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50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
a long series of solo shows. Also in 1968, he was invited for the first time to participate in documenta 4 in Kassel, and received a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts that enabled him to work in New York for one year.
- As early as 1972, Jane Livingston at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art... | 6,118,500 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
throughout America and Europe from 1993 to 1995.
- In 1997, the Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg mounted another major retrospective, which toured the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, Hayward Gallery in London and Nykytaiteen Museo in Helsinki.
- Nauman has had major solo exhibitions at Dia Art Foundation (2002), ... | 6,118,501 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
over to spaces outside the Biennale, the Ca' Foscari and the University Iuav of Venice at Tolentini.
Nauman's work has been included in documenta (1968, 1972, 1977, 1992), the Whitney Biennial (1977, 1985, 1987, 1991, and 1997), and the Venice Biennale (1978, 1980, 1999, 2005, and 2007).
# Collections.
... | 6,118,502 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
DC; Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago;Tate Modern in London, New Mexico Museum of Art, di Rosa, and the Walker Art Center, among many others.
# Recognition.
Bruce Nauman holds honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degrees from the San Francisco Art Institute and the California Institute of the Arts.
- 1993 - W... | 6,118,503 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
Robert Rauschenberg.
- 2008 - United States Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA) announced the selection of Bruce Nauman as the American representative to the 2009 Venice Biennale where he won the prestigious Golden Lion.
- 2014 - Frederick Kiesler Prize for Architecture and the Arts
# Influ... | 6,118,504 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
Wittgenstein's influence: “Just the way Wittgenstein proceeds in thinking about things, his awareness of how to think about things. I don't think you can point to any specific piece that's the result of reading Wittgenstein, but it has to do with some sort of process of how to go about thinking about thing... | 6,118,505 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
throughout his career, especially in his linguistic works, whether written or spoken. Arthur C. Danto speaks of Nauman's work and his relationship to Wittgenstein in an article written in 1995: “A great deal of the work of Bruce Nauman consists in issuing commands ... it is perhaps helpful to consider thos... | 6,118,506 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
Janet Krynak in the book "Please pay attention please" makes a case that a set of works has a similar effect, by the fact that all the pieces "Contain Directive or imperative verbs, calling out 'You'", bringing the viewer into this language game that Nauman is setting up.
- John Cage
- Philip Glass
- La... | 6,118,507 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
of which went to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, when he died in 1994. Emerging later as a prominent buyer was Friedrich Christian Flick, who collected more than 40 pieces from throughout Nauman's career.
Two of Nauman's early auction records were for monumental neons, both walls of blinking punn... | 6,118,508 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
Moore Bound to Fail" (1967), a wax and plaster cast of Nauman's own arms tied behind his back, had set a new auction record for postwar art when Christie's sold it for $9.9 million to Francois Pinault. In 2002, Sperone Westwater Gallery sold "Mapping the Studio (Fat Chance John Cage)" (2001), four videos s... | 6,118,509 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
University Press, 2002
- Bruno Eble, "Le miroir sans reflet. Considérations sur Bruce Nauman", Paris, L'Harmattan, 2001.
# External links.
General and biographical
- Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series "Art:21 - Art in the 21st Century" - Season 1 (2001)
- 200... | 6,118,510 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
Nauman in the Video Data Bank
- Bruce Nauman in the Mediateca Media Art Space
- Brooke Alexander Gallery
Exhibitions
- Bruce Nauman at the Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal
- A Rose Has No Teeth: Bruce Nauman in the 1960s Retrospective exhibition of early formative works at the Berkeley Art Museum ... | 6,118,511 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
Bruce Nauman "Raw Materials" sound installation at Tate Modern, London, UK, 2004
Review and criticism
- Can everyone hear at the back?, by Rose Jennings, "The Observer", October 10, 2004 – Martin Creed, Barbara Kruger, Jenny Holzer, John Baldessari and others on Bruce Nauman
- Inside the mind of Bruce N... | 6,118,512 |
50230 | Bruce Nauman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruce%20Nauman | Bruce Nauman
y Rose Jennings, "The Observer", October 10, 2004 – Martin Creed, Barbara Kruger, Jenny Holzer, John Baldessari and others on Bruce Nauman
- Inside the mind of Bruce Nauman, by Adrian Searle, "The Guardian", October 12, 2004
- Nauman's rehashed sounds reverberate around the Tate's emptiness, by Charlotte... | 6,118,513 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
Erich Raeder
Erich Johann Albert Raeder (24 April 1876 – 6 November 1960) was a German admiral who played a major role in the naval history of World War II. Raeder attained the highest possible naval rank, that of Grand Admiral, in 1939, becoming the first person to hold that rank since Henning von Holtze... | 6,118,514 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
was a headmaster, who as a teacher and a father was noted for his marked authoritarian views, and who impressed upon his son the values of hard work, thrift, faith and obedience—all values that Raeder preached throughout his life. Hans Raeder also warned his children that if Germany were to become a democr... | 6,118,515 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
of Prussia, and gained a powerful patron in the process. Raeder's rise up the ranks was due mostly to his intelligence and hard work. Owing to his cold and distant personality, Raeder was a man whom even his friends often admitted to knowing very little about. The dominating figure of the Navy was Admiral ... | 6,118,516 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
transformed the Navy from the small coastal defense force of 1897 into the mighty High Seas Fleet of 1914.
