_Be safe,_ he whispered, his magic further filling me as he tracked my movements, as he traveled alongside me.
I welcomed it, pulling it into me, knowing I might need it.
It wasn't safe out here.
Even with all the magic, there was no way to be safe. Our own men moved through the streets like ghosts, looking for survivors, for food, for any sign of Edmund's guards as they patrolled the streets, groups of them attacking with no warning, even when shielded. The Vilỳs scoured for anything they could try to attack, like rabid dogs.
The faster I got to Ilyan, the better.
I let my magic carry me up toward the rooftops, the broken shingles and collapsing spaces stretching before me like some kind of deranged, rotting garden.
Speeding up, I kicked off the corner of an old wrought iron balcony, the ancient structure groaning and shaking underneath the pressure. I had already moved away from it when the sound of metal against stone reverberated through the crippling silence. The balcony crumbled to the ground, landing against a street cart, and the old, food vendor's stand collapsed under the pressure.
Grinding, heaving, explosive sounds boomed through the dilapidated city, growing louder as bricks and wood continued to collapse.
_What was that?_ He was panicked, and so was I. With the sound of the crash, my heart had sped up, everything tensing in a violent agony. After all, if he had heard it, then so had any other living thing within a twenty-mile perimeter.
Great.
_I'm fine._
I had done that a million times before, but this time, when everything was already tense and frightening, it had decided to collapse in the loudest racket possible, guiding everyone and their dog right to me.
_Don't even start,_ I growled, talking more to myself than to him.
_I wasn't going to. Just get here._
Right. That was going to be harder than I had expected.
I could already see the black specks of the Vilỳs zooming through the streets below me, heading right to the noise, toward the now crumbled remains of seventeenth century architecture.
I should be happy that, at least for the time being, it had pulled their focus. I wasn't an idiot, however. It wouldn't last. I had learned the Vilỳs could track magic like nobody's business. It was why I was so good at it, it seemed. Why all the Chosen were.
Minutes.
I had minutes.
Ilyan was right; I needed to hurry.
I could feel his magic ahead. I could feel his tension, his anxiety. I could feel his fear right alongside mine.
But I could also hear the Vilỳs behind me.
_They are coming,_ I hissed into his mind, my agitation pulling through each syllable while I tried in vain to move faster, knowing it was impossible. I had tried to outrun them before and failed.
Today would be no different.
I could attempt to defeat them, yes. But I already knew there were too many. I could feel each speck of their power as they streamed behind. I could feel their anger, feel their determination to destroy me.
My only chance for everyone was to lose them.
_Ilyan!_ I shouted, although I didn't need to.
_I am coming_. A small, black shape appeared between the buildings before me. The form of a man moved closer as he sped toward me, hair and délka vedení královsk swirling around him like the tail of a kite.
I watched him, my heart pounding, as he ran closer, his face coming into focus, his eyes madly searching for me, searching for what was coming.
_Can you see me?_ I asked, panicked. I could see through his shield—I had always been able to—but Ilyan couldn't. That was one ability Ilyan didn't have a prayer in.
_No,_ he responded, and my heart dropped. _I can feel you._
Just as he was about to collide with me, his arms opened wide, wrapping around me in an iron cage of comfort and security. I had barely felt him against me before he changed direction, his magic carrying us up like a shot, soaring high into the air, above the buildings, above the Vilỳs who continued forward blindly, for the moment, anyway.
"Ilyan," I whispered into the hollow of his neck, the tension building as I watched the creatures stop, their bodies jittering around in a manic need to find the trail again.
"It's all right, my love," he growled in deep Czech, the sound lighting me on fire, even through the panic. "Just wait."
I wrapped my arms around him as we hovered high in the blanketed sky, the planes from this morning still patrolling the perimeter in a slow circle like vultures waiting for the flesh to rot.
Ilyan's arms were a sweet pressure against my spine as his lips pressed against the crown of my head, a calm wave washing through me. I didn't understand how he could be so calm with those monsters seconds away from finding us, but he laughed right as a building several blocks away from where the Vilỳs had congregated collapsed.
The sound was louder than the small balcony mishap, as loud as the bombs that banged against the sky every day. It echoed around us, trapped inside the dome as it called the Vilỳs to it.
As one, they turned, flying toward it in a mad attempt to find a new victim, all thoughts of us forgotten.
"What did you do?" I asked as I turned toward him, my head craning to see him.
His hand left my back to gently push the wild strands of my hair out of my face, a mischievous smile spreading wide at the question, his magic gently setting us down on the roof of one of the many buildings of the city.
"Don't worry; it's not the first building I've torn down today." His voice was gruff as his eyes danced.
"What?"
"It was coming down, anyway," he clarified, as if that made it all better.
His wind swirled around us as it left, the two, long, golden ribbons of our royalty tangling around each other, clinging together as if they belonged that way.
As if they could not stay away from each other.
They couldn't, just as we couldn't.
We didn't want to.
"Are you okay?" His voice was gruff and deep as he took my hand, our magic joining together, the burn on his skin against mine a comfortable warmth that moved into me as if it were a living thing.
Passion wrapped around me with heavy arms of love and commitment that made my knees shake. I drowned in the pleasant weight of the connection, of the adoration. The emotion spread as he moved closer, his arm snaking around my wrist and pulling me against him until all I could feel was him against me, the rest of the world forgotten.
"Ilyan," I whispered, the tension of the last few minutes melting into nothing.
"Můj navždy." His voice was rough and deep, his arms pressing me into him in perfect form, stomach against hips and shoulder against chest.
I fit against him in flawless harmony as he held me, looking down at me with a blazing light in his eyes, even stronger than the love he had gifted me with. It was strong, the promise of love and forever, of commitment that ignited something deep within me. It was a steady flame that grew, pressing against our already intertwined magic and exploding into tiny pinpricks of light, dancing blessings of the earth's energy that ignited and swelled and sparked as the strength of our magic energized them.
The connection we shared transcended everything, which was probably why I was having trouble focusing on anything other than kissing him right then.
"Ilyan," I repeated his name on a groan that was bred in passion, a plea of further contact I knew he couldn't ignore.
He wanted it, too.
His lip twitched in response, mercilessly too close to mine, his breath hot against the tender skin of my lips.
I watched the smile in his eyes, watched the twitch in his lips before they pressed against mine, before his magic swelled within me and the lights around us grew. Colors popped in a kaleidoscope of light.
_Ilyan_. I tried to get his attention, tried to pull away, but the effort was half-hearted, just as the silent plea inside his mind was.
"I missed you," he whispered against my skin as he kissed my neck, his body pulling away from mine as his eyes caught fire. His hand was warm as it held me against him. "I was worried."
"I can't blame you for that," I gasped, the lack of oxygen making it hard to think, or talk, for that matter. "I worry about myself sometimes."
His smile faded into a low frown as he looked at me, his hand soft as the tips of his fingers traced over my face. "What happened?"
He asked the question despite knowing, despite the fact that he could pull the information right out of my head. I straightened, grateful for his comforting contact.
"I saw the wall fall," I whispered.
"In sight?"
"I couldn't tell that at the time."
His body tensed against mine, his arms pressing me into him in perfect form, as the deep buzzing of his thoughts moved against me.
"So they are getting worse?"
I didn't want to justify his question with an answer. Besides, seeing the wall fall and my subsequent breakdown was the least of our problems right then.
And he knew it.
_What about the girl?_ I didn't want to say it out loud. I could still see her face in my mind. I could still see the white and red of her skin. I could still see her eyes, so dark and sad they took my breath away.
"Show me again." His voice was much harder than I had expected it to be, the heavy tension ripping through me, and I fought the need to step away.
I probably would have if his arms hadn't formed a cage around me.
Exhaling heavily, I placed his hand against my mark, gasping as the strength of his magic rippled through me, my knees shaking with the weight of his love.
I wanted to bask in the emotion, but I couldn't, because I knew what was coming. I knew what I was about to see.
And I knew there was no way around it.
Moments after his hand made contact with my mark, the recall flared, bright and warm inside of me like a flame. The same scene played before us: the cloaked figure running, my vision following.
Turning a corner to face Edmund and the child.
The girl had barely started to turn when Ilyan's hand pulled away from me, the recall severing along with the connection. His movements were rough as he took a step away, his magic leaving as the contact did. His eyes were darker than I had seen them.
I had thought the sight of the girl was frightening, but somehow, Ilyan's reaction to her was even more so.
"Ilyan?"
"Have you seen her before?"
I flinched at the fear in his voice, my feet pulling me forward before placing my hand against his back in a need to comfort him, despite the fear I held.
"No." I regretted asking what came next. "Do you know her?"
"It's Rosaline."
The weight of his emotions smothered me as my brain moved into overdrive. I had heard that name before. Where had I heard that name before? I didn't have to think on it much before the memory came to me, aided by Ilyan and a million painful moments.
Wyn's daughter.
No, Wyn and Thom's daughter.
"What? Isn't she... dead?" I couldn't compute it. It didn't fit. Nothing about it fit. It wasn't past, not with the city the way it was. And Rosaline was already gone, so it couldn't be now, and it couldn't be future.
I looked up at Ilyan, the alarm in his eyes making it clear he was following my train of thought perfectly.
"Is she alive?" I asked, not wanting to hear the answer.
My sight couldn't be that broken, could it? What was happening?
"No. There is no way she could be, but something is going on," Ilyan answered, his steps wide as he pulled me back into his arms, his heart thundering against me, within me, as I leaned into him. "Did the sight feel like the others? Did it feel real?"
"Yes," I whispered against him. "It had that pull... like it's trying to tell me something. And there was none of that static..." I froze as Ilyan stiffened underneath me, a violent pull of warning and magic moving through both of us.
My head turned away from him, toward the city where the magic began to grow, the close proximity a warning that neither of us recognized.
Slithering away from his embrace, I dropped to my knees, my eyes scanning the red-tinted rooftops and the shadowed labyrinth of streets before us. My magic pulled in a fervent search for the source of the danger, spreading away from me like lightning as it sped right to the source.
As quickly as the spike of warning had come, it left, only to be replaced by an identical one, many more miles away and to the left.
My head snapped toward it, my eyes narrowed as I looked through the world, my magic and mind seeing as one.
With my heart pulsing in foreboding, my magic sped through the air toward the perceived danger, only to jump again a mile in the opposite direction.
The same magic moved and shifted around the city as if it was playing nothing more than a game of hopscotch.
No, as if it was stuttering.
Stuttering. Seamless movement from one place to another.
It was something Ilyan could do, something I had almost mastered.
Besides us, there was only one other person we knew of who could move so swiftly.
Edmund.
Fear gripped me at the realization. It pulled through my muscles in a twisted ache. However, I remained still, crouched against the ancient rooftop, my eyes lifted to the red sky, trying to keep my breathing level and my Drak magic at bay.
"It can't be..."
"Edmund."
My body uncoiled at the malice in Ilyan's voice, the conclusion the same as mine, one I was sure he had heard inside of me.
A hot wind wound around us, tangling our ribbons as I moved to stand beside my mate, my figure as stiff and still as his while we stood, feeling the magic pulse again, feeling it move and shift.
"Is it the same?" Ilyan whispered, his voice rumbling inside my head as it did out. "The magic, is it the same as his?"
The question was simple and one I should have asked myself from the moment I had figured out what was happening. After all, I knew Edmund's magic as well as Ilyan did.
I had been trapped with it.
I had been tortured by it.
And I knew the magic below us wasn't the same. It felt different. The power was different. The malice and rot within it was different. If only judging by that, it wasn't Edmund. It couldn't be.
And yet...
"No one else can stutter," the words seeped out of him as the realization spread inside me. Ilyan's muscles tightened beside me, his thoughts going into a speed so fast I couldn't help flinching at the onslaught. "But it's not him."
Looking to Ilyan, my eyes wide as my head swam, I knew I should fight it. I couldn't risk another disaster like earlier, and if Edmund was here, right below us, I needed to be on guard.
My head spun painfully as I pushed it away, stomach twisting as Ilyan faded in and out of focus.
"Nothing?" he asked, knowing full well what had happened and what I had tried to do.
I loved that my magic was being such a pain in the butt. It was times like this when sight would be useful. I guess it was good I could still fight with the rest of them.
The Drak might be broken, but I sure as heck wasn't.
"Nothing," I parroted, looking toward the city as the power jumped again, moving from place to place so fast even I was having trouble tracking it.
I focused on it, focused on the energy, on the hatred and the black undertone that poisoned it, but it wasn't familiar.
Except, it was. The anger, the poison within its emotional depth, was the same as the Vilỳs', the same as what I had removed from each Chosen we had brought into the cathedral. The same as what I had felt from Edmund's men before they attacked us.
It might not be him, but it was one of his, which meant one thing...
Someone in Edmund's new army could stutter. Some newly awakened magic was strong enough to do that which was deemed the most powerful.
I looked at Ilyan, his expression making it clear he had heard my thoughts as they had come to me. His eyes flashed to a dark blue, the shade screaming with a painful fear of agreement.
I knew what needed to come next and wrapped my hand around his, letting his magic fill me as he pulled me into a stutter, pulled me into the dark void between worlds to go after the magic, after the new danger, and into a war.
## 5
# Sain
Everything was going perfectly.
Joclyn's madness was becoming more active, and thanks to this morning's little orchestrated episode, more public.
There had been rumors of her insanity brewing for weeks as a result of the speculations I had slowly been spreading. However, she had been hiding what was happening to her too well, hiding the manipulation, the episodes of sight and weakness that I had plagued her with. No one had really been able see the truth of what was being said until this morning when I forced her into a vision that would never be, a sight so perfectly run over with reality she couldn't tell the difference. And she cracked.
Then everyone saw.
Then everyone knew.
And I was one step closer.
"Sir! Excuse me, Sain! Sir!" a voice erupted from behind me, concerned, deep, feminine.
I tensed before I turned, unsurprised to see the same pretty Skȓítek I had whispered to in the hall a few minutes before rushing toward me.
_Look at her eyes_ , I had whispered, the low voice agitating poor Joclyn more. _That's how you know her magic is destroying her. You can see the madness there._
Seeing the woman now, I knew she believed me. I knew she had already spread those few simple words around.
They were little seeds of doubt, but like a weed, they would grow.
"Yes?" I asked, the sound of her approach echoing in the mostly empty courtyard. Normally, it was full around that time. I supposed everyone had left to see what the commotion was about.
The thought made me smile.
"I'm sorry, sir," she mumbled as she stepped closer, her eyes falling to her toes in respect.
I smiled at the gesture, glad I was being treated the way I should.
"I... I need to know. Is what you said before true? About the queen's magic destroying her mind?"
"I want to say that it isn't." I sighed dramatically, placing my hand on her elbow in what I hoped was a fatherly way. "But I have seen this before. It is a common ailment of my kind. When the mind cannot handle the power of sight, it begins to destroy itself—"
She gasped, the horror on her face evident. "Our poor queen."
I bristled, anger and agitation running through my spine. That was not the reaction I wanted. She should not be showing worry or sympathy for one so pathetic and volatile. Disgust, anger, fear—those should be lining her face, the reality of the weakness of her queen filling her.
Instead, she was worried.
I attempted to bridle the unrelenting anger that moved through me, numbing my better logic as I pulled my hand away quickly, grateful not to have to touch her anymore. The anger kept growing, but I tried to make the emotion in my face mirror the ones she was obviously feeling.
Sadness. Devastation. The emotions were there, even if I didn't feel them, and she reacted.
"Will she be all right? You are the first of the Drak; your magic is pure. Surely you can see what is coming for her."
This time, I couldn't disguise the smile. I didn't even try. This was what I wanted—this dedication, this awe. To me, not to the ones who had stolen my throne.
The smile hid behind my hand before I returned to her, the lie already waiting.
"I see nothing. When one of the Drak compromises our magic, all sight is broken." Well, when one of my kind didn't let me control what they saw, anyway, but I wasn't going to get into that with this woman. "The sight will not become clear again until after the magic has left her."
_We need you._
I visibly jumped as Ovailia's voice filled my mind, my heart rate accelerating in anxiety as I cut off the lie, her simple command one I could not ignore.
The woman looked at me, alarmed by my sudden reaction. I knew I should say something. I could tell by the look in her eyes that she expected some information relevant to sight. The eagerness, the awe, it was all there, as it should be.
Too bad I was going to disappoint her.
"I'm sorry, but one of the children is in need of my help," I gasped, forcing as much emotion in my voice as possible. "If you'll excuse me."
I didn't even wait for her response, for her farewell; I immediately turned and left. I had learned hundreds of years before not to keep Edmund and Ovailia waiting. And, while I had given them my fair share of defiance before, it was not a game I was willing to risk when I needed them as much as they needed me, not that I would let them use me.
Darting through the people left in the courtyard, I made a beeline for the tiny passage hidden behind the main barracks. The dark hollow called to me the closer I moved. Luckily, the corner was far enough out of the way that no one noticed as I slipped behind the old, brick structure.
_Begin at the third mark._ Her voice was a growl. Obviously, she wasn't looking forward to seeing me.
I would love to tell her the feeling was mutual, but I still had a role to play.
Heart pounding, I moved into the shadowed, overgrown narrow that war had rendered forgotten. It was like walking into a jungle—a perfect, little jungle fit to escape, fit to store a certain piece of incriminating black fabric.
Grabbing the latter, I took a few more steps before opening the old, wooden door that had served as an escape during the coup in the twelfth century. Ironic that I was using it for much the same purpose now.
The doorway glimmered with a faint sheen of white, the thick barrier Ilyan had placed to protect us, to keep everyone in, glowing brightly.
Most people avoided it like the plague. Most people would get a shock if they even got close.
Not me.
Heat and waves of binding density pressed against me as I forced my way through the powerful barrier. I wanted to scream with the pain, but everything had been sucked out of me. Struggling to move, I pressed on, desperate for the gasp of air I would find on the other side.
Like a struggling infant, I emerged from Ilyan's barrier, falling to the ground, my hands spread on the cold, bloodstained road. The shadowed darkness swallowed me as I coughed and sputtered in an attempt to catch my breath.
It was something that should have been impossible—to move through Ilyan's barrier as I had—but there was one design flaw that the foolish man had overlooked. One little loophole that suited me perfectly.
The shield was made to keep all of Ilyan's people inside, to keep them safe. However, it was also made to let all of those who served Edmund see nothing more than the destruction, their eyes shielded from the cathedral as it really was.
Ilyan, in all of his naivety, never assumed someone could be both, that someone could be inside the barrier and see the world as it was yet pass through without his blessing into the destruction of Prague.
He had never assumed someone could serve two masters or, in my case, none at all.
Coughing, I lifted my head toward the alley, toward the numerous pairs of hungry, yellow eyes that peered through the dark, their vicious natures awakened by my sudden appearance.
Hissing rang around me, gnashing teeth glinting through the dark as the tiny, infected creatures took off into the air, making a beeline for me.
Heart seizing in fear and exhilaration, I let the fear fill me, the smile spreading wide, knowing full well the vile things couldn't touch me if they tried.
"Zdechnout," The tiny things froze in mid-flight at the word, their bodies falling with a dull thud. Blood seeped out of the tangles of flesh and bone, staining everything around them with shimmering pools.
Rippling waves of heavy material broke through the silence as I unwound the fabric, throwing a heavy cape over my shoulders. The hood lay low over my head as I shrouded myself in the dark.
_You have twenty minutes. To the third._ Her voice made me grind my teeth in agitation. I didn't like being ordered around, especially from her. Not with what the divine magic of the earth had created me for.
I was one of the first, after all, and soon, I would be viewed as such again. Soon, even she would bow to me.
Centuries of planning, of plotting, of scheming were about to come to fruition. It had been that long since my reign had ended, since the first four who had come from the mud had been stripped of their title in favor of Edmund, a snot-nosed brat with no right to hold my magic, to hold any magic. Regardless, they had seen a god who held everything inside of him.
I had told them then what fools they were, but the order of the council had been in place since the beginning, and therefore, the council took control.
The people had won, and their precious kingdom had fallen to the wayside because of their conceit. I would gain it back, remind them of what we were put here for.
Edmund was trying for the same thing, or at least, that's what I had made him believe. In the end, however, he only wanted power, not to reinstate our true purpose. He didn't understand what we had been, because he was the one to ruin it.
I understood, and I would perfect it.
Silently, I ran over the streets of the deep red city, the solitary sound of the flapping cloak filling the lifeless city. The fabric was heavy, perfect for the prickly harshness of cold that was familiar for Prague this time of year. Once I was outside the barrier, it would be needed. Now, it was nothing more than a hindrance. What little of winter that made it through the greenhouse effect the barrier had created felt out of place against the stagnant pressure of the heat.
_To Kozi, near the river._
My power flared inside of me at the sound of her voice, the strength of her command. The deep growl of the pure Drak magic swelled as I pulled it from the place I had hidden it within myself.
The icy chill of the powerful magic swirled as it took control, flooding me, and then, with the tiniest pop, with the smallest amount of effort, I moved, my body stuttering right to where Ovailia had commanded: the Kozi—the long, historic street that extended straight from the Vltava River, the banks of which had overflowed weeks ago, leaving bright red water lapping against the historic buildings, eroding the cobbles and thousands of years of history.
One place to another, without the faintest bit of effort.
A stutter.
A perfect stutter.
As they were meant to be.
Ilyan could perform a stutter because of the magic of his father, the weak strain of Drak magic the Chosen children possessed. It was why Edmund could stutter so flawlessly, and Ilyan was able to because the whispers of the same power ran through his own veins, the tiny magic amplified by the magnitude of his power. It was only the Drak who could truly stutter, who could truly manipulate time and space.
Drak power Edmund had stolen, that Ilyan had seized.
For centuries, I had let them believe it had something to do with the amount of power a body held.
It was an easy lie to let grow, just like all the others.
Like the 'sight' that had led Edmund to order the murder of all those bastard Chosen children who were like his siblings. One word to him about their danger and he had killed them all.
I needed them gone, and Edmund had given that to me.
It was needed. I couldn't control their magic, after all. I couldn't restrain the Drak power within the Chosen children as I had in my progeny, as I still struggled to do in Joclyn.
Letting that much power roam free would risk the future I had planned. The magic was too powerful for them, anyway. They had not deserved it. No one, not even my precious Dramin, deserved it.
At least I could control him.
Consequently, they had to go.
Joclyn would go, too. I had already groomed Edmund for that task centuries before. Although, at the time, I had assumed I would be able to control her, use her, a bit more than I had. No matter. She would be gone soon, thanks to a little information leaked to Edmund like a slow drip.
They saw her as nothing more than a threat, not what she really was. Edmund would destroy her, and thanks to sight, I already knew how Ilyan's life would end.
They were the only two who could stop me, and they were half-dead already.
Everything was coming together.
I sped through the alley, moving dangerously close to the high wall of the dead end, as her voice came again. The false sugar she was so good at coating it with grew deeper. _Near the wall, on Na Ostrohu._
The blood-splattered stone wall was inches from me before my magic surged again, pulling me from one side of the city to another. This time, it was to a large street nestled beside the wall, the red-tinged light so deep you could barely see through it.
Running beside the modern homes and buildings felt out of place, the light tinting everything a deep crimson. I should have enjoyed the imagery of a beautiful scarlet world, but something was wrong. Something felt different. Something was here.
I froze in place, the constant movement Edmund believed was required in order to move me through his cage breaking with a snap.
_Why did you stop? You are running out of time._ The rare panic in Ovailia's voice surprised me, but I didn't let it show. I looked toward the rooftop, toward the building where a faint popping noise of another stutter had resonated from.
Ilyan.
And I was sure, knowing them, Joclyn would be with him.
I had never been able to track her magic.
It was too pure, too close to my own. Besides, she was learning to master it faster than I could figure out how to block her, even though she had no idea that was what was happening. To her, it seemed like everything was broken, not that everything was starting to work properly.
That was probably thanks to my own interference, but we didn't need to let her in on that little tidbit.
"Hello, daughter," I whispered, a grin spreading over my face.
I knew Ovailia would be mad. Even if I tried to alert her to what had happened, she wouldn't be able to hear. It didn't matter. It was only a matter of time before they saw me, before they saw the man in the cloak in person.
It was sooner than I had planned for Joclyn's nightmares to come true, but it would have to do. I had been preparing for this for far too long to let the perfect opportunity go to waste.
It would appear I had another game to play.
_You need to keep moving._
I fought the irritation at her oh-so-obvious statement, hating how right she was.
_Nový židovský hřbitov._ The old Jewish cemetery. Perfect.
He would follow me there, but I knew it well enough that he would never catch me. See me, yes, but not reach me. Besides, what was more haunting than an apparition amongst tombstones?
Moving through the stutter, I kept my eyes wide, ready to begin running the second I reappeared in the old graveyard. The lines of past and present moved through the darkness I traveled in, the colors bright against my vision before they left me staring at the red world again.
Darting through the old, broken tombstones, my heart thundered in eager anticipation, shoulders tense, everything in me trained on the silence, waiting for the faint pop of magic to signal the chase had begun.
As I ducked behind a large mausoleum, the same pop boomed in my ears. Then there was a low grunt of pressure as someone fell to the ground.
Wonderful.
They were here.
Now I needed them to see me, to see the cloak, to have Joclyn feel my magic. It was something that should be concerning since she was my daughter and should know the signal of my magic. But she didn't know me.
Even with my magic fully charged and broadcasting, she would never know it was me. Even as her father, she would have no idea. She had never felt the full magic of the Drak before.
No one had. I was the only one who possessed it, after all.
But soon, everyone would feel it. Everyone would know what Draks were fully capable of.
Darting from behind the large, cement building, I ran between two smaller tombstones, attempting to give them the best possible shot of me, trying not to laugh as the gasp of fear and surprise hit my ears. I was grateful for the large headstone in front me, the massive thing perfectly placed to dodge the single stream of violent magic fired my way.
Swearing loudly, I plastered myself to the back of the massive pillar, gasping for air as my heart raced. I hadn't counted on that. They were closer, more aggressive than I had thought.
I needed to be more careful.
It was a shame, really, that I could not control her magic right then, that I was not able to trigger another broken sight within her mind. It would be enough to send her reeling. However, my magic was too focused on the task at hand. Besides, connecting to her now, letting her feel my magic from a different side could be dangerous.
The soft crunch of dying grass bounced off the forest of stones, their steps slow as they approached me. The heavy pulse of my heart seemed comical against the snails they were.
I didn't dare move out from behind the monument, certain they would hear my heart race if they got much closer.
Too bad I didn't have a choice.
_Last one._
It was all she needed to say. The last jumping point was always the same. It had to be in order to intersect with the underground pool of magic that gave me enough power to pull through the barrier.
Sucking in a breath, I steeled myself against what was coming, knowing I didn't have much choice. I couldn't throw up a shield if I wanted to have enough power to make it through the barrier. I had one shot, so I had better make it good.
Running out from behind the old headstone, I darted between a garden of ancient statues as stream after stream of debilitating attacks were sent my way. Then, disappearing with a snap, the stutter pulled me into the long, endless street of old town, the high buildings surrounding me on all sides.
I had run down this street a million times before, run to the same intersection, burst through the barrier unscathed. For the first time, however, I was scared.
They were close, and they had already shown they weren't afraid to stop me. Here, there was no cover, no alley, nothing more than a straight runway until my next stutter when I would exit the tepid confines of the dome.
The vulnerability of it made me a sitting duck.
At a dead run, I moved, everything tense and fearful as I tried to focus. The dread increased tenfold at the sight of the long, blond mane of a man who landed right before me. It was all I could do not to scream.
I could see his tall frame, the anger and hatred gleaming in his eyes, waiting to attack, his hair fanning around his powerful build. He looked right at me, but I knew he couldn't see me, not with the hood shadowing my face, not with the darkness and shadow that surrounded us.
The glow of power sped from his hand in a brilliant purple flame that would incapacitate me if it had time to make contact.
I never even saw it leave his hand before the faint pop of the stutter surrounded me, sending me out of that space and into a field that had been a farm, but there, in the dead of winter, it was little more than endless rows of withered corn stalks. Twisted crumbs of lifeless flora swayed in the bitter winter wind that tugged at the cape that was now a necessity.
My heaving breath flowed before me in millions of specs of white ice, the yellow sun and blue sky hovering above like crude shapes in a child's drawing.
The other side of the barrier.
Try as others might, only I could move through it... Or rather, only I had the power needed to do it. However, I let Ovailia and Edmund think the move was made possible by their connection, by the control they had over me.
Another simple lie, ripe with benefits.
"Hello, Sain," Her voice was the distorted silk it had always been, the sound of seduction and pleasure and gain. So fake, so forced. I had heard her true nature a few times before, and I would always prefer it to this. She seemed to think whatever she was putting into this façade was an asset; however, she was all acid and vice, everything about her coated with so much malice any lust she tried to conjure was cracked.
It still affected me the same way, though, perhaps because I had been with her. Perhaps it was because we were both hiding a deep strain of malevolence no one else understood.
A perfect match, which made the fact that my magic was trying to pull into hers more irritating.
She moved toward me slowly, her gaze never leaving mine as her ridiculous heels crunched into the dead undergrowth in loud snaps. Her eyes were dark orbs of plum blue as she leaned closer, running her finger over my lips, and my heart tensed in confusion and irritation at the gentle touch.
"I was beginning to think you weren't going to show up." Her finger didn't leave my face, her magic continuing to wind around me like some poisonous snake that I could tell neither wanted me nor wanted to let me go.
"Hello, Ovi." I kept my voice low and fearful, back to the cowering role she knew. The façade was fueled by the bitter cold, the chill of the air a biting pressure against my lungs.
I inhaled, savoring the sting of the icy wind as it moved over my skin, tugging at the cloak, at my hair, and taking any hope of warmth away from me.
"Why did you stop?" she snarled, the calm of my greeting unheard as she moved ever closer, her hand wrapping around my neck in a violent warning.
I shook underneath the touch, but not for the reason she would assume.
"It wasn't my fault," I cowered, letting my voice warble as I fought against the strong waves of pride that rippled through me at her accusation.
She turned away at my denial, her hair swinging over the pristine white of her fur coat like a flurry of snow. White against silver. It was beautiful.
I would give her that; her beauty was still hard to resist.
Something foreign swirled through me as I stood, lost in thought, while two of her guards appeared from the air around us, flanking me so close that, for a moment, I was truly afraid they were going to take me to Edmund. I didn't need that, not yet.
I wasn't ready for that yet. I still needed Ryland's blade. I still needed Thom.
"You stopped moving. You almost severed the magic—"
"I was being followed."
Her eyes narrowed for the briefest of moments before they widened in shock.
"Ilyan." It wasn't a question, though it probably should have been. He wasn't the only one who could stutter anymore, but she didn't seem to care, even though I knew that she, too, possessed the ability. "And the girl?"
I nodded, Ovailia's shock leaching back into disgust as a loud hiss slipped past her lips.
She turned away from me in anger, her hair fanning around her like a blizzard.
"How did they find you? You told us that your sight is clean." Her voice traveled on the bitter wind, moving through me.
I shivered, letting the weak movement move through me like a wave. "You know how he found me. That girl can track magic better than most Vilỳs," I snapped, regretting the outburst the moment Ovailia turned back to me, her eyes dark in warning.
The guards increased their holds at her look, hands digging into my arms as they held me in place. I grimaced at the pain, at the pressure.
None of them cared.
"Did he see you?"
"Not that I could tell."
Ovailia studied me for a moment, obviously skeptical, before she narrowed her eyes. Her hand drifted to the side as she dismissed the guards, the burly Trpaslíks fading back into nothing as they pulled their shields around them.
"So you are still good for something, I take it." Her voice was a poisonous reptile, the look in her eyes ready to attack.
Before I could get a chance to answer, the look changed, her eyes drifting in and out of focus until they were a million miles away, the anger falling from her face to be replaced by a deep understanding that scared me.
I knew that look. I knew that movement. It had happened to me enough over my life and even more in the last few days. She had received her instructions from Edmund.
I couldn't help the odd mix of eagerness and fear that took over my body. The idea of playing the game was hauntingly desirable.
"What does he want of me?"
Ovailia smiled at the depth of my knowledge, her hand lifting as she brushed the back of it against the bare skin of my jawbone, her fingers running through my beard in a touch so soft I couldn't help the shiver that jerked through me.
Our magic connected, the skin contact giving the power free range to move between us, to try to connect. It was something that, by the look in her eyes, she enjoyed.
"What do _you_ want of me?" I couldn't help the question. I couldn't help the low grumble of my voice, the twisting of my stomach making a powerful play.
She smiled more, her eyes dancing as her magic continued to penetrate, and the chill of the wintry breeze became a distant memory as the warmth of her hand heated my insides like a hot water bottle.
"I want the same thing my father wants." The honey of her voice melted into me, despite knowing what was coming. "Information."
My magic attempted to curl back into me in disappointment, but I kept it there, inside of her, a strong force as magic and souls danced in a tango that could never be completed.
"Haven't I given you enough?"
"There is always more."
This time, it was my turn to smile.
She was right. There _was_ always more, so much more than even she could ever understand.
I had been playing this game for centuries before she was even conceived. Her birth and our bonding had played perfectly into my web as everything else had.
She leaned into me, her breath hot on my lips as the depth of her blue eyes attempted to swallow me whole, and my gut twisted at the whispers of the connection I was still fighting.
"Give me more." Her request was a whisper, a flutter of heat over my lips, a twist of pleasure against my heart. I was sure anyone else would have caved.
I knew that was what she wanted.
I wasn't as weak-willed as she assumed me to be. She didn't know me well enough to recognize the difference.
She knew what I let her see, and what I let her see now was the reaction she had expected of the person she thought she knew: the buckle, the giving in, the whimpering plaything she could mold. But it wasn't who I was, not really.
"Anything." The word was more a moan than an agreement as it leaked from me.
She smiled, and thankfully, I was able to keep mine restrained this time.
"We need to know more of Joclyn's magic, specifically her sight: how it works, how it connects to Ilyan, or even if it does." The honey slipped from her voice as Edmund's instructions rattled through the air.
The warmth that had settled in my stomach disappeared into vapor as the air became lead.
Of course it had to be Joclyn's power.
It was no secret Joclyn was insanely powerful, and I knew from the beginning that Edmund would want her power for himself. I had hoped he would see more use for her dead—as I had intended—but that was obviously not the case.
But this information, this tiny bit of knowledge, was mine. I needed it. The way their magic worked, the way their souls had connected was a key piece to how I was going to destroy Ilyan's regality. It didn't take much to know that, if Edmund knew how their magic connected, he would use it in the same way I intended. I couldn't let that happen.
My lips pressed into a tight line as my mind immediately moved around the demand, around the information I had, trying hastily to find the smallest bit of information I could give him.
"Do we have a problem?"
The harshness of Ovailia's voice pulled me right out of contemplation and back to the beautiful woman before me, the graceful dance of her hair in the wind the only movement amongst the frozen and dead world.
I didn't have a choice. I had to give them something. I would just have to figure out what I could sacrifice that didn't give them too much of an upper hand in this delicate game.
"Sain."
My magic reacted to the sound of my name on her lips, to the touch of her fingers against my cheek as she brought me back under her spell.
"Please don't forget. I hold the cards. I always have. I can control your magic."
_No, you can't._
"I can control your sight." But you couldn't see what I truly saw.
"I hold the key to Thom's life in my hands."
Thom.
The word, the reality that was clenched behind it, was a knife twisting into my spine, the bones straightening as I righted to my full height, the fearful, broken man I always played gone for a moment.
"Yes, I thought as much," she soothed, her smile spreading.
Whether it had been done on purpose or not, Ovailia had played her cards right with that one. She needed a way to control me, and thus, she chose the person everyone perceived as my best friend. I guessed, in a way, it was true; except, I didn't believe in friends.
I believed in using the right people in the right way, and she had taken out one of my most valuable assets right when I needed him the most.
I had told Wyn I had made a mistake moments after it had happened. Only, she had no idea how truly damaging that mistake had been. For all she knew, I had left the oven on.
In reality, I had let the man I had been grooming for centuries to play as bait be incapacitated beyond all hope. All my work with Rosaline was rendered useless in that one moment.
I had needed him. I still did. I hadn't found a suitable replacement yet.
I had tried to use Ryland, but while he still remained loyal to me, he had risen above his father's control before I had expected him to. That raw power and anger he'd had before was gone. Try as I might, I wasn't able to mold him in the way I needed.
Wyn was too headstrong, and no one else was emotionally broken enough for me to manipulate in time. Therefore, I had to keep playing into Ovailia in the hopes she would give Thom back to me, awaken the dead so he in turn could kill her.
I ground my teeth together at her threat, my heart racing angrily in a display of emotion she did not miss.
"Strange you care more for the life of one whose blood is as distant from yours as can be, while you would willingly feed your own progeny to the wolves."
"She was not bred for life. She is nothing more than a pawn." The words came without thinking, my head spinning with power, with the deep Drak magic and imagery of that first sight. The truth I had concealed flashed before my eyes in a recall so powerful that, for a fleeting moment, I wasn't certain if I was the one who had summoned it.
When Ilyan had come to me that day, all those centuries before, he had been a weak boy searching for a mate. I had looked into the water to see what he sought. While I had seen it, while I had seen his future with Joclyn, a future with this powerful urchin with unrestrained magic I instantly recognized as Drak, it was not the future I had shown him.
I had shown him joy. I had shown him light. I had shown him possibility.
But I had also shown him death that had not existed.
I had also turned the precious girl who was meant to be the liberator of our people into a martyr.
Even though I had seen her sent from the mud to restart the realm of magic, I had not seen her as queen.
I could not let such power be free in the world. I couldn't. Therefore, I changed it.
I changed it and created a war that would end in her death. I set brother against brother and father against son. I took the image I had seen of Joclyn beside the well, of her magic restarting all of the magic. I took the other, of her alongside her father-in-law in peace. I took the battle that ended in life. I took it all away and showed him death and destruction, instead. I showed him her dead body as he held her, as he screamed. I took his future away.
I took any possibility Joclyn had to use the Drak magic that she was not worthy of holding. I took it all away and gave them something different... because I could.
After all, they had taken my future away, and I would stop at nothing to get it back.
Besides, it was easy. Before the false words had even left the mouths of the Draks who had surrounded me, it was done, and it would be that way because I had "seen" it.
Oh, how suggestive everyone was.
I could say I "saw" a three-legged medusa come forth from the mud, and they would all sit around and wait for it to happen.
It was ridiculous.
"She is disposable." I finished the thought with a snap, watching Ovailia's eyes widen as her shock wound through her spine, the look gone before I had even fully registered it.
"To more than us, it would seem," she whispered.
I smiled, and so did she.
For the first time, I had let her see a sliver of who I really was, and although the glimpse into my reality didn't scare her, it was definitely a surprise to see it so well received. To see that, despite everything she had seen of me and all the falsehoods, she liked it. She liked me.
Just as, in that moment, I liked her.
For the first time in my life, I actually wanted to kiss her.
What an odd feeling.
## 6
# Ovailia
Screams echoed through the frigid air as I made a beeline toward my father. The haunted sounds carried on the back of the wind as though they were nothing more than remnants of lives long gone.
In a way, it was true.
The sounds were the ghosts of people who had been pulled out of the once vibrant city, their bodies mutilated and destroyed by my father's beautiful creations. Fragments of souls battling through a powerful poison, battling against a magic that would either devour them or become them.
The weak ones would let it destroy them.
A worthwhile sacrifice.
It was the strong ones we wanted. Those were the ones whose screams resonated day in and day out. The sound of their suffering turned into power, turned into something we could use.
The agonizing bellows increased as the large field of burlap tents drifted into view, wavering in the cold like a mirage. Broken and stained canvas, surrounded by a sea of brown and red snow, slowly came into focus. The dirty city was nestled between the wall and the forest, the forgotten farmland the perfect hiding place. A hidden army, shielded from the mortals who flew overhead, from Ilyan who couldn't see beyond the barrier even if he tried.
The crisp snow crunched under foot as I continued on, the guards who had surrounded Sain and me dropping their shields as we approached the first tent, a large, broken mess of fabric housing the weakest of the filth the Vilỳs had infected. If they survived the first few weeks there, then they would be moved to another tent, one with marginally better conditions. First, they had to get through week one on their own. Sympathy was not a treasured trait. No one was going to help them. If they couldn't make it, we didn't want them, and having the tent on the outskirts made for easier clean up in those cases.
"Someone needs to take a hose to that," I growled as we passed, the smell of blood and human excrement overwhelming as the tent walls rippled in the violent wind.
One of the guards laughed from behind me, the sound deep and callous as the men planned a spectacle of much-needed entertainment.
The vile smell grew heavier the farther into the camp we moved, but this time, it did not come from the tents. It came from the people who had begun to flow out of them. Their dirty faces were eager as they sped through the broken city toward me, their eyes wide, bright, desperate.
"My lady," an old woman—or rather, what looked like an old woman—mumbled as she bowed beside me, the tattered sheets she used as a coat slipping off her bare and bloodied shoulders.
I looked away in disgust, fully aware they were coming faster now, drawn to me like a moth to a flame. Mumbled greetings, pleas, and tears of desperation were repeated as the guards closed ranks, their massive, burly figures serving as a protective barrier as they kicked and shoved the slowly intruding garbage.
I kept my eyes diverted ahead as I glowered, my heart thundering proudly at the beautiful mass of serfs my father had created.
"Please, my lady. I have fought twice. Food... It's all I ask." One voice rose above the rest as a muscular man attempted to break through the guards, only to be shoved backward into an already collapsing tent, the burlap folding around him like paper.
I watched him fall, laughing at his foolery, at them all. It was always the same: food, safety, loyalty. All those things must be earned, and they knew it. It was why they bowed, why they cowered. It was why they threw tattered coats down for me to walk on, muttering long forgotten Czech prayers.
"My lady," a blonde girl mumbled as she pressed against a guard, her hand stretched toward me in a frantic need to touch me, worship me.
Lips snarling in disgust, I pressed one finger against her palm before she backed away, tears streaming down her face in a revered look that smothered me.
I had trained them well, it seemed. Ingrained in them a love of who I was and what I meant to them. Fear of what I could easily do to them.
My usual wicked grin broke over my face in a toothy smile that made them cower more.
Voices called and begged in one final plea as I reached the tent my father would be holed up in. The massive structure loomed over us, screams emanating from somewhere inside so loudly I could barely hear the pleas of the refuse I was surrounded by.
"My lady," my guards echoed in unison as they flanked the doors, lifting the tent flaps and allowing me to duck into the wide open warmth of the reception room, the wails of the masses muted by the heavy canvas I was now enclosed in.
"Ovailia," a short, darkly colored man greeted me the moment the flaps had closed, his voice a hollow reverberation as he moved toward me.
He was obviously happy to see me, and judging by his body language, he expected some sort of embrace or handshake. Staring at him, I raised my eyebrows in a questioning disgust as I checked my designer heels for any unwanted filth that might have followed me in here, silently wishing to find some to throw at him.
"Damek," I practically growled, my distaste from seeing him leaking through, not that I tried to conceal it.
Damek was a Trpaslík older than myself, his face battle worn and full of scars, some of which I was sure he had given himself with the reputation he had earned. He had served on my father's forward guard for centuries, and I had never really cared for him, something that had increased since he had taken over Cail's role after his death.
He seemed to think such a simple advancement awarded him the same stature of my father and myself. It was something I was getting very tired of reminding him otherwise.
"We did not expect you back so soon," he tittered, his authoritative voice far too happy.
"We?"
"Edmund and myself."
_Good to know he was speaking for both of them now_.
"I didn't know you were expecting me. Was there something you needed, some information vital to our cause that you require, Damek?" I straightened as I looked at him, eyes full of warning as the tiniest of smiles played around the corner of my lips.
He smiled at first, misreading my meaning, until it hit him full in the chest, his over-exuberant confidence waning a bit.
"Well... I... that is to say..."
I smiled fully, and his spine became rigid as a flare of my magic wrapped around him. Judging by the way he shivered, I was sure he could feel it, even if he didn't know what it was.
"I suppose my father sent you to wait for me, to escort me if there was any problem?" I was snide, bored even, my irritation toward him bared.
Silence.
"No, then?"
He looked at me.
"Good." I smiled as his pride bristled a bit.
I stood before him, our two bodies seeming comical in the massive space that had been used as Edmund's ornate reception hall. All the gold inlaid furniture was swapped for barrels of bright purple fire, all the tapestries removed except one. The ancient thing was still full of the vibrant colors it had possessed centuries before as it hung high above our heads, the scene a depiction of the ritual I was sure my father was surveying.
Removing my coat with a wide grin toward the now addled man, I handed it to the awakened filth who stood cowering in the corner, waiting for my instruction.
The Chosen who had cowered before me outside the tent had bowed before me for a reason. And that was it. They wanted a place. They wanted to serve. This girl was one of the lucky few who had braved the pits, who had won, and who had received the right to live.
Even beyond the pits, it was Edmund and I who made those decisions. They were right to worship me as they did. I held their lives in my hands.
"My lady." Her words were barely above a mumble, something I would normally punish her for. I had punished her for it in the past. She obviously remembered the large gash I had left in her flesh with the way her shoulders tightened, the way her back curled.
Good.
She was learning.
"Try again," I soothed, careful to keep my voice soft, kind, while also making it very clear she was moments away from the same beating.
She heard the warning.
Her back curled farther as she took a step closer, her filthy hands wrapping around the pure white of the fur. I couldn't help cringing.
"My lady." Her voice shook, but it was louder, calmer. Her place known. Her role in this new world already declared, as it was with the man before me. I made sure Damek was watching my servant serve me the same way I was going to have him do.
He observed the exchange as my eyes burned into him and the woman bowed to me before scuttling away, broken and controlled.
He swallowed, the temper I had fixed him with seeping into him, filling him with a seething discomfort.
"Good."
I said nothing more, merely stepped toward the now broken man, not willing to let him think he could be anything other than a servant.
"You can finish your task now," I soothed, my voice calm, sweet even, the acid behind it seeping through in warning.
Head bowed, Damek turned from me, opening the next flap wide and welcoming me into the large, open underbelly of the stadium.
The heavy canvas of the receiving room had dulled the sounds of the pits, but now that I was on this side, they were crippling roars of excitement and catcalling, hundreds of Trpaslíks screaming in joy and frustration. The sound was beautiful, unlike the begging of the ones outside. This was joyous and soothing. The sounds of death always were.
"How many have fought today?" I asked as the now cowering guard caught up with me, his heels clacking loudly against the stones that had been used to cover the ground. The underside of the risers stretched above us like an ancient wood and steel bridge.
I was glad I had chosen to leave my fur. It was warmer in here, the heat mixing with the smell of blood and feces that reminded me of what I had been raised in, what my father had taught me to love.
What I had learned to love.
"There have been over twenty, Ovailia..." he began, and I stopped, fixing him with a hard look that, considering the way his shoulders pulled into his chin, hit him hard in the gut. "My lady, he is in his usual box."
A cheer went up from the stadium I walked below, a loud and riotous scream thundering behind it along with a few moans of defeat.
"I hope the take was good."
I didn't even have to ask if my father had won or if he had bet. He always did, and he was always right. For the centuries that the Trpaslíks had been fighting in the pits, he had been right. It was how he had kept his guard so well trained. He only picked the winners.
If I remembered correctly, even Cail had killed ten men without the use of Edmund's Štít in the pits.
Everyone had to prove themselves. The more you proved yourself, the higher you were in the ranks of the Trpaslíks' magic.
"Earlier, he won over twenty thousand Euros," Damek answered, his voice eager again.
Without so much as a glance toward the man, I continued toward one of my father's other guards, a handsome man who stood outside of one of the many entrances, his body shrouded in a heavy, black cloak.
"Ovailia," he greeted me as we approached, his voice heavy against the shouts of betting, taunts, and hollers that were leaking from the arena just beyond him.
The exhilaration for the coming match was mounting, infecting me with an eagerness I awarded to Damek's masked insubordination.
"Sir," I greeted him, knowing I should have corrected him yet choosing to leave the overly familiar greeting hanging, the single word bristling poor Damek's insecurities further. "Is he expecting me?"
The man nodded with a smile, moving to the side to let me through before moving back, blocking Damek from entrance. "His majesty does not wish you further entry," the younger man growled.
Damek's instantaneous rebuttal was lost amongst the crowd I was moving toward.
Joy swelled at the exchange I was leaving behind. I was glad I wasn't the only one who was getting fed up with the boundaries Damek had been pushing. After hundreds of years of service, he should know better. No matter. From what I had witnessed, he would be gone in a matter of days, anyway.
As I walked through one of the small hallways that led to the main space, the bones of the structure fell away to reveal rows and rows of metal bleachers, the smell of sweat and blood mixing with the joy and exuberance of the crowd.
I smiled broadly as I moved into the stadium, the wide space open to a white sky. Snow fell gracefully above the heads of the thousands who sat around the pits yet never reached them, as it evaporated in the heat of the inside.
The sound of raucous bidding was deafening as I stood at the highest point in the stadium, rows stretched below me before dropping into a large, open pit where dirt and blood mixed together so seamlessly that, unless you knew what you were looking at, it would be easily mistaken for mud.
"Ovailia!" my father bellowed from below me, his voice an excited boom over the noise I was already inundated by.
Already in good spirits thanks to the entertainment, Edmund smiled with a dangerous grin that, to anyone else, would insight fear. And, while I did feel the shiver of warning, it was the eagerness of danger, of reward, that pulled me forward.
He sat alone, surrounded by pillows and platters of food, his guards flanking him in such a wide berth that he was an island amongst the shiny, silver bleachers. An island that was draped in an ornate cloak I hadn't seen since before we had been banished from Imdalind the first time.
I recognized the fur-trimmed relic as what he used to wear to council when I was a child. It had been given to him by some king when he had saved their country, or so the history books said. In reality, it was him taking over, a coup he would run from behind the scenes.
Another kingdom we had claimed for our own.
Just like this one.
All he needed was the crown, and he would get it before all this was over.
"Father," I began, his eyes lighting up at the greeting. "You seem quite comfortable."
His nefarious smile grew, hand waving to the bare bleacher beside him in an invitation to sit.
Without missing a beat, one of his newly found servants, one of the Chosen, moved forward to place another pillow there, his head bowed low, his hands and arms covered with bruises. He shook as he moved, as if every step was a trial, the shake in his back growing the closer he moved to my father.
"Was your task completed?"
I knew he was speaking of Sain, and I smiled, the poison in my spine tightening in a heavy exhilaration. There was a reason I had been rushing to return to my father, and it wasn't because he had called for me.
"Yes." My voice gave everything away as my heart rate moved into a torrent of thunder.
I expected him to reply, to demand more information, but instead, he drank, smiled, the maniacal greed I had seen in his eyes so many times before taking over. It filled me as it did him, increasing my excitement.
"He gave you something."
"He did not mean to." My lips twitched into the smile my father always brought on, my own eagerness to tell him mounting.
"Was it the location of Ilyan's camp?"
"No. You know as well as I do he cannot give that. Not that we would use it, anyway. We need those brats alive."
He looked at me with a scowl, his displeasure obvious. My heart constricted at the possibility of failure before steadying again. Even though I might never be able to give him what he truly wanted, I already knew I had something better.
"I saw the sight," I gasped, pulling his attention, "the one he's been hiding from us, the one concerning Joclyn." I leaned toward my father as he did me, the screams and catcalls erupting around us at the start of the next battle. The shock of what I had admitted sat heavily between us. "When I was standing in the field, the water inside of me pulled me into it—his recall."
Despite the sound of the fight that had begun, despite my chest heaving with the excited breath, all I heard was silence, all I saw was the look of stunned shock on my father's face.
His eyes darkened to a color I hadn't seen before, the depth of them almost black, the bottom of an endless pool of death. A look of longing took over his face, making the fear spread into me in an electric way that made me feel alive.
"What did you see?"
"I saw you standing with Joclyn as companions at the banks of the deep wells of Imdalind. I saw Ilyan's death. I saw the Vilỳs, untarnished, sweeping through the city in joyous revelry. I saw you and I and Ilyan sitting with Joclyn on the four-headed thrown, the one that was destroyed in the seventeenth century."
"But that is not what he has told us. Are you sure it was true?" His words were slow, calculated, the pits and all the bloodshed not so much as pulling his attention anymore.
"What I saw, what the poison within me showed me, was nothing like what I had seen before. Yet, from what he was speaking of, from what the magic told me, it's true. What I saw is what the sight always was. Even from the beginning. Sain changed it somehow. He changed what he saw before he gave the sight to Ilyan, before he showed it to me. I don't know why, but what everyone thinks is true... is not."
I could barely get the words out as the fear knotted through my shoulders with each shade my father's eyes darkened.
"What are you saying?"
He already knew the answer. He just needed me to say it.
He needed me to unleash the anger.
A cheer broke through the crowd that surrounded us, the sound deafening as it filled the canvas tent we sat in. I didn't know if someone had won, if someone had died. I didn't bother to look. I didn't dare break away from my father and the eagerness in his eyes.
"Sain has been playing us all—all of us—all along. But I have seen what's coming. We have the upper hand."
The eagerness in his eyes faded to anger, the flame in them moving to an aggression that rippled over him, tensing his shoulders as he turned away from me, looking back to the two small figures who battled in the pits below. Their frames were so small and fragile I was sure they were children.
"Did you see enough to know what he is planning?" I barely heard his grumble above the roar of the crowd, the sound almost incessant now. Something must have happened; I could smell the blood in the air.
I just didn't care.
"No. I saw enough to know what the real outcome is... or, rather, what it was supposed to be."
"Supposed to be?" He jerked toward me, his eyes wide as he questioned. "Do you not think that it will?"
Utter disbelief ran through me, shock at the unexpected question. He had never asked for my opinion.
Never.
And yet, there we sat, surrounded by the dust of battle, the smell of blood and sweat heavy as the question lingered between us.
Nerves and anxiety infected me with the simple question, the emotions growing worse by the minute.
"Sain prides himself on his infallibility. He has always been vocal about that. But even he could not believe in his own ability if he is giving false sights to those who seek his council."
A small, feminine scream rang out from the pits before the boisterous yell of the crowd drowned us as my father turned to me, a grimace spreading over his face.
"Unless he believes that, by giving out whatever information he chooses and preaching of its truthfulness, it thereby will become." Edmund had put the outcome together before I could, his words poignant as he turned back to the pits, watching the two children—a boy and a girl—as they clawed and pulled and battered each other in an attempt to draw more blood.
"Ovailia."
A pleasurable ripple moved up my spine at the sound of my name on his lips. I sat up a little straighter, letting my hair fall down my back as I scooted closer to him, eager to hear what he had to say, eager to be what he needed me to be.
"I need you to arrange another meeting with him. If what I have done to you has allowed you to see this sight, then you can see more. Use it. If Sain won't give us the information, then maybe you can get it for us."
After all of his anger, after all of the fear he had bled into me, this was not what I had expected.
Pity? I had always been taught that pity was for the weak, and my father was not weak.
"He has lied to you, Father; do you think showing him mercy is wise?"
"Normally, no. Regardless, he has already shown he does not fear us, so we need to give him a reason to love us, a reason to work alongside us."
"But, Father—"
"Then we will crush him," he interrupted, a smile stretching so wide the white of his teeth bled through. "He is still as valuable a pawn to us as we are to him. It all depends on how we make our moves, who gets the king first, so to speak. I will use him to the very fullest until the moment he becomes disposable."
"But how do—"
"Look to the pits, Ovailia," he interrupted again, his tone, while kind, warning me of the storm beneath the surface.
My muscles tightening in fear of what I had almost unleashed, my focus shifted toward the pit for the first time, toward the children who circled, who lunged, who bled, who screamed. Who battled for one of the coveted places inside of Imdalind, in my father's army.
I had heard their fight before, but now I saw it. Now I rejoiced in the beauty of the system my father had created.
"Take these children," he began with a small gesture of his hand. "Young, innocent, they don't want to hurt each other. They don't want to kill. But they want to impress me, and they will do anything to gain that honor..." He looked at me, his grin still wide and haunting before he stood, the bright red cloak unfurling beneath him until he looked like the royal monarch he was.
With nothing more than that one movement, heads turned toward him, the stadium began to quiet, and even the children who fought below us slowed to a stop, their eyes turned toward their king in expectation, their backs bent in reverence.
"This fight is a good one"—his voice was loud; even I cringed against the weight of it—"so let's up the ante, shall we!" His voice rumbled as the crowd went wild, and the tiny frames of the children shook in anticipation. "The victor of this fight will move beyond Imdalind and gain the right to be my new, personal bodyguard."
Gasps, awe, cheers, they filled me as they did the crowd around us, a pride and exhilaration flowing freely at what was about to occur.
The children looked at each other in question. Even though they didn't fully understand, they knew this was a greater prize than what they had originally been told. And before Edmund had taken his seat on the billowy nest, they had begun to fight again, this time with more fervor and desperation than before.
"Will you look at that?" Edmund's voice was a calm torrent beside me, but I, like him, couldn't look away from the way the children attacked each other, jumping and clawing and tearing and biting. "They were doing as they were told before, but now... with a promise of victory, a promise of a better goal, they truly fight. Their hearts are in it now."
My head snapped from the children to my father, unsurprised to see him sitting there with that grim smile on his face, his eyes revealing all the knowledge and power he had.
"Tell me, Ovailia, how did his magic react to yours today? Did it try to connect again?"
"It did." I was proud, and he was pleased, which increased the ecstasy inside of me.
"So his desire for you is strengthening?"
"Yes, Father, as you asked me to do."
"Wonderful," he cooed, his focus finally pulling back to the pits where a lone child stood over a lifeless shape, tiny fists smashing into bloodied flesh again and again. "Use him. Even go as far as completing the bond if you must. Anything to access his sight, to get the information we need."
"Complete the bond?" An odd mixture of desire and disgust roared through me, the disgusting emotions making me feel vile.
"He has secrets we need, Ovailia, and with the magic I have embedded in you, once a bond is complete, you will have full access to whatever I wish. You just need to give him a greater reward. Give him a reason to fight to the death, and you have always been his reason. You just need to show him you still are."
He looked away from me as the child was pulled off the heap of the body she had destroyed, her eyes wild and manic, everything so covered in blood and dirt it was difficult to tell if it was the boy or the girl. If it wasn't for the clothing, I would have never known.
One thing was perfectly clear: she knew she had won. She knew she had gotten what she wanted. And all because my father had given her the opportunity.
"Give him a reason to do anything I say," I whispered more to myself than to my father, but he heard, anyway.
His face broke out into a smile, the same mania in his eyes darting to me as the pit master brought the child to him. "Give him a reason to fight for it."
He was right, and what was more, I knew I could. Sain had shown me something in himself I had never seen before. His eyes had become something different, someone I had never seen, a magic I had never felt. Even when we were bonded, I had always felt that something was missing from the man, something he kept so deeply hidden I had even convinced myself it wasn't there.
But today... Today, I had seen it.
Today, I had wanted it.
It was a feeling I was trying to ignore, yet hearing my father speak of the connection, of the espionage in such a way, I wanted it. I wanted to exploit it—exploit him.
"Our King, our lord," one of my father's many servants announced loudly from beside us, his voice carrying over the now silent stadium as he presented the child to her new master.
She was covered in blood and filth, her blonde hair barely visible from underneath the mud that coated it. She did not cower. She did not even try to hide. She stood still and tall as she met my father head-on, her focus solely on him.
It was as he had said. She knew what she had done; he just needed to give her a reason to do it.
"What is your name, child?" Edmund asked, his voice calm, obviously taken aback by the loyalty the child was already displaying.
"Míra," she said, her voice as strong as the gaze she had fixed him with.
Edmund said nothing as he walked toward her, placing his hands on her bare arms as he looked at her.
Her steady gaze wavered as his magic filled her, as a new Štít was placed against her heart, taking away any choice over her life the girl had held before.
Turning the child into something more.
Just as my father had me.
Just as I would Sain.
It was as my father had said: it was all in how you played the game.
And I was going to play.
## 7
# Ryland
"Good job, Jaromir! You are going to be a pro at this in no time!" my voice boomed through the red-lit courtyard, the deep sound echoing off the cobbles and broken stone work in a weird ricochet.
Everything was different close to Ilyan and Joclyn's barrier. The small patio was bathed in a golden light that filtered over the already painted world. The light made everything look real, closer to how things were on the outside. It wasn't perfect, but close enough that, for brief moments, I could believe everything was normal.
_You will never get outside._
That was probably why I preferred to do my work out here, even though Ilyan demanded all magical training take place within the cathedral where he had placed a secondary shield to protect the ancient building, as well as keep the signs of our presence as shrouded as possible. I understood the reasoning, but the ancient space was too dark for me. I always felt trapped. Besides, the larger barrier Ilyan and Jos had placed out here did much of the same job. So, as much as I could, I would bring us out here and pretend it was nothing but a never-ending sunset.
I wished that was all it took to forget we were trapped in my father's doom bubble.
_Don't worry; I'll keep reminding you._
Even if it wasn't for the restrictive prison we were trapped in, there would still be that incessant voice in my head, the disembodied words of my father seeping through me, trying to control me.
Trying.
But he couldn't, not anymore. I wouldn't let him. I would fight the anxiety his voice gave me. I would rise above him. I needed to, not just for me, but for what was coming.
I was reminded of it every day as I trained Jaromir, as I trained all of the other newly awakened Chosen, preparing them for what no amount of fantasy could conceal.
At first, I had rebelled against the job before I realized I was one of the few people here who knew what my father was capable of, who knew what they were up against. And someone needed to prepare them for the war that was ahead.
_My war._
_The war I am going win._
_The war you are going to help me win._
No.
_We shall see._
That training was as good a daily reminder as any.
"I didn't quite get the flick like you taught me, though, sir," the little boy spoke in quick Czech as he approached me, his shaggy hair bouncing as his voice rattled on with all the eagerness and excitement he'd possessed since the first day I had started training him.
"What flick?"
"You know, how you move your wrist to the side a bit..." He smiled widely, showing an odd mix of adult and baby teeth, before stepping away, the grin growing as he pushed his hands before him.
I could see the gears in his mind twist and turn as he thought about what he was about to do, as he twisted the magic to perform whatever wrist flick he was talking about.
With a bang like a gun, the magic erupted from his palms in sparks of colors that went wide, much wider than it had the time before, thanks to the odd jerking motion he was trying to accomplish.
Even with the large spray, the magic was still accomplished perfectly.
While all the other Chosen had fought against their new abilities and life, mourning what Edmund had taken from them, Jaromir took to it like a duck to water. He mastered complex tasks easily and quickly, surpassing all the others who had awoken around the same time.
_You should use him._
_Use him to help us win this._
_To defeat Ilyan._
_To kill Joclyn._
Of course, his acceleration was partly to do with how far he had pushed himself, how much perfection he expected. He refused to move on to another task until he had perfected it, and he would get quite upset with himself if things weren't honed in record time. It was a lot for a boy of nearly nine to take on.
That insatiable quest for perfection, while valiant, was sometimes fruitless, which was what he was stuck in now—a search for perfection that was focused on a wrist flick not required for the task I had set him.
I recognized what he was trying to do. That particular movement was one I had done since I was ten when my father had broken my wrist in a fight and demanded I heal it, breaking it repeatedly until I mastered healing every mutilation of the bone he could think of.
_And you whined like a baby the whole time._
_I should have broken both your wrists just to teach you a lesson._
_How I could have been stuck with such a—_
I cut the voices out with a cringe, something that wasn't easy to do considering the strength of the memory. It was hard to forget the full year of constant bone breakage and pain he had inflicted on me. I guessed it was a good way to teach a task if you were a sadistic monster, which my father was.
_What is your guide for sadism, son?_
_How do you know you aren't exactly like me?_
I'm not.
_You are more like me than you think._
In the end, I did master healing. I was also left with a few ticks within my magic, something that was bound to happen when you performed magic with nothing more than splinters of bone and tendons instead of a working hand.
_You could always break his wrist. Then he would be able to master it._
_Then he could be like you._
_And you like me._
"That movement isn't required, Jaromir."
"What do you mean it isn't required?" the little boy asked, the greasy mop of dirty brown hair quivering a bit as he shook his head. "That's how _you_ do it."
"Yes." I tried to keep the frustration out of my voice, but it leaked out, anyway. Jaromir wrinkled his bulbous nose in response. "But that's because it's how I was trained."
Jaromir narrowed his eyes at me in defiance, and I fought the need to roll mine. I wasn't going to tell him all of what my father was capable of, not yet. Right now, magic was still new and amazing to him, and I didn't want to be the one to destroy that.
It was like Santa Claus—no one wanted to be the one to ruin the secret.
_Then let me._
"So train me that way." He was insistent, defiant even, and this time, I couldn't help laughing, the reaction affecting him as deeply as a smack in the face.
_Let me ruin the magic._
_Let me train him._
"Not going to happen, kid."
_You can't stop it, son._
_You know it is the best way._
"What do you mean 'it's not going to happen _'_? It's how you were trained, and I want to be trained like you. I want to be as good as you."
_Even he knows what you are capable of, what you were made for._
_He sees it, and he wants it for himself._
No.
"You _will_ be as good as me," I said with a laugh, the forced sound resounding back to me with the same awkward ripple the barrier always gave. "But that doesn't mean you have to do everything exactly like me."
_Why not, Ryland?_
"But I want to," he said, half-shocked, half annoyed, his little eyes squinting together as he wrinkled his nose.
I once again found myself fighting the need to smile, to laugh.
It was an odd feeling to be looked at by someone that way, like I was Santa Claus instead of the magic.
An unfamiliar knot formed in my gut with the realization I could be that to someone. With scars all over my body and a brain that was addled and frightening, I was baffled anyone could look at me and still want to be like me.
Jaromir still looked at me like that: eager, waiting, his eyes full of so much life it was infectious.
I really didn't want to deflate that magic from him, deflate the fantasy into a twisted and frightening reality.
But it was more than that.
Jaromir was a child. He was an innocent.
That was what I didn't want to destroy. That was the reality I didn't want to taint.
And yet, hadn't it already been?
He was a child, yes, but he was also a child who had been pulled away from his dead mother's arms. He had watched his family being destroyed by mysterious, winged bats, only to be cursed with immense pain. He was a child who had chosen to survive, to live, even through all that pain.
He had something to fight for, too.
Just like I did.
Just like we all did.
_Maybe_ , I thought with a cringe, _it is a bad thing I am trying to sugarcoat it the way I am_.
_Yes._
_Be more like your father, Ryland._
I couldn't keep the disgusting truth of what was coming from him forever. Besides, I didn't have to tell him all of it right now.
"I twist my wrist that way because of how my father trained me," I said with a sigh, keeping Jaromir's focus on me, despite wanting to look away. "He broke my wrist every day to teach me how to heal while still teaching me other abilities, so things like the wrist flick are because I couldn't move my body the right way and had to make do."
_That's a good boy, Ryland._
Jaromir's smile faded little by little with each word I spoke. This tiny, little fact about my father and what he was capable of seeped into him and replaced his awe with worry.
I groaned a bit at the shocked look he had now fixed me with, instantly grateful I had elected not to say anything more. I wasn't sure what it would do to the kid.
"Your father broke your wrist?"
"My father is not a very nice man, Jaromir."
_He doesn't seem to think so._
_Look at him, Ryland._
"Every day for a year?" He continued speaking as though I hadn't said anything, like he hadn't heard the little asterisk mark that I was attaching to that or, worse, like he didn't care.
"That is not a good thing, kid," I reiterated as I turned back to him, my heart dropping to see the awe seeping back into Jaromir's eyes. _Please don't let it be for what I think it is._
_It is, Ryland._
_It is exactly what you think it is._
"My father is... well... He's not very nice."
"I know that."
I froze.
"How do you know?" We had been very careful to shield him from knowing my connection with Edmund, something that had been nearly impossible, all things considered. "You don't know my father."
Jaromir smiled, his lips spreading wide to reveal rows of perfectly straight and white teeth. "Yes I do," he said through the grin. "It's Edmund."
I felt like I had been punched in the gut. My mouth opened automatically, my brain struggling to catch up, to find something to tell him, some way to respond.
"I figured it out," he said, the smug look growing as he rubbed his fingers over the mark on his cheek, as though, if he pressed hard enough, he could make it disappear. "It wasn't that hard. I knew Ilyan was his son, and you and Ilyan are obviously brothers, what with your weird eyes and the crazy things you both do and everything..." He smiled broadly at that, his hand dragging over his hair before he pinched the bridge of his nose, his smile increasing in mockery.
He laughed.
I didn't.
"Were you _trying_ to keep it from me?"
"Well... yeah..." I dragged my hand through my hair in embarrassed frustration again before stopping halfway through and dropping it to my side. _Of all the things to give us away..._
Jaromir's smile stretched to inordinate proportions.
"There are some things you probably shouldn't know yet," I finished in a desperate hope he would let it drop.
I was a fool to think there was even a chance at that.
"That's dumb," he spat, the quick change in demeanor taking me by surprise.
The awe had gone; the pity had gone. He was just a lanky boy who stood before me in angry defiance.
I didn't miss those mood swings.
_You were always more powerful with them, just like him._
Whoever said only girls got those during puberty had never tried to control the magical rage of a boy trying to figure himself out.
Just standing here, I could feel the heat of his magic begin to grow, my own magic reacting in warning.
"How so?" I was careful to keep the hesitancy out of my voice.
"You're training everyone for war, right?" He already knew the answer to this, but I nodded my head in acceptance, anyway. "Which means you are training me for war, too, so why hide things? Why lie and say things are different than they are?"
_So that it's easier for me to defeat you._
"So we can protect you."
"That's dumb," he repeated, a smug, little smile springing over his face, his nose turning up at me as if he smelled something disgusting.
In any other circumstance, I would have laughed at the look, but I couldn't. Not right then when the tense ball in my gut made it impossible.
"Why is that dumb, Jaromir?"
His smile grew. "Because isn't that what you are training _me_ to do? To protect myself?"
_To die for me, you mean._
No, Father.
"Well... yes..." The words broke out awkwardly, my heart thundering as even _I_ began to question who I was responding to.
"So why keep stuff like that from me? You are already training me to protect myself, but I can't protect myself if you aren't going to tell me everything. Just saying it's for protection when I can't protect myself without it... It doesn't make any sense."
He had spoken in circles the way he always did when he was agitated, the way I used to when I was his age. Despite the circles, however, I knew he had a point, one I was foolish for missing.
I stared at him, the obviously blank look on my face causing him to smile even more.
_I know how to wipe that grin off his face._
He was smug. He had won. He knew he had gotten me. I didn't know why, but that made me uncomfortable—being upped by a kid.
I had been rattling over everything for days. Risha and I had gotten in far too many conversations about what to tell him when he had figured it out all on his own, understanding the ins and outs of it enough to make what I thought had been sound, simple logic seem fickle.
I groaned a bit and turned away, my hand moving toward my curls, ready to drag its way through. I pulled it away quickly, not really wanting to be compared to Ilyan by an eight-year-old again.
_It's pathetic that you have picked up so much from your brother._
_You are better than him._
_You were supposed to destroy him._
No.
_Kill him, Ryland._
_Stop waiting._
_Do this._
_For me._
"Don't worry; you don't have to say it. My dad didn't like it much when I was right, either." The words came out so easily, the certainty of truth behind them, spoken with a grin and a flip of his hand.
Like it was nothing.
Yet, I felt responsible, felt so... parental?
My stomach flipped.
Is that what this was? This weird feeling of uncomfortable failure and of failed responsibility? I had never really had a parental figure to know. In fact, the closest I had ever had to a _dad_ was Sain, and I was currently plotting to kill my biological father with him.
Even though I had watched plenty of TV shows, I had missed my own father in so much of my life I had never once contemplated how a parent felt in this type of situation. I was too busy sticking myself in the kid's shoes, too busy trying to imagine what it would be like to have a father who cared and wanted to be in their kids' lives, not just destroy them.
Now, somehow, I was standing where that TV dad had been, staring down at some kid with this weird feeling of sorrow and disappointment. A feeling I had somehow wronged this kid, that I hadn't given him what he needed.
I had failed him.
_You have failed me._
_Be a good son, Ryland._
I felt like I had been kicked in the groin.
It was a sensation I was used to thanks to Rugby. Nevertheless, I didn't think I would feel it quite so perfectly again, especially when no groin kicking had actually happened.
I was way too young to be dealing with this stuff.
Too late now.
"You're right." Those two words were so much harder to say than I would have thought.
Who would have guessed that accepting defeat to a kid would be so hard?
"Whoa," Jaromir gasped, his eyes widening exponentially. "My dad never did that."
"Did what?"
"Admitted it."
_It's because you are weak._
I narrowed my eyes at him. It seemed like such the logical thing to do. If you made a mistake, you owned up to it. Then you made it better. Wasn't that how this stuff went? I could already tell this was going to be a lot harder than I had thought.
Thank goodness I wasn't his real father.
"Well, I made a mistake, didn't I?" My voice was much harder than I wanted it to be. It was more with frustration from trying to figure this out than from anger. Jaromir didn't really see that, though.
He looked at me with worry before shrugging his shoulders. "I guess."
This whole thing was getting much too complicated.
"Well then, I'm sorry for it." While I paused awkwardly, he gaped at me uncomfortably, and I did the only thing I could think of. "Now try it again."
"Try what again?"
"The inverted flame."
"But I thought—"
"You already seem to know more than your fair share. I promise no more secrets. And anything else you want to know, we will talk about it later. I promise." And preferably not when I was still trying to figure out what in the world had happened and what role I had taken on.
Besides, I knew he had been dying to talk about what he had seen with Joclyn all afternoon. It was not something I wished to reiterate quite yet. I still needed to talk to Sain and figure out what in the world he had been thinking.
What he was doing.
I supposed it was a good thing we had already scheduled dinner tonight, even though we had planned on card games and trying to figure out where the rest of the Soul's Blade was. I would have to add a Q&A to the schedule.
