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6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_25 | Many important complexity classes can be defined by bounding the time or space used by the algorithm. Some important complexity classes of decision problems defined in this manner are the following: | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_26 | Other important complexity classes include BPP, ZPP and RP, which are defined using probabilistic Turing machines; AC and NC, which are defined using Boolean circuits; and BQP and QMA, which are defined using quantum Turing machines. #P is an important complexity class of counting problems (not decision problems). Clas... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_27 | For the complexity classes defined in this way, it is desirable to prove that relaxing the requirements on (say) computation time indeed defines a bigger set of problems. In particular, although DTIME(n) is contained in DTIME(n2), it would be interesting to know if the inclusion is strict. For time and space requiremen... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_28 | The time and space hierarchy theorems form the basis for most separation results of complexity classes. For instance, the time hierarchy theorem tells us that P is strictly contained in EXPTIME, and the space hierarchy theorem tells us that L is strictly contained in PSPACE. | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_29 | Many complexity classes are defined using the concept of a reduction. A reduction is a transformation of one problem into another problem. It captures the informal notion of a problem being at least as difficult as another problem. For instance, if a problem X can be solved using an algorithm for Y, X is no more diffic... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_30 | The most commonly used reduction is a polynomial-time reduction. This means that the reduction process takes polynomial time. For example, the problem of squaring an integer can be reduced to the problem of multiplying two integers. This means an algorithm for multiplying two integers can be used to square an integer. ... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_31 | This motivates the concept of a problem being hard for a complexity class. A problem X is hard for a class of problems C if every problem in C can be reduced to X. Thus no problem in C is harder than X, since an algorithm for X allows us to solve any problem in C. Of course, the notion of hard problems depends on the t... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_32 | If a problem X is in C and hard for C, then X is said to be complete for C. This means that X is the hardest problem in C. (Since many problems could be equally hard, one might say that X is one of the hardest problems in C.) Thus the class of NP-complete problems contains the most difficult problems in NP, in the sens... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_33 | The complexity class P is often seen as a mathematical abstraction modeling those computational tasks that admit an efficient algorithm. This hypothesis is called the Cobham–Edmonds thesis. The complexity class NP, on the other hand, contains many problems that people would like to solve efficiently, but for which no e... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_34 | The question of whether P equals NP is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. If the answer is yes, many important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions. These include various types of integer programming problems in oper... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_35 | It was shown by Ladner that if P ≠ NP then there exist problems in NP that are neither in P nor NP-complete. Such problems are called NP-intermediate problems. The graph isomorphism problem, the discrete logarithm problem and the integer factorization problem are examples of problems believed to be NP-intermediate. The... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_36 | The graph isomorphism problem is the computational problem of determining whether two finite graphs are isomorphic. An important unsolved problem in complexity theory is whether the graph isomorphism problem is in P, NP-complete, or NP-intermediate. The answer is not known, but it is believed that the problem is at lea... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_37 | The integer factorization problem is the computational problem of determining the prime factorization of a given integer. Phrased as a decision problem, it is the problem of deciding whether the input has a factor less than k. No efficient integer factorization algorithm is known, and this fact forms the basis of sever... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_38 | Many known complexity classes are suspected to be unequal, but this has not been proved. For instance P ⊆ NP ⊆ PP ⊆ PSPACE, but it is possible that P = PSPACE. If P is not equal to NP, then P is not equal to PSPACE either. Since there are many known complexity classes between P and PSPACE, such as RP, BPP, PP, BQP, MA,... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_39 | Along the same lines, co-NP is the class containing the complement problems (i.e. problems with the yes/no answers reversed) of NP problems. It is believed that NP is not equal to co-NP; however, it has not yet been proven. It has been shown that if these two complexity classes are not equal then P is not equal to NP. | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_40 | Similarly, it is not known if L (the set of all problems that can be solved in logarithmic space) is strictly contained in P or equal to P. Again, there are many complexity classes between the two, such as NL and NC, and it is not known if they are distinct or equal classes. | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_41 | Problems that can be solved in theory (e.g., given large but finite time), but which in practice take too long for their solutions to be useful, are known as intractable problems. In complexity theory, problems that lack polynomial-time solutions are considered to be intractable for more than the smallest inputs. In fa... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_42 | What intractability means in practice is open to debate. Saying that a problem is not in P does not imply that all large cases of the problem are hard or even that most of them are. For example, the decision problem in Presburger arithmetic has been shown not to be in P, yet algorithms have been written that solve the ... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_43 | Before the actual research explicitly devoted to the complexity of algorithmic problems started off, numerous foundations were laid out by various researchers. Most influential among these was the definition of Turing machines by Alan Turing in 1936, which turned out to be a very robust and flexible simplification of a... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_44 | As Fortnow & Homer (2003) point out, the beginning of systematic studies in computational complexity is attributed to the seminal paper "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms" by Juris Hartmanis and Richard Stearns (1965), which laid out the definitions of time and space complexity and proved the hierarchy theo... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_45 | Earlier papers studying problems solvable by Turing machines with specific bounded resources include John Myhill's definition of linear bounded automata (Myhill 1960), Raymond Smullyan's study of rudimentary sets (1961), as well as Hisao Yamada's paper on real-time computations (1962). Somewhat earlier, Boris Trakhten... | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_46 | Even though some proofs of complexity-theoretic theorems regularly assume some concrete choice of input encoding, one tries to keep the discussion abstract enough to be independent of the choice of encoding. This can be achieved by ensuring that different representations can be transformed into each other efficiently. | 0 |
6ef3744239e724b4cb57120adb48a141_47 | In 1967, Manuel Blum developed an axiomatic complexity theory based on his axioms and proved an important result, the so-called, speed-up theorem. The field really began to flourish in 1971 when the US researcher Stephen Cook and, working independently, Leonid Levin in the USSR, proved that there exist practically rele... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_0 | The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional qualifications or credentials from a university or college. These professional qualifications may include the s... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_1 | A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_2 | In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling. Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, such as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider community setting. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_3 | Religious and spiritual teachers, such as gurus, mullahs, rabbis, pastors/youth pastors and lamas, may teach religious texts such as the Quran, Torah or Bible. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_4 | Teaching may be carried out informally, within the family, which is called homeschooling, or in the wider community. Formal teaching may be carried out by paid professionals. Such professionals enjoy a status in some societies on a par with physicians, lawyers, engineers, and accountants (Chartered or CPA). | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_5 | A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom teachers may accompany students on field trips, supervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities. In some education systems, teachers may have respons... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_6 | There are a variety of bodies designed to instill, preserve and update the knowledge and professional standing of teachers. Around the world many governments operate teacher's colleges, which are generally established to serve and protect the public interest through certifying, governing and enforcing the standards of ... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_7 | The functions of the teacher's colleges may include setting out clear standards of practice, providing for the ongoing education of teachers, investigating complaints involving members, conducting hearings into allegations of professional misconduct and taking appropriate disciplinary action and accrediting teacher edu... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_8 | In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or perhaps in another environment such as outdoors. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be described as a tutor. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_9 | The objective is typically accomplished through either an informal or formal approach to learning, including a course of study and lesson plan that teaches skills, knowledge and/or thinking skills. Different ways to teach are often referred to as pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use teachers consider stu... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_10 | The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill. A teacher may follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities and students with learning disabilitie... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_11 | Teaching using pedagogy also involve assessing the educational levels of the students on particular skills. Understanding the pedagogy of the students in a classroom involves using differentiated instruction as well as supervision to meet the needs of all students in the classroom. Pedagogy can be thought of in two man... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_12 | Perhaps the most significant difference between primary school and secondary school teaching is the relationship between teachers and children. In primary schools each class has a teacher who stays with them for most of the week and will teach them the whole curriculum. In secondary schools they will be taught by diffe... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_13 | This is true throughout most of the United States as well. However, alternative approaches for primary education do exist. One of these, sometimes referred to as a "platoon" system, involves placing a group of students together in one class that moves from one specialist to another for every subject. The advantage here... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_14 | Co-teaching has also become a new trend amongst educational institutions. Co-teaching is defined as two or more teachers working harmoniously to fulfill the needs of every student in the classroom. Co-teaching focuses the student on learning by providing a social networking support that allows them to reach their full ... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_15 | Throughout the history of education the most common form of school discipline was corporal punishment. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent, with all the normal forms of parental discipline open to them. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_16 | In past times, corporal punishment (spanking or paddling or caning or strapping or birching the student in order to cause physical pain) was one of the most common forms of school discipline throughout much of the world. Most Western countries, and some others, have now banned it, but it remains lawful in the United St... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_17 | 30 US states have banned corporal punishment, the others (mostly in the South) have not. It is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private schools in these and most other states may also use it... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_18 | Official corporal punishment, often by caning, remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and Caribbean countries. For details of individual countries see School corporal punishment. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_19 | Currently detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, the UK, Ireland, Singapore and other countries. It requires the pupil to remain in school at a given time in the school day (such as lunch, recess or after school); or even to attend school on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday det... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_20 | A modern example of school discipline in North America and Western Europe relies upon the idea of an assertive teacher who is prepared to impose their will upon a class. Positive reinforcement is balanced with immediate and fair punishment for misbehavior and firm, clear boundaries define what is appropriate and inappr... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_21 | Whilst this is the consensus viewpoint amongst the majority of academics, some teachers and parents advocate a more assertive and confrontational style of discipline.[citation needed] Such individuals claim that many problems with modern schooling stem from the weakness in school discipline and if teachers exercised fi... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_22 | It's not clear, however that this stereotypical view reflects the reality of East Asian classrooms or that the educational goals in these countries are commensurable with those in Western countries. In Japan, for example, although average attainment on standardized tests may exceed those in Western countries, classroom... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_23 | Where school class sizes are typically 40 to 50 students, maintaining order in the classroom can divert the teacher from instruction, leaving little opportunity for concentration and focus on what is being taught. In response, teachers may concentrate their attention on motivated students, ignoring attention-seeking an... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_24 | Sudbury model democratic schools claim that popularly based authority can maintain order more effectively than dictatorial authority for governments and schools alike. They also claim that in these schools the preservation of public order is easier and more efficient than anywhere else. Primarily because rules and regu... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_25 | Since teachers can affect how students perceive the course materials, it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can affect a positive learning experience towards the course materials. On teacher/course evaluations, it was found that teachers who have a positive disp... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_26 | Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students' intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom. Controlled, experim... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_27 | There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere full of energy and enthusiasm which feed student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to stude... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_28 | Research shows that student motivation and attitudes towards school are closely linked to student-teacher relationships. Enthusiastic teachers are particularly good at creating beneficial relations with their students. Their ability to create effective learning environments that foster student achievement depends on th... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_29 | Students are likely to build stronger relations with teachers who are friendly and supportive and will show more interest in courses taught by these teachers. Teachers that spend more time interacting and working directly with students are perceived as supportive and effective teachers. Effective teachers have been sho... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_30 | The way a teacher promotes the course they are teaching, the more the student will get out of the subject matter. The three most important aspects of teacher enthusiasm are enthusiasm about teaching, enthusiasm about the students, and enthusiasm about the subject matter. A teacher must enjoy teaching. If they do not en... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_31 | Misconduct by teachers, especially sexual misconduct, has been getting increased scrutiny from the media and the courts. A study by the American Association of University Women reported that 9.6% of students in the United States claim to have received unwanted sexual attention from an adult associated with education; b... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_32 | A study in England showed a 0.3% prevalence of sexual abuse by any professional, a group that included priests, religious leaders, and case workers as well as teachers. It is important to note, however, that the British study referenced above is the only one of its kind and consisted of "a random ... probability sample... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_33 | In the United States especially, several high-profile cases such as Debra LaFave, Pamela Rogers, and Mary Kay Letourneau have caused increased scrutiny on teacher misconduct. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_34 | Chris Keates, the general secretary of National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers, said that teachers who have sex with pupils over the age of consent should not be placed on the sex offenders register and that prosecution for statutory rape "is a real anomaly in the law that we are concerned about."... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_35 | Teachers face several occupational hazards in their line of work, including occupational stress, which can negatively impact teachers' mental and physical health, productivity, and students' performance. Stress can be caused by organizational change, relationships with students, fellow teachers, and administrative pers... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_36 | A 2000 study found that 42% of UK teachers experienced occupational stress, twice the figure for the average profession. A 2012 study found that teachers experienced double the rate of anxiety, depression, and stress than average workers. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_37 | There are several ways to mitigate the occupational hazards of teaching. Organizational interventions, like changing teachers' schedules, providing support networks and mentoring, changing the work environment, and offering promotions and bonuses, may be effective in helping to reduce occupational stress among teachers... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_38 | There are many similarities and differences among teachers around the world. In almost all countries teachers are educated in a university or college. Governments may require certification by a recognized body before they can teach in a school. In many countries, elementary school education certificate is earned after ... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_39 | Education in Australia is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories. Generally, education in Australia follows the three-tier model which includes primary education (primary schools), followed by secondary education (secondary schools/high schools) and tertiary education (universities and/or... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_40 | Teaching in Canada requires a post-secondary degree Bachelor's Degree. In most provinces a second Bachelor's Degree such as a Bachelor of Education is required to become a qualified teacher. Salary ranges from $40,000/year to $90,000/yr. Teachers have the option to teach for a public school which is funded by the provi... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_41 | In Germany, teachers are mainly civil servants recruited in special university classes, called Lehramtstudien (Teaching Education Studies). There are many differences between the teachers for elementary schools (Grundschule), lower secondary schools (Hauptschule), middle level secondary schools (Realschule) and higher ... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_42 | Salaries for primary teachers in Ireland depend mainly on seniority (i.e. holding the position of principal, deputy principal or assistant principal), experience and qualifications. Extra pay is also given for teaching through the Irish language, in a Gaeltacht area or on an island. The basic pay for a starting teacher... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_43 | Teachers are required to be registered with the Teaching Council; under Section 30 of the Teaching Council Act 2001, a person employed in any capacity in a recognised teaching post - who is not registered with the Teaching Council - may not be paid from Oireachtas funds. | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_44 | From 2006 Garda vetting has been introduced for new entrants to the teaching profession. These procedures apply to teaching and also to non-teaching posts and those who refuse vetting "cannot be appointed or engaged by the school in any capacity including in a voluntary role". Existing staff will be vetted on a phased ... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_45 | Salaries for Nursery, Primary and Secondary School teachers ranged from £20,133 to £41,004 in September 2007, although some salaries can go much higher depending on experience and extra responsibilities. Preschool teachers may earn £20,980 annually.[citation needed] Teachers in state schools must have at least a bachel... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_46 | Many counties offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. Excellent job opportunities are expected as retirements, especially among secondary school teachers, outweigh slowing enrollment growth; opportunities will vary by geographic area and subject taugh... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_47 | In Scotland, anyone wishing to teach must be registered with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS). Teaching in Scotland is an all graduate profession and the normal route for graduates wishing to teach is to complete a programme of Initial Teacher Education (ITE) at one of the seven Scottish Universities wh... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_48 | For the salary year beginning April 2008, unpromoted teachers in Scotland earned from £20,427 for a Probationer, up to £32,583 after 6 years teaching, but could then go on to earn up to £39,942 as they complete the modules to earn Chartered Teacher Status (requiring at least 6 years at up to two modules per year.) Prom... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_49 | Education in Wales differs in certain respects from education elsewhere in the United Kingdom. For example, a significant number of students all over Wales are educated either wholly or largely through the medium of Welsh: in 2008/09, 22 per cent of classes in maintained primary schools used Welsh as the sole or main m... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_50 | Teachers in Wales can be registered members of trade unions such as ATL, NUT or NASUWT and reports in recent years suggest that the average age of teachers in Wales is falling with teachers being younger than in previous years. A growing cause of concern are that attacks on teachers in Welsh schools which reached an al... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_51 | In the United States, each state determines the requirements for getting a license to teach in public schools. Teaching certification generally lasts three years, but teachers can receive certificates that last as long as ten years. Public school teachers are required to have a bachelor's degree and the majority must b... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_52 | In the past, teachers have been paid relatively low salaries. However, average teacher salaries have improved rapidly in recent years. US teachers are generally paid on graduated scales, with income depending on experience. Teachers with more experience and higher education earn more than those with a standard bachelor... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_53 | There are many forms of spiritual or religious teachers in Christianity, across all three major traditions - (Roman) Catholic, (Eastern) Orthodox Catholic, and Protestant/Non-Denominational, with a stronger tradition of spiritual formation in the more historic and authoritarian/hierarchical Christian traditions with a ... | 0 |