Raeder was married in 1903 and had three children by his first wife. In 1904, Raeder, who spoke fluent Russian, was sent to the Far East as an observer of the Russo-Japanese War. Starting in 1905, Ra... | 6,118,517 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
to pass the Third Navy Law of 1906 which committed Germany to building "all big gun battleships" to compete with the new British in the Anglo-German naval race that had begun early in the 20th century.
Raeder was the captain of Kaiser Wilhelm II's private yacht in the years leading up to World War I. In i... | 6,118,518 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
considerable power to Raeder, who thus enjoyed more influence than his position as chief of staff would suggest.
During and after World War I the German navy had divided into two factions. One faction, led by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (1849-1930), consisted of avid followers of the teachings of the Ameri... | 6,118,519 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
to build a "balanced fleet" capable of winning an "Entscheidungsschlacht", and so the best use of German naval strength was to build a fleet of cruisers and submarines that would wage a "guerre de course". After reading all three of Wegener's papers setting out his ideas, Admiral Hipper decided to submit t... | 6,118,520 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
that aimed to lure out the British battlecruiser force which would then be destroyed by the main High Seas Fleet. This raid turned into the Battle of Jutland. Raeder played a prominent role, and was forced midway through the battle to transfer from to as a result of damage to Hipper's flagship.
As Chief o... | 6,118,521 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
plans were rejected as far too risky, they significantly influenced Raeder's later thinking.
On 14 October 1918, Raeder received a major promotion with appointment as deputy to Admiral Paul Behncke, the Naval State Secretary. Raeder had doubts about submarines, but he spent the last weeks of the war worki... | 6,118,522 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
the puritanical Raeder, the divorce was a huge personal disgrace, and for the rest of his life he always denied his first marriage. The years 1918–1919 were some of the most troubled in his life.
## High Seas Fleet mutiny.
In the winter of 1918–19, Raeder was closely involved in the efforts of the naval ... | 6,118,523 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
of the Navy. Tirpitz's attacks on the Emperor's leadership during the war had caused a split in the officer corps between the followers of "the Master" and the Kaiser, and Raeder wanted Trotha as the only officer acceptable to both fractions. Noske in turn asked the Navy for volunteers for the "Freikorps" ... | 6,118,524 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
as implied. The military argued that there were two types of "politics": "parteipolitisch" (party politics) which was the responsibility of the politicians, and "staatspolitisch" (state politics) which was the responsibility of the military. "Staatspolitisch" concerned Germany's "eternal" interests and the... | 6,118,525 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
of 1920 Raeder married his second wife, with whom he was to have one son.
After the failure of the Kapp "putsch" he was marginalized in the Navy, being transferred to the Naval Archives, where for two years he played a leading role in writing the official history of the Navy in World War I. After this, Ra... | 6,118,526 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
The surface fleet was inadequate to fight the Royal Navy and instead adopted a strategy of convoy raiding. Raeder wanted the Kriegsmarine to play an active part because he feared the budget would be cut after the war. The smaller ships were dispersed around the world in order to force the Royal Navy to dis... | 6,118,527 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
responsible and was sacked by Raeder, who also issued orders that ships were to fight until the last shell and either win or sink with their flags flying.