Jaromir caught my meaning quickly enough and grinned widely before running back to the center of the courtyard, leaving me trying to catch my breath while the space filled with streams of smoke and fireless flame.
"Why do I feel like I have just run a marathon?" I asked the question to the empty courtyard then jumped when someone responded.
"I didn't think we had the space to run a marathon."
I spun toward the voice, toward Risha who was walking through the dim red light toward me, her arms full of what looked like sandwiches and who knew what else.
I simultaneously smiled and cringed, something she did not miss.
"Are you okay, Ryland?" Her voice was sweet, and the disgust that had filled me at seeing the food left quickly. "Is it okay that I am here?"
"More than okay."
I thought I had done a fairly decent job of keeping Joclyn clueless of my affection for her for all those years. I had done everything right: the right gifts, the right words, the right amount of touch. It had taken all my instincts not to go all caveman on her and claim my prize, and in the end, I had done it, anyway.
But Risha...
Risha brought out a whole new, awkward side of me I hadn't even known existed, one that stammered and blushed for dumb reasons and somehow forgot to be suave. It was something no guy should ever be, especially over a girl. It drove me crazy, though she seemed to find it adorable.
"Good," she said with one of her wide grins that twisted through my stomach, "because, with the look you were giving me, I was sure I had grown a lizard head out of my shoulders."
She laughed at that, but I gawked at her, trying to get my mind to pick up the pace and form coherent sentences.
"No!" That was too loud. "It's just that you smell... I mean the food smells... I mean the food..." I let whatever mumbo jumbo I had been trying to say fade away as she laughed, her green eyes sparkling as the bell-like chime of her amusement made my stomach flip around a few more times. All thought was slowly draining from my mind like goo.
There was something about her—about Risha—that had been troubling for me. Considering the way she always appeared with food when I was training Jaromir, despite having all of the responsibilities to tend to as Ilyan's second, she had still managed to seek me out. I would venture a guess that I wasn't the only one fighting off an overly strong attachment.
That and the way she looked at me pretty much sealed it for me.
"What is it, Ryland? Don't you like food?" She could barely get the words out with how much she was laughing. Her eyes danced as the loose curls of her strawberry-blonde hair bobbed and swayed over her back.
"Something like that." I tried my hand at subtly again, this time keeping my voice low, something that was made easier by the deep Czech we spoke.
My stomach flipped as her cheeks tinged with red, her eyes piercing mine while she took a step closer, her head held high as she offered one of the disgusting sandwiches to me.
"Or was it this supposed marathon you were running?"
My mind went blank. "What marathon?"
"When I came in... You were talking about a marathon." She smiled, pushing a lock of hair behind her ear as she looked at me.
"Oh." I could barely think.
It took me a full minute to catch on. Apparently, she had drained my mind of thought more than I had assumed.
"It wasn't a real marathon."
"I didn't think so." Her eyes glittered even more, staring at me with some message I couldn't quite decipher before she looked away, toward Jaromir who was still shooting smoke away from himself, still trying to accomplish that darned wrist flick.
I groaned and pinched the bridge of my nose, fully aware it was also something I had picked up from Ilyan yet not really caring at the moment.
"Jaromir is the marathon, I take it." She took another step toward me, her sudden change in proximity making it very hard to concentrate.
_Come on, Ryland, what's wrong with you?_
"I think I realized how much more he sees me as a father figure and less like a..." I struggled to find a word.
I could feel the heat of her skin radiate against me, making it very hard to focus.
"Friend," she supplied.
Close enough.
I nodded.
"Well, to be fair, Ry, I don't think he's supposed to be your friend or you his."
I turned toward her quickly, my eyes narrowing in question, but all she did was smile and move to sit on the old, bloodstained cobbles, her hand waving beside her in welcoming.
I sat beside her without question, my heart continuing to hammer uncomfortably in my chest.
"You can't really be his friend and teach him everything he needs to know—to fight, to win... You have to train him, not play with him."
She was saying things I already knew, things I should have been more careful about from the beginning. However, it was so much more complex than that, and I felt more than a little awkward admitting it to her.
I exhaled heavily and turned back to Jaromir, a small smile sneaking out at the boy. The streams of smoke were gone, replaced by tiny, little rings he had somehow figured out how to conjure all on his own.
"He figured out about my relationship to Edmund and what we are really training him for." My voice was dead.
I heard her exhale beside me, her own frustrations rattling through the red-tinged air.
"I guess that would be marathon. What did you end up telling him?"
"The truth."
"The truth?" She was frustrated, and I didn't blame her.
My focus snapped to her at the panic in her voice, not surprised to see the aggravation that normally came before some kind of reprimand. Even if we were crushing on each other, she couldn't let that side of her go all the way. I didn't blame her.
"Calm down, Risha." I was careful to keep the irritation out of my voice, but she fumed more. "I didn't tell him anything. He had already figured it all out himself."
"So much for shielding him."
"That's the thing, though," I sighed, scooting a tiny bit closer to her as I lowered my voice, careful to keep him from overhearing.
She leaned forward, and my brain tried to melt out of my ears again.
_Keep it together, Ry,_ I ordered. It was becoming my mantra around her.
"He doesn't want to be shielded, Risha. He wants to be prepared."
She was obviously expecting something else. Her eyes widened with a little headshake, and then she pulled away from me a bit in shock.
Chuckling deeply at her reaction, I scooted away a bit, desperate to get some fresh air instead of that deep perfume she always wore.
It did, anyway, not that I minded.
"So he wants to know?"
"Every word."
"Do you think he's ready?" she asked me curiously, her eyes full of the same sparkle I had seen on the very first day.
"Why are you asking me?"
"Well, it's like before... You aren't his friend. You can't be. But you are something, a guardian, maybe. Something like that. It seems like a decision such as that would be up to you. I mean, he can't have a government raising him."
"Don't you think I'm a little young for that?" My voice was shaking violently, but I didn't even try to conceal it. I wasn't too happy with the sudden turn this conversation had taken.
Yes, it was something I had thought of barely moments before, but hearing it from someone else was a little too solid.
I swallowed heavily, trying to get the heavy lump out of my throat, yet it didn't seem to want to move.
"I think you are as old or young as you want to be, but sometimes, when hard things happen, we have to grow up a little bit, whether we want to or not." She stared at me intently, my heart racing even faster at the look in her eyes, at the little dimple that played around the corner of her lips.
"Risha!" Jaromir's shout rippled through the courtyard as the boy intersected with Risha, tackling the beautiful woman out of sight, leaving me staring blankly into the courtyard as Jaromir began regaling her with everything that had happened over the past few hours.
I barely saw.
I barely heard.
I sat beside them, one word echoing through my head.
_Guardian._
Scarcely a minute before, I had realized I felt like a parent to this boy. I had felt responsible. And now, with that one word, everything from before kind of fit into place.
Risha was right.
More than responsibility, more than some twisted parental relationship, sometimes you had to grow up and do what was needed of you.
Slowly, the idea cemented in my mind, becoming more familiar than it should have, the scene before me becoming a little clearer through the fog.
"Some marathon, huh?" Risha said as I looked up to where Jaromir was still occupying her, some weird pink smoke seeping from the palm of his hand.
I stared at them, watching her eyes sparkling as my stomach flipped again, the pungent smell of Jaromir's magic filling my mind. It might have been the fumes from the smoke, but I was fairly certain being around Risha had turned Edmund's voice off in my head.
Some marathon, indeed.
## 8
# Joclyn
It was the cloaked figure right before me, exactly as it had been for the last month, flitting in and out of my sights in a horrifying parade of faces and purposes.
Except, this time, it was not sight. It was reality. It was a terrorizing reality I needed answers to. I couldn't let them get away.
We had been close in the graveyard, and now he was right in front of us.
Inches from me.
The fabric rippled before me as the figure ran, frantic to escape, Ilyan feet from them.
They couldn't get away.
Then, with a faint pop, they were gone. Disappeared into thin air.
"No!" I screamed as they left, my hand millimeters from pulling the cloak from their head, Ilyan inches from tackling them, the violet stream of his attack still moving uselessly into the darkness.
Moving right into me.
Ilyan and I shouted in unison. I sidestepped as he pushed a wave of counter magic after his attack, the black smoke swallowing it whole. I knew it was pointless, magical attacks didn't work against mated pairs, but even though it wouldn't hamper me, it would still hurt. I wasn't in the mood for crippling pain right then, not with what had happened.
Not with what I still needed to do.
I needed to find out where they had stuttered to. We needed to catch up before it was too late, before we lost them.
"Thanks," I mumbled, my magic stretching away from me, spreading through the city as I moved on to my next task without hesitation—desperately searching for any trace of the magic I had been tracking, eager to catch them. We were so close. I couldn't let them get away.
I tried to control my breathing as the deep vein of the earth's magic filled me, the force of it so much stronger than I had ever felt. My body swayed abruptly as it filled me, as my power reacted to it in a frightening wave of power.
At any other time, I would have embraced it, would have pulled it into me, but the power was too much. Besides, it wasn't the heavy power of the earth I was interested in. It was the residue of the magic left behind, the vile and distorted power that we had been tracking.
"Can you feel them, mi lasko?" Ilyan whispered from beside me, his hand winding around my waist as he leaned against me, his chest pressing into my back, his magic filling me.
The addition of his power bolstered me with the supportive warmth I craved. The joining of our magic was a surge of energy that seemed unstoppable at times.
Closing my eyes, I let my magic move, speeding through the city, through streets I had never seen, through houses that lay in ruins, my mind, my magic searching for any trace of the cloaked man, of where he had gone.
Every other time he had stuttered, it was a quick search, but this time, he was gone.
"Nothing," I said, my shoulders sagging. Ilyan's arm continued to hold me against him as my eyes snapped open to the street before us. "There is nothing left."
It was as Ilyan had told me long ago—stutters left nothing behind. I could find nothing. Although Edmund could somehow track that magic past the blackness of a stutter, that ability obviously did not lie with me.
"Nothing?" he asked, his voice shaking in my ear before he moved away from me, his hand still resting on my hip.
"No, I can't follow the stutter," I said slowly, the harsh reality of what had really happened slowly sinking in. "It's like they... left."
"Through the barrier," Ilyan said slowly, his mind following right along with mine. "Someone can stutter through the barrier."
Ilyan's awe and dread moved through me, the emotion strong and frightening, and for good reason. It was more than a stutter; it was someone who could stutter through Edmund's fish bowl.
It was something we had tried multiple times, all without success, but... someone could. No, not just someone. And not just the cloaked man, either.
"No, Ilyan, one of Edmund's men can move through the wall," I corrected, and Ilyan froze. My forehead wrinkled as deeply as his did. "It wasn't Edmund, but the magic required..."
My open question faded into the darkness as Ilyan turned away, the muscles in his shoulders tensing as his temper pulsed through me. His thoughts moved so fast I couldn't hope to keep up with them.
"He's done something to them. Whatever he did to those Vilỳs, he's mutated their magic, strengthened it. Strengthened them." He turned back to me, the quick movement making me jump.
"Do you think it was one of his Chosen?" I asked, not wanting to think about those poor people Edmund had destroyed.
The Chosen we had found in the first few days after the ambush had seemed... normal. I had been able to remove the tainted magic and save them. But the more time went on, the less human those bitten by Edmund's Vilỳs became.
We had found a few survivors over the last few days, and what those Vilỳs had done to them still twisted my stomach. No matter how hard I tried, I hadn't been able to help them. The truth of what Edmund had done sickened me.
"It could be, or it could be someone who is working for him." Ilyan's thoughts stabilized as he spoke, images flooding into me as his mind moved someplace we had visited many times before.
But with no proof, with no real evidence against him besides him being a disagreeable, old man, we couldn't do anything.
Not unless we found proof.
"We need to get back," he announced, his voice heavy with the same authoritative tone I had gotten used to when he went into war mode. "We need to do a count, find out if someone's missing."
"You mean we need to check to see if Sain is there." My voice was hard, the anger that always erupted at his name taking over.
"Yes," he agreed, his bright blue eyes meeting mine with a whip of energy. "It might be what we need."
My heart pulsed heavily as I looked at him, my hands in tight fists around the soft fabric of my jeans.
He was right. After months of waiting, of having our hands tied behind our backs, we might have something. If that was Sain, then Sain wouldn't be at the cathedral...
Everyone might tell me I was overreacting, but I couldn't trust him. I doubted I ever would, not while he was telling everyone I was an undead, bleeding puss nugget.
Or whatever he was doing.
Ilyan's lips twitched at that, his hand moving quickly as he took a step toward me and wrapped his arm around my waist, pulling me into him.
_You're not an undead, bleeding puss nugget._
_And you're not the king of France._
"Well, not now. Many years ago, however..." he said with a smile, the emotion fading quickly into a pained grimace as the deep stress of what we were really facing plowed into us.
I cringed against it, leaning against him.
"We need to go," I gasped, not only because of the urgency of the task before us, but because of the painful wave of magic that had moved through me. The heavy heat that spelled danger.
With one quick sweep, I felt them. At least twenty of Edmund's men were one street over, looking for us.
I was sure it was no coincidence they had chosen this exact spot at this exact time to attempt to stage an ambush.
Pulling away from Ilyan enough to see him, I felt his body tense beside mine, tension rippling through me as it did him. I could feel his need to attack them, to catch them, to try to glean some information out of them.
If only there was time...
My chest heaved as I fell back into him, apprehension winding through my spine in a need to leave.
We had one chance to catch Sain. We couldn't waste it.
"There's no time. We have to go," I reminded him.
He nodded then wrapped his arms around me as his magic swelled, ready to pull us back into the void. With a gentle kiss against the skin of my forehead, my magic reached to meet his. The colored specks of light were triggered in the darkness that surrounded us as the army of Trpaslíks rounded the corner and Ilyan's magic pulled us into the void, away from the striking ribbons of colorful magic that would have brought us death.
Everything tightened as we were pulled into the usual suction cup of pressure the void held, my heart tensing in preparation for the pain, for the black.
Except, everything was different this time.
The tense pressure I was used to was gone, my body calm in a space that felt more open, more alive. More than that, it didn't end. A stutter that usually took seconds stretched on, my anxiety and confusion growing as I tried to understand what was happening.
Forcing my eyes open, I expected the black of nothing, expected to be trapped and lost.
And alone.
But I wasn't alone, and I wasn't in the dark.
Ilyan still held me against him, his hair flowing around him, eyes closed, and face at peace. He was beautiful, frozen as he was in the space between time.
I could have gazed at him until we returned to Prague, let him be my anchor to the disorientation that was still plaguing me. Nonetheless, something else pulled my attention and slammed into my chest like a ton of bricks.
It was my magic.
It was ribbons of smoke and color that stretched away from me like cloth and air. It felt the same as every time I spread the magic from me, as every time I used the sight.
But this time, I could see it.
I could see the tendrils of my ability. I could see ribbons of sight that played the past and future like a movie reel.
I watched them move away from me in awe, a heavy vise squeezing my body and threatening to collapse me. My legs lost all feeling as Ilyan held me against him, his body frozen in this odd, suspended space.
As my head spun, the ribbons of sight shifted, their movements speeding up into a blur I couldn't focus through. Heart pounding, I clung to Ilyan, gasping for breath, watching the vivid pattern of light and dark. Everything spun; everything moved so quickly I wasn't sure which way was up or down or what was happening ... until it stopped.
The movement ceased as though someone had pressed stop, leaving Ilyan and I hovering amongst lines of color so vibrant and brilliant I was sure I had never seen anything so beautiful before, not even in the world I had been raised in.
Staring at them, mouth agape, I watched the strings of never-ending colors stretch through the tunnel in tessellating motions of sound. I watched sight, watched life, watched sound that stretched beyond us, before us, and behind us. It was like we were trapped in them, like we were moving through them.
Staring at them, my head spun more, the heavy weight of what I now recognized as sight pressing against my chest.
A sight.
_Could this be sight?_ I wondered. A sight inside of a stutter? The thought was as ridiculous and far-fetched as a bad sci-fi movie, but I couldn't shake it.
Although, what my magic would be trying to show me here, I did not know. It was nothing more than color, nothing more than wavering lines that surrounded us, moved around us.
Before I could look further, the colors faded to nothing, spiraling into the ebony abyss that surrounded us. The pressure of the stutter slammed against me in disorienting dizziness as we were pulled out of the void and back into reality.
The end of the stutter jerked through me like paper and tape pulled away from one another, too much of me left behind in the void, too much of the void left behind in me. It stuck to my bones and made my spine ache.
Attempting to focus on the world I was surrounded by, I was assaulted by everything revolving, shifting. I could barely make out the church, could barely see the great archway to the left.
I was certain there were people in front of me, but even that was twisted and undistinguishable behind the ember burn now blocking my vision, the red and black of my sight growing darker.
It encompassed me with an intensity I hadn't felt since the first time I used my sight in the cave in Italy.
The cobbles against my knees were the last things I felt as I collapsed to the ground, Ilyan's hand a hard pressure against my back as he tried to support me, his magic attempting to connect with mine. I felt the power, felt the heat of it, only to be met with a wall of sight so powerful I screamed as the world within my sight did, as everything turned to red and fire and death.
My world was sight: past, present, and confusion.
The red city swam below me, my vision drifting lazily from above the rooftops as though I was attached to the belly of an airplane. Watching with thundering anticipation, I waited for the bomb to fall, waited for the city to burn.
Instead of what I had always seen, however, I continued flying right through the barrier, into a world shrouded with a deep blue sky and covered with a blanket of white snow.
My sight had never taken me beyond Edmund's barricade before. Even when I had tried, I had never been able to penetrate its surface. My magic had been as trapped as we were.
Now, as I flew through the bitter wind, snowflakes falling over me in wet, little specks that shook through my spine, I could see. What was more, I could _feel._ I could feel the cold, feel the wet. I knew they were not there, because I could still feel the hard, cobbled courtyard against my knees and hear the voices of whoever was at the church, mumbling over us like a garbled song.
Everything was real.
The sight was _real_.
Shivering from the snow, I continued to soar over the barren wasteland. Eyes on alert, I searched for whatever I was meant to see, wondering what could be this close to the barrier.
There was nothing other than snow, nothing other than whiteness, until the white wasn't so white anymore. The beautiful, untouched drifts of snow were trampled with mud, the flattened earth speckled with tents I had seen scarcely a few months before outside of Rioseco when Ilyan and I had gone to destroy one of Edmund's many camps.
A camp that was now right below me.
They were the same.
My sight moved me closer as I searched through the tents, my eyes wide as I looked for whatever this vision wanted me to see, only to have everything freeze, the howling of the icy wind broken up by voices—one deep and guttural, another high and whiney, both mixed with the mumbling groans of fear and trepidation.
I trembled at the emotion behind the sounds, something in my heart tugging at a familiarity I couldn't place with the heavy Czech they were using.
The heavy, Slavic accents drifted up from a small group of people directly below me. The man in the cloak stood in the middle of them, and directly before him stood Ovailia.
Everything in me tightened in fear, my throat frantic for a scream that would not come. It was the creature who had been in so many of my sights, right below me. Not in the streets of Prague as he usually was, not inside the barrier as he had been moments before, but right below me with Ovailia.
Ovailia looked at him with a smile that spread over her face in reprehensible greed. The smile was so opposite from her usual sneer that it made me jerk, my shoulders folding up to my ears as I fought the distress that smile gave me.
I waited, eager to hear, to find out who Ovailia faced. But before I could see, the whole vision changed, the clear sight broken up by familiar static.
The electronic noise buzzed in my ears and screamed through my head as the sight became distorted, broken images that ripped through me the same as they had for the past months.
Blood on rocks as it seeped into an already red river.
A cluster of people standing in the snow, a woman screaming over their silently moving mouths.
Wyn, just as I had seen her this morning, sleeping beside Thom. When she raised her head to me, however, it was her daughter, instead.
Children crying in corners, a little, blonde girl laughing as she tortured them.
The cloaked figure removing the heavy hood to reveal Dramin's pained face.
Edmund standing beside me, laughing joyously as we looked into an unfamiliar, underground pond.
One after another, they came, spinning through me uncomfortably until I felt like I was trapped among them, my body fighting them, my mind breaking down inside of them.
New sights mixed with old, the old sights changing enough I wasn't even quite sure what I was looking at.
What was true.
What was false.
What was when.
I tried to make sense of them all in order to find some clue as to what was going on, but everything came too fast and contradicted itself too much.
Before, I had been so sure the sight was true. Now, everything was back to where it had been—haunted and shattered.
Refusing to accept the broken imagery, I watched the new pieces mix with the old, my magic screaming at me to pay attention, screaming it was real and not the same as the distorted sights.
"Here is where it starts again." The unfamiliar voice was clear in my head, ringing clearly as the sight flashed back to the pair in the snow. Ovailia now walking away from the man, a smile spreading over her face.
"Don't fail me," Ovailia said as another flash of blood, of red, filled my vision, Edmund's laugh echoing inside my head before the sight was gone, leaving me staring at the red-tinted world of reality.
Gasping, head swimming, I tried to let the real world come into focus as I stared at what I was sure was regurgitated Black Water seeping through the valleys of the cobbles I kneeled on.
"What's wrong?"
"What's going on?"
Voices ricocheted around in my head like they were coming from a tin can, the hollow sounds of what I believed were Ryland and Risha sounding far too loud and far too foreign against the confusion I was still trying to recover from.
"Zůstávat," Ilyan growled in warning as he pulled me closer to him, the contact welcoming, even if it made it harder to breathe.
My body ached as I gasped, my throat burning with a distinct taste of blood, my fingertips raw from clawing the ground.
"I saw him... the man... cloak... with Ovailia," I gasped as I looked up at Ilyan.
His eyes widened with each word I gave him, each image of the sight I fed into his mind.
"They are working for Edmund. You have to find him, Ilyan."
"What's going on?" Ryland erupted, obviously scared.
He wasn't the only one.
Ilyan's eyes widened farther as I pushed everything I had seen and everything I knew into his head. The despondency I was feeling travelled along with it.
_I know you are worried about me, but you have to go. You have to find Sain._ I pushed the words into his mind as I collapsed back to the ground, everything spinning, everything aching.
Ilyan's thoughts froze with confliction, worry, and fear, his hand clenching against my back, his hesitancy clear.
"Go." I could barely get the word out.
Ilyan exhaled, his mind circling with worry and reasoning. He wrapped his arm around me from behind, pulling my weak and limp body into his. I could tell he didn't want to leave me. Heck, I didn't want him to leave.
The heavy pull of his heart locked tightly against mine, my longing increasing, though we both knew he had no choice. He knew I was right. He had to find Sain. He had to find whoever was missing in the camp. And we were running out of time.
"We need to find Sain," he announced as he stood. "Ryland, go check the far courtyard and the catacombs. I'll hit the dorms and then the tombs. Risha, I need you to take Joclyn to Dramin and then do a wide perimeter sweep. We will meet at my tomb." He spoke very quickly in Czech, and I was having a hard time keeping up, especially with the way my head was still spinning.
"Is she okay?" Ryland asked, his worried query catching me off guard.
"She will be fine," Ilyan answered in English, leaning down to press his fingers against my back comfortingly. I focused on the contact, letting it strengthen me, letting it fill me. "We need to get moving."
With a gasp my focus shifted toward my mate, toward his piercing, blue eyes full of so much love and concern that, for a moment, I forgot how to breathe. The intensity of his look swallowed me before he lowered his lips to mine, the soft yet fervent contact heavy against me.
I hesitated briefly, scared at what Ryland would do, but there was no sound, no peep, just the heavy pull of Ilyan's magic, just the lights that flared and glowed around us, just the blissful pressure of his lips against mine.
It was beautiful.
I kissed him deeply, my hand reaching around to grab his neck, the soft, golden ribbon he had woven through his long braid falling between my fingers.
_Stay with me,_ he insisted as he pulled away, looking at me passionately, his meaning clear. _I may need your help._
_I know._
He was gone before I had even finished the thought, leaving me to try to pull together enough strength to lift myself off the cobbles. I would have been mad if I was a whiney little girl. However, I knew I was strong enough, just as he did.
"Can I help you?"
However, I had forgotten Ilyan had asked Risha to stay behind and help.
"I'm okay," I said stubbornly, my legs shaking as I tried to push myself up, my eyes focusing on the long, golden ribbon that fell down the side of my neck, circling elegantly around the stones below me. "I can do it."
Everything ached, my legs continuing their violent shake as I forced myself to stand. Part of me was secretly grateful when she caught me, her hand strong around my bicep. I hadn't even realized I was falling.
"Okay, I guess I do need some help," I admitted quietly, thankful when she chuckled, the sound musical rather than condescending.
Taking her arm, I leaned against her as she led me toward Dramin and Thom's room, my mind running over everything that had happened.
I hadn't been around Risha outside of our weekly meetings and had avoided her most other times thanks to her unsuccessfully hidden crush on Ryland. The whole ex-girlfriend vibe was a little too high school given our current situation, but I couldn't shake it. Besides, it was more than that. I really didn't know much about her besides the whole Ryland thing. That and the fact she liked to eat meat.
Both of those were pretty public knowledge, no matter how hard the two of them tried to hide it. Not about the meat, but about the crush. I was fairly certain everyone knew. After all, Ryland had never been very good at hiding those types of things. I should know.
Contrary to public or Wyn's knowledge, I was happy for him.
Wyn had even taken a betting pool at one point to see how long they would last or how I would act when I found out. Everyone was kind of waiting to find out the results of it at this point.
"That's okay," her voice was soft. "Everyone needs help from time to time."
"Some more than others." It was said in mostly a growl. Considering everything I had been through over the past year, it fit.
Sometimes, like right then, I was ashamed of the fact that I still needed help.
I had grown so much. I had done so much. I had defeated so much.
I was supposed to be the "most powerful."
I was ready for all of this growing and trials and learning stuff to be over, but I wasn't naïve enough to think it ever would be.
All this junk was just life.
Even when I hit a thousand, I was sure I would still be learning new things and conquering new trials, and I would probably be messing them up from time to time, too. If anything, I was at least getting better at handling it, and that, I was going to wear like a badge of honor.
After everything I had faced, after everything I had done, the badge had been well deserved. And to be able to look at myself and see how much stronger I really was... I didn't even think my own mother would recognize the 'me' I had become.
"But needing help, that's okay, too," I whispered, knowing it was more to myself than it was to her.
She smiled, anyway.
## 9
# Sain
"Zdechnout."
Tiny teeth gnashed inches from my face before the creature fell to the ground in a lifeless heap at the sound of the word, a thud of flesh and stone ringing throughout the tiny alleyway.
It wasn't often that one of those things would slip back through the barrier with me, and I wasn't sure how it had happened when it had taken so much effort for me to move through the space on my own. Yet, it had.
Luckily, I could kill them easily enough.
Stripping off the heavy cloak, I dropped it in the same weeds I always kept it in, grateful to be rid of it now that the winter chill was trapped on the other side of the barrier.
I didn't even check to make sure it was hidden, in too much of a hurry.
Joclyn was a smart girl—sometimes too much so—and thanks to her personal vendetta against me, I was sure they had moved past the first stages of assuming they were being double-crossed by whoever was under that cape and moved to solid assumptions of me being the culprit behind the cape.
I could only hope to be so lucky.
Now I had to find them before it was too late, discredit the brat even more.
I had been worried it was too soon for her to see me, but after this morning, the timing couldn't be more perfect. A little more insanity for her repertoire.
Now I needed to add to it.
"Pošetilý Ilyan," the words were a grumble as I walked away from door, dropping the cloak without a second glance, and into the large church complex full of his people.
The brainwashed herd wandered around as if the world on the other side of the barrier wasn't trying to kill them, as if they had forgotten why the light was red and the air was hot. There was more laughter than training, more joy than fear. It was a stark contrast to what little I had seen of Edmund's camp.
It was kind of exciting to see how ill prepared they were, how secure they were in the delusions I had been force-feeding them for so long.
_The attack won't come until spring._
_The barrier will fall months before the danger finds us._
The lies made me smile, the wide grin catching the eye of a few members of the tittering horde who were wandering meaninglessly through the courtyard.
"Sain," a Skȓítek I had met several hundred years before called to me from across the large, stone square. He was one who had always stood and fought by Ilyan's side. If I remembered correctly, his mate had perished in one of the innumerable battles Ilyan had led them into many hundreds of years ago.
Now his eyes were dark with questions and doubt.
It was beautiful to see.
Several others perked up at the boom in his voice, their own questions buzzing through their heads as they, too, made their way over, and I waited for them. Part of me knew I needed to get the bathroom in order to check that I held no incriminating evidence on my body of where I had been, while another part was grateful I had been stopped—at least they could provide some sort of an alibi if Ilyan found me before I found Joclyn.
"Yes?" I questioned as they grew closer, the soothing nature of my voice completely contradictory to the thunder of anxiety that had taken over my insides. The tall man's eyes darted toward a few of the people who surrounded him in waning confidence.
"We are sorry to bother you..." he began before stalling out.
"It's no bother," I assured him, stretching my hand out to rest on his shoulder, noticing a small patch of dirt near my thumb. Perfect. "I was seeing to some of the children in the ward." The group seemed awed by the lie, their worry softening as the doubt began to fade. "What can I help you with?"
"We were wondering if you could tell us what happened to the queen this morning... if she saw a sight, if we are safe here."
Of course they weren't safe here. No one was.
I tried not to bristle at his question, but I was sure it showed.
Wiping my hand off on the leg of my faded dress pants, I turned my face down into a frown. "She did see into the future, but there is no way to know if that sight is true."
"What do you mean?" the man asked, his face wide in horror. "I thought the sight of a Drak is infallible."
I sighed heavily, the exaggerated sound seeping from me as I ran my hand over my forehead. "It is when the magic is pure. Hers is not pure. It is uncontrollable at the moment. Her sights are dwelling in the depth of the Zlomený."
They began whispering, the word known to a few of them. Even if they didn't understand its true meaning, they still understood the impact. Even the ones who didn't understand could grasp the fear around them, their eyes wide as they looked to their peers for answers.
"So everything she sees—"
"Broken, yes," I clarified. The looks of shock and fear deepened with each lie I spoon-fed them.
"But yours...?"
"I am of the first, and I can fight the Zlomený better than any of my kind, but it is still hard. Because of her foolish choices, everything is muddled." I wasn't even going to give the older woman a chance to say anything more. I didn't want anything other than what I gave them put in their heads. "I hold the Drak magic deep within me, and I will do everything in my power to restore true sight, stop Joclyn from this tirade, and save us all."
Calm, relief, and awe washed over all of them. The fear slowly dissipated at the knowledge, their own minds putting the pieces together that I wanted them to. After all, who would want someone with a broken sight leading them when pure magic stood right there?
"So we are safe?" a young Chosen asked, the look on her face making it clear she didn't fully understand what was happening.
"For the time," I answered, my hand heavy as I placed it on her arm. "Do not worry; I am watching."
I smiled, waving away any further questions as I walked from my captive audience, my eyes scanning the courtyard for my daughter, despite knowing she wouldn't be here—I hadn't heard her yell at me, in any case. Hopefully, I still had time to find her.
In a few steps, I moved into the vast marble and stone hallway that led toward the catacombs, leaving the still tittering crowd behind me. This space was familiar, one I had helped build, one I had been worshiped within, and one I had run through a few months before with Wyn. I walked down it now with an ever deeper sense of urgency than I'd had then, my pace quick.
In the beginning, it had held long kitchens with ovens similar to those at Rioseco. However, somewhere around the early twentieth century, bathrooms had been added with running water, flushing toilets, and all. Thankfully, the ceramic palace was as empty as the hall outside, the wide room already filling with the echoes of the ambient noises my very presence was causing.
Locking the door with a snap, I ran past the wide basin sinks to the mirrors, the glass old and rusted out near the corners. Some were harder to see through than others, but it didn't matter.
I didn't need to see much other than if there was more than the dirt I had already found.
Blood, snow, grime.
Some sign that I had been on the outside.
"What did I bring back with me this time?" I queried, peering through the specks of red and brown that littered the mirrored surface.
Luckily, thanks to the heated air I was currently surrounded by, the snow had long since melted from my hair, and all that remained was a slightly soggy hem around my dark, frayed pants. That could be taken care of without much effort.
With one small spark of perfectly placed magic, the damp cloth dried with a small tuft of smoke, the smell of slightly singed cotton mixing with the smell of borax soap in an oddly enjoyable bouquet.
"Beautiful," I sighed, my eyes closing against the lingering scent of clean death. The fragrance was lovely, and I was tempted to let it grow, to let it flow over me like a cologne, but I was sure that would give me away. The smoke, the death.
The burn.
It was unfortunate I couldn't. I was sure Joclyn would catch on too quickly.
"Joclyn, foolish girl, where are you?" I growled at the thought, my heart tensing painfully in impatience. I needed to move.
I had seen a few people gathered before the cathedral when I was on the other side of the barrier, preparing to return. I thought I had a good idea who it was, but even if I was wrong, it was a good place to start.
With one last check in the mirror, I tore from the bathroom, pushing my magic into my heart as I moved. Teeth clenched, heart pounding, I fought the need to yell, the familiar pain ripping through me like someone was trying to tear me in two. I growled, anxious for the agony to end yet also needing to restrain the power, to hide it away where Joclyn couldn't sense it, couldn't sense me. I didn't need her to feel, to understand, the true power she held. I didn't need her knowing for sure that it was me hiding underneath that cloak.
Peeking in doorways and hallways, I moved through the complex at a sprint, growing more and more eager to find her with each slap of my shoes against stone, the sound loud, like the ticking of a clock. It was agitating, something I was sure showed on my face judging by the way everyone I passed was looking at me.
My anxiety had grown into a panic when I turned the final corner to find Joclyn and Risha huddled together on the other side of the long corridor. Joclyn was leaning against Risha heavily, her body sagging so deeply I was sure she couldn't walk very well on her own. My heart rate sped up at seeing her so impaired, but not for the fear or anxiety I had felt up to this point.
Yes, she was my daughter, and deep down, I wanted to say part of me really, truly cared for her in that way, cared for her as I cared for Dramin. As a father should. But, I didn't.
She was nothing more than a liability to me, a liability I needed to keep under control. I had to keep _her_ under control until Edmund disposed of her. Her and her stubborn, little head seemed to think her magic was _telling_ her to break rules the Draks were raised to obey, every rule the Skȓíteks and Trpaslíks were taught to fear.
I was sure her magic _was_ actually telling her all those things because what she was saying was actually true, which was why controlling her was so necessary. Discredit the queen and my step to the thrown was that much closer.
"Joclyn!" I yelled from the end of the hall, my voice terrified, even though the beat of my heart said otherwise.
Risha looked up as I yelled, relief washing over her as she held Joclyn close to her. "Oh, Sain, thank all."
"What happened?" I yelled as I continued to move closer. "Is she okay?"
Joclyn looked up moments after Risha did, but where Risha's expression was one of relief, Joclyn's was one of anger and frustration. Her silver eyes flashed, her jaw tightening as she bit the inside of her mouth, something I was sure Ilyan found endearing. To me, however, the lack of self-restraint and poorly handled mortal outbursts angered me more. She was a Drak, and she needed to act like one.
"Joclyn?" I asked, trying to conceal the loathing that looking at her gave me. "Are you okay?"
"Where were you?" Her response was a snap that rebounded across the stone to me.
I knew what she was referring to and did my best to make it seem as if I was as clueless as she was to the world.
"Where was I? What are you...?" I reached my hand out to her, desperate for the skin contact I needed in order to check her magic, to regain control of her sight and know what she had seen.
She flinched away from me, and my stomach wound together.
I had obviously misread exactly how weak she was, exactly how much sight she had regained. I couldn't be sure without touching her, but if I had to guess, considering the look on her face, the thin layer of sweat rolling down her pale skin, I would say she had seen something.
Something more than I had been force-feeding her.
Something real.
"You look terrible, Jos. Did you see something?" I swallowed, trying to stifle the panic that rose up in me as I reached toward her again, anxious for contact.
"Where were you?" she snapped again, the pale red of her anger coloring the ash white of her face.
I fought the smile that little detail gave me. She was getting angry, and I knew as well as anyone how volatile her emotions were. Combine that with the instability of her sight, and it would take very little to plunge her back into another vision. It was something that, given her power, would be dangerous, but not now, not with me here. It might be what I needed in order to gain contact. To control her.
Angering her was risky, but it might be my only chance to regain control of her sights. I had to chance it. Good thing I had already mastered this game.
"Where was I when?" I looked to Risha in question, pushing as much innocence into my voice as I could, knowing it would aggravate Joclyn more.
"Before," Joclyn growled.
"Risha, what is she talking about?" I asked, but Risha looked just as confused as I did, her bottle green eyes darting between Joclyn and me so quickly they looked like a blur.
"An hour ago, a few minutes ago." Joclyn stopped for breath. "All this morning? Where were you?"
My daughter emphasized each syllable, yet I wasn't sure if it was in anger or in exhaustion. It very easily could have been either.
"I was here..." I spoke slowly, condescendingly, hoping to increase her anger, knowing I was close. I could already feel the strong light-headedness that usually preceded a sight. I could already feel the heavy power of her Drak magic trying to join and fuel my own. "I was helping some of the new Chosen children understand what the future held for them."
She knew I was lying. Risha probably did, too, but Risha was more concerned with what was happening to Joclyn at that moment to care about whatever lie I had sprouted.
So was I; except, my concern and help came in a different packaging.
Joclyn exhaled in a low, painful moan, her eyes snapping shut in an excruciating grimace, to open again with the bright ember glow of sight, her eyes dark and deep, the contrast stunning against the blank canvas of her face as she saw into past and future simultaneously. It was beautiful to watch her magic work the way it was intended. Nevertheless, it was a beauty I would not allow.
Not even with her.
Especially not with her.
I didn't even care if Risha noticed the smile spreading over my lips. I let the grin grow at the orange glow in her eyes, the anger in my gut howling in success as I reached my hand forward and wrapped it around her wrist. My magic plunged into her as my sight connected with hers, as my magic connected with her soul.
It was easy to do as long as I was connected to her. She was my child, after all.
The snow-filled world outside the wall blossomed in recall. The dead corn fields, the barren trees, they all stretched before me as the bitter wind tugged at the two figures huddled in the middle of the wasteland, a small army of guards surrounding them.
I recognized the moment. Ovailia standing before me, my tall frame shrouded in the black cloak I had been haunting Joclyn with.
This was more than a sight, more than recognition; it was remembering.
I had stood before Ovailia hours before and felt the power of prescience, but not in the way that I was the one who saw, rather in the way that sight was being taken from me. And now I understood why.
It had been.
Joclyn's sight had taken her right to us.
Joclyn had pulled true sight from me.
She had tapped into a sight I had so carefully concealed I was sure no one would ever find it.
Yet, she had.
I watched the perfect recall of those moments play again: Edmund and Joclyn beside the wells of Imdalind, Joclyn fighting, the blood, the screaming. I watched in horror before I began to act, letting my magic take control and infect the sight, to change it, as I had so many times before.
The image of her and Edmund standing beside Imdalind was now Edmund drowning her inside the muddy waters. The boy fighting was now the boy dying. Some little girl I did not recognize running to Joclyn in help was now the child running to her with a knife.
One after another, I changed them, intertwining them with the image of Ovailia standing in the snow, her caped companion changing from one person after another—from Wyn to Ryland to Risha to Ilyan.
A sight that was so perfectly clear before was now nothing more than the maze she had learned to fear.
I could already feel her alarm as the sight crippled her, the image becoming more twisted as her magic tried to rebel against the changes, rebel against the ironclad lock I was placing on it.
"Here is where it starts again."
I twitched, jumping away from her as though I had been burned.
I had heard that voice before when I had pulled Dramin from the mud, when the sight had crippled us both, and he had started crying for the first time.
_You have done the wrong._ The same words echoed again as Joclyn collapsed in an unconscious dead weight right into Risha. The woman held onto Joclyn's tiny frame for dear life, afraid she would fall to the ground, and by the way she held her, I could tell it was a real possibility.
"What is it?" she exclaimed, obviously concerned. "What happened?"
It took me a moment to realize the question was directed at me and not Joclyn.
"She had a sight," I said, my fear still running through me in a numb reality I didn't want to accept.
"What was it?" Risha asked, the panic in her voice pulling me out of my own and right to the powerful woman before me and the realization I might be able to get more information out of Risha with Joclyn out of commission.
"Is she okay?" Risha asked when I didn't answer, her hands pressing against her skin in an obvious desire to heal her or to figure out what was wrong before they flew off again.
At first, I thought she was hurt, but in reality, she was only concerned about "touching" her precious queen in such a way.
It was kind of disturbing. The level of regality the girl had obtained was such that even Ilyan's second was afraid to touch her.
Who knew, maybe she was afraid of her.
Perhaps she was.
Perhaps it was something else I could use to my advantage.
"Yes, she's going to be fine," I lied, knowing my plans would deter that. "Sometimes, this happens after an especially intense sight."
"She's been having them an awfully lot lately—"
"I know." _I have been helping that along._ "They seem to be doing her some damage."
"Why don't you pass out after your sights?" She looked away from Joclyn, her terror easing a bit as she looked at me in wonder.
The awe I had missed so much over the years flooded through me in a heavy reminder of why I was doing all this, of the rightful place due to me, and the respect I was missing.
"Because I know how to control my magic. Drak magic can be powerful, and if you are not strong enough, it can destroy you."
"Is that what's happening?" Risha asked, concerned. "Her magic is destroying her?"
"I believe so. Normally, I can help my people, help them restrain their magic, but she won't let me. She knows what the vision about the end says, and she's trying to change it. It makes all her sights unreliable when she goes against one like that. When she doesn't listen to her magic, it destroys her ability." Yet another little lie, yet another worried glance.
My lips trembled, though I tried to stop the grin. At least I was able to restrain it before it turned into a full smile, before the sweet taste of victory beat against my tongue.
"Did she have a sight before?" I asked as innocently as I could, my head spinning slightly at the prod of a sight I would never let come.
"Yeah"—she was hesitant—"right when she and Ilyan came back... She couldn't really stand—"
"It was the same sight," my voice growled as I looked at her, the hatred for her coming back even in her partially unconscious state. "I saw it as she did."
"Did you see it then?" Her eyes narrowed at me in suspicion, a question behind the words I didn't quite understand.
I didn't know what I had said wrong, but my guard went up, my eyes narrowing a bit as I tried to decipher where this was going.
She stood before me, staring at me, her mind pulled from the unconscious child she still held.
"See what?" Better to feign my innocence again.
"The sight... Did you see it when you were with the kids?"
And there it was. I was sure Risha had no idea why Joclyn had been so concerned with my whereabouts; I could see that much on her face. Regardless, she knew Joclyn was, and therefore, she was going to take every chance she could to find out the information Joclyn could not.
"My sight is not hindered by her inability. I can control what sights come to me, and I was with the children. It was not the right time to see."
Risha glowered at me, her eyes hard, all thoughts of the injured girl she held gone.
I had never liked Risha before. Through all those years, she had acted more like a spoiled brat than the powerful Skȓítek she was. Right then, though, I was sure Ilyan had chosen wisely for his second.
She hadn't missed anything.
At least I had been able to plant a seed of doubt within her, and considering the questioning light in her eyes, it was already starting to take hold.
"I don't know what either of you are getting at, but I was helping the Chosen with their futures. I was here. I don't have anywhere else to go. I don't have anywhere else I _can_ go." I had tightened my jaw as I looked at her, waiting for her to say something, when a sudden pulse of powerful magic alerted me to the arrival of someone I really didn't want to see. Luckily, I had already stepped into an easy escape.
"Now, if you will excuse me," I growled like a lion, stepping around Risha and my invalid daughter, determined to put as much space between me and them before Ilyan's arrival. "You should see that she makes it to someone who can help her."
It was harsh, but right then, I didn't care.
I needed those seeds to grow, and I would do anything to make sure it happened.
## 10
# Dramin
Tension had wound through the room in an anxiety so thick it was hard to breathe. In fact, I wasn't certain if anyone was breathing. I wasn't.
I sat still, my old body sagging against the headboard of my bed. Stagnant air pressed against my skin while the dim, red light faded to a deep black as the sun set.
Everyone stood around the tiny room Thom and I shared, refusing to make eye contact. Each of us was lost in the new development Ilyan had thrown at us. Not that it should be surprising; it was one more thing to add to the list of many.
I wished I could solve this new, more complicated problem. I wished I could see where it was leading us. Nevertheless, all of that had been gone for months. I knew as well as everyone here that it wasn't going to come back, just like the tension and fear and war weren't going to leave any time soon.
"So, when you say this... _person_... stuttered..." Ryland began as he leaned against the wall, the muscles in his arms tensing from where he had folded them over his chest.
"We saw him, Ry," Joclyn retorted, her voice strong from where she sat at the foot of my bed. "Just as Ilyan said, I couldn't find his magic after that, so either he moved through the wall, or he found some secret world within a stutter that neither Ilyan nor I know about."
"That's what you said before—"
"Then why are you asking again?" Joclyn snapped, the old metal frame of my bed groaning as she shifted her weight.
She was getting agitated, something not missed by Risha who looked between Ryland and Joclyn in obvious worry.
Ilyan took a step closer to her, his hand wrapping around hers in a deep connection that warmed the room. As if it wasn't warm enough.
Joclyn had come to my room hours before, half carried by Risha as she dropped her on the foot of my bed. I would have been more concerned for her well-being if she hadn't been fuming about "stupid sights" and "stupid fathers." Even though she had been weak, she had recovered quickly enough. That was probably more thanks to her stubborn temper than actual well-being. We should probably be glad she was merely agitated now.
Then again, without that stubborn temper, I wouldn't be alive to witness this conversation, something I was still torn over. After all, we had seen my death in the very first sight she received, and yet, there I sat. Despite everything Tatínek had taught me about the infallibility of our gift, despite everything I had thought I knew about our magic, I was here.
"Can we just say this mysterious, cloaked person got caught in some other dimension?" Wyn mused acidly before Ryland had a chance to retort, leaning her head against Thom's headboard with a thud. "If only to get Ryland to stop asking the same thing again and again?"
"I'm not asking the same question again and again," Ryland snapped, his voice hard as his focus jolted to Wyn, who raised her eyebrows in some kind of challenge I didn't understand.
The two glared daggers at each other, fueled by the tension in the room, and I seized, my muscles clenching painfully throughout my back.
"He's asking questions as a good leader should," Risha interrupted.
"As we all should." Ilyan's loud, commanding voice took over the conversation with a snap, causing Ryland to collapse back against the wall with one look from Ilyan, his focus drifting back down to his shoes.
It was as if the whole room took one, big sigh with the end of the standoff, the tension releasing ever so slightly. Thankfully, my body didn't feel so much like it was smothered by a pile of rocks.
Ilyan's shoes snapped against stone in the suddenly silent space, the ribbons of light dimming as he moved back to the center of the room, the place he always occupied during these meetings. I only wished this meeting had been like all the others, not an emergency council held in secret, or rather, held without Sain.
We were holed up in this tiny room, one of our usual numbers conspicuously missing. Even without sight, I already had an idea where this was going.
"So this man," I began, my hands wrapping tightly around the old, earthen mug I held, "you are sure he works for your father?"
"I don't see any other reason for someone to avoid us except to move through the barrier," Ilyan answered in Czech, his voice growing deeper as he switched to his native tongue. "I don't see how they could know _how_ to move through the barrier unless they were."
I nodded, knowing he was right. I heard Wyn ask some question about motive, but I stared into the dry and cracked bottom of the mug, silently wishing I had the ability to fill it myself, that the next question would never come.
"—and he's one of us," Wyn finished her thought, her voice drifting away as she avoided the obvious.
Too bad I wouldn't.
"You believe this cloaked man to be Sain." It wasn't even really a question.
I didn't often get nervous, or I hadn't for all my life until a few months ago. Right then, as I sat with a dozen eyes on me, the solitary sound in the room that of Wyn's heavy breathing and Ryland uncomfortably shifting his weight, I was positive my heart was going to explode out of my chest and do some sort of twisted tap number for them all to see. Nerves and anxiety were a new addition to a life without sight, it seemed. Much like Black Water.
Luckily, Joclyn understood my need for the latter. Her hand extended toward me in a silent request for the mug. Her face was torn between sympathy and anger that I had already made the connection about why our father wasn't here, not that it was hard to miss. Sain had never missed a war meeting before; I was just the first one to put voice to it.
"In some ways, having our culprit be Sain would be the lesser of two evils," Ilyan announced, his voice cutting through me and awakening an anger I hadn't felt in quite a while.
I didn't like the idea that my father would somehow be a lesser evil than something else or, worse yet, the greatest evil of all.
"Being double-crossed by your own man is the lesser of two evils?" Wyn asked, her voice rising to its haunting history, each word so reminiscent of our connected past that I couldn't help shivering. "If that's the case, then I think I want a do-over. Let someone else take the fall for my 'lesser.' "
"Being double-crossed by a condescending, old man would be much better than having Edmund's entire army knowing how to move through the barrier." Joclyn handed my now full mug back to me as Risha gasped, the sound so loud I jerked, almost missing the mug and spilling the liquid gold over the blankets that covered me, something that probably would have been quite painful judging by the way the delicious fluid had started to burn inside of me.
"Edmund's entire army able to move through the barrier at will, attacking us in a cage?" Risha's normally sweet voice had dropped, the heavy strain accompanying that side of her increasing. "As if they don't attack us enough on our normal raids. We lost three people this morning."
"Okay, yeah," Wyn conceded before leaning against the headboard of the bed opposite mine, obviously ready to watch the show from where she sat, squished against Thom's endlessly sleeping frame. "That would be worse."
"I can't believe he would do that," Ryland muttered from where he leaned against the wall. "He has the same goals as we do; why would he work for someone he wants to kill just as badly?"
Ilyan looked to Ryland with a snap, his eyes narrowing as he took a slow step forward. "But do you know that he does, Ryland? I know what you two have been through. I know you have become very close to him. Regardless, we have to keep every possibility open, and his behavior with Joclyn as of late, with our queen, has been highly inexcusable."
Ryland cringed a bit as Ilyan spoke, his bulldog stance sagging as the strength of Ilyan's words sunk in.
"No, I will give you that," Ryland sighed, running his hand through his hair. "I find it hard to believe he would be working with Edmund after everything he put him through."
Even Ilyan remained silent. It was obvious Ryland had a point.
Grumbles and groans and whispered agreements moved through the small group as instances and possibilities and facts about Sain were thrown around. Everyone was trying to find their own answer. I wished I could feel as comfortable as easily as Ilyan and Joclyn seemed to be with accepting that my father—the first of our kind—would work with the man who had called the order for the entire destruction of our race. Yes, he had been unruly recently, but like Ryland, I couldn't accept this.
"What makes you think it is Sain?"
Ilyan turned toward me at the question, my shoulders tensing from the dangerous look in his eyes. The mug in my hands was so warm I knew I needed to drink it soon, although part of me was too scared to do it. I was beginning to understand how the others felt when they sought sight. Black Water burned. If it didn't taste so good, it might have been easier to avoid it.
"Joclyn saw him within a sight in the cloak, running through the city. She's seen the same figure a few times. After what we saw this morning—"
"She saw him in sight? Or she saw him in real life?" Risha interrupted, her voice quivering uncharacteristically.
"What are you asking?" Joclyn snapped, her face draining of color.
I straightened, a tense knot forming in my spine as I looked between the two women, obviously missing something.
"Well, after this morning, I feel it's necessary to look at other possibilities."
Joclyn cringed, her shoulders pulling into her neck, her face wrinkling in the way it always did before she erupted at our father. Except, this time it wasn't father; it was Risha.
Ilyan's second.
Joclyn's second.
"Joclyn?" I whispered as I leaned toward her, the mug all but forgotten. "Are you okay, my dear?" Placing my hand on her knee as I always did, I pulled her attention away from the beautiful Skȓítek who looked like she had walked into a men's locker room.
Joclyn looked at me, her eyes pained and sad. The wrinkles in her brow intensified as her eyes shined with tears. That was new.
"Wait. What happened this morning? Lightning bolts erupt out of her head or something?" Wyn asked, putting voice to the question that, thanks to Joclyn's heartbroken expression, had been about to leave my lips.
"She had a sight," Ryland provided, moving away from the wall, his hand running through his shaggy hair again. "She couldn't tell the sight from reality."
I froze; everyone did. Everyone but Ilyan, who moved back to Joclyn's side, his arm draping over her shoulders, his chest expanding in the familiar protective stance I had seen many times before: in the cave, when Joclyn was trapped within Cail's mind; in Rioseco, when Sain first returned after I had awoken. It was a role he was born to play.
I had also seen her do the same. I had seen Joclyn protect Ilyan when he was unconscious in Italy.
Even right then, Ilyan stood beside her, strong, defiant, while she sat beside him, her eyes narrowed, brow hard, willing to do the same for him.
It was magnificent, this pair before me, their love and adoration so breathtaking even Ryland was lost to it, staring at them from where he stood, his lip twitching into a smile. If only the beauty could have taken away the truth...
I was not confident anyone else realized it, but this sight that distorted her reality was an even worse omen than some cloaked man betraying us all.
"She couldn't tell...?" Wyn began, her eyes drifting in obvious worry to her best friend.
Joclyn said nothing, and Wyn didn't pry, even though I could tell she wanted to.
"And that makes her untrustworthy?" Ilyan asked of Risha, the power in his voice pressing against her as she cowered in respect.
Her loyalty to her king was clear, even though you could tell something was still nagging at her.
"Not to me, My Lord," she clarified, her shoulders heaving as she stepped back toward Ilyan, her jaw clenched tightly. "But to others... There are things that have been said, things I have heard."
"You mean the rumors?" Wyn asked, her fingers gripping the edge of the bed as she sat up a little straighter, staring in fear at what had begun to unfold before us. "Everyone's heard them; that doesn't mean they are true. For all we know, it's some jealous Chosen who is mad they can't 'see' like Jos can."
It was the reasoning we had always used. What was said, what was being spread around, was so vague there wasn't any basis to think there was any concern, any basis in fact. Right then, I wasn't so sure.
"I think I may know for certain where they are coming from." Risha looked right at Ilyan, her eyes narrowing in an anger that was not meant for him.
I sat frozen, my heart thundering in my chest as I looked between Risha and Ilyan, the bed below me shaking as Joclyn did.
"When Sain stopped me and Joclyn in the hall, when Joclyn had that other sight, he said some things." Risha was hesitant. I didn't blame her; Ilyan's temper, which was always close to the surface lately, increased with every word she spoke, the heavy weight of his anger drifting over the room and tightening the knot of anxiety I had been trying to ignore.
"What _things_?" Ilyan's voice had grown even harder, and this time, I saw Risha's confidence dip.
"That, as she won't listen to her magic, the Drak in her is dying."
Everything was silence. Wyn sat still with a clenched jaw. Ryland was caught between looking at Risha and Joclyn in some kind of shock. Ilyan stared at Joclyn with such severity it was clear they were deep in silent conversation, and I sat still, unable to move thanks to the weakness that had overtaken my body, my lack of magic increasing it.
"He said that?" Joclyn asked as she finally pulled herself out of her revelry. The depth of her voice was so close to that of sight that my blood reacted, my chest tightening in an anxious anticipation I hadn't felt in a while.
"I don't believe him, Your Highness, but it was too close to what we have been hearing, to the rumors that have been going around since you first—" Risha stopped halfway through, her own confidence failing from what she had been about to say. No one liked to mention what Joclyn had been dealing with, least of all to Joclyn. "But he's your father; he wouldn't say such things..."
Ilyan and Joclyn exchanged sharp looks as Risha took a step back. Wyn and Ryland looked like they both had walked into a slaughterhouse, thinking it was a petting zoo. Sitting in the bed that had become my prison, I gawked at my sister, not wanting to believe what I had heard.
"Why would he tell you that?" I asked, not convinced anyone else understood my true meaning. No one except Joclyn, whom I had taught enough about her magic, about the Drak inside of her that she had obviously pieced it together. "Did he say anything else?"
Risha looked to me in confusion, unable to get any response from Ilyan and Joclyn, who were again locked in an intense, silent conversation, before answering, "That, because she wasn't listening to her sight, she wasn't able to understand what she was seeing."
No. It couldn't be.
"The Zlomený," I whispered, the familiar phrase pulling Joclyn and Ilyan's focus right to me.
"What about it?" my sister snapped at the single word.
I wasn't surprised by her sudden anger. The word had been thrown at her often, and I guessed it still was. We hadn't realized until right then.
"What Risha has heard from Sain is the reason for the Zlomený. But there is so much more..." I stopped, unsure what to say, what I _could_ say. Father had always been clear never to repeat the truth about our kind. Yet he was doing that to everyone other than the one person who needed to know.
"What did he—" Joclyn began, only to have her eyes gloss over, her mouth dropping open in fear. "Sain is coming."
As though someone had shot a bolt of electricity into them, everyone moved, the tension and fear erupting. Wyn jumped up, obviously ready to pin the old man to the ground if she had to; and Ryland shifted around, his loyalty to the man who had helped him for so long turning into a confusing mess.
I sat still as I watched Ilyan clinging to Joclyn as my own anxiety rose to inhumane levels. I tried to mask it, silently sipping the Black Water, letting it warm away the agitation I had been infected with. Unfortunately, it wasn't working so well.
"Umlčet!" Ilyan commanded, his voice a loud boom as his magic washed over everyone in the room, pressing into them and taking control. As one, everyone turned to him, their bodies unable to disobey the control he had taken. "I need you all to watch. Watch the movements of everyone around you. Not just Sain, _everyone_. We cannot act until we know beyond any doubt who is behind this. We need to find this person before anything happens. No one else can know of your task. Wyn, you are the guard for the night. I had to tear down the Young Prince look-out building, so you will need to use the Old Man."
Everyone nodded before they left, dispersing from the small room like a leaky faucet. _Drip, drip, drip_ , and then they were gone, leaving me in the bed I couldn't move from, Thom still a listless shape, Ilyan and Joclyn standing at the foot, wrapped around each other in such a tight embrace I couldn't help smiling at them despite the ache in my chest.
The gaze they held between them was long, deep, and loving, their arms wrapped around each other, absorbing each other, as if they couldn't get enough, as if they were scared to let go. It had been so long since I had seen love that deep. In fact, I didn't know if I ever had.
It was beautiful and yet...
"It's times like this I wish Thom were awake. I could sure do with one of his snide comments about propriety right now."
Joclyn laughed, the sound deep and free, a welcome sound after the tension that had invaded my room for the last few minutes. "Are we bothering you, Uncle?"
"Well, you are my sister..." I smiled, lifting my mug toward her in a twisted toast that I wasn't sure she saw as wrapped up in Ilyan as she was.
Her lips met his as lights flashed, popping around us all in a beautiful array that was almost comforting. I lay back as I watched them, content to observe the dancing sparkle of the earth's magic, sad when they left as Joclyn breathlessly pushed Ilyan away.
The normally stoic man laughed, stealing another kiss.
"Seriously, will you _get a room_?" I groaned.
The two laughed even further before Ilyan swept out of the room, leaving Joclyn and I alone, the tension moving back so quickly I was in no doubt that I had dreamed the last few minutes into reality. I would believe it, too, if it wasn't for the way Joclyn was staring at the door, her hands twisting the long, golden ribbon through her fingers in agitation that was so familiar for her.
Saying nothing, I waited, sipping on Black Water, leaning peacefully against the old headboard and wondering faintly if this was what the elderly did in the mortal world. Perhaps I needed a newspaper.
"The Zlomený." Her voice was soft, but still, I heard. It pulled me right out of revelry, my eyes snapping open to the girl who now faced me. "What are they really?"
Chest tightening in a panic, I was swallowed whole by her eyes, the silver gone from their depths, replaced by a color so dark it was almost black. I expected the ember glow, expected the sight, but she just sat still, staring at me as if she could see into me, as if she really was.
Draks had been taught to use our magic for a slow recall in order to peer into someone in order to understand who they really were. I had seen the deep looks, the knowing glances, many times before. I had performed them many times before. With Joclyn, however, it was different. It was as though she was peering into the deep hidden caves of your soul and connecting with them, understanding them, rather than exposing them and poking around.
"Nothing escapes you, my dear."
"Well, I am your younger and much wiser sister." She said it with a laugh, her eyes sparkling as the bed shook a bit under her.
"Siblings is a very loose word for what we really are, dear Joclyn."
"Drak, then?"
"I'm not sure that fits, either," I said with a growl, trying to ignore the deep longing that flamed through my soul.
"Why not? Apparently, my sights are broken," she growled back, one look pulling her right back to the battle in Rioseco where our father had claimed their bonding had broken everything. "Do you believe him?"
"I..." I hesitated.
For the first time in what I was certain was my entire life, I hesitated.
She didn't miss it.
Her focus finally pulled away from the ribbon wrapped around her fingers, her eyes wide in haunted fear as she met my gaze. "That bad, huh?"
I swallowed, not liking the massive pit that had grown in the middle of my chest in the last few seconds. "What Sain told Risha, the rumors that have been spread, they are things the Drak are told never to repeat: about the Zlomený, about the weakness of a Draks' power. We tell everyone they are the sights that are broken by the acts of others, by the mortals. But that is not true."
She stared at me, obviously waiting for more, but I couldn't seem to find the right words. Everything was trapped behind a mental block, something keeping me from telling her the truth.
"So what he is saying is true?" The anger behind her voice was heavy, but still, I smiled. Sometimes, I thought Father was right—that she did need better control over her emotions. "That, by creating a Zlomený, my magic is dying. It's killing me."
"That's what we have always been told." I repeated the words the same way I had for years, but this time, they pressed against me, igniting something deep inside. A fear like I had never felt before rushed through me, a flash of a memory moving alongside the dread like it had caused it.
Joclyn moved to sit beside me, the whole bed rocking under the shift of her weight.
"Dramin?" She was scared. I didn't blame her.
My entire body felt weaker than I had in days. I waved her worry away, determined to confess this truth out. She was Drak, after all; she should have known long ago.
"Zlomený are sights that are broken because the Drak magic is too powerful for those who hold it. They can't control it, so the magic devours them. The term Zlomený does not refer to the sights, but rather to the people who are not worthy of Drak magic."
"Great," she moaned, her hand tightening around mine. "So now I'm not worthy of Drak magic, yet somehow, I'm the most powerful magical creature alive. At least I know I'm not the only person whose sights keep changing."
With those simple words, the panic moved in waves of fear, pulling something from deep inside me. A memory of tears filled my mind in a haunted recollection I wasn't quite certain I wanted to pull at.
"What did you say?" I asked, not looking at her, already not wanting to hear the answer.
"That I'm somehow all powerful yet not powerful enough—"
"No," I interrupted her, my eyes digging into hers with such foreign intensity she shied away. I was doubtful she had ever seen this side of me before. I was doubtful anyone but my mate had. "About the sights changing. Do your sights change?"
"Obviously, I'm a Zlomený, remember?"
"I'm quite serious, Joclyn." The memory of my tears intensified, the recollection of an alley running through my mind in a quick flash that shuddered through me painfully, the bones in my back creaking in protest from the movement. Regardless, I stayed still, staring at her, dreading her answer while also needing it.
"Some of my sights," she began, her voice hesitant as my back straightened, "have been changing."
"Have been?" I asked, even more confused now. "You mean they have been changing after you have already had them? Showing you something different?" I barely got the words out before the memory of my tears was replaced by another, one of a man yelling. One I had pushed into the dark recesses of my mind so long ago I was amazed it was still there.
"It's just you and I and Sleeping Beauty over there. You can tell me." I tried to make the joke sound as close to one Thom would have given. I even tried to make my voice match his gruff irritation. It didn't suit me and made the whole thing more ridiculous, something Joclyn appreciated.
She smiled as I did, her body leaning forward to wrap her warm hands around mine, my little sister reaching out to me.
"My sights _are_ changing. I will have one, and then days later, I will have it again, and it will be different. And not just a little different, either... _very_ different."
"Are you sure they are the same sights? Of the same time and incident?"
She nodded.
"How are they changing? Time? Place? Subject?"
She nodded again.
"All of them?"
Again, a nod before she said, "I know they are the same; I can feel it. It's like the sight before you woke up. I saw it. I saw the roofs. I saw the Vilỳ. But when it came again, when I pulled it through the recall, it was different. It's the same roof, but it's like the picture was taken with a wider lens. It's the same attack, but it shows it from a different angle. People are in different places. Some are missing. Different things are shown. So I know it's the same... but not."
She was struggling for words, talking in circles, and I didn't blame her. The way she spoke about it, the way she talked about the feeling within them, was the same.
The memory within me was growing stronger as the pieces fell together, my heart thundering in my chest as I sat, staring at my sister. My fear was increasing with each moment that passed.
"How often...?" I could barely get the question out; my mouth was dry.
"That's all there is now. I don't know what to follow anymore. I don't know what's right. Everything contradicts each other, and it all looks different. More than the clear and static images, it's all distorted, like a television with bad reception."
"Like someone is changing them." I spoke without meaning to, the memory breaking through my mind so abruptly my body was shaking.
Joclyn tightened her hand around mine, obviously desperate to help.
"Yes." Her voice was shaking as much as mine was. "I... How...?"
"When I was a child, fresh from the mud, my Drak abilities came on strong, much as yours did after I gave you the water. They were as strong as our father's when he first awakened, or so he told me." I stopped then, my focus pulling from the intently listening child before me to the mug in my hands.
The memory ripped through me so violently I was reminded of why I had chosen to forget, why I had chosen to push it so far into the deep recesses of my soul that having it return was like a painful dissection.
Everything was too intense, too vivid. The emotions behind them were too strong, the fear too deep.
"I don't remember much of those days," I admitted. "But I do remember one. One day, I was probably nearing one hundred at the time, I saw a girl, a Trpaslík. She was tall and fair, so different than the rest of her kind. At first, I had confused her for a Skȓítek, but then the sight came..."
Joclyn leaned forward as if she would be able to tap into a recall. Except, there was none, not anymore. Only a memory of the girl remained, only the painful bite of the sight that never was.
At the time, the sight had come on as strong as they had been in the beginning. I had felt my father tense beside me as I saw the girl on the street; except, in the sight, she was older, her hair long, her face lined. She stood beside a man, and in her arms was a baby boy. I had seen the boy grow before my eyes. A strapping Trpaslík, he was strong, and you could easily tell he was one of their leaders. I had watched as he found a mate of his own. Her appearance was so sweet and stunning it was burned into my memory.
My father had gasped as he tapped into the sight, as he saw what I had. His anger was so quick and evident that, before the sight had even finished, he had dragged me into an alley, the shadows of the city buildings hanging over us like cobwebs, drowning us in darkness.
His voice had been a hiss of anger I had never heard before as he pressed me into the wall, jeering in my ear to forget what I had seen.
_I am the first of the Drak, and it is my responsibility to make sure all of the Draks below me see what I approve and do what is allowed. That starts with you, Dramin. Never question me, son. Don't be a Zlomený. Those will be killed._
He had been so kind before that moment, so loving. He had given me life and raised me, and everything he had said was true, so I agreed.
I had wanted to.
And I had never questioned him again.
Not until this moment, not until Joclyn looked at me and told me her sights were changing. Told me of the television fuzz that two thousand years ago would have made no sense, but now I understood because I had seen it.
"I saw the girl's son find a mate, a beautiful Skȓítek. The boy was a Trpaslík, and I saw their magic join as one."
Joclyn's eyes widened at the admission. Even she knew the story about how our father was the first to mate with someone outside of his magic.
And here I was, telling her otherwise.
No, here I was, telling her why.
"Before Ovailia?"
I hesitated as I recalled the boy's chosen mate and her face that, at the time, was like any other. Just another woman. Just another man.
I had seen the Skȓítek standing with the Trpaslík she was meant to be bonded to. I had seen it clearly, and yet, barely minutes later, with my father hissing in my ear, the sight changed. The static Joclyn had described took over as the sight of the woman was altered, her face shifting to one of hundreds of other women.
"I saw it, but then it changed, exactly as you said."
The bed jostled a bit as she shifted toward me abruptly, her eyes wide as questions and thoughts swirled through that fast working mind of hers.
Staring at her, lost in thought, the reality of what Sain had done was a heavy weight on my chest, a powerful force I was having trouble breathing through.
"So, if he changed your sight, is he changing mine?" she asked from the edge of my bed, her simple question tensing through me uncomfortably.
"I have no way of knowing, but from what you have said, from how he has treated you..." I stopped, my heart tensing painfully at the reality I was still fighting.
"He is." It was a statement filled with the downtrodden weight of one trapped in a painful reality. Her eyes were wide in fear and anger. "Now, I need to prove it."
"And that, child, may be your hardest task to date."
Her nose pinched as though she smelled something bad, though her eyes were dancing a bit. "Of all the tasks I have faced, Dramin, I think this is far from the hardest." She smiled, and I couldn't help smiling with her, regardless of something inside me screaming, something nagging at me.
It wasn't as simple as proving Sain was debilitating her sights; it was finding the reason why. And with the fear and anger running through my memory of him, manipulating what I had seen, I had a feeling it was more than pride behind it.
That scared me more than the man in the cloak.
More than the death I faced.
"Joclyn," I sighed, the tension of fear spreading through my back. "If he is changing what you see, what I have seen, then he has more power than we assumed. Don't underestimate him."
"I never have."
## 11
# Wyn
Glitter and light bounced off the barrier Ilyan had placed inside the cathedral to protect the ancient space, showering Joclyn and me in the residue of an attack that had barely missed its mark.
I could still see the retina burn through the blossoms of magic spreading in colorful waves as I looked back at my best friend, unsurprised to see her standing over a hundred yards away, the same smug smile on her face.
Of course she was smug.
I had barely deflected that attack, and judging by the color and movement of the remaining magic, it would have knocked me out for a few minutes if it had made contact.
Leave it to Jos. When I said, "Don't hold back, but don't kill me, either," she took me at face value. It was something I was glad of. We could match each other attack for attack, and that was a first for both of us, really.
I guessed we could always spar with Ilyan. I knew Jos did. However, I liked breaking rules, and he liked being boring.
Now, if I could stop worrying about Thom and whether he was still breathing or not or if that new boil that had appeared on his neck this morning had grown...
Ugh.
There I went again.
I needed to focus.
Obviously.
Besides, we both needed the escape, and this was better than the mass murder I had resorted to after Rosaline's death.
I needed an escape from Thom; Jos, an escape from... well, everything: her little breakdown from a few days ago and the rumors that had magically multiplied since then.
It was upsetting.
Whatever Sain was doing was really starting to piss me off. It was a good thing I hadn't run into him. Even though I knew Ilyan had already ripped into him, there was nothing stopping me from doing the same.
Or torturing him... That would probably be a good release, too.
After all, thanks to Sain, everyone acted like Joclyn was broken. Everyone treated her like she was somehow too weak to do anything. That wasn't the case, however. Not really. At least, not the way I saw it.
She was actually _too_ powerful. Her magic had grown too much, and she was having a hard time controlling it.
It was something I knew all too well. Mostly because I had experienced it.
In the beginning, controlling the fire magic was scary. I would blow things up. Heck, I had even blown myself up a few times. It was undoubtedly why Ilyan was so insistent I glue myself to her, maybe help her try to figure out what the heck was going on.
It was probably good she was my best friend, or I would be really bored of her by now.
Despite crazy-powerful magic and out of control sights or renegade rabbits or whatever she was facing, controlling it _was_ possible. It took time and figuring out your own set of rules to make it work.
It was like 90s grunge—you had to find a way to make the loud, confusing mess work for you.
Or you could just not listen to it.
Whatever worked for you.
She would figure it out. In the meantime, all I could really do was keep telling her odd stories and be some kind of demented cheerleader.
No one better hand me pom-poms, though.
"If you keep messing up like that, I _will_ get you," Jos said, a massive smile plastered across her face.
"If you keep taunting me, you _will_ pay." My smile was as big as hers, but not for the reason she thought. I spoke calmly, plainly, deterring her from the fact that a powerful attack was already heading toward her, slithering through the earth, just under the old stonework of the cathedral floor.
I smiled wider, the nefarious grin spreading over my teeth as I fought the need to laugh. It was too much, especially when her eyes narrowed in sudden realization.
She noticed too late, however. The magic shot into her before she could act, leaving her screeching in pain, jumping around like her shoes were on fire.
I couldn't help laughing, joy winding through me as I watched her hop around like a little bean.
"No fair!" she yelled as she pranced, her retaliation attack coming seconds later.
The ability, while powerful, was so poorly planned all I had to do was sidestep, my laugh echoing louder against the old, stone walls.
"Nice try."
The bright yellow streak burst into a firework of green and gold, glitter splattering against the barrier with a crash, leaving both of us staring at it in disbelief—me, laughing maniacally; her, on the border between humor and frustration.
"Stop doing that! Let me get you!" Joclyn screeched with a stomp of her foot, her movements making it clear she was already lining up her next attack.
"Ha!" I laughed loudly, purposefully pushing her buttons. "You would have to play a lot harder than that for a flimsy attack to work, Jos. I am a master assassin, after all."
"Oh! Is that what you are calling yourself?" she prodded, her voice seeping with humor and malice, the two emotions winding together in warning as she moved around me. Her steps were slow and calculated as I matched her step for step. "I thought more like, 'poor, little, cursed child' was a better fit. I mean... Your attacks are a little weak!"
With one step, her magic exploded toward me in a wall of purple flames, dancing with the black of death I recognized all too well.
Jumping with one swift movement, I countered, my own stream of ability spreading over the wall with a crash, beating against my ears painfully.
Her wall shimmered for a second before it exploded into whips of smoke, long tendrils of green and grey drifting toward the ceiling as what she had hoped would end me faded into oblivion, leaving me staring at a slack-jawed mongrel again.
"Come on, Jos," I teased. "I've watched enough TV to know better. You can't play the old 'talk and distract' thing on me. This isn't a Saturday morning cartoon."