8ab7bbdf01a24e988c50c4cfe9557814_54 | In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the teacher is an office in the Aaronic priesthood, generally conferred on young boys or recent converts, and has little in common with the "spiritual teacher" archetype. The role of "spiritual teacher" may be filled by many individuals in the LDS Church,... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_0 | Martin Luther (/ˈluːθər/ or /ˈluːðər/; German: [ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈlʊtɐ] ( listen); 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, former monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Late Medieval Catholic Churc... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_1 | Luther taught that salvation and subsequently eternal life is not earned by good deeds but is received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority and office of the Pope by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed kn... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_2 | His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, which had a tremendous impact on the church and German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an Engl... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_3 | Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther) and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his fath... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_4 | In 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises." He received his master's degree in 1505. | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_5 | In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the same university that year but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ock... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_6 | He later attributed his decision to an event: on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home. During a thunderstorm, a lightning bolt struck near him. Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!" He came to... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_7 | Luther dedicated himself to the Augustinian order, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession. Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailer and hangman of my ... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_8 | In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508, von Staupitz, first dean of the newly founded University of Wittenberg, sent for Luther, to teach theology. He received a bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509. | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_9 | On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having been called to the position of Doctor in Bible. He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg. | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_10 | In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and papal commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man; justification... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_11 | On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his bishop, Albert of Mainz, protesting the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences", which came to be known as The Ninety-Five Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of ... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_12 | Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory (also attested as 'into heaven') springs." | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_13 | He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances. | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_14 | However, this oft-quoted saying of Tetzel was by no means representative of contemporary Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather a reflection of his capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was in line with Catholi... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_15 | According to scholars Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter, and Gerhard Prause, the story of the posting on the door, even though it has settled as one of the pillars of history, has little foundation in truth. The story is based on comments made by Philipp Melanchthon, though it is thought that he was not in W... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_16 | It was not until January 1518 that friends of Luther translated the 95 Theses from Latin into German and printed and widely copied them, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the printing press. Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months, they had... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_17 | Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. This early part of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive. Three of his best-know... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_18 | From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight ... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_19 | Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Luther based his position on predestination on St. Paul's epistle to the Ephe... | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_20 | Luther's rediscovery of "Christ and His salvation" was the first of two points that became the foundation for the Reformation. His railing against the sale of indulgences was based on it. | 0 |
b8ddd82d4567e54bb18a844106d923bd_21 | Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburg did not reply to Luther's letter containing the 95 Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome. He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later no... | 0 |
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