The Allies were using Norwegian airfields to transfer aircraft to the Finns fighting against the Soviets in the Winter War, as well as mining Norwegian... | 6,118,528 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
Kriegsmarine in the Baltic sea region, proposed the invasion of Norway to Raeder in September 1939. Raeder briefed Hitler on the idea in October, but planning did not begin until December 1939. The operation was in low-priority planning until the Altmark Incident, but found a new sense of urgency thereafte... | 6,118,529 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
swift victory over France allowed the Kriegsmarine to base itself in ports on France's west coast. This was strategically important as German ships would no longer have to navigate through the dangerous English Channel in order to return to friendly ports, as well as allow them to range farther out into th... | 6,118,530 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
Navy attacked the French navy despite being at peace.
On 11 July 1940, Hitler and Raeder agreed to continue to build the battleships of Plan Z. Raeder also had bases built at Trondheim, St Nazaire and Lorient. At this time, Raeder and other senior officers began submitting memos to invade (among others) S... | 6,118,531 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
April 1941, Raeder planned to follow up the success of Operation Berlin with an even larger mission involving a battleship, two battlecruisers and a heavy cruiser under the command of Lütjens, codenamed Operation Rheinübung. The original plan was to have the battlecruisers Gneisenau and Scharnhorst involve... | 6,118,532 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
was not pleased and saw the Bismarck as a poor investment.
In late 1941, Raeder planned the "channel dash" which sent the remaining two battleships in the French ports to Germany, for further operations in Norwegian waters. The plan was to threaten the lend-lease convoys to the Soviet Union, to deter an i... | 6,118,533 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
coast called the Second Happy Time.
## Resignation.
On 30 January 1943, following Hitler's outrage over the Battle of the Barents Sea, Karl Dönitz was promoted to Grand Admiral, and Raeder was named Admiral Inspector, a ceremonial office. Raeder had failed to inform Hitler of the battle, which Hitler lea... | 6,118,534 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
of: (1) conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity; (2) planning, initiating, and waging wars of aggression; and (3) crimes against the laws of war.
Raeder was found guilty on all the counts and sentenced to life imprisonment. He was surprised as he had expected to ... | 6,118,535 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
died in Kiel on 6 November 1960. His wife had died in 1959. He is buried in the "Nordfriedhof" (North Cemetery), Kiel.
# Service summary.
Dates of rank
- "Seekadett" (Sea Cadet): 26 Apr 1894
- "Fähnrich zur See" (Midshipman): 13 May 1895
- "Leutnant zur See" (Lieutenant at Sea): 25 Oct 1897
- "Oberle... | 6,118,536 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
10 Apr 1936
- "Großadmiral" (Grand admiral): 1 Apr 1939
Awards and decorations
- Order of the Double Dragon, 3rd class, 2nd Level (China, 10 October 1898)
- China Medal (German Empire, 12 December 1901)
- Order of the Red Eagle, 4th class (Prussia, 22 June 1907)
- Honorary Knight 2nd class of the Hou... | 6,118,537 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
(1914) 1st Class (19 November 1914) & 2nd Class (18 February 1915)
- Imtiyaz Medal in silver with Swords
- Ottoman War Medal (also known as the "Gallipoli Star" or "Iron Crescent")
- Friedrich August Cross, 1st and 2nd class (Oldenburg)
- Knight's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern with swo... | 6,118,538 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
1928)
- Commander's Cross with Star of the Order of Merit (Chile, September 1928)
- World War Commemorative Medal with swords on (Hungary, 3 June 1931)
- Grand Officer of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy, 7 May 1934)
- Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit (Bulgaria, 28 June 1934)
-... | 6,118,539 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
1937)
- Order of the Rising Sun, 1st class (Japan, 9 November 1937)
- War Memorial Medal (Bulgaria, 30 November 1937)
- Golden Medal of Honour of Hamburg (1 April 1939)
- Order of the White Eagle (Poland, 2 June 1939)
- Grand Cross of the Order of Naval Merit in White (Spain, 21 August 1939)
- Sudete... | 6,118,540 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
of the Order of the Sword (Sweden, 24 October 1940)
- Grand Cross of the Military Order of Savoy (4 April 1942)
- Grand Cross Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir with swords and other decorations (Croatia, 26 September 1942)
- Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Kingdom of Hungary with war ribbon w... | 6,118,541 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
Press. 2000. .