"It was worth a shot, Wyn," she admitted, her smile growing.
"So is polio."
A smile leaked out, a wide grin spreading over my face like syrup: slow and sticky. The mischievousness of the look was not lost on Joclyn, who laughed knowingly then shot up into the air like a bullet, wind pulling her up like a carnival ride, the brilliant gold ribbon of her bonding trailing behind her.
With a laugh, I followed suit, the wind moving around me before I soared over the smooth, marbled floor. Where Joclyn had chosen to jump, to rocket through the buttresses and stained glass windows of the magnificent cathedral, I went low. My body was a straight arrow as I sped inches above the ancient floor, eyes scanning over the surface as I watched through the red-tinted light for the shadow of a bird I was going to ground.
"Kill the Wendy-Bird!" I screamed as her body came into sight, my own spinning over so fast I could feel the heat of my magic as it escaped from me, the string of flames flying from my hands before I had even faced her, before she could even notice it. She didn't even have a chance to dodge.
One line of fire. One flying best friend.
Or so I expected.
Except, the attack exploded against the barrier instead of her. Light and sparks fell like a million shooting stars, the same as hers had done. It could have been beautiful if I didn't already know what was coming, if I didn't know I was being stalked.
My heart thundered painfully in my chest, everything tensing in expectation as I waited for the attack, certain this time I wouldn't be able to escape.
"No fair!" I growled into the space, certain she had shielded herself. "A shield _and_ a stutter. Don't you think that's a bit much?"
No answer.
My chest tightened in agitated fear as the minutes ticked by while I looked around me, spinning on the spot like a confused top. A confused top that was having unnecessarily large heart palpitations.
I tried to feel her magic, but nothing was there.
She wasn't there.
"Nice try, Wyn."
I moved the second I heard her, but I wasn't fast enough. An attack slammed into my gut, heat and force moving through me as I soared through the air like a puppet, arms and legs flailing in a frenzied attempt to gain control of them before the floor found me. It was no use. With a dull thud and a loud scream, I intercepted with the hard floor, my body mush against stone.
I grunted at the painful ripple that moved over me, grateful it had dislodged whatever control Joclyn had locked inside me.
"Is that the best you can do?" I yelled with a laugh, knowing it was foolhardy yet not really caring. At this point, the lone weapon I had was snark. I had better use it, considering I could hardly see straight. My body was barely more stable than a puppy as I attempted to find my feet, my Chuck Taylors squeaking loudly in the open space.
I hadn't even stood before sparks of colors and sharp, conjured knives fanned toward me with a bang like a cannon.
Falling back to the ground in a crouch, I held my arms up in a shield, magic spreading from my skin in a wide bubble that wrapped around me in a sheath of grey. In my head, it was a shield so powerful it should have blocked anything. It would have if I hadn't been in such a rush to get it up. In reality, it was barely strong enough to deflect her attacks.
I could feel the tiny pokes of strain as the knives hit the shield before falling to the floor with a clang. The heat of her magic seeped through the thin barrier, oozing into me like a painful gas I already knew I didn't want to feel the full force of.
I waited, desperate for her attacks to stop before the shield gave out. I shouldn't have expected her to give up that easily. As though I was trapped in the middle of a war, the attacks increased, explosions and knives and who knew what else coming at me.
I was vulnerable, crouched down like this with the shield up, and she knew it. Forget that silly rock and its dumb hard place. That didn't even make sense. There was nothing worse than a weak shield and a powerful best friend with no shame.
I was doomed.
"Give up yet?" she shouted in a lull of attacks, her voice heavy and playful and pulling at me in all the wrong ways. "Or are you still pretending to be a master assassin?"
"Ha! I'll never surrender!"
Darn me and my stubbornness. I could kill myself for getting into the position, and if this had been a real fight, it would have killed me. Of course, if this had been a real fight, I would have killed her by now.
Either way, it was a stupid move, like eating cheese out of a can.
"Come out, come out, wherever you are..." she taunted, the laugh poorly concealed in her voice.
I groaned loudly enough for her to hear, mentally kicking myself. "No fair, Joclyn."
"Come and face your reward, Wynifred!" It was a taunt, a loud one, and I groaned louder. I guessed I deserved the full name. I had started it in any case.
I would have to be grateful she didn't know my middle name.
"You can't call this..."
_Mommy?_
I froze with my mouth open, ice rippling through me, the game and the battle and the barrier all but forgotten. It was all gone in one haunting word that rang loud and clear through my mind.
I couldn't breathe. I could barely see straight through the panic. It was _her_ voice, the same pleading that had haunted me for months, the same gut-wrenching heartbreak that ran through me. You would think I would have managed it better after so long, that I would have gotten used to it.
But I didn't think there was a way to.
Not with this.
_Mommy? Where are you?_
"Rosaline." It was a whisper, but I regretted saying it instantly. It was as though the shard of blade in my pocket could hear me. No, as if _she_ could hear me, as if she could react to me.
"What did you say? Did you say you give up?" Jos asked playfully, her voice sounding like it was a million miles away.
Everything was warm, too warm. Heat was radiating from the tiny shard of souls and blood that I kept concealed, the voice coming again, making me flinch.
_Mommy? Where are you?_
"Wyn?" Joclyn's voice came simultaneously with hers, but I wasn't even convinced I heard it. I wasn't even convinced anything existed behind the way everything twisted inside of me. __ Behind this past I was trapped in.
_Mommy?_
My hands ground against the floor as I stared at it while it shifted in and out of focus. I tried to concentrate on anything that would pull me out of this quickly descending spiral, but nothing was working.
I needed to get out of there before I did something stupid.
"Are you okay, Wyn?" The humor was gone from Joclyn's voice.
I flinched, a fear I couldn't quite place taking over.
"Are you crying?"
Was I crying? I couldn't focus on anything beyond her voice, beyond the memories.
_Mommy! Save me!_
"No!" I snapped, uncertain if it was to Rosy or Jos.
"You better not be messin' with me... I'm not going to fall for it, Wyn." She was worried; I could tell. However, it didn't stop the way my magic had begun to bubble, the way the fear was ripping through me in painful waves of heaviness and heat. "Wyn?"
_Mommy?_ She was crying, too. _Please._
I needed to go.
I didn't care how; I needed to go.
Fingers digging into the stone, back arched, breathing ragged in my ears, I felt my magic grow, felt the heat of it, felt the desperation taking over. A small voice in the back of my head screamed at me that the magic was too strong. If only it was louder... if only I cared...
In a burst of fire, my magic spread over the floor so fast I wasn't sure Joclyn could avoid it even if she was paying close attention. I felt the stones. I felt the raw power of the fire magic move into them, heating them as the floor shifted underneath her, sending her tumbling to the ground.
I heard Rosaline scream in my head, heard Joclyn yell in panicked fear, but I couldn't think. I was stuck in a cage with the whimpers and cries of my child, and I forgot what I was doing.
Suddenly, it was just another job.
It was just another body to claim.
Another beating heart to deliver to my master.
Heart thundering in eagerness, I burst from the shield that had become a prison, my hand raised in preparation for attack, turning to face the woman I had attacked so ruthlessly in one swift motion, the floor beneath her shifting as it swallowed her whole.
"Wyn!" Her voice was a scream of terror that ran through me with a trembling fear that brought a flood of everything right back to me.
No!
No body, no war, no blood.
The game.
It was just a game.
"No!" I yelled as the voice left, the frightening reality implanting itself within me. "No," I said again, my magic withdrawing back into me in one swift pull.
The stones of the floor solidified themselves in an instant. Her scream faded into the mirror of my own heaving breath, our eyes meeting in a desperate look of fear and panic so heavy I didn't know what to do. I didn't even know what to say.
How was I going to get myself out of this one?
It was like I was stuck in a bad Michael Jackson music video.
"Wyn?" Her voice sounded tentative from where she stood. I didn't blame her for her fear. "Are you okay?"
I glared at her, my jaw locked as the battle continued inside of me. I had attacked her, and she was asking me if I was okay.
Thankfully my little girl's voice had taken a break. It made it easier to think. I wished the mass murdering side of me would be a little bit quieter. I didn't want to kill this one.
"What do you mean?" I was defensive, too defensive. I cringed against the sound in my voice, but I knew I couldn't take it back.
_Calm down, Wyn_ , I told myself. _You are starting to act like one of those deranged puppets parents make their kids watch on TV._
"Correct me if I'm wrong," she began, her voice shaking, "but I am pretty sure you were trying to kill me for a second... and you were crying."
To anyone else, the combination might be seen as normal. In a way, it was for me—well, the killing people part. Strangely, the crying was more out of the ordinary. It was an odd reality when she was more alarmed by that than the "almost murder" I had "almost committed."
"I'm fine." My voice was a growl, so unlike the personality she knew from me—hell, unlike both my personalities. I knew she wouldn't believe me.
She didn't.
"Wyn," she prompted, "you can tell me."
Yeah right, not if I was going to save my daughter.
"Please, Wyn." She twisted her hands around one another as she always did when she was getting uncomfortable.
I wanted to say she was reacting to me, that her demons where plaguing her, but not with the way she was looking at me, with that sympathy and understanding she always had. The combination was terrifying.
I wanted to spill the beans about everything that had happened, everything I was feeling: about the blade and Thom and how scared I was to lose him, about Talon and how he still came into my dreams every night, about Rosaline's voice echoing in my head.
I wanted to, yet no matter how crazy that blade might be making me, I needed it to release Rosaline's soul, to release Cail's. I wouldn't be able to do that if they knew I had it, if they knew what it was doing to me and how volatile it had made me. I wouldn't be able to save my baby if they took the blade away, if I didn't get a chance to find the others.
Besides, it wasn't my daughter beside me, not really. It was just her memory. I could handle it.
I had handled it this long.
"I'm fine, Jos. Please," I said as I took a step toward her, unsurprised when she fought the need to take a step away. She still didn't trust me. "I think I got nervous, what with the impending war and everything." I added a shrug and a smile.
Although it seemed to please her, she was still tense, her silver eyes continuing to study me far too closely.
"You're not the only one," she finally groaned.
My shoulders loosened a bit, though the knot in my stomach stayed firmly in place.
We stared at each other, making it clear we didn't really believe one another, but neither of us were going to say anything further, either. We both had too many secrets at this point.
"I think I'll take fake wars to actual ones any day," I tried again, taking a few tentative steps toward her, glad when she didn't shrink away. I really wished I had something better to say, but "I'm sorry I almost killed you" didn't seem right.
"But then, we may be looking at a war once Ilyan sees what we did to the floor." I sighed as I moved to stand beside her, my shoulders dropping dejectedly as I caught sight of the pile of rubble she was trapped in, the beautiful floor smashed to bits.
I was so dead.
"I'm not accepting responsibility for this," Jos moaned from beside me.
"That's fair," I groaned dejectedly. It was. I couldn't wait for Ilyan to unveil that little temper tantrum unless... "Maybe we can blame it on Edmund. Then Ilyan could be so mad at him he would just explode from the burden of Ilyan's temper."
Seemed legit.
She looked at me out of the corner of her eye, her eyebrows unified in a deep furrow.
"One could hope," I said with a shrug, falling to my knees to begin digging her out of the pit I had trapped her in. "And I will. I will hope that Edmund will take the strength of his son's wrath from me and that I will survive this unfortunate incident."
"Oh, boy."
"It is the only chance we have to save us all." Laying the melodrama on thick, I swept my hand over my shoulder from where I knelt below her, letting a bit of an American accent shine through the dull shadow of my Czech one.
I expected her to chuckle, but she sighed, a bit of a groan escaping with the sound. Just like that, the playfulness in my voice evaporated.
"Oh, bother." The eye roll was obvious in her voice. "If only it was that easy."
"It might be; you never know." I could hope.
"Oh, I know."
She was dejected, and I didn't blame her. Sometimes, Joclyn's sights had a habit of putting a damper on any situation. All she saw was what was coming. She forgot to look at where she was. She forgot the future wasn't supposed to be known; it wasn't set in stone.
"You can't see everything, you know," I whispered as I continued to pull a rock away from her partial tomb, her legs shifting around as I worked and she tried to free herself.
"I've seen too much, Wyn. I know you can't see everything. No one can, not even a Drak. But you can see too much. Sometimes, I think I have."
With a snap, I looked up to her, a warning of temper rumbling through me as agitation twisted through my spine. "So have I, Jos. We've all seen too much." My voice was dead. It barely got above a whisper before it was swallowed by the vastness of the room. "It may not be the future, and it may not be what's coming, but I've still seen too much. I've seen years of Edmund killing and destroying and hurting and manipulating and..."
_Mommy? Can you see me? Why didn't you come for me?_
"I've seen my own daughter murdered before my eyes. I've seen the blood running over her cheeks as I screamed, fighting to get to her as she pleaded for Mommy to rescue her."
Joclyn was staring at me from where I still crouched below her, her eyes as wide as saucers while the truth of what I was saying hit her.
But I didn't see that.
I saw Rosaline: her eyes wide and despairing, her cries soft and defeated as she was taken from me.
I pushed the memory away, looking away from the woman before me, from the concern in her eyes, and went back to removing the rocks with renewed vigor—or would it be furious frustration?—freeing her in ten seconds flat.
"He deserves to pay for that, Wyn. I'm ready for all this to be over, but I'm not really ready for everything that comes between now and the ending I've seen." Her voice was low and garbled, the consonants blending together so much I was having a bit of trouble understanding her.
"I know," I said as I moved to stand, the dust in the air making it hard to breathe. "But you have to get through the bad in order to find the good."
"There isn't a lot of good around us right now," she sighed. Both of us knew how hard that was to find right now.
"What did you do before there was magic?" The volume in my voice caught us both off guard. "When it was just you and no magic and no sights and no Drak, when it was just us going off into the night to crash Ryland's graduation party?"
"We crashed Ryland's graduation party." She repeated my words back to me in an answer that was so sarcastic that, for a split second, she actually sounded like the teenager she was.
I tried to restrain the eye roll, but it came, anyway. In that way, we were a lot alike.
"Did we know if we were going to succeed?" I asked, plowing on in a desperate need to get to my point.
"No." A tiny bit of a groan. At least she was catching on, even if she didn't seem happy about it.
I plowed on before she had a chance to stop me. "Did we have a definitive outcome?"
"No... But, Wyn, we... We didn't succeed."
I smiled at how fast my set up had worked and turned to her with that same sly smile, the look on my face frustrating her more, and she groaned again.
"You're right. We didn't. We failed. But did the world end?"
She said nothing; she glared at me with those wide eyes, the silver so full of irritation I couldn't help laughing, something that pissed her off more.
"No." It was a growl more than a word.
I laughed harder.
"Did we keep trying?" My voice rose in excitement as I drove my point home.
The lines in Joclyn's forehead increased with every word. She needed to stop that. We might be immortal, but that didn't protect against wrinkles. I mean, had she seen Dramin?
"Did we keep fighting?"
She knew the answer to all of these as well as I did—yes, yes, we did—but I could already tell she was firmly standing her ground, too stubborn to say it, too scared to admit what came after.
"But what if we fail this time, too?" Her voice was a whisper.
"Then we try again."
"But the sights—"
"And what if there were no sights, Jos?" I interrupted her steadily, not letting her disrupt my flow. "What if we had nothing to guide us and no guarantee of victory? We would still try. We did for centuries before you came along, and we will for centuries after if we need to. So what if you can see the future? If you told me anything, it's that what you see isn't set in stone. You've changed it before, so let's change it again. Stop trying to guess what's going to happen next and just find out for certain. There is more to see in life than the future, Jos. Sometimes, we have to look to the past to see the whole story."
There it was—the answer that not only she needed, but I needed, as well. It scared the bejesus out of me to even think the sights could be wrong, that I could lose Thom the same way I had lost Talon, the same way I had lost all the others. In the end, even if I did lose them, I would do as I always had. I would keep moving, keep doing what I had always done. More than surviving, more than trying, I would find another way to succeed.
It was what we all needed to do: keep moving, find another path, find the courage to try again.
"You're the queen, Jos. Ilyan chose you for a reason. The magic mud hole chose you for a reason. The Vilỳ that bit you chose you for a reason. Who cares what the reason was? Accept it, own it, and be it."
It was the pep talk of the century. At least, that was what I was going to label it as. And judging by the way Jos was staring at me—with the look of someone who had just been slapped—I was going to have to count that as a win.
I knew I had probably given her way too much to chew on, and without knowing what was in her head... Well, it might have been too much. But I didn't care. She needed to hear it.
Maybe I needed to, as well.
Knowing me, I probably did.
## 12
# Wyn
_Mommy?_
Her voice cut through the calm that had begun to move through the cathedral. It cut through me where I stood beside my best friend, a vivid reminder of what I had said, of why I needed to keep going. Why I needed to find a way to succeed.
_Where are you, Mommy?_
With a flinch, my magic rushed to the tips of my fingers in a violent wave. I was barely able to restrain it before it burst out of me, the impulse strong enough I had no doubt it was noticed.
"Wyn? Are you sure you are okay?" I could tell by the tone of her voice it was going to be harder to get out of it this time.
"Yeah, just antsy. Let's fight. We have become far too serious and adult in the last few minutes. I need to work off some steam." Stretching my hand toward her, I smiled, knowing she was going to see right through me no matter what I did.
_Mommy?_
This time, I was able to restrain the flinch, but not the agitation, not the powerful surge of fire and flame that swelled within me. The wave of power washed over my body as Joclyn took my hand, her skin pressing against mine with a gentle touch my body interpreted as an attack.
Fire flooded to the spot, pressing against her hand in an angry shock that rippled through with a visible flood of red and orange.
Her voice rang out in pain and shock as she pulled away, staring at her hand with a look that could easily spell fear. The same reaction had happened in Rioseco all those months ago as we had run from Edmund, and I had set the forest on fire.
Before, I had laughed it off, saying our magic must be enemies or something. That was getting harder and harder to believe. I knew there was something else there, just as she did.
Staring at her, my hand clutched to my chest as hers was to hers, I saw what I had missed before. It wasn't just a shock. It hadn't been just my magic reacting to hers.
She had seen something.
Something that scared her.
No.
She was scared of me.
"Wyn?" Her voice was barely above a whisper. "What did you take out of Ryland?"
I froze, everything in me tightening and shaking as the alarms inside of me went off.
"I don't know what you are talking about." I knew the shake in my voice was a dead giveaway, but I didn't care. Right then, it was all I could do to keep me from attacking, from running away.
"Wyn?" she asked again, and for the first time, I could tell how scared she was. "What did you do?"
I could scarcely look at her. All I could think was that she wanted to take away my daughter, and that she wanted to hurt her, too.
I wouldn't let that happen.
Not this time.
"Wyn?"
I barely heard her. I couldn't focus past my panic. I couldn't focus past the break in reality. All I could feel was the fury and terror blending in an angry wall of emotion that was making it hard to think, hard to see straight.
I could think of one thing.
I only knew to do one thing.
Attack.
Power surged through me, speeding right to my best friend as she reached out for me in what I was sure she thought was an act of support, just as her hand wrapped around my wrist and our magic reacted the same as it had before, but this time, it surged and erupted. What was worse, this time, because I had already been ready to fight, it exploded.
It exploded in a wave of blue ice and flame, the eruption like cannon fire, the world around us shaking from the impact. The wall of power burned through the air as it sped over the cathedral, barreling down the tight space on its way to intersect with the barrier Ilyan used to protect the old space.
I braced for the sound of the collision, braced for the explosion of sound and the shake of the space as the barrier absorbed the power.
But the barrier didn't stop it.
Instead, the attack continued to move through the protective bubble with a powerful pop. I watched the shimmer of the translucent barrier fade around us, watched the attack slam into the ancient stonework of the gothic chapel with yet another explosion. Everything around us shook so violently I expected the whole building was going to come down on top of us.
"Oh, Ilyan is going to kill me." And I had thought a few loose tiles would be bad.
I was dead.
Disembowelment was in order.
It was the solitary fear I had until I looked down at Joclyn, to where she hung from my arm, her eyes of the deepest black, her body convulsing violently.
"Joclyn!" I yelled, fear rampaging through me at what I was seeing. "Joclyn?"
I had seen her have sights before. I had watched her eyes fade into the sight of future. I had watched her slide off tables, writhing in agony and crying over what she had seen behind the black of her eyes. But there was something different here. This was terrifying.
Hands fluttering around her, I tried to find a way to help, tried to find a way to get her to snap out of it, something. She was jerking around so much, so fast that I couldn't even get a good grip on her.
"Joclyn!" I yelled again, but she kept writhing.
Her black eyes stared toward the sky, her face haunted and broken as if she was looking into her very own death.
"Give me," she said. Her voice was deep and hollow as I had heard from Draks before, the sound terrifying when I came from her. "Give it to me," she moaned again, her eyes darting to my pocket, her hand like claws as she moved to reach for it.
The fear from before slammed into my back in an uncomfortable agony. The worry I'd had over Joclyn moments ago evaporated in the boil of my blood, the heat of my magic. The need to run, to escape, to attack encompassed me.
I tried to fight it. I couldn't leave Jos. She was my friend, and I knew what these sights did to her. I needed to help her.
I tried to convince myself of that, but the loyalty was wavering as she kept convulsing, as the words kept coming.
It was all I could do not to attack her.
"Wyn—" The word seeped out of her before she fell to the ground in a heap, her joints twisted in ways that made her look broken, like china that was trying to repair itself.
The panic subsided as I watched her, the worry taking over. Then she heaved, and then she screamed. And her head turned toward me with the same black eyes, even though I was convinced she could see me.
"Wyn," she gasped, her voice twisted between normal and the hollow Drak tones. "You need to give me the blade. You don't know what you've done."
I looked at her, into the black of her eyes, into the fear that came right back to me.
"No!" The word was a snap of broken ice as it cut through me, every instinct I possessed begging me to rush my best friend, to kill her, to keep myself and my plan safe.
It was all I could do not to attack her.
It was all I could do not to run and leave her screaming after me.
"Wyn, please." Her voice was normal now, but her eyes had not changed. They were the same dark depths of nothing staring at me as if they could see me, but more than just me, as if they could see my future, too.
_Mommy!_
I jumped at the terror in her voice, the tenor of it taking me right back to that day when Rosaline had lain on that table, Edmund hovering over her, Ovailia laughing in the background. And Sain... Sain chained in the corner, his eyes as black as hers.
His eyes as black as hers.
Just like that, something in me flipped, the switch moving so fast I couldn't control it. I couldn't stop the anger, the pain. I couldn't stop from coming alive.
"Wyn," Joclyn gasped, her voice broken and scared, so much like everyone else when they had begged for life, when they had begged for their end to come.
And so would she.
"No!" I screamed, the vile anger exploding out of me in a wave of aggression that made her flinch again, the warning met, though I knew she wouldn't back down.
I could see it.
I _knew_ it.
And if she wasn't going to back down... I wasn't going to give in.
_Mommy! Please!_ Her voice shot through me as my magic did, the attack speeding through the air and right toward Joclyn to stop her, to end her.
Joclyn screamed as the light erupted, the blazing flash impacting against the stone as she moved, her body sliding over the floor so fast I was in no doubt she was possessed.
My heart tensed at the thought, part of me screaming in fear as it begged me to stop. But I couldn't hear it anymore. I couldn't think past the sound of Rosy's voice, past her fear.
I needed to save her, and I wasn't going to let anyone stand in my way.
I would stop her first.
Another attack, one right after another shot toward Joclyn, but again, she moved. Again, she shifted away right before the attack would have made contact.
I could see the pain on her face. I could see how much moving was costing her. She couldn't outrun me forever. Besides, if she was just going to dodge, then I would have to anticipate that.
"Wyn!" she screamed as she tried to back up over the stone, her black eyes looking into me, digging into me. "You must give it to me... you can't—"
"No!" I didn't even let her finish; I attacked, expecting her movements.
This time, I hit her. This time, the magic hit against her leg, the denim jean burning away.
Closer.
I needed to get closer.
"You can't have it!" I screamed as I attacked again, volley after volley flying toward her as she tried to move away.
She wasn't fast enough. She never would be. I was more powerful than her. I had the fire magic, and now... Now she was going to feel it.
"You can't have my daughter!"
_Mommy? Save me!_
One last powerful ribbon of fire and death streamed away from me and right into her, seeping into her gut, spreading through her, destroying her.
_Mommy!_
"You can't have her!" I spat, ready to attack again, ready to end her, but then Rosaline's voice filled me, her sobs shifting from that of fear to that of loss, the change in the sound cutting through me.
_Mommy,_ she pleaded, the sound so clear that I was momentarily positive she was speaking directly to me. _Mommy, don't hurt her._
Shock filled me like warm water as I watched my friend writhe, watched my magic attempt to end her, watched her scream.
I knew I should do something. I knew I needed to. I had attacked her. I had hurt her.
I needed to get out of here. I needed to save my daughter. I needed to leave Ilyan in order to save her.
I turned, running away from my immobilized friend, away from whatever she had seen, away from what I had done like the coward I was deep down inside.
I ran because it was the only way to save her. It was the only way to save me.
I ran, no longer certain where I was running to, confident Joclyn was wrong.
I knew what I was doing. No matter what the contradictions of my past gave me, I _did_ know that.
I knew I needed to save my daughter, and I knew I needed to keep moving toward that, no matter what I ended up running away from.
## 13
# Wyn
Her screams for help echoed around the hall as she yelled after me. I could hear the tremble in her voice, the terror behind each word. I could hear her desperation.
I didn't care.
I needed to get out of there. I needed to get away from her, away from where I would hurt her, away from where she could take everything from me. Away from the black of her eyes and the terrifying way our magic had reacted.
I needed to run.
Part of me—the sane, logical side that was never loud enough when I needed it—was screaming at me to run back, to help her, to give in and trust my friend.
But I couldn't, not with the way my daughter was screaming inside of me, her voice as loud as the terrified pleas ringing from behind me.
I had turned another corner, picking the pace up into a run as I tried to decide what to do, what course of action to take, when I ran right into Sain.
He had been walking through the dimly lit hall around the corner from me, unseen, before I slammed into his back like a freight train, sending us both off balance—he, into the wall; me, to the ground.
"Wynifred!"
I cringed at the level of his voice, the sound a violent, feral screech as he turned to me with raging hatred in his eyes that was stronger than I had ever seen.
My heart beat louder, the knot in my stomach tightening as I met his gaze. I was convinced I had as much rage and anger as he did right then.
Seeing him there, in front of me, brought back the image I had seen moments before of him... in that room, watching my daughter die, as though it was nothing.
I swallowed, my brain already tallying him up as another casualty. Then my spine aligned as I rushed him, afraid someone would hear him. Someone would find me.
Joclyn and Ilyan had some kind of a strange connection, thanks to their bonding; as a result, for all I knew, he was already looking for me.
"Shhhhhhh!" I hissed, thrusting the old man into the wall, my magic spreading away from me, searching through the immediate area for any signs of magic, for anyone who might be looking for me.
Sain glared at me with a combination of fear and interest as I held my hand over his mouth, his body pinned against the wall. Beams of light spread into the dark space from the distant windows, giving everything around us haunted, red shadows.
I expected to calm down, being so close to him. After all, we had been through enough together. Instead, my panic increased, the reality of what I was feeling, or rather, what I wasn't feeling, become alarmingly clear.
There was nothing other than Joclyn's magic, the force of it made louder by her desperate screams.
The absence of magic should have been calming, but it wasn't. There was no trace of anyone, not even the man I currently faced.
"I can't feel your magic," I hissed, my fear vanishing for a minute, drowned by the shock of the abnormality before me.
Sain mumbled something in response, the words garbled by the hand I had forgotten I had smothered him with.
Removing it, I let him catch his breath as I fixed him with a sharp look, the distress pounding through my blood stream again.
"Is that what's got you so spooked?" he asked. Part of me did not even care he was dodging. "You looked like you've seen a ghost."
_Mommy, don't let them take me._
More like I heard one. Between Joclyn's pained please and Rosaline's cries, I was starting to think _I_ was haunted.
"I'm fine," I lied, sucking in air through my teeth with a sharp snap that sounded more like a smack against skin. Sain flinched at the noise, at the anger and violence that rushed through me, at the heat bubbling across my hands.
"Fine compared to what? Compared to before in Imdalind? Choose light, Wyn, because murder doesn't really qualify—"
"What do I look like, Sain?" My voice hissed in clear warning as it had done for centuries.
He didn't miss it; he glowered at me from where I held him against the stone of the old hallway. His lips twitched in a way so unlike him I was momentarily worried it wasn't really him at all.
"It's about what's in your pocket, isn't it?" His voice was that deep, gravely wave of knowledge it always was, and where before, in the dungeon and in Spain when I would stop and listen, I reacted this time.
"What do you know about it?" I snapped, pressing him into the wall with a thud. The sound ricocheted around the enclosed space, a loud ripple that came right back even louder.
He cringed at the impact, his face cinching together painfully. "I know what Joclyn saw a moment ago."
I froze, Joclyn's cries echoing around us while we glared at each other. I hadn't expected that.
My eyes narrowed as I held him against the wall, the heat of my magic moving into him just enough I was positive the warning behind it could not be missed.
"What did she see? What did _you_ see?" I took a step toward him without thinking, our bodies so close I was convinced he was going to have to move into the wall to avoid me.
"Where did you get the blade?" he asked smoothly as I panicked, trying to convince myself not to attack him right then and there. It would be much easier to kill him, and I wouldn't mind killing this one.
_Mommy!_
I looked at him, my eyes narrowing dangerously. "Why should I tell you?"
"Because I know what's coming." He stared back with the same calm he always had, his face almost looking disinterested.
If it wasn't for the way he continually looked toward the window that opened to the courtyard, as if he was expecting someone to come bursting through the barrier at any time to attack us, I would say he was positively bored. However, the way he kept looking away, the way he kept shuffling his feet, was putting me on edge.
He moved to look again before I grabbed his chin, forcing his head back to me, and his eyes widened in shock.
This conversation was moving about as fast as a tour convoy. I was running out of patience and time.
"I got it from inside of Ryland," I finally answered, careful to keep my voice down, the words sounding like a low groan as they reverberated off the old, stone wall that we were now so close to I could see the small imperfections in the ancient faces. What I was certain were once intricate carvings were now chicken scratches.
"Ryland?" he asked as if he hadn't heard, all signs of his previous boredom gone. "She saw what the blade is meant for. And she knows what you are planning. She wants to stop you."
So, she saw everything, then. Great.
"I believe you are going to help me much sooner than I had planned." His voice was dark, terrifying, and the murderer inside of me reacted accordingly: hackles up, warning lights blazing.
Slamming him into the wall again, I placed the palm of my hand against his neck, letting the fire magic inside of me heat to a temperature that was more pain than warning, but he didn't even flinch. He looked at me with that same darkness as before.
"What are you talking about?" I growled, desperate to have a straight answer out of this man. I knew I was probably asking for too much. He was a Drak, so his life was more riddle than reality.
"You don't want to kill her," Sain said as if he was reading my mind, seeing into a future I couldn't even comprehend. "You need to run as far as you can. Run and hide. Don't let anyone stop you. And if you make it, if you run, then you can have it all. You will find what you need to succeed."
Succeed. I could still save her.
He had given me what I wanted, but I wasn't sure if I could trust him after everything with Jos.
But I already knew one thing: I would do anything it took to free my daughter.
The fire in my blood sparked abruptly as a new magic shot into where we were, close enough I could feel it. The power behind it was unmistakably Ilyan.
I was out of time.
"Run, Wyn!" His arms broke free of where I had held him down, his grip like a vice against my forearms as he pushed me away.
I didn't wait; I ran, my feet fast as I continued in the direction I had been traveling, while Sain raced in the other direction, right to the place he had been glaring at, as if it had somehow offended him.
The sound of Joclyn's cries faded to nothing as the sound of my shoes grew in my ears. The slap of rubber and cement was a punch in the chest with every impact. I knew someone would hear me, knew Ilyan would hear me. I knew he would find me.
And if he did, there was nothing I could do.
Joclyn, Sain—anyone else, for that matter—I was confident I could defeat. But Ilyan...
I would lose everything. And if what Sain had said was true, I had to stop them all.
My sole choice was to keep running, to escape this cathedral and get outside where Ilyan couldn't reach me.
Easy.
I had done it before. Anytime I needed an escape, anytime I couldn't look at Thom's slowly deteriorating face, I left. And considering the way Joclyn's cries had somehow disappeared, Ilyan was very much preoccupied.
I needed to get to the tear in Ilyan's barrier before anyone saw me.
So, I ran.
I darted through unsuspecting Skȓíteks, their faces full of horror as they looked toward the cries, their focus on whatever might be going on over there. As I darted through them, the questions started flowing, the shouts of fear loud as they asked me for information, begged to know if we were under attack, what was going on. Drawing attention to me, to the person who should be running toward her best friend instead of running away.
The more they yelled, the more they looked, the more I ran.
"Wyn!" I recognized that voice the second I heard it.
Risha always sounded like an elementary school teacher, and if I thought it had ground on my nerves before, it was nothing compared to right then. Nothing compared to the one quick glance I gave her, my toe pressing against the hole in my shoe, against the bare ground and sending magic right to her.
I didn't even see her fall.
But I heard the screams.
I heard the terror and the waves of magic that soared toward me.
Sain had said not to let anyone stop me, and I wouldn't.
Risha was the start of that.
With one swift movement, I put up a shield, my body disappearing from view as a dozen or more attacks collided with it. The bangs and explosions of colliding magic ignited the courtyard in waves of color.
I barely saw them. I just focused on my destination.
At my freedom.
As I raced down a corridor, the sound of my incessant pace broke apart as I climbed the stairs of the old bell tower, taking them two at a time in my desperation to escape those I was confident were following me.
Old brick and open casements flashed by me as I kept my pace up, moving faster as the cries in my ears increased.
_Mommy! Don't let him hurt me! Daddy! No!_
The top of the bell tower opened like a fan, the tightly wound staircase expanding into the small, cylindrical room that led to the red sky, to the small crease in Ilyan's barrier that would let me escape without his help.
I had used it a hundred times before, and I would use it again... for the last time.
A slight shimmer in the barrier hung right over my head, the glistening patch of white so faint I probably would have never seen it if I hadn't been hiding up here, staring blankly out into the city as often as I had. But I had seen it. And it hadn't taken me long to figure out what it was.
A tear, a rip, a ripple.
It was a way out, a way to escape my own pain as I had so many times before, venting my own pain and frustration with Ilyan's permission.
In a way, I had resorted to mass murder to deal with this stress. While I had killed off the Draks before, it was the Vilỳs this time. I didn't really want to be responsible for the extermination of several different races of magic, but in this instance, I was more putting them out of their misery.
A win-win.
Right then, however, it was an escape route.
With one leap, I soared off the old bell tower and into the air, letting the wind catch me as my magic supported me, throwing me toward the shimmering line of color. I braced for the impact, for the way Ilyan's shield would grip against my body and try to trap me inside of it.
With one strong push, I shot through it, feeling the heat and weight crowd against me before it released me to the other side, my wind disappearing with the weight, sending me into a free fall. Hot air and an endless nothing soared past me as I tumbled to the ground below.
I should have been frightened, and perhaps I would have been if it had been the first time I had journeyed beyond Ilyan's barrier. However, I was ready.
With a snap, my magic moved just fast enough to stop me from hitting the hard ground on the other side—well, hitting it hard enough to do some damage. I still hit too hard, my knees slamming into stone, hands barely able to stop me from face planting into the loose gravel.
That wouldn't have been a good look.
Heaving, I froze, staring at the old, filthy asphalt as I waited for some scream, for some shout, for some clue someone had seen me.
There was nothing except silence on this side of the invisible barrier, the stillness of a world that had been ripped and devoured by the creatures that would now hunt me.
That I would now hunt.
I might have been safe from Ilyan, but I was far from safe.
Moving myself to standing, I pressed my hand against my jeans, making sure the hard ridge of the blade was still in place before I took off into the dark alley I was facing, knowing there were darker things before me.
A city—no, a battlefield—that, for the first time, I didn't know if I would come back to if I even could.
I took one look back at the place that had become both a prison and a sanctuary, the image of Thom on that bed a stab in my heart. Longingly, I tore my focus away from the cathedral before I let the alley swallow me, silently praying he would be okay and that somehow we would all get through this okay.
Our daughter included.
## 14
# Joclyn
"Wyn?" The single syllable sounded all distorted and wobbly as it reverberated around the cathedral, the fear in my voice causing it to tremble even more.
My heart rate picked up into a violent tattoo as the sight burned in my mind, pulling to the forefront of my recall, to her awed face, her hands covered in blood, an incapacitated Ryland below her.
Frozen in fear from the sight, from what was going to happen, I gaped at her, trying to figure out how to stop her. But no, this wasn't something I could stop, because this was something that had already happened, something she had already done.
"What did you take out of Ryland?"
She stiffened as I did, my joints becoming a rigid mess as the lies she had been spewing for the last few minutes came to a head.
"I don't know what you are talking about."
"Wyn? What did you do?"
She still wouldn't look at me, her lies pulling at me and making the painful reality of what I had seen even harder to swallow.
The pulse of her magic washed over me, the reaction increasing my anxiety even further. She felt dangerous. I had never felt anything quite so out of control before: the strength of her power, the fury behind it. It scared me.
I couldn't help it; I brought my magic to the tips of my fingers, ready for what was to come, the violent sound of my heart beat reverberating in my ears.
"Wyn?" I asked slowly, my hand extended toward her as I tried to get her attention, eager to bring her back down to earth. My hand wrapped around her wrist in a move I hoped would calm her, no matter how much the contact scared me.
I should have stayed scared. I should have stayed away.
With that one touch, her magic answered, the same flame and fire as minutes before ripping through me.
My body writhed as darkness smothered me in a stifling heaviness, the weight making my heart race and muscles tense. I couldn't think beyond it.
Attempting to fight it, attempting to fight her, I took a frantic gasp of air, fire erupting in the dark of my eyes. Sight blazed through my mind in a pillar of light that broke through the black, my magic catching fire as it showed me bright red flames engulfing the city, licking the red roofs and engulfing the decimated buildings.
I had seen this vision before. It was familiar. Except, this time, it wasn't. This time, Edmund's red barrier was gone, and the peaceful yellow sun hovered over the city as if it wasn't being eaten by ash and flame.
Watching in fearful awe, I pulled out the differences, watching the city die as my heart raced. The speed increased as the sight shifted to that of an army thousands strong, marching into the streets of Prague as it burned. The sound of their march echoed through my sight, reverberating off my panic, the heavy pace divergent to the gentle snow falling over where Ilyan and I stood on top of a distant mount, surrounded by a dozen tattered people.
Huddled together in the chill of the snow, we stood, watching the army, waiting for an attack we knew we could not win.
Then, with a painful ache, with a rip that spread through my chest in agony, I saw what I had missed before: the mound of dirt behind where we stood, the single red rose resting upon a fresh grave.
It was then I noticed who was missing from our ragged army.
With my heart breaking, my sight accelerated, spinning as everything reversed. Again, I saw the death of my beloved brother, the handkerchief placed on his face, and the bright red blood that spread over it. I saw his body placed in that grave behind were everyone stood.
Shovelfuls of dirt fell over him, one after another. It was then that the snow that fell over us shifted and changed, the delicate white flakes mutating to heavy wet drops of the deepest crimson. The color cascaded over us all, staining our faces, our skin, our clothes. It asphyxiated us in the smell of iron, each drop mirroring the emotional agony of my heart that I could never hope to explain.
No one moved; they just let it cover them until everything was red and white.
I waited for the sight to continue, desperate for it to end. Instead, I remained trapped in the blood-soaked brilliance as a voice broke through the vision like shattered glass, my heart seizing at the proximity.
"Oh, Ilyan is going to kill me."
Wyn's voice was clear, the Czech vibrant, but it wasn't part of the prediction. It wasn't something within the vision that my magic was giving me. It was real. It was reality.
The two had never mixed so clearly before.
I knew she was next to me, but I couldn't see her. I saw nothing except the sight that stormed through the fire in my eyes.
Images flashed in a quick and vibrant succession, moving faster as my horror amplified. My confusion as to what was happening was so heavy I couldn't focus on the future playing before me.
With a jolt, her hand pulled against my arm as the hot air of the cathedral ran over my skin, and I could smell the familiar aroma of smoke from a magical explosion taking the place of the iron and blood.
I was aware.
I could feel it all.
And yet, I couldn't see. I was still within the sight.
For the first time, I was in two places—fully aware of the world yet still trapped in the paralyzing sights that continued to move faster. The images were more violent than anything I had seen before.
"Joclyn?" Wyn's voice broke through the divination as something shifted, as the sight began to change and slow.
Just as before, when Wyn's magic had burned through me, I saw her covered in blood as she knelt beside Ryland. This time, however, I saw clearly what was lying in the pool of blood in her palm.
It looked like rock, the jagged fragment a little larger than the size of a thumb, the deep red color vibrant even against the sheen of Ryland's blood.
The whispers of my magic screamed in horror as I watched the heavy fluid drip over her fingertips like a leaky faucet. With wide eyes, she stared at it, the greed on her face growing into a type of awe I had never seen in her.
The fear in me increased as the deep Drak magic screamed inside, as it pulled and begged and warned me of something that frightened me more than the double reality I was trapped in.
The Soul's Blade.
I had heard of it. I knew what it could do. I didn't want to believe the dark magic it held. I didn't want to believe what I was seeing since so much of what my prescience had shown me had been broken.
The sight shifted with a snap, my chest tensing from the abruptness of it. Now there was an image of her with the blade, kneeling over a bloodied body, the jagged thing protruding from her hand. Another snap, another jolt and now she was in a foreign forest, hunting something I was certain was also hunting her.
Sight after sight came, raging through me as the warning flowed heavier.
"Give me," I gasped, unaware if the words had actually broken through the sight and made it out of my throat. "Give it to me..." I looked toward her, gasping from the pull of the magic, knowing she had the blade on her.
" _Stop her_!" The same unfamiliar voice that had haunted my sights came again. Its meaning was clear, the warning obvious.
I had to change this.
My mouth opened in a wide, panicked scream as my sight shifted to the image of Wyn, her short frame standing tall before me in the middle of the cathedral, just as she had a moment ago—before the fire, before the sights. She stood there, yet her image was distorted, shrouded in the shadow of sight. The reality of my friend before me was overlaid with that of precognition. Bright flashes of her with the blade, her fighting, and Edmund smothered the image of the real world as if the magic of the Drak was projecting itself over reality.
"Wyn," I said, my voice distorted as it moved through the sight, the depth of it similar to the voice I had heard within my sights so many times before. "You need to give me the blade. You don't know what you've done."
I reached toward her again, reaching through the sight of a bridge crumbling into a river, the image swirling through the air like smoke. My fingers clawed at her, desperate for her to see, desperate to stop her from doing this, from going down that path. I couldn't.
"No!" she screamed at me as she stepped away, her magic flaring in a tangible wave of warning.
I gasped, the magic feeling like a wave of water smashing against me, the power of it sucking the air out of my chest. I tried to regain my strength, to regain my breath, but neither came while my heart pounded with more urgency, more desperation. I needed to stop this.
"Wyn, please."
I barely got the words out before I watched her jerk again, the movement twisted as she jumped, a dark cloud moving over her eyes with a hatred and animosity I didn't think I had ever seen before.
I saw her mouth move, but no words came out. The shadowed overlay of sight pulled her in and out of focus, her anger blended with the image of Ilyan's death, the same haunting vision that had been stalking me coming to full force.
Blood flowing over rocks, away from his lifeless hand, his eyes lost and forgotten. I stared at it, wishing I could look anywhere else, wishing I could see anything else. However, it was death or the blade. It was all connected.
"Wyn," I gasped, a heavy desperation leaking through me as the sight that was bleeding through reality shifted. The image of my best friend spread and fluctuated before me, as if there were two of them—one who raised her hand toward me before the other one did.
I felt my magic flare in fear, my heart racing as I looked into the face of what Wyn used to be, who she was raised to be. For the first time, I saw the eyes of a killer and instantly knew what she was going to do.
What she wanted to do.
"No!" she screamed, the sound ringing over the cathedral as I tried to scoot away from the attack that spread from her hand.
I watched as the distorted mirrors attacked me in turn, one after another: first my sight then my reality.
My sight gave me a perfect warning of what was coming.
I should have been awed. I should have been amazed at what was happening. However, I couldn't think past the terror gripping me. The fright was a debilitating force as I struggled to move my weak body away from an attack I was positive would kill me.
_Ilyan!_ I screamed his name, trying to focus on the broken world before me, trying to dodge my friend as she attacked again, the powerful blast hitting against the stone I had been sitting on moments before.
"Wyn!" I tried again. "You must give it to me... You can't—"
"No!" she screamed, another blast rumbling around me. This one was so close I could feel its heat against my leg, could smell the singed jeans.
I could barely focus on what was going on in front of me. The overlay of sight became confusing at it altered even further, her motions moving forward and back in quick succession.
"You can't have it!" she yelled, another attack moving toward me.
My joints seized in agonizing strain as they tried to fight the weight that sight always gave me.
"You can't have my daughter!"
_Joclyn!_ Ilyan's fear filled me as his voice did.
My sight shifted yet again, pulling away the superimposed image of my friend and taking me right to where my mate was, his terrified face clear as he stood still in what looked to be an abandoned department store.
_Ilyan!_ I called again as another attack sped from my friend. Without the warning, there was no way I could move fast enough, no way I could have dodged.
Violent waves of heat ripped through me, the magic ripping through my flesh, convincing me I was being torn in two. I could feel the warm blood spread over my skin. I could smell it.
"You can't have her!" she yelled again, the sound of her anger barely distinguishable above my agonizing screams. The sound mixed with the heat of her attack in a pressurized agony.
I clawed at it. I screamed louder, certain my head was about to implode, rivers of warm wetness flowing from my ears.
"Help!" I screamed, knowing it was no use.
I pried my eyes open, only to face her retreating back as she ran out of the cathedral at a high sprint, the sound of her retreat drowned by my screams.
"Ilyan!"
Her back was the last thing I saw before I collapsed to the ground in a ball of agony.
The sights took control with more strength, more force than I had ever felt. Sight after sight flashed before my eyes. The strength of them grew with each image until they were embedded in my soul, speaking to me, a part of me, as if they were _me_.
Before, I always looked into the visions. The visions always took me to what I needed to see. Right then, the sight surrounded me. It was a piece of reality, and I was a piece of it.
_Ilyan,_ I gasped, practically screaming his name in my desperation to get his attention from where he and Risha were off surveying another part of the city.
Nothing came in return. No sound. No response. Not even the whisper of the fear I had felt moments ago. I lay there, paralyzed by the agonizing pressure in my bones that mixed with the weight of the visions until I could barely think. I lay, helpless, watching the images of children laughing in a field turn into strips of a grey-green sky.
Lifting my head toward the door, I took a heaving breath, trying to think, trying to find a way out, desperate to push my way out of the sight enough so I could move, so I could see where I was going. The sky faded to the cathedral I was trapped in, the two images casting shadows over one another, making it hard to know what was real and what was sight.
The large chapel was full of ancient pews and men in long robes while women cowered in fear of a god they didn't understand. They moved around me, apparitions of smoke and past, people of a time long forgotten, surrounding me as though they were real.
"Ilyan," I gasped aloud as I watched them, watched as time shifted.
The robed men were replaced with Victorian women in high lace collars and frilled dresses. A tall lady with her hair in curls walked past me, a white parasol flung over her shoulder. I looked from her to a child in knickers and a cap who ran away from a very haggard looking nun. A chill of ice rippled up my spine as he ran right through me, his body swirling into wisps of smoke at the collision.
"Ilyan!"
My arms gave way as I crumpled to the floor with such force my face compacted with tile in a thwack that resounded through my skull. The pain of before increased, the strain so much now I could barely think through it.
For a moment, I worried that what was before me was based more on injury than magic until the same booming voice of before crashed through the pain and took the last of it away, letting me see the past as it was, letting me feel the future.
"This is sight. This is real. This is pure," the unfamiliar woman said, the loud boom crashing through me as the sights did.
"Ilyan," I gasped, anxious to hear him now.
_Joclyn!_ With a boom, his voice broke through the sight, broke through my mind in a rush of panic.
I relaxed at the sound, at the flutters of his magic that I felt moving through me, only to have them leave again, the connection breaking up like a flickering light bulb.
_Where...? Are... okay...?_
His questions faded to nothing as the sight gained control, the magic coming on so fast I screamed with the force of it, the strength of the vision suffocating.
A man, Edmund maybe, holding a baby as he stood near an ocean. It was calm, relaxing, yet my body didn't feel the emotion. I didn't feel the cool air of the sea. I felt heat, felt the heavy thump of fear that moved through my chest. I couldn't ignore the fear that perhaps he was going to throw the wriggling infant into the ocean.
The vision faded back into the distorted haze of the cathedral I was in, and this time, my sight showed me the medieval workers who had built the magnificent building and Ilyan standing before me as he worked amongst them. His hair was short as I had seen it before, his face spread with a wide smile as he lifted the massive stones.
_Ilyan._ I wasn't certain whom I was calling to: the man before me or the man in reality. It didn't matter; neither answered.
"You must move." That voice came again, the foreign familiarity of it frightening.
I looked up into the overlay of sight I was surrounded by, expecting to see the voiced woman standing before me, instructing me. However, it was nothing more than a few boys fighting with wooden swords, Ilyan and his fellow workers long since faded into history.
"You must move." The forceful voice came from a dense space of white near the door to the cathedral, the oddly shifting mass calling me toward it.
I didn't dare question it, not with the power behind it, not with the way it rattled my bones and connected with my soul.
Looking toward the door, my vision shifted to a cathedral bare of any past or future shadows. It was now. It was pieces of glass that fell from the sky like rain. It was a white shape still standing near the door, the shifting mass looking more human the longer I looked at it.
"Move."
I did, even while my joints were aching, even while every pull of my body over the stone cut into me, glass and rock and who knew what else falling down from the heavens. With each desperate pull of my arms, flashes of sight surrounded me: flickers of blood, sun-bathed beaches, children laughing, and dying and crying and bombs.
They surrounded me, the uncertainty frightening, but I couldn't focus on it. I couldn't dwell. I could only follow the voice as I moved toward it while calling to Ilyan over and over within my mind. He never responded, though for brief moments, I could feel his magic, feel his concern as snippets of what sounded like his voice broke through. Nothing more than that. It was like the connection was severed, like the strength of my sight was smothering it. Frayed wires that weren't connected, no matter how much electricity you tried to move through them.
A rumble shook the world I was trapped in, shaking the floor as I screamed, clinging to the floor as if it was going to collapse underneath me. A crash of stone and bone reverberated through the destruction that lived in my mind. Tears streamed down my face as I reached the doors to the massive hall, my hands sore, knees screaming in agony. I didn't want to move any farther. I wasn't confident I could.
Clawing at the old, wooden frame, I pulled myself up, my legs shaking as the world shifted. My heart plummeted as, turning, I faced the destruction of the cathedral I had escaped. The once ornate, ancient architecture surrounding me was in piles of rubble and clouds of dust. I saw it for a moment before my sight pulled me back into that same blinding light as before, surrounding me with it.
White stretched before me in a brilliance that washed the cathedral away. Everything glowed with a white-hot heat, tongues of red and yellow licking in the distance like waves on white sand. They moved in the sunset I was trapped in, gaining proximity as I watched, as they burned everything.
Burning. The word stuck against my ribs as the light continued to move into me, my muscles constricting painfully at the realization of what I was surrounded by.
A bomb.
I was inside of an explosion.
I gawked at it, waiting for the sight to change, waiting for it to give some answer.
But it didn't. It didn't even so much as deviate.
It simply burned.
"You must move," the voice came again, so close I turned, expecting again to see the formless shape of white. Instead, I faced myself... or, rather, me in a few hundred years.
I stood in the white space, staring at the vision of myself. A crown of red blood dripped over her face from her hairline, her eyes a hollow black staring yet unable to see.
I fought the need to scream at what I saw, at the blood, at the sight, at the death that echoed from her.
"Hurry, Joclyn," the other me spoke, the voice I had heard suddenly making sense.
My heart rate accelerated in agonizing fear before she disappeared into a speck of black against the brilliant white. Black so dark I was convinced it was devouring the light, sucking it into a vortex of nothing.
"Hurry," the other me said again.
Before I knew it, I was running toward it, running despite my aching joints, despite gasping for breath. The fear mounted at what had happened and what I would be facing.
There was only the sound of my frantic breathing, the black spec before me taking shape, molding itself into the bodies of two people.
I could see their outline, see the way they held each other, feel the way their power moved around them.
No, not around, not between. Away. Away from them.
I had been wrong before. They weren't consuming this power; they were creating it.
_They_ were the bomb.
Continuing my run toward the pair, I looked around for some clue as to what I was supposed to see, what insight this was supposed to give me. There was nothing. No matter how much I ran toward the two figures, I wasn't getting any closer.
My fear was increasing, my panic stuttering through me.
"Joclyn!"
The familiar scream pulled me out of the world I was trapped in, the two figures replaced by one I would recognize anywhere—the way he moved, the swing of his hair so familiar to me now.
"Ilyan!"
He ran toward me as I toward him, my body stuck within the blinding sight, his running through it until I could see the wild worry lining his normally bright blue eyes.
I saw him, but I saw so much more.
I saw him from two hundred years ago, running like a shadow through the ancient halls, his face wide in terror as he raced away from something. The fear in him was more than I had ever seen before, the strength of it infecting me.
"Ilyan!" I sighed, collapsing in his arms as the frightened shadow of the ancient man continued to run past us, a scream breaking from the sight and ringing in my ears. "What's coming?"
I felt his strong arms, but all I could see now was the fear in his eyes, the scream on his lips. Before I knew it, the scream was coming from me, the same voice I had heard before yelling from somewhere around us.
"Run!"
## 15
# Ovailia
"He's late." My father's voice was a growl from where he stood beside me, the heavy frustration that was intertwined with it putting me on high alert.
"I'm aware," I said to no one in particular.
Of course he was late. Sain was partially reliable at best; it would make sense he would pick today, when my father had chosen to meet with Sain inside the city, inside the dome, to push the limits of what was acceptable.
"I did not want to have to beat the information out of him, but if I am forced to stand in this alley much longer, I may be forced to."
Grumbling to myself at the warning behind my father's voice, I took a few steps away from where he stood in the shadowed alley, the sound of my heels clicking loudly in the deathly silence of the decimated city.
Narrowing my eyes toward the red-bathed street we stood next to, I chanced a quick glance away from the relative safety the alley gave us, even though I didn't know if that was where he would emerge since we had no idea where Ilyan's camp was.
It was one of the many reasons I didn't like this plan.
We were too exposed, too vulnerable inside the city. Even though my father didn't go anywhere without his guard, the powerful men already hidden by their magic as they surveyed the streets surrounding us, I didn't feel comfortable, especially with how close Ilyan had come to capturing Sain the last time. For all I knew, my irritating brother had already gleaned information from the pathetic Drak and was standing on the rooftop right above us, watching.
Waiting.
It wouldn't have been the first time in the last century he had done something so brazen.
I wouldn't put it past him.
With a groan and a glare, I shifted my view, taking one quick glance at the roofline before looking back to where my father stood in the shadow of a dilapidated store overhang, the words _poslední z květů_ barely discernible. If it wasn't for the rotted twigs and wilted roses, I wouldn't have even been able to tell what it was.
"Leave it, Míra," Father snapped, as though he was controlling a dog. I supposed, in a way, he was.
He had barely finished the warning before the little, fair-haired beauty he had made his forward guard snapped to attention, running to his side and looking very guilty for having picked up what had been a beautiful red rose.
"Sorry, master," she grumbled, deep and fearful, obviously expecting a strike.
Smirking at her reaction, I took a step away, not really wanting to see what would come next. She was lucky my father was more concerned with Sain's absence than her foolishness, or a strike would probably be the least she would receive.
She stood beside him like a rail, her tiny frame a foot above his waist, her hair a long sheet down past hers. If it wasn't for the dirty rags she was still forced to wear, I would say she looked like a life-sized porcelain doll, right down to her bottle green eyes. It would be a much nicer sight when she completed her training and was allowed to wear real clothes.
"Find him, Ovailia," Edmund growled, the depth of his voice pulling me away from the child and right to him.
My scowl deepened at the intense look he was giving me.
"He's coming," I spat, feigned confidence spilling over my lips as I flattened them into a tight line.
The anger in his eyes intensified as he took a step closer to me, his fingers flexing by his side. "You would do well to make sure that is not a lie, Ovailia," he warned, the sound of his steps loud as they slapped against the wet cobbles.
He moved around me as I stood in place, my head held high while I waited for whatever was coming.
"Find him for me," Edmund hissed in my ear as he moved a step closer. A shiver moved down my spine at the icy chill of his hand moving over my neck as he swept my hair away from my face. His scowl deepened as I peered at him from out of the corner of my eye. "I want to know definitively."
_You are trying my patience,_ I sent to Sain through the shard of blade that was embedded in his spine. The piece matched with the one my father had spread throughout me, the one-way communicator bubbling painfully through my blood.
I turned toward my father with a flick of my hair, my eyes meeting his dead-on, and I smiled. His own malice matched my own as I saw the pride in him grow.
"Do not worry, Father," I cooed, an uncomfortably hot breeze moving through my hair, reacting with the residual chill of my father's touch like ice on a sidewalk. "He is coming. You will get what you need."
"Wonderful. See that that it happens." His lips twitched into what I hoped was a smile before he moved away from me, back into the shadowed overhang of the flower shop.
The little girl who had gone back to her inspection of the dead and blood-soaked flowers snapped back into obedient attention.
"I would hate to discover this little game he is playing is stretching to you, as well. We still need him, Ovailia. I would hate to make you prove your loyalty to me again."
Ice trailed down my spine at the warning. The hatred in his words moved through me so deeply I shivered, which caused his smile to expand.
"That won't be necessary," I cooed, keeping my voice gentle as I tried to pull his focus from my fear. He would have none of that, though; he simply smiled more. "I am yours, Father."
"Good, because he may be my key to procuring Wynifred as my mate." The greasy grin on his face spread wider. "And once that is done, we can attack Ilyan and his pathetic pack mules. Then we can end this."
My smile broadened with eager anticipation as he turned back toward the girl. The way he was looking at her and the way her eyes glossed over made it obvious he was taking control through the Štít he had placed in her heart.
Looking away, I walked back toward the end of the alley, avoiding a puddle of what looked like fresh blood that had pooled in the middle of the cobbled street.
Everything here was too red, too wet, and too dirty. Add to that the decay of a city left to rot, and I wasn't about to touch anything. It was bad enough I had to smell it. I would have preferred the vile death of the camp outside the wall to this, and that was something I had never thought I would admit.
"Ovailia," my father called loudly from behind me, his voice carrying enough to awaken one of the many Vilỳs who lay hidden in the space. I heard the hiss and turned, ready to say the word, but with one look, the mutated thing retreated, its tail between its legs.
"Why wait?" I asked, the creature's fear igniting my desperate need to cause more pain.
"Soon, my precious girl." His voice was a smooth whisper as he moved toward me in three quick steps, his finger resting against the side of my face with a touch so gentle I forgot who he was. "Soon, the war will come, our thousands will crush Ilyan's handfuls of rejects, and then all of this will be ours again. The magic will be mine again, and no one will be able to stop me."
"No one deserves that more than you. You are my king."
"Good."
The same foreign and unwanted fear ticked back into place as he moved away. My nose wrinkled in disgust, although I was convinced part of that was from the smell.
"Father—" I began then stopped short at the sound of a crash that moved through the city.
A loud bang and a flash emanated from the old, broken cathedral that lay a few streets away, the already debilitated city shaking with groans and bangs, a mist of dust moving over us like a fog.
I cringed against it, moving before my father with hands outstretched as if some unseen assailant was hurling toward him.
No one was there, but it didn't matter; I stayed in front of him, the girl right by my side as my father's guard appeared before us, their bodies popping into existence as they ran into the alley and descended from the rooftops, surrounding the three of us in a wide human shield.
We stood still, waiting for the attack, but the alley was empty except for the dozens of Vilỳs that poked their heads out of their hiding places, too scared to come out all the way.
"You fools. It's not an attack. At least not on us," Edmund snapped as he pushed his way past our open arms, his stride wide as he gave his guard one look.
With shivering veils of magic, they vanished back to their patrol, the single glance all they needed as far as instructions went.
Edmund sneered as he continued to walk away from us all, disappearing from view as he moved toward the middle of the street.
Remaining still, I followed the sound of his shoes. The soft sound was all that was left to tell me where he was. I knew better than to follow him without request. Míra, however, followed blindly, her hand on her chest as she tried to locate his magic, no longer able to see him.
The moment he reappeared, she rushed to his side, her feet moving like little patters of rain. Instead of moving into the protective stance she was being trained for, though, she moved behind him, her shoulders hunched as she cowered in a fear I hadn't seen in her before.
A mild groan escaped her lips as she leaned against him, her hand pressed against the Štít and the pain I didn't doubt was emanating from the controlling vessel.
"You pathetic fool," he snapped, his focus on the now doubled-over child. "I am your king, your lord, and your master. You would not be alive if not for me, and you will do well to remember that. Do what you have been trained to do, or I will kill you, anyway. I always enjoy watching things bleed." He kicked her away from him as he finished.
The child whimpered in pain as she fell into one of the piles of blood and excrement littering the city, her hair fanning around her like a feathered cloak.
I didn't even try to stop the smile that spread over my face as my father turned to me. My back straightened as his gaze met mine dead on, his smile as wide and wicked as my own.
"She will learn," I said as he laughed, his toe digging into her arm before he moved away, leaving her in a heap.
"What did you see? What was that?" I asked as he made his way over to me, his smile spreading, the wicked gleam in his eyes bright in the dark of the alley.
"What do you think the chances are that Ilyan has all of his _army_ holed up in the cathedral?"
I hadn't expected that, and even with the confidence in my father's voice, the smile on my face slid away.
"We had all the churches checked shortly after the wall was placed..." I hesitated. I could already see the warning in his eyes. Delivering a contradiction to his certainty so close after what had happened was not in my best interest. "There was nothing there."
"Nothing, as in it was empty? Or nothing, as if they were destroyed?" His smile continued to grow, the greasy mess twisting down my spine, and I shivered pleasantly.
"There was no one within them." My voice was barely above a whisper. I was treading lightly, doubtful of where he was going yet still not wanting to defy him.
It was an interesting game of cat and mouse, one I was enjoying.
I shook my head, letting my hair fan over my back as I took a step toward him, not willing to look away, no matter how much the look in his eyes made me shiver.
"So they were empty." His smile grew. "And yet, your brother loves churches."
"Which is why we checked them first."
He said nothing more before walking back to the middle of the street without shielding himself this time.
My heart rate accelerated as I watched him, caught in awe at the brazenness of his confidence, of his ability. Ilyan's enemy stood in the open, smiling. It was beautiful the way he positioned himself with the red light bathing him, casting a long, black shadow behind him like a cape, the darkness of it matching so much of who he was.
A tense knot rippled through me and I smiled, the long-ingrained fear of this man growing.
"Come, Ovailia."
Leaving the still sniveling child in a heap of dried blood and what looked like fresh vomit, I joined my father where he stood in the middle of the road, facing the pillar of black and blue smoke that spiraled from the cathedral.
The lazy circles of black and blue drifted through the air like feathers. Even with the red tint of light, the smoke was an unnatural shade of blue, which could mean one thing.
"Magic." The gasp of understanding seeped out of me in a rush, the shock met by a low chuckle from my father.
"Yes," he hissed. "And if the smoke is magic... Well, there is only one way it would be there, wouldn't it?"
"But we checked—"
"And your brother is one of the most powerful Skȓíteks, mated to a more powerful Drak. Imagine what together they could do with that power." He spoke with the same hunger I had heard before, the same eager desire he had whenever he spoke of Wyn's gifts; except, this was more.
I cringed against it, already knowing what was coming.
"Imagine what _I_ could do with that power. She is worth more to me alive than dead. I must have it."
The awe that had loosened the knot in my stomach tightened up my spine like a poorly made corset, twisting as the poison inside of me reacted to his words.
"Shall I bring you Joclyn's heart?"
"No." He stepped away from me, toward the smoke that was quickly dissipating, his eyes wide with greed.
"No?"
"This one, I will get for myself. At the very end, when Ilyan is nearly dead, I will make his mate mine, and I will force him to watch. The same way I made you watch. The same way I made Wynifred." He turned toward me in one swift movement, the dark cloak of his shadow falling over me in an oppressing shroud.
I watched him, watched his smile, watched his icy eyes flash as he took a step forward. The horror on his face brought back flashes of memories that ran from exhilarating to traumatizing.
I knew I shouldn't let him see my recoil, but he saw anyway. His smile increased as he stepped right up to me, his hand twisting around my waist before pulling me closer to him.
"Would you like to see that?" he asked, his breath harsh against my face. "Would you like to see me break your brother? Finally break him as I did you? As I did Sain? As I did Wyn?"
It was his favorite game, his favorite form of torture, and despite something deep inside of me recoiling against it, I still wanted it. I still wanted to watch the power flow from him.
"Yes," I hissed in eagerness as he smiled deeper and pulled me closer still.
"Would you like to see me hurt him as he did to you for all those years?" His teeth lashed with a smile so deep I was positive he expected me to pull away, to turn into the same sniveling heap of a girl.
But I didn't.
I couldn't.
Not after what he had said. Not after the fire that had erupted inside of me.
Ilyan had hurt me.
Ilyan had lied to me.
Ilyan had controlled me.
As my father had asked of me when I returned to his service a year ago, 'Would I like to see him pay?' The answer was still the same.
"Please."
Edmund's grin spread as he released me from his grip, my heels clicking loudly against the road as I regained my balance.
"Good."
He left me standing in the street as he moved back to his pathetic excuse for a forward guard, the girl seeming to deteriorate the closer he came.
"Get up," he demanded of her without so much of a hint of compassion.
"But it hurts." Her moans were barely audible over the sobs, over the way she clung to her own chest, clawing at it as though it was hurting her.
I was convinced it was.
"Get up," he insisted again, his voice harder this time.
"Hurts..." she moaned again, her body twisting more, as if the movement would help her escape it.
"It will hurt more unless you get up," he warned, a harshness in his voice as the child slowly moved to attention.
If there was one thing she knew, if there was one thing she would continue to learn, it was pain. Edmund delivered it better than any other.
Her body shook as she forced herself to stand, her eyes downcast as she refused to look at her master, and her hand was still clutched against her heart, against the Štít.
"Good." The sneer in his voice had deepened. "Life is pain, little one. You either rise to the occasion, or you fall beneath it. Work hard and perhaps that pain will end, but until you can stand on your own two feet, get used to the agony." He leaned over to the child, hissing in her face as she recoiled, her shoulders digging into her ears.
"We need to get in there," Edmund announced eagerly as he turned toward me, the swaying child all but forgotten.
"Into the cathedral?" I clarified before continuing without waiting for a response. "But we've been in there—"
I stopped short at the look in his eye, the danger mixed with frustration I understood all too well. I was obviously missing something.
"No, Ovailia. We need to get past his shield, past whatever he is using to block us from seeing what is really in there."
I narrowed my eyes in question. For the first time, I doubted his plan would even be possible. We had sent so many of our men into that space, looking for any sign of Ilyan, and they had all come back saying they had seen nothing. They had walked through the old basilica, through the monks' quarters. There was nothing there.
Such a thing could not be, yet I could tell with one look that it could.
That it was.
"M-Master?"
I turned at the voice, at the timid traitor who walked into the darkened alley, practically falling over his own feet at the sight of my father.
I would guess it was good I hadn't told Sain who would be meeting him, if only for this show alone.
Sain stood next to the still swaying child, his frame as broken and beaten as the girl's. They were a good pair—two beaten dogs, bred to do anything my father asked.
Seeing him like that, it was hard to imagine he was using us, that he had any other plans besides serving his master. Despite that, I had seen the sight. I knew of his lies.
I ground my teeth together at the thought, watching him, wondering, for the first time, how much of him was simply that: lies.
"Sain." Edmund turned to him, his voice a menacing growl Sain recoiled from.
I was getting the feeling Míra had been just a warm up act, especially with what we now knew.
"Glad you could join us. We've been waiting."
"If I had known..." he began as he cowered away from Edmund's approach, trying to gain some sort of favor with the man who now towered over him. "I tried to... I mean... I was held up—"
"You were held up?" Edmund asked with a condescending lilt.
Sain collapsed to the ground in fear. I would guess I wasn't the only one who knew where this was going. No matter what act he had been playing, he could not escape this, and he knew it.
"Was it all the smoke? All that beautiful, blue smoke?"
The trap my father had built around the old man had taken control. Sain realized it too, and he folded into himself more, knowing what was coming.
"Yes."
"It makes me wonder, seeing as you chose this exact minute to show up. I'm convinced you could tell us..." Edmund paused, the tension so tight it gripped against my abdomen, twisting around my spine and awakening the poison inside me even further, my magic reacting to Sain's close vicinity with a painful, caustic burn. It was all I could do not to call out.
"Yes, master?" Sain questioned obediently, his back bending even farther.
"What happened." It was not a question, not really, and even Sain knew he could not avoid it.
His whimpers turned into cries as he collapsed to the ground, shivering under the weight of his oppression, under the fear Edmund had ground into him with two words.
"Joclyn," he stammered, his cry matching that of the child who was now leaning against the wall, her eyes closed as if in prayer. A prayer that the solid mass would swallow her, no doubt. "Something with Joclyn."
"What _with Joclyn_?" Edmund hissed at him, his hand jutting out to grab the old man by the hair, lifting him to eye-level. "Don't think for a second you can get away with that answer."
Sain cried out in pain, a hiss and a sob echoing around the old, stone alley. His eyes closed as Edmund moved toward him, his face so close that I was momentarily concerned he would bite him.
"Look at me," Edmund growled, his anger increasing by the second. "What did your bastard child do?"
Sain's eyes snapped open, his body shivering before the powerful man I was proud to claim as my own.
Poor Joclyn, child of a weakling. If Sain was my father, I would do him in. Heavens, he was my mate, and I had handed him over to my father without question.
"I... I don't know... I didn't see—"
"You have sight, and you didn't see?"
"It's broken. She broke it..."
My heels tapped against the ground as I moved toward them, hair swinging down my back as I circled them. Father looked up at me, his smile matching mine for a moment before returning to his prey.
"Would you like me to check, Father?"
"Perhaps that is not a bad idea—"
"It was Wyn!" Sain stammered, his voice breaking as my magic attached to his. "Wyn has a piece of the blade. Joclyn saw it, and Wyn attacked her."
Edmund's eyes shot to mine and mine to his, his expression one of shock I had never seen in him before it faded to the familiar greed.
"She has a piece of the blade? Where did she get it?" Edmund asked eagerly, his desperation rattling the man he still held.
"From R-Ryland," Sain stammered before Edmund released him, sending him tumbling toward the ground.
Greed.
Even I felt it now.
After everything, Wynifred had made a misstep. She had done something even she should know better than to do. She had the blade, and if she had a piece of the blade, Father could control her, control the girl with the magic he prized.
With one last grin, he closed his eyes, his face serene as he did what came naturally to him, as he searched out the blade that held the souls of so many he had killed, their magic now inside of him, a direct line if you will.
Eagerly, I waited, breathing heavily as I leaned toward him, anticipating what was to come—some declaration of control, of death.
"She's close..." he whispered, stepping over the heaving, gasping man as he took my hand in his and pulled me back into the middle of the street. "It is not within her, so my control is limited, but not for long."
He gestured forward, his eyes trained on the darkness that swallowed the city. I looked between the street and my father in confusion before a small, black figure cut through the red tint of the world in front of us, stumbling, running, screaming. I knew who it was and that my father was in control of her.
Wynifred.
We had come to get information out of Sain. We had come to show the filthy princess a magical race she was being trained to kill, yet, another assassin had walked into our midst. Another assassin had walked into our control.
"Wonderful." I smiled, my eyes wide as she continued toward us. "What are you going to do with her?"
"I'm going to get you past Ilyan's wall." He smiled at me. "If she can get out, then she can get you in. Together, you will destroy his army before he even has a chance to attack us. He will be crippled, and all because of Wyn."
"Brilliant."
"Make sure to come back with my new bride, Ovailia. I would hate for dear Wynifred to miss her bonding ceremony tonight."
This time, I laughed, the sound loud and joyful as I danced before the woman who had been nothing short of my archenemy for several centuries. She didn't even know what was coming as she walked toward us, her eyes wide as her body propelled her forward without her permission. Her hand wrapped around a shard of red blade I recognized immediately, the panic clear on her face.
She could see us.
She knew what was happening, yet there was nothing she could do.
"Hello, darling," Edmund cooed, his voice the same he would use before he forced all of his wives into his bed. "I told you I would make you mine eventually."
Wynifred looked at him in terror as he grabbed her hand, her palm opening to reveal the jagged blade. She couldn't even move as he lifted the shard and plunged it through the center of her hand.
There was silence for the briefest of seconds, and then her mouth opened wide, a high-pitched scream seeping through the hot air around us.
We laughed.
## 16
# Dramin
The mug was dry. It had been dry for the last few hours, but I held it, anyway—clung to it, more like. My tight grip was probably more out of familiarity and desperation for the comfort that was attached to it.
If anything, it was something to hold against my hands as I listened to the screams that had been resonating through the halls for the last few minutes. The pain and agony behind them increased with each wave.
I didn't need to be told whose they were.
Joclyn's magic—that powerful Drak magic that even I couldn't help her understand—was taking control. Either that or, if we were correct, Sain was. Whatever it was Sain had done to her, to her sights—whatever lessons I hadn't been taught, whether the Zlomený was true or not—it was ripping her apart, just as he had warned. No. Just as he had created.
I hoped she would be strong enough to control it, to defeat it.