- Bergen, Doris "'Germany Is Our Mission: Christ Is Our Strength!' The Wehrmacht Chaplaincy and the 'German Christian' Movement" pp. 522–536 from "Church History" Volume 66, Issue # 3, September 1997.
- Bird, Eugene, "The Loneliest Man in the World, Rudolph Hess, in Spandau", London: Spher... | 6,118,542 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
(in German). "Die Ritterkreuzträger der Überwasserstreitkräfte der Kriegsmarine—Band 2:L–Z". Osnabrück, Germany: Biblio Verlag. 1996. .
- Fischer, Kurt (in German). "Großadmiral Dr. phil. h.c. Erich Raeder". In: Gerd R. Ueberschär (ed.): "Hitlers militärische Elite Band 1: Von der Anfängen des Regimes bis... | 6,118,543 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
from "Corrupt Histories" edited by Emmanuel Kreike and William Jordan, University of Rochester Press, 2005, .
- Goda, Norman "Tales from Spandau: Nazi Criminals And the Cold War", Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007, .
- Hankey, Maurice "Politics, Trials and Errors", Clark, New Jersey: Lawbook Ex... | 6,118,544 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
Ideology Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany 1922-1945", Routledge: London, 2000 .
- Kershaw, Ian "Fateful Choices Ten Decisions that Changed the World 1940-1941", Penguin: London, 2007, .
- Mulligan, Timothy P. "Ship-of-the-Line or Atlantic Raider? Battleship ""Bismarck"" between Design Limi... | 6,118,545 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
from "Germany and the Second World War Volume VI The Global War Widening of the Conflict into a World War and the Shift of the Initiative 1941-1943" edited by Günther Roth, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001 .
- Raeder, Erich "My Life", Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1960.
- Shirer, William "The Rise and F... | 6,118,546 |
50229 | Erich Raeder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich%20Raeder | Erich Raeder
the Third Reich", New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960, .
- Thomas, Charles "The German Navy in the Nazi Era", Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990, .
- Wette, Wolfram "", Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006, .
- Weinberg, Gerhard "The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Euro... | 6,118,547 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
Battle of Wakefield
The Battle of Wakefield took place in Sandal Magna near Wakefield in northern England, on 30 December 1460. It was a major battle of the Wars of the Roses. The opposing forces were an army led by nobles loyal to the captive King Henry VI of the House of Lancaster and his Queen M... | 6,118,548 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
heir to the throne, displacing from the succession Henry's and Margaret's 7-year-old son Edward, Prince of Wales. Margaret of Anjou and several prominent nobles were irreconcilably opposed to this accord, and massed their armies in the north. Richard of York marched north to deal with them, but foun... | 6,118,549 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
Yorkist leaders and their family members died in the battle or were captured and executed.
# Background.
King Henry VI ascended the throne in 1422, when he was only nine months old. He grew up to be an ineffective king, and prone to spells of mental illness. There were increasingly bitter division... | 6,118,550 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
which tried to secure peace by making concessions. York had been Lieutenant in France for several years and resented being supplanted in that office by Somerset, who had then failed to defend Normandy against French armies.
York was not only the wealthiest magnate in the land, but was also descende... | 6,118,551 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
always the possibility that this could be circumvented and the Beaufort line eventually produced King Henry VII and the Tudor dynasty.
York was appointed Lieutenant of Ireland, effectively exiling him from court, while Somerset increased his influence over the King. In 1452, York marched on London ... | 6,118,552 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
and restored Somerset to favour. During Henry's madness his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, had given birth to a son, which dashed York's hopes of becoming king if Henry died.