To defeat him.
That it wouldn't devour her.
Subsequently, I sat, staring at the door with the mug in hand, wishing there was a way I could reach her, wishing I was strong enough to walk there, hoping Ilyan would bring her to me.
The scream came again, louder, the sound swallowing the footsteps that were racing toward me, opening the door with a bang so loud I was surprised even Thom didn't jump.
"Wyn!" Ryland yelled angrily as he barged in, Jaromir on his heels as he searched for the little pixie who normally occupied the space.
"Ryland?" I asked in a panic as his eyes swept over the room to meet mine. "What's going on?"
Ryland leaned against the door, his bulky frame seeming even more powerful as he pulled to his full height. "Have you seen Wyn?"
"No."
"Damn it!" His voice was loud, louder than the fist that hit against the door he was leaning against, his powerful strength leaving a long crack in the old wood.
"Ryland!" I yelled his name with as much authority as I could. "What is going on?"
"Joclyn," he panted, the obvious answer frustrating me. "She was with Wyn. Ilyan thinks she attacked Jos."
My eyes widened in shock. I hadn't expected Wynifred to attack her best friend. Six hundred years ago, the thought would not have made me bat an eye. Now, that was not the girl I saw every day. Besides, with the way Joclyn screamed, I had assumed it was her own magic.
"Ryland?" I asked, pulling the blankets off my old, useless legs before I even got a response. "I need you to take me to her."
"But I—"
"You can find Wyn after. I need to be there now." My authoritative tone was weakening in my dread, but it was something Ryland didn't even notice. His focus was so intent on Joclyn I was positive a rhinoceros could have barged through the hall behind him, and he wouldn't have noticed.
Ryland glanced down the long hall, looking toward wherever else he was supposed to look, the screams of his former best friend rippling around us like perverse bells. "It doesn't matter. I've already looked everywhere. Come on, old man," he growled as he moved away from the door to pick me up as one would an infant without so much of a warning or question.
My emaciated body sagged awkwardly as he lifted me, holding me against him with a firm grip. I almost asked him to let me go, but then Joclyn screamed again, the sound worse than before, the pain and agony behind it cutting through us both simultaneously. He tensed as I did.
Without another word, he ran, his pace so hasty I was grateful for the close proximity despite how much I was being jostled around by it.
Jaromir followed us at a sprint, his little legs pumping twice as fast in his attempt to keep up with his mentor. The flush on his little face made it clear he had been running after Ryland for the last hour.
I tried to focus on what was coming, on what I could do, on what was waiting for me, but I couldn't think beyond the pain in her cries, beyond the panic growing in me as her screams did, each jarring step making it worse.
Hallways streamed past me as we ran, clusters of people gathered in corners and against windows as they looked toward the screams, as they gossiped.
My father's name traveled with us, the rumors that he had spread sprouting into a forest as we reached the people who had gathered outside the king and queen's chamber. The ugly words repeated with a wide array of worry, fear, and distaste.
I didn't even care.
"Move!" Ryland growled, his patience obviously gone as he burst through them.
The door swung open and shut around us before any of the rubberneckers had a chance to see inside. It was disgusting how they tried.
"I brought Dramin," Ryland announced as he rushed into the tiny room, the sound of Joclyn's pain mutating into a deafening call now that we were within the heavy walls.
I had expected healers to be crammed into the tiny space. However, it was only Ilyan who sat on the bed with Joclyn wrapped in his arms as she screamed, as she cried, as she writhed. Ilyan held her and soothed her, as he had all those months ago when we had been trapped in the cave.
I watched in horror, trying to find some sign of physical injury as she turned toward me, her eyes encompassed in a thick black sheen, seeing and unseeing as they stared into me. Her sight had taken her. Wyn might have attacked her, but it was her sight that was destroying her.
"It's coming," she gasped before she whimpered again. "You must run."
"Good," Ilyan said, ignoring the words as if they were meaningless. "There is a chair there. Did you find Wynifred?"
"No." Ryland's voice was hard as he sat me down. "I've looked everywhere."
Jaromir tried to blend in with the doorframe as if he was unsure if he should be there while my chest tightened further as I faced my sister who needed help I wasn't able to give.
"I had a feeling she would do this. With what I was able to see and with her magic, she could be anywhere. She could be underground. Risha is still looking..." Ilyan's voice faded into an uncharacteristic weakness as he clung to Joclyn, her body writhing as her breathing picked up.
"Your další v příkazu will find her. She couldn't have gone far." Ryland was confident. I hoped it wasn't in vain.
People who attacked their best friends often weren't easy to find, and Ilyan was right. With Wyn's power, I would guess we should be happy Joclyn was still with us.
"Your feet are not fast enough," Joclyn moaned from within Ilyan's embrace, her voice deep and hollow before it broke into the same scream that had been echoing around the halls.
Fighting the need to reach forward and try to connect with her magic, I flinched.
"Has she said anything... helpful?" I asked hesitantly, my chest tight in fear of what could possibly be breaking through her.
"No. I can't make any sense of it," Ilyan sighed, his hand pressing against the mark on her neck, the same way he had done so many times before.
She gasped at the contact, her back arching abrasively, but her eyes stayed black, her face blank.
"It sounds like she is talking to someone, mostly things about running and traitors."
"And screaming," Ryland provided, his voice a solemn calm as he moved to the foot of the bed.
Jaromir remained leaning against the doorframe as though he didn't know what to do with himself.
"Lots of screaming," Ryland added.
"And her sight?" I asked as Ilyan fixed me with an expression of such hopelessness that I temporarily found it hard to breathe. "Have you been able to see anything?"
"She was in sight when I found her," Ilyan answered, his voice heavy, "running through the halls like she was trying to reach something. Her eyes were black. I'm not even certain if she could see me. It hasn't stopped since."
Joclyn groaned the second he finished, her voice a loud snap. My spine straightened painfully at the sight of the discomfort rippling across her face.
"I need her, or else it will not break," she moaned out, the sound a plea as Ilyan pressed his forehead to hers, his lips mumbling a song I couldn't quite make out.
I watched them, the helpless feeling growing more painful in my chest. I fought the need to grip the chair, knowing by the way Ryland had begun to pace I wasn't the only one feeling agitated.
"I need to find Wyn," Ryland whispered from the foot of the bed, his hands clenching the bed rail so tightly his knuckles were turning white. "I need to find her."
"Wyn can't help." My voice was dead as I stared at Ilyan who was now rocking my sister, his face burrowing in her hair before it snapped up to me.
"No," Ilyan growled, his mind going right to where I expected it to, and judging by the intensity of his response, we shared the same opinion.
"He can't help, either." My voice was barely loud enough to cover the sound of Joclyn's mumbling, the words so garbled no one could have made them out even if they were listening.
Ilyan's eyes widened at my proclamation, his eyes so focused that, if he wasn't so connected to Joclyn, I would be sure he would have forgotten her.
Ryland looked between us, picking up the pieces to what we were talking about.
"Sain?" he finally asked, but neither Ilyan nor I looked in his direction. "What do you mean Sain can't help? He's a Drak. Of course he can help."
"And he may be double-crossing us," Ilyan provided like an afterthought, his focus shifting back to Joclyn who was working herself back up into a panic.
"We still don't know that for certain. Joclyn is his daughter; they are of the same magic..." Ryland's persistence was unsurprising, but I knew it would be.
"Yes, but just because he can help us," I said, my voice calm as I looked Ryland in the eye, "it doesn't mean he should. His help has done damage to this child. I won't let him do more."
"You sound like you know more about this than I do, Dramin," Ilyan said, a terror I hadn't expected seeping into his voice. I thought Joclyn would have told him of what we had discussed. Perhaps she hadn't found the proof she was so desperate for.
"He's doing more than double-crossing us all," I sighed, my voice as heavy as the weight that was pressing against me.
"I know," Joclyn whispered, her voice soft as it seemingly answered my statement, her eyes black as she stared at something none of us could see. "I have seen it before."
Ryland took a step toward me, hardness gripping his jaw. For a moment, I was in no doubt he was going to erupt in some loyalty tirade. However, he stayed still, silent, his eyes darkening as something different began to take over.
My anxiety continued to rise as they waited for me to continue, my own fear for what was coming increasing. The chair felt suddenly uncomfortable and overly wooden beneath me.
"Her sights have been changing."
Ilyan nodded, his eyes dark. "Yes, she's been having trouble controlling them, too."
Ryland looked between us, his expression falling into a deeper shock at what was unfolding before him. "But sights don't change. Sain said—"
"It's happened to me before." I swallowed heavily, the sound audible in the stunned silence of the room.
Ilyan's focus finally snapped from the air he had been acquainting himself with, one look prompting me to continue, one look telling me I had no other choice except to admit what had happened.
"I was only a child... long before you were born. I saw Ovailia's true mate, and then I saw it change. No, Sain changed the sight. He created a Zlomený."
"Ovailia's true mate?" Ilyan could barely get the words out.
"I saw Ovailia, saw the joy and happiness she was supposed to have..." Then he had changed it, and it was devoid of all the joy I had seen that day. She always was—come to think of it—sour and angry. Even on the day when she had bonded herself to Sain, the man she was not meant to marry.
And he knew it.
He knew it because he had seen that sight. He had also probably seen something similar before. He had already seen her. He had already chosen her.
"He changed it," I whispered, my focus drifting to Joclyn, even if I hadn't told her whom I had seen. "He changed what I saw so he could have her. Different angle, different point of view, but it was the same sight, distorted enough I couldn't really tell what was going on."
"He's changing more," Joclyn gasped. The words were so perfect I was again sure she could hear me. Nevertheless, she still lay there, eyes black as she looked into the void of sight, face blank as tears rolled down her cheeks.
"He couldn't have." Ryland's voice was dead, as though he himself was piecing it together yet refusing to accept it.
"What all did you see in the sight? How did he change it?" Ilyan finally asked, volatile anger erupting over his face, the grip he had on Joclyn increasing until I was positive he was going to break her in half. However, he only buried his face in her hair. The light in his eyes faded, although not enough to sever the hard edge of fear that had come over me.
Normally, I could face Ilyan's temper, but I was an old man, my magic gone. I wasn't facing anything.
"I saw the bonding again, but this time, with Sain in the place of the groom. Tatí threatened me, told me of the broken sight, of how some things are wrong. The way Joclyn described her sight to me, the way they pull differently after the change, the noise and the static... It's the same."
Ilyan fixed me with the hardness of a scowl so deep that, for a moment, I could actually see a shadow of his father in him, something I had never thought I would see.
"So," Ilyan began, his voice distorted through his clenched teeth, "he's spreading rumors about her while he controlled her enough to make all those rumors seem viable. If there was a doubt he was the cloaked man before, there is no question now." The level of anger in Ilyan's voice matched the volatility on his face.
I looked at Ryland in a plea for help, but he wasn't even looking at any of us. He was staring out the window at the now pitch black sky, his face as hard as Ilyan's.
"Have you ever heard Sain talk about the theory of magic? About how it's all connected? About the waterfall?" Ryland asked out of nowhere, the question so random the anger in Ilyan evaporated.
"You mean like the délka vedení královsk?" Ilyan asked, his anger vanishing as he spoke of the ribbon that declared his place among his kind.
"No," Ryland sighed, his focus pulling away from the girl and to the two of us in turn, guilt riddling his face as he dragged his hand through his curls. "It's something Sain told me about how magic is connected. He said he let Edmund _think_ he controlled his sights when he was in prison," he quickly clarified, as if that made it better. "He told me magic is connected through the races, through the family ties, like a waterfall, or a ribbon. Magic is really carried by one person—the first person. Like how the mud birthed your grandmother and your father and held the end of the ribbon of their magic, controlling it and all the magic of those below him, all the magic moved down through him. One after another, all tied to the first, to the top."
"Sain _told_ you this?" I asked, barely able to get the words out as everything clicked together in my mind.
A ladder, a connection of magic, and a man who might or might not be controlling it all.
"He said all the Drak magic flows through him, that he controls it."
"Controls." I looked up to Ilyan whose anger was returning with a force I could feel take over the room. "Just like the Zlomený."
"It's like you said; Sain is controlling her... changing her sights." Ilyan stopped, as though the words had caught in his throat, as though the anger had held them there.
"No," I announced, something clicking into place. "He's not. He _can't_. He's trying to, but he doesn't have full access to her magic. That's why she's reacting this way, why her sights are doing this to her. Someone is trying to control them, and her magic is fighting it. _She_ is fighting it."
"What do you mean he doesn't have full control?" Ryland asked. I was actually surprised he hadn't put it together yet.
"It's not a ribbon. Not for her. I'm actually surprised Father doesn't see it," I mused. "Or maybe he does, but after so much time, he's too stubborn to believe otherwise."
They both looked at me, obviously not piecing it together yet.
"Joclyn is one of the Chosen with all of the different strains of magic flowing through her. All of these different abilities are tied to a dozen different people. For her, it's not a ribbon; it's not even a straight line. It's a spider web that is wound through everyone.
"Edmund is the first of the Chosen. Ilyan, the son of him, but also the eldest surviving descendant of Frain. Joclyn's magic is connected through Edmund because she is Chosen, but also through you, Ilyan; not in binding, but in carrier, as well. The first of the four over all of the Chosen. Silky strings tying everyone together."
"A web," Ilyan repeated, his face blank as he put it all together. "And Sain..." He stopped short, the unspoken words clear.
It was one thing to realize how magic was connected and another to know what Sain was doing, to have Ryland confirm Sain had known it all along.
"What is he up to?"
With one look at Ilyan, I could see the questions spelled out quite plainly, his own confusion mirroring mine. I nodded, my lips drawn in a hard line before looking down to my still winding hands, wishing, once again, I had a mug I could at least pretend to drink from.
The hush was interrupted by a loud scream that ripped from the girl Ilyan held in his arms. She shook, she screamed, and her black eyes gazed into Ilyan's as though she could see him. No, as though she _was_ seeing him.
Just as before, when she spoke so plainly, she could see. She was here. It was something I had never seen before. To observe while seeing.
"Joclyn?" I asked aloud, unsurprised when she turned toward me.
She was here.
"Ilyan," I gasped, my body tipped toward her so far I was convinced I was going to fall. "I think she can hear me."
"What? How?"
I watched her, trying to find some clue that would tell me what to do. If I had my magic, I could connect with her sight, see what she saw, and guide her through it like I had done when she had seen for the first time.
Simple.
So simple.
The reality of what I had told him hit me, a small, misplaced fact falling into place like pieces of a puzzle.
"Ilyan," I whispered hesitantly the moment Joclyn had calmed, the last note of Ilyan's song fading into the silence. "Do you remember when I told you about the water? About how the more you put into—"
"The more I come in contact with it, the more I have in my body? Yes. Are you suggesting Sain can somehow control me, too?"
"No, I was actually going to suggest the exact opposite. Because of the Drak magic your father holds, thanks to his kiss and the magic you hold in your body from the water that has touched your skin, _you_ could control _her_."
"I don't want to control her."
"Perhaps control is the wrong word," I mused, my hands twisting as I shifted in the rickety chair, wishing there was some way I could support my weight enough to pace the floor.
"When we were in the cave, when Ryland had pulled her into Cail's mind"—the boy recoiled from where he stood, but I ignored him—"you tried to connect with her magic to pull her back."
"Yes?"
"Do it again," I gasped out, the tension in my chest growling with anticipation. "But this time, connect with the Drak inside of you to see what she sees. Give her the Drak magic you possess in order to strengthen her, to help her find a way out of whatever my father has done to her."
" _My_ Drak magic?" He was obviously skeptical.
I interrupted him without waiting, something I knew he normally wouldn't appreciate, but given the situation, I was willing to risk it.
"Yes, that magic that is tied to your father, your mate, and the Black Water that flows through you. Connecting to magic is how Draks share the sights. Perhaps it is what she needs—someone to share the sight with her, not control it. Someone to help her find the base of reality and take control of her ability. Break whatever bind Sain has placed over her. Set her magic free. Set _her_ free."
He gawked at me, his pride keeping him from admitting his lack of knowledge. No one knew anything about Drak magic. It was always carefully guarded with secrets Sain had imposed on everyone since the beginning. Even then, with everything I had ascertained in the last few days, I wasn't sure how much of that was based in truth.
For all I was aware, I knew nothing about my own magic or even what it could do. I had no tools to give him beyond what I had already shared.
Sain's rules had kept everyone pinioned under a control so deep they never saw the sun. Now I was breaking the rules. I was going to set them free.
"I have been fighting," Joclyn moaned, the broken speech drowned by the tension in the room. "I'm going to keep fighting."
"Sain is trying to restrain her for a reason," I went on as Ilyan broke his contact with me to look from Ryland to the girl in question. "What her magic is doing is more powerful than any Drak magic I have seen, any Drak magic I have been told exists. Perhaps her magic is what Drak magic truly is. Perhaps it is what Sain has kept hidden all along."
"If you don't try, Ilyan, I will," Ryland spoke up from the foot of the bed, his voice shaking a bit. I was confident he was fighting with whatever demon still dwelled inside of him. "She's my best friend, and our father's blood is in me, as well."
The two brothers looked at each other, locked in a gaze I was positive was not built in competition for the first time, but in understanding. In support.
"No," Ilyan contested, his hands shaking as he pulled the burned one out from underneath Joclyn. "I will do anything to save her. I have already proven that time and time again, and this isn't so much saving her as unlocking her."
The moment Ilyan had spoken, there was only silence intermingled with the sobs of the girl and the shuffled noises of the boy.
No one could look anywhere other than at Ilyan as he pressed his hand to the nape of her neck, the burn on his hand connecting again to the mark on her skin with a jolt that, considering the way he moved, was filled with enough electricity to charge a city street.
He gasped at the contact, hissed at the power, and his eyes flew to mine in a request for guidance.
"Find the burn inside of you, Ilyan. Find the water. Follow it."
It was advice he would never want to hear. There was so much water in his body, burns and poison that had caused him agony for centuries, pain I knew he had fought against since the day the water first scarred his chest. And now I was telling him to follow it. Now I was telling him to feel it. Regardless, he didn't hesitate; he closed his eyes, gasping and hissing in agonizing pain as his body tensed, the arms stiffening around Joclyn as the agony became worse.
My muscles tight as I leaned forward, wishing there was a way I could be closer to them, connect with them, guide them through whatever was about to happen.
Nevertheless, I was trapped, watching as Ryland was. His hands were wrapped tightly around the old, iron footboard, leaning toward them with a look on his face that made it clear he had forgotten to breathe.
I didn't blame him.
Ilyan closed his eyes as the pain became too much, a yell breaking from his chest in a growl filled with the same agony, the same feral sound ripping through the space. I cringed against it, scared of what was about to happen when Joclyn's voice joined his. The tone of her pain matched his in perfect harmony. It was a song of a screams that ripped through the hot air, ripped through my heart.
And then Ilyan opened his eyes, ones as black as Joclyn's looking back at me. I saw them for one moment before a painful weight in my chest ran through me. An agonizing weight ripped around me like fire that absorbed me, fire that ruled me, fire that pulled me right into the same sight Joclyn had been trapped in, right into the same sight Ilyan now saw.
Right into the sight that had left me so long ago.
## 17
# Dramin
In one distressed gasp, the flames ran over me, drowning me in sights. The visions flashed before me with the speed of a strobe light: images of death, joy, war, and peace. There were images from hundreds of years ago and images I had seen yet had not come to fruition. I watched them all, my chest tightening with the realization of what I was looking at.
It was more than being in sight; it was seeing _all_ sights. I was seeing everything that had ever been given to me by the mud. It was a recall of extraordinary proportions.
As I watched, calmness took over, a peace I didn't think I had ever experienced before. Seeing all these amazing moments of my life, seeing my wife again, my children, I watched them, no doubt crying, about to burst with the strength of the emotion.
Then it was gone in a flash of white as hot and as powerful as the fire that had pulled me into that space and swallowed me whole.
My nerves jumped as though someone had stomped on me, my awareness tightening painfully at the amazing reality of what I was now surrounded by.
Yes, it was white. It was nothing, but it was more than that.
I was there, no longer sitting in a room with my sister and her mate, no longer broken and weak. I was there, among the nothing, the happiness of my sights still swirling through me.
"Hello." The feminine voice came out of nowhere, so familiar, but I could not place it. There was wisdom in it that did not seem to fit.
"Hello?" I asked, looking through the space in an attempt to find the owner yet facing only the bright white of the world.
"Your sights are beautiful," she said, the voice seeming to come from inside of me.
"Are they?" My confusion was melding into something closer to panic.
"Yes."
"Who are you?" I asked, still looking through the nothing, still trying to place the voice, still trying not to lose my calm.
"You know me," she said, her voice indicating a smile. "Everything will be all right, Dramin."
"Will it?"
"Yes," she said on a sigh, the joy in her voice fading away. The single word echoed hauntingly off the nothingness surrounding me. "It will hurt, but it will all be all right."
My shoulders jerked at the frightening admission, my legs moving quickly as I pushed myself to stand, my feet spinning, eyes searching, the tension in me growing as I began searching for her, searching for the answers I needed.
"What do you mean?" I gasped. "What are you talking about?"
"Your death." Her voice was monotone with sadness, the emotion so strong I fell back down to the floor, my heart as heavy as if someone had filled it with lead.
"It is coming, then?" I asked, shocked by the wave of sorrow the thought gave me. I had longed for it for so long, after all. I had seen it. I had expected it. Part of me had given up the moment I had stepped in front of Ryland.
"Yes," she whispered. Her voice was so close now I was positive that, if I turned, I would see her. However, I didn't even move. I stared at the palms of my hands, the color dark against the white. "Sooner than you think, but I need you to do something for me first."
"What?" I asked, the question surprising me as I looked up, still expecting to see her.
Instead, I came face-to-face with a little girl I had never seen before: blonde hair to her waist, green eyes, and a button nose that made her tiny self look even smaller. I was confident she couldn't be any more than seven.
"You must stop this child," the voice gasped as the little girl stood still, looking like a doll in a shop window.
Staring at the child, I waited for answers, not knowing who the mysterious girl was, part of me not wanting to find out.
"This child is coming to kill someone who is needed. You must stop that from happening."
"How can I stop an assassin if I can barely move?" I asked in desperation, watching the child vanish into the smoke of memory.
"You will fight. You will see." Her voice came from right behind me, her breath hot against my neck, and I turned, expecting the white space of the sight.
But the white was now occupied with a woman I knew well. Older, different, but the same.
Joclyn stood before me, wisdom in her eyes from hundreds of years that had come and gone without either of us seeing them.
"Hello, Uncle," she whispered. "Long time no see."
My eyes narrowed at the phrase, not understanding her meaning, not even understanding what was going on or why she was here. I opened my mouth to ask, but she smiled before her bright laugh echoed around me as she walked away, her hair flowing behind her in a long, black sheet, the golden ribbon wrapped around her ankle.
"When the child comes, you will know," she whispered before she was swallowed by the white, leaving me staring into the blanket of brilliance, the light wrapping around me so tightly it was all I saw. It was all there was until the screams came again. The discordant sound took over and pulled me out of the beautiful prescience I had missed so much and longed for so deeply since the magic had died inside of me.
I listened to the sound as I watched the sights play again, looking over everything that had happened in the fifteen hundred years of my existence until my own scream joined theirs. My own pain and anguish returned until the sight was gone, and I was left huddling on the floor, a panicked Ryland screaming for some form of assistance, and a few words embedded inside of me, whispering to my soul...
"I love you, Uncle."
## 18
# Ovailia
Wyn moved like she was possessed, her joints jerking in weird directions as her body relentlessly pushed her forward. I walked behind her at a safe distance, enjoying her struggle, enjoying seeing her reduced to such a pathetic mass.
I smiled wickedly, throwing my hair to the side as Wynifred stumbled over her own feet, her body lunging into the white stone building we were walking next to.
The crack of skull against stone resonated through the empty city, her head impacting into the wall before she slid down to the ground in a pathetic heap, a bright red streak following her.
"Oh, dear," I sighed, my voice dripping with false sympathy. "Are you okay? That looks like it hurts."
Her eyes swung toward me with all the wide-eyed horror I would expect from someone in this situation. The horrified glance was made all the more real by the fact that she had no other choice than to give in to me.
Her mouth opened wide, and for a brief moment, I thought she was going to scream again, but she simply stared, odd gurgling noises seeping from her throat.
"Pathetic." Chuckling acidly at the withered girl below me, I took another step forward, pressing the point of my high-heeled boot into her side with an aggressive swing, causing her eyes to grow wider. "I'm sorry. What was that? You say you are okay..." I dug deeper with my toe, watching her writhe as it pressed against the ridges of her rib cage.
Broken sobs leaked out with a pathetic growl from somewhere deep inside her chest.
"Don't you think we should get moving?"
Her mouth snapped shut in one quick movement, her teeth clicking together in a loud crack.
I smiled at the way my father was taking control, at the tears leaking from the sides of her eyes.
"Get up," I growled, the strength in my voice pounding against the stone and bouncing back to us with the strength of a hammer.
Wyn flinched at the sound, at the wave of my violent magic that rode on the back of my words, hitting her in the face with a heady warning that I could instantly tell she was going to ignore.
She didn't move. She shivered a bit, her body moving as if it was cold. I knew better, though, especially in this heat.
She was still fighting him, and at this point, I was losing my patience. I could feel it grind against my spine, my soul pleading with me to make her hurt.
And I could make it happen.
"Get up," I snapped, my voice even louder as my magic rushed from me, spinning around her and picking her up with an energy that lifted her off the ground.
The soft scream of fear seeped from her mouth as I slammed her against the wall repeatedly. The rag doll her body had become rattled against the hard stone with each abrasive impact.
Laughing, I watched her bounce, reveling in the soft sound of her cries, before dropping her again, her body collapsing in a twisted heap.
"Get up," I growled.
This time, she didn't wait, her pathetic sobs echoing disgustingly as she lifted herself.
Snarling, I turned away from her, my eyes darting down the street to the tall spires of the cathedral, long shadows clawing over us as the sun fully set.
"Come, Wynifred," I called behind me as the sound of her dragging steps moved closer. "We have a wedding to get back to."
I wish it was that simple: a job well done, a bonding, and the feast that would follow. However, once the sun went down, this place would become a labyrinth, and I wasn't foolish enough to "turn on a light" so to speak. A bright, yellow light in a black world would be nothing more than a death sentence. We needed to get back before that happened. I didn't want to deprive my father of his prize, after all.
Another feral growl and I turned back to the pathetic creature who leaned against the wall beside me. I could tell she was going to be more of a hindrance than I had thought. My patience was already gone.
With one swift movement, I pulled her hand out from where she had cradled it against her chest. The wrist was slick with the red blood that oozed out of the newly opened wound in her palm, the color even brighter in the light of the quickly fading day.
She gasped, the scream strangled as she attempted to pull away. However, I held on, malice spreading through my wide grin as I watched her fear grow into something beautiful.
My fingers pressed roughly against the blade protruding from her palm as her cries continued, my fingers twisting it farther into her hand, ripping the already ragged flesh apart.
Now she screamed as I clasped my hand, sticky with her blood, over her mouth, leaving just the sound of my deep laugh in the alley.
The blade had passed through the same place barely months before, but then, she had gone into a dream controlled by Cail. Then, it had been a walk in the park. Now, she was on her own, trapped in the mind of my father, trapped in his control.
"We should get moving," I tried to keep the light comfort in my voice, the heavy, candy-coated persuasion thick. It didn't matter; she knew what I was threatening.
With a strangled sob, she pushed herself up, body convulsing under the effort. Her good hand gripped against the wall, against the ground, and then reached for me as she tried to find a balance between the uncontrollable movements of her joints.
"Don't touch me," I snarled as I stepped away, letting her stumble into an upright position, as though she'd had one too many to drink. "Let's go."
Wyn's eyes glossed over, her body straightening as if someone had flipped a switch. Her movements, while still jagged, became a bit more fluid. She was giving in bit by bit.
As I followed her through another alley, the cathedral fell away from view before we emerged on a small side street that, for whatever reason, looked more untouched than the rest of them. There wasn't quite as much blood here, and the trash and debris had been moved aside into what looked like tiny, little piles, like someone was taking care of it, cleaning it. The idea was ridiculous, yet the cathedral was right there, towering over us.
"Zdechnout," I whispered as a poisoned Vilỳ flew toward me.
The tiny thing dropped to the ground with a thud.
Bright, beady eyes looked out on us from where they had hidden themselves throughout the wide street. My heart braced at the sight of the specks of color and light. I felt the fear momentarily before I smiled, stepping farther into the street and staring around at the monsters with glee.
Vilỳs used to be the smartest creatures among us, wise beings that would gratefully converse about philosophy for hours. Now they were vermin, tortured until their minds had broken. Now they couldn't even string two words together.
"Zdechnout," I said more loudly this time, laughing as the winged monsters retreated, hiding themselves in fear, leaving us standing alone in the middle of the street. Just one more hurdle until we reached our destination.
"Thhhh... Rrrrr..."
It took me a minute to realize Wyn was actually trying to say something and wasn't drowning in a pool of her own saliva.
Her tangled body faced the high tower, staring at something I couldn't quite see with a mixture of dread and excitement.
Her hand shook as it lifted, one jagged finger pointing to the high dividing wall that had been built sometime in the 1500s. But it wasn't the wall she was pointing at; it was the tower.
"What is it, little puppet?" I snapped, running my fingers through her hair as I moved around her, taunting her, watching the fear in her eyes increase as the reality of what was about to happen settled into her soul. "Don't worry; I won't hurt anyone. I'll be nice." I said the words with a smile, grabbing the jagged stone again and twisting it, a strange hissing noise dripping from her lips.
I didn't even try to stop the laugh that seeped from me at her pain. I glared at her, threatening her to try to defy me, while saliva mixed with her tears, and the will in her eyes slowly broke.
The musical tone of my phone broke through my laugh as I dropped her hand, and the Vilỳs around us perked to attention before shrinking back again in fear.
"Father," I gasped as I put the phone to my ear, my shoulders tensing for what could come.
"Where are you?"
"In a street, near the cathedral—"
"Can you see the bell tower?" he asked, interrupting me abruptly with his hasty question.
"Yes." My focus snapped to it, my eyes narrowing in instant curiosity. "We are right below it."
"Good." Even through the phone, the swirl of his devious voice wound through me pleasurably. "I'm not getting much; she is still trying to block me. But the secret is in the bell tower. Somewhere above it, some kind of white space."
"A white space?" I asked, thoroughly confused now.
I stared at the bell tower, trying to see it against the darkening sky. If I was supposed to find some magical white line, I had better hurry. In minutes, it would disappear along with the sun.
"Yes, it looks like it is a tear in whatever Ilyan created. You need to go through there." He didn't wait for confirmation; he merely hung up.
Wynifred's body jerked violently as he reconnected with her in an attempt to leech more information out of her.
"Don't worry," I soothed, patting her head like the dog she was before moving away from her. My eyes traced over the bell tower and the sky around it as I searched for the needle. "It will all be over soon, Wynifred. You are going to help me get inside this dratted fortress. Show me where they are keeping all those lovely _Chosen_. Help me give them a little gift, and then we can be on our way, back to your new mate. I am sure you are as excited to complete a bond with Edmund as I am to see it."
She screamed again with a wail of pain and fear.
Spinning to face her, my wide hand collided with her face in a loud thud that sent her spinning to the ground, the scream silenced into the low whimpers of her tears.
"Shut up!" I hissed as I kicked her away from me, causing her tears to increase with the new pain I was ripping through her. "Shut up!"
I expected her to cower, to move back into compliance, but her screams continued. The sound was loud as she pushed herself up like a dog before running along the asphalt with jerky motions that were both haunting and frightening as she moved away from me.
The eager anticipation of what was to come vanished into fear as I watched her move, as I sent a stream of magic toward her in an attempt to catch her.
But it was too late.
With one jump, her body was like a child's paper airplane: up and down, rolling awkwardly, as if she had been thrown off a cliff in reverse.
"Wynifred!" I screamed as my magic streamed after her, attack after attack missing as she tumbled through the air before disappearing into the white line I had missed before, the line I probably would have missed if it wasn't for Wyn's little escapade.
When my phone rang again, I answered it without hesitation, a smile quickly widening on my face.
"She went into the cathedral—"
"Without you?"
I cringed at the volume of my father's anger yet wouldn't let it deter me. She might be gone, but I wasn't far behind.
"Don't worry; I'll get her back. She showed me right where to go."
I could almost hear his smile through the airwaves. "Then go."
He didn't wait and neither did I. With one sharp click, the phones disconnected, and I took off into the air, soaring right for the white line Wynifred had disclosed to me, my shield tight as I pushed through the tiny opening and into an asylum that we never would have found otherwise.
If only I had been prepared for what that meant...
The second I came in contact with the barrier, it was as though I had been hit by a truck, flattened by the broadside of its heavy metal siding. I couldn't breathe. The strain was so great I wondered if it was nothing more than a stutter gone wrong.
I tried to gasp for breath, fear growing when it did not come. The weight increased until I was forced out to the other side like an egg, my body hurtling end over end toward the ground.
With a snap of fright, I checked my shield, verifying my body was shrouded, only to stare at the spinning world, the ground moving too close for me to truly be able to land safely.
In a rush of fear, my magic pulsed, sending me back into the air, my hair flying as I landed on the roof of the familiar bell tower in what I hoped to be silence, even though it was anything but graceful.
Thank goodness no one had seen.
Regretting my choice in shoes, I looked over the packed courtyard below me, hunting for any sign of Wyn yet knowing she would be long gone.
Men, women, and even a few children moved through the open square like ants, their movements disjointed, panicked even. Fingers were pointed toward the building that still gushed smoke from the massive hole in the roof, something I was sure was a recent addition.
It was pathetic. If one simple explosion could work them up to that level of hysteria, how could they even hope to master themselves during a war?
I didn't even try to restrain the laugh at the thought, the sound flowing over the open space like the bell of the tower I sat in. No one noticed; they only continued their dance.
Now I needed to keep it that way.
One jump and I soared down into the cavalcade, my wind gentle enough that, unless someone was really paying attention, they wouldn't even notice anything beyond a light breeze. Careful to keep my shoes silent this time, I straightened, the tense exhilaration of what was to come heightening through me. My sly smile would have easily given me away if anyone could see.
"I knew he was right. No one should act like that..."
"But if she can't even control her magic..."
"Did you hear what Ilyan...?"
"I saw the smoke. That was no ordinary magic."
Snippets of conversation bounced around me as I moved toward the place I had agreed to meet Sain. The frightened voices pulled me right into what had happened, right into the possibilities of what I had walked into. Listening to them, watching their mannerisms, it didn't take a fool to put things together. All Sain had said was that it was "something with Joclyn," but that something was a deranged interlude to much darker things.
Wonderful.
My soul danced at the news, a smile spreading over my face as I leaned against the wall, taking in as much information as I could, each word a vital clue toward my father's plan.
Suddenly, it was very clear I was going to take much more from this trip than the destruction of Ilyan's army.
In a way, I was sad I had missed whatever show Joclyn had put on.
Crazy Queen Joclyn.
That was the single downside to all of this.
Shaking my hair down my back with the thought, I lifted my chin with excitement just as Sain sidled up beside me so closely I was afraid he would run into me.
The fool.
"Watch where you step or lose your feet," I warned with a hiss, my voice clear even though I was still hidden from view.
Sain jumped at the warning, the motion slow and controlled, before he took a step away from me, toward one of Ilyan's men who was making a beeline for him.
"Stay close," he growled at me as he stepped toward the man, his demeanor changing so abruptly from what I had seen less than half an hour ago that I did a double take, staring at him in disbelief.
He stood tall, his eyes wide, his jaw set.
When he had stood before my father and me, he had been a weakling, a pathetic bug that wasn't even worth squishing. Right then, he was powerful, commanding. He was something I had never seen before.
My heart thumped painfully as I watched him, my magic stretching toward him in a type of needy hunger I had felt days ago when we had stood in the snow, and he had talked about Joclyn's disposability.
This was the same man, but not the one my father had seen.
I stared, trying to understand exactly who this man was and how deep whatever game he was playing went.
"Sain!" the man called as he reached him, his voice eager as several others turned toward the exchange. "The queen, is she all right? Have you heard anything?"
Sain shook his head as if he was about to deliver the news of a death, his eyes downcast, even though his shoulders still stayed straight and taut.
"It is the end; I'm afraid," he sighed, his voice breaking with what I was positive was feigned emotion. "I am going to be with her now. All that can be done is to pray to the Well of Imdalind that all will be well. Excuse me." Sain bowed gently to the now heartbroken man before he stepped to the side, his posture clear as he walked through the hordes like a god, the former sheep parting before him like waves in the Bible.
With a start, I realized I hadn't moved. I stood still, my heart thundering in my chest in disbelief, in what I was refusing to accept as awe. I moved then, my feet tapping loudly as I attempted to catch up to my charge, realizing for the first time how much power this man really held.
Huddles of people continued to call out to him, desperate for information, as we passed. Most of the time, he would wave them off, a few muddled replies passed back and forth on occasion.
"It takes strength to be a Drak. We can only pray now," he continued to say on repeat, the redundancy making it clear he was trying to get through them as quickly as possible. Otherwise, I was in no doubt we would be there all night. His pride wasn't something he had ever been able to hide, and I was realizing with a start that he wasn't holding back here.
Not anymore.
"Only those who are chosen can hold a Drak's power," he repeated.
The sentiment was grating on me. He had said the same words to me when we had been bonded.
If only he knew...
"Here," Sain announced as we turned the corner into a long hallway, the familiar vestibule the same as it had been hundreds of years before: brick and open casements, plain and simple. Monks quarters were never ornate. "The first three doors here."
Fortunately, it seemed everyone had congregated on the patio, so the hallway before us was barren and forgotten.
At least it would make my job easier.
With one flash of magic, I let my shield fall away, shimmering to the ground like some elegant gown, revealing my tall frame.
I was going to enjoy this.
"Where's Wyn?" Sain's voice was loud from behind me, the worry in it catching me off guard. It was so different from what I had seen in the courtyard a few minutes ago. His mask was back on, it seemed. Everything about him was starting to make sense.
I spun to meet him, my hair fanning out in a swirl of white. I always liked it when it did that. Sain liked it, too, judging from the way his eyes widened at it.
"Dear Wyn got away." The acidic honey dripped from my voice, burning away any romantic ideas he might have had. "Don't worry; we will find her as soon as we are finished here."
I smiled while he cowered, and with one click of my heels against stone, I moved toward the low voices filtering through the heavy doors. Their mumbles were filled with curiosity and worry.
We didn't hesitate. I didn't even look at Sain before we walked into the room, the large barracks I briefly remembered as a child now lined with beds and filthy people I was moments from killing.
I smiled at them as their eyes widened in shock and awe at our sudden appearance.
Men sat up a little straighter as they saw me, women straightening blankets and flattening tangles of hair. My smile grew at their insecurities, at how instantly they began to worship me.
Meeting their faces with a smile, I was ready to end each and every one of their lives. If the Black Water hadn't erupted within me. If the door hadn't slammed shut, trapping me in with Sain's scream, the agony matching my own as a sight embraced me—embraced us. The vision of the future, past, and present was so powerful I had no idea where it had come from or what was going on.
It was all I could do not to scream as an entourage of images barraged me, sending me to the ground in pain. My own scream echoed in my ears. Except, it wasn't just my scream. It wasn't just Sain's...
There was another.
One that was much clearer, one that was full of more pain and agony than either of ours. Even without seeing, I knew who it was because I knew who the sight was coming from, and I knew what had happened.
Joclyn's magic.
It was more powerful than I had ever assumed.
And she was taking us all down with her.
## 19
# Ovailia
My screams continued, loud and hollow in my ears as the sights came. One after another, they flashed with violent aggression, showing me things I had heard rumors of and I had heard my father speculate about. Things I had killed people over in an attempt to discover.
And now, I saw them all, flashing before me in strobes of color and light: burning images, voices screaming, pain ripping aggressively, as though I was being ripped limb from limb. As though someone was inside of me, digging around.
In a flash of red, the barrier over the city exploded into fragments of light and color. A second later, the vision shifted, revealing Edmund and Joclyn walking down a beach, laughing in a joy I could not understand. Then there was a scream, and Ryland stood before me, a child in his arms, while Sain laughed in the corner of a cave, madness clear in his eyes.
Flashes continued as I screamed.
Images lingered as I thrashed.
Pain gripped me as I tried to escape.
And then it was all gone.
The visions, the sounds, the pain.
It was all gone except for a blinding white light that surrounded me, leaving me standing in a white room. The makeshift hospital, Sain, the mission, the agony of my body—it was all forgotten.
I attempted to move, but I was too calm. Even my heart rate was regulated above the fear and anger that rampaged through me.
"Hello, Ovailia," a calm, female voice rang through the white that surrounded me as if it was inside of me. I was confident it was familiar, yet I couldn't place it.
Lurching at the sound, I tried to twist my trapped body in an attempt to see what was here, but I barely moved, and even what little movement I could force provided me with the same view—the same blinding, white light.
There was nothing save for white. No one save for myself.
"I'm surprised to see you here, but then, with who your father is, I am not so surprised."
"Hello?" My voice shook, the vibration of it so heavy it disgusted me. My lips curled as I attempted to move, finding myself even more restrained than before. "Who's there?"
"I am here."
I could have punched someone with the redundancy of the answer. "And who are you?"
"I am a Drak. You are not." The voice came without hesitation, but this time, it was heavy, angry, suffocating. It reminded me so much of the anger of my father, of the violence that would follow. I cringed against it, my spine curling together as I braced for whatever was coming.
"I am..." I started, not quite certain how to finish the sentence, the uncharacteristic fear making it hard to form thoughts.
"A Drak? Oh, no. You pretend to be, but you are not. You are not stable." The tempo of the voice increased, and I cringed more, hating how childlike and vulnerable I felt in this place, how something in the voice was bringing that out in me. "You would do well to fix that... before it ends you."
"Hello?" I asked again, genuine fear now shaking through me.
"I will not permit you this. You are not a Drak." With those last few words, the sight shifted, and the white world I had been trapped in fell away, sucked into a black void and replaced by a golden glow I didn't recognize, the same images I had seen before flashing again.
The pain rushed back as the sights began, as everything I had seen played before me. The same scream came from my mouth, the same pain wracking my body. Except, everything was playing in rewind, as though I was being forced to watch an old video on repeat.
Edmund and Joclyn walked backward over the beach. Blood rose from rocks like rain. The massive barrier snapped back around the city like a glove.
Watching them, the pain that raged through me swelled until the harsh reality of what was really happening was made clear.
The images were not only moving backward; they were being sucked from my mind. They were being drained from me, as if I had never seen them, drained from the world as if they never were.
The scream increased as the pain in my head did. Whatever was happening to me was turning me into a sniveling fool. Even when my father controlled me through the Black Water, the pain had never been this severe, this debilitating.
No matter how much I tried to fight it, nothing could take the weight off. Nothing could free me from the prison I was trapped in.
My mouth opened wider as the scream grew in octave, the sound more musical than it should have been for the amount of pain it represented.
I listened to the sound, vaguely aware of the beauty behind it until it began to change, to swell and condense into words.
Words I understood, even if I couldn't control them.
"The gift of future has been restored," I said, keenly aware I was not the only one talking. I could hear Sain's voice right alongside mine, which meant the sharp scream I was positive belonged to Joclyn was echoing the exact same thing. "The magic was spread too wide but has been returned. The son will rise, the son will fall, and all the blood will cease to flow. The time is now. It grows too late. Kill the fool before the slate. Love no longer seeks revenge. Your power has come to an end."
I cringed as it continued, a million hidden meanings seeping from behind my lips as my mind tried to make sense of the clues. However, the sights I knew would guide me were erased and untraceable.
The pain in my body lifted as my eyes snapped open to the barracks where I had collapsed. The voices of dozens of confused and frightened Chosen rumbled like bees, the smell of rosewood and antiseptic strong.
Glowering at the forest of bed legs before moving, I fought through the ache that rampaged my body, knowing I couldn't stay here if I wanted to finish my task.
Blonde hair falling down my back, I tried to look as elegant and frightening as I always did, but these people had no idea who I was. Even though they had reveled in me at my first appearance, they had just seen both Sain and I collapse to the ground.
That wasn't doing anyone any favors.
They all looked at me with the fear I had come to expect, but this wasn't based on the fear of death. It was based on the fear of confusion. I would have to change that.
I needed to take control of my one clear asset first.
The sharp clack of my heels echoed through the large room as I walked toward Sain who was still lying on the ground, curled into a ball like a despicable child.
"Get up," I growled, my foot moving swiftly as I rolled him over, the man flopping onto his back like a lifeless puppet. "You're pathetic."
"They know," he said, his voice dead as he looked at the ceiling.
"They know what?" I snapped, my lips curling as I watched him, waiting for something more, but he lay there, his eyes lifeless as he stared straight ahead. "What happened to the powerful man in the courtyard? You're pathetic." I spat,
His spine straightened a bit before I turned away from his pitiful display, unsurprised to see all eyes on me. I was going to have to play this a different way. I wasn't certain if I should be frightened or excited by the new game plan. Then again, it didn't matter. They had no idea what was coming.
Smiling sweetly, I took a few steps toward one of the girls closest to me. She was young, perhaps not any older than her mid-twenties. Her face was scarred and ravaged by my father's wonderful creations. The deep cuts hadn't even started to heal, thanks to the poison in them. It was something I knew was causing her great pain, but that was nothing compared to the pain I was about to show her.
"Hello," I said sweetly, careful to put as much honey in my voice as I could. I was convinced I had overdone it by the look of even further confusion the woman gave me. "Sorry about all that. It seems your queen summoned Sain and me into a sight. Her magic has been a bit out of control lately. It affects all Drak's when it does that."
"You're a Drak?"
"Who are you?"
"Is the queen okay?"
"What is happening?"
The questions came in a barrage, words crowding around me as I stood.
"I am one of the first," I said, the lie comfortable against my tongue. "I hold the Drak magic within me."
_I will not permit you this. You are not a Drak._ The voice ran through me, the same one from the sight, and I flinched, the smile slipping from my face as a fear I didn't quite comprehend seeped through me. My memory tried to pull at the sight in an attempt to understand, but it was long gone.
"You saw."
I jumped at the voice so deep that I spun in fear, my eyes wide as I came face-to-face with the same powerful man I had seen in the courtyard.
His eyes were hard, his jaw stiff, a power I had never felt before flowing off him. I felt it against my skin, warm and wanted. Sighing, I was lost for a minute in the strength of it, in the strength of him.
"You saw the sight," he repeated, the strength in his voice growing.
"Yes." It was the only word I could get out, but it was enough.
His eyes narrowed slightly before he smiled. The grin was wide and beautiful. "Perfect," he gasped, his joy confusing me. "You'll work perfectly."
"Sain?" I asked as he stepped away from me to face the confused people who were still intently focused on us.
"Is she a Drak, Sain? I thought you were the only one of the first?"
"No, but she is special." The once again pious man walked through the beds like a god. "Ilyan sent her to help you. She has found something that can cure you even faster, help your magic grow."
My grin spread wider as the woman closest to us recognized our presence for the sinister warning it was.
"How?" she asked, the admonition in her voice evident.
"Sain, darling."
His back straightened even more as the room of confused Chosen looked between us. My magic continued to move toward him, the memory of the man I was bonded to so strong I was starting to have trouble breathing.
"Yes, my Ovi." He said, using the nickname that, for the first time in centuries, made me melt in an oddly pleasurable way.
He stepped close to me, closer than he had since the night of our bonding, and even though his hands did not move to touch me, his distance still secure, our magic had completely wrapped around one another in a fusion of power that was dancing a very dangerous tango.
"Am I of your kind?"
"You are part of me," he whispered.
I hadn't expected that.
"We need to leave," he hissed, his strong voice low enough I was positive only I had heard him. "Every Drak was pulled into that sight. They know what I've done."
"What have you done?" I asked, a small spark of elation twisting through me, the danger that surrounded us making it grow.
"You will know soon enough." He smiled. "You are going to help me."
Reaching forward, his hand gripped mine, his magic flooding me in a warm bath I couldn't help sighing from. It was a sigh that did not go unnoticed.
"I have to leave here."
"Leave?" The elation drained from my body as my agitation skyrocketed.
"Yes. Now."
"I will leave when my job is done," I corrected him, dropping his hand from mine in anger. "Your place is here."
"Not anymore, Ovi, and if you and your father want use of my sight, we are both getting out of here _now_."
He had barely finished speaking before his eyes plunged to the color of sight I had seen so many times before, sight I had always been told was only possible with Black Water, and yet, he stood before me, a mug or pitcher nowhere to be found.
Something serious was going on, and I had no idea what, which agitated me more.
Straightening my shoulders, I turned from the man, seeing the invalids' faces still full of a barrage of emotions. So far, with the exception of the girl who lay right below me, fear and distrust were not among them.
Perfect. It would make my job easier.
A wicked smile spread over my face as I turned back to Sain, whose eyes were back to their deep green.
"Your plan will work. Wynifred is gone to us. We must move."
I didn't need to ask how he knew what I was planning, how he knew my concern over the loose end I had released inside of Ilyan's confines. I had seen the black of his eyes, and if he said I would succeed, then I would not doubt it.
My smile stretched.
"Wait for me outside," I instructed.
His own disreputable smile matched mine before he swept from my side, departing through the solid door without a second glance, leaving me to wonder, once again, exactly who he was.
I watched the door close before turning back to the scatter of people whose eyes were still focused on me, although fear had begun to take the place of curiosity.
Not that it mattered, anyway. In no more than a few short minutes, all anyone would hear was their screams.
## 20
# Wyn
"Mommy."
I knew that voice. I knew the joy behind it, the calm. I knew the excitement and the way it was just about to laugh.
I had heard it so much in my life that I could not forget it.
I had heard it enough in the last few months, too. Then, it was different. Then, it was frightened and haunted. Then, it was smeared with blood.
This was not that.
This was beautiful.
"Mommy?" It came again, like she was calling to me— _to me_. Wherever I was, whoever I was.
I was having trouble keeping track of it. Despite knowing the voice, everything else was foreign and confusing.
I had been here before, I realized. I had been in this white, shapeless space. I had been in this place where my body was nothing and everything.
How had I gotten here?
The last thing I remembered was the city and running away from the cathedral in an attempt to save my friend, to save myself, to save my daughter. I remembered the dimming light of the sun, a strange pull taking over me. I remembered Edmund's greasy smile as I walked toward him, unable to control it, unable to stop. The shard in my pocket, the thing I had left the safety of Ilyan's cage for, had betrayed me.
It was more than that, though.
It was the sound of my scream that reverberated through my ears, the painful pressure of a stab in the center of my hand. It was seeing his smile, feeling his hands on my body, knowing I no longer controlled it.
I no longer controlled anything.
Until this moment, when that voice—the calm, beautiful voice of my daughter—pulled me out of the painful prison and into this void, this familiar space of nothing and everything, of nobody and everyone. I was floating amongst it, part of it. It was strangely calming.
"Mommy?" The voice came again, eagerness I didn't recognize pulling through it. "I think she can hear me this time!"
A garbled voice I couldn't quite make out cut through the fog in answer, the sounds oddly distorted as they ran over me.
"Okay," Rosaline's little voice squeaked. "Mommy, open your eyes. I'm here."
Eyes.
I didn't have eyes. I was nothing, the same as when I had felt this before with Ryland and Sain...
Like a battering ram, it hit me—the memory of that moment, of Sain telling me to find my body, of promising I really existed, that this comforting mist of nothing wasn't me.
I wasn't me.
But that voice...
That beautiful voice...
It was real.
And if I was real, if this was real...
I opened my eyes.
I opened my eyes to the dark grey stare of my daughter, to her little, upturned nose, to the dimple that sprouted on the right side of her face when she smiled, to the curtain of dark hair that fell around her cherub face.
She looked at me with this amazed shock, with so much happiness flowing through her that the last memory I had of her meant nothing, and this happy, little girl, this girl with the dark eyes so expressive they took your breath away, was all there ever was. Everything else was a cruel nightmare.
"Rosaline?" The single word broke away from my shock, soaring from behind the mind-numbing disbelief that had filled me.
"Mommy!" she screamed with tears running down her face, long streams of salt water that ran over my cheek and pooled in my hair as she fell on top of me. The lanky strings of her arms wrapped around me in a familiar embrace I had never thought I would feel again.
"Rosaline!"
I couldn't think beyond the numbing happiness that had overtaken my body, the way my heart swelled and throbbed and ached and screamed, and every emotion and every fear and every impossibility flew out of me like a thousand blood-soaked birds. They were stripped from my bones and ripped from my soul.
The guilt of failing my daughter, the fear of never seeing her again. The pain of loss. The agony of a love never returned.
It all fell away.
She was right there, in my arms.
And none of those things mattered anymore.
"Rosy," I sobbed. "My darling girl." I wasn't even convinced the words were distinguishable from my cries. Neither of us cared.
Rosaline sobbed harder, pressing her face into my neck in the burrowing motion that was so her. "I'm so glad you can see me this time!"
"This time?"
"Yes, when you were here before... I tried... You couldn't see... But now you are here!" She pulled away then, smiling through her tears with the same joyful light I had always loved.
I fought the need to pull her back into me. The elated weight in my heart was so unfamiliar I didn't know how to handle it. It was going to explode out of me. In some ways, I wouldn't have stopped it. That way, Rosy could feel it, too. Looking in her eyes, I was positive she already could.
She smiled bigger, her little hand pressing against my cheek as she leaned into me, kissing me on the nose as she always had. The memories mixed with reality so thoroughly I couldn't help it; I had to ask.
"Is this real?"
Rosy's face fell, her brow furrowing as she pursed her lip in the five-year-old pout I had seen millions of other children do before and after her. My soul soared from watching it line her face.
"That's a difficult question." The reply came from beside me, the adult, masculine voice even more familiar to me than that of the child who was sitting on my lap. After all, his held centuries of familiarity, centuries of time together before everything had shifted. Then, after Rosy, after me, it had changed, and he had never been the same.
Yet here, sitting beside me, he was the same.
"Cail." It was more of a gasp than a word.
"Hey, sis." He smiled, moving from where he stood in the oddly distorted forest to sit beside us, leaves crunching, twigs snapping at his movement. "It's been a while."
He sounded so much like the man I had grown up with, the foolhardy and mischievous best friend who had practically raised me. There was enough pride in him to snap anyone to attention, but so much love and compassion hidden away.
The anger in his eyes that I had seen for so long was gone. The twisted smile melted back into the impish scowl he had always reserved for me.
"Cail," I said again, fully aware I was caught on repeat. My eyes flashed between him and Rosy, the latter's smile increasing with each glance, her tiny thumb continuing to play circles over my cheek.
"Wynifred," Cail said with a laugh, picking up a twig from the ground before him, the mutilated thing vanishing into thick tendrils of smoke at his touch.
"Am I dead?" I asked, unabashed, the solitary logical answer falling into place with a jolt of adrenaline.
Normally, the thought would bring fear, but there, surrounded by my family, it didn't seem like such a bad ending.
Cail smiled, however, his head pulling into a small nod. "No."
"Then how...?"
"You were here before with Sain and Ryland..." He didn't even finish the thought; he let it hang while my brain spun in circles around it as Rosaline leaned into my chest, wrapping her body around me like a little monkey. "We were here, too."
"The blade." My voice was hollow and monotone, a weird emptiness opening through my chest.
The calm smile he'd had faded into one of fear and anger, the sharp lines of his face reminiscent recoiling through me, reminding me of the person he had been for the past three hundred years.
"Yes." His voice was as hard as the look that had overtaken him.
"I'm inside of the blade again."
"Well, your soul is, yes," Cail provided, his voice still a harsh line of pain. "Your body is another story."
My body.
My body that was being forced to walk toward Edmund, the man who had sought control of my magic since the day the fire awakened. The man and his terrible daughter who had looked at me with eager grins, who didn't even flinch when I screamed. They smiled, exactly as they always had: twisted, vile, malevolent.
I didn't need any other explanation.
I knew.
I knew because I had seen Ryland under the same kind of control, seen him turned into a puppet, controlled by the same piece of blade that had brought me here last time, the same piece I had pulled from Ryland's heart. The same blade sitting in my pocket.
And Sain knew.
He had seen where I had gotten the blade. He had told me to run, and I had trusted him, but I had seen him standing in that street, right by Edmund with that same haunting, out-of-place smile as before.
I should have known better. He was working for Edmund...
"What is he doing?" I asked, uncertain if I was referring to Sain or to Edmund—not that it mattered anymore.
"Walking around the cathedral, trying to make you show him the way inside." It was Rosy who answered, her body not so much as moving from where she lay against me. However, her voice had lost all of the excitement, dragging in a kind of exhaustion that sent the mother in me into high alert.
"Rosy?" I asked, but she didn't so much as move.
"She's fighting his control," Cail supplied, his voice awed as he leaned over to me, his hand soft as he ran his hand over the crown of her head. "She's disrupting his connection."
I looked between the two of them in confusion when a sharp pain shot through my hand. I gasped at it, lifting the culprit to eye-level, expecting to see some kind of bug or snake, but there was nothing there, not even blood, something I was sure I would feel running over my palm, over my arm.
"You can feel it, can't you? Where the blade is?" Cail asked as he snapped another twig into smoke.
I nodded, confusion still rampaging over what exactly I was going through.
"That's how he controlled Ryland. You know this. I was the one who impaled you with the blade the first time, after all." Another snap of a twig, his fists tight around the two pieces in his hand. I didn't need to look at his face, at the way his brow furrowed, to see his temper rising.
Hundreds of years ago, I would have calmed him. I would have shielded his heart. Right then, I sat, not convinced of what I was looking at or even which Cail I was dealing with.
The thought slapped me in the chest, the similarities painful. He had broken his mind when he bound the curse, just as mine was bound. Each of us, essentially two different people trapped inside a whole, every part fighting for space.
Even Rosy, in a way, was shattered into many: a child, a woman, an immortal trapped in a forever, having to live with what had been done to her.
My hold on her tightened again at the thought, but this time, she grunted, the stress finally getting to her.
"So he's controlling me the same way."
"Well..." Cail answered, a small smile playing around his lips, all sign of his agony lifting, "he can try. As we said, Rosy is very good at stopping him. He is not a fan of her."
"It's my soul," she answered, her voice the same exhausted sigh as before. "He used my soul to make the blade. It's all of me. Everyone else is part of me—my soul, my blood. He can control it because he is my grandfather, because a tiny part of him is here, too. But I can stop him. Stop him from hurting my family—Uncle Cail, Uncle Ryland, Aunt Joclyn. All but Sain. Sain controls me. I don't like him here. That's why I couldn't see you before. But now you are here!" she finished happily before she collapsed on me again, her weight comforting against me.
"Now I am here," I whispered, the palm of my hand running over the crown of her head with a comforting weight that even she seemed to respond to. I was kind of enjoying having her against me, enjoying the ability to run my fingers through her hair. To smell her.
"Where did you find the blade?" Cail asked after a moment, his voice tender as he pulled me away from the partial nirvana I had found.
"Inside of Ryland," I whispered, my heart tensing with the fear that inhibited the memory. "I could hear Rosy call for me."
"So one of the five..." He sounded like he was talking to himself.
"Five?" I asked, not following what he was saying.
"Yes." His dark eyes pierced mine as I met his gaze, the intensity of them frightening me for a moment.
I inhaled sharply out of habit, glad when his lip twitched enough to remind me of the brother I knew and loved.
"I'm assuming you want to release us," he finally said, his calm voice putting words to my unanswered questions.
"Well, that's the plan, yes."
"Then you will need all of the fragments of the Souls Blade. You have to put it back together."
"You sound like you are sending me on some epic video game quest." I could barely keep the laugh in.
He couldn't.
"Maybe I am." His deep chuckle bounced around the smoke trees that surrounded us, sending the distorted trunks into some kind of belly dance.
"Well, if that's the case, I am going to need a better weapon. Maybe I can find one in a cave that's guarded by a dragon."
"He's inside," Rosy whispered from where she lay on top of me, her tiny proclamation pulling me out of my musing. "I'm trying to find Ilyan or Ryland so they can help."
"How long do we have?" Cail asked, his body rising above us as the trees distorted and swayed with the movement.
The mood of our casual family soul picnic was shattered by the sharp reality. Not that it had really gone anywhere, but it was definitely pressing against me painfully now.
I tried to keep my fear inside, but it wasn't working. Rosy was tensing, her heart thundering against mine, her tiny fingers gripping my clothes in obvious fear that I would have to go. That was exactly what was about to happen.
"Where are the blades? Where are the other pieces?" I asked, my heart fracturing with the knowledge of what was about to happen.
"You have Ryland's. The other ones I know of are inside Ovailia and Sain. There used to be one in me, but I have no idea what he would have done with it. And there is another that went missing about the same time you and Thom left that compound. So if you don't know where it is..." He faded off, obviously not wanting to say anything in front of Rosy, not that I blamed him. But it also wasn't like I could go up and ask Thom if he knew where a shard of our daughter's soul was.
I had to find another way.
I nodded in understanding, trying to ignore the pain steadily building in my chest, when Rosy screamed, her tiny body lifting off mine for the first time to look at me, her eyes mad and horrified.
"Rosaline?" I asked, too scared to hear the answer.
"You have to fight him, too, now, Mommy. You have to go."
They were simple words, but they cut through me. I had known from the beginning I couldn't stay there with them, so I wasn't sure why hearing it repeated back to me was so painful. Why I was fighting against it.
"But I—"
"You have to go," she sobbed, her eyes glistening with so many tears she probably couldn't see through them. "You have to save Daddy." Her voice was heavy, the dead panic resonating loudly.
I could barely breathe.
Daddy.
"Thom?" I asked, pushing the long strands of hair out of her face. "What's wrong, darling?"
Rosaline bit her lip as she looked at me, her eyes wide in a greater fear than I had ever seen. It reminded me so much of those last moments that I gasped, a sharp pain rocking through my chest as I fought back the horror, fought back the scream, and braced myself for the plea of help that would come from her blood-soaked body.
But it was just my little girl, my child wrapped in my arms, my child as innocent as Thom and I had tried to keep her until the end.
"Honey," I tried again, "what's wrong with Daddy?"
"Grandpa is trying to make you kill him," she gasped, her eyes refocusing on me. "You have to save him. You have to go."
I looked from her to Cail in confusion. For once, Cail looked as confused as I was. However, he wasn't looking at me; he was looking at her, the little girl who clung to me, her hands wrapped around my arms so tightly she was most likely going to leave marks.
"Can you get her out of here?" Cail asked, his seemingly complicated question directed to the tiny child I held. "Will he stop you?"
"He can try," she said, her face turning up in the same mischievous grin Cail always had. I had forgotten how much she had always adored and idolized him until that moment. "No one can stop me anymore." She smiled at him, a defiance I had never seen in her sparking behind her eyes. It was a look I had seen a million times before, but not in her or Cail. I had seen it in me. It was something that even my brother did not miss.
"She is your daughter, Wyn."
"I know." I didn't think I could get any more than those two delighted words out.
Rosy looked back at me, the power in her eyes mounting as she pressed her hand to my cheek, her lips soft as she kissed my nose again.
"You won't be able to come back here. I'll keep fighting him, but you have to fight now, too. Just remember what's real." It seemed like such an adult thing to say, and it caught me off guard.
I looked from her to Cail in some hope of answer, but neither said a word. They looked at me with a combination of fear and support.
"I love you, Mommy."
"I love you, too, darling."
"Say hello to Daddy for me."
And then she was gone.
The calm of the forest was gone. The comfort of her touch was gone. The companionship of my brother was gone. And I was left staring at the same war torn world as before, when I had walked toward Edmund without control. Except, I couldn't see straight, everything shifting. Everything faded in and out of focus as though they were bathed in a heavy curtain of smoke.
I was surrounded by it, surrounded by this uncomfortable heaviness that made it hard to think. Everything fluctuated before me as though I had drunk far too much Slivovica. It was too much.
It was darkness and confusion and a screaming that never stopped.
I didn't know where it was coming from or why. For all I knew, it was coming from me, that the haunting, somewhat musical, sounds of terror were mine.
The disorientation of that was terrifying.
I tried to focus, tried to make sense of it as my shifting vision turned to a door I knew all too well, a door that swung open to reveal a man I had hovered over for month, a man I had been forced to watch slowly die.
"You have to save Daddy!" her shout echoed through me as if she was standing right beside me, something I couldn't completely discount. "Fight him!"
The walls shivered as I took a step forward, my motions uncontrolled, the forceful movements jutting through me as my hand rose toward Thom.
"You have to save Daddy!"
_No!_
The word was a tiny spark inside my head as the magic grew, the powerful heat of it triggering a knowledge and a control that surprised me. My magic, my soul, they were connected.
I felt the power grow as my consciousness did, raging through me as the black void flashed before me. The spot of black was gone before the room came again, the walls and surroundings vibrating so badly that, for all I knew, the earth had begun to shake, the earth had turned to liquid.
_No!_
The call was a shout inside my mind, a determination to keep fighting. It was then that I realized the desperate call was not mine, but that of another. One who was very quickly losing control.
Edmund.
_No!_ It came again.
This time, I laughed.
I laughed as the shaking surrounded me, as the world came into focus, as I ran from Thom, everything drifting from black to grey until there was only black.
## 21
# Ilyan
The burn was more than I could fathom.
I had spent the last thousand years avoiding this never-ending pain, since the night the black water had licked against my chest, creating long, red lashes that never healed. The pain had gotten worse with each burn, with each drop the black water had littered against my body. The palm I had burned getting the water into Joclyn in a moment of life or death, the welt on my arm from trying to save her, each one had branded me. Now they burned with a deeper agony than I had ever felt, an acute pain that was ripping me apart as I willingly followed it, as I let it devour me.
I followed the burn as I held Joclyn against me, her panic moving through me, her heart beating against mine. A burning force spread to every inch of me, tensing my muscles, tightening in my stomach. It grew until all I could feel was the heat that had encompassed my body, the intensity of it not just mine, but hers, as well.
The pain was us.
The magic was us.
It was everywhere.
I couldn't stop screaming. I couldn't escape it.
And then it was gone.
Gone in one numbing blast, leaving me with the shadow of the Black Water and the familiar warmth of Joclyn's magic against my soul.
There was nothing else. No screams. No panic from my brother. I couldn't even physically feel Joclyn where I held her against me.
Heart thundering in my chest, I opened my eyes, expecting to see the calm silver of hers, expecting this nightmare she had been trapped in for the last few hours to be gone, for everything to be okay.
However, she wasn't there. Nothing was there, nothing except a different nightmare, one I hadn't expected and couldn't understand.
I wasn't even sure where I was.
I was surrounded by white, my consciousness thrust into a void, a rip in time where nothing existed except me.
Everything intensified in unrequited panic as I spun on the spot, desperate to find her, to find anything that would clue me in to what had happened. Nothing was there.
Simply air and space.
"Joclyn!" I yelled, dread growing as I searched for my mate. My magic stretched away from me in a frantic need to find her, my hands grasping through the white space before me as though her sleeping body would be hidden beyond what I could see.
Nothing.
"Joclyn!"
No answer.
Thinking from beginning to end over everything that had happened, my mind ran on overdrive as my heart thundered in my ears, the sound slowing down as it faded to a low buzzing that echoed around me like a hive of bees.
"Joclyn?" I said again as her magic filled me, the slow burn so familiar my agitation calmed with the knowledge she was there. She was close.
"Joclyn?" I called again, trying to follow the pull of her magic, trying to find her. Still, nothing. Nothing to follow, just the familiar heat of her, the usual pull coming from somewhere deep inside of me. The immense wall of her power was so strong I couldn't even feel my own anymore.
She was all there was.
"Joclyn," I gasped as I collapsed to the ground, the demands of her magic so intense I was certain I would be strangled by it.
"Hello." A child's voice blossomed out of the white nothing like a gentle lullaby, jolting me out of my alarm as the weight of Joclyn's magic restrained me.
"Joclyn?" I asked hesitantly even though I knew it wasn't her. It wasn't her voice, yet I knew it was familiar.
"Hello." The warmth of Joclyn's magic pulled at me as the child spoke, an unfamiliar heat moving alongside it, moving through it like a shadow.
"Hello?" I looked up, hoping to see the child or some other creature standing before me. But there was nothing.
"Hello."
With a start, I realized the voice was seeping through me from the unfamiliar magic I had felt a moment before, a magic so close to Joclyn's I couldn't tell the difference. The two powers spiraled throughout me as if they were somehow connected.
"Who is there?" I asked, my focus more on the magic as it enveloped me, paying attention to the way it moved, searching for clues as to who was talking or even what was happening.
"I'm here," the little girl said with a laugh, the sound similar to Christmas bells.
"And where is here?" I was tense, the fear and uncertainty coming back, despite the fact I could still feel Joclyn's magic calming me.
The lack of control and understanding I was experiencing made the emotions worse. I had been in situations of life or death before. I had been moments away from death. But even in those traumatizing moments, I still had control over my life. I could choose to live, choose to die, choose to fight, choose to give in.
Here, I had none of those options.
I could only focus on trying to figure out what had happened, on where I was.
My gut was telling me that, by following the water into Joclyn's power, this was a sight, but I had seen her sights before, and they were not like this. I had connected with her mind before, and it was not like this.
"You know where you are," the voice came again with a laugh, the childlike game winding up my spine in agitation. "You were just thinking about it."
I cringed at the intonation, and Joclyn's magic flared within me at what was said, her own fear increasing alongside mine.
"You can hear...?" It wasn't possible. Only Joclyn could tap into my mind, and then it was because of the way our souls had fused. This voice, however, was not hers. "Joclyn?" I spun on the spot, searching from end to end of the void to find who was speaking and understand what was going on.
"Joclyn!" I knew she had to be there because I could feel her magic. I could feel it swell as I said her name, the warmth of it seeping into my bones, wrapping around me in snakes of a comforting weight.
I gasped at the intimate touch, my eyes closing as my heart rate pulsed in excitement, each throb promising me she was right there, so close I could feel her skin against mine.
Opening my eyes, I expected the lights that were so common for us to appear among the void of white, but there was nothing. Just a powerful sensation that she was right there, standing beside me, my magic pulling me toward her.
"I am not Joclyn, but I know her very well."
"How do you know her?" I asked, the simple phrase not making any sense. "Where is she? May I see her?" I kept my voice low as I continued to look into the nothing, my heart rate accelerating even as I tried to keep myself calm, to speak to this mysterious thing as I would a child. Regardless, something deep inside whispered to me that whatever I was facing was not the child they were masquerading as.
"No. She is not here anymore. I took her somewhere else."
"Where?" With a start of fear, the word erupted in long, hollow sounds stretching away from me.
I cringed, tensing as that strange magic increased inside me, the waves of it moving through me, blending with Joclyn's as the sound of the laugh deepened, heightened.
"She loved you very much, you know." All signs of the game she had been playing were lost in the heaviness of her voice, the sound of the echoed laugh running over it.
"Loved?" Fear and anger erupted with the single word as the laugh continued to resonate, as if someone had bumped a gramophone, the sound coming again and again.
I could feel my temper rise to dangerous levels, my anger increasing until Joclyn's magic swelled again. The warmth of it wrapped around me so tightly it was all I could focus on, and the weight of my anger seeped away with it, the sound of the laugh fading to shadows until it was just me and the heavy familiarity of Joclyn's magic pulling at my mind and soul.
The weight of her pressed against my chest, lying over my arms. Just as she was in the world I had come from, before I had been pulled into this place.
I stopped. The knot in my stomach spun abruptly at the revelation that was whipping me around. I had dismissed it so easily before, but there was nothing else...
"You are thinking about it again," the child chastised. My mind focused back on that room, on the girl I held. "About where you are, about what this is. Have you figured it out yet?"
"This is a sight."
She laughed at my revelation, the joyful sound making it clear I was right.
"Yes." The laugh dripped off her voice. "This is where sights live, where they are created. This is a sight before it is seen, when it is full of possibilities and futures. This is the very base of Drak magic. This is where everything begins and ends."
"But there is nothing here," I gasped, knowing how ridiculous it sounded. I knew magic better than any. But this... This did not feel like magic. I felt no power. I felt no strength. It was only the empty space of my mind.
"Yes. Would you like to see your beginning or ending?"
I didn't even have a chance to respond before her laugh rebounded, the sound loud and haunting. The white void I was trapped in shifted and spun as I watched, my mind aching with the change, with the force and power of the magic I was being subjected to.
With wide eyes, I watched the white meld into vibrant colors and shapes. My heart tensed at what I was about to see before the image landed on a room I knew all too well.
My parents' bedroom.
"Your beginning first, I think," the child's voice whispered, her voice mellow as the mysterious magic within me spread. The light, joyful nature of it seeped away my fear as I looked in on a room I had been in thousands of times before.
It was my own space within Imdalind now, but it hadn't looked like this for centuries. The wide bed took up much of the massive room, ancient furnishings cluttering the space. It was in this room that I had held Ovailia for the first time—her, a tiny infant; me, an adult.
Shocked, I looked as my mother lay in that same bed. Her blonde hair was wound in a long braid, the golden ribbon woven through the intricate weave. The length flowed over the bed, wrapped with my father's, the délka vedení královsk intertwined. Just as they did with Joclyn and me, I realized with a start.
My father sat nestled against my mother, his dark hair longer, his face softer, his eyes smiling. I didn't think I had ever seen so much joy in his eyes. I didn't think I had ever seen my mother so happy as I did right then, as they sat in that bed, holding an infant in their arms.
I watched the scene before me, watched the father of my childhood memories. I had almost forgotten that smile, forgotten the way his eyes lit up when he smiled. I had forgotten how he used to love, that he used to know how.
"Give him the stone, darling," my mother whispered.
Father smiled at her before he kissed her, the longing apparent as she laughed, before pulling away with the same joy in his eyes.
Smiling, he placed a small, white stone against the hand of the child. The tiny, white bead turned a violent shade of blue the second it made contact with my skin.
My parents looked at the transition in awe. Mother gasped before she laughed while Father's smile expanded in awe.
The tiny birthstones usually took time to change, took time to connect with the infantile magic, time to pull it to that one spot. This time, it was instantaneous.
"You began there," the voice came again as the image of my parents faded back to the void.
My head spun with the strength of Joclyn's magic, the force of it like a confirmation.
"So this is what she is? It's amazing. _She's_ amazing." Awe dripped from me at the remarkable reality I was facing, the void seeming to be more than the empty nothing I had taken it to be. "How am I seeing this?"
"You hold the water in your body, more than any other who does not bear my blood. You have been burned for the one who speaks to your soul, for the one who came to change it all. You have survived its pain and bonded yourself to the one the mud has chosen to guide my kind. You are powerful, Ilyan Krul. I will allow you to see." The childlike quality of the voice had deepened. The laugh that lived behind the words shifted to a darkness that wound through me, becoming an aged wisdom it hadn't portrayed before.
I spun on the spot, searching again for the owner. Still, there was nothing.
"So I am Drak now?" I questioned, the words feeling heavy and impossible. My mind still moved over what I was surrounded by in a wave, a desperation to understand gripping me.
"I have shown you your beginning, but it is no more than part of the story, you know. So much of what you have seen has been broken by one who should not be among us. You wish to see sight? You wish to know? I will show you what is true. I will show you what you should have seen. It all ends _before_ it begins."
The deep rumble of her voice intensified as the magic did, melding with Joclyn's so perfectly they seemed to be one. My magic pulled at me as if they were.
"Joclyn?" I asked the space, my voice hollow as her magic responded, as the voice continued to meld into one I knew all too well. One I loved.
"This is sight."
I turned at Joclyn's voice, expecting to see her behind me, panicked of what I would face and unprepared for what came, instead.
For what I was plunged into.
## 22
# Ilyan
Without the slightest warning, I was plunged back into the maelstrom of light and sound. My head spun violently as my magic swelled, Joclyn's right alongside it. With a twist of my stomach, the flashing prison filled with images that moved so fast I could barely focus on them. I knew that, with each image, with each flash of past and future, what I saw would be permanently imbedded into me, stored within my memory.
With a jolt of fear, Sain screamed in my mind, a young Dramin cowering below him, as the man held the boy against the wall of an alley.
A flash filtered the image to that of Edmund standing over Ovailia as he cut down her back, the flesh ripping open as she screamed and begged for mercy.
Wyn disrupted the scene, the girl barely a child as she sat, playing a game of marbles, simply to erupt in anger, her rage engulfing her in flames. Massive balls of fire soared around her before submerging her body, her skin burning away from the bone and creating something darker than I had ever assumed her to hide within her.
Her screams lingered in my ears as the image shifted to the French countryside where Joclyn walked by the house I had built for her so long ago. Her hair blew in the wind as she looked out at the waves, tears streaming down her cheeks.
My heart rate intensified at the image of my beautiful mate, alone, before it faded to me as an adult, teaching my brother Markus the traditional marriage braid. His smile was wide at his fortune, at being safe from our father, at what the following night would hold for him. That precious image shifted to his murder days later, that heartbreaking moment a flash of color in my mind. The haunting echo of Edmund's laugh rippled through me before I was plunged into the belly of Imdalind, into the tunnels I had blocked many years before, right to the deep wells of the earth.
Sain, my grandmother, the first of the Trpaslíks, and the first of the Vilỳ gasped for air at the side of the wide well of Imdalind. The Vilỳ wriggled as it coughed and sputtered for air, its bright blue wings unfurling from the sticky muck like a hatchling. With a scream, its sphinx-like face twisted as it awakened from whatever life it knew before.
One after another, they came, images of past, present, and future wound together so tightly my head swelled with the information, with the emotion carried on the back of them. I could barely process, could barely think. The throbbing ache amplified before the calm voice of the child came again, the voice high and haunting as it cut into the images bombarding me.
"This is sight as Joclyn knows it."
Joclyn's magic wound around my soul as the visions continued to slow. Like slides in a movie, they came and left, slowing until I was staring at myself from a time long before.
"This is sight," Joclyn's voice filled me, her magic pressing against me as I searched for her, unable to see anything except what the vision was showing me. "This is true."
Everything moved in overdrive, my soul frozen in fear as I watched myself walk down the main hall in the middle of Imdalind, right to the first pool of sight that the Draks had used for centuries.
It was the exact scene from hundreds of years before: Sain surrounded by Draks, their bodies still as they stood, enveloped in capes. He walked around the pool to greet me, everything silent as he spoke at a speed I could not comprehend, leaving the 'me' of the past alone by the pool's edge as I stripped off my shirt. Water rose up before me like a pillar, eating away my flesh as it connected with my magic.
"This is the end," the child whispered as the sight I had seen a hundred times before swelled within me, my heart ready to see Joclyn, to see what I had committed to memory so long before. To see that moment when I knew she would be mine.
But it wasn't.
It wasn't anything like I had been shown before. The words were the same, but the images, the meaning...
Everything was different.
In one moment, everything I had been working toward, everything I had expected, was shattered.
_"There is one among us..." The familiar words were spoken in the unified voice of the Drak, the sound hollow and familiar._
_The sight pulled me away from the massive cave, away from the water, and into a different sight, into the black and fire, into a world that was full of terrifying screams._
_"... who seeks to change the magic, someone who seeks to kill the magic."_
Screams filled me as I watched a destruction I had seen before. Instead of the dangers, instead of my father's laugh, I saw him. I saw him stand as he ordered the deaths of hundreds, Sain cowering by his side, his hands and feet in shackles.
My heart ached as the blood flowed, my father's laugh matching the voice of the Drak in perfect harmony.
_"He seeks to kill the magic for his own personal gain. We see him as he fights, as he sheds the blood of us, as he sheds the blood of others. We see him as he stops the reign of magic, as he stops the time of ours."_
The voices of the Drak faded away as the sight shifted. My father walked into the same hall of sight I had seen moments before, his face sallow and grey as his hands writhed, eyes wide with fear.
I watched him kneel before Sain, the old Drak grinning as he placed his hand on my father's head, the depth of his voice shocking.
" _You must kill them all, Edmund. All of the Chosen. The sight is clear._ "
" _There must be another way!_ " my father sobbed, his whole body convulsing as he fell to the ground, the sight shifting as he fell.
Timothy ran across my sight, his squat frame tearing into a large forest clearing that was filled with an army. Thousands stood at the ready, bathed in ribbons of sun. It would have been beautiful if not for the reason they were there.
Edmund smiled as Timothy approached him, his face strained as he ordered the army out, as the sight shifted to the screams of hundreds of children, hundreds of Chosen massacred before my eyes. Vilỳs were captured, their wings ripped from their bodies before they were thrown into nothing more than a burlap sack.
I tried to scream, tried to run from the changes in the sight, but I couldn't move. I was forced to watch as the scene kept me trapped in a reality I wasn't ready to face.
" _You, I'll save for last,_ " Timothy hissed as he grabbed the blue Vilỳ I had seen born from the mud, his face defiant as he threw him into an oversized birdcage, locking the door with one flick of his magic.
_"Is this now?" The echo of my own voice rippled throughout the sight, the sound distorted as it traveled from the past, reverberating throughout the sight as it shifted again._
_"The time is now, My Lord," the Drak responded, their voice hollow as it shifted violently across the painful image I was faced with. "You alone will be brave enough to fight him. Where others will lose their lives, you will prevail."_
Everything in me twisted uncomfortably as the sight faded to black, the dim light of a dungeon I had seen many times before coming into focus. Crude shapes of what I could assume were people drifted in and out of focus, and over it all, the deep, heavy words of a Drak flowed freely, the voice dead and monotone.
_"The child is the key. If she lives, then the first of the Chosen is defeated. If she dies, then he prevails. Through her line comes the Silnỳ as seen before. Take her to the tallest spire and take flight. The time is now."_
If I could focus beyond the sight, focus beyond what was before me, I was in no doubt I would be crying. I could feel the heavy emotion wrack me, but I could not escape it.
One after another, the sights came, images flashing from the beginning to the end of time as everything sped up.
Edmund, ordering the death of thousands. Edmund, wooing woman after woman as he took their magic, leaving orphans behind. Myself as I fought him, trying desperately to defeat him, to stop the rein of death he had unfurled on our kind.
The mumbling voice of the Drak echoed during the sights, the tempo of the sound increasing as it mutated into the distorted words I had heard before.
_"In a time far ahead, near the end of the world, in a time when everything is changing and everything is new..."_
_The images I saw shifted to things that were now so commonplace the wonderment I had felt the first time flittered away, leaving me confused as I watched cars, airplanes, and toasters._
_"There will come a child."_
_In an instant, the image shifted. This time, I recognized it as what I had seen before, the image of the same woman being handed an infant, a beautiful baby girl who, even in sight, pulled at my heart._
_"A child, an infant, a child whom we see. We see her when she's born. We see her when she's grown. We see her now, and we see her then."_
_The sight intersected with what I had seen before, the images the same as I watched Joclyn's childhood, as I watched her grow. I watched her find joy. I watched her find her smile. I smiled, too. The heartache I had always felt before was now a distant memory, because even though I knew what I was about to see, I also knew what came after. I knew what she was to me now._
_I knew that my wait was over._
_"She is of the Chosen. Marked by the sign of the creature of fire, she has smoke in her eyes. A Chosen Child just for you."_
_These images were all familiar to me now: this love, this connection, this powerful magic we shared. I could feel it wrap itself around me. It all enveloped me as I saw our first kiss, saw the flashes of magic I now understood and had already experienced._
_"For in this child is power, power beyond belief. She is the most powerful. She will be the Silnỳ, the one who protects us all."_
Images twisted as I watched, subtle changes infecting the sights. I had noticed them, but none so apparent as when I saw Joclyn and I leaning up against a wall in the ruins of Rioseco, a battle unfolding around us. Flames surrounded us as we stood in each other's arms, blood seeping from a wound in her stomach and the long, golden ribbon trailing from the braids in our hair.
The délka vedení královsk.
"This is truth," the child's voice came right on cue, the tone deep and terrifying as the reality of what I was watching hit me hard in the gut.
I had lived this. But what was more, when I had seen this the first time, it had been different. It had been a different wall, a different battle. There had been no golden ribbons, no seeping wound.
Sain had chastised us, ripped his daughter apart, because she had broken the sight. However, what I was looking at now was exactly what had happened.
"This is truth," the child said again, her voice boring into me as I stared, my mind numb as the truth was made clear to me.
My heart beat in a painful heaviness as the sight continued to unfold, the images broken as the prophecy cut through my focus. The words that had been Sain's now blended with that of the child who had haunted the white space, the chimes of her voice a haunting melody.
_"You will love her," they said together, **** "but you cannot have her. You will protect her, but you will fail."_
I cringed as the voice of Sain and the woman blended in and out with those of the Drak, rising and falling as the anxiety built. My muscles uncoiled in fear of what I was about to see: the image of Joclyn's death, the heartbreak that had haunted me for hundreds of years.
"This is truth," the child spoke over the prophecy of the Drak, her voice loud in my ears. "This is the end."
I thought I had been scared before, thought I had been ready for what was coming, but not anymore.
With those few words, a dread I had never experienced gripped me, the deep monotone of Sain's voice increasing the fear.
_"The one bred to die."_
It wasn't me who was screaming. It wasn't me who was mourning. It wasn't her body in my arms. It wasn't.
Not anymore.
Joclyn screamed in panic and pain as Ryland lifted her over his shoulder, his face streaming with tears as he walked away from something I could not see. Ovailia's laugh reverberated in my head as the cave formed around the scene, the broken rocks shifting as everything fell, as everything broke apart.
Underneath it all, I lay, spread out over the rocks, blood seeping from my body like a river, a crimson stain spreading over the grey stone I lay on.
The grey stone I had died on.
"What?" I heard my voice breaking in the sight, the echo of past having a whole different meaning, given what I was now looking at, given the horrors of a future I now faced.
I could feel the voices of the Drak run over me, could feel the sight come to an end, but I couldn't look away from the image of my death.
I couldn't look away from the blood.
Pain I didn't fully understand drenched me in a force that sent a crippling ache over my chest. The ache grew as the vision faded away, leaving me gasping in the void, my hands clenching my hair.
"This is sight." The haunting sounds of the child's voice moved around the white void I had returned to.
"No!" I screamed, the volume of my voice reverberating with pressurized power. "No!"
"You have been born for something different than you assumed."
"What do you mean? What is this?" I yelled into the nothingness, spinning in place as I tried to find the owner. My magic stretched away from me in an attempt to find Joclyn. Nothing was there. Even though I had the distinct impression Joclyn was close, I still could not see her. I could not see anyone who could be speaking to me.
As before, it was empty.
"Everything you have been told is a lie. I have shown you truth."
My chest tightened painfully as she spoke, the dread and fear running through me, keeping a tight grip on my heart.
"Your life, your death, how you die, how you live, why you have the magic you do—"
"I won't accept this!"
"It was all a lie." The voice was a hiss now, and I could barely focus through the dread, through the anxiety that had taken control.
"No!" I yelled, my anger truly out of control now. "I won't let it be."
"Why do you say that?" the voice came again.
I spun toward it, coming face-to-face with a child this time. A little girl with bright blue eyes and dark curls down to her waist stood before me as if she had always been there, her head cocked to the side, as if I was the most interesting thing she had ever seen.
"You will die," she said, her voice light and calm, more reminiscent of how someone discussed food than the death of a loved one.
Eyes wide as I fumed, I attempted to control my anger, but I already knew it was a lost cause.
"Then I will die," I fumed, staring at the little girl with more anger than a child her age should ever see. "But I will not accept that I was born for something other than to protect the one I love."
"Is that all?" the girl said with a smile, her curls bobbing as she took a step closer to me. "You will protect her, Ilyan Krul—of that, the sight is clear. But you _will_ fail, and nothing can be done to change that. It is your choice if you continue to stand by her, if you continue on the path of what is true, or if you choose to find your own."
"Find my own path?" I gasped, not understanding what she meant. I had seen my death. There was no other option.
"There is always another choice in this life. There is always a chance to fix what was broken," she said with a smile, her nose wrinkling familiarly. "Will you choose to protect her?"
"I will." The words came without hesitation, the strong presence of her magic within me seeming to warm at the simple declaration, my heart beating right alongside. "I love her. I love her more than I have any other, and that love... I will fight for her no matter what comes our way. I will stand by her, no matter what demons she faces, for she is of my heart, and I am of hers. I will protect her until my blood spills over those rocks as I take my last breath, and I will treasure every moment I have with her. No matter what comes." I spoke to the child as I would to an enemy, my voice heavy and deep as my heart opened up, as I spilled out every emotion and desire and fear. As I let this tiny child see me.
"That is what I was hoping you would say." She smiled as the love and magic continued to swell inside of me. Her grin was wide as if I had said something more than what was in my heart.
"Does Joclyn know of this change?" I asked with trepidation, my heart thundering inside my chest with the truth of what this revelation could mean and what I did not want Joclyn to worry over. I would always be by her side. I didn't want to give her any reason to doubt it would ever change.
"You are true, Ilyan Krul."
My question lingered between us as the void faded back to the black, back to the flashes of sight which moved so fast I could barely see them. One vision blended into the next as my head throbbed, my body aching as if someone was pulling me into a stutter without warning.
Gasping at what I was seeing, my mouth opened in the same wide scream of before. A deep, hollow voice echoed in my mind against the agony my scream held, against the fear that had debilitated me.
"The magic was spread too wide but has been returned," the voice began, the scream fading to nothing as my own voice joined it, the dead, hollow tones foreign and frightening. "The son will rise, the son will fall, and all the blood will cease to flow. The time is now. It grows too late. Kill the fool before the slate. Love no longer seeks revenge. You will seek the end to end."
I gasped as the words finished, as the black of the world and the depth of the sight faded into the room I called home where everything erupted in noise and panic.
Dramin lay on the floor, mumbling about sight and white rooms. A panicked Ryland hovered over him. Jaromir sat, crying in the corner, looking around at each of us as though we were possessed, something I was confident was very possible given what had happened.
The weight I had been missing dropped into my arms as Joclyn's magic ebbed away, the flow of it lessening as I returned to reality, returned to her sleeping body that still lay against me.
"Joclyn?" I asked, my fears moving a million miles an hour in an attempt to understand what was going on. Everything felt like a distorted dream on this side.
She lay there, unmoving, as Dramin's mumbling increased, the frantic shout from Ryland growing louder and louder.
"Ilyan!" he practically shouted, pulling my focus from Joclyn. Fear was etched so deeply on his face I was certain the lines would never fade. "What happened? Are you okay?"
"I don't know," I said in a panic, hating the lack of control I had, hating that I couldn't give him more of an answer. The truth of what I had seen and what I was now facing was a confusing mess within me.
"We need to go." Joclyn's voice erupted before me, the tone as deep as what I had heard in the sight moments before.
Heart racing, I looked down, part of me expecting everything to be normal, but her eyes were still as black as they had been before, her face as blank.
"We cannot wait." she said as she sat up in my lap, her hand soft against my bare chest, her black eyes staring into me with a terror I never thought I would experience while looking at the woman I loved.
Ryland froze where he knelt on the floor.
An equally as shocked Dramin looked from me to Joclyn in terrifying wonder.
"Jos?" Ryland asked, his voice shaking as he stared at the girl who looked like she belonged in a horror movie.
"Ilyan," Joclyn spoke to me as if no one else was in the room, no one else had spoken. "We must go... before it is too late."
"Go where?" I could barely get the words out. "Joclyn?"
"Ilyan," she said again, her voice bleeding into a deep panic as the black faded from her eyes, leaving me staring at the beautiful silver. "Ovailia is here. We need to stop her. We need to stop them both."
She had barely spoke before the cathedral erupted in screams, before the pained shouts of hundreds of dying people seeped through the walls and into me.
"Get them away from the door," she whispered, and then she was gone, vanished into the air with the tiniest of pops. The sound ricocheted in my ears as Dramin and Ryland looked at me, their faces full of the same awe and confusion I felt.
I didn't know what else to do. I jumped from the bed, following the pulse of her magic, following the screams, and hoping now was not the end I had seen.
That now was not when I would die.
I still had a purpose, after all.
## 23
# Joclyn
I lay, enfolded in Ilyan's arms, facing the same vision of myself that had stood with me in the sight I had been unable to escape.
The haunted apparition stood between where Ryland paced and Dramin sat, blood dripping over her face, hands covered with ash. Her body was unseen to any of them, their reality untouched by my sights.
I didn't dare move as I watched her, the space around me shifting in and out of sight as it had since Wyn had run away from me. Images of the future, of Edmund laughing, rippled through my mind before they were gone, leaving me staring at my own blood-drenched face.
_"It is almost over,"_ the woman said as Ryland paced through the room, his temper increasing with each step he took.
"I know," I whispered, the weakness that had overtaken my body making it difficult to talk too loudly. "I have seen it before."
" _Are you going to fight?_ " the woman asked, cocking her head to the side a bit, as if she was a curious dog surveying a snack.
Shaking my head, another sight washed over me, this one of Wyn and Ovailia standing together near the main gate of the cathedral.
My heart stopped at the sight of them there, at the sight of them together, Wyn's attack of moments ago still fresh and painful in my mind.
Even though she had attacked me, even though she had run, I knew it wasn't her, not really. Stubbornly, I refused to accept what Wyn had done, that she could be working for Edmund. It couldn't be. Yet, the two women stood together in my sight, Wyn jerking and twitching as she had before she had attacked me.
Before I saw any more, the glimpse of sight left, leaving my chest heaving with exertion, my eyes focused on the woman before me again.
"I have been fighting," I snapped at her, continuing the conversation as though the infectious sights hadn't pulled me away. "I'm going to keep fighting."
" _This is why we are who we are_."
I looked at her as she spoke, my frustrations leveling out at the deep lull to her voice.
Ryland ran across the room to where Dramin was, his motions panicked as he yelled toward Ilyan and me, but I barely saw. I felt my magic as it accelerated, pulling me deep inside of it, drowning me in it.
"And who are we?"
" _We are Drak_." The woman's voice was deep and hollow again, her black eyes focused somewhere far beyond me. " _We are power_."
Her words faded as I was pulled back into a world that shifted and spun around me as a carrousel of images enveloped me, blocking the room and the woman from view and trapping me in a disturbing, shifting array.
Attempting to focus my magic, to harness my sight before I got lost in it, I only grew weaker, the pain in my head growing stronger.
" _Now you must fight_." The woman's voice broke through the images, broke through the pain in a confusing rumble I didn't quite understand.
No matter how hard I fought the magic, fought the sight, it was no use. I was trapped in it, trapped in the powerful torrent that flashed and shifted, the images broken up with the familiar static that had haunted me so over the past few months. I wanted to scream as the ominous sounds controlled me. But no shout came. I was trapped in the tornado of sounds and sights, my soul sagging and breaking under the weight.
" _Now we must fight_." The voice came again, deep and powerful.
As she spoke, a magic I had never felt before moved into me, moved alongside my own. The weakness that had incapacitated me seeped away, dripping from my body as though I was nothing more than an over-wrung towel.
" _Fight it!_ " The shout was loud in my head as the sights that bombarded me slowed, as the static began to fade. The grating sound of the buzz was replaced by the shouts of a voice I knew all too well, one that seized me, my anger and agitation flaring violently.
" _You can never take away what I am!_ " my father screamed. " _I won't allow it!_ "
His voice was broken by the static, the ebb and flow of it swelling as the sights continued to move into me.
" _Fight him!_ "
I wanted to scream that I was trying, that I was fighting, but I didn't know what I was fighting against. I didn't know what was happening. It was all I could do to stay focused on the sights, to keep myself breathing.
" _I won't let you!_ " my father shouted again through the panic, another voice mixing alongside his.
Dramin's sobs echoed against Ilyan's pleas. It was noise as I watched the flash of fire, watched blood flow over rocks. My heart strained to keep up with the force of it. My mind and body was exhausted as I fought the weight that held me down.
And yet, the unfamiliar magic grew, the power grew. _My_ power grew.
" _Fight it_." The voice came again, my magic flexing alongside the unfamiliar strain pulsing into me with a frightening energy.
" _Fight it!_ "
This time, I screamed. I screamed as I heaved. I screamed as the magic swelled, as it pushed against me. I screamed as others did, the sound so loud in my ears I couldn't think beyond it. It was only me and noise, my body wrapped tightly like an infant, the weight a comforting staple against what I was surrounded by. What was infecting me.
And then it was gone.
Then it was silence.
I looked up with a snap, my eyes wide in expectation as my bedroom came into focus, but the blood-soaked woman was no longer there. I sat alone with Ryland, Ilyan, and Dramin frozen in the room I had left, as if they had been glued there, the tension of the environment infecting me.
I sat still, waiting for something to happen, but there was nothing except the foreign magic that continued to swell within me, winding through mine in a way that, at any other time, would feel uncomfortable. This felt right, however.
This felt strong and beautiful... and, somehow, recognizable.
The magic increased as the room stirred, a sight overlaying the space in a double vision I had seen consistently since Wyn's first attack, since I had watched the barrier pop days before. But this time, I wasn't lost in the shadow of past and future. This time, everything made sense, my mind open and free as it saw and understood everything with perfect clarity.
" _The magic was spread too wide but has been returned_." A chorus of voices rumbled through me as my sight took me to the pool of Imdalind. My vision held as I watched the surface break and grow. A wave of movement spread over the top, and eight bodies emerged.
I caught a glimpse of their heads before the image shifted like a flipbook, flashes of hundreds of people I had never seen before swimming across my eyes. My magic whispered to me as I began to recognize them, to recognize the family line, father to son and son to father. Even though none of the faces were familiar, I knew them. I recognized a nose, the green of their eyes. I saw my family for the first time.
I gasped in shock as the sight faded to nothing other than a bright red light, the color sliding down my vision like paint.
" _The son will rise, the son will fall, and all the blood will cease to flow. The time is now. It grows too late. Kill the fool before the slate_."
I gazed into the long, red drips of black and red as they moved over me. The red faded to nothing, while the black encompassed the words in my head, my own voice speaking right alongside them.
" _Love no longer seeks revenge. The time has come to write your end_."
The scream stopped as the voices did, the sight fading away until I was left staring at the cracked ceiling I woke up to every morning. Time caught up and moved into overdrive as the voices flooded around me, dread and fear infecting me like some kind of noxious disease.
As I looked from Ilyan to Ryland, the overlay of sight cast itself over them with perfect clarity. My mind moved quicker than it ever had. It was as though everything was unleashed. It was as though everything was free.
Ovailia walked through the cathedral within my mind, Wyn conspicuously missing as she strode into our makeshift hospital. My magic was strong as it pulled me right to her, confirming what my sight had already revealed.
"We need to go," I spoke over the terror, everything freezing as I sat up from where I lay in Ilyan's lap. My sight was still focused on where Ovailia and Sain stood side-by-side. "We cannot wait."
There was one reason they would be here. No, there was one reason they would be in that room... with all of those Chosen.
"Ilyan." Pulling my focus from where Ovailia and Sain stood in tense conversation, I looked to my mate whose eyes were wide in shock. "We must go... before it is too late."
"Go where?" He was so tense, the fear so raw on his face it scared me. "Joclyn?"
"Ilyan," I gasped as I looked at him, letting the sight fade from me and bringing him into a clearer focus. His face relaxed with the change, the brightness of his eyes taking my breath away. "Ovailia is here. We need to stop her. We need to stop them both."
With the last word, the screams I had been dreading filled the air. The agonizing shouts erupted in a torrent that sent my magic screaming in desperation.
"Get them away from the door," I gasped, sight and magic erupting in a swell of power that took me right where I needed to be, where I hoped Ilyan would follow.
Ribbons of time zoomed through the space of the stutter in bright, colorful strips that I paid no attention to. My focus was solely on what was ahead—the room that opened up at the end of the tunnel, the space growing brighter as I moved closer. The sound of their screams increased with every moment, resonating with a haunting fear that cut through me, the smell of death and smoke hitting against me like a wall.
A jolt of pressure rippled up my spine, the once peaceful hospital emerging around me as the stutter fell away to a room engulfed in flames of red and orange, painful tongues of fire lapping against the people as they screamed, as death tried to take them.
The powerful shield I had covered myself with was barely enough to keep the fire from consuming me. The burn tried to move into me as smoke filled my nostrils. Clothing and hair were burned away, the pungent aroma adding to the rancid smell of death that already filled the space.
The heat was drowning, their screams deafening, the sounds violent. I tensed in one brief moment of fear before turning toward the door. The old, wooden slab was obviously locked in place by a powerful spell. Some of the Chosen were cluttered around it, clawing at the only exit in desperation.
"Move!" I screamed through the flames, not even giving them a chance to hear my command before my hand pressed against the air in front of me, sweeping them to the side in one quick move.
Screams of surprise mixed with those of panic. My heart raced as my magic flexed with a jolt so powerful I expected it to hurt. The deep Drak magic wrapped them in a shield, my hand remaining over them, keeping them in place.
My heart roared in a calm thunder, my magic a torrent of force as it spun around me, gaining momentum and power before I pressed my other hand in the air. Sparks of green and grey broke off from the whirlwind I was surrounded by, slamming into the wooden door.
The pulse was weaker than I knew would be needed to break through whatever was holding the door in place, but strong enough to seep into the oak, lighting the hallway opposite and giving enough warning to those on the other side to move away.
I hoped it was enough, that Ilyan had taken my command to heart and that he wasn't still sitting on our bed in confusion. I didn't have time to wait. I didn't have time to check. People were dying.
My magic continued to move, swirling and building as my hair whipped over my face, the long, golden ribbon dancing gracefully through smoke and ash.
Terror soaked into me, igniting my own dread for the first time since I had appeared in the room. I let the fear grip me. I let myself feel it. I let it fuel me. Then, pressing my hand toward the door, I released the powerful jets of magic in one quick flux.
With a boom like a gun, the magic moved away in a violent ribbon of the brightest red. The attack smashed against the door in a blast that shook the cathedral. The heavy oak door shattered, splinters flying through the air as the rafters shook, tiny pieces of roof falling down on top of us.
The screams of those within the flames mixed with those desperate to save them in a terrifying panic as the explosion rippled through the space. Bodies, charred and burned, fled from the flames, their movements broken and pained as they fought through the agony that consumed them.
I didn't know if I was exhausted or not. I couldn't tell. I felt the adrenaline, the power, and the shadow of terror that was quickly leaving. My magic whispered to me, screaming what needed to be done next. I couldn't even think beyond the moment, beyond the power. It was all there was.
With the door gone, Skȓíteks streamed in without thinking, trying in vain to rescue those who were left, who were still trapped, only to have their screams join the others as the fire engulfed them, too. They burned, the pain crippling. The sounds added to the anguish that surrounded me.
"Everything is burning beyond my control. We need rain," I whispered, my own voice echoing what was inside of me. The depth of it calmed and relaxed me as I lifted my hands to the sky, my magic swelling in a swirl of power that pressed against my skin, waiting to erupt.
With a howl of exertion, with a clap of my hands, the power left me, rushing across the space in a wave. It pushed against the flames, the tongues of heat swaying like trees in the wind.
A rumble of thunder shook the air as a bolt of lightning erupted from me, moving out of my skin as a cloud of smoke of the deepest purple seeped from me, magic erupting in billows of fog that moved over the space, smothering the fire, suffocating it.
Jaw clenching, I watched it spread, panic moving over those who were left in the fire, their pain and agony mixed with an undeniable fear of what was happening, what I was doing to them.
Closing my eyes, I focused on my power as it pressed against the heat, the destructive force of the magical flame pressing back in a tug of war of dominance and destruction. Each attack moved, one against another until my magic surged inside of me. The Drak magic swarmed my blood, boiling out of me in one powerful surge that migrated around the flame, engulfing it, moving it into me.
Letting it become part of me.
The heat, the warmth, the flame, it all swirled throughout my body, making it ache as the destructive attack surrounding me became less and less.
As the fire fell away, so did the screams. The terror and the fear that had infected my sight so completely faded to nothing more than pained sobs, the sound a loud echo swimming through the fog.
Conjured smoke swirled into a heavy fog that became a soothing balm to those who had been burned, those who were still trapped in the hell Ovailia had created. Breathing deeply, I let it fill me, my body calming as I connected to each of their powers, to their magic, and I felt them calm, felt them heal.
The heavy power of the smoke seeped back into the nothing between worlds as I stood amongst it. The warmth of the fog slipped over my body as it left, drifting back into me, leaving me standing as a lone pillar amongst the destruction.
"Joclyn?" an echo of a voice ran over me, the same word coming to me on repeat as my sight pulled it into me.
"Joclyn?" Again it came, loud and clear, as Ilyan ran into the room, Ryland at his heels. Both men looked frightened as they moved through what was left of the door and into the graveyard of charred mattresses, burned blankets, and twisted bed frames.
Ryland took one look around before he went to work, helping to remove those still living, ordering everyone around as they began to excavate the space. His voice was so distorted through my confusion that I barely heard him. I just stood, unable to look away from the tall, blond man directly across from me.
Ilyan's magic pressed into me as he ran toward me, his eyes panicked and desperate. His magic enveloped me in swirls of comforting warmth, his usual need to know if I was safe coming on strong.
I sighed, letting the warmth fill me. His power was a salve as it connected to mine, filling in the gaps I hadn't realized were there before. His soul fit so perfectly with mine that everything that had happened over the last few minutes didn't seem to matter as much.
"Ilyan."
## 24
# Joclyn
Ilyan pulled me against him, the heavy tempo of his heart filling me. I had never felt his heart beat so fast before, never felt fear vibrate through his soul so heavily.
I clung to him without question, letting my magic move into him, soothing away the panic that had gripped him.
_I'm okay, Ilyan,_ I whispered into his mind, letting the words calm him along with the magic.
Instead of the familiar relief those exchanges would give him, however, his fear swelled. His magic pressed farther into me, searching for something I didn't understand. That was, until his thoughts moved through the bond of our souls, his fear and anxieties made clear.
"Ilyan?" With a painful beat of my heart, I looked up at him, my own shocked trepidation budding right alongside his. "What is it?"
"It's changed," he whispered.
"What's changed?" My brow furrowed in confusion as his magic continued to move into me, the heavy weight of it pressing against me as he checked me for injuries—no, I realized with a start, as he checked that I was me.
"Your magic, it's different."
Our magic moved together, a deep familiarity taking control. He didn't look away, his eyes focused intently on me, his hands drifting from my back to hover above my arms, the fingers caressing the air above, as if he was afraid to break me, afraid to make contact.
"Different?"
"Your power." An electric pulse moved in the air that separated us. My skin was alive with energy, magic prickling with an eager need for his touch. "It's different yet the same."
"It's different, but the same?" My voice shook in bewilderment as I tried to understand what he was saying, but I was having difficulty thinking past the magnetic power of his hands. The desperate need for him pulled at me. "You're... You're not making any sense."
"You can't feel it, can you?"
"Feel what?"
He tensed as I did, his fear seeping into me, his confusion increasing right alongside mine. I tried to connect with his mind in a need to understand what he meant, but his thoughts were as shrouded as mine were.
"Your magic," Ilyan whispered, "It feels the same... as what we felt before... in the sight."
"What sight?" I asked, already knowing the answer. I knew in the loud whispers of my magic, the way the Drak moved throughout me and flared in sight.
The same white room flashed before me, but instead of the blood-soaked woman, it was Ilyan. Ilyan was speaking to a dark-haired, little girl I had never seen before: Ilyan screaming, Ilyan with black eyes.
"You saw," I gasped, my eyes fading as the sight left me. "You were in a sight."
"Yes. When I tried to pull you out... I saw..." Ilyan froze beside me, his eyes locked with mine, his hands still hovering inches above my arms, the electricity rumbling between us. "What you are."
"And what am I?" I couldn't keep the shake out of my voice.
Although his trepidation had left him, although I could still feel his fear, it had lessened somehow. The strong emotions seeped away from him, melding into the deep awe he always held for me. The bright blue of his eyes reflected brightly with it.
"A Drak. A true Drak. I can feel that now."
I calmed at his confirmation, my soul rumbling with the knowledge that he, too, felt what was so clear to me.
I smiled, the calm in me growing. That was, until he placed his hands against my skin, and our magic connected as it had done so many times before. Except, this time, for the first time since our bonding, our magic _truly_ connected.
The lights of before were nothing compared to what now surrounded us. Lost in a universe of starlight and color, I felt our magic move and dance through the air in a carousel of energy. Together, our magic surged. The magic of the earth, the magic I had absorbed, the magic traveling on the wind around us, all sparkled in a powerful surge that rose up like a wall.
With a mixture of fear and awe, the shadows of sight flashed in muted color before everything around us faded, leaving us standing in the middle of the ash-filled room, the few people who were left clearing out survivors staring at us with wide eyes.
"I guess I don't have to worry if it's you or not," Ilyan mused from beside me, a laugh hidden underneath his deep accent. "I don't think I could do that with anyone else." Ilyan looked at me with all the depth of the love I had seen so many times before, his body warm as he held me against him, his hands wrapped tightly around me.
I stood still as I watched him, my heart pulsing in anticipation and need. My fingers dug into his back with desperation for what was to come.
He smiled with that same coy look he always gave me before he kissed me, before his lips connected with mine and swept my heart and soul into him. The touch of his lips, of his love, made it hard to breathe, something I wasn't really regretting right then.
"Well, that was new," Ryland interrupted with a snap, his face grim as he walked over to us. The elation seeped from my face as quickly as if I had been slapped. "We've got a problem, Ilyan. So, if you wouldn't mind waiting until later to finish this..." His voice trailed off uncomfortably, his hand dragging through his hair as he looked around, the expression on his face plunging right back into reality.
"How many did we lose?"
My heart plunged right to my toes. The fact that it was the first question asked made reality seem so much more frightening than what it had been a moment ago.
"At least ten. I won't know definitely until Etma and the other healers are able to tend to them all, but _that's_ not the problem." He sighed, his eyes darting to mine for a second before returning to Ilyan, the tension building into a tight knot in my spine.
I pressed my head against Ilyan's chest, trying to ignore the strain of the anxiety, my magic mounting right alongside it.
"One of the survivors said that Sain was here as well, with a blonde woman they didn't know..."
"It was Ovailia," I answered gravely, a flash of sight erupting before me as I spoke, the same image of her running through the streets of Prague overlaying the room.
"Where is she?" Ryland yelled, his anger seeping off him before he turned away from us, ordering one of the Skȓíteks to find her with a bark so loud several people jumped to attention, obviously surprised the order had come from him.
"Ry, she's gone." The hollow of my voice reverberated through my head as my eyes faded to black, the sight fluctuating as it pulled me farther in. Blood-covered hands were all I could see before it shifted, pulling out to Edmund's laughing face.
A jolt moved up my spine as his smile widened, as he wiped a blood-soaked hand against his brow, the laugh still ringing around me. I watched the vision, tension moving through me over what would come next. Instead, it faded, leaving me staring at the red of foresight before Ryland and Ilyan snapped back into focus.
Ryland stood in shocked silence before me.
"You won't find her here," I told him. "She's already outside the city."
Ryland's jaw tightened with a snap, anger clouding his eyes in a dangerous warning that I felt the need to move away from. "They all got away."
"Who got away?" I asked, my voice tentative as my sight pulled at me, heavy whispers telling me we were talking about more than the deceitful pair.
"Ovailia and Sain. But there is more. They were talking about Wyn, talking about needing to meet up with her before they left, needing to find her in time for a bonding—" He stopped mid-sentence, and I didn't blame him. I felt like I had been punched in the gut, my lungs constricting so painfully I wasn't convinced I would be able to force the air in.
"No." As it was, I could barely get the single word out.
"You are telling me that Wynifred is working for my father, as well?" Ilyan's voice was a rumble of feral warning from where I leaned against him. I felt his muscles tense as his magic quivered with an anger I wasn't positive I had ever felt before.
I went rigid beside him, the intensity of his emotions frightening me.
"From what we are hearing." Ryland shuffled his feet a bit, a tick I had seen so often in my life I knew what was coming. I could feel his discomfort rolling off him.
"What is it, Ry?" I asked.
His eyes met mine directly, his jaw so tight I was worried it was glued together. "We still can't find Wynifred, and Etma has informed me that she was seen in the courtyard a few hours ago before the cathedral collapsed. A few people saw her attack Risha—"
"Risha!" Ilyan yelled, his distress understandable. "What happened?"
"Etma says she is unresponsive but stable. She thinks Risha was knocked out." Ryland's voice cracked and broke as he spoke, his worry seeping through in waves of apprehension.
Wyn and I had joked for months about his supposed crush on Ilyan's second, but I didn't think I had realized until that moment exactly how deep his emotions were.
That it was more than a crush.
"Do you need to go to her?" Ilyan asked, his voice caught between worry for his brother and worry for his people, his thoughts for them moving just as fast.
I reached my hand toward him, my heart longing to comfort him, something that was not missed by either of the brothers I stood before.
"No," Ryland said, his curls bouncing as he shook his head. I had a feeling he was trying to put on a brave face. "There is nothing I can do for her now. I will be more help here. We need to find Wyn, or at least try, before she attacks someone else."
"She attacked me, too," I announced. The memory of those moments before the sight had taken me pulled at my soul uncomfortably. Those vivid pieces of sight I was granted twisted inside of me. "I was trying to take that blade from her."
"What blade?" Ryland asked, the worry from before lost in the hardness of his voice. The intensity of it made me wonder if he already knew what I was about to say.
"She has a piece of the Soul's Blade."
If I had thought Ilyan was teetering close to destruction before, it was nothing to now, nothing to the explosive way his magic roared through him, through me. Nothing to the feral growl that escaped his chest.
"The Soul's Blade? How did she get that?" Ilyan's voice was tense as he took a step away, his fingers pinching the bridge of his nose as he tried to dispel the anger. His feet snapped quietly against the dust as he paced.
"I saw it in a sight. I saw her remove it..." I stopped, my eyes flashing to Ryland, my memory pushing everything together in one, big clump.
Ryland met my gaze, expectant, almost fearful. I could tell by the way he looked at me that he expected me to fade into a sight, to give them some magical revelation. I wanted to tell him it wasn't going to happen, not now, anyway.
It already had.
"She got it from inside of you," I gasped, my eyes not deviating so much as a millimeter from where Ryland stared into me.
Ilyan turned toward us as if he had lost his footing, his hair fanning out, eyes wide, jaw tight. If I wasn't as connected to the man as I was, I probably would have stepped away. As it was, I held still, facing the two brothers as differing levels of anger and confusion overtook them.
"She removed it from inside of me?"
"When?" Ilyan snapped, his anger rising.
Ryland winced at the tone, and a raw fear ripped down my spine. Pushing the emotion away, I stepped toward my mate, letting my magic flood him as I wrapped my hand around his. The soothing balm of my magic wound through him with a need to calm him, something I could already tell would be harder than it ever had been before.
"It was the room above the clock... before we came here."
With those few words, my Drak magic flared, pulling me into a vision I had seen hours before, the colors and emotions of the space suffocating as everything shifted and changed: Wyn kneeling before Ryland's unconscious body, a voice erupting around her, the pained sobs of a child that caused her to flinch the same way she had before. Her whole body rocked violently as the sight fluctuated, a child taking her place. The same little girl I had seen in the alley sitting right where she had, the same blade resting in her hands, the same blood covering them.
_"Mommy."_ The child's voice cut through me, her eyes haunting as they turned toward me, pulling me out of the sight with a start, my chest heaving.
"Rosaline."
I jumped as the heavy confirmation seeped from Ilyan's mouth, his hands feeling like a dead weight against mine.
"Did you see?" I asked him.
"Yes. The blade is made from her soul," Ilyan said with a nod, my question lingering unanswered between us. "She must think she can free her daughter somehow."
"She is a fool," Ryland hissed from beside us. "My father used that blade to control me, to torture Joclyn, to kill her brother. What does she think is going to happen to her? That Edmund somehow won't take control? The second he knows she has it..." Ryland's voice faded away, his eyes bright as they snapped right to his brother. The anger that rose up in him was so powerful I could feel it infect me like a virus before I was able to help him calm. "They spoke about getting her back to Edmund. He knows," Ryland whispered, his eyes wide, the fearfulness in them growing deeper by the second.
"If Edmund has her, he also has her magic." Ilyan straightened his shoulders as he rose up to his full height, the power in his eyes emanating around us. "I have no way of knowing if they aren't all outside of our reach. Chances are, the three of them are gone, beyond the barrier, but we must let the guards know. We may still have a chance to find Wyn. We _have_ to find her, some clue of where she is. Ryland, you are my second now."
Ilyan placed his hand on his brother's shoulder, and Ryland straightened under the weight, his eyes wide in shock. "Take control of this situation. Get people looking. Let everyone know the change in Sain, what has happened, and get as many people searching for Wynifred as possible. Let them know she is dangerous and not to approach either her or Sain on their own. They need to come right to me."
"Dangerous," I repeated the word, knowing it wasn't that far off, not after what happened in the cathedral.
I looked toward my hand, expecting my flesh to be falling off the bone again.
"Normally, I wouldn't consider her as such, but given the situation..." Ilyan paused, his focus shifting between Ryland and I. "I can't discount that she is either working for Edmund or being controlled by him until we find her."
"It better be the second," I growled, wishing my sight would pull me in and show me what was up. No such luck.
"Yes, my lord," Ryland gasped, his voice seeming to be stuck in his throat.
"Ry," Ilyan sighed, his tone clipped in agitation as he pinched the bridge of his nose again. "I am still your brother, and if you call me 'my lord' one more time, I will beat you up like the mortals do—boxing or whatever they call it. Heaven knows you need more of that in your life."
Ryland nodded before moving away, winding his way through the few Skȓíteks who remained, beckoning them away, his hands moving fast as he began issuing orders.
As one, everyone exited the room, each one to their new tasks, Ryland trying his best to appear strong, while Ilyan and I walked hand in hand.
Nerves on the rise from what had been revealed, from everything Ilyan had said, from everything I had remembered, I continued on, barely paying attention to where Ilyan was leading me. Only to slip, my foot sliding to the side as the sound of breaking glass echoed somewhere from below me.
"What the...!" I said, barely catching myself as Ilyan clung to my hand for dear life, his heart rate accelerating in a panic deeper than what I would expect from a little fall. I wasn't being attacked by one hundred forty Trpaslíks, after all, so the boy needed to calm down.
I would have chastised him, but I was already moving away from him, moving toward whatever I had stepped on. My magic pulled me as the power inside of me increased, the Drak power screaming.
It was a vial, a tiny glass thing filled with swirling green fluid that was dangerously close to leaking out thanks to a large crack along the side.
"Ilyan," I called, my voice strangely hollow as my magic pulled. My fingers were inches away from picking up the thing when sight pulled into me. One simple image of Ovailia dropping the same green fluid onto Thom's skin was all I needed to see.
"Mi lasko?" Ilyan's voice pulled me out of the sight with the force of a gun, his fear escalating as I looked up to him, my eyes wide before I pointed down to the vial below us where the green was now spreading out and over the floor like syrup.
"Don't touch it," I instructed, my voice shaking with what I was about to say. "It's what Ovailia used to hurt Thom. It's what she was going to use on all of them."
His eyes grew wider as I looked at him.
My sight pulled me forward, flashes of images I could barely make out, before Ilyan came back into focus.
My lips spread into a wide smile. "I think I can use it to save him."
## 25
# Ovailia
Sain's ragged breathing echoed through the stone hallway we walked through, hitting against my back and grating on my nerves. I recoiled at the sound, at the way his feet dragged against the stone, the way they always had when he walked.
His left leg was slightly turned, dragging like he couldn't quite lift it off the ground. This time, however, the scrape seemed to be a little bit more pronounced, the drag a little bit longer. He had always claimed it was from an injury. Right then, I wasn't so certain. I no longer thought any of him was real.
The scrapes, the breathing, the tap of my heels, they all reverberated off the cave's walls in a hollow rhythm that dug against me. My heartbeat increased to match the sounds, unfamiliar fear rising up in me as I second-guessed my decision to bring him here. Second-guess my decision to not kill him along with all the other Chosen children back at Ilyan's now foiled safe house.
I probably should have after what I had seen him do, after what I had seen him become. After what he had shown me.
It wasn't like he was trying to hide it from me in any case. He had embraced it. He had shown me a stronger man than I had ever seen before. He had shown me one of the many faces he carried in his pocket.
He had shown me who he truly was.
And all that he had done.
It was so much more than him "playing us" as my father had assumed, as I had assumed. It was so much more complicated than that. I had no idea what end game he was working toward, but one thing was clear—something as extreme as this would only end in his death, whether by my hand or my father's. I wasn't foolish enough to think my father would want to miss out on that opportunity. So, I had brought him here, only to second-guess myself.
My heart beat with the unfamiliar indecision, a painful force against my ribs that brought me to a stop. The turn in the cave was ahead, the one that would take us right to the hall that led to my father's chambers where he would be waiting for us, waiting for a report.
Sain's broken gait stopped no more than a moment after mine, the echo of our steps fading into nothing as I stood, unwilling to move.
"What are you?" I hissed into the silence, unsure if I was talking to myself or to the scapegoat behind me.
"I am a Drak." His reply was heavy and commanding, the tempo of it much stronger than I had ever heard from him. The tap of his shoes resonated as he moved closer, a shiver moving through me at the missing sound of his false step. "I am the first of my kind. What are you?"
Without warning, his hand moved over my hair, his fingers soft as they ran down the long locks. It was a move that could have easily been confused with romance. My magic certainly pulled that way, his own connecting with mine in a move that had been nothing other than an act before, but suddenly, I wasn't so positive.
With a shiver, I pulled away, turning to face the man who, as I had seen in the cathedral, looked neither weak nor old. He stared at me with a confidence and power that, before that moment, I would have never expected to see in him. My magic continued to pull toward him as if it could sense the change, as if it hungered for the strength he held.
My soul bristled angrily at the purposed heresy, heart pounding in my chest with all the irritation and fear I had in that moment.
It was a look that would send even my father's most powerful servants into a cowering mess. It had definitely done Cail in on a number of occasions, but Sain stood there. He smiled, his body not so much as deviating a millimeter, the power behind his eyes rising.
"You didn't answer my question," he cooed, his voice a raging torrent as he moved forward, his gait strong and consistent as he closed the gap I had left between us.
My heart raced with each step he took, my mind begging me to attack him, to end this. My magic wanted anything but.
"What are you?" he parroted back to me. His face was now so close to mine all I could see was the deep green of his eyes.
The powerful mass of his magic pressed up against my own, trying to infiltrate, trying to connect with me. As I heaved from the proximity, my soul was keenly aware of the powerful change that affected him so deeply even his magic was different.
"Are you your father's pet?" he asked.
"I am not his pet," I barked, the anger finally plowing through the desire and painting my words with a dire warning.
"No? So you are his servant, then?" He spoke slowly as he moved closer, a smile creeping around his lips as he pushed against me, his hand hard against my hip.
"No."
"So, you are like all the other Chosen. You are his slave."
This time, I erupted, my anger boiling right to the surface as I rushed him. My skin heated against his in warning as I wrapped my hand around his neck, pushing him into the rough, stone wall we stood beside with a jolt of force and power.
His eyes widened in shock at the force, his smile still a grating insinuation as he looked down at me, not a drop of fear lining his face.
Clenching my teeth together in a foolish attempt to control my anger, I pressed him against the wall again, slamming his head against the stone. Again, the force didn't even seem to bother him.
"I am not his servant," I hissed, my anger continuing to boil due to his obvious lack of response.
"Then what are you?" His voice was strained as he heaved through the pressure I was placing on his neck, the deep rumble of his voice sounding like a laugh in my ears. "Because you seem like his slave. You do his dirty work. You take the punishments for each failure without question. You dote on him, and he what? Spits on you? Slices down that beautiful back of yours?"
Without warning, his hand snaked around me, even from where I held him against the wall. His fingers were soft as they moved under my shirt and up my spine, his magic a deep, powerful rumble as it moved into me. I sighed at the caress, my magic reacting with a powerful flare.
Attempting to focus, I stared at him, the glare fading as the Black Water within me reacted to his magic. The poison pressed against my spine as it tried to connect with the man who was the first of its power.
The pleasurable warmth his magic gave me shifted to pain as the magic reacted, my body jerking away from his in an attempt to escape the agony.
"Don't touch me," I barked in warning, my magic pressing against him aggressively and slamming him back into the wall again. A dull thud boomed through the cave at the impact, something I knew should have cracked his bone. However, his smile didn't leave his face, his eyes bright with greed as he pushed my magic off him, his own ability pushing back with as much, if not more, force.
"So that is how you can __ see. He put the water inside of you... Beautiful." His eyes grew wide and greedy as he took a step toward me, his fingers twitching as if he was holding back from grabbing me, from taking control of something that was his all along.
I stood before him, my heart thundering in my chest, back straight, as I tried to decide if I should attack him or not. It would be easier to turn him into my father and be done with it. But I couldn't think, the pressure in my chest increasing with either option.
"So, a servant," he mused, and my gut twisted at the insinuation. "But more than that, you are a science experiment, as well. He doesn't value your existence at all."
"Don't spread such lies, Sain!" I shouted, my magic seeping from my fingers to spark against the stone in railroad tracks of lightning.
Sain didn't even seem to notice my anger, notice the warning of my magic as it left me.
"You are worth so much more than that," Sain whispered over the noise, his smile distorting his face as he took another step back. "So much more."
"No!"
Sain's eyes widened at my shout, his focus leaving me for no more than a second as he looked to the hall behind us. Fear was clear on his face before he stepped away, his back arching into the familiar cower, his shoulders hunching, his foot turning in.
The powerful man I had stood in front of a moment before wilted into what I had perceived as a pathetic weakling previously, the disguise one that had fooled me for centuries. Sain, I realized with a start, was more than a man giving false sights, more than a man manipulating the leaders on either side of this war, more than some pathetic game played by a pathetic man.
He was power.
Sain looked up at me as the loud, hollow noise of footsteps echoed through the hall behind us, the sound mounting as one of my father's guards came to investigate the noise.
"Ovi," Sain whispered, his voice deep and strong as he looked up at me from his folded position. "The water within you is strong, as strong as you are. No one else could hold that and use it like you have, like you can. He doesn't see that. He doesn't value that. He doesn't care. But I see what you truly are. I see what you can become. Be alert, Ovi. No matter what you say, he will only use you. Don't let him. I know another way."
Frozen in place, I watched him, his voice echoing through me as the rhythm of the steps behind me ripped against my pulse. Sain had barely ceased to speak when he collapsed to the ground in body-seizing sobs.
"Ovailia!" Damek's voice cut through the cries unexpectedly, my spine jerking as I turned toward him, all of the confusing emotions swirling though me as I fought the need to take everything out on the man before me. It was something that was a real possibility, and judging by the fear that overtook the despicable man's face, it was something he expected.
He withdrew under my gaze, his eyes wide with fear as the sound of Sain's forced sobs continued to ring around us.
I couldn't help smiling at the fear that crossed over Damek's face. At least I knew I could still make people wilt before me.
"How many times have I told you," I snarled, the fear on his face increasing with each word, "not to call me that?"
"Yes, my lady." He cowered, his back moving into a curve so low I was certain he had been practicing.
Damek recoiled in a movement so eerily similar to the man who lay whimpering on the cave floor behind me that I stiffened. My magic flitted between the two of them with the same confusion I had been fighting, a decision I never thought I would have to make becoming clear.
"I'll be a good servant," Sain sobbed, the words so clear through his cries that I knew what his intentions were. I knew what he was trying to do. More than that, I knew what _I_ had to do.
Sain's twisted game weaved around me as I stepped toward him, kicking the point of my heel into his ribs with such force that I was confident I heard something crack.
His pain screamed against the rock and ricocheted back to me even louder than before.
"I'll be good. Trust me. Trust me."
"Pick him up," I ordered my father's guard who still cowered behind me like the mongrel he was. "I am certain my father is expecting us."
Damek nodded before he walked over to the old man, his magic surging powerfully as Sain jumped and screamed in pain, his body writhing with whatever the sadistic man was doing to him.
Unexpectedly, my heart jerked, an unfamiliar knot in my stomach springing to life at the sound of his pain, a remorse I never thought I would feel digging into me.
I tried to ignore it, but with each scream, it strengthened until I was sure I would kill Damek and run if I had to endure another moment of his games.
"Damek, don't play with the food," I spat, my voice shaking uncontrollably at what I had done, at the emotion that had taken over me.
I tried to hide the shake, tried to hide the emotion, but Damek heard, anyway, his eyes a thin line as he turned to face me, the lapse in judgment unmissed.
"I'm not the only one who's playing with him, it seems." Eyes narrowing in warning, he stood before me, even though, this time, he did not recoil.
The twist in my stomach intensified.
"I don't like having to constantly remind you of your role with me, Damek," I hissed, my voice a hard line as I pushed the emotion away, spitting his name out like acid. "You do what I say. You listen to what I ask."
"No offense, _my lady_ "—his words were as hard as my own, his eyes digging into me as he took a step closer—"but I am your father's guard, not yours."
Damek's smile was wide and greasy as he moved away, Sain dragged behind him on a tow of magic. His voice was loud as he howled in what I assumed was genuine pain. That was, until he looked up at me, his eyes wide and strong even as he cried.
Tension bound me as my magic stretched to him, as his eyes locked me in place, the words he had said before echoing through me with the force of a drum. " _Trust me!_ "
Sain's sobs returned as we turned the corner, his body joining the panic again as we moved through the wide hall that led to my father's quarters. The hall was as destroyed and disheveled as it had been for the last few months. Ilyan's former belongings were thrown about, piled in ripped and broken heaps of rubbish, smears of blood and who knew what else splattered over them. It was all foreshadowing what I was really walking into.
As I entered my father's quarters, the destruction from before was gone. The sterile space was even more frightening after the hall we had left, because here, everything was in its place, everything the way he liked it—from the perfectly made bed to the tables covered with trinkets collected from his kills to the little girl who cried in a pool of blood.
My heart seized at the image, this one unfamiliar for the perfection he always demanded.
The child looked up at me as we entered, her eyes wide and full of confusion and betrayal, her life meaning little more than the rags she wore. The shards of fabric were drenched in the bright color I was convinced was her own.
The reality of what I had walked into became frighteningly clear.
Sain's sobs silenced as the tense weight of fear moved over both of us, Damek continuing to drag him over the floor behind him, as if he had forgotten he was there.
"Master!" Damek yelled as he ran into the room, his pride seeping off him. "I found her lurking in the halls."
"Wonderful," Edmund's voice resonated from the bathroom where the sound of running water seeped from behind the wide door, the dark crack of the entry looming.
The door behind me closed with a snap, the guards who leaned against each wall shifting their placement as if on orders. The broad man who had been so kind to me the other day inconspicuously stepped before the door we had come in through. His face was grim as his eyes met mine, his lips a tight line.
With my own lips pursed in frustration, the frantic pace of my heart increased until the water from the bathroom stopped, and my father emerged from behind the door like a shadow, his hands still wet.
"Wonderful," he repeated as he extended his hands out, letting little Míra dry them off while his eyes focused on me, digging into me.
I cowered. I shivered, and I fought the need to step away, fought the need to run. The intensity of his stare grew with each beat of my heart that passed, each low draw of air.
He smiled, patting Míra on the head roughly, her back arching painfully at the pressure. A small sob seeped from her as she fell to the ground, her body folding into itself. He didn't even seem to notice; he just looked at me, his steps slow and calculated as he moved toward me, a wide smile spreading over his face.
In the hall, Sain had smiled at me, but his was not like this. Sain's smile was in power within the game I was in no doubt he understood. Edmund's was in eagerness for what he was about to do, for the blood he was about to spill. It was a look I hadn't seen directed at me for hundreds of years. My back ached with the memory, my heart tensing with apprehension so intense I had forgotten such an emotion was possible.
"I'm surprised to see you, Ovailia," Edmund cooed, his voice low and deep, the rumble of it infecting me. "I thought for sure you would have defected back to your brother after your failure."
"Father," I gasped, unable to hide the shake in my voice anymore, unable to keep the fear at bay. "I would never do that. You are my master. I am loyal only to you."
As I said the words, I stepped closer to him in feeble desperation. However, even as I said them, I was no longer convinced they were true. I was no longer convinced I would give my life up to this man.
Sain's sobs grew louder as I cowered before my father, the words "pet" and "servant" resounding in my ears.
Edmund's face fell, his focus falling on the imp for the first time. His eyes narrowed in an anger that trickled through the room like poison, Míra and Damek stepping away in preparation.
"I'll be good," Sain sobbed as Edmund came to a stop inches from me. "A good pet."
"I see you brought Sain back." He didn't even look at Sain, only at me, the back of his fingers running down my bare arm, leaving trails like ice against my skin.
I couldn't help it; I shivered.
I wasn't the only one. Míra shrank back at the movement, the guards tensed, and even Sain quieted.
The color and emotion in my father's eyes were dead as he stared at me, the gentle touch of his fingers against my skin becoming a grip, a tight vise I cringed from, a sob seeping from behind my lips as the bite of his nails pressed into me.
"Where. Is. My. Bride?" He spat each word in my face, the grip of his nails against my forearm increasing, the sharp points digging into me, breaking the skin.
"I lost track of her," I hissed out through the pain, trying my hardest to stand up straight before my father, to show him I could take it, but finding it hard when I knew what was coming. "I tried to find her... but we had to run... Something happened... They knew we were there." The words came out in strained gasps, my chest heaving as his fingers pressed into me, spreading the tiny cuts in my skin apart, causing blood to flow down my arm in hot rivers, pooling against my wrist and in my palm.
"What happened, Ovailia?" he growled, leaning in to press his face against mine, his breath hot against my ear. "What could have possibly happened that made me lose my bride?"
"There was a sight," I gasped in desperation as Sain's cries faded to nothing.
The muscles in my back reacted as his free hand wrapped around the loose fabric of my shirt, the sheer purple cloth pulling against my abdomen for one brief moment before he ripped it from my body. His hand then moved immediately to claw, to dig into the scar that lined my spine.
Hot, wet rivers moved down my cheeks as I cried, their heat matching the blood that coursed down my arm. I tried to move away from him, but he held me in place, leaving me staring straight ahead, into the bathroom he had come from, the floor red with blood, a limp hand laying across the tiles.
"What sight?" Edmund's voice was deep in my ear as his fingers pressed harder against the base of my spine, against the tip of the scar I had carried since the day he had made the first cut.
I gasped at the pressure, the warning understood. I opened my mouth, ready to tell him everything, what I had seen, how we had killed all of the Chosen. It was right there on the tip of my tongue, my heart thundering in desperation to get it all out, my chest heaving in dread of what would come if I did not.
Regardless, there was nothing to tell him, nothing I remembered. Nothing except a white room and a voice that echoed in my head, screaming at me, screaming through me.
"I will not permit you this. You are not a Drak." The words were not mine, but they came, anyway. They came through me, and my father's eyes widened in anger, my nerves twisting with the reality of what I had said. Of what had happened to me.
"What!" My father's voice roared as his blood-covered hand moved to wrap around my hair, pulling me away from him, arching my back as I stared at the ceiling, his face moving. "You have no right to this! To tell me I am not a Drak! And you are? I made you what you are, you filthy, little half breed!" He spat the words as he threw me to the ground, my feet slipping in pools of my own blood as I fell. "I am the first of the Chosen. I hold all of the magic!"
His voice was a roar and a rumble as I lay on the floor, my breath coming in desperate inhales of anxiety, of fear I was quickly accepting. Emotions swelled as his foot pressed against my calf, the heavy weight increasing as he held me in place, as he pressed down, as the bone snapped underneath him, as his laugh boomed.
I screamed at the break. I couldn't help it. I couldn't stop the sound. It bled from me like a white flag; except, I knew this was a white flag Edmund would never accept. He reveled in the pain, loved the sound of punishment well met. With that one scream, I gave him what he wanted, but also the promise that more would be coming.
He fell on top of me as my scream reduced to a sob, the bulk of him sitting against my hips, holding me in place so that, even if I could run, I wouldn't be able to.
I could already feel my magic working to repair the break in my leg, but it was pointless. More would come. I couldn't stop it.
I had walked into this.
"What am I!" he screamed at me, the parallels of his chosen question a cruel joke. I tried to fight against the weight, simply to have it increase against me. His wide, barrel of a chest pressed against my bare back. "Am I a Drak?"
"Yes!" I screamed through the sobs, through the fear, as I felt his hand wind around my wrist, the weight against the joint intensifying as he bent it backward, the tendons straining with the unnatural movement.
"Are you a Drak!" he yelled as the tendons snapped when he pressed back even more.
My scream broke through the hiss of his anger, loud and abrasive, as everyone around us stepped away.
"Answer me!" he screamed again with more force, more ripping, more blood moving over my skin.
"Yes!" I could barely get the word out from above the pain.
He dropped my wrist with a laugh, moving away from me. However, I wasn't dumb enough to think for a second that would be the end.
My eyes snapped open, a desperate part of my brain trying to formulate an escape plan as I gazed into the dark green of Sain's eyes.
His focus did not deviate from mine, and the intensity of his gaze froze me in place. He should be cowering. He should be in pain, but he looked at me with the same power I had seen in him before. His eyes flashed from black to green again before his voice drifted over to me.
"I know another way." Sain's voice was an unheard whisper, the repeated promise stuck inside of me as my father wrapped his hand around the ankle of the already broken leg.
With one yank, the bone separated, my desperate scream drowning out Sain's plea, my body sliding across the floor and back over the pool of my own blood.
"You cost me the fire magic, Ovailia," he hissed as he dropped me in the middle of the floor, the rhythmic grinding of metal against stone flinching through me as he sharpened a knife. "You cost me a mate. Imagine the magic we could have created."
"I'm sorry," I sobbed, knowing the words would never be enough, knowing he didn't care anymore.
"Yes," he barked, the sound of stone and metal abruptly stopping as he moved to stand beside me, his bloodstained shoes inches from my face. "So I have heard. Again and again. _You are sorry_." He sighed, the sound beating into me as he crouched down, the blade swinging before my eyes, reflecting the light of the room against me as he twirled it. "I'm getting tired of your excuses."
I flinched, expecting the knife to make contact, expecting a gash against my cheek, against my arm, against my back. I waited for it, but it never came. He knelt there beside me, the knife twirling between us in warning.
"I made a decision. I am going to send Míra to do the job you could not. I will send her into the cathedral to kill them all. It will be her first, real task, and I'd like to offer you a deal." He paused, but all I could do was sob.
I couldn't find the words in me to formulate any kind of response. He just laughed, the sound deep and hollow as it resonated through the silence.
He finally stood, his steps vibrating through my body from where I lay on the cold, stone floor, the smell of iron and salt increasing.
"If she survives, if she succeeds, then I will let you live." He paused, everything tensing in me as the sound of my pained gasps increased. I knew him too well to believe it was that easy, that I would get out of this unscathed, if not alive. "If she fails, you die. That is, of course, if you survive this."
He had barely spoken before I felt the icy chill of the knife, the sharp point pressing against the base of my spine.
I screamed before I felt the pain, before I felt the cut, knowing what was coming. The sound of my scream, of my pain, mounted as the blade sliced through me, splitting open the scar he had made centuries before, opening up the flesh all the way down my back. I felt the cold of the knife, felt the heat of my blood, and felt the burn of the water as it was released from its prison. Regardless of all that, all I could hear was the scream of my pain and the sound of his laugh increasing. All I could feel was the grip of his servants as they rushed to hold me down.
"You are not a Drak."
## 26
# Ovailia
I didn't know if it was the pain or the sound of my own scream that pulled me out of the black of my unconsciousness, but now that I was out of the blissful, pain-free prison, I wanted to go back.
Everything hurt. Everything ached and throbbed and burned in a low rumble that had wrapped around my body, pressing against me, trapping me in place.
I tried to move, my mind desperate to escape the pain, but every shift of my weight brought more agony. Every flinch, another flare of my already weakened magic tried in vain to heal me.
"Shut up!" a voice hissed in my ear, the tone so low that I didn't recognize it for a moment. "If you keep screaming like that, they are going to come back here, and neither of us really needs that right now. We aren't ready yet." The voice hissed through the air like a snake, cold hands pressing against my back. The agonizing pain increased before his magic moved into me, a wave of heat and warmth that flooded me in moments, numbing the pain and leaving me heaving, face down on a bed, unable to move.
His magic took control, my own moving right alongside his, feeling every broken bone, every ripped muscle, everything my father had done to me. I was very glad I had blacked out early on.
"Good," Sain whispered.
My eyes fluttered open to the sight of a dimly lit room, everything cast in shadows so deep I couldn't really make anything out. Even the man who sat beside me on a bed I recognized as my own was covered in shadow and dread. Although, why we were here and not in my father's preferred dungeon, I had no idea. It wasn't like him to keep people comfortable.
"I don't want to keep putting you back together. You are of no use to me broken."
I cringed at the phrasing, so similar to what my father had spat at me before. Although the hatred in Edmund's voice was missing from Sain's, the infliction was still there, and I cringed, hating how weak and out of control I felt.
Somewhere in the back of my mind, I knew I should be scared, knew I should try to formulate a way to get out of this situation, to make it to Ilyan. I had done it before. However, I highly doubted he would forgive me this time, that he would give me sanctuary.
Not after everything I had done.
Even if I could escape, I would simply be walking from one death sentence to another. At least I knew that death at the hands of my elder brother would be pain free.
"What use am I to you, Sain?" I asked, each word sending pain over my spine, each word shaking out as I pushed past the agony to deliver them.
I expected a harsh rebuttal, expected some form of punishment for my retort. To my surprise, however, he laughed, the sound deep and rich as he rose from the bed. His magic left me as he walked away, and my body rippled with pain that I tried my best to ignore, my teeth clenched in stubborn defiance.
With a heaving sigh, he collapsed on a large, overstuffed chair I kept in the corner, his face and body cast in long, dark shadows, the blue and black moving over him like bars. The effect made him look like a villain in an Audrey Hepburn movie.
"Well, good morning to you, too, gorgeous."
My heart tensed excruciatingly inside my chest as I tried to understand what I had been thrown into and wishing in vain I could at least move.
"What do you want, Sain?" I tried to say the words with as much warning and venom as I usually held, something I was marginally successful at. Not that it mattered, because he knew I was incapacitated thanks to the jagged cut down my back and the small, warm rivers running over my skin, making it obvious I was still bleeding.
"I want you to heal. I want you to survive what your father has done to you." He spoke slowly, the same depth permeating his voice, the same powerful undertow still weaving its way through it. Still, I hadn't expected that answer.
I also wouldn't believe him. "What do _you_ want of me?"
Sain sat still, his face covered in black shadows so deep I couldn't see anything, even though I was certain he was looking at me, studying me.
The silence stretched between us like taffy, his fingers twirling something in his hand, the shape of it long and dark. He then leaned forward, his face slowly moving into the dim blue light as he rested his chin on his fingertips, the depth of his eyes absorbing me.
Clenching my teeth, I met his gaze, not wanting him to see into me as I was in no doubt he had. Nevertheless, I knew it was something I could not control.
"You were my mate for hundreds of years, Ovailia," he sighed, his voice calm despite the unchanging intensity of his eyes. "Is it so hard to believe I still care for you?"
I cringed. "Cut the crap, Sain. I don't know what you are up to—"
"You're right." He smiled, the grin menacing, the intensity of his glare rippling through me. "You don't, but you will."
Grinding my teeth, I found myself wishing beyond anything that I could rush him, attack him, do anything to hurt him, to make him spill whatever precious secrets he had been hiding from us for centuries. However, I was trapped, staring at him.
His smile widened before he rose from the chair, his eyes undeviating from mine as he stepped closer.
"Do you know what I am?" His voice was low as he sat down on the bed behind me, out of sight, causing my body to ache as the bed shifted underneath me. "You asked me that question before. I was wondering... Do you know _what_ I am?"
The pain mounted as I attempted to move, putting as much force into even a simple kick as I could. Nothing came. I lay there, anger rising from the loss of what little power I had held in the situation.
"You are a Drak."
"What kind of a Drak?" His voice was soft and so close I was convinced he was leaning into me. My heart accelerated at the close proximity, the need mixing uncomfortably with a painful throb of terror.
"The first." My heart raced as the bed shifted again, my muscles tight as he leaned over me, his arm and hand locking me in place.
"Oh, I am more than the first. I am the first, the last, and the only, something you couldn't possibly understand."
I froze, focusing on where his hand leaned against my side, my eyes wide as I searched in vain for some shadow, some sign of what he was doing. There was only darkness. There was only silence. I couldn't even hear his breathing.
"But I don't think that was really what you were asking, was it?" he asked.
I couldn't even bring myself to say anything as I lay underneath this stranger. His magic pulsed against me in that familiar need I had felt so many times before, the fingerprint of his power so different I didn't recognize it, despite knowing it was him.
"You wanted to know _who_ I am." He was closer still, his warm exhale moved over me, fluttering through the loose strands of my hair, tickling my neck so perfectly I shivered, something he enjoyed judging by the laugh, the soft, airy chuckle that moved over my skin. "You want to know who you saw in the cathedral... in Imdalind. You know I am up to something, and you want to what it is. You want to be close to this power."
"Yes." The word was more of a sob as he pressed himself against me, his chest lying on top of my back as the weight smothered me in an agonizing heaviness that awakened every pain he had so recently taken away.
"You must want to know very badly," he mused, moving his free hand to push the loose hair out of my face, his touch gentle.
I tried to wiggle, tried to move so I could see him, but it was no use. I was trapped underneath him, forced to stare at the shadows before me.
"Your father was right there, after all. Two words and you could have told him, told him everything..."
My heart beat faster at the realization, something I was certain he noticed with how closely he was plastered against me, his body pressed against my bare back so close I could feel his warmth.
"But you didn't. You know I am right. Pet. Servant. Slave. He cares for nothing, just as I intended. Look at what he has done to you. He has done it before, you know."
"What are you—"
"Your father removed your spine."
I froze as Sain cut off my confusion, the question I had been about to ask lost in the shock of the words he had spoken, the painful reality shifting over me.
Shaking in fear as he lay over me, I recoiled from the sudden direction the conversation had taken, with the menacing warning his voice had adopted.
"I watched him rip it from your body, squeezing the bones as the Black Water dripped from it, burning you... here," he informed as his hand pressed into my upper thigh with an agonizing burn. My body cringed in pain at the heat, at the way the fire shot through my blood. "And here." He pressed again, this time on my back, and this time, I screamed, the sound loud and abrupt as fire shot from the welt and into my body, hot and aggressive, like a jolt of electricity. I couldn't stop the scream if I tried.
Sain clamped his hand over my mouth with an abrupt desperation, his fingertips digging into my face as he hissed in my ear, "Shut up!" The scream stopped in an instant, even though the pain continued to intensify. "You are not healed enough for them to come yet."
He froze over me as the scream dwindled to nothing, the sound of footsteps a hollow beat in the hall beyond the door, stopping right outside of it. I could hear the guard breathing, could feel his impatience seep through the door, impregnating the already tense space with more disgusting emotions.
Frozen, we waited, my mind counting the seconds, anticipating for the man to turn away, to leave Sain and me alone in the darkened room.
This room was as much a prison as the dungeons below, I realized. It didn't matter where Edmund put us; we were still trapped, and I was still incapacitated. My fate, I realized with a jolt, was entirely in Sain's hands.
Slowly, Sain's grip against my mouth lessened as the guard moved away.
"What do you want from me?" I huffed the moment I knew it was safe, my voice pained and broken as I forced it out.
"I need your help."
I froze. He could have said he wished me to be his bride, and I would have been less shocked by the response.