Fearing arrest for treason, York and his most prominent allies, the Nevilles (York's brother in law, the Earl of Salisbury and hi... | 6,118,553 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
King Henry, who had been found abandoned in a shop in the town. He was reappointed Lord Protector and Lieutenant of Ireland. Margaret of Anjou nevertheless suspected York of wishing to supplant her infant son, Edward, as Henry's successor, and the heirs of the Lancastrian nobles who were killed at S... | 6,118,554 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
Marches but at the confrontation with the royal army which became known as the Battle of Ludford, some of Warwick's contingent from the garrison of Calais, led by experienced captain Andrew Trollope, defected overnight. York and the Nevilles promptly abandoned their troops and fled. The next day, th... | 6,118,555 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
Calais failed, but York and his supporters were declared traitors and attainted. The victorious Lancastrians became reviled for the manner in which their army had looted the town of Ludlow after the Yorkist surrender at Ludford Bridge, and the repressive acts of a compliant Parliament of Devils whic... | 6,118,556 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
Lancastrian army defected and the rest were decisively defeated. Henry was captured on the battlefield for the second time. He was taken to London, and confined in the Bishop of London's palace. George Neville, Bishop of Exeter, was appointed Chancellor of England and Viscount Bourchier (York's brot... | 6,118,557 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
would remain king, but York would govern the country as Lord Protector. Henry's son was disinherited, and York or his heirs would become king on Henry's death. The powerless and frightened Henry was forced to assent.
## Lancastrian moves.
When the Battle of Northampton was fought, Queen Margaret a... | 6,118,558 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
gained troops and other aid for the Lancastrian cause from the Queen and Regent, Mary of Guelders, in return for the surrender of the town and castle of Berwick upon Tweed.
At the same time, other Lancastrians were rallying in Northern England. Many of them, including the Earl of Northumberland and... | 6,118,559 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
a near-contemporary account) to number 15,000. A substantial part of these forces encamped at Pontefract began pillaging York's and Salisbury's estates nearby.
## York's response.
Faced with these challenges to his authority as Protector, York despatched his eldest son Edward to the Welsh Marches ... | 6,118,560 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
was said by some to number 8,000 to 9,000 men, but by others to be only a few hundred strong, as York intended to recruit local forces with a Commission of Array. He had probably underestimated both the numbers of the Lancastrian army in the north and the degree of opposition he had provoked by his ... | 6,118,561 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
the North and in addition to controlling large estates, the Earl of Salisbury had held the office of Warden of the Eastern March for several years. However, in the Neville-Neville feud, the cadet branch of the family headed by Salisbury had largely disinherited and eclipsed the senior branch under h... | 6,118,562 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
York's vanguard clashed with Somerset's contingent from the West Country moving north to join the Lancastrian army, and was defeated.
# Battle.
On 21 December, York reached his own fortress of Sandal Castle near Wakefield. He sent probes towards the Lancastrian camp at Pontefract to the east, but ... | 6,118,563 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
possibly devised by the veteran Andrew Trollope (who by Waurin's account had also sent messages to York via feigned deserters that he was prepared to change sides once again) half the Lancastrian army under Somerset and Clifford advanced openly towards Sandal Castle, over the open space known as "Wa... | 6,118,564 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
accounts suggested that, possibly in addition to Trollope's deception, York was fooled by some of John Neville of Raby's forces displaying false colours into thinking that reinforcements sent by Warwick had arrived. By another contemporary account, William Worcester's "Annales Rerum Anglicorum", Joh... | 6,118,565 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
but the Lancastrians had no intention of honouring the truce. On three successive days, they sent heralds to provoke York into premature action with insulting messages and when York moved into the open the Lancastrians treacherously attacked earlier than had been agreed, catching York at a disadvant... | 6,118,566 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
(the last being Clifford's division, encamped south and east of Sandal Magna), York's army was outnumbered, surrounded and overwhelmed.
The Yorkists marched out of Sandal Castle down the present-day Manygates Lane towards the Lancastrians located to the north of the castle. It is generally accepted... | 6,118,567 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
whole army discomfited.
## Casualties.
One near-contemporary source ("Gregory's Chronicle") claimed that 2,500 Yorkists and 200 Lancastrians were killed, but other sources give wildly differing figures, from 2,200 to only 700 Yorkist dead.
The Duke of York was either killed in the battle or captu... | 6,118,568 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
Bridge, but was overtaken and killed, possibly by Clifford in revenge for his father's death at St Albans. Salisbury's second son Sir Thomas Neville also died in the battle. Salisbury's son in law William, Lord Harington and Harington's father, William Bonville, were captured and executed immediatel... | 6,118,569 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
local commoners, to whom he had been a harsh overlord.