"How can you need my help? You have all the power you need. You've been playing us all along."
His weight finally left me as he jumped over my back, the movement light as the man I had perceived as broken and worthless moved into my line of sight, his face hard and stern, even while his eyes shone brightly. I cringed.
"Not just you, gorgeous." His magic flared as the massive chair slid across the floor without so much as a sound, his weight falling into it as it glided underneath him. "I've been playing everyone. I'm sure you've noticed. You're smart. I know you have. That's why you didn't turn me in. You like it. You like me." As he sat back in the chair, the deep blue ribbons of light and shadow moved over him, casting him in haunting shadows. "I let you see me."
I stared at him, uncertain of what to say, uncertain of what he wanted. I could feel the heavy pull of fear, the heavy desire I had been trying in vain to control flaring up.
"What are you doing?" I gasped, my desperation for answers taking over.
"Orchestrating," he said, his voice calm as he leaned forward, the playful glint in his eyes deepening, pulling me into them. "It's like I told your father before... It's like a perfectly planned game of chess... Oh! What did I say again?" He closed his eyes softly, his face calm and serene for the briefest moment before it melted into a blank slate, his eyes open with the encompassing blackness I had seen so many times before. "Two men stand; one will fall. Blood will drip. The game is played, and those with the most pawns will take the stage. Take your man and play the game, but be careful where your trust is laid." His eyes faded back to green as the words seeped into the darkness surrounding us.
The memory of that moment dug into me, frightening me.
"Hmm," he mused, more to himself than to me. "It seems that sight has changed. I guess we must play to match." He looked off into the dark for a moment before his focus snapped right back to me, the sight repeating on his lips in a low hiss I could barely make out.
"Be careful where your trust is laid, Ovailia," he whispered, the chair flying back into place as he stood, hovering over me like an oppressive bat. "I need your help. Will you help me?"
My eyes were hard as I looked into the man who, I realized, had more faces than my father. No, he had more pawns in the game. He was more than the king my father perceived himself as. He was the queen, and the game was in his hands, just as his sight had said.
"How can I trust you?"
I had expected the question to startle him, but he smiled. The wide grin stretched his face awkwardly as he leaned away from me, his face half in shadow as he pulled that same long pen I had had seen him hold earlier from his pocket, twisting it in front of me. The deep red of the surface caught what little light was in the room, glinting purple. A Soul's Blade.
"I pulled this from you when I was stitching your spine back together. It wasn't all in one piece like this. I had to find them all—all the little splinters he had spread through your body: some against your ribs, some fusing your spine together to keep the Black Water in place, one right through your heart. I pulled them out, one by one, and put them back together—"
"Why do you have that?" Fear gripped me as I stared at the vile thing my father had used against me time and time again. The weapon that, hours before, I had seen Edmund easily control Wynifred with. After what had happened, after what Sain had said, that simple magic was dangerous. It shouldn't be here.
"Don't worry." He folded the shard of Soul's Blade in his hand like a switchblade, his voice dripping with irritation, obviously understanding the panic on my face. "He can't control me. My magic is too strong for him to even try. I need the blade just as I need you."
I jerked away, not from the proximity, not from the fear of what he was saying, but from the actual meaning of what he had just said.
I could already feel his magic press against me. I could feel the warmth of it wrap around me like a blanket, smothering me, soothing me.
"I want you," he soothed, the tempo of his voice changing with those few words, the melody calming, like a song. "Can you trust me?" His voice wrapped around me, his hand continuing to trail up and down my bare back in a calm rhythm, his magic moving into me, swirling around my own. Playing with it. I could feel it try to connect with mine. I wanted it to.
"Yes."
"I trust you, Ovi. I want you," he whispered as he leaned down to me, his lips soft against the hollow of my ear, his voice soft as he whispered to me.
I shivered as his magic surged before pulling back. His touch, his soothing rhythm abandoned me, leaving me wanting.
"I want you, Sain," I gasped, part of me hungry for his touch, part of me confused as to what I was even saying. "I want to help you."
"Good, because now I need you to scream."
Instantly, the calm I had felt left. The gentleness of his voice was gone, and the beauty of his eyes had faded back to the dark warning I had seen before, back to the greed and power I now knew was truly him.
"No!" I gasped in desperation, my heart rate accelerating with the pain I already knew was coming.
"Sorry, Ovi, but it's for the greater good. I promise it will be worth it."
I had barely heard the words when his hand pressed against my back, pressed against the base of my spine that was still trying to fuse itself back together. His grip was rough as he dug into me, as he snapped the fragile bones in two.
The scream erupted from me in a violent ripple, echoing in my head as the pain engulfed me. One vertebrae after another snapped as his hand moved up my back. The scream escalated until a shout reverberated down the hall, the deep anger of my father's voice mixed with them.
"I trust you, Ovailia. Don't let me down," Sain whispered as he moved away, leaving me writhing in agony as he went back to the chair, curling himself in a ball, his eyes fading to black as he cried and muttered to himself.
I watched the change through my pain, my screams subsiding as the door smashed open, a beam of bright light painting the room yellow as my father, Míra, and at least five other guards streamed into the space.
"Shut her up!" my father screamed.
Míra jumped into action as she vaulted onto the bed, straddling me as her tiny hands clamped over my mouth, pulling my head back roughly in a move obviously meant to strangle me.
I gasped for air, the scream ending as the girl's magic moved into me, numbing through me before freezing me in place, my muscles and tendons and bones outside my control.
My heart beat in fear as she let me go, my face slamming into the bed with a rough smack, my body no longer responding to the signals I was sending to it. I was forced to lie lifeless on the bed and watch everyone in front of me.
"Play the game... Play the game..." Sain repeated in a low mumble from the chair, no one so much as paying him attention.
Edmund walked over to where I lay, his eyes glinting brightly with a pride that, once upon a time, I had assumed was only reserved for me.
"Nicely done, child," he mused, his voice deep and dark as he stood over me. His hand was rough as he grabbed my hair and pushed and pulled my head from side to side. "You are learning."
"Play the game... Play the game..." Sain repeated, his voice rising louder as he finally pulled Edmund's attention away from me. The pride and joy in my father's demeanor left.
"This one, on the other hand..." In three quick steps, my father was on him.
Sain's actions grew more desperate and pained with each tap of my father's shoes against the stone.
The moment Edmund reached the old man, his head turned, his eyes black as he continued to mumble. The look froze Edmund in place, his shoulders pulling into a square as he laughed, the sound deep and low as Sain repeated the same phrase again.
"Damek!" Edmund's voice was loud as one of the shadowed figures pulled to the front, the scars that littered the man's face more obvious in the bright light from the hall. "Go and get me a mug. It seems I have more use for this one than I thought."
"Play the game..." Sain repeated, his voice moving into a slow lull as the black faded, the green eyes downcast and broken as he looked around in fear to those who now surrounded him. His hands pulled into his chest in a move that I used to interpret as fear, as a broken man who was made to bend. "Edmund!"
"Sain." Edmund scowled as if Sain's shout of feigned terror was nothing more than a greeting. "You saw something."
Sain moved farther away as Edmund took a step closer, his hand moving to claw at the chair in a desperate need to escape.
"Y-yes..."
"What did you see?"
Sain visibly shook under the weight of Edmund's question.
My heart, the single thing in my body that could move, increased to a torrent as it thundered within me. Fear and pleasure mixed together in a weird blend of emotion as I watched Sain perform in the play before me, and for the first time, I understood what was going on.
"The girl..." Sain gasped, his voice shaking as he raised a finger toward Míra. The girl stepped back in shock as Sain looked at her, his eyes flashing black for no more than a moment before he looked back to Edmund, his body shaking so badly it looked to be convulsing. "I saw her..."
"You saw her do _what_?" Edmund asked, his voice mixed between a gentle nudge and a snap.
Sain twitched at the inflection, as if he was a wounded animal, the motions so similar to what I had watched him do for centuries while he was my father's captive that I fell deeper in awe of him.
"I saw her... in Prague... I know how to get her into the cathedral."
"Wonderful."
## 27
# Wyn
"Wake up!" Her little voice was clear as she yelled in my ear like she had when she was alive, running into Thom's and my bedroom and jumping on the bed in a mad attempt to rouse us. "Wake up!"
I could feel the bounce of the bed, the rhythmic motion moving over me like blankets being pulled down. I almost expected Thom's arm to wind around me, pulling me into him and nuzzling my ear in an attempt to gross her out and scare her off.
"Wake up, Mommy! Hurry!" Her voice was more frantic now. She must be hungry. Maybe I could convince Thom to make her pancakes.
The bed kept jostling. There was only the rhythmic movement of the blankets being pulled over my shoulders, over my head, and then back again. I wanted to tell Rosy to stop pulling at them, but the words wouldn't come. In and out, they moved, the blankets extraordinarily cold and wet, so much colder and wetter than I remembered.
"Wake up, Wyn!" This time, the voice wasn't Rosy's; it was Cail's. The shout was loud and abrupt in my ear as it pulled me back to a red-tinted world. Eyes opening to wet cobbles, I saw the blood red water of the Vltava lapping over my body as the tide rose, inches away from sweeping me away.
I gave a little shout at the realization of where I was, my confusion rising as I moved in desperation to get away from the waters, away from the waves that were trying to drag me under.
Moving quickly, I placed my hands against the soaked cobbles, freezing in pain as a jagged shot moved up my arm from my left hand, from the bright red blade that had impaled my palm. One, blood-soaked point emerged on either side of the destroyed skin.
It was then that I screamed.
Loud and frightening, my pain echoed around the old buildings, off the cracked windows and the abandoned cars. It moved away from me in a wave that, with one hiss, one shriek from a hidden Vilỳ, I knew was a mistake.
My head turned toward the sound, my heart plunging in fear at what I was facing, at what I had done.
In a gasp of terror, I moved, everything aching as I attempted to pull myself to standing, my legs shaking, chest heaving as I fell over my own feet, scuttling over the wet road like an injured animal. I kept my hand cradled against my chest in a desperate effort to keep the pain at bay.
Everything spun as I propelled myself forward, one foot landing in front of the other in a desperate need to escape, not the fanged creature, but any others that would follow.
And they would.
Every move I made heaved through me in broken distortion, like the signal was blocked. My legs twitched as I tripped over them, the unbalanced steps sending me into walls and crashing against cars. The sound of each bang, each sob echoed through the street, creating the perfect path for the little beasts to find me.
It was something that was going to get me killed.
The snarls were moving closer. The gnashing teeth, the beating wings coming up behind me.
Swinging my uninjured hand behind me like a baton, I tried to bring my magic up, ready to drop the filthy thing out of the sky before any more came. Nothing happened. No flame, no spark of magic. I didn't even feel it swell inside of me. It was no more than a low buzz under my skin, a gentle throbbing that felt like knives against my soul.
Dodging into an alley, my heart thundering in fear and confusion, I leaned against the wall as I listened, waiting for the thing to follow me, knowing it wasn't far behind.
With a hiss and a snarl, the Vilỳ came around the corner of the alley. I reached for it, wrapping my fingers around its neck and slamming it into the wall I stood next to. My whole body shook as I held it there, staring into its dead eyes as it continually gnashed and fought me. Its little claws scraped against the hand that held it captive, but I didn't so much as flinch. Those tiny pinpricks of pain were nothing compared to the agony shooting up my arm.
This, I could handle.
This, I was used to.
"I remember you things when you were annoying little peacemakers," I spat, part of me wondering if he could even hear me. " _We must love everyone. Do not judge based on what you see._ The hippies would have loved you. You were almost as bad as the Drak."
It continued to gnash and claw at me as it fought against my hold, the motion useless. Even in my weakened state, it had no hope.
With a roll of my eyes, I compressed my hand against its throat, its windpipe closing with a little bit of pressure.
Slowly, it stopped trying to fight me, the sharp point of its claws digging into me less and less.
"I'm sorry," I whispered as its head fell to the side, wings sagging as I let it drop lifelessly to the ground.
I hoped no more found me.
One, I could choke. Two hundred and I would be a goner. I already knew I wouldn't be lucky enough for that scream to go unheard.
I needed to hide. Not that it would make any difference with Vilỳs, but I wasn't going to go out into the middle of the street and start waving my arms, either.
Dragging my feet against the garbage-strewn floor of the alley, I moved away, clinging to broken bits of mattresses, chairs, and the wall as I made my way to a large dumpster, the massive thing taking up most of the space of the dingy thoroughfare and providing me with the perfect cover.
Or so I hoped.
Hissing in pain, I slid down the wall, pressing myself against the vile metal box that smelled faintly of fruit. I tried to focus on my surroundings, focus on any noise coming my way—be it hissing or wings or blue-eyed men. There was nothing, nothing except dead air and the faint red glow of Edmund's barrier.
It was something that should have been relaxing, but I didn't think anything could be at that point, because right then, sitting behind the dumpster, the panic that had gripped me for the past few minutes became more of a frightening reality. Everything that had happened in the last who knew how long washed over me: attacking my best friend, Sain, and Sain standing beside Edmund, and Rosy and Cail, and Thom...
"Thom," I said aloud, the frightening memory swimming through my mind—that moment as I fought against Edmund's control in a desperate attempt to stop myself from killing him.
No, to stop Edmund from killing him.
I had thought I was strong enough to face the demons the blade awakened, to save my daughter. But Edmund was stronger. No, the blade was stronger. This dangerous thing had better not end in Thom's death.
I needed to get there in order to make sure he was okay, to give this dratted thing to Ilyan before something worse happened. I hoped he could destroy it.
My arm exploded in a jolt of pain as I looked down at my hand, at the blade and the dried blood that clung to it like some kind of scab. I had to take it out before he found me, before he tracked it and found me, before he took control again. For all I knew, it was this thing that was blocking my magic, and I wasn't conceited enough to think I could make it through the city without so much of a spark, that I could make it through the city without Edmund taking control again. I didn't have another option. It was too dangerous to wait.
Closing my eyes, I wrapped my other hand firmly around the end, the rock slick with dried blood, warm and uncomfortable to the touch.
I tried not to think about what I was about to do. I breathed, part of me praying I didn't go into cardiac arrest. It would be like a band-aid, or so I said in my head. I guessed the analogy would be correct if the band-aid was made of massive leeches, barbed wire, and duct tape.
"Five, four, three..." I didn't wait, just pulled, the action rough and quick as the thing dislodged from my hand with a loud, wet smack.
It took all my willpower to keep the scream inside my throat, keep the agonizing pain hidden, and keep me safe from any other magical flying rats that were about. Every muscle stiffened in mind-numbing pain. My body seized and flailed in a need to stay quiet.
One swift move and my head slammed into the stone wall I sat against, a new pain erupting through my skull at the impact, but even that pain was not enough to compete with what now ripped through me.
Stomach spinning, I heaved, the smell of blood and vomit so strong I could barely breathe through it.
Balling up the hem of my shirt as best I could, I pressed it against my hand in an effort to stop the massive bleeding that was now flooding from the golf ball-sized hole in the center of my hand. I already knew it was pointless. The pain continued, blood flowing in rivers over my skin, pooling against my legs and the garbage I sat on.
Still, I could not feel my magic. I couldn't feel the warmth. Nothing rushed to my hand in a mad attempt to stop the blood flow, to heal the ragged wound I had created.
If I stayed here much longer, I would bleed out.
I had to move.
I had to find Ilyan before it was too late.
Shaking, I attempted to place the shard of blade in my pocket, trying to focus on a world that was spinning and shifting before me. Everything shook. _I_ shook as my body moved into what I was convinced was shock.
Pressing my weight against the wall, I leaned against it as I forced myself to stand, my eyes wide as I looked down the alley, part of me praying Ilyan would magically be standing there.
It remained empty.
At least there weren't any rabid Vilỳs, I supposed.
Using the wall as support, I moved back down the alley, my eyes darting every direction as I tried to get my bearings, praying I was on the right side of the river, praying I was close to the cathedral.
I couldn't be that far away after what had happened, not that I remembered much. I remembered running, and if I was running then as well as I was walking now, I had to be close.
I was.
I was on Latenska, the long street that moved over the river and stretched into Old Town, which was less than half a mile from where I needed to be, from someone who could save me. I hoped I could get there in time, or Jos would probably find me in a few days, face down in a pool of my own blood, surrounded by Styx lyrics.
I ran, leaning against the wall, my hands clawing at corners and windowsills as I stumbled forward, keeping my pace as fast as I could, given that my legs still weren't working right, and the added pain in my hand was making it hard to see straight, hard to think.
Everything ached, each step getting harder to think through, each step draining me. Worse still, all I could really see was red and black as the sun hovered above me, weird shadows moving over the street before me, and the steady drip of my blood as it fell against the street was loud in my ears. The rhythm of each drop perfectly matched the frantic pace of my heart.
I supposed I should calm down. It would ease the blood flow a bit, but it was an impossibility. It was all I could do to keep my brain focused on my destination, something that was becoming harder, my brain slowly shutting down with each step.
With each drop of blood I lost.
"Who needs blood?" I asked aloud, the words slurred as I turned a corner, the wide foyer of the cathedral opening up before me. The cathedral beyond the massive space was broken and smoldering as though it had been destroyed, as though they had been attacked. Staring at it, I struggled to get my mind to focus on what I was seeing, trying again to recall what had happened. I knew Ilyan's barrier made everything look abandoned from this side, but that level of destruction was a little excessive.
Leaving the safety of the wall, I moved into the open space before the barrier, the same stretch I had run through before seeming as though it was as long as football field, the golden gate broken and looming before me, the dark stone looking more like a gateway to Hell than to safety.
With all I had done in this life, I would certainly deserve that.
"Ilyan," I gasped, my voice broken as I took another step, my stomach spinning as much as my head was. Everything before me fell apart, black looming in and making it hard to see. "Ilyan," I gasped again, my broken legs twisting underneath me as I spun on the spot, collapsing as the world continued to twirl.
Stars of black and red all mixed together in what my brain was trying desperately to interpret as a smoothie.
Oh, geez, I was losing it.
"Ilyan."
My head made contact with the heavy cobbles of the courtyard with a slap, the plea reverberating in the cave of my mind, the simple word mixing with a scream that flooded the air.
I wanted to tell whoever was screaming to shut up. They were just going to attract the Vilỳs, attract Edmund's men. Nevertheless, I couldn't get the words out.
While I stared ahead, his shoes moved toward me, voices pulling through the screams in a weird echo I didn't understand.
"Wyn?" The voice resonated through my head like a bass drum, the same word coming again and again as the fear in the name increased. Maybe they could get whoever was screaming to shut up. "Wyn!"
"Help," I said, my desperate pleas barely above a whisper. "My hand. Help. Heal it." I wasn't confident they had heard me above the scream that wouldn't stop or even if they were really there. I couldn't focus enough to know anymore.
Pain throbbed through my head as I felt wide hands lift me. Then bouncy black curls came into view, the familiarity of them seizing through me in a wave of dread.
Edmund.
No. It couldn't be. He couldn't be here. He couldn't be.
It was then the screaming stopped, the terror taking its place as my weak body began to fight. Blood sprayed everywhere as I flailed, nonsense spewing out of my mouth as I tried to get away from him, to fight. Except, I couldn't find the energy above a gasp and a flail. It didn't matter; I would die trying to escape him if I had to. I would rather die than go through what Edmund had planned for me.
"No!" I screamed, "I won't marry you! Let me go! No!" The words came one right after another, the panic mounting as his magic moved into me.
The calm heat of a power I didn't recognize flooded me, moving right to my hand, right to my heart as it calmed me, as it cauterized the wound in an obviously desperate attempt to stop the bleeding.
I stopped fighting as the magic took control, my body relaxing, my heart rate slowing, even while I could still feel the fear, still feel the pain. I didn't seem to care quite so much anymore.
"Geez, Wyn," Ryland gasped, his voice breaking through my horror in that same weird echo I had heard before. "I didn't know you thought of me that way. I'm flattered, but I'm not interested."
"Ryland?" I gasped, turning to face the boy who carried me, but he didn't even look at me. He held me against him, his jaw tight, eyes focused ahead.
"At your service." His voice was chipper all things considered, but even I could tell he was putting it on, something dark edging beneath him, like he was trying to hide something. "We've been looking for you."
I didn't know what to say. My body felt very heavy and foreign as I lay in his arms, my magic slowly coming back to life as his filled me. Something, considering the way his brow furrowed, he noticed and, strangely, was not happy about.
"Ryland?" I asked, confusion and fear rising up in me, barely able to get the one word out.
"Ilyan says I am to treat you like an enemy, Wyn." His voice had taken on that deep, gravely quality I had heard before. The underlying tension made sense, and I froze, the calm I had felt at being found melting away in a tense anxiety.
I swallowed, looking away from the boy to the cathedral, to the barrier we were quickly approaching. My mind panicked over whether or not it would even let us through.
"You attacked Joclyn, Wyn. You attacked Risha." His muscles constricted at the mention of the last name, and the dread I was feeling dipped into me painfully. "And last anyone heard, you were going to be marrying Edmund, which seems to be hauntingly accurate given what you were yelling at me... I mean... I do look awfully similar to my father—"
"I have a reason..." I could barely get the words out, the selfish, pathetic nature of my excuse grating on me.
"A reason for marrying my father? I don't want you as my stepmother, and neither does Ilyan."
"No! I obviously don't want that, Ry! I mean, for attacking..." I felt like I had been hit in the chest... or maybe stabbed in the hand. After everything, trying to pass off my selfishness as a _reason_ for attacking my best friend was pretty pathetic. I guessed Ilyan had a right to tout me as dangerous.
Maybe I was.
No, I knew I was.
"We know about the blade," Ryland said, pulling me out of the quickly building panic with a growl. "And you should know better."
"What are you, my dad?" I couldn't stop the snap from erupting out of my voice. Now that my body was healing, my personality went right back into place. "Says the boy who attacked his mate _and_ his best friend when under the control of his father—"
"That's different."
"How?" I spat, my temper quickly rising to a dangerous level, the heat of my magic rising to match.
I could still feel Ryland's magic as it attempted to heal my hand. I knew he felt that, felt the heat, felt the warning. It was something he obviously didn't miss.
"First, they were the same person," he barked as he turned his head toward me, his eyes narrowing in obvious irritation. "And second..." He stopped in place, his arms tense as he halted barely steps away from the barrier, steps away from what my head had interpreted as safety. But he didn't move. He froze, glaring at the barrier with a jaw so tight I was concerned for a minute that it would snap off.
I knew why he had stopped, and not because there was no second reason. He knew as well as I did that the situations were pretty much the same.
Minus the whole marriage thing.
Ew.
"I'm not going to attack anyone, Ry," I whispered, knowing exactly where his mind was. "I'm not working for Edmund."
"I know that, and I'm pretty sure Ilyan knows that. But I can't disobey orders, either." The same fear as before moved through his voice, heavy and broken, everything tensing.
I could tell he regretted what was about to happen, and I reacted, my fear kick-starting through the heavy emotional binder Ryland had smothered me with.
"You're not going to kill me, are you?" My magic flared in preparation.
I knew I was still weak, but I could hope I had enough energy to take on Ryland. I doubted it, and I didn't want to. But I wasn't going to go down without a fight.
"No, Wyn. Don't be ridiculous," he groaned, his voice making it obvious he was trying to make it light-hearted, even though there was something else there, something that made my muscles tense. "Can you stand?"
I could merely nod in answer, regardless of being convinced whether I could or not. Standing, I could probably do at this point. Although, if I would be completely vertical was still a matter of debate.
Walking, however, I knew was not going to happen, and judging by the way the nerves on the left side of my body were jumping around, I was beginning to wonder if walking in a straight line was ever going to happen again.
I would never pass a sobriety test.
I guessed it was good I didn't drive. Flying would be interesting, though.
With a deep exhale, Ryland set me back down on the ground, his motions careful as he made certain I could at least hold my weight before he let go, his magic leaving as soon as we lost skin contact.
I gasped as the powerful numbing balm of his magic left, the pain flooding right back through me, jabbing through my arm and erupting in my head like a billion, little bombs all going off at once.
Tensing in pain, I fell to my knees, my body deciding not to hold my weight. Figures. Everything spun and seized, my stomach churning angrily as the pain threatened to do me in, everything vibrating as my stomach turned and twisted in a viable threat.
"Are you okay?" Ryland asked as he fell down beside me, his hand strong on my back.
For a moment, I briefly thought about asking him to pull my hair back, not that it wasn't already covered in vomit and blood.
Focusing on my breathing, I tried desperately to find something to stare at. If only the world would stop shifting and duplicating. Even Ryland was caught in some odd vortex of clones.
"I think so," I said, looking at one of the five Ryland's to choose from and hoping it was the right one. For all I knew, I was staring far off to the left.
"I'll take that as no," he grumbled, obvious regret weaving through him. "I don't have any other choice, Wyn. Ilyan barred you from the barrier. Even if I try, it won't work. You are going to have to wait here. Can you hold on?"
I nodded numbly, still not quite certain if I was looking at the right Ryland.
My heart pulsed painfully as he turned from me without another word, his body swallowed by the liquid air that surrounded the cathedral. Everything became wobbly, confusing my already twisted brain more.
I didn't dare move as I focused on the spot he had stood in a minute before, knowing he could see me on the other side. Chances were high that he was watching me. Chances were even higher that he wasn't alone.
I sat, staring at the cathedral, the distorted damage hard to make out with the way everything was shifting. For a moment, it looked like one of the main walls was about to fall in. Thank goodness it was the false reality created by Ilyan's shield.
I knew Joclyn and I had done some damage with whatever had happened before, but I would seriously be dead if it was that much. That would be more of a reason for Ilyan to put me on an "armed and possibly dangerous" list. Destroying churches. In some ways, I guessed I should be happy it was a perceived disloyalty... well, and attacking my best friend. Those, I could fix.
At least, I hoped I could.
The air moved as though it was a mirage, my heart rate accelerating in fear of exactly who was coming through and what I could be facing. It had been such a relief when Ryland had found me, and granted, the whole stopping-my-bleeding-before-I-died thing was awesome, but I suddenly found myself wishing I had bled out.
Edmund was a terrifying master, but Ilyan brought out a whole different kind of fear, one that made you simultaneously feel guilt and an unquestionable desire to be better.
It was irritating.
The man himself came through first, his hair a tousled mess, face covered in ash and soot. I looked up at him from where I cowered on the ground, my heart immediately moving into overdrive.
Something had happened, something more than me attacking Jos, something more than me being controlled by Edmund. The image of Thom in that bed, the magic sparking between my fingers, flashed before me, and I winced. My heart constricted in fear of what could come after. I didn't dare ask, seeing the remains of a war on his face, seeing the anger creased in his forehead and his downturned lips. I knew it was bad.
Shying away, I scuttled over the cobbles as quickly as I could, the sparks of electric discomfort in the right side of my body rising. The pain duplicated with each step he took toward me, the defiant assassin side of me completely quiet for once.
"We need to have a chat, you and I," Ilyan said, his voice a deep, oozing rumble as the air behind him continued to move, Joclyn and Ryland following him through the barrier.
I didn't even look at them. I knew better than to look away from the powerhouse I was faced with.
My heart was rampaging inside of me, everything twisting violently and increasing the pain I was stuck with.
Nodding numbly in response, Ilyan squatted down in front of me, his tall frame folding elegantly despite the lankiness of him.
I froze, the silence of the space drowning out the violent tempo of my heart and filling me with a loud buzzing I was momentarily convinced was caused more from fear than blood loss.
"Give it to me." His voice was harsh as he extended his hand toward me, palm up, his eyes boring into me.
I hesitated, even though I knew I needed to give it to him. It was why I had come here. I shouldn't have it. If I had learned anything in the last two hundred years, it was that.
My lips pressed into a tight line as I shifted my weight, my hand fidgeting with my pocket in an attempt to remove the blade from where I had stowed it. My heart rate increased again the closer my fingers got, the sound echoing in my ears as Rosaline's cries intensified louder and louder and...
_Mommy!_
My body twitched as the single word erupted in my head, pulling at my memory with a start and igniting my magic to dangerous levels.
No one moved; they stood still, waiting.
With my lips in a tight line, I moved again, forcing the thing from my pocket, trying to ignore the way it had opened up into loud, racking sobs. The sound ripped into me as I extended the blade toward the man who had saved my life on more than one occasion, and I was quite certain he was going to do so again.
"Ryland," Ilyan said, his focus solely on the blood red shard of the blade I extended toward him, his lip curled in what was unmistaken disgust.
The boy stepped forward, his curls bobbing as he handed Ilyan a small, metal box, the top of which opened on its own. Ilyan extended the empty vessel toward me, his intent clear.
Without question, I dropped the blade into the case, the sound of the screams and cries that came from the blade growing more panicked as the lid closed, Ilyan's magic sealing it in place. Then there was only an indefinable calm that stretched over me.
Only freedom.
"What were you thinking?" Ilyan's voice was as firm as the lines in his face, the look in his eyes compressing into my shoulders as, for the first time, I looked away from the powerful man before me.
"She's my daughter, Ilyan," I gasped, hot tears moving down my cheeks again. "I can't abandon her."
"She's my niece. She's my blood as well as yours." Ilyan sighed, pulling my focus to him, drawn to the calmness of his voice, to the soft hand that extended toward me. "Do you think I would abandon her, as well?"
All I could do was stare at him, stare at the calm in his eyes, stare at the gesture of his hand before me. My heart thundered heavily in my chest as I tried to vet what he had said, the guilt ripping me apart.
"I've been a fool," I whispered.
He pressed his lips into a tight line, pinching the bridge of his nose as he shook his head. "Give me your hand, Wynifred."
Swallowing, I did as I was told, placing my uninjured hand in his palm, just to have him smile and drop it, picking up the other without question. Then his magic seeped into me as he began to heal it.
"I know you better than to think you would defect to my father, let alone marry him," Ilyan sighed, his smile fading back into the hard line I had expected. "But do something like this one more time, Wynifred, and you _will_ force my hand."
I looked at him, his hand a vise around mine, his magic throbbing through me with a powerful flood of energy I knew was more in warning than in healing.
I stared at him for one moment, knowing I needed to trust him. I needed to trust myself.
And I nodded.
## 28
# Joclyn
I could breathe up here. Even though the lingering smell of smoke saturated the air, I didn't feel quite as confined as I had in the mad house that the cathedral had become.
Thanks to both the destruction of the chapel and the makeshift hospital going up in flames, everything had become crammed. Crammed and crazy.
It had been less than a day, but already, tensions were higher than they had been hours before.
Sain had revealed himself for what he truly was, leaving his followers wondering about the deceptions they had been told, about what they could trust, if anything.
It would have been nice if they hadn't believed in Sain's games, in his lies. But that wasn't the case. After all, everything Sain had said fit. And many of the rumors refused to die. It was only after I had stopped screaming that the hospital burned, and I was found inside of it, miraculously unharmed.
Now everyone was crammed into tents and tiny rooms, living on top of each other as we rebuilt from the attack. Tensions were high. Even watching them from up here, I could see them huddled together, the gossip never ending, the arguments I had come up here to escape continually breaking out.
And here I was, thinking it would get easier after I revealed Sain for what he truly was.
_Is that why you left me alone to dispel this mess?_ Ilyan asked into my mind. The quick response made it clear he was tuned into me, something that had been a little more common since yesterday and all the sights I had been trapped in.
I couldn't really blame him. I just wished he wasn't keeping me out of his mind quite as much. That was new, and I didn't like it.
"I don't see it as _dispelling_ so much as 'handling' with a greater finesse than I could ever muster." I laughed as I said it, and his own chuckle joined in.
Taking a deep drink of the Black Water I held, the warm liquid warming me from the inside out, I closed my eyes, blocking out the endless sunset I was surrounded by, if only for a moment. _Besides, Ilyan, it's beautiful up here. You should join me. Leave Ryland to clean up the mess._
_Spoken like a true queen._ I couldn't see it, but I could hear the wide smile in Ilyan's voice. The humor in the situation leaked through our connection and filled me like a deep, warm bubble.
I felt so warm and relaxed from the connection, my heart moving into a familiar rhythm as it thumped to match his, our souls binding together. It was enough to make me leave the safe confines I had closeted myself up in and find him. Almost.
I leaned forward from where I was hiding near the roof of the ancient cathedral, over the old stonework of the flying buttresses that connected to the low spires to the chapel. I could see everything from up here, even beyond the bustling courtyard, beyond the barriers of Ilyan's shield and into the city.
The soaring heights of the building lifted me above the world below and gave me that same freedom I had sought after for so many years. After all, it wasn't the first roof of a building I had found sanctuary on. Although the gothic cathedral was stuck in a state of architectural disarray, thanks to the little mishap Wyn and I'd had, this was still secure. This was still one step away from flying.
I needed that right now.
Long stretches of stone leapt through the air high above the ground, lining the roof, or what was left of it. Each swath of stonework stretched forward with intricately carved shapes lining the surface. I clung to one as I looked for Ilyan, the stone knot slick from the ash of the fire, the gargoyles that surrounded me wearing beards and hats of grey. I considered finding ash to match, if only to hide better.
_I_ am _queen,_ I whispered back, forcing as much feigned prissiness as I could muster into my voice.
_You are my queen,_ Ilyan's response came, his voice deep as his magic flooded me, the powerful connection pulling me right to the tall blond-haired man who stood in the middle of the space, his face turned up to where I was hidden, his lips spread into a wide smile. _My beautiful queen._
I couldn't help the way everything heated and relaxed inside of me. My heart beat faster as that amazing love he shared with me filled me from my head to my toes.
Giggling like a lunatic, I pressed the mug to my lips again, only to hear Ilyan's chuckle move through me, his love swelling before someone pulled his focus and made him return to the traumatic reality we were surrounded by. It was something I couldn't avoid much longer.
"Just one more," I said with a sigh, more to myself than anyone else as I refilled my mug with one pulse of my power.
Dangling my feet over the edge of stone ledge I sat upon, I made myself comfortable, content to watch the action through the intricate designs in the stone as long as I could. Part of me wished I could hide up here until everything was over, but I knew that wasn't possible anymore.
I had tried to hide with Wyn at first, but she was confined to Thom and Dramin's room "until further notice," and I didn't want to be stuck in there any more than she did. Between Thom being trapped in a coma, Wyn being exhausted from the emotional onslaught, and the fact that Dramin had become even more closeted, mysterious, and sulky after the fire, that room had turned into little more than a high school detention hall.
Between that or the roof, I thought I had chosen wisely.
With another deep drink from my mug, warmth moved over me, the deep Drak power blazing to life, morphing into an image of Ovailia, tears streaming down her face. The shadow of the sight blended over the courtyard below me, the two images intermingling uncomfortably.
My heart rate picked up at what I was seeing, the warmth Ilyan had left me with vanished with one flash of the sight. Without a second thought, I closed my eyes, opening them to the black and letting the sight take hold.
The sounds of Ovailia's sobs moved over me, rumbling in my ears as she cried. I could see the whites of her eyes through the deep shadow she was surrounded by, panic and fear running through her as blood dripped down her face. My magic prodded the image to move as I tried to look away from what my sight had focused on, trying to find any clue as to what was happening. But it was only darkness, only the shadow of her face, only the sound of her sobs. The scent of her blood washed over me as I watched it drip down her cheek, the iron and salt smelling sweet, but I wasn't sure why.
This wasn't the first time my magic had shown me this moment in time. I had seen it only hours before, and even then, it was no more than her crying in a dark room. I couldn't tell if it was past or present or even what was happening. The image wasn't clear enough.
With a blink of my eyes, I banished the sight, storing it away with the others. My heart rate slowly decelerated as the people below me came back into focus. Even though this reality wasn't any more relaxing than what I had seen, it at least felt more stable.
_Did you see any more?_ Ilyan asked from somewhere below me. The simple question made it clear he had seen everything I had, something that was happening consistently since he had been pulled into that sight.
I cringed at his question, part of me desperately wishing I had at least seen something to put his mind at ease, if simply to get him to stop asking me about it.
Don't get me wrong; Ovailia was barely one step from the bottom of the list of 'people I would like to kill,' but she was also my mate's sister. I knew him well enough to understand that, even though he would never say it. I could feel him worry for her. I could feel his need to still protect her somehow. I wished I felt the same.
"It's still dark," I whispered to myself with the slightest hint of a growl, taking a quick drink in an effort to mask my irritation.
_Will it become clearer?_ he asked, causing my shoulders to knit together a bit.
_It might,_ I sighed, knowing full well my irritation was becoming more obvious. _Or it could be that the room is dark._
I was snotty and I knew it, as did Ilyan. Anyone else might have backed off, but Ilyan chuckled, the whimsical sound blending into me as I relaxed again.
_Point taken._
Rolling my eyes at his response, I leaned back, resting against the cold stone of the cathedral, fully intending to fall asleep and make some excuse for my disappearance later.
_Drak's don't sleep._
_Thanks for the reminder, darling,_ I growled.
His laugh intensified before I gently locked him out of my mind, needing some form of silence for a bit.
Silence and a steaming mug of Black Water.
"Just one more," I said again, refilling it and hating the weird amount of guilt that moved through me.
I shouldn't feel bad about taking a moment to myself, but I did. I vaguely remembered my mom saying something about that once... about responsibility and requirement. Stupid adult-hood. If I could see the path to end this fiasco, it would be worth it.
With a sigh, I pulled the tiny bottle of green fluid out of my pocket, the poisonous contents already transferred to another shatterproof container. After I had found it yesterday, I had known it was the key to healing Thom, but I hadn't gotten any closer to that actually happening. My magic hadn't given me any more clues, even with sitting between him and Wyn for about six hours last night. I got nothing. Then again, I might have been more concerned with fixing the massive hole in Wyn's hand than harnessing whatever juju my magic had a tendency to whisper at me.
Six hours and it didn't look any better than it had when she showed up outside the barrier. Whatever that blade had done to Wyn, it had made it impossible to close. I had a feeling we would have to find her some pretty epic gloves to cover that mess. She would never win another game of jacks in her life.
"I had a feeling I'd be running into you up here eventually."
I jumped at the voice, Black Water flying all over me at the almighty jerk caused from hearing Ryland's voice so close without warning.
"Ry!" I yelled, halfway between anger, frustration, and amusement. I was glad he wasn't up to killing me yet, and hated that it was my first reaction. I hadn't felt that need in a while.
Standing quickly, water dripping over me, I looked to the casual intruder, his eyes wide as he rushed toward me in a panic.
"Jos! Wow! I'm sorry!" I saw what he was doing no more than a second before he did, the words, the desperate plea for him to stop coming a second too late.
"Stop!" I snapped as he reached out to help, as his hand made contact with the Black Water that covered me, as he yelled out in pain.
The contact with his skin against the water pulled me into prophecy, the connection with his heart taking me right into his life, right into what he wanted to know.
The ember burn of my eyes grew darker as images of his life flashed before me: his childhood, his moments with me, the abuse he suffered in the dungeons of Imdalind. I saw it all. My heart seized at the pain and loss and confusion that dwelled in his heart, at the desperate need for something to be okay, for something in his life to be beautiful.
I watched his memories, his past, as he put a smile on his face, as he continued to fight through the pain of life, through the uncertainty of the hell we were marching into. My own heart seized right alongside his, my own pain and troubles increasing, the depth of my understanding scaring me.
The depth of my own need for that silver lining.
As his desire swelled inside me, the sight changed, the images becoming fogged as they moved into an unknown future. There was an image of him ageing, wisdom lining his face as hundreds of years moved by him, as the world around him changed, and the life around him changed with it. He was still the same boy, save for the lines that covered his face, evidence of a million smiles and a happy life. His eyes were filled with joy, and in his arms was a beautiful, little boy with dark, curly hair.
Ryland smiled at the child, throwing him into the air as his laugh rippled through my head. The sound was loud and beautiful as it swelled through me before the sight faded, reality shifting back into focus, and the boy who was desperately blowing at the burns on his fingers swam into view.
Shaking my head, I let the dizziness drift away, my magic swelling with whispers and promises as, one by one, the prophecies of his life left.
"What the heck, Jos?" Ryland yelled, his eyes dangerously dark. "Do you burn people now?"
"No," I said with a roll of my eyes. "But Black Water does, and you should know better. And blowing on them won't help, by the way."
It was probably good I couldn't be mad at him after what I had seen, after the emotional connection I had shared with him. Instead of the verbal assault he probably would have gotten, I just rolled my eyes again, wrapping my hand around his fingers, letting my magic soothe him, taking away the Black Water that had moved into him.
"And I should know this why? I mean, my experience with Black Water is _so_ extensive." I could tell he was trying to control the anger in him yet obviously failing.
I laughed, something that didn't really sit well, unfortunately.
"Don't worry, Ry. Mine isn't much better." Releasing his hand from mine, I looked at his now healed fingers, my own brand of awe moving through me. Nothing was there, just perfectly healed skin. I didn't think that was possible with Black Water burns. I might have to try that on Ilyan's chest or even his palm. I knew he would be grateful not to deal with the endless pain those gave him. "Feel better?"
He nodded at my question, one eyebrow disappearing into his curls quizzically.
I sighed, his look and question obvious.
"Yes, I saw something, and yes, everything will be okay for you. I'm not telling you any more than that."
"And?"
"And you're happy. I'm not telling you any more than that," I repeated through the clench of my jaw. He obviously thought more highly of his skill to get stuff out of me than I did.
"Yeah, yeah," he said, the hint of a smile beginning to form. "You really aren't going to tell me more than that?"
I glared at him, my lips pursed angrily as he laughed. He was obviously trying to put on the charm, something that I would have melted under a little more than a year ago. Not so much anymore. I was too stubborn, and he knew it.
"No, I'm not telling you any more than that." I half expected him to laugh, but instead, the smug smile of his game slipped off his face, disappointment taking over.
"That's no fair, Jos."
"Ha! Life is a journey meant to be experienced, Ry. What's the fun if I tell you all the stops along the way?"
"I would know where I am going... I wouldn't run into quite so many walls at the very least," Ryland said, the teenage irritation dripping off him.
It was all I could do to keep the smile off my face, although the attempt to keep the stoic, wise grimace wasn't going too well, either. "That can't be good for your complexion, or your nose, for that matter."
"Thanks, Jos," he grumbled, the angst dripping off him and infecting me. "And stop being all wise and philosophical and stuff. It's weird."
"You're weird." I looked away from him, trying to ignore the twist in my stomach at how quickly we had fallen back into our familiar banter after everything we had been through.
We sat, listening to the whispers of the people below us, watching the line of the red sun slowly move over the city as it disappeared past the horizon.
"You were on a beach," I whispered after a few minutes. His eyes widened as he moved to face me, obviously eager to absorb anything I would give him. "There were other people involved you may... or may not be related to. It was a happy scene, Ry."
"Happy." The one word leaked out of him with so much emotion I was surprised it didn't stick in the air and linger around us like a dozen balloons.
"Very. Just don't go thinking I'm infallible, okay? I'm kind of done with that lie being spread around."
"You really aren't going to give me more than that, are you?" he teased.
I shook my head, a smile spreading over my face. "Trust me. It will be better this way, but that fear you feel, that desperation for normality..." He nodded. "Everyone has it, Ry. Just know it doesn't last forever. Not for any of us. It may take a bit, but everything will come out all right."
I had barely said the words when the violent image of Ilyan's death flooded my vision, overlaying the city roof-scape with the steady flow of Ilyan's blood. I cringed against it, my heart rate picking up to a dangerous level as the fear overtook me, my own unwillingness to accept what I was seeing erupting through me.
"Everything will come out all right," I said again, part of me hoping—no, willing them to be true.
I shifted my body forward in an attempt to seek out Ilyan, as if seeing him would set everything right in my mind, confirm the good that I, too, was desperate for. My magic moved away from me to find him, but instead of streaming to the courtyard, I was pulled in a different direction.
My mind and magic drifted over the city, winding through the streets as my heart rate increased, dread filling me as the shadow of what I was certain I wouldn't feel again drifted over me.
My mind filled with the images of the dilapidated city, the streets shrouded in the black of night, the ancient beauty of it turned into a dangerous labyrinth I had no interest in entering. That was, until the shadow of magic I was feeling sparked through me, everything tensing as the image of a single, cloaked figure moved through the dark, running from street to street as it had the last time I had felt its magic.
"It's the same." My voice was a hollow monotone as it rumbled through the dusk, the magic winding through me with a deep mockery as every muscle tensed through me.
He was here.
After what he had done, after what people had seen him do, he had come back.
"What's the same?" Ryland asked from beside me.
My focus was so intent on what had unfolded I didn't even answer him.
"Ilyan," I said aloud, fully aware Ryland could hear me. "Sain is in the city. I can feel him on the other side of the river—"
_Sain!_ Ilyan's voice erupted loudly, his body running into the center of the courtyard as he looked up to me. _Why would he come back?_
He asked the question, although the answer was so clear I almost hated having to say it. Sain had been doing much more than spreading rumors; I was confident of that. And if you took the time to play a game, you didn't walk back into your enemy's territory without a motive.
"It's a trap."
There was no doubt. However, we couldn't let him get away, either. I had no question that he was very aware of that. It was a game of the worst sort, but at least we weren't going into it unaware. If we played our cards right, we could have the upper hand.
_How many does he have? Can you tell what he's planning?_
"I'll find out. You get a team together. As many as you can." I looked at Ilyan as his mind followed mine. His eyes were hard, his jaw straight as he nodded in confirmation.
"Can I be part of this conversation, too?" Ryland groaned from beside me, his weight shifting as he moved to stand. "I'm Ilyan's second. Doesn't that count for something?"
"Stop being a baby," I growled, not even paying him attention as I closed my eyes, focusing my magic on what I assumed was Sain running through the streets and moving out from there. I scoured everything as I looked for any other trace of magic, for anything that would tip me off to what he was planning.
"I hate that you guys do that." I wasn't certain if Ryland was laughing or growling. His voice was too distorted from where my mind was focused on the city and any tips as to what was about to happen. There was nothing. I moved through every street in the city, every building, but it was empty except for the Vilỳs that lay in hiding.
"There's nothing." My voice was dead, the shock still rumbling through me uncomfortably.
I wasn't certain how that was possible. Why would he come back if not for a trap?
_Nothing anywhere?_
I didn't blame Ilyan for questioning.
"No, I can't find anything. That doesn't mean he isn't up to something, though. It's up to you if we want to go in blind or not."
I looked to Ryland then, who was now so irate at being left out of the conversation I half expected steam to start issuing from his ears.
"Care to fill me in?" he snarled from behind clenched teeth, obviously trying his hardest to stay cool and fit for the role he currently held.
"Sain is in the city," I said, surprised he hadn't caught on to at least that much. "He's alone."
Even Ryland didn't seem to believe that little bit of information judging by the way his eyes narrowed.
"Why would he come back?"
"Exactly," I said, a finger wagging at him as he stepped back in obvious discomfort. "I say we go and leave the team on ready in case we need them."
Ryland looked at me with even more confusion than before, clearly trying to follow along. "Go where?"
I guessed I probably should have mentioned that last part wasn't for him.
_Sounds good. I'll meet you in the dark._
Ilyan's voice faded, the directions clear, as I turned toward Ryland, his eyes now so wide, his temper so high I had a feeling trying to explain anything was going to be a fool's errand.
Ask questions and seek apologies later, I supposed.
"I'm really sorry for what's about to happen," I whispered, my hand gripping tightly around his waist as my magic plunged into him, the energy flaring as I pulled him into the stutter with me, his scream loud in my ears.
## 29
# Joclyn
"Never do that again!" Ryland's voice echoed around us the moment we reemerged on a dingy street in Old Town, his body collapsing against the wall that hadn't been there a moment ago.
Crinkling my nose against the smell of a million dying fish, I shot Ryland a look. The poor boy heaved as he clung to the wall beside him. Obviously stutters did not agree with him. It's not like I was much better after my first, but then, Ilyan had knocked himself unconscious for several days, so at least I had that going for me. I wasn't even sure why I had thought I could drag him through in the first place. I was beginning to wonder exactly how much power I had regained from Sain's control. My magic kept surprising me, the power I felt daunting at times.
"Try to keep it down," I hissed as I glared through the dark, my magic aching in fearful anticipation of what was coming.
"You say that like you didn't try to kill me."
I rolled my eyes at him before I walked away, the sounds of his gasping lessening with each step I took.
My magic moved in a rush as I pushed it through the streets, attempting to find where Sain had gone, but there was nothing: no trace of his magic, no image of a cloaked figure running through the dark. It was no more than a dark world, ribbons of deep red seeping through the gaps in the buildings as the sun set, a deep pitch plunging the shadowed world into a nonexistent realm.
_Ilyan?_ I called to him, my breathing picking up alongside my anxiety. _Where are you?_
_A few streets over._ The reply came automatically, and my magic pulled right to him. I wished knowing where he was helped calm my anxiety. I could feel Ilyan there, Ryland behind me, but other than that...
_Nothing,_ Ilyan clarified, his magic pulling together with mine as I searched.
_It's too quiet._ My voice was clipped, the tense agitation matching the heavy weight that collapsed against my chest, the heavy beat of my heart loud in my ears.
I took another step closer to the end of the street, the wide intersection seeming too perfect for the situation we were up against. My heart throbbed in my chest, almost expecting to find someone hidden around the corner, waiting to attack.
Closing my eyes, I pressed my back against the bricks of the building, trying to regulate my breathing into something more manageable before letting my magic pull away from me again.
With a slow exhale, my mind's eye opened to the streets that surrounded us, pulling through the empty ruins as I searched, knowing he should be close.
Still, nothing.
I gasped aloud, hating how high the anxiety around me had built.
Turning back to the dark shadows of the street behind me, I watched Ilyan jump from the rooftops to land before me, his arms open wide. The look on his face made it obvious he knew what I was feeling, and he had felt it, too.
I let him enfold me in his arms, his magic plunging into me as I listened to the steady strum of his heart. Though he was as concerned as I was, he was calming me down a bit. My heart rate was already slowing to something that could possibly be considered normal.
" 'Kay, I think I survived that..." Ryland gasped as he came up behind us, his body still visibly shaking, even though he was trying to act all macho. "But never again, Jos. I'm still not completely convinced I haven't died."
"Ryland?" Ilyan asked, his back tensing a bit underneath me. "How did you get here?"
"Jos brought me. Didn't she tell you through her wicked mumbo-jumbo telecommunications radio thing you have going on?" I wasn't convinced his brain was screwed on all the way. That made no sense.
"No, she didn't." I would have expected the tension in Ilyan's back to lessen, but it stayed. His eyes were wide as he looked down at me, the tempo of his heart wrapping around me. "And you didn't pass out for days. I guess I did choose wisely." He spoke in deep Czech, his voice rumbling over me deeply, and I melted a bit, right there in his arms, collapsing against him as I smiled like a loon, my lips seeking his out automatically.
"I love you," I sighed against the tender skin, and his reply echoed right back to me.
I kissed him deeply, moaning a bit when he pulled me into him. Part of me knew I should pull a way, at least before the crazy lights showed up.
" 'Kay," Ryland snarled, disgust evident in his voice. "If you are going to drag me along, can you at least keep this down to a minimum?"
"Oh, I quite agree," another voice broke through the darkness around us, a snake that wound through my spine and froze me in place. The tones of the voice were unfamiliar and foreign, yet I knew who it was.
I knew before he stepped out of the shadows, the hood low over his face. I knew before he smiled at us, the wide grin cutting through his face differently than I had ever seen.
I could see him there, yet his magic was gone. I could feel nothing, as though a mortal walked toward us, although I knew that was not the case.
Ryland stiffened as he turned, and Ilyan's arms tightened protectively as his magic flared, his nerves moving into high alert. Still, the cloaked man stepped forward, straighter and taller than I had ever seen him.
"Sain," I whispered through clenched teeth as he removed the hood, his smile spreading while eyes as black as the night looked into us, the color fading back to their normal green with one blink.
"Oh, come now," he cooed, his voice as unrecognizable as the person before us was, and judging by the anguished tension that had wound through Ilyan, it was unfamiliar for him, too. "I think I deserve a more formal greeting than that."
"Deserve may be the wrong word there, _Father_." I spat out the last word like it was poison, part of me expecting him to flinch or howl in anger. However, his smile deepened, his steps hollow as he continued forward, step after step grating against me.
"Oh, no, child." His voice was soothing in the dark. If the threat behind his words wasn't so clear, I might have believed the lie he was trying to weave. "Deserve is _exactly_ the right word because I deserve what is about to happen to me, just as you deserve what is about to happen to you. I have been working toward this since before any of you were born. It's fitting that you be here to see it to its end."
"What have you done, Sain?" Ilyan's chest rumbled beneath me as he spoke, the feral snarl erupting through the dark street like a drum. Sain, however, took one more step toward us, obviously unfazed by Ilyan's questioning and the many different meanings it held, none of which were lost on any of us.
"Done?" Sain asked with a laugh.
Ryland slowly stepped back, away from the man and closer to where Ilyan and I stood. His back was tense as his magic flared.
"I have done nothing. I was not the one to kill your mother. I was not the one to start this war. I have merely given—eh—helpful guidance along the way." He flipped his hand to the side as he spoke, the movement so casual you would assume he was discussing anything other than the orchestrated destruction of an entire race of people.
My blood boiled with every word he spoke as I looked into the reality of what—no, of whom—we were truly facing. "It's all a game to you."
"Oh, yes." The slime of his voice dripped off the wall, and I cringed. "One of the best sort. And you all have been playing without even knowing."
"You've used everyone. You used me..." Ryland growled, his feet shifting as if he was debating whether or not to attack Sain right away. I didn't blame him. It would have been a foolish move, something Ryland seemed to pick up on.
"Used is a harsh word, Ryland. I used no one. I only helped them see their true potential, helped them understand what they were really meant for, even if they didn't see it themselves."
The true reality of what he had done became frighteningly clear. This was more than spreading rumors about my magic. This was more than controlling the Draks. I could tell by looking at him, looking at this stranger, that his motives went deeper than the prideful games we had assumed them to be.
"Well"—Sain's eyes narrowed as he took yet another step forward—"I guess I have done _something_." His smiled stretched wide again as he froze before us, unwilling to look away while his magic slowly started to awaken from within him, the same powerful strain I had felt running through the city before emanating from him like a poisonous fog, sticking heavily in the air as though it was attempting to strangle us. His smile rose as his magic did, the darkened street behind him illuminating as the forgotten streetlights blazed to life. His magic infected them as he ignited them, blanketing us in a flickering yellow bath.
Our shadows stretched and swayed over the blood soaked street as the lights continued to flare, swallowing the dark until it showed us what he wanted us to see.
Until it showed us what he had "done."
A pile of lifeless corpses, their clothes covered with wet blood, their faces gaunt as they stared at nothing. Their hands were posed as if they were still trying to attack whatever had destroyed them, as if the magic inside of them was still trying to get out, still trying to save them.
But there was nothing except death.
"I did this." His voice was light, proud, joyful of the handiwork he had accomplished, as if the life he had destroyed was more beautiful than the life that had been. I didn't even care if they were Edmund's men; it still made my stomach turn. "Edmund sent me with 'fifty of his strongest' on a mission to kill you. I made him believe I could use my sight to sneak them into the cathedral to draw you out, something that was obviously not too hard. However, I didn't need them to complete _my_ task. But Edmund needn't know that." He smiled, the grin infecting me like poison, sending my insides spinning in varying levels of disgust and anger. It was all I could do to keep my temper at bay. Unfortunately, I wasn't the one I should have worried about.
"You're a monster!" The words erupted from Ilyan as he stepped around me, the rough edge of his magic cutting through me, making his intent clear.
I lunged for Ilyan as his brother did, both of our magic flooding into the king in a desperate attempt to quell his temper.
Sain, on the other hand, stood still, that disturbing smile still in place while he watched us, laughing.
_Ilyan,_ I spoke into his mind, my hand wrapping around his neck as I pulled him toward me, Ryland stepping between us and Sain protectively. _Calm down, my love. I am here. Do not rise to what he is doing. We know his game. If we want to survive this, we need to play it with him._
Ilyan's widened eyes darted toward me as his thoughts flooded me. His anger made it hard for to him to focus. I had never seen him like this. I had heard about his temper and thought I had seen it before, but this was beyond anything I had witnessed. It scared me. I had never assumed that level of uncontrollability was possible in him.
As I looked at him, fear looked back at me. Dangerous anger rumbled through me in a warning that went unheeded.
Keeping my magic inside of him, I let it soothe him, my love filling him as the unconditional emotion expanded. Even though this side of him was frightening, my love didn't leave. It only grew, my connection with him expanding alongside it.
_I'm here. Now it's my turn,_ I whispered to him before I turned away, my hand not leaving his as I faced my father, my real father, for the first time in my life.
My jaw was tight as I narrowed my eyes at him in defiance. The man who had reduced me to anger-fueled hysterics so many times before now only left me with a ripple of annoyance, a heavy feeling of power and control taking over my soul.
This was a villain I had faced many times before, a villain who had walked out of the shadows to show his true colors. I could tell he expected me to wilt under my anger as Ilyan had done, his eyes minutely widening at the strength I showed him, the power I faced him with.
"Well, Joclyn," Sain said with a growl, his own inability to remain emotionless shining through, "it seems you have finally come into your own... Would you like to test the limits of that magic of yours? Test it against someone who can actually match you?"
He didn't give me any warning; he just attacked, his eyes moving to the black sheen of sight that was so familiar as his attack sprang forward in a stream of silk that slithered through the air like a fish, moving right toward where I stood as it doubled in size.
Sending a counterattack right into it, I jerked, screaming with exertion, only to watch Sain's magic devour my defense. The weaving ribbon of power shimmered with light as it absorbed the blast, the perverse creature swelling.
Gasping in fear, I felt my magic flare in warning, my usual ability to feel and track magic, to understand how to counter it, failing. I jumped to the side, Ryland and Ilyan following suit as the attack sped past us, impacting with the road where we had just stood.
I screamed at the assault, scuttling over the road in an attempt to get away from whatever was coming. Before I had moved more than a few inches, though, the street before my face exploded, attack after attack following as I was forced back.
Crawling on my belly, I moved as fast as I could, hissing in pain as magical residue and burning rocks fell over me.
"Joclyn!" Ilyan's voice boomed as I stared wide-eyed at the smoldering pothole inches from me.
The street erupted in green as Ilyan ran, intent on protecting me, his attack streaming toward my father, only to fall to the ground in a shower of sparks as Sain moved his hand toward it. One movement and his power had faded as simply as if the attack had lost momentum.
"No, no, I don't think so." The hiss in Sain's voice increased with the words, the dangerous ripple of his warning echoing through me. "This fight is between my daughter and me. But don't worry, _my lord,_ I will keep you and your brother busy."
I heard Ilyan's scream as his magic moved away from me, Sain throwing him through the air and into one of the buildings that surrounded us without so much as a twitch of his fingers.
"Ilyan!" His name cut through my fear as I jumped to my feet, turning to face my father whose eyes were still shrouded in black, his white teeth flashing in a menacing grin.
"I doubt you can stop my power, Ilyan. If I say she is mine, she is mine. Besides, I have a much bigger job for you."
I stood still, my heart longing to run to my mate, but I knew I wouldn't get more than a step before Sain would attack. I could feel his longing, feel his worry. Even he had frozen. We had all underestimated him.
"No more games, Sain," I growled, unwilling to look away from the enemy before me.
"Oh, I beg to differ, Joclyn. We still have many games to play. Why don't we play the best one right now?" His eyes dug into me as he tapped his toe, the hollow sound of his shoe against the street echoing menacingly around us.
I jerked at each tap, not knowing what to expect, and then the carelessly thrown away corpses in the street behind him began to twitch, began to move.
Horror filled me.
Sain's menacing smile was forgotten as I looked away from the demon, staring as the lifeless flesh convulsed in harmony with the tap of his shoes.
With each beat, I shivered. With each beat, Ilyan moved toward me. With each beat, Ryland stepped back, ready to protect us from whatever was about to emerge from within the pile.
Then the pile itself began to disband, one body after another rising from the dead, their heads lolling to the side as legs jerked and twitched below them, pulling them forward. Pulling them toward us.
"Beautiful," Sain whispered without even looking away from where we stood, our focus glued to what was happening. "It's something Edmund never mastered, no matter how hard he tried. Him and all those beating hearts he devoured... He never understood the full depth of that magic. Keep the magic alive and you can use it. You can mold it into whatever you want."
I could feel Ilyan shake in fear beside me, his thoughts moving into overdrive as he tried to understand what he was seeing, tried to understand what was happening, tried to understand how this was possible.
_Magic this powerful shouldn't be possible._ It was a desperate hope that was destroyed by the gleam in Sain's eye. The way he looked at us made it clear magic this powerful _was_ possible. Magic this powerful was in him.
And if it was in him, then it was in me, as well.
_Don't forget that, Joclyn. You must defeat him._
_I will._
"Go get 'em, boys," he sneered as he stepped toward me, his magic sparking as it pushed Ryland and Ilyan away from me, their bodies soaring through the air as he separated us.
My shout was loud as I reached for Ilyan, realizing too late that, no matter how hard my magic tried to reach him, I couldn't. A wall lay between us, keeping me from him and him from me.
I could hear their screams and feel Ilyan's fear, but my magic couldn't reach him. I couldn't pull him back to me.
Sain looked at me as the world around us shimmered, a dome covering our two bodies, keeping us in and them out, trapping me with a man intent on killing me.
Swallowing in pure feral fear, I looked at my father, the warning of his smile increasing as his eyes dipped to black.
Ilyan and Ryland's shouts rebounded around us, distorted, as if they had come from a tin can. I might as well have been trapped in a glass tank.
_Joclyn,_ Ilyan yelled through my mind, his thoughts making it apparent he was still trying to find a way back to me. I could see him run around the perimeter. I could see him bang on the wall as magic sparked from his fingers, but I knew it was no use. Besides, a different enemy had already reached him.
My focus darted to his as he fought the disjointed corpses in front of him, his hand pressing against the invisible wall before he turned away. His magic coursed through me, his fear and worry traveling right along with it.
"Ilyan..."
_I am here, mi lasko,_ he whispered with dread, the words filling me as I turned back to my father, his face still blank, his eyes still black.
"How sweet. I certainly hope you get to see each other again," he mocked, his head twisting to the side. "Now, let's see if you are as powerful as the sight predicted you to be."
He gave me no warning before he attacked. Violent spells streamed toward me one after another, his body moving fast while he continued to look at me with black eyes, his hands barely moving as he fought me.
I moved without question, dodging, countering, my hands flailing as I tried to deter him, but the powerful forces kept coming. In the end, I just threw up both hands, a wall flying from me in a desperate attempt to do away with his endless onslaught.
It was something I already knew would not help.
" _There is one among us who seeks to change the magic_." His voice growled through the colorful smoke that surrounded us, his words swirling in darkness as the prophecy that had been embedded into my mind was repeated, the verses sounding even darker as they were spoken by the one I now realized they were referring to. " _Someone who seeks to kill the magic. He seeks to kill the magic for his own personal gain. We see him as he fights, as he sheds the blood of us, as he sheds the blood of others. We see him as he stops the reign of magic, as he stops the time of ours_."
He smiled, an attack flying toward me as the smoke fell to the ground, the lingering smell of sulfur and death strong in my nose. "Do you see now, child? Do you see what is to happen?"
"It was your sight, Father. That first sight, the one that showed everything: about me, about Ilyan. _She is the most powerful. She will be The Silnỳ, the one who protects us all_ ," I snapped as I attacked him again.
His eyes widened as the violent stream of magic narrowly missed him, fear glossing over his eyes for just a moment before the smile returned, the glare enough to make anyone flinch. I stood still.
"Do you doubt it now?"
His eyes snapped back to black, digging into me as he smiled.
A ribbon of yellow flew toward me, and I swung out of the way, only to be hit by a jolt of attack, a powerful wave jerking through my spine, freezing me in place.
"I doubt nothing that is based in truth," he mused as he stepped toward me, his magic still riddling through me, freezing and burning in a confusing agony I couldn't shake. "Sight, however, is not based on such ridiculous atrocities." With one more step, he fired again, another attack, the same as the last surging through my body as I screamed.
Ilyan's yell of fear echoed in my head as he tried again to break through the barrier, tried to reach me in order to kill Sain, to protect me. But the barrier didn't so much as budge, no matter what attack Ilyan threw at it.
The sound of Sain's laugh ripped through me as his eyes faded from black to green. "You say your power is free, Joclyn, and I can feel that. Yet you do not use it. You are going to make your death the easiest one yet." He sighed, his magic leaving me as I fell to the ground in a gasping heap.
Ilyan's shout continued to rip through me, his worry filling my mind.
"I guess I shouldn't complain," he continued. "Once you are gone, everything else will fall into place. You are the last thorn in my side."
_Fight him, Joclyn._ Ilyan's voice filled me as I looked up at my father, looked up at that sly smile, the hatred I felt for him flowing, Ilyan's magic swelling in me as I pushed myself to standing, my jaw tight as I faced him.
"I knew you weren't worthy of the magic the mud gave you. No one is. No one but me." His eyes faded to black as he moved, the attacks coming again in a torrent that, no matter what I did, I couldn't seem to break free from.
Ilyan's thoughts plunged through me as I fought, his centuries of expertise infecting me, training me as I moved. Still, no matter what I learned, no matter what I did, it was useless.
Everything I fired at him was deflected without so much as a thought.
"Pathetic," he barked, his magic shooting right to where I was about to dodge, hitting against a small pile of trash and sending it into flames, as though he knew where I was going to go. _Because he does_ , I realized with a start.
I did, too. After all, I had seen this before. I had done this before. I had watched the world move in a wave of sight and reality. I had battled Wyn, seeing her move before she did it.
Knowing what to do.
Just as I knew now.
With one blink, my eyes plunged to the black of sight, my magic swelling as the vision overlaid reality in a seamless prophecy.
Sain moved from point A to point B moments before he actually did, and this time, I was ready—my magic was ready.
With one surge, I attacked. With one surge, I hit him.
"Wonderful," Sain crowed the moment I glanced at him, my heart thundering in my chest while the reality of what was about to happen increased. "Don't hold back now. I want to feel justified when I kill you."
"If I let you." I attacked as he did, streams of color and magic, walls of fire and smoke. Everything shifted and shuddered around the dome he had trapped us in, the magic moving so fast I was amazed I was able to keep up, my magic and mind both in the present and future in perfect harmony. Everything worked seamlessly.
The shadows of two realities were moving one right after another, my magic moving to mimic what he was doing, what he was going to do, just as he did to me.
He stuttered effortlessly from inside the dome, his body disappearing and reappearing so fast that, if I hadn't been paying attention, I would have missed it. Instead, I turned, deflecting his attack as he moved back to where he had started, his grin wide.
"Good," he sneered. "Perhaps you do have the ability, after all. But it takes more than seeing to know what to do." His smile spread for the briefest of moments before his attacks began again, the complicated motions increasing as Ilyan's screams of fear and pain moved through my mind, mine moving to join his.
Desperately, I turned toward Ilyan's shout, toward his pain in a need to help him. That one move, one misstep, caused me to miss Sain's attack as it moved into me.
A burn plunged through my body like water on ice. I gasped at the sensation, turning to him as I stumbled back, my attack moving toward him in a pathetic attempt to counter.
He only laughed as he side-stepped, another attack moving toward me as a shadow of myself appeared behind him. I watched the movement of my future self, not sure I had the strength, but I followed unquestioningly and stuttered from one point to another, appearing behind him as I had in sight. Jerking my hand forward to attack, he turned, an attack of his own moving right into my gut. His magic flared as he, too, stuttered. This time, he moved away from me, leaving me standing, heaving as my magic tried to dispel the pain.
As my magic began to fade.
"Joclyn!" Ilyan screamed. His magic moved through me in vain as his own pain filled me, the sounds of magic attacking the barrier rumbling around us.
"Oh no," Sain tsked, the sound reverberating as I watched him through watering eyes. "You were doing so well, too. You just forgot one thing: sight is a guide, not a road map. In fact, didn't you say that a few minutes ago?"
Without warning, he attacked again, magic slamming into me and throwing me into the air and against his barrier. I tried to fight the hold, to fight his magic, but his attack still raged through me, everything weak and sore as he easily took control.
Sliding down the firm surface like an egg against linoleum, I cringed, still trying to fight before I crumbled against the ground.
"Don't trust it," Sain growled as he walked toward me.
"Joclyn!" The sound of Ilyan's fist against the barrier became a loud, hollow pressure inside my head.
I knew I was done for. Judging by Sain's smile, he knew it, too. He wasn't going to hold back.
I could hear Ilyan and Ryland as they fought in vain, their mad attempt to defeat an undead foe ending at nothing.
We were cornered.
Squaring my shoulders, I stared at my father, trying to pull through his attack to gain enough power to attack just once. I wasn't going down without a fight.
It couldn't end like this.
It wasn't supposed to.
"What?" Sain sneered, his magic pushing against me. "Aren't you going to beg?"
"Girls don't beg." The voice came from behind me, loud, angry, and stronger than I was certain anyone else could manage at the moment. "We kick ass."
As though someone had opened up a flamethrower inches from my face, Wyn's magic erupted from beside me, breaking through the barrier like a needle to a balloon. The translucent prison fell away as fire exploded inches from Sain's feet, the flames licking around his ankles in what was obviously meant as warning.
Sain's eyes widened at the sudden change, his demeanor shifting. For a moment, I swore I saw the sniveling father I had known for the last few months—a rat cornered by a cat.
"But you can beg if you'd like," Wyn said as she came up beside me, her hand still raised before her, the powerful heat of her magic emanating around her like a space heater. "Not that it would do any good. For you, Sain, I would show you what my magic can really do."
Like someone had turned on a switch, Sain straightened, the weakness in his face leaving, though his eyes continued to dart around in fear.
"You should be dead, Wynifred! I saw you die," he snapped, his voice harsh and loud before he vanished into a stutter, leaving us staring at an empty street, at the hoard of corpses surrounding Ilyan and Ryland.
"Ilyan!" I screamed the moment Sain was gone, the moment the barrier had left, my mind registering what he was facing and the danger we had all been left in.
Without a word, Wyn and I ran, ready to join the impossible battle, ready to get them out of what they had been surrounded by and make our escape.
However, before we could make it more than a few steps, the bodies around them collapsed like dominoes to the ground with thuds, the lights that had engulfed the street extinguished right along with them, leaving us standing in a dark so pitch I could see nothing but black.
Standing in the dark, I listened, my magic stretching from me as I searched for who was here, for Sain.
With a spark of magic, I let my power flare, an orb of golden light floating above my hand, everyone around me following to do the same. Blue, orange, and grey, they blazed, leaving us standing in an arena of strangely mutated light, bodies still littered around us.
"Where is Sain?" Ilyan rumbled as I ran into his arms, my magic connecting with his as his did with mine, both of us feverishly searching for injuries. Luckily, there was nothing other than a deep cut along his cheek. Although his body was covered with dirt and blood, I could tell none of it was his. "Where did he go?" His voice was broken by the desperate gasps of air he was still attempting to take.
"Stuttered," Wyn announced, her voice far too light considering the situation we were in. "Didn't seem too happy to see me. Although, I can't figure out why you three took off without me."
"You are still on probation." Ilyan's voice was positively acidic now, his hands dropping from me as he took a step toward the woman in question.
Her eyebrows were already attempting to disappear into her hairline. "What am I, twelve? And besides, since when has that stopped me?" she asked, her tone rising as her own temper did.
"It should have stopped you this time," Ilyan snapped, the level of his anger making even me feel like I needed to find a way to bow out. Judging by the look on Ryland's face, I wasn't the only one.
"What? And let you lot go off and get killed without me? No, thank you," she fumed, her arms crossing over her chest in such a way that I didn't see her as anything other than a punk, seventeen-year-old kid. "I have done worse and gotten away with less—"
"I still decide your punishments!"
"You are not my father!"
Their yelling swelled in volume as Ryland and I stepped away, tiptoeing through the thankfully still motionless bodies as we tried to move as far away from them as possible.
"I've never seen anything like that before." Ryland's voice was tense, the stress clearly still gripping him tightly, not that I blamed him.
"You mean Wyn and Ilyan fighting?" I tried to ask the question as lightly as possible, knowing it wasn't what he was talking about. I didn't necessarily want to talk about it, either, and I hadn't even had to fight the dumb things.
"No," he said with a laugh, the sound still strangled by tension. "The whole zombie apocalypse thing Sain cooked up. I mean, how... how...?" He didn't seem to be able to get out much more than that, not that I blamed him. His eyes had gone right to where mine had—to the graveyard Sain had not only created, but resurrected.
I took a step toward it, my heart beating painfully as the same question strummed through me. My magic pulled at me in what I hoped would be answers.
"Keep the magic alive, and you can use it. You can mold it into whatever you want..." Step by step, I moved, the whispers of their dying magic flying up to me as I noticed what I was positive Sain had not wanted us to see. "These aren't Skȓíteks."
"I'm sorry?" Ryland asked, obviously not following.
"These are Chosen Children. They weren't Edmund's best men; they were just men with weaker magic that he could use..." My words froze in my throat as I stepped up to the pile, the gaunt eyes of dozens staring at me, their mouths agape in death, the sounds of cries echoing from somewhere deep inside of them.
"Do you hear that?" My voice was strangled in fear, praying I was hallucinating. The eyes of the lifeless man before me stared, his mouth open in such a way that, for a moment, I was sure the sound was coming from him.
"Hear what?"
The sobs increased, the word "help" now intermingled in the panic, the single word a sobbing plea that cut through me. I could tell this was different. This was not some corpse come to kill us, not with the way it cried, not with the way it sobbed for help.
"That." Looking to Ryland in alarm, I pushed my magic into Ilyan, part of me knowing I needed to take control, while another part not emotionally capable to make such decisions.
_Ilyan,_ I said, and the sound of fighting behind us stopped. _We need you._
He was with us in a second, his heart beating loudly within me.