# Aftermath.
After the battle the heads of York, Rutland and Salisbury were displayed over Micklegate Bar, the south-western gate through the York city walls, the Duke wearing a paper crown and a sign saying "Let York overlook the town of York... | 6,118,570 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
third time, but were refused entry to London and failed to occupy the city. Warwick and Edward of March reoccupied London, and within a few weeks, Edward of March was proclaimed King Edward IV.
At the first Battle of St Albans, York had been content with the death of his rivals for power. At Wakefi... | 6,118,571 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
was destroyed during the English Civil War. A cross in memory of York's son, Rutland, was erected at the Park Street end of Kirkgate in Wakefield. Archaeologist Rachel Askew suggests that the memorial cross to the Duke of York may be fictional as the late 16th and early 17th century antiquarian John... | 6,118,572 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
In fact, Rutland, at seventeen, was more than old enough to be an active participant in the fighting. Margaret was almost certainly still in Scotland at the time.
The battle is said by some to be the source for the mnemonic for remembering the traditional colours of the rainbow, Richard of York Gav... | 6,118,573 |
50234 | Battle of Wakefield | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wakefield | Battle of Wakefield
ommonly believed to refer to Sandals Meadow, where the battle of Wakefield took place and where Richard met his end. The common view held that Richard was ill-advised to fight here. The expression is usually used to warn against risky action, as in "If you do that you'll end up in Dicky's Meadow." H... | 6,118,574 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
Battle of Towton
The Battle of Towton was fought on 29 March 1461 during the English Wars of the Roses, near the village of Towton in Yorkshire. A culminating battle in the dynastic struggles between the houses of Lancaster and York for control of the English throne, the engagement ended in an overwhe... | 6,118,575 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
historical sources, probably the longest. According to chroniclers, more than 50,000 Yorkist and Lancastrian soldiers fought for hours amidst a snowstorm on that day, which was Palm Sunday. A newsletter circulated a week after the battle reported that 28,000 died on the battlefield.
Contemporary accou... | 6,118,576 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
situation deteriorated into a civil war between the supporters of Margaret and those of Richard, Duke of York. After the Yorkists captured Henry in 1460, the English parliament passed an Act of Accord to let York and his line succeed Henry as king. Margaret refused to accept the dispossession of her so... | 6,118,577 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
enough backing to denounce Henry and declare himself king. The Battle of Towton was to affirm the victor's right to rule over England through force of arms.
On reaching the battlefield, the Yorkists found themselves heavily outnumbered. Part of their force under the Duke of Norfolk had yet to arrive. ... | 6,118,578 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
men reinvigorated the Yorkists and, encouraged by Edward, they routed their foes. Many Lancastrians were killed while fleeing; some trampled each other and others drowned in the rivers, which are said to have made them run red with blood for several days. Several who were taken as prisoners were execut... | 6,118,579 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
Henry's life—"Henry VI, Part 3", Act 2, Scene 5. In 1929, the Towton Cross was erected on the battlefield to commemorate the event. Various archaeological remains and mass graves related to the battle were found in the area centuries after the engagement.
# Setting.
In 1461, England was in the sixth ... | 6,118,580 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
the Beaufort family. Fuelled by rivalries between influential supporters of both factions, York's attempts to displace Henry's favourites from power led to war. After capturing Henry at the Battle of Northampton in 1460, the duke, who was of royal blood, issued his claim to the throne. Even York's clos... | 6,118,581 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
at Northampton; there she began raising an army, promising her followers the freedom to plunder on the march south through England. Her Lancastrian supporters also mustered in the north of England, preparing for her arrival. York marched with his army to meet this threat but he was lured into a trap at... | 6,118,582 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
in their wake. They liberated Henry after defeating the Yorkist army of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, in the Second Battle of St Albans and continued pillaging on their way to London. The city of London refused to open its gates to Henry and Margaret for fear of being looted. The Lancastrian army w... | 6,118,583 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
into London. Having lost custody of Henry, the Yorkists needed a justification to continue the rebellion against the king and his Lancastrian followers. On 4 March, Warwick proclaimed the young Yorkist leader as King Edward IV. The proclamation gained greater acceptance than Richard of York's earlier c... | 6,118,584 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
commoners; his offer did not extend to wealthy