"Be careful," Ilyan finally said, his voice shaking as he took a step toward the mound, his motions and words making everyone's fears clear.
After what Sain had done, after everything he had revealed, we had no way of knowing what was underneath there.
Without another word, we all moved, our motions slow as we sifted through something that I tried in vain to convince myself was nothing more than a pile of rocks. It didn't work. My stomach threatened to turn itself out as we moved the bodies away, the heavy, limp masses sagging under our weight, our hands slipping on blood-covered skin. Everything smelled like blood and sweat, a vile combination that amplified as we moved the bodies, the sounds of the sobs increasing as we did so.
Wyn and I grabbed a hold of a young man, moving him aside as the blonde head of a little girl came into view, her cries ricocheting loudly around the street as the frightened child emerged. Her motions were frantic as she wiggled from the death she had been trapped in, her body covered in blood, her own blood seeping from cuts littered over her body, everything red except for her eyes, the panicked orbs desperate as she reached for freedom.
With a scream of fear and relief, she broke free, wrapping herself around the first living thing she could find.
Ilyan looked out of place as the tiny child clung to him.
"Please," the little girl sobbed, her voice strangled as she tried to talk through her tears. "Don't make me go back. Please. He'll hurt me. All they do is hurt me," she cried into Ilyan as she clung to him, her hands leaving bloodied prints all over his shirt.
His face twisted with the same question I could feel strumming through me. _Do you think she is safe?_ he asked, his voice tenser than I thought it would be given the situation.
_She's a child._ It was the logical answer, but one I knew didn't really qualify in this situation.
Not with Edmund.
He had used children before. He had hurt them, abused them.
Destroyed them.
I knew that this was no different, but with the way she cried, with the way she sobbed and panicked, I knew as well as he did that we didn't have another choice.
Everyone knew it.
Wyn moved toward the little girl slowly, looking from Ilyan to me as if for permission before kneeling before her, her motions slow as she reached for the child. The girl jerked away in obvious fear of a slap.
"You're okay," Wyn soothed, her voice soft and kind. My heart opened as I saw a side of my best friend I hadn't seen before. "We aren't going to hurt you; I promise. We're the good guys."
The little girl said nothing; she looked at Wyn, her lips quivering as the tears threatened to break free again.
"My name is Wyn, and this is Ilyan and Joclyn and Ryland. What's your name?" Wyn kept her voice calm, mellow, her motions slow.
I looked from her to Ilyan who didn't seem at all confused by this change. Ryland, however, looked at her like she had grown a third head.
"Míra," the girl finally answered, her voice little more than a broken sob.
"Hello, Míra. We are going to take you to our home now. We are going to help you. Will you let us do that?"
She nodded.
## 30
# Sain
I appeared in Ovailia's room without so much as a preliminary check. Thank goodness it was empty except for its owner. The girl in question sat in her chair, propped up on pillows as though someone was afraid she was made of glass.
However, I knew she was stronger than that.
"Sain!" At my appearance, she jerked, anger rumbling through the shock that was clear on her face. I guessed I was lucky she didn't attack me. Anyone else and she would have. "What happened? What are you doing here? Did you finish the task my father sent you on? Did Míra succeed?"
"She's alive," I hissed, knowing full well Ovailia had no idea whom I was talking about. "They both are." The words were loud as I hissed, the desperation that the last few minutes had trapped me in continuing to grow as I paced the room.
"Míra succeeded? So we are safe?" Even through her confusion, her magic pressed against me as mine did hers, the two powers mixing delightfully. I had been right from the start; she would make a wonderful addition.
"Why didn't you kill her?"
"Kill Míra? What are you talking about, Sain?" Her magic withdrew as her jaw tightened. Her demeanor was stoic, even though I could see the fear in her eyes. It was the same as I had seen when she had faced her father. It was beautiful to see her look that way at me, to adhere to me to such a degree.
"Kill Wyn. I fed her to you on a platter. I _watched_ you kill her in sight. I saw her die. Your boot moved through her skull. But her skull isn't so much as bruised."
"She's alive?"
Her shock angered me more.
"Yes, she's alive! I need her dead. They should both be dead by now." With a growl that ripped through the room, I spun toward Ovailia, my eyes wide as I did my very best not to attack her right then, something I wasn't sure was the right choice.
Her eyes widened as she straightened her jaw, the tension in her body making her look like she would fly off the couch and kill Wyn now if I gave the word.
It was tempting, but that wouldn't help, not anymore. One move, one foolish move, and everything had changed. It was too late to repair the damage that was done. Now I needed to find a new hand to play.
I knew what that move need to be.
"Can you walk?" I growled at the blonde beauty before me, and her eyes narrowed in obvious irritation.
"Of course I can walk; I'm not a child. Edmund may think my magic is weak and broken, but he underestimates me all the time." Her voice was snide, powerful, all fear of the temper I had unfurled on her gone.
I smiled, the need to destroy her decreasing with the confidence she held.
"Wonderful," I cooed, moving right back to her. This time, she didn't shy away. Her magic moved right to mine as she sensed the change. "Because I am going to need your help."
"Anything." He voice was light, her eyes dark.
Before I knew what I was doing, I leaned down to her, pressing my lips against hers as our magic flared in a powerful jolt. I felt her lips, felt her touch against my neck, the small pressure sending a feral growl rumbling from the back of my throat as I pulled away, my eyes wide.
She looked at me with a hunger I hadn't seen before, her eyes bright, her loyalty clear.
I didn't think I had ever enjoyed a kiss as much as I had in that moment. I guessed I would keep her around a bit longer than I had originally assumed.
"Good," I replied, making her smile deepen. "Because we need to see your father."
"My father?" The hunger in her eyes vanished in an instant, hatred taking its place as she pushed herself to standing, her motions still a little stiff.
"Yes," I whispered, taking her hand as my magic flooded into her, moving right to her spine, soothing the still tender tissue in hopes of making it stronger, at least for the next few minutes. "I'm going to need you to take out his guard. Can you do that?"
She looked at me in query, but I offered her nothing else. I needed her loyalty without question right now, something that would be put to the test shortly.
She hesitated, her eyes boring into mine as the thoughts moved through her until, gradually, the smile returned. Her hand left mine as she moved to the tall wardrobe at the foot of her bed. She rifled through boxes before she reemerged with a small vile clutched tightly in her hands.
"I will make sure they are as useful to my father as Thom is to Ilyan now." She shook the contents, the thick fluid moving brightly through the tiny space.
"Wonderful," I said, my magic flaring in acceptance and calm.
She smiled at the pretense, even though she had no idea that what she had said was a perfect remedy for what was about to happen.
"What do you want me to do?"
"You are a smart girl, Ovi. This, I know you can figure out. Protect our lives, and everything else will fall into place."
Saying nothing more, I moved toward the door, breathing deeply as I prepared for what I was about to do. My heart thundered in a mixture of excitement and nerves I had never felt before that moment. It was an oddly intoxicating sensation.
"Take me to him," I whispered as I shifted into a cower, my body folding in on itself as I began to shake, pushing my magic back down inside my heart, knowing that, if Edmund felt even a whisper of what was coming, of what I really was, none of this would work.
Ovailia said nothing else as she flung the door open, her hand winding around my collar as she dragged me from the room. The guard who was stationed outside stood to attention, shock moving across his face at our sudden appearance.
Keeping my body hunched and broken, I turned my hand a fraction of an inch, letting a powerful attack move through the air and right into him. The stealthy spell sped up his spine, dislocating nerve endings and severing tendons. The man crumpled back into the chair as the magic struck his brain, the simple attack rendering him useless as it burned, his body already immobilized from the pain.
"Go," I snapped, grateful when Ovailia moved down the hall without question.
Bouncing against the wall with a thud as Ovailia pulled me around a corner, I increased my feigned cries in mockery as she continued to drag my stumbling form beside her, a low grumble of irritation seeping from her lips.
"Silence," she hissed, but I simply cried louder.
One of Edmund's guards looked up from where he stood, his lips twisting at the sight of us shuffling down the hall. His confusion from seeing us there was evident, but it didn't matter. His presence had told me what I needed to know. Edmund was inside.
All we needed now was to get past that door.
"It's up to you now," I hissed to Ovailia between my sobs.
Her shoulders straightened, her desperate need to impress me shining through.
"Ovailia!" the man yelled, his confusion evident as he approached us. "Sain! What are you—"
"We need to see my father."
My soul shook at the power in Ovailia's voice, everything rippling over me in pride and lust as she did as I requested. My desire for her intensified with the power she displayed, my magic trying to fuse with hers as she smiled, the attempted connection obviously not lost on her.
"We have news."
The man looked between us, and I cried a bit more, letting the sound flow out of me in a pathetic rumble as I pled for my life. It was a sound, a move I had perfected, and with one look, I knew it had done its job.
The man stepped back in disgust before he disappeared behind the door, emerging moments later to swing the door wide in silence.
Silence was always a bad sign with Edmund.
I could feel Ovailia's hand begin to shake from where she held it against me, the soundless warning not lost on either of us. At any other time, I would run, find another way, but that was no longer an option. This was the only path left.
I wanted to tell her to calm. After all, Edmund had no idea what power was walking into the room. He was about to find out, exactly as Ovailia was.
"Ovailia, what brings you here?" Edmund greeted us before the door had even shut, his eyes hard as he tightened a white robe around himself, clearly upset at being bothered without warning. I could already see him planning some form of punishment as Ovailia dragged me over to him, throwing me at his feet like a dog.
I howled in feigned agony at the movement, rolling myself into a tight ball as I sobbed.
"Sain was trying to hide in my room. He's back."
Edmund took a step toward me, kicking me over to face him with his bare foot as I continued to moan. My eyes were wide as I came face-to-face with the powerhouse of a man I had created.
"Hiding...? Sain?" Edmund's voice was hard, and I cowered more, whimpering pathetically as he squatted beside me. "I didn't expect you back so soon... and alone. What happened?" His temper increased with each word, the warning digging into me as I sobbed, twisting my body around to tremble beneath him, my cries drumming abrasively off the stone floor I lay against.
"Ilyan," I gasped, tears and snot dripping off my nose. "Ilyan killed them all. I barely escaped."
"Míra!" His voice was a shout, his anger boiling over.
After all, I had given him this plan. I had told him of its success. It was one, little lie.
"She made it. I saw her. Ilyan took the bait." I didn't know if that was true, but it didn't even matter anymore.
Edmund's toes tapped over the floor in front of my face as he bounced on his heels, obviously weighing his options, weighing his prospects. I could only pray it would go in my direction.
"Good. I would say that would secure both your lives... but you lost me fifty men, Sain. Fifty men you insisted would be safe." His voice was a heavy weight against my back that pressed into me, his magic strong as his anger increased, as he made his choice. "You leave me no other option."
Unfortunately for him, it was the wrong one.
"No, Edmund." I spoke the words clearly, all trace of my shake, all trace of the role I had played for centuries gone as I uncoiled before him, my body unfurling to its full height, to its full power in one elegant move. Eyes hard, I stood to face Edmund, looking him in the eyes the way I hadn't done in centuries. "You left _me_ no choice."
His eyes widened at what he was seeing, his jaw slack as he stepped back, obviously ready to attack, to call his guard on me, to beat me down in defiance.
I gave him a chance for none of it.
Without warning, my magic flared, a stream of red smacking into him as I threw him into the wall, his body colliding with the old, stone masonry with a smack.
His scream echoed around us as his guards moved to attention, only to have my magic move into them, freezing them in place as I brought Edmund back to me. His body was little more than a rag doll as he hovered before me, frozen.
My hands moved slowly as I reached into my pocket and produced the sliver of Soul's Blade that I had pulled from Ovailia's body.
"I had hoped to connect all the pieces before I did this, but you left me no choice." With one wide swing, the shard of red cut through the air, glinting in the light before it disappeared into Edmund, slicing through flesh and bone to embed itself into his heart.
With a sound like he had been punch, Edmund gasped, his blood spraying over me as he coughed, mouth and eyes wide in horror. My magic seeped from the guards in one quick movement, every inch of my power concentrated on the man before me, on the blade that was connecting with his magic, freezing his magic, his body, his soul right where it was. I left him staring at me as his life slowly seeped away.
"Father!" Ovailia shouted in disbelief as my magic surged to its full potential, the strength of the power flooding away in a volatile wind, shielding us from the attacks of the guards who came to life within moments of my magic leaving them.
"Take care of them, Ovailia," I spat, not daring to look away from the man I held before me.
"But, Sain—"
"Now is the time to decide where your loyalty stands, Ovailia. You can be this man's slave and let him continue to destroy you, or you can be my bride and let me show you what power, love, and royalty really are!" I roared, specks of saliva flying over Edmund's face with my temper. "Decide who you stand with!"
There was a pause so silent I wasn't sure anyone was left in the room. For a moment, it was just Edmund and me, his eyes wide as life left him, as he tried in vain to understand what had happened.
"I choose you, Sain." Her answer came moments before sparks of green flew around us, Ovailia's magic erupting as, one after another, Edmund's guards fell. The men he had trained so well were felled by nothing more than a little poison.
"Wonderful," I soothed as the second to last one fell.
The last man stared at us in fear, his eyes darting around as he obviously tried to decide if he should run.
"Incapacitate the last one. Make him watch. I need a witness."
Without question, Ovailia stepped away from me, the barrier I had surrounded us with fell to the ground as her magic wrapped around the man, pinning him to the wall with a thud.
"Hello, Damek," she said, the venom in her voice taking my breath away.
"She's beautiful," I sighed as I turned back to Edmund, the fear on his face making it obvious he could feel his magic seeping away, moving into the blade along with his soul, trapping him in there for eternity. "I have to thank you for making me such a beautiful woman. She was flawed before, but now..." I smiled, looking away from him as I licked my lips, my heart thundering through me with need.
_Beautiful._
"Sain..." Edmund's voice seeped through the pain, pulling my attention back to him as he fought the agony I had closeted him with, his soul and magic no more than a ghost of what they were. "Why...?"
"Why?" I echoed, my voice heightened in false mockery. "Why am I killing you?"
His mouth opened and closed like a fish gasping for air, a faint sound of liquid starting to gurgle from his throat.
He didn't have long left.
"Because I am tired of being patient," I hissed, moving closer to him, wanting to make certain he heard every word. "I have spent hundreds of years molding you into what you needed to be, but you didn't do what I desired. You messed up my plan, which means I have to fix it. And if I have to fix it, then I have no use for you."
His eyes widened as the truth of what was said hit him. His horror increased as he tried again to talk, but the sound of drowning came louder now, blood drizzling from the corners of his mouth as he tried to breath.
"When I have no use for someone anymore, I kill them. I'd normally have you do it, but I guess I am on my own now. I'm sorry, Edmund, but you've played your part. It's time we throw you away." With a jerk, I pulled the blade from his chest, his now lifeless body crumbling to the ground in a tangle of twitches and moans as my magic continued to move through him, the last of his life seeping away. "Pathetic."
With one jerk of my magic, I sent a stream of fire into him, the magic infecting his useless body, burning him from the inside out, turning whatever made him the person he was into nothing more than useless ash. His body sagged under the loss before I stopped, knowing better than to get rid of the evidence completely.
"You," I said to the man Ovailia still held against the wall. Everything about him shook as I started to move closer. "I have a job for you. Do it well, and I won't kill you. Fail and your life will end in a much more painful way than poor Edmund finally found."
I smiled, Ovailia laughed, and the man cowered as Ovailia released him from her magic, letting him fall to the ground.
"Stand," I commanded, and he scuttled to his feet, his eyes darting away from mine in fear. "I want you to go and tell everyone what you saw here. Tell everyone of what Sain, the first of the Drak, really is. Can you do that?"
"Y-ye-yes..." he stuttered as he continued to shake, the smell of urine filling the air around us.
Ovailia laughed harder.
"Good. Then, when you are done, come back to me, and I'll have another, little job for you. You have a new master now. Do you understand?"
The man nodded before he ran from us, his feet tripping over one another in his desperate need to find a way out.
"Do you think he will do it?" Ovailia asked as she stepped up to me, her body so close I could feel her warmth against my skin.
"Yes, I do. Now is when things really start to get interesting." I pulled Ovailia to me, her eyes wide as I plastered her body against mine, my arms strong as I held her in place. "Now is when everything gets real."
## 31
# Jaromir
"Watch it!" the voice shouted in anger, but I kept running, weaving my way through the legs of people who lingered in the courtyard, making my way around the tents in a frantic need to find out if what everyone was saying was true.
That they had found a girl... about my age.
It wasn't often kids showed up here or even survived what the Vilỳs had done to them. I guessed this one had. It was something I had to see for myself. Being the single one in a forest of adults was boring, even with magic.
Maybe that wouldn't be the case for long.
Ducking behind a big, green tent, I moved to the little alley behind the makeshift emergency room Ilyan had put together, knowing I could get in through the window near the end. I had done it before.
Running past boarded up windows and that creepy, old door, I let my magic carefully wiggle open the pane of glass, wind moving around me as it moved me up and through.
Perfectly silent.
The first time I had done that, I had made so much noise one of the healers had scolded me for twenty minutes.
I had mastered silence quickly.
I didn't even let myself touch the ground as I opened the door, the old, wooden thing creaking loudly as it opened to a hall lined with beds, the badly burned people covered by blankets and sheets. And there, at the end...
A little girl.
A few people hovered around her, their hands looking like birds' wings as they talked or healed or did whatever they were doing. I knew that, if they saw me, I would get kicked out, and my better logic told me to run and hide, wait until they were gone. But I couldn't, not with something this exciting.
I kept moving forward, my eyes trained on her, eager to see her for myself. Then I froze as one of the healers moved to the side, giving me a clear view of the girl they had rescued no more than a few hours before.
"Míra?" My voice rang out loudly as I saw her.
Her head turned at the sound of her name, her jaw dropping as mine did from seeing her here, the adults around us looking between us in confusion.
"Jaromir?" Her voice was the exact squeak I remembered, high and deep... even though something in it had changed.
Something in her had changed. But I didn't care.
Why would I?
She was here.
She was alive.
My sister.
My twin sister.
***
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**The Demon Has Only Just Been Released...**
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# Enjoy This Sneak Peek of Book Eight in The Imdalind Series
### Chapter One - Sain
"I have a job for you. Do it well, and I won't kill you. Fail and your life will end in a much more painful way than poor Edmund finally found."
The man Ovailia had spared cowered on the ground below me as I spoke, blood still dripping from my fingers, forming little pools of red by my feet. It was the red the man couldn't look away from.
The red matched the fluid seeping from the corpse behind me.
"Stand."
He didn't hesitate. He moved quickly, his eyes still on the pools of blood, unwilling to look at me.
"I want you to go and tell everyone what you saw here. Tell everyone of what Sain, the first of the Drak, really is. Can you do that?"
"Y-ye-yes..."
Ovailia laughed as the man stuttered and wet himself in fear.
I smiled, my lips pulling away from my teeth as my eyes gleamed.
"Good. Then, when you are done, come back to me, and I'll have another little job for you. You have a new master now. Do you understand?"
A nod and then the man tore from the room, stumbling over his own feet in his attempt to escape me.
"Do you think he will do it?" Ovailia asked, coming so close behind me I could feel my magic roar in an attempt to reach her.
"Yes, I do. Now is when things really start to get interesting." Pulling Ovailia to me, I let my magic swell, moving it to reach her, realizing it wasn't her it wanted.
It wasn't her it craved.
It was sight. It was the world that was yet to be.
"Now is when everything gets real." With two strong hands against her collarbone, I pushed her away from me, watching her stumble on her heels in an attempt to find her balance.
I didn't care.
Allowing my magic to swell into sight, I saw the whispers of what was to come, shadows of what was about to happen. What needed to happen. I couldn't let that man go.
"Wait," I said to the man who was now down the hall, still trying to make his escape. My magic stretched out to him, wrapping around him and pulling him right back into the room.
I could hear his panicked screams due to the movement, could hear Ovailia's disgruntled complaints from being thrown around. But all I saw was black, the fear and anger of my two companions fading into the screams of another sort.
Of sight.
"See what I have done!" My own voice echoed inside my mind as the images solidified.
I watched the crowd of horrified Trpaslíks appear in the hall of council, a large stone room that hadn't been used in decades if not centuries. They looked at the corpse of the man I had destroyed, anger and fear clear on their face. One man yelled then another then another, and the sight began to shift to the same room. This time, it was full of bloodied bodies and bowed heads, Edmund's loyalists cleared from the wheat like the chaff they were.
Useless garbage.
My heart rate accelerated at the sight of that, at the knowledge of what had happened—what could have happened if I had sent Damek out into the hordes with news of my accomplishments.
A revolt.
I had to stomp it.
The sight began to shift again, fire moving within the hall of Imdalind as a child laughed and cried in the background. It was a clear image, but one I waved away. I didn't need to see more. I already understood the path my sight wished me to take. I already understood what it wanted me to see.
The fire-drenched hallway faded to the dim room before me as the black left my eyes, some prophecy half-formed on my lips before I pushed it away, too.
Ovailia stood before me, still irate at my hasty banishment, her arms folded over her waist like a stubborn child.
"What is it?" she snapped, her head high as she watched me, making it clear she hadn't missed a moment of the sight. Knowing her, she had even tried to tap into it.
Luckily, the Black Water had been removed from her spine. I didn't need her knowing too much about what I was planning, about what was coming.
"Something wonderful," I said with a smile, taunting her as I stepped toward Edmund's last remaining guard, leaving bloody footprints behind me.
The silence of the room pressed against my chest as the sight's magic still reverberated inside me, loud and abrasive, the same image of the ignited hallway breaking through.
Just a flash of fire and smoke, and my heart stopped.
While I didn't know what I was seeing, I knew someone else who might.
Someone who shouldn't see any of this.
Edmund's dead eyes looked at me as my heart picked up, a sudden fear gripping me, the disgusting emotion far too real.
I hoped I wasn't too late.
I needed to stop her from seeing any of this.
Stop her from knowing what had happened.
I needed to put a block around my sight, a block around everything concerning me.
A Zámek.
The same magic had cursed Wyn. The same magic had been taught to Timothy by me in an attempt to kill her centuries before. This time, I would use it the way it was meant to be—to block a Drak's sight, to stop them from peeking into someone's life, into their fate.
Only powerful magic could cause such a wall. Although it would also block me from seeing into her fate, causing me to go into any upcoming battle blind, it was a risk I would have to take.
I needed to keep this from her. They couldn't know what had happened until the perfect moment.
Body tensing in hesitation, I closed my eyes, knowing how much exertion this was going to take.
A Zámek was not done often, if at all. And I already knew it would weaken my ability, weaken my sight. But for this, it was a risk I would have to take.
Heart pounding, eyes shut, I let my magic swell within me, all of my power pulling into me, against my heart that held it, against my lungs that breathed it.
Swelling inside of me, strong and powerful, it began to shake, the energy condensing in a wave of power and sound that moved into my bones, rattled my skull. I could already feel the shield beginning to form, hard as steel, as dark as death. It was heavy enough to keep out even the most powerful magic of sight, to keep the future and past contained within me so that only I could see.
"What are you doing?" Ovailia snapped from beside me, her voice oddly distanced over the rumbling static that was filling my mind. "Sain, what do you see?"
Ignoring her, I focused on the power that seemed moments from exploding out of me. The rumbling grew worse until I was convinced the vibrating I felt moving inside me was visible from the outside. I half-expected Ovailia to scream in worry, but there was nothing except silence, nothing except my strained breathing as the iron-clad shield began to move away from me, stretching past the caves and over the fields that surrounded us, butting right up against the large shield Edmund had placed over them all.
Heaving with the effort, I kept myself upright, determined not to show the weakness the Zámek had on me, knowing I could easily pass out from the effort.
Timothy had almost killed himself, and he had spent a month putting it in place.
"Sain?" she asked again as I opened my eyes to glare at her. "What's going on? What are you doing?"
"I am securing your future," I said with a smile, the hidden meaning humorous to me.
Ovailia narrowed her eyes before looking away, obviously not happy with the response yet unwilling to pursue it any further.
I had more exhilarating things to deal with.
"You," I snarled, aware that I wasn't certain of his name, although it wasn't something I would remedy. A man without a name was more valuable than a man who clung to a weak identity.
"Y... yes?" He lifted his head slowly, his body shaking as he pulled himself back to his feet, his head bowed in humility.
It wasn't respect he was showing, however; it was fear. His focus was still fixed on the drying blood that coated my skin, that dripped from my disheveled beard, on the bright red footprints trailing behind me, on the body of his former master, and on Edmund's guards who littered the room in a garden of death.
It was the remains of Edmund that he stared at the most, however. The air was saturated with the scent of his charred body. You couldn't ignore it was there.
You couldn't ignore what had happened.
" _Yes_?" I repeated the response with a hiss, my eyebrows lifting.
Even if the warning in my voice hadn't startled him, I was sure that did.
"Yes, master," he amended quickly, his body shaking in fear, the anxiety making it difficult for him to stand. He continually shifted his feet, his hands flexing and grabbing at the air as if it would somehow support him.
"Do it," I whispered, taking another step toward him, leaving another damp and sticky bloody print behind me. "Bow."
He didn't hesitate to fall to the ground, his hands and arms tucked underneath him as he quivered in a pathetic show of reverence. He looked like nothing more than the disgusting gelatin the mortals would eat.
This would not do.
"No, you idiot. I said bow, not cower."
He shivered, the wobbling mass vibrating before me as my magic rushed from me and wrapped around him, infecting him, controlling him, contorting him into a form more acceptable for someone of my stature.
He screamed out in fear and pain as I contorted him, his arms twisting into unnatural positions before I tucked them underneath his torso, twisting him into the perfect form.
"Lovely," I whispered, stepping toward him as his screams faded to pained whimpers. "That is a bow."
"Yes, master," he repeated once more, his voice stronger, as if the quivering would protect him from what was coming.
"I have changed my mind," I began as I walked closer still, more bloody footprints appearing in his line of sight. "I have seen what is coming, and I have a new job for you."
He jerked a bit, obviously confused and needing some kind of eye contact to verify what I had said.
My magic flared once in warning, jerking him back to the position I had placed him in, a small whimper of pain seeping from his throat.
"I no longer wish for you to tell them what has happened here. I wish for them to see it. I _want_ them to see." Flashes of the sight I'd had filled me, the screams and blood echoing inside my mind.
Turning toward Ovailia, I couldn't stop the smile, knowing her part in all of this made it all the sweeter. She watched me intently, still not pulling herself away from the remains of her father.
"Tell them all," I continued, the dried blood on my face pulling and cracking as I smiled toward the quivering mass below me. "Trpaslíks and Chosen are to gather in the old council hall. Tell them their _master_ has an announcement to make, nothing more."
I stood, waiting, focused on the pathetic man, on the quiver in his spine.
He said nothing. He did nothing except shiver.
I could feel my temper rise from being ignored, my magic heating and rising from the insubordination.
"Can you do that?" The words hissed past my teeth, and he shivered more, his head wobbling in what I assumed was a nod.
It didn't matter. It wasn't good enough. I did not have to put up with this type of behavior anymore. Never again. I wasn't going to let him get away with it.
"I don't appreciate being left waiting," I snapped, and his back jerked as my magic wound around him once more, lifting him into the air with a jolt before slamming him against the far wall. Pictures rattled with the impact, a flurry of dust and tiny rocks falling from the ceiling as I jerked them free from the crevices they had been hiding in for thousands of years.
Ovailia shrieked in surprise behind me, but I didn't turn, my focus remaining on the whimpering man whose bloodshot eyes were wide as I controlled him in the one way I knew how—with fear.
"I gave you a command, and I expect it to be carried out with perfect precision. Tell no one of what you have seen. Instead, instruct them in what their king has asked."
King.
My heart was light with the use of the word on my own tongue. My smile so wide that the man before me shuddered, nodding his head furiously in obedience, the words of acceptance and understanding lost in the buzzing that now filled my ears.
After I dropped the man from the wall with one twitch of my magic, he scuttled away, desperate to do what had been demanded, desperate to comply before it was his own flesh that was burned. I, however, remained frozen in place, my eyes trained on the rough stone of the wall, on the streaks of faded blood Damek had left behind, on the word that was echoing on repeat.
_King._
"What did you see, Sain?" Ovailia asked from behind me. I didn't even look at her. "What are you planning?"
_King._
"I plan nothing," I snapped, still not looking at her, the word continuing to repeat within me. "It is the magic of the earth that lays my path. I am simply wise enough to follow."
Years of plotting, of manipulating, of using everyone around me... After years of carefully setting the stage, I had finally accomplished what I had set out to do.
I was king once again after being stripped of my ruling power so many centuries before. And soon, everyone would know. Soon, everyone would bow to me as they had before, as they had for centuries.
I was one of the first.
I deserved nothing less.
And I had regained it.
Now, all that was left was to destroy the last remaining people who could take away this role. The last people who could challenge me: Joclyn, Ilyan, Wyn, perhaps even Ryland if he ever conquered the madness Edmund had given him.
Four people were all that were left in my way. And I would make them pay, for fighting me, for their parents' mistake of removing me from the role I had been born to fill.
I had come from the mud. The earth had created me. I was the only one suited to rule them, the only one who could.
"King," I said aloud, pulling my focus away from the wall and to the twisted charred corpse that Ovailia stood beside, her back straight and lips pursed as though she were guarding him.
Foolish girl, guarding the man she had killed.
Sending an irritated glance at the woman in question, I walked right past her, bee-lining for the body of the former. I almost expected her to step between me and my prey, but she remained still, her arms folded, lips pursed, and one long finger tapping against her forearm like a metronome.
"Is that what you wanted?" she asked, her voice filled with the same false sugar she had never quite mastered.
My face twisted into a scowl at the deceptive quality in it.
"To be king?"
Nostrils flaring in an effort to control my temper, I turned toward her. Ice ran down my spine as anger shook inside me due to her ignorance while she stood frozen over the body of her father, the smell of smoke surrounding us.
"I was king, Ovailia. I was the leader of these people. I should have never been removed from that role." I scowled, but she didn't so much as flinch at the anger.
"With the first four holders of magic, you mean?" She remained still, that finger still tapping, her eyes widening in some kind of disbelief.
My anger erupted at her ignorance. A loud laugh broke past the chill in the room as my magic surged, bright and powerful. Long, winding ribbons of yellow and gold trailed from me, dancing through the air before falling to the ground and wrapping around the remains of Edmund. Smoke and ash filled the air as I shifted him, his dead weight sagging and rolling around as I removed the bathrobe he still wore. The white cotton was stained with his blood, singed from the same flames that had devoured him.
"The four were the true rulers of these people. We were the kings and queens of this land." I chuckled at the memory, the sound haunting as the bathrobe came free from the charred remains. The body fell to the ground in a plume of black ash that fell over us like snow.
Disgust filled Ovailia's face as I felt her magic trill across the air, a shield keeping the ashes of her father off her.
I, however, let them fall. I let them cover me as I snagged the robe gently from the air, the fabric wet and crusty as the blood began to dry.
"You mean my grandmother." It was a statement, a forgotten connection hitting me full in the face.
Her grandmother.
The same power of the first that I had worked to destroy was flowing through her veins, as it was Ilyan's. The addition of Edmund's Chosen blood made them powerhouses that had hindered my accomplishments for far too long. Powerhouses were too big of a liability.
"Yes, your grandmother," I mused, holding the robe gently in my hands as I took a step toward her, ash falling from my hair and shoulders with the movement. "How unfortunate."
"And why is that unfortunate?" she snapped, her voice strong, though I could sense the tiniest shake behind it.
"No reason," I said with a smile, the icy look making her flinch for the first time.
Oh, well. I supposed I would have to add her to my list. Not that I hadn't already intended to kill her after I had gotten my use of her. Now, it would have to be a bit sooner than expected.
Ilyan, Joclyn, Wyn, Ryland, and Ovailia. Thank all that I had already disposed of Edmund's little puppet Míra in the pile of corpses, leaving Ilyan to set her aflame. The child had still borne Edmund's Štít, which would not have died with his death.
The last of his magic, now I had to dispose of the last remains.
"All the other four are dead now," I hissed, moving the robe from my arms and letting the blood drip across the air as I threw it over my shoulders, the damp fabric heavy. "I am the only one left, the only one fit to sit in this role."
"The role of the blood-soaked king?"
"Yes." My smile grew, the title fitting. "With a robe of blood and a crown of cinders, I leave death in my wake."
"And hell before." Ovailia stepped toward me, the tap of her heels against the ash sounding like bells. "You are the devil this world needs."
A flash of the sight I'd had in the cathedral in Prague caused me to flinch: the white room, the voice of the woman. It blinded me, the pressure of her voice splitting my head.
Pushing the imagery and memory aside, I attempted to ignore the sudden _boom_ of my heart that had exploded in my chest.
"No, darling," I growled, pressing down on the sudden and despicable emotion, letting my anger and power smother it. "I _am_ hell. It is the devil who searches for me."
I expected her to flinch from the confession, flinch from the smile I fixed her with, but she persisted, her trademark glare in place as she casually brushed her hair behind her ear, her lithe fingers delicate in the motion.
Beautiful.
Intoxicating.
Lustful.
I swallowed, feeling my magic swell with the motion, trying to push itself beyond my skin to reach out to hers, to find hers.
I held it back, not wanting to feel the sweet need of her magic, not wanting to lose control. Not with her, not now.
I had a feeling, with the smile she now had, she knew exactly what she was doing.
"Maybe _I_ am the devil."
"Then I will destroy you, Ovailia. Just like all the others."
It was a threat, but she smiled, her breasts heaving as she moved closer, as though she couldn't keep herself away from the danger that was dripping from my skin.
"Try."
I hadn't expected the word. I hadn't expected the weight behind it. My perfectly planned rebuttal stalled on my tongue, my magic tangling with hers in a heightened lust the threat gave me.
I swallowed, and she smiled, obviously sensing the control she had over me.
Perhaps she was the devil.
I would have to turn her skin as red as her father's. And soon.
The imagery of that simple thought was beautiful.
"You killed them, too." She already knew the answer. Not that it was that difficult to piece together after everything she had seen. Of course, she wasn't completely right, and I wouldn't let her know that.
Yes, I had killed two of them, but the third, that repulsive Vilỳ, had been dealt with by Edmund before I could. Imprisoning him, using him to infect himself and to infect his son, that idiotic boy who had released it, leaving him to infect my own daughter.
That little piece of information was too important to get out. If Ovailia knew how much power flowed within my dratted child, I was convinced I would lose her allegiance. She was too valuable of a weapon to lose.
I needed her... for now.
"You killed them all," she whispered, moving closer as the flutter of her words moved over my skin.
"I did," I admitted openly.
Her smile grew as mine did, the room silent and still as we faced each other.
The pulse of my magic was becoming unsteady. I needed to put a stop to it.
"I killed your grandmother," I whispered back, my voice soft, while the words were hostile. "I stopped her heart. I devoured her magic like I did to your darling daddy."
Her eyes clouded over as she flinched at my verbal assault, stepping back as I stepped closer, a wicked grin now stretching my lips, letting my teeth gleam in the dimly lit room.
Her chest heaved from either the proximity or with the words; I wasn't sure which. She could either kiss me or attack me. I would gladly accept either.
"Are you sure you want to be the devil?" I prodded, taking yet another step toward her, expecting her to step away again.
She held her ground, her blue eyes hardening into the emotionless steel that was so common for her.
"I have already killed many who thought they could rule the hell that I am."
Her lips pulled into a tight line, her nostrils flaring as she attempted to control her breathing, to control her anger. The rage of her magic was strong as it flew through the air, obviously moments away from attacking. I wished she would.
The imagery of her blood flowing over my hands to join her father's was as delicious as it was frightening.
I couldn't kill her yet, though. This emotional warfare would have to suffice for now.
"Will you be the devil, or will you help me harness hell?" My chest swelled, my heart pounding delicately from the excitement of the game I had entangled her in. The trap was so perfectly placed that, no matter which step she took, she would be trapped.
She knew it, too, judging by the hatred that started to creep into the beautiful blue of her eyes.
It made me want to kiss her more.
To kill her as I did.
Love, lust, and death traveled hand in hand.
"Do you serve me?"
"I do serve you, Sain," she whispered, her voice strong, yet I could hear the work it took to disguise the shake behind it.
"Don't forget that, my beautiful creature." I wrapped my hand around her waist, pulling her to me, my hand strong as I let my magic press against her skin.
The anger in her eyes dissipated with the contact.
My own desire for her death faded right alongside.
She melted into me, lust taking control and firmly securing my control over her. This game of cat and mouse had begun.
Or rather, a game of heaven and hell.
It would be a matter of time before she showed me the devil she truly was.
It was then I would destroy her.
—-
Continue Reading Now... Or you can Discover What is Happening with the last few books in Imdalind
# Also by Rebecca Ethington
**THE WORLD OF IMDALIND**
* * *
**_The Imdalind Series_**
Kiss of Fire, Imdalind #1
Eyes of Ember, Imdalind #2
Scorched Treachery, Imdalind #3
Soul of Flame, Imdalind #4
Burnt Devotion, Imdalind #5
Brand of Betrayal, Imdalind #6
Dawn of Ash, Imdalind #7
Crown of Cinders, Imdalind #8
Ilyan, Imdalind #9
* * *
**_The King of Imdalind Series_**
Spark of Vengeance, Book 1
Flare of Villainy, Book 2 (Coming 2019)
Books 3-6 TBA
* * *
**THE CIRCUS OF SHIFTERS**
* * *
**_The Phoenix's Ashes Series_**
Rise of the Witch, Book One
Fall of the Dragon, Book Two
Flight of the King, Book Three
Flame of the Phoenix, Book Four
* * *
**_The Dragon Queen Series_**
Rising Flame (coming March 2019)
Books 2-4 TBA
* * *
**THE OTHER WORLDS**
* * *
**_The Through Glass Series_**
Book One: The Dark
Book Two: The Blue
Book Three: The Rose
Book Four: The Cut
Book Five: The Light (Coming 2019)
Book Six: The Ascended (Coming 2019)
* * *
**_Of River and Raynn, The Series_**
The Catalyst: Act One (Rereleases 2019)
The Requisite: Act Two (Coming 2019)
# About the Author
Rebecca Ethington is an internationally bestselling author with almost 700,000 books sold. Her breakout debut, The Imdalind Series, has been featured on bestseller lists since its debut in 2012, reaching thousands of adoring fans worldwide and cited as "Interesting and Intense" by _USA Today's Happily Ever After Blog_.
From writing horror to romance and creating every sort of magical creature in between, Rebecca's imagination weaves vibrant worlds that transport readers into the pages of her books. Her writing has been described as fresh, original, and groundbreaking, with stories that bend genres and create fantastical worlds.
Born and raised under the lights of a stage, Rebecca has written stories by the ghost light, told them in whispers in dark corridors, and never stopped creating within the pages of a notebook.
_Find me online_
www.rebeccaethington.com
contact@rebeccaethington.com
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# Acknowledgments
There is something to be said to the people who helped to get this book to the page. For the ones who supported me, the ones who yelled at me to get it done, the ones who cheered me on, the ones who listened to me when I cried, and told me to shut up when it got to be too much. To the ones who made me hurt, and the ones who made it all better.
To the characters in my head, and the real ones they are based on.
To the pushers, and the supporters, and the fans, and everyone in-between.
This book would not exist without you.
Thank you.
* * *
Wendi, Shallyn, Kelli, Shaina, Jen, Lila, Joni, Alicia, Elisha, Tanya, Amber, Mark, Alice, Olivia, B.J., The Dynamis Gals, Italia, Melon, Chel, Kaylynn, Jessa, and a hundred more I am probably forgetting.
# The End is Near, The Demon is Released...
**Book Eight is Out Now**
### Contents
1. Title Page
2. Copyright
3. THE IMDALIND SERIES
4. Contents
5. Dedication
6. 1. Ilyan
7. 2. Joclyn
8. 3. Joclyn
9. 4. Joclyn
10. 5. Sain
11. 6. Ovailia
12. 7. Ryland
13. 8. Joclyn
14. 9. Sain
15. 10. Dramin
16. 11. Wyn
17. 12. Wyn
18. 13. Wyn
19. 14. Joclyn
20. 15. Ovailia
21. 16. Dramin
22. 17. Dramin
23. 18. Ovailia
24. 19. Ovailia
25. 20. Wyn
26. 21. Ilyan
27. 22. Ilyan
28. 23. Joclyn
29. 24. Joclyn
30. 25. Ovailia
31. 26. Ovailia
32. 27. Wyn
33. 28. Joclyn
34. 29. Joclyn
35. 30. Sain
36. 31. Jaromir
37. Special Thanks From The Author
38. Enjoy This Sneak Peek of Book Eight in The Imdalind Series
39. Also by Rebecca Ethington
40. About the Author
41. Newsletter Sign-Up
42. Acknowledgments
43. The End is Near, The Demon is Released...
1. Cover
2. Title Page
3. Copyright
4. Beginning
5. Foreword
6. Contents
7. Afterword
8. Also by Rebecca Ethington
9. Acknowledgments
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Žumberk (deutsch Sonnberg) ist ein Dorf in der Gemeinde Žár im Okres České Budějovice in Tschechien. Es liegt 30 Kilometer südöstlich von České Budějovice und ist ein typisch mittelalterliches Wehrdorf.
Geographie
Žumberk liegt im Novohradské podhůří (Gratzener Gebirgsvorland). Nachbarorte sind Chudějov im Norden, Hrádek (Häusles), Olešnice und Žár (Sohors) im Nordosten, Božejov und Nové Hrady im Osten, Svébohy (Zweiendorf), Humenice (Maierhof) und Horní Stropnice im Südosten, Kamenná und Rychnov u Nových Hradů im Süden, Kondrač (Neudorf) und Klení (Gollnetschlag) im Süden, Čížkrajice (Sitzkreis) im Westen sowie Mezilesí (Trautmanns), Boršíkov und Trhové Sviny im Nordwesten.
Geschichte
Der Ort wurde erstmals 1279 als Sonnberg erwähnt, als es im Besitz eines Engelschalk war. Am 12. November 1281 tauschte Heinrich I. von Rosenberg mit einer in Rosenberg ausgestellten Urkunde u. a. drei andere Dörfer wieder gegen das Dorf Sonnberg ein. Daraus kann geschlossen werden, dass Sonnberg vermutlich Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts von Heinrichs Vater Wok von Rosenberg gegründet worden war.
Während der Herrschaft des Pavlík von Sonnberg wurde das Kastell 1382–1412 umgebaut und befestigt. Um diese Zeit bestand auch schon die Kirche Johannes des Täufers. 1549–1600 gehörte Sonnberg dem Heinrich Pouzar von Michnitz (Jindřich Pouzar z Michnic). Er ließ das Kastell im Stil der Renaissance umbauen und das Dorf mit einer steinernen Mauer einfrieden. 1602 erwarb Sonnberg Peter Wok von Rosenberg, der es 1610 seinem Sekretär Theobald Hock überließ. Nachdem dieser 1618 wegen Urkundenfälschung angeklagt wurde, gelangte Sonnberg an Peter von Schwanberg, der es seiner Herrschaft Gratzen anschloss. Wegen seiner Beteiligung am böhmischen Ständeaufstand verlor er nach der Schlacht am Weißen Berg seine Besitzungen. Nachfolgend schenkte Kaiser Ferdinand II. Sonnberg seinem Feldherrn Carl Graf Bucquoy. Nach 1789 wurde das Kastell mit dem zugehörigen Landbesitz an die Untertanen verkauft.
1900 bestand Sonnberg aus 320 deutschböhmischen Einwohnern. Bis 1921 stieg die Einwohnerzahl auf 629, davon 95 % Deutschböhmen. Nach der Vertreibung der deutschböhmischen Bevölkerung 1945/46 waren es 1950 nur noch 98 Einwohner; bis 1991 sank die Einwohnerzahl auf 28. Im Jahre 2001 bestand das Dorf aus 30 Wohnhäusern, in denen 24 Menschen lebten.
Sehenswürdigkeiten
Die spätgotische Feste Žumberk entstand vermutlich im 14. Jahrhundert. Sie wurde Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts im Stil der Renaissance umgebaut und in den 1990er Jahren aufwändig restauriert.
Die gotische Kirche Johannes des Täufers bestand bereits Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts. Sie wurde im 19. Jahrhundert umgestaltet. Ein 2005 gegründeter "Förderverein Pfarrkirche Sonnberg/Zumberk Südböhmen e.V." mit Sitz in Osnabrück wurde 2022 aufgelöst.
Die Dorfbefestigung mit einer steinernen Mauer, die von sechs Türmen unterbrochen ist, entstand in der zweiten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts. Sie ist weitgehend erhalten und wurde in den letzten Jahren originalgetreu restauriert.
Literatur
Joachim Bahlcke, Winfried Eberhard, Miloslav Polívka (Hrsg.): Handbuch der historischen Stätten. Band: Böhmen und Mähren (= Kröners Taschenausgabe. Band 329). Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-520-32901-8, S. 577.
Weblinks
Pfarrkirche St. Johannes d. T. in Sonnberg/Žumberk
Burg Žumberk auf hrady.cz
Einzelnachweise
Ortsteil in Tschechien
Ersterwähnung 1279
Žár
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\section{Experimental}
Mesas 100$\times $400~\textmu m$^2$ in size with two silver strip electrodes were milled from a Bi-2212 crystal by photolithography and argon milling methods. Figure 1(a) shows an optical microscopy image of the Bi-2212 mesa array. We refer to the two mesas as A1 and A2. Profile measurements using atomic force microscopy (Keyence Corp., Model VN-8000) demonstrate that the mesas vary marginally in size. Widths of A1 and A2 were measured as 94~\textmu m and 91~\textmu m, respectively, with thicknesses of 1.4~\textmu m corresponding to 910 IJJs.
The current-voltage characteristics (IVCs) for A1 and A2 show the large hysteresis typical of underdamped Josephson junctions~\cite{SM}. Simultaneous emission occurs when A1 and A2 are biased in parallel. Hereinafter, we refer to the parallel connection as A1$\parallel $A2. The maximum intensity is obtained at 16.8~mA, which is higher than the sum of the bias currents for the maximum emission powers of A1 and A2 individually. Also, the maximum intensity for A1$\parallel $A2 was almost half of that for A2. This can be explained by considering the local temperature increase~\cite{Wang2009,Wang2010,Gross2012,Benseman2013c,Minami2014,Tsujimoto2014,Benseman2015}. Benseman {\it et al.} demonstrated that the self-heating effect limits the power output and in fact may prevent synchronization among multiple mesas~\cite{Benseman2013b}. A variety of studies on the cavity resonance effect have demonstrated that spontaneous synchronization among stacked IJJs is accompanied by the formation of standing EM waves inside the Bi-2212 mesa~\cite{Ozyuzer2007,Tsujimoto2010a,Kashiwagi2011,Tsujimoto2016,Kashiwagi2018,Zhang2019}. For a thin rectangular mesa of width $w$ and length $\ell $, the cavity frequency for a transverse magnetic $(mp)$ mode is given by $f_{mp}^{r}=(c_{0} / 2 n)\sqrt{(m/w)^{2}+(p/\ell )^{2}}$, where the two indices $m$ and $p$ correspond to the numbers of electric field nodes in the width and length directions, respectively, and $n = 4.2$ is the experimentally obtained refractive index~\cite{Tsujimoto2016,Kadowaki2010}. Here, the radiation frequencies measured using Fourier transform interferometry ranged continuously from 0.56 to 0.66~THz depending on the bias point~\cite{SM}. These values are in good agreement with the calculated $f_{1p}^{r}$ with $0<p<6$. If we assume $m \geq 2$, the calculated $f_{mp}^{r}$ values fail to coincide with the observed values for any $p$. Hence, only one EM node is present along the mesa width, and a non-zero $p$ value is expected to produce an elliptical polarization.
Here, we present the measurements of the Stokes parameters, which allow for the quantitative analysis of polarized photons emitted from individual mesas and from synchronized arrays~\cite{SM}. Figure 1(b) shows a schematic view of the synchronized array. Measurement was performed by allowing the polarized radiation to propagate sequentially through two polarizing elements, a quarter-wave plate (QWP), and a linear wire grid polarizer (WGP). The QWP consists of a stack of parallel metal-plate waveguides~\cite{Nagai2015}. We used terahertz time-domain spectroscopy~\cite{Madeo2010,Maussang2016} to verify that the QWP works correctly in the emission frequency range around 0.6~THz~\cite{SM}. Figure 1(c) shows the measurement configuration. The QWP can be rotated through an angle $\theta $ and is followed by a fixed WGP whose transmission axis is fixed in the width direction ($\theta =0$~deg).
Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show polar plots of the bolometer output for A1 and A1$\parallel $A2, respectively, as a function of $\theta $ at the bias conditions that result in the maximum output powers. The error bars in the radial direction correspond to fluctuations in the bolometer output signal, mostly owing to background noise. The four independent Stokes parameters, $S_0$, $S_1$, $S_2$, and $S_3$, which are summarized in Table SI~\cite{SM}, are obtained from this data. The solid lines shown in Figs.~2(a) and 2(b) represent the calculated results using the four Stokes parameters. The experimental data are slightly asymmetric with respect to both the major and minor axes. This is due to the imperfect alignment of the parallel metal-plate waveguides in the QWP. Nevertheless, the calculation results fit the experimental data within the error bars.
The E-field vector at the detection plane is given by $\bm{B}(t)=E_{0x}e^{i(\omega t + \delta _x)}\bm{i} + E_{0y}e^{i(\omega t + \delta _y)}\bm{j}$, where the $x$- and $y$-axes are parallel to the mesa width and length, respectively, $t$ represents time, $E_{0x}$ and $E_{0y}$ are the respective amplitudes, and $\delta _x$ and $\delta _y$ are the respective phase constants. Figures 2(c) and 2(d) are the corresponding polarization ellipses for A1 (red), A2 (blue), and A1$\parallel $A2 (green). The fourth Stokes parameter $S_3$ determines the helicity of the photons: a positive (negative) $S_3$ indicates left (right)-handed helicity with respect to the direction of propagation. Note that the $E$-field rotates forward (counter-)clockwise for left (right)-handed helicity from the viewpoint of the detector. The arrows on the ellipses indicate the direction of the $E$-field rotation. For both mesas, the major axis of the polarization ellipse is oriented along the $x$ axis, {\it i.e.}, $-\pi /4 < \psi < \pi /4$, which is consistent with excitation of $(1p)$ cavity modes.
In the pioneering study of EM-wave emission from an IJJ mesa, it is demonstrated that the emission from rectangular mesas is linearly polarized along the mesa width~\cite{Ozyuzer2007}. The present results suggest, however, that the emitted waves are elliptically polarized with a finite axial ratio at an arbitrary orientation angle. We stress that these polarization parameters contain information essential for understanding the electromagnetism inside the emitting mesa. For example, the orientation angle $\psi $ is derived from the phase difference $\delta _{xy} = \delta _{x}-\delta _{y}$, namely, $\delta _{yx}= \pm \pi /2$ gives $\psi = 0$ and $\delta _{yx}=0$ gives $\psi = 30$~deg for $E_{0x}^2 / E_{0y}^2 \sim 3$. We also found that the actual polarization parameters are, in fact, dependent on the bias condition and $T_b$. Nevertheless, the observed $E_{0x}$ was greater than $E_{0y}$ in all cases, directly suggesting the predominance of the $(1p)$ cavity mode for elongated rectangular mesas.
When two mesas are biased to emit simultaneously, the far-field waves should be described in terms of the superposition of the $E$-fields generated from each mesa. Thus, the total $E$-field depends on the phase difference between the macroscopic Josephson oscillations. The observed pattern for A1$\parallel $A2 shown in Fig.~2(b) exhibits four-fold symmetry with respect to $\theta $, suggesting that the two mesas generate photons synchronously. It is likely that $\psi $ and the helicity for A1$\parallel $A2 are dominated by the photon from A2, which emits more intensively than A1 (Fig.~2(c)). Most importantly, we found that the axial ratio increases significantly from 2 for the individual emissions to 24 for the simultaneous emission. We propose that this pronounced effect on the axial ratio is an indication of the phase synchronization between the two mesas as a result of EM coupling.
We observed the same behavior from other mesas shown in Fig.~1(a) and another supplemental sample, where each mesa showed slightly different polarization depending on the geometrical configuration~\cite{SM}. The amplitude ratio $E_{0x} ⁄ E_{0y}$ explains the predominance of cavity resonances in the width direction over those in the length direction. Since we injected the DC bias current into A1 and A2 using a left strip electrode as shown in Fig.~1(a), the resonance in the width direction may be degraded by a non-uniform current distribution in the mesa~\cite{Kakeya2012,Tsujimoto2014}. This explanation is supported by the observation $E_{0x} / E_{0y} =1.4$ for A1 and, in contrast, 2.0 for supplemental mesas with a symmetrical electrode configuration~\cite{SM}. This technique allows for dynamic control of polarization by adjusting the current distribution in the mesa.
In Fig.~3(a), we plot the polarization ellipses obtained by calculating the locus of $\bm{E}(t)$. According to antenna theory for a transverse magnetic cavity, $E_{0x}$ (or $E_{0y}$) is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic currents parallel to the $y$-axis (or $x$-axis). Hence, in order to calculate $\bm{E}(t)$, we assume that the anisotropy is equal to the inverse mesa aspect, {\it i.e.}, $E_{0x} / E_{0y}=\ell /w$. This geometrical effect coincides with the numerical simulation for a locally heated square IJJ mesa~\cite{Asai2017}. By comparing Fig.~3(a) with Fig.~2(c), we can estimate $\delta _{yx}$ to be $3 \pi / 4$ (135~deg) for A1 and $- \pi / 4$ ($-45$~deg) for A2.
Let us describe our results in terms of quantum mechanics. The quantum-superposition state of the photon emitted from the parallel-biased mesa array of A1$\parallel $A2 is described as
\begin{equation}
\ket{\omega _{\textrm{A1}\parallel \textrm{A2}}, \bm{S}_{\textrm{A1}\parallel \textrm{A2}}}=
\alpha \ket{\omega _{\textrm{A1}}, \bm{S}_{\textrm{A1}}} +
\beta \ket{\omega _{\textrm{A2}}, \bm{S}_{\textrm{A2}}}, \notag
\end{equation}
where $\bm{S}_i$ ($i=\textrm{A1, A2, or A1$\parallel $A2}$) represents the Stokes vector as a quantum number. Two complex numbers $\alpha $ and $\beta $ represent the probability amplitudes ({\it i.e.}, $|\alpha |^2 + |\beta |^2 =1$) and phases of the unperturbed states $\ket{\omega _{\textrm{A1}}, \bm{S}_{\textrm{A1}}}$ and $\ket{\omega _{\textrm{A2}}, \bm{S}_{\textrm{A2}}}$, respectively. According to the dispesrsion relation of the transverse JPW~\cite{Kadowaki1997}, angular frequencies $\omega _{\textrm{A1}}$ and $\omega _{\textrm{A2}}$ are determined by the wavenumbers $\bm{k}_{\textrm{A1}}$ and $\bm{k}_{\textrm{A2}}$ of the Josephson plasmons (quantized JPW) independently of the polarization. Our concern is finding the 4$\times $4 perturbation matrix $V_m$ that satisfies
$
\begin{pmatrix}
\ket{\omega _{\textrm{A1}}',\bm{k}_{\textrm{A1}'}} \\
\ket{\omega _{\textrm{A2}}',\bm{k}_{\textrm{A2}'}}
\end{pmatrix}
=V_{m}
\begin{pmatrix}
\ket{\omega _{\textrm{A1}},\bm{k}_{\textrm{A1}}} \\
\ket{\omega _{\textrm{A2}},\bm{k}_{\textrm{A2}}}
\end{pmatrix}.
$
Here, inter-mesa coupling $V_m$ causes perturbation and may include non-diagonal elements, which involve a general question in non-linear physics regarding the symmetry of the matrix.
Figure 3(b) shows polarization $\bm{S}_{\textrm{A1$\parallel $A2}}$ calculated by taking the superposition into consideration. We used the actual intensity ratio obtained by measurement. The orientation angle in the range of $0 < \psi < \pi / 2$ is in good agreement with Fig.~2(d). It is noteworthy that the modulus $|\beta / \alpha |$ represents the degree of interaction between the two mesas and $|\beta / \alpha |=0.9$ coincides with our results. Meanwhile, the argument of $\beta / \alpha $ corresponds to the phase difference between A1 and A2.
Figure 4 shows the variation of axial ratio as a function of $\arg (\beta / \alpha )$. As indicated by arrows, two singular states exhibiting perfect polarization are emitted when $|\beta / \alpha |<0.9$. For example, two singular states with very large axial ratio can be observed at $\arg (\beta / \alpha )=45$~deg and at 135~deg when $|\beta / \alpha |=0.7$. We suggest that such perfect polarization is attributed to coherent excitation of the Josephson plasmon. See Supplemental Material for $|\beta / \alpha |$-dependence of $\bm{S}_{\textrm{A1$\parallel $A2}}$~\cite{SM}.
The origin of inter-mesa coupling $V_m$ arises from the propagation of JPWs through the Bi-2212 base crystal. The inset of Fig.~4 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the mesa array. The dashed line in Fig.~4 represents the phase delay $2 \pi D/\lambda '$ due to the finite propagation time, where $D=58$~\textmu m is the interspace between the two mesas and $\lambda ' = \lambda /n$ is the effective wavelength. We assume that JPWs can propagate from one mesa to another mesa through the base crystal and diffract at the mesa edge. This situation strongly supports the view that the base crystal can mediate the EM interaction~\cite{Benseman2013b,Lin2013a}, the mechanism of which has been unclear in previous works. Furthermore, we found that the total intensity of simultaneous emission $S_0$ reaches a maximal value as $2 \pi D/\lambda '$ coincides with a multiple of $\arg (\beta / \alpha )$~\cite{SM}.
In conclusion, we demonstrated the synchronization of macroscopic Josephson oscillations in two simultaneously biased Bi-2212 IJJ mesas coupled via a base crystal by measuring the complete Stokes parameters. We used an achromatic QWP and a linear WGP to analyze the orthogonal components of the emitted $E$-fields. We proved that the coherent radiation is elliptically polarized with the major axis oriented in the width direction. Most importantly, we observed a significant increase in the axial ratio for simultaneous emission, suggesting that Josephson plasma in the Bi-2212 base crystal can mediate an interaction between two individual mesas. This finding represents a possible means of manipulating the synchronization of IJJ arrays, and is the most promising way to increase the integrated radiation power.
\section*{Acknowledgment}
This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI (Grant No.~26286006, No.~15KK0204, and No.~19H02540), JSPS-Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) Bilateral Program (Grant No.~120192908), and the Program to Disseminate the Tenure Tracking System at the University of Tsukuba. The Bi-2221 single crystal was provided by Y.~Nakagawa at Kyoto University. The authors thank H.~Asai, S.~Kawabata, M.~Machida, and T.~Koyama for their valuable discussions.
\section{Verification of quarter-wave plate device}
In order to measure the Stokes parameters, we used a lab constructed quarter-wave plate (QWP) consisting of a stack of parallel metal-plate waveguides. The thickness of the spacer was set to 2.0~mm so that the bandwidth of the QWP coincides with the frequency range of our superconducting terahertz source.
To characterize the QWP, we performed terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) using an optical system based on a comb-type photoconductive antenna and ZnTe crystal electro-optic detection with an 800-nm femtosecond pump laser~\cite{Madeo2010,Maussang2016}. In this setup, the QWP and a pair of linear polarizers were placed in the optical path according to~\cite{Nagai2015}. The measurement results shown in Fig.~S1(a) prove that the transmitted $E$-field component parallel to the plate was delayed by $\pi /2$ in the frequency range of 0.3–-0.8~THz. Figure S1(b) shows the trajectory of the $E$-field vector composed of orthogonal time-domain signals. These results demonstrate that the QWP device functions as a $\pi /2$ retarder for parallel transmission.
\section{Formulation of the Stokes parameter analysis}
A useful visual representation of the polarized wave is given by
\begin{equation}
\frac{E_{x}^2(z,t)}{E^2_{0x}}+\frac{E_{y}^2(z,t)}{E^2_{0y}}
- \frac{2E_{x}(z,t)E_{y}(z,t)}{E_{0x}E_{0y}}\cos \delta _{yx}=
\sin ^2 \delta _{yx}
\end{equation}
where $\delta _{yx} = \delta _{y} - \delta _{x}$ is the lateral phase difference. Equation (1) describes the elliptical polarization when $E_{x} \neq E_{y}$ and $\delta _{yx} \neq 0$. Figure S2 shows the polarization ellipse that defines the optical parameters. We define the $x$- and $y$-axes as the directions parallel to the Bi$_2$Sr$_2$CaCu$_2$O$_{8+\delta }$ (Bi-2212) mesa width and length, respectively. The EM wave propagates along the $z$-direction.
By taking the time average, Eq.~(1) can be transformed to the intensity domain~\cite{Collett1968},
\begin{equation}
S^2_{0} = S^2_{1} + S^2_{2} + S^2_{3},
\end{equation}
where the set of four independent polarization parameters,
\begin{equation}
\bm{S}=
\begin{pmatrix}
S_0 \\
S_1 \\
S_2 \\
S_3
\end{pmatrix}
=
\begin{pmatrix}
E^2_{0x} + E^2_{0y} \\
E^2_{0x} - E^2_{0y} \\
2E_{0x}E_{0y} \cos \delta \\
2E_{0x}E_{0y} \sin \delta
\end{pmatrix},
\end{equation}
are called the Stokes parameters~\cite{Stokes1851}. These parameters are widely used to describe polarization primarily because the polarization ellipse is not directly accessible by measurement~\cite{Wolf1954}. The parameter $S_0$ represents the total intensity of the optical field, $S_1$ represents the predominance of linearly horizontally polarized light over linearly vertically polarized light, $S_2$ represents the predominance of linear $+45$~deg polarized light over linear $-45$~deg polarized light, and the fourth parameter $S_3$ represents the predominance of right circular polarization over left circular polarization. The advantage of the Stokes parameters is that they can be measured because they are represented in terms of the intensities of specific polarizations.
The polarization ellipse shown in Fig.~S2 can be described in terms of two angles: the orientation angle $\psi $ and ellipticity angle $\chi $. These angles can be determined from the Stokes parameters~\cite{Born1999} as
\begin{equation}
\psi = \frac{1}{2} \tan ^{-1} \left( \frac{S_2}{S_1} \right)
\quad
(0 < \psi < \pi)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\chi = \frac{1}{2} \sin ^{-1} \left( \frac{S_3}{S_0} \right)
\quad
(-\frac{\pi }{4} < \chi < \frac{\pi }{4}).
\end{equation}
The major axis $\xi $ is directed along an axis rotated through $\psi $, and the axial ratio equals $1/ \tan \chi $.
The intensity measured using the bolometer as a function of the QWP angle $\theta $ is given by~\cite{Collett1992}
\begin{equation}
I(\theta )=\frac{1}{2} (S_{0} + S_{1} \cos ^2 2\theta
+ S_{2} \cos 2\theta \sin 2\theta + S_{3} \sin 2\theta ).
\end{equation}
The squared and product terms can be rewritten using the trigonometric half-angle formula to yield
\begin{equation}
I(\theta )=\frac{1}{2} (A + B \sin 2\theta + C \cos 4\theta + D \sin 4\theta ),
\end{equation}
where
\begin{align}
A=S_{0}
& \quad &
B=S_{3}
& \quad &
C=\frac{S_{1}}{2}
& \quad &
D=\frac{S_{2}}{2}.
\end{align}
Equation (7) is a truncated Fourier series consisting of a DC term, a second harmonic term, and two fourth harmonics terms. Thus, the four Fourier coefficients in Eq.~(8) can be determined by the following equations:
\begin{equation}
\begin{split}
&A=\frac{2}{N_m} \sum_{n=1}^N I_{n} \\
&B=\frac{4}{N_m} \sum_{n=1}^N I_{n} \sin 2\theta _{n} \\
&C=\frac{4}{N_m} \sum_{n=1}^N I_{n} \cos 4\theta _{n} \\
&D=\frac{4}{N_m} \sum_{n=1}^N I_{n} \sin 4\theta _{n}
\end{split}
\end{equation}
where $I_{n}$ is the intensity measured at angle $\theta _{n}$ and $N_m$ is the number of measurements. From Eq.~(8), the Stokes parameters are found to be
\begin{equation}
\begin{split}
&S_{0}=A-C
\qquad
S_{1}=2C \\
&S_{2}=2D
\qquad
S_{3}=B.
\end{split}
\end{equation}
We measured $N_{m}=10$ data every 18~deg in the range of $0 \leq \theta <180$ to calculate the Stokes parameters using Eqs.~(8), (9), and (10).
\section{Emission characteristics}
Figure S3(a) shows the current-voltage characteristics (IVCs) of the Bi-2212 mesas. The red and blue curves represent the data obtained from mesas A1 and A2, respectively, and the green curve is the IVC from the two mesas connected in parallel and biased simultaneously using a single voltage source ({\it i.e.}, A1$\parallel $A2). The bath temperature was fixed at $T_{b}= 15.0$~K. Each IVC curve shows the large hysteresis typical of underdamped IJJs. We used a silicon-composite bolometer (Infrared Laboratories, Inc.) and lock-in amplifier with a chopper to detect terahertz radiation. Figure S3(b) shows the bolometer output as a function of applied current. EM radiation was observed in the resistive state, with maximum outputs at 5.4~mA for A1 and 6.0~mA for A2 as indicated by the arrows in Figs.~S3(a) and S3(b).
As shown in Fig.~S3(b), the maximum output for A1 was approximately 13\% of that for A2. This difference arises from in-plane non-uniformity of the superconducting order parameters in the Bi-2212 base crystal. The inset of Fig.~S3(b) shows the temperature dependence of the $c$-axis resistance. The onset $T_c$ for A1 and A2 were 77.7~K and 81.4~K, respectively.
Global emission occurs when A1 and A2 are connected in parallel and biased on the outermost IVC branch (see the green line in Fig.~S3(b)). The maximum intensity is obtained at 16.8~mA, which is higher than the sum of the bias currents (11.4~mA) for the maximum emission powers of A1 and A2 individually. Furthermore, the emission voltage was considerably lower than those of A1 and A2. As indicated by the arrows in Fig.~S3(a), the emission voltage was 0.53~V for A1$\parallel $A2, whereas that for A1 and A2 was 0.74~V. This can be partly explained by considering the local temperature increase, which is more pronounced for mesa arrays~\cite{Benseman2013b} and allows for a reduction in the emission voltage. The effective local temperature near the biased mesas increases considerably owing to significant Joule heating, especially in the high-bias regime~\cite{Wang2009,Wang2010,Gross2012,Benseman2013c,Minami2014,Tsujimoto2014,Benseman2015}.
A lab-constructed Fourier transform interferometer based on split mirrors was used to measure the radiation frequencies. For the configuration employed the frequency resolution was 10~GHz. Figure S4(a) shows the I-V characteristic curve for A2, while Fig.~S4(b) shows the emission spectra obtained at 6.5~mA and 9.9~mA. According to the AC Josephson effect~\cite{Josephson1962}, application of a DC voltage $V$ leads to an AC current and electromagnetic emission at the Josephson frequency in the form of $f_{J}=2eV ⁄ h N$, where $e$ is the elementary charge, $h$ is the Planck constant, and $N$ is the number of junctions contributing to the emission. By substituting the radiation frequencies and voltages into the above equation, we can estimate that at most $N \sim 600$--700 junctions contribute to emission. The small steps in the outermost I-V branches indicate that emission takes place in the inner regions of multiple I-V branches~\cite{Tsujimoto2012a}, where the number of resistive junctions is reduced from the total number.
Figure S5 shows the $T_b$ dependence of the I-V characteristics with color-coded bolometer outputs. The results demonstrate stable emission on the outermost branches in the low-bias regime at temperatures below $T_{b}=55.0$~K.
\section{Supplemental data from a mesa array of differing design}
We present supplemental data obtained from a mesa array of differing design. The size of the mesas were almost identical at 77$\times $350$\times $1.2~\textmu m$^3$ with an interspace of 78~\textmu m. Here, the width was measured at the mesa bottom, and the width at the top was 72~\textmu m.
Figure S6 displays polar plots of the maximum bolometer output for mesa (a) B1 and (b) B2 at $T_{b}= 42.0$~K. Figure S6(c) shows the same plot for global emission from mesa array (B1$\parallel $B2). Data is plotted in the same way as was done in Fig.~2 of the main text.
The obtained Stokes parameters are summarized in Table SI. Figure S6(d) shows the polarization ellipses. In the case of B1$\parallel $B2, we observed a significant increase in axial ratio from $\sim $8 to 20. This behavior is consistent with A1$\parallel $A2, and the other polarization parameters were similar to those for the main sample. Note that we did not examine the possibility of synchronization with more than two mesas.
\section{Calculation of polarization for various coupling strengths}
Figure S7(a–f) shows various polarization characteristics $\bm{S}_{\textrm{A1$\parallel $A2}}$ plotted for different $|\beta / \alpha |$ values. The modulus $|\beta / \alpha |$ is the degree of interaction between the two mesas, $|\beta / \alpha |=0.9$ coinciding with the experimental results. Meanwhile, $\arg (\beta / \alpha )$ corresponds to the phase difference between the two mesas.
As indicated by arrows in Fig.~4 in the main text, two singular states exhibiting perfect linear polarization are emitted when $|\beta / \alpha |<0.9$. For example, two singular states with very large axial ratios can be clearly observed in Fig.~S7(b) at $\arg (\beta / \alpha )=45$~deg and at 135~deg.
\newpage
\section{Calculation of the total intensity as a function of inter-mesa space}
We simulated the total intensity of the global radiation emitted from the mesa arrays. The total intensity was derived from the first Stokes parameter $S_0$ and was measured using a bolometer in our experiment.
The orthogonal components for each mesa are given as follows:
\begin{equation}
\begin{split}
&E_{x1}(t)=E_{0x} \cos (\omega t) \\
&E_{y1}(t)=E_{0y} \cos (\omega t + \delta _{yx1}) \\
&E_{x2}(t)=E_{0x} \cos (\omega t + \delta _{21}) \\
&E_{y2}(t)=E_{0y} \cos (\omega t + \delta _{21} + \delta _{yx2}),
\end{split}
\end{equation}
where 1 and 2 denote mesa A1 and A2, respectively. The relative phase $\delta _{21}$ represents the phase difference between the $E_x$ of each mesa. The linear combination of these fields allows for calculation of the total intensity $S_0$. Using the sum formula for the cosine function, $\cos \phi + \cos (\phi + \gamma ) =
\frac{\sin \gamma }{\sin (\delta _{21}/2)}
\cos (\phi + \frac{\gamma }{2})$, we can obtain the total intensity as
\begin{equation}
S_{0}=
\left\{
E_{0x}
\frac{\sin \delta _{21}}{\sin (\delta _{21}/2)}
\right\}^2
+ \left\{
E_{0y}
\frac{\sin (\delta _{21}+\delta _{yx2}-\delta _{yx1})}{\sin (\frac{\delta _{21}+\delta _{yx2}-\delta _{yx1}}{2})}
\right\}^2 .
\end{equation}
In Fig.~S8, we plot $S_0$ for various $\delta _{yx2}-\delta _{yx1}$ as a function of $D$. To calculate $S_0$, we use $E_{0x} / E_{0y} = \ell / w$ and $D/\lambda '=\delta _{21}/2\pi $. The results clearly indicate that the total intensity has local maxima when $D$ coincides with an integer multiple of $\lambda '$ independently of $\delta _{yx}$. When synchronized, the total intensity depends strongly on $D$, whereas its peak value is only marginally affected by $\delta _{yx}$. This allows for the possibility of increasing the total intensity and controlling the consequent polarization by adjusting $D$.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
}
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\section{Introduction}\label{sec:intro}
Primordial black holes (PBHs) are one of the current most interesting candidates to be the dark matter (DM). Black holes (BHs) emerging from the very early universe, without any of the restrictions on mass or abundance that characterize BHs of stellar origin. Not only they fulfill the basic criteria needed for the DM, they do so without the need to invoke a new set of existing particles. Furthermore, while their specific mass is not set in stone, on cosmological scales PBHs would behave like the standard particle cold dark matter \cite{2021arXiv211002821C}.
While this might make them look ideal, the formation of PBHs is not so simple and often requires some form of new physics too, so their specific origins and abundance are still hotly debated. While first theorized in \cite{1967SvA....10..602Z, 1971MNRAS.152...75H}, their name and characteristics, including formation from from primordial inhomogeinities during inflation and their cosmological implications, were first formalized in \cite{1974MNRAS.168..399C, 1975Natur.253..251C, 1975ApJ...201....1C}. Today a variety of formation paths exist, including exotic ones. For a review of the most standard formation path and possible alternatives I refer the reader to \cite{2022Univ....8...66E}.
PBHs as a DM candidate have received considerable attention since the LIGO \cite{2015CQGra..32g4001L} discovery of gravitational waves \cite{2016PhRvL.116f1102A} and its possible attribution to PBHs \cite{2016PhRvL.116t1301B}. Lately, they have been mostly ruled out of originating all the gravitational waves detected by the LIGO collaboration \cite{2016PhRvL.117f1101S, 2016arXiv161008725W, 2021PhRvD.103b3026W}, though some doubts still remain \cite{2020JCAP...09..022J}.
PBHs however can form in a wide mass range, depending only on the circumstances of the collapse that forms them. Despite this very wide range of parameters, PBHs being all of the DM is strongly constrained in most other mass ranges through a rather diverse set of observations \cite{2021arXiv211002821C, 2018CQGra..35f3001S,2021RPPh...84k6902C,2020PhRvD.101f3005S}. While the number of possibilities makes them a very exciting prospect from both a theoretical and observational standpoints, it also means it is very hard to track the extent to in which masses the PBHs can be all of the DM or more particularly the nuances and uncertainties associated with these constraints.
In this review I attempt to make a brief summary of all current known constraints on PBHs as DM, but also put special focus on the physical origin of the constraints and the implications they carry for both their current form and future prospects. A nuanced understanding of both is helpful when the constraints appear to constantly be changing, and in correctly assessing the possibilities of future detection. Previous review with extensive reference lists can be found in \cite{2021arXiv211002821C, 2018CQGra..35f3001S}.
In section \ref{sec:Form} I make a very brief summary of what is usually considered the standard formation paths and what constraints can be derived from it. The following section \ref{sc:Mono} will be an overview of all known current monochromatic constraints, divided by their types. Section \ref{sc:non-diff} will tackle the issue of how non-monochromatic constraints work and their issues, and also how clustered PBH distributions can become relevant and modify existing constraints. Finally, I will detail the still existing window on PBHs as DM and works that have tried to close it in \ref{sc:window}, the possibility of directly detecting the PBHs in section \ref{sec:Direct detection} and present my conclusions and future prospects in section \ref{sec:future_perspectives}.
\section{Formation}\label{sec:Form}
As this review's main purpose is to detail the existing observational constraints on PBHs as DM, I will keep explanation on PBHs possible origin brief.
The most common origin for PBHs is in the very early Universe, during radiation domination, where large curvature perturbations generated during inflation could have undergone gravitational collapse. This early epoch should be radiation dominated, so our focus in on energy density, which we will call it $\mu$. For the case of Planck units, which take $G=c=1$, the Schwarzschild radius of a BH can be simplified from the standard form $r_s = 2GM/c^2$ to $r_S = 2M$.
It is also obvious that the total mass within any spherical symmetric perturbation in Planck units would be $M\sim \frac{4}{3}\pi \, \mu r^3$, as $c=1$. Using that with the simplified Schwarzschild radius definition means the condition for the perturbations to collapse is \cite{1974MNRAS.168..399C}:
\begin{align}
r_S = 2\frac{4\pi}{3} r_S^{3}\mu \longrightarrow \mu r^2 \gtrsim 1 \;,
\label{eq:PBhform}
\end{align}
where we drop the constants on the right term. While this condition might appear strange, it is in fact very close to the Jeans length for oscillations, which in natural units would be $\lambda_J \sim \left(\frac{\pi}{\mu}\right)^{1/2}$. Another possibility is simply to remember that in radiation dominated universe the radiation pressure is $p = \frac{\mu}{3}$. Matching it with the gravitational potential to see when the latter wins out and the region will collapse ends giving the same result as above.
A density contrast can then be introduced, which compares the energy density of a point $\mu$ with the background density $\mu_0$. We will call this contrast $\delta$ and use the following definition:
\begin{align}
\delta = \frac{\mu-\mu_0}{\mu_0} \;.
\label{eq:delta}
\end{align}
This allows us to measure how overdense or underdense a certain region is, and so the strength of the perturbation. In an homogeneous, isotropic and flat universe, given condition \ref{eq:PBhform}, this will end requiring $\delta \gtrsim 1$ for the perturbations to collapse \cite{2018CQGra..35f3001S}.
This condition is the threshold: if $\delta$ fulfills it by being greater than the threshold, the perturbation will collapse and form a PBH. If it is lower the pressure of radiation will win out, resulting in the perturbation continuing its spread maybe even until today, though it will so be heavily redshifted as to be extremely hard to detect.
This is all for a very idealized case though. From the start the delta will be a function rather than a uniform value. Numerical simulations have found that the exact threshold does not depend only on the maximum of the perturbation, but also on the shape of the $\delta$ function \cite{1999PhRvD..59l4013N, 1999PhRvD..60h4002S, 2005CQGra..22.1405M,2015PhRvD..91h4057H, 2019PhRvD.100l3524M, 2020PhRvD.101d4022E}. Thus for different perturbations the threshold will differ even if their maximum and average are the same, unlike our estimation.
Those are not the only issues, as the definition of the threshold has to be gauge independent and take into account different equations of state of the universe, to account for all possible inflation models. A matter dominated universe or a intermediate, dust like, universe for example would change the physics of the collapse. All of these examples can radically alter the threshold, which makes a generalized form to compute the collapse a necessity.
A way to improve upon our definitions is to use a new and more general type of condition. Called the critical threshold $\delta_c$, it is not a direct measure of the over-density like $\delta$ but rather of the mass excess per a unit of volume, the so called compaction function \cite{1999PhRvD..60h4002S}. It not only is completely generic, the critical threshold also accepts a very good analytical approximation with parameters describing shape and space-time \cite{2020PhRvD.101d4022E, 2021JCAP...01..030E}, which simplifies simulations enormously. Previous analytic estimates of the threshold were also done in \cite{1975ApJ...201....1C, 2013PhRvD..88h4051H}
Despite this, however there is another major complication that brings our first constraint. The current power spectrum expected for our universe should be very close to scale invariant, and at the scales of the power spectrum present in the CMB, the fluctuations are of the order of the microKelvin, $\delta \sim 10^{-5}$ \cite{2020A&A...641A..10P}. Therefore, remembering the condition above the collapse of perturbations into PBHs should not occur in any major way, not enough for them to be the DM.
There are a variety different solutions to this conundrum. First, some kind of enhancement of the perturbations at only certain scales could have happened. There are in fact a large number of ways to get this kind of enhancement \cite{2017PDU....18...47G, 2018PhRvD..98l3514K, 2019PhRvL.122n1302G}, from slightly modified inflation models to new physics coming from string theory, but all have in common that they are outside the standard model. The most common way is to have a modified inflation potential, the so called ultra-slow roll potential \cite{2017PDU....18....6G, 2019JCAP...09..073A}, which results in perturbations at a certain parameter dependent scale being enhanced up to $\delta \sim 1$ for the isotropic flat case, while remaining the usual value at other scales.
Another related possibility is that the spectrum of fluctuations is non-gaussian. The fluctuations in the CMB are $\delta \sim 10^{-5}$ as measured on average, which is too small for any kind of noticeable PBHs to form if the fluctuations follow a gaussian spectrum. Gaussian fluctuations would be the prediction of the standard model. But if fluctuations do not follow that gaussian spectrum because we have new physics, then there could be a tail of extreme results with $\delta> \delta_c$ without altering the perturbations general properties. This could result in an important number of PBHs forming \cite{1997PhRvD..55.7423B,2018JCAP...03..016F,2019PDU....24..275A}. Currently, in the CMB there has not been any sign of any type of non-Gaussian fluctuations \cite{2020A&A...641A...9P, 2022arXiv220401781C}, which is why a lot of models do not contemplate them in a major way, but non-Gaussian fluctuations are still not completely ruled out \cite{2022arXiv220308232C}.
Something necessary to understand however is that even if we are using a model that results in the enhancing of (gaussian) fluctuations to obtain PBHs, non-gaussianities will still be relevant. This is due to the relation between the $\delta_c$ and the curvature perturbation being non-lineal \cite{2019JCAP...07..048D, 2019PhRvD..99l3501K}, resulting in non gaussianities in the density fluctuations despite a gaussian curvature perturbation. As the abundance of PBHs is very sensitive to the values of $\delta$, any kind of higher than expected value like the ones that would come from an unaccounted tail of fluctuations, would modify the number of PBHs in a major way. This adds another layer of subtlety in computing the abundance of PBHs from a particular model, though workarounds exist \cite{2019PDU....24..275A}. For more studies of non-gaussianities in particular look \cite{2013JCAP...08..052Y, 2019JCAP...09..033Y, 2021JCAP...10..053K, 2022JCAP...05..012E}.
Another possibility is to preserve the standard inflationary model with scale invariant power spectra as it is on the CMB. Even then, PBH formation is possible by creating high subhorizon scale $\delta$ due to some phase transition that may naturally take place as the universe cools down. Most notably, PBHs could be formed in the epoch of QCD phase transition \cite{PhysRevD.55.R5871,Byrnes_2018,2019arXiv190411482G} as there is temporary drop in the pressure that counteracts gravity, allowing for higher $\delta$ than would be expected from the amplitude of the perturbations. PBHs formed in this epoch should have a mass of around the solar mass \cite{2019arXiv190411482G}, though using different phase transitions or other non-standard physics can change the mass range.
Even after all that, that is but the first step of PBH formation. Collapse into a BH does not happen immediately once the perturbation is over the threshold, it is not until the perturbation crosses the horizon that it can collapse, as before the perturbation is not fully causally connected due to inflation. While this might look like just a timing issue it carries important consequences. As the perturbation will collapse in the horizon in which it has reentered, the mass of the resulting PBH will be of the order of the mass of the horizon \cite{1998PhRvL..80.5481N, 2005CQGra..22.1405M, 2021JCAP...05..066E, 2020PDU....2700466E}. The lower the scale, the bigger the horizon and the higher the mass it will have, and vice versa.The mass within the horizon can be estimated with\cite{2016PhRvD..94h3504C}:
\begin{align}
M_h \sim \rm \frac{c\,t^3}{G} \sim 10^{15} g \left(\frac{t}{10^{-23}s}\right) \;,
\end{align}
with the time $\rm t$ ranging from the Planck time ($10^{-43} s$) to much later in the universe's life. This is what gives PBHs such enormous mass ranges. A perturbation generated in first instants of inflation can create tiny BHs that could could explain the whole of the dark matter, while perturbations generated later can result in massive PBHs bigger than any current stellar BHs and which could be the seeds of Supermassive black holes.
Of course, the perturbations that make PBHs do not have any reason to all come from the same exact instant. This will naturally result in a spread of masses for our PBHs. For the case of enhanced perturbations we do expect the enhancement to only happen at certain scales, so while PBHs will have an extended mass distribution, if there are enough for them to be a noticeable part of our universe we also anticipate them to be around a certain peak. Even then this is not a completely hard rule, as there can be extreme cases like double inflation models \cite{2018PhRvD..97d3514I} and also models where PBH form in a completely different way that results in a more even spread \cite{2019arXiv190608217C}. There are still even other relatively exotic methods of PBH formation, such as inhomogeneous baryogenesis \cite{2019JCAP...01..027H}, domain walls \cite{2017JCAP...04..050D,2019EPJC...79..246B}, vacuum bubbles \cite{2016JCAP...02..064G, 2017JCAP...12..044D}, axion driven inflation \cite{2016JCAP...12..031G, 2017JCAP...07..048D} and through non-topological solitons known as Q-balls \cite{1986744}, each of which will have different results for the PBH extended mass distribution.
Another expectation would be that they would form with spin 0 or close \cite{2017PTEP.2017h3E01C}, as they form in the radiation dominated epoch where the combined fluid of radiation and matter sheds angular momentum almost instantly. This can be a clear difference from stellar origin BHs, which will inherit at least a fraction of the spin of their forming star\footnote{How much is a point of contention, with very efficient angular moment transport models positing very low spin\cite{Fuller_2019} while others using medium efficiency average notable spin BHs\cite{2012A&A...537A.146E}. Observations of X-ray binaries always have a very high spin, but they are subset of BHs and so there could an intrinsic bias too.}, though again in more exotic formation paths there could be PBHs with noticeable spin. A good example is the case where PBHs would form in a matter dominated epoch, which should result in PBH having all very high spin instead of close to 0 \cite{2017PhRvD..96h3517H}. As spin can be relevant for a subset of constraints, this is a rather important distinction.
Something similar applies to the degree of clustering with which with PBHs will form. In the simplest case the PBHs should follow a standard poissonian matter distribution \cite{2003ApJ...594L..71A}, as the perturbations they form from should also come from a homogeneous universe and the enhancement should not a priori have any specific spatial distribution. Exotic models exist however where this is not the case, in particular for alternative origins like the previously mentioned domain walls\cite{2019EPJC...79..246B}. This adds still another layer of complexity and will again affect constraints on their abundance.
Still, as mentioned, if PBHs are formed through perturbation collapse not from phase transition, then the perturbations will also be reflected on the CMB, concretely its temperature angular power spectrum and CMB spectral distortions. Only a number of perturbations will collapse, so the rest will transmit and appear like the other CMB fluctuations. Unfortunately, either through Planck \cite{2020A&A...641A..10P} or other measurements \cite{10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18245.x, 1996ApJ...473..576F}, the CMB can only constrain the power spectrum on the lower scales, equivalent to the highest masses of PBHs. Currently, no non-gaussianity nor enhanced fluctuation has been found, limiting these lower scales, but only the lower scales. Saying it in another way, any PBH formation below $10^3 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ in this standard pathway is currently still possible.
\section{Monochromatic constraints}\label{sc:Mono}
PBHs could be the DM, but the properties of these PBHs can be drastically different between different mass ranges. $10^3 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ BHs would gravitationally affect any star or planet that is close to them, while much more smaller $10^{-10} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ BHs could cross the Solar system millions of times and we would not notice them \cite{2009ApJ...705..659A}.
Therefore is common sense to divide the types of PBH by their mass. While extended mass distributions are expected for PBHs, for the standard inflation perturbation collapse case the enhancement at certain scales should result in a particular mass range corresponding to those scales, with a peak. A very helpful approximation with setting constraints is taking the peak of that mass distribution and making as if all the PBHs in it had that particular mass. This simplifies the physics in most cases enormously, as we can avoid integrals through all the masses and streamline the calculations needed to see if it is even worth to pursue certain constraints. And while the final result is an estimate, that estimate should be a fairly close and conservative approximation to the real case of the extended mass distribution, as the peak of that same mass distribution will likely have an abundance only slightly below 1 if it contains all of the DM after all.
The end result of this simplifications are monochromatic PBH bounds, which are shown in figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds}. Of further note is also that the graph is logarithmic and covers more than 22 orders of magnitude in mass. In this way it is only thanks to that approximation that covering all these possible ranges with different types of constraints is feasible.
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{./figures/PBHbounds_review_plot.pdf}
\caption{Plot with current existing robust monochromatic PBH constraints, with each color and name corresponding to a different type. The abundance on the left axis is which fraction of the dark matter they could be, while mass is given in both $\, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ and grams. Evaporation constraints come from \cite{2021MNRAS.504.5475K,2019PhRvL.122d1104B, 2020PhRvD.101l3514L, 2012PhRvD..86d3001B, 2010PhRvD..81j4019C, 2019PhRvL.123y1101L}, microlensing constraints come mostly from a number of surveys, including Subaru, Kepler, MACHO and EROS \cite{2019NatAs...3..524N, 2000ApJ...542..281A, 2014ApJ...786..158G, 2007A&A...469..387T,2022arXiv220213819B,2018PhRvD..97b3518O}, gravitational waves bounds come from LIGO and related studies \cite{2019PhRvD.100b4017A, 2021PhRvL.127o1101N, 2020JCAP...08..039C, 2018PhRvD..98b3536K} and dynamical \cite{2014ApJ...790..159M, 2019PhRvD..99l3023L, 2020PhRvD.101f3019W} and accretion \cite{2019JCAP...06..026M, 2021ApJ...908L..23L} constraints from a variety of sources. More details on how the constraints are obtained are in each of the corresponding subsections. Figure obtained from \cite{PBHBounds}, where all references, other bounds and plotting codes are available.}
\label{fig:PBH_bounds}
\end{figure}
There are as varied constraints as there are mass ranges, but as seen above there are 4 that dominate. Microlensing is the first one, perhaps the most relevant in terms pf width of the constraints. Following from the previous MACHO experiments \cite{2000ApJ...542..281A}, a large number of PBHs would also result in a large number of detectable microlensing events. Lack of such events can be used therefore to set constraints. Another is BHs evaporation, as the expected result of BHs emitting Hawking radiation \cite{1974Natur.248...30H}. The smaller BHs will have significant high energy emissions, so their observation or more particularly lack of thereof can be used to set abundance constraints on PBHs. Gravitational waves (GWs) are perhaps among the most popular due to the LIGO merger detection \cite{2016PhRvL.116f1102A}. If PBHs were all of the DM in masses within LIGO sensitivity range, then there would be an increased number of mergers over purely stellar origins. The lack of such mergers results in strong bounds for the LIGO mass range.
Last are the dynamical and accretion constraints, only possible on very massive black holes. There are multiple sources for these constraints, but they all share that they focus on the large mass of these black holes and how they would have a large effect on their surrounding which would significantly affect galactic dynamics.
\subsection{Microlensing}
Microlensing is the name given to gravitational lensing on a very small scale. Gravitational lensing itself is the bending of light when a body projects a strong enough gravitational force. In typical optical parlance, the gravity of the body acts as a lens to the light coming from behind it towards us. The most illustrative case is that of the Einstein ring \cite{1936Sci....84..506E}, also known as Chwolson ring \cite{1924AN....221..329C}. A source emits light, and in our line of sight towards the light goes through the lens. For the sake of simplicity we shall assume the lens is a black hole: then the light in the direct line of sight will not go through the BH, but affected by gravity will bend around the lens, eventually reaching Earth from multiple directions. This will results in the viewer seeing multiple sources equidistant to where the source actually is, with the direct line of sight blocked in the case the lens is a BH. In the 3 dimensional case, the light coming from the multiple directions result in a ring surrounding the source, thus the name of ring.
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{./figures/Grav_lens_complex.jpg}
\caption{Example of the geometry of a lensing event for a general case. Taken from \cite{universe2010006} Figure 1, $\alpha_s$ is the same as our $\alpha$}
\label{fig:Lens}
\end{figure}
The Einstein ring is an ideal case, but most lensing events are likely to differ. A generic example for the geometry of a lensing event in shown in figure \ref{fig:Lens}. One particular example is where the object and lens are so far away, or small, that our resolution is unable to separate the two images. This is the specific case of microlensing \cite{1986ApJ...304....1P}, where the lensed image appears all on the same pixel rather than as two or more different images. As we cannot perceive a position shift the typical measurements of angles for each individual image cannot be done, and it can be hard to even notice if the image has been lensed.
However, the presence of more ray beams than expected in a single pixel also means that the image will appear brighter than normal. Going from the figure above, if the rays have similar brightness receiving two or more will make the pixel appear at a higher luminosity than if it only received a single one. Because all stars and galaxies appear to move for an observer on Earth (a combination of both their intrinsic orbits and the Earth's own movement), the lensing event will only happen for the short period of time in which both source and lens are aligned. The increased luminosity can then be compared with the previous one measured just before, and observers can notice and record these kind of changes as lensing events.
To compute the expected magnification of light, a first approximation is to treat gravitational lensing like common optic lenses, using what is called geometric optics. First of all is the deflection angle $\alpha$, which would be how much the ray is deflected from its path \cite{universe2010006} :
\begin{align}
\alpha = \frac{4GM}{b c^2} \;,
\label{eq:deflectangl}
\end{align}
where b is the impact parameter, the shortest distance between the point-like lens and the ray it is deflecting, M is the mass of the lens, G the gravitational constant and c the speed of light.
This also using what is called the small angle approximation, $ sin \alpha \approx \alpha$, which works for small $\alpha$. (\ref{eq:deflectangl}) comes from general relativity but the result is a very simple term that reminds of newtonian gravity, so it is also referred as Newtonian approximation. In fact, if we assumed Newtonian gravity and that light is a particle with mass the end result would be exactly half the value of the $\alpha$ in \ref{eq:deflectangl}. Another comparison can be with the Schwarzschild radius of a BH, which can be related by $\alpha = 2 r_s/b$.
Another parameter of interest is the the Einstein angular radius $\theta_1$, which is the angle at which we would see the previously mentioned Einstein ring. When we are not in the ideal case like in the figure above, $\theta_1$ does differ from the angle at which we see the image $\theta$. Using trigonometry, $\theta_1$ can be computed from equation (\ref{eq:deflectangl}) in the ideal case, the definition of which will carry on for more complex geometries:
\begin{align}
\theta_1 = \left(\frac{4GM}{c^2} \frac{D_{LS}}{D_s D_l} \right)^{1/2} \;,
\label{eq:Einst_angl}
\end{align}
where like before there is the implicit assumption that $sin\theta_1 \sim \theta_1$. In standard lensing this can troubling, but in microlensing where the angles are so small it always applies. For PBHs in particular there is again an easy correspondence with the Schwarzschild radius, $\theta_1 = \sqrt{2 R_{Schw}D_{LS}/(D_s D_l)}$
Even in the non-ideal case where $\theta \neq \theta_1$ the Einstein angular radius can be understood as the effective radius in which the the lens bends the light. The timescale of lensing will be therefore be the time it takes the lens to cross $2 \theta_1$ from the Earth's point of view. As the Einstein radius has a dependence on mass $M^{1/2}$, the time scale will become increasingly shorter for the lower mass PBHs, but the exact timescale has heavy dependence on the location of the event with respect to the observer.
Looking at other important angles in figure \ref{fig:Lens}, $\theta_S$ will be the angle of the source with respect to the observer, and $\theta$ the angle the lensed images would appear at. In the geometric optics approximation the angles $\theta$ and $\theta_S$ can be related with the Einstein radius $\theta_1$ by applying the lens equation of geometric optics to our case \cite{10.1143/ptp/90.4.753}:
\begin{align}
\theta-\theta_S = \frac{\theta_ 1^2}{\theta} \;.
\label{eq:lens}
\end{align}
As $\theta_S$ is a single value, it is easy to see there would be two solutions for $\theta$, corresponding to two images for the 2-dimensional case. In the case of microlensing we are unable to distinguish them, but we will be able to distinguish the increasing flux, the magnification of the source the 2 images will cause.
The two images can be related to the flux by understanding that the flux (f [erg/sec]) results from integrating the surface brightness of the object (S [erg/sec/sr]) for a particular solid angle $\Omega$, the width of the beam so to speak. This solid angle depends on the angle it reaches the observer. Because for microlensing the angles are very small, this integral can be approximated as a simple multiplication $f = S d\Omega$, and compared with the case where there would be no lensing:
\begin{align}
A=\frac{f_{obs}}{f_0}=\frac{S d\Omega (\theta)}{S d\Omega(\theta_S)} = \frac{d\Omega (\theta)}{ d\Omega(\theta_S)} = \frac{\theta d\theta}{\theta_S d\theta_S} \;.
\end{align}
Computing the magnification then is relatively straightforward if we remember the lens equation again (\ref{eq:lens}):
\begin{align}
A=\frac{\left(\frac{\theta_S}{\theta_1}\right)^2 +2}{2\left(\frac{\theta_S}{\theta_1}\right)^2
\sqrt{\left(\frac{\theta_S}{\theta_1}\right)^2 +4}} \pm \frac{1}{2} \;.
\label{eq:A_m}
\end{align}
Searching for this moment of greater emission from the source a lensing event can thus be detected. Despite the previous complications, the final equation as seen above depends only on the source angle and the Einstein angle. By detecting the magnification of light coming from a source many details can be easily obtained from the lens-source system.
This makes microlensing a very attractive prospect for PBH as DM constraints. We know the mass we want to constrain and we can use the DM galaxy mass distribution to estimate the likely places where the PBHs would be and their velocity distribution. With this the expected magnification can be estimated and if it is within the sensitivity of any scientific instruments. The birth of dedicated surveys like the original MACHO\cite{2000ApJ...542..281A}, but also now Subaru \cite{2019NatAs...3..524N} has allowed to map a mass range of 10 orders of magnitude with constraints, as they have found few or none gravitational lensing events, whereas if those PBHs were the dark matter all models predicted many more.
But despite all these successes, microlensing constraints have started struggling to increase constraints in new mass ranges. This comes from a lot of the approximations used previously. First of all, we have used standard geometric optics, but that approximation requires light rays to behave completely classically. If any of the wave.like properties of light are relevant during the lensing, the whole approximation breaks down. Indeed, as the PBHs we are interested in are extreme objects, their Schwarzschild radius is very small and can become of the order of the wavelength of the light we are observing, triggering wave-like effects from the light that need to be accounted for.
Fortunately, even without using geometric optics the magnification can still be computed, though it will be more complex. As we do not expect the rays to be perfectly symmetrical, the rays very likely traverse different distance to reach the viewer, there will be a time delay between them. This time delay will also result on the beams not reaching on the same phase of the wave. The time delay is much harder to compute, but an analytic expression is still possible \cite{2018JCAP...12..005K}:
\begin{align}
\Delta t = \frac{1}{c}\frac{D_L D_S}{D_{LS}}(1+z_{s})\left(\frac{\left|\theta-\theta_{s}\right|^2}{2} - \Psi(\theta) \right) \;,
\label{eq:Delta_t}
\end{align}
where all parameters are the same as previously, $z_s$ is the redshift of the source and $\Psi$ is the so called lensing potential. This lensing potential is related to the density of the lens by the Poisson equation, and can be thought of as projection of the density through the plane of the lens. For point like sources, like our black hole, $\Psi(\theta)= \theta_{1}^2 log \theta \,$ \footnote{The lensing potential is the result of integrating the density through the entire plane of the lens and includes an indeterminate constant. This is normally not an issue as the time delay is used to compare with the time delay from other rays, but it will not help in computing absolute time delays for a path.}.
Due to wave nature of light, this time delay will create a phase difference between the different rays. As the rays converge, this phase difference can result in both destructive and positive interference. As there are multiple rays and both the lens and source are moving with respect to each other, rather than fully positive or fully negative there will be instead interference fringes. This will make the magnification equation grow more complex \cite{2018JCAP...12..005K}:
\begin{align}
A = \left( \frac{W}{2\pi i} \int d^2x e^{i\omega\Delta t(x,\theta_S)} \right)^2 \;.
\label{eq:A_inter}
\end{align}
We can no longer avoid an integral or the use of imaginary numbers. W is a dimensionless frequency, related to the frequency of the light $\omega$ and the time delay $\Delta t$. For more details on the complete derivation of $A$ I refer the reader to \cite{2018JCAP...12..005K}.
While these changes might appear minor and too cumbersome, they are relevant because this mistake did in fact happen with Subaru, where an early prepublication version of the paper did not take this into account as noted in \cite{2018PhRvD..97d3514I}. Even with the added complexities, the amplification in equation (\ref{eq:A_inter}) can still be computed to get the corrected constraints as they were finally present in the printed version \cite{2019NatAs...3..524N} and as they appear in figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds}. The integral makes it harder to compute, but the magnification is still there. Note however that this also makes the constraints much more sensitive to assumptions about the lens and sources used to obtain said magnification. \cite{2020PhRvD.101f3005S} claimed that the constraints obtained by the HSC were overestimated even in the printed version, as they had assumed all the sources from their stellar observations to be of one solar radius, rather than account for the selection bias towards brighter (and so larger) stars.
It is much more problematic however when finite source effects start appearing. These come into play when the source can no longer be taken to be point-like: if the source is big in respect to the lens, emission from different points of the source will be lensed differently. Possibilities include the source not being small enough or far enough, resulting in different time delays between even close by or symmetrical rays and the interference fringes being washed out the larger the effect is. The end result is that the lensing effect disappears, there being no difference with the normal luminosity. Assuming that the emission radius of the source is roughly the same as the radius of the source itself $R_s$, it results in the following condition \cite{2018JCAP...12..005K}:
\begin{align}
\frac{R_s/D_s}{R_E/D_L} <<1 \;,
\end{align}
where $R_E$ is the Einstein radius in units of distance, $R_E = \theta_1 D_L$. If the condition is not fulfilled, the microlensing effects will start disappearing. Most microlensing surveys of interest are focused on far away objects like M31 for Subaru \cite{2019NatAs...3..524N}, with both lens and source expected to be much closer to each other than Earth. In that case $D_s \sim D_L$, leaving a much simpler condition:
\begin{align}
\frac{R_s}{R_E} <<1 \;.
\end{align}
Small PBHs have very small Schwarzschild radius and so Einstein radius. This means in effect that distant sources used in lensing, stars from neighbouring galaxies, are simply too big to reliably produce any constraints for PBHs below $10^{-11} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$. Therefore either close stars or other very small sources are needed to constrain the mass range. \cite{2018JCAP...12..005K} estimated that we would need a subset of Gamma Ray Burts (GRB) with very small sizes and very small wavelengths, to reliably constrain this mass range but found current GRB detection rates and GRB's intrinsic variability made it very challenging for new constraints to be created. Other proposals include using pulsar timing arrays \cite{PhysRevD.100.023003} in the radio spectrum for this kind of purpose, as pulsars are smaller than stars, but also reached the conclusion it would take a future and very ambitious observatory to reach mass ranges which are not currently constrained. The use of microlensing in X-ray pulsars however is much more promising, even if current instruments cannot constrain PBHs as DM \cite{2019PhRvD..99l3019B}.
Other ideas include using Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes to detect the extremely fast (t<1s) microlensing events expected for lower asteroid mass range, but prospects are also pessimistic \cite{2022icrc.confE.495P}. Another possibility would be the use of GRB lensing parallax rather than standard microlensing. In a lensing parallax we observe the same GRB via two spatially separated instruments, if the GRB is lensed and the separation of the instruments is of the order of the Einstein radius of the lensing system, then each of the observers will see a different magnification than the other. Asteroid mass PBHs can be constrained if we observe enough GRBs with this technique \cite{1995ApJ...452L.111N, 2020PhRvR...2a3113J}, but the large separations needed between the instruments (of the order of 1 Astronomical unit) means it would require brand new spacecraft detectors.
Microlensing can still remain useful for PBHs of high mass, as recent bounds using quasars showcase \cite{2022arXiv220304777E}, but the much lower number of PBHs means much lower expected number of events, increasing the observation time required for adequate constraints, on top of low mass PBHs being much more interesting for the purpose of dark matter as figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds} illustrates.
In summary, while extremely useful, microlensing seems to have reached the limit in what it can constraint, or at least reached very diminishing results. While planet mass PBHs cannot be all of the dark matter, asteroid mass PBHs are free from such constraints.
\subsection{Black hole evaporation} \label{PBH_evap}
PBH evaporation is a process resulting from Hawking radiation emission \cite{1974Natur.248...30H}. Hawking radiation itself is the conclusion of applying quantum effects to a BH's horizon and results in the emission, mostly in terms of particles, of energy depending on the effective temperature of the Black Hole. This emitted radiation would have an almost thermal black body spectrum of the corresponding effective temperature, and this temperature depends mostly on the mass. The smaller the black hole is, the higher the effective temperature and vice-versa.
The derivation of this effective temperature comes from the boundary conditions of the horizon. Assuming an observer just outside the horizon, this observer has to have an acceleration in order to not fall into the black hole. This accelerated frame of reference will see a thermal radiation by the Unruh effect \cite{PhysRevD.7.2850, 1975JPhA....8..609D, 1976PhRvD..14..870U}, where acceleration results in a thermal bath of particles. However, this accelerated frame of reference is at local equilibrium with the horizon of the black hole, which means the horizon shares that same thermal bath. This results in that observer seeing the black hole horizon at following temperature:
\begin{align}
T_{obs} = \frac{ \hbar c^3}{4\pi G \sigma \sqrt{2M_{bh}r\left(1-\frac{2M_{bh}}{r} \right)} } \;,
\label{eq:Tobs}
\end{align}
where r is the position of the observer, $\sigma$ the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, $\hbar$ is the reduced Planck constant, c the speed of light and G the gravitational constant. This comes straight from the black hole's metric, which is assumed to be a standard Schwarzschild black hole, and the observers position.
This temperature the horizon observer sees can then be redshifted to infinity, to obtain how a far off inertial observer like one from Earth would see the temperature in this horizon:
\begin{align}
T_{bh} = \frac{\hbar c^3}{8\pi GM_{bh}\sigma} \sim 10^{-7} K \left(\frac{\, {\rm M_{\odot}}}{M} \right) \;.
\label{eq:HawkT}
\end{align}
Of note is that this is for a non-rotating (0 spin) non-charged black hole. While charged black holes are not expected to exist, as their charge will simply attract opposite charges until the black holes becomes neutral again, rotating black holes are expected in both stellar black holes and some versions of PBHs as detailed in section \ref{sec:Form}.
From the temperature the emission can be estimated, which can only come from the black hole's own energy. Therefore the black hole will evaporate when it emits all of its energy, the majority of that energy being the one stored in the black hole's own mass. For massive black holes this is extremely unlikely, not only because their temperature is much lower, but because their mass means they are constantly accreting matter unless completely isolated. For smaller black holes however, their emission might surpass their accretion, especially when not in dense environments like the usual void between stars.
This permits us to define the lifetime of a black hole as the time it will take for it to evaporate through Hawking radiation. This is only an approximation, because it does not take into account accretion. However, because as the mass goes lower it evaporates even faster and the accretion lowers, it is very hard for a black hole with a non-ridiculous lifetime (i.e. smaller than the lifetime of the universe) to jump out of it purely through accretion. A good estimate of the lifetime is \cite{doi:10.1119/1.1571268}:
\begin{align}
\tau(M) \sim 10^{64} \rm yr \left(\frac{M}{\, {\rm M_{\odot}}}\right)^3 \;.
\label{eq:lifetime}
\end{align}
The lifetime of PBHs sets the strongest constraint, as they can not be the DM if they do not exist after all. Following from above, only PBHs bigger than $10^{15} \rm g$ would survive to today. Still, we must be remember that, while expected, Hawking radiation is currently unconfirmed, and complete PBH evaporation is still an open question due to the information loss paradox \cite{1976PhRvD..14.2460H}. For example, \cite{2018arXiv181002336D} argued that the "Memory burden" could slow or stop the black hole evaporation.
The model used to obtain the lifetime is also relevant. As mentioned, an isolated PBH is commonly assumed, but as PBHs form just after inflation they will interact with the radiation dominated, almost homogeneous early universe. \cite{2021arXiv211202818S} found that accounting for those interactions pushed the minimum mass of PBHs to $10^{14} \rm g$ instead, with \cite{2021arXiv210506504G} reaching a similar conclusion via a very different method of constantly accreting matter instead.
Another example of how variable the constraints obtained via PBH evaporation are can be seen by using a different metric to compute the Hawking radiation. \cite{2021arXiv210302815P} used the Thakurta metric to find very different results with Hawking radiation being notably boosted, though note that the metric they chose as an alternative is contentious as being a good description of PBHs \cite{2021EPJC...81..999H}, so their constraints are not reflected in figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds}.
Therefore only using $\tau$ as a constraint can be problematic. Fortunately, PBHs of very small mass that survived to today would still emit a fair bit of Hawking radiation. PBH of mass $10^{15}$ to $10^{17}$ g would have high enough effective Temperature that we would expect them to emit quite a lot of high energy emission that would be completely isotropic from our point of view. If those PBHs are all of the DM, they would bump the extra-galactic background light up by a noticeable amount at high frequencies, but there is no such bump in current observations \cite{2020PhLB..80835624B, 2021PhRvL.126q1101C}. This makes the robust constraints which can be seen in figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds}.
There are hopes for even tighter constraints in the future by improving our detectors\cite{2021PhRvL.126q1101C}, but there are vastly diminishing results. In particular, even if we had perfect detectors Hawking radiation could only directly constrain PBHs below $10^{20} \rm g$ \cite{2022arXiv220101265A}, still leaving a good half of the asteroid mass range unconstrained. Another small issue that becomes relevant when the constraints are less stringent is that effect of spin now is non-negligible. As mentioned before the effective temperature, and so the emission and its spectra, of the PBH depend on its rotation, with highly rotating Kerr BHs emitting more. This change is expected to be less than an order of magnitude on most constraints, and so can be mostly neglected in mass ranges firmly ruled out by PBH evaporation. However the mass ranges with lower constraints become more dubious, as regions within the window but close to the constraints might be covered or on the opposite way ranges we think are currently impossible might be where PBHs are hidden. Constraints accounting for the spin are present in the literature \cite{2020PhRvD.101b3010A}, but spin becomes another factor that should be taken with care.
There might be even more factors however, as one of the more curious byproducts of this evaporation could be Planck relics. They are theorized particles of Planck mass ($\sim 10^{-6} \rm g$) left after a black hole evaporates \cite{1987Natur.329..308M}. They would be completely new physics, resulting from quantum gravity, and their existence is contentious. Nonetheless, even if they existed it is dubious if they could be all of the DM\cite{2021PhRvD.103d3532B}. They would need a massive quantity of PBHs with very small mass to evaporate in the early universe, and the increased emission and entropy would affect primordial nucleosynthesis. Exotic models exist within loop quantum gravity that could explain the lack of this effect via the relics forming before the big bang, which would be a big bounce in this particular case. If we were living in that specific universe with Planck relics as all of DM, it is likely we would not be able to detect them in any way in the close future due to their extremely low mass and unknown properties. Something to not is that the scenario described is not the same as the one where the DM are particles formed from the evaporation of PBHs \cite{2014PhRvD..89j3501F}, which is still possible but not described in this review as the DM would then require a new theoretical particle outside the Standard Model.
\subsection{Gravitational waves detectors} \label{sec:GW}
With the recent detection of gravitational waves (GWs) from a binary merger \cite{2016PhRvL.116f1102A}, LIGO opens a new window in astrophysics, the possibility of using GWs to detect black holes. While a substantial number of gravitational effects carry associated emission of GWs, the singular events that emit most significant bursts of GW in the frequencies LIGO can detect are binary mergers \cite{1993PhRvD..47.2198F}: 2 massive objects orbiting one another that slowly inspiral until they end up colliding and fusing into a single object.
Gravitational waves are not only emitted in the merger itself. Rather, they are the reason the merger itself happens. As two massive objects orbit one another they will emit gravitational waves from their movement, their moving gravitational potential perturbing the local space-time \cite{1964PhRv..136.1224P}. These are very small and initially undetectable, but similar to the Hawking radiation just the emission of GWs costs energy to the source. In the cases of the binaries the energy stored in their orbit is slowly emitted as GWs, resulting in the orbit becoming due to the energy loss. As the orbit decays however the tidal forces coming from the other object of the binary further perturb the source further, causing more emission of GWs and further decay. The same happens in reverse for the other member of the binary. In a perfectly symmetrical case the inspiralling binaries would meet in the middle, colliding and merging despite being otherwise completely isolated. The GWs emission is what turns the initially stable binary into a future merger.
The frequency of the GWs emission is in turn related to the orbits of the binary, rising as the orbits get shorter and peaking at the merger. A good benchmark is therefore the Innermost Stable Circular Orbit (ISCO), the last stable orbit before the merger. For a binary with masses $M_1$ and $M_2$, the frequency of the GWs from the ISCO is \cite{2022arXiv220502153F}:
\begin{align}
f_{ISCO} \approx 4.4 \cdot 10^3 \; \rm Hz
\left(\frac{\, {\rm M_{\odot}}}{M_1 + M_2} \right) \;,
\label{eq:freISCO}
\end{align}
While the GWs emission peaks during the merger, LIGO only has enough resolution to see the waves from just before the merger \cite{1992Sci...256..325A, 2015CQGra..32g4001L}, the time scale of the GW emission at the beginning of the inspiral too large and the time scale during the merger too short. This works for using ISCO as an estimate though. From equation \ref{eq:freISCO}, knowing LIGO's frequency range of $\sim 10-10^4 $ Hz gives total mass ranges from 1 to $100 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$, in line with detections of current mergers.
The GWs will have an amplitude, which is related to the characteristic strain $h_c$ . For a typical merger of an equal mass $m_{PBH}$ binary at a distance $d_l$, $h_c$ is approximately \cite{2022arXiv220502153F}:
\begin{align}
\left| h_{c} (f) \right| \approx 4.54 \cdot 10^{-28}
\left(\frac{m_{PBH}}{10^{-12}\, {\rm M_{\odot}}} \right)^{5/6} \left(\frac{d_l}{\rm kpc} \right)^{-1} \left(\frac{f}{\rm GHz} \right)^{-1/6} \;,
\label{eq:Hc}
\end{align}
For LIGO's sensitivity band the limiting characteristic strain is $\sim 10^{-22}$, though note that the timescale of the signal is also important as mentioned before. Besides the frequency range, the biggest limiting factor is distance.
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{./figures/strain_single_event.pdf}
\caption{Figure showcasing the sensitivity band of current and future GWs detectors together with projections for the GW emission for small PBHs. Taken from \cite{2022arXiv220502153F}. Solid (dashed) lines indicate the $h_c$ spanned by an inspiralling binary with component masses $10^{-16}<m_{PBH}<10^{-6} \, {\rm M_{\odot}} $ for $f_{PBH} = 1 \, (f_{PBH} = 0.1)$. The distance is taken as the minimum from which there will be a rate of 1 merger event per year. The signal ends at the ISCO, while the filled square, empty square, filled and empty circles all signal the time left until the merger, being $ \Delta t = 10$ Gyr, $\, \Delta t = 1$ day, $\, \Delta t = 1$ sec and $\Delta t = 10^{-3}$ sec, respectively. Main observatories shown are LIGO \cite{2015CQGra..32g4001L}, LISA \cite{2019arXiv190706482B} and the Einstein Telescope \cite{2010CQGra..27s4002P}, but high frequency observatories from \cite{2021LRR....24....4A} are also shown. A final remark is that this assumes there is no limitation in observation time, which is extremely optimistic for the higher frequencies. For more details I refer to \cite{2022arXiv220502153F}.}
\label{fig:GWs}
\end{figure}
An estimation of the sensitivity band for current and future observatories is showcased in figure \ref{fig:GWs}, from \cite{2022arXiv220502153F}. I must repeat their warning that the figure assumes the observation time is only set by the frequency evolution of the inspirals, when time resolution is rather important factor (for more details see \cite{2022arXiv220502153F}), but the figure is very illustrative nonetheless.
Once detected the GWs can give individual information from the objects in the system. If the merger comes from a binary of neutron stars (NS), then the GW emission can be used for example to constrain the neutron star equation of state \cite{2018PhRvL.121p1101A}. If the merger is of a BH binary then in theory their mass and spin can be derived from their GW emission. There is an important caveat however: while it can get some information of the individual members of the binary, a lot of it is degenerate with other parameters. It is also still very hard to distinguish between a NS and a PBH in any individual merger without also an electromagnetic counterpart. Currently for LIGO the standard for assigning wheres the GW event comes from a neutron star or a BH is based purely on mass. Without a visible counterpart LIGO cannot distinguish between a NS or PBH with NS like mass \cite{2020PhRvL.124g1101T}.
For the case of the spin, LIGO can obtain what is called as the effective spin of a binary BH \cite{2017Natur.548..426F}:
\begin{align}
\chi_{eff} \equiv \frac{\left(m_1 \chi_1 + m_2 \chi_2 \right)}{M} = \frac{c}{GM} \left(\frac{\vec{S}_1}{m_1}+\frac{\vec{S}_2}{m_2} \right) \;,
\label{eq:effspin}
\end{align}
where $\chi_i$ is a dimensionless spin parameter project over the z axis, but which can be related to the angular momentum spin of the star $\vec{S}_i$ as shown in the rightmost term above. $m_i$ is the mass of each object and M the total mass of the merger.
As can be seen, the effective spin is degenerate with individual value of each spin. The individual spin of one of the members of the binary can also be negative from the two BHs rotating in opposite directions. Thus, $\chi_{eff} \sim 0$ could mean low spins in both BHs or a very highly counter-rotating duo. An average $\chi_{eff} = 0$ in many mergers would simply point to the spin of each member of the binary not correlating with each other.
Currently LIGO has showed the GW events it detects have a preference for a smaller effective spin \cite{2021arXiv211103634T}, very close to averaging 0, stronger than expected \cite{Safarzadeh_2020}. While it might seem encouraging for PBHs, which are expected to have spin close to 0 in most cases, the uncertainty is still too high and there have been individual events with indications of at least one of the members of the binaries having non-negligible spìn value \cite{2021PhRvL.126q1103B}. For now results on the spin are ambiguous, more robust statistics are needed.
Another issue can be the current sensitivity of LIGO. As seen in equations \ref{eq:freISCO} and \ref{eq:Hc} comparing with figure \ref{fig:GWs}, the observatory probes only GW events from objects of the order of solar mass or higher and which also must be fairly close (or belong to niche subset which amplifies the signal, like being ultra-compact binaries \cite{2018PhRvL.121w1103A}). While any discovery of GW is greatly helpful, being a very novel field, LIGO itself is perhaps of limited usefulness for PBHs as DM.
Current constraints in the mass range of LIGO exist from the merger rate. If PBHs were the DM there would be so many PBH binaries the merger rate would be much higher than the one we observe, even if we could not distinguish the PBHs from the stellar origin BHs. Take note however that the modelling of the merger rate is controversial, with perturbation of binaries by third objects lowering the number of mergers expected. If PBHs follow the typical Poissonian distribution the constraints should still be strong enough to exclude PBHs as DM for the $1-100 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ mass range \cite{2020PhRvD.101d3015V, 2021PhRvD.103b3026W}, but results vary depending on how the PBHs clusters are handled, with LIGO constraints not enough to rule PBHs out as all of the DM in \cite{2020JCAP...09..022J,2021PhRvL.126e1302J}.
There are still other ways in which GW detectors can be helpful however. An option to help distinguish PBHs are more statistical arguments: for stellar origin black holes we expect their number of mergers to peak with star formation, as they form from stars that are very massive with very short lives. This peak would be situated at $z\sim 1$ \cite{2016PhRvL.116m1102A}, while in contrast PBHs would start merging at much higher redshifts and the number of mergers would increase monotonically with redshift. Unfortunately, current detectors are incapable of distinguishing stellar origin from non-DM PBHs this way. Even for the most massive binaries LIGO does not have enough resolution to resolve mergers at redshift 1\cite{PhysRevLett.116.101102}, so trying to see where mergers would peak in a redshift distribution is not viable.
The solution is to wait for more powerful next generation detectors \cite{2021ApJ...912...53W}, particularly LISA \cite{2019arXiv190706482B}, but even with the improved resolution there is no guarantee of much better odds looking at figure \ref{fig:GWs}, particularly if we are searching for very light PBHs in the planetary or asteroid mass range.
An interesting alternative is not searching for individual events, but for their added effect. Just how like multiple sources we cannot identify individually contribute to a background in radiation, the same applies for GWs. Mergers we do not have resolution to identify will still emit GWs, and joined will create a non-zero background for our detectors. This incoherent superposition of unresolved signals is commonly identified as the Stochastic Gravitational Wave Background (SGWB).
The frequency range of the SGWB is expected to be the same as the unresolved mergers that form it but redshifted, and the characteristic strain can be estimated as:
\begin{align}
h_{c} (f) \approx 2 \cdot 10^{-31} \left(\frac{\Omega_{GW} (f)}{10^{-7}} \right)^{-1} \left(\frac{f}{\rm GHz} \right)^{-1} \;,
\label{eq:HcSWGB}
\end{align}
where $\Omega_{GW}$ is the energy density of the spectra at a given $f$.
Just from the level of SGWB we would expect to see on LIGO some constraints can already be set for solar mass ranges \cite{2017JCAP...09..037R, 2017PDU....18..105C}, while the prospects for future detectors are also known \cite{2016PhRvL.117t1102M,2019ApJ...871...97C}.
A significant problem can also be correctly identifying the SGWB. There will also be quite a number of mergers from stellar black holes and other massive objects, so simply finding a signal is no smoking gun for PBHs. However, while it is extremely hard to obtain individual values from the background (it is the addition of a lot of unidentified mergers after all), the background follows the same statistics as the mergers. This means if the SGWB is dominated by signals from PBHs, which we expect if they are all of the DM, we would see effects coming from the different redshift distribution mentioned above, which could be used to put improved constraint on subsolar PBHs in the future\cite{2022MNRAS.510.6218M}. Another possibility is to see if the anisotropy of the SGWB mirrors that of the DM distribution which could also create strong constraints for solar mass PBHs \cite{2021arXiv210701935W}.
The SGWB can have an origin different than unidentified mergers though. As it just appears as a background in our detectors, any isotropic GW signal that completely covers our sky could be part of it. As GWs are quite literally aftershocks in space-time, we expect any event which significantly alters the flat space time metric to have some GW associated to them. This does not extend only to massive objects, but also to perturbations, like the ones creating the PBHs. The same primordial curvature perturbations that create PBH will at second order originate scalar-induced gravitational waves \cite{PhysRevD.76.084019}. As the perturbations are expected to be isotropic, the emission would result in another background that could give information about the curvature perturbations, and so its PBH generation and abundance \cite{2021arXiv210812475K, 2021iSci...24j2860Y}. Of note is that while perturbations require physics outside the standard model to be produced in large enough quantities to create PBHs, this background would depend only on the perturbations themselves and thus requires no knowledge of the specific new physics to simulate. The frequency we expect would depend only on the patch within the horizon, being directly related to the mass within the horizon $m_h$ described in section \ref{sec:Form} \cite{2010PThPh.123..867S}:
\begin{align}
f \approx 5 \rm kHz
\left(\frac{M_h}{10^{-24} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}} \right)^{-1/2} \;.
\label{eq:frec_SWGB}
\end{align}
Though that would be heavily redshifted today. Likewise, if the PBHs origin was unrelated to the collapse of primordial perturbations, then the SGWB associated to their formation may not exist. Note also that SGWBs may also be created by other plethora of early Universe GW production mechanisms, almost all of which would imply physics beyond the Standard Model \cite{2022arXiv220502153F}
While LIGO's limitations still apply \cite{2022A&A...660A..26B}, this makes the future LISA mission even more interesting. Particularly, the range of LISA would cover the GW background associated to perturbations that would result in $10^{-12} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ PBHs \cite{2019PhRvL.122u1301B}. Considering this is one of the few windows remaining for PBHs to be all the dark matters, as can be seen in figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds}, this is a very exciting possibility.
\subsection{Other constraints}
While PBHs of mass in the range of planets and asteroid presents a significant challenge to detect, this does not extend to masses higher than $10 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$. This is natural, as the only compact objects known above that mass are other black holes. While this makes distinguishing the primordial nature of the BH much harder, it also means such objects cannot hide among low luminosity objects like brown dwarves, planets or asteroids. Furthermore, the abundance of stellar origin black holes is itself closely limited by the number of baryons in the universe present in the primordial nucleosynthesis \cite{2016RvMP...88a5004C}. As the DM is expected to be about 5 orders of magnitude more common than baryonic matter, if such PBHs were all the DM BHs from primordial nature would significantly outnumber their stellar origin siblings.
The typical way to detect BHs is through their dynamical effects. By studying the motions of object within our galaxy it is possible to estimate the gravitational forces they are subject to, and from them the masses and motions of other close objects. This is for example how Sagittarius A*, the supermassive black hole within our own Milky Way, was initially detected \cite{1994RPPh...57..417G}. As the mass of the PBH rises, it will also rise its gravitational potential and so their effect on nearby objects. This is the basis for the dynamical constraints we see on figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds}, coming from how a large number of massive PBHs would encounter and then disrupt wide binary star systems within our Milky Way \cite{2004ApJ...601..311Y, 1985ApJ...290...15B}.
A more atypical way to obtain further constraints is from the accretion effects such a large number of massive PBHs would bring. PBHs accrete matter like any other BH, and like any other BH as the matter falls into the event horizon it will emit a portion of its energy as radiation. The accretion due to gravity for a given object commonly follows the Bondi regime, with a squared dependence on mass $M$:
\begin{align}
\Dot{M}_{\rm B} = \, & \frac{\pi G^2 M^2 \rho_s}{c_{s}^3} ~,
\end{align}
where $c_s$ is the sound speed and $\rho_S$ is the density of the surrounding medium and .
For low mass PBHs, the effects of accretion into their surroundings is completely negligible, but at higher masses, particularly above $10 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$, accretion becomes very significant. Constraints can be made from both the direct emission we would expect to see from such accretion in X-rays \cite{2017PhRvL.118x1101G}, as well as by measuring how much PBHs would heat the surroundings with their accretion and if we see such effects in near dwarf galaxies \cite{2021ApJ...908L..23L}.
One interesting advantage of such type of constraints is that they only depend on the DM distribution and basic accretion physics. Formation path, spin and even the particulars of our cosmological model are not a major factor, and thus constraints can be made to be model independent without losing most of the strength of their bounds \cite{2022JCAP...03..017T}. The main limits on accretion constraints come from the reliability of the DM density distribution models for our Milky Way and other galaxies.
Currently, accretion constraints heavily limit the abundance of PBHs to be even a very small fraction of the DM from 10 to $10^7 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ \cite{2021ApJ...908L..23L}.
\section{Non-monochromatic constraints} \label{sc:non-diff}
Having detailed the main sources of PBH constraints, one can perhaps wonder why monochromatic constraints have remained so popular, why extended mass distributions of PBH are not the standard. A priori, adding multiple masses should likewise end up adding multiple constraints in a fairly simple way, as can be seen directly with equations (\ref{eq:A_m}) and (\ref{eq:lifetime}). Those mass ranges are still considered constrained to an extended mass distribution in our previous figure, as the extended mass distribution should be roughly equivalent to monochromatic mass with slightly lower abundance, but using an extended mass distribution would be both more accurate and likely increase the strength of the constraints, as constraints in adjacent mass ranges could contribute too.
Unfortunately, while the cases for microlensing (in the simplest form) and PBH evaporation work very well, this is because their constraints come from effects that have a direct relation with mass. Both equations ($\ref{eq:A_m}$) and ($\ref{eq:lifetime}$) are analytic expressions that contain the mass (through the Einstein angle of equation (\ref{eq:Einst_angl}) in the microlensing case). In other constraints the effects can be more indirect, a good example being gravitational waves: we would not only see the PBHs of a certain mass, but their abundance and spread would directly affect how many mergers we expect to see if they are the dark matter, and the difference in masses between binaries has a pretty direct effect on the frequency and shape of the GW burst their merger would create. Another good example can be simulations of dynamic effects the PBHs would have. While technically possible to account for an extended mass distribution, as multiple bodies simulations their relation is highly non-linear, so the time and computational cost can increase exponentially. Even in cases different to those two, if no direct analytical relation exist between the constraint and mass it is much harder to account for the extended mass distribution, as it would require numerically integrating over different masses all the process rather than just one equation.
\cite{2018JCAP...01..004B} studied the issue in a thorough way, and reached a similar conclusion. To convert a monochromatic constraint into one for an extended mass function you would need to compute a function g:
\begin{align}
g(M_{eq}, p_j)= \int dM \frac{d \Phi_{EMD}}{dM}g(M, p_j) \;.
\end{align}
$g$ is a function that encloses the details of the underlying physics of the particular constraint and depends on the PBH mass M and a set of astrophysical parameters $p_j$. $\Phi_{EMD}$ is the shape of the extended mass distribution function. $M_{eq}$ is the main result, the equivalent mass to move from a monochromatic constraint to an extended distribution one, and it is defined as the individual mass in the monochromatic constraint that the extended function is effectively equivalent to. If an extended distribution has a $M_{eq} = 10^{-6} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$, it would constrain the abundance of PBHs of the extended distribution to the same degree as $M=10^{-6} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ is in the monochromatic constraints.
$g$ must be determined individually for each different constraint, and should enclose both the physics of the constraints and the way the observations were taken (for more details I refer to \cite{2018JCAP...01..004B}). Again, for some constraints $g$ will be an analytic expression we know and there will not be any major issues resolving the integral above and finding $M_{eq}$. But for other constraints g is much, much harder to determine
Something else to note is that while this allows us to find constraints for extended mass distributions through only the monochromatic constraint, this does not allow us to combine 2 different set of constraints. It might be tempting to consider that 2 nearby constraints can together constrain the same extended mass distribution in higher degree than each alone. However, the physics between the 2 different sets of constraints differ, or in other words, the $g$ above is different. The equivalent mass of the extended distribution will have to be computed individually, and the more stringent constraint taken. For purely monochromatic constraints this much clearer, as there is no addition of different types of constraints, the bigger one is the one we apply, simple as that. But the same applies to our extended extended distributions, as we are converting our constraints from monochromatic ones.
Besides the one described above, other methods exist\cite{2017PhRvD..96b3514C} to translate monochromatic constraints into extended ones, but have similar characteristics and difficulties.
The type of extended function expected is also open to debate. A lognormal mass function is the one commonly believed to be a good approximation for the standard PBH formation path of fluctuation collapse\cite{2016PhRvD..94f3530G}:
\begin{align}
\psi(M) = \frac{f_{PBH}}{\sqrt{2\pi} \sigma M} exp\left(-\frac{log^2(M/M_c)}{2\sigma^2} \right) \;,
\label{eq:lognormal}
\end{align}
where $M_c$ is the mass of the peak, the one commonly associated with the monochromatic constraint, and $\sigma$ is the width of the distribution. The value of these parameters depends directly of the model used. However, as keeps repeating, particular models can result in particular mass functions, including power functions and even very sharp mass distributions that are very close to a purely monochromatic one.
Of note is that the extended mass distribution can, and in many cases will, change with time. Mergers between PBHs and accretion can bring major changes by significantly raising the abundance of higher mass PBHs \cite{2020PhRvD.102d3505D}, while on the opposite end very small PBHs will slowly evaporate by a different rate depending on their own mass, changing the shape of the distribution \cite{2022arXiv220305743M}. While this may bring some slight changes between the formation mass distribution and the current one it does not affect most constraints, including microlensing, gravitational waves and evaporation, as they are based on observations of the nearby universe and so constrain the mass distribution at current redshift 0. Constraints based on high redshift, like those coming from the CMB, however will have to be shifted to what currently are higher masses.
Overall, extended mass distributions seem to create more stringent constraints than monochromatic ones, but it is not possible to generalize for all cases and graphs have to be individualized for each type of distribution. In comparison, the monochromatic constraints figure is generic and much easier to produce, and a sufficiently good estimate to merit its continued usage.
While different, something similar happens with clustered distributions. To begin with, the curvature fluctuations that originate the PBHs in our standard formation path are Poissonian \cite{2018JCAP...10..043B, 2018PhRvD..98l3533D, 2018PhRvL.121h1304A}, and so it is expected for a large number of small clusters of PBHs to form. However, we also expect most of those small clusters to have evaporated by now \cite{2003ApJ...594L..71A}, and to be too diffuse to affect the microlensing constraints for example \cite{2022arXiv220102521P}.
Other formation models can result in cases where the PBHs form in a much more clustered distribution rather than the typical spread \cite{2019EPJC...79..246B}, and even in the typical fluctuation collapse the presence of non-gaussianities can bring forth non-negligible clustering \cite{2019PTEP.2019j3E02S, 2020JCAP...03..004Y}. Like before, the change in signals and constraints must be treated individually for each mass range in question. Care has to be given though, because while clustering can decrease the constraints for some mass ranges, on some cases it can also introduce new signals that should not be overlooked. A good example are binary mergers: clustering significantly decreases the constraints of LIGO, as most mergers would have occurred in the early universe due to PBHs being more concentrated, but those previous mergers also create a very significant stochastic GW background \cite{2020JCAP...11..036A} that would be within the current LIGO/VIRGO sensitivity \cite{PhysRevD.104.022004}.
Another example can be with microlensing. While very strongly clustered PBHs are expected to form a single much larger lens rather one per PBH, which should a priori reduce the number of lenses and so of events we expect to see, the number of events expected can actually raise if we have one of the PBH clusters close enough by chance \cite{2022arXiv220304209G}.
Naively we would expect PBH evaporation and accretion constraints to not be strongly affected by clustering, but understanding of both the physical reasoning of the constraints and also the particularities of the clustered distribution are needed before applying monochromatic non-clustered constraints.
\section{Existing windows} \label{sc:window}
Among all the discussed constraints for smaller PBHs that could be all the dark matter, there still remains a sizable window between $10^{-16}$ and $10^{-11} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$. This window is extremely hard to probe with usual methods, as they are PBHs too small to be detected either through gravitational waves emission or microlensing events by current instruments, but also are too big to be affected by evaporation via Hawking radiation. Their mass, roughly corresponding to the one of an asteroid, also makes it exceedingly hard to detect them through conventional methods in big enough numbers to say anything about their abundance, even if somehow a few could be found amid countless opaque asteroids and similar objects.
There have been a number of attempts at constraining the mass range still, most trying to use the effect such PBHs would have onto more standard objects like stars and predict what observational consequences it could leave.
A novel approach based on these ideas was proposed in \cite{2009arXiv0901.1093R}, where they expose that asteroid mass PBHs could randomly traverse through a star and then fall to the core of said star via energy loss coming from dynamical friction. If the DM contains PBHs, these would be present in the cool molecular gas clouds in which star formation happens and, in cases where the relative velocities are low enough, the PBHs would undergo adiabatic contraction as the baryonic mass in the form of gas cools down during the formation of a protostar, resulting in a number of PBHs bound to the newly born star. A portion of the PBHs orbiting close or within the star would eventually lose energy via dynamical friction and fall to the core of the star, thus being captured. Despite the small mass of the PBHs, once settled in the stellar core they would start accreting, growing up to a total mass that might be a large fraction of the total mass of the star.
This raises the possibility of black hole with a typical mass of a star but below the Chandrasekhar mass existing, which cannot be explained in ordinary stellar evolution but is much easier to detect. If any such black hole could be detected today, it would therefore point to a possible origin in a PBH and thanks to forming via such indirect methods it would avoid abundance constraints in the solar mass range. Similarly, the lack of such objects could be used to place constraints on the asteroid mass range. However, \cite{2009ApJ...705..659A} questioned that this process could occur in the Milky Way, finding the rate of this PBH capture to be negligible because capture by dynamical friction is very slow and the current DM density too low.
The possibility of PBH capture in the present Universe was reexamined by \cite{2013PhRvD..87b3507C}, considering star formation in globular clusters formed in dense dark matter halos made of PBHs in the asteroid mass range. If the star become a neutron star while it had a PBH within itself, the much higher densities of the object would result in an almost instant accretion by the PBH. With high enough DM densities, the process is common enough as to imply no neutron star would survive, making constraints based on the detection of such neutron stars possible. While energy loss via dynamical friction was still very slow, high DM density meant rare very eccentric orbits or orbits wholly within the star could be populated by PBHs, and only one PBH was required to be captured for the star to be accreted. The impact of eccentric orbits to the capture rate was considered in a follow up study \cite{2014PhRvD..90h3507C}, which found an enhanced capture rate that made the constraints tighter around the same mass range. Both works however considered globular clusters with a very high DM and baryonic density, whereas in fact globular clusters may form from gas cloud fragmentation without involving any DM, so their constraints are not readily applicable \cite{2019JCAP...08..031M} and so do not appear in figure \ref{fig:PBH_bounds}.
A further refinement of this method of PBH capture is present in \cite{2022arXiv220513003O}, which concluded that the higher DM density and lower velocity dispersion in DM haloes at high redshift ($z \sim 20$) would allow PBHs to be captured by common low mass main sequence stars. While no bounds based on neutron star survival can be made, as most captures happened at very high redshift, a substantial number of sub-Chandrasekhar mass BHs would exist as results of such captures if PBHs in the asteroid mass range are all of the DM.
\cite{2014JCAP...06..026P} presented a similar case of capture of PBHs but by neutron stars directly. Rather than dynamical friction, the energy loss of the PBH was via tidal deformations of the neutron stars, which was supposedly more efficient and thus would end up with neutron stars capturing the PBHs much more easily, severely constraining the mass range as DM candidates. \cite{2014arXiv1402.4671C, 2014PhRvD..90j3522D} however cast doubts on it, arguing both tidal deformations and dynamical friction were roughly equivalent, and models agreed with previous dynamical friction calculations.
Overall, despite the interesting approaches, asteroid mass range PBHs remain the last big windows where PBHs could provide all the dark matter. There exists more exotic PBH formation models that avoid most of the other constraints, but if using standard inflation perturbation collapse with as few extra elements as possible they remain perhaps the last possibility to explain the DM. In the future LISA could constrain this simple case through the SGWBs the PBH formation would produce \cite{2019PhRvL.122u1301B}, but today it still remains one of the most interesting windows in the PBH mass range.
\section{Possible detections}\label{sec:Direct detection}
Most constraints on PBh abundance are based on assuming a population of PBH with a certain abundance and mass range, studying a possible observable consequence their existence would bring and then using the lack of said detections to set constraints. The inverse however is possible, that is, to explain an observed but unexplained event through a population of PBHs.
The most famous example of this is the one previously cited, where a population of PBHs could explain the LIGO GWs merger events observed \cite{2016PhRvL.116t1301B}. While currently the mergers can all be explained through only stellar origin BHs, models suggest that a combined population of PBHs and stellar origin BHs mergers is the one that fits best the rate observed by LIGO \cite{2021JCAP...03..068H, 2021JCAP...05..003D}, though with an abundance far below the one needed for PBHs to be the dark matter and with uncertainties in astrophysical and primordial formation models not allowing for an unequivocal answer \cite{2022PhRvD.105h3526F}. Exotic variations also exist where PBHs outside the LIGO mass range are not all of the DM and end up creating the mergers seen by LIGO \cite{2021PDU....3200833E,2020PhRvL.125r1304K}.
Another good example are microlensing events. Famously, while the MACHO experiments constrained compact objects to not be all of the DM they also found a higher number of microlensing events than expected by objects in the disk \cite{2000ApJ...542..281A}. Microlensing surveys like HSC today also find a number of microlensing events caused by unknown compact objects \cite{2019NatAs...3..524N} that could be easily be explained by PBHs, though it has to be stressed than in a much lower abundance than the one needed for them to be all of the DM. Finally, \cite{2022MNRAS.512.5706H} argued that PBHs as all of the DM could explain the microlensing effects seen on the quasars, but their results contradict other microlensing studies of quasars \cite{2022arXiv220304777E}.
Another event that has commonly been explained as a possible result of PBHs is the excess of 511 keV photons from the center of the Milky Way relative to expectations found by telescopes SPI/INTEGRAL/COSI \cite{2005MNRAS.357.1377C, 2020ApJ...895...44K}. Very small PBHs could be the source of the increased radiation via their Hawking emission \cite{2021PhRvD.104f3033K}, though it can also be explained by other conventional means or particle DM \cite{2021arXiv210914955M}, and even if the origin were PBHs they would only make up a small fraction of the DM.
Perhaps the most famous and current case are the latest finds by NANOGrav \cite{2020ApJ...905L..34A}. Within a pulsar-timing data set comprising 12.5 years there was evidence of a stochastic common-spectrum process. The signal was not found to have a quadrupole correlation that would confirm the origin of such process as being from a SGWB, but it is still a popular and reasonable explanation for the process.
In particular, a SGWB with parameters that could result in the process observed in NANOGrav could in turn have the origin in PBH formation \cite{2021PhRvL.126d1303D, 2020arXiv201003976D}. As mentioned in section \ref{sec:GW}, the formation of PBHs by perturbation collapse generates its own SGWB. For the NANOgrav case, the formation of a small abundance of subsolar mass PBHs would create a SGWB capable of generating the stochastic process present in the data \cite{2021PhLB..81336040K}.
It is important however to stress that the abundance of PBHs that would be generated is far below the one needed to explain all of the DM if only using subsolar mass PBHs, at least as long as subsolar mass PBHs are the only ones produced. There exists the possibility of a very broad PBH mass range distribution, where a small fraction of subsolar mass PBHs would be generated as the end point of a distribution with a peak around the asteroid mass range \cite{2021PhRvL.126d1303D,2021PhLB..81436097S}, which could explain all of the DM. This extremely broad distribution means there would be a non-negligible abundance of PBH in the microlensing range too, which the HSC would probe in the future \cite{2021PhLB..81436097S}.
Overall, direct detection of PBHs remain a tantalizing if challenging prospect. While several events exists which could be explained by their presence, all of them would require them to be only a small fraction of the DM, and several, like the galaxy center excess, have even been used to create constraints.
\section{Conclusions and future prospects}\label{sec:future_perspectives}
As of today, only PBHs within a small range of masses between $10^{-16}-10^{-11} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ could make up all of the DM, assuming they form with the smallest deviation possible to the standard model. But while relatively small this range of masses remains challenging to constrain, comprising of PBHs too small to distinguish from diffuse matter and too massive to emit significant amounts of Hawking radiation.
In the years following this review it is expected for plenty of experiments and new instruments to help further constraint the abundance of PBHs \cite{2021JPhG...48d3001G, 2022arXiv220308967B}. While helpful, most of these tighter constraints are in already constrained mass ranges, so they offer gradual improvement rather than resolving the remaining mass window.
There are two possible exceptions. The first are the so called 3rd generation GW instruments. On the ground the Cosmic Explorer \cite{2017CQGra..34d4001A,2019BAAS...51g..35R} and Einstein Telescope \cite{2010CQGra..27s4002P,2020JCAP...03..050M} could, if approved and build, be able to observe binaries with total mass of $\sim 10 \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ up to redshifts $z \sim 100$. While not on the most interesting mass ranges, the possibility of detecting mergers at extremely large redshifts, before the first stars, remain one of the few ways in which PBHs existence could be undeniably proved or harsher constrains be made \cite{2022arXiv220411864N, 2021JCAP...11..039D}. Furthermore, if PBHs are all of the DM in the asteroid mass range, they would be captured and accrete a good portion of the lower mass longer lived first stars \cite{2022arXiv220513003O}, so even the asteroid mass range could be probed indirectly by looking for sub-Chandrasekhar mass mergers.
On space, LISA \cite{2017arXiv170200786A} frequency range offers the possibility of detecting the SGWB emitted during the formation of asteroid mass PBH \cite{2019PhRvL.122u1301B}, as mentioned in section \ref{sec:GW}. While the emission is only expected in the case of PBH formation through the standard perturbation collapse, it remains one of the few ways to probe the case where PBH are all of the DM. LISA should also be able to confirm if the stochastic process detected by NANOGrav is related to PBH formation \cite{2021PhRvL.126e1303V}. While only tangentially related, next generation pulsar timing arrays like ngVLA \cite{2018arXiv181006594N} could also help with the detection of SGWBs, particularly if the NANOGrav signal persists.
Another exciting prospect are X-ray pulsars microlensing, which avoid finite body effects due to pulsar's small size. Current X-ray telescope AstroSat \cite{2014SPIE.9144E..1SS} could already create some constraints around the $10^{-14} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ range with 300 days of observations \cite{2019PhRvD..99l3019B}. Future missions Athena \cite{2015JPhCS.610a2008B} and Lynx \cite{2018arXiv180909642T} could improve upon those. eXTP \cite{2016SPIE.9905E..1QZ} could widen the constraints to reach masses $10^{-15}-10^{-13} \, {\rm M_{\odot}}$ \cite{2019PhRvD..99l3019B}, which would result in PBHs needing very narrow and fine tuned mass distributions to make up all of the DM.
Important amounts of clustering could relax the microlensing constraints, though by how much is still debated \cite{2022arXiv220304209G}. Nonetheless, relaxing microlensing constraints would widen the window where PBHs can make up all of the DM considerably and change future prospects. Still, in analogy to the case in \cite{2020JCAP...11..036A}, significant clustering would also result in much increased mergers at earlier redshifts that would leave a very relevant SGWBs. Future GW detectors like the already mentioned Einstein Telescope could make up some of the lost microlensing constraints in this case.
Overall, asteroid mass PBHs are today still a rather interesting candidate to be all of the DM. While much more constrained that when they first awoke interest after the LIGO detection, a window still remains, one which is very challenging to close with current instruments. Next generation experiments should be able to probe the window with both microlensing and GWs, either closing it or perhaps finally answering the decades long question that is the DM.
\funding{This work was supported in part by Spanish grant CEX-2019-000918-M funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033.}
\acknowledgments{I would like to thank discussions on the PBH topic with Albert Escriv\`a, Ivan Esteban, Cristiano Germani, Jordi Miralda, Jordi Salvad\'o and Javier G. Subils.
}
\abbreviations{PBHs: Primordial Black Holes\\ DM: Dark matter\\
BH: Black Hole\\
GW: Gravitational Wave\\
CMB: Cosmic Microwave Background\\
LIGO: Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory\\
SGWB: Stochastic Gravitational Wave Background\\
NANOGrav: North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves\\
ISCO: Innermost Stable Circular Orbit\\
}
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{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
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Q: Cmake build error for c++ I want to build the bayes optimization program error is
The C compiler identification is GNU 4.9.2
The CXX compiler identification is GNU 4.9.2
Check for working C compiler: C:/MinGW/bin/gcc.exe
CMake Error: Generator: execution of make failed. Make command was: "C:\MinGW\bin" "cmTryCompileExec2576605559/fast"
Check for working C compiler: C:/MinGW/bin/gcc.exe -- broken
CMake Error at C:/Program Files (x86)/CMake/share/cmake-3.2/Modules/CMakeTestCCompiler.cmake:61 (message):
The C compiler "C:/MinGW/bin/gcc.exe" is not able to compile a simple test
program.
It fails with the following output:
Change Dir: C:/Code-Lite-Test/CMakeFiles/CMakeTmp
Run Build Command:"C:\MinGW\bin" "cmTryCompileExec2576605559/fast"
Access is denied
Generator: execution of make failed. Make command was: "C:\MinGW\bin"
"cmTryCompileExec2576605559/fast"
CMake will not be able to correctly generate this project.
Call Stack (most recent call first):
I have downloaded source from url https://bitbucket.org/rmcantin/bayesopt/ and i have downloaded the MinGW compiler for Windows when I try to build the program the error is:
Please help me on this I have also deleted the old cache when I try to build the bayes optimization.
A: You could try to compile a simple C++ program first without CMake. E.g. store a simple main.cpp somewhere in your user directory C:\Users\<yourname>\Temp directory with following content:
int main()
{
return 0;
}
Now open CMD window in your C:\Users\<yourname>\Temp directory and run:
C:\MinGW\bin\gcc.exe main.cpp -o testprog
If an error popup appears that is saying something about a missing .dll, run following command in your CMD window and try to compile again:
set PATH=%PATH%;C:\MinGW\bin
If you had to run the last command, add the C:\MinGW\bin path permanently. After all it should be possible to run CMake with MinGW as compiler.
A: Verify that your MinGW compiler for Windows is able to build a simple program without CMake, for example: Hello World
When it works, clean your cache and try again.
|
{
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaStackExchange"
}
| 4,294
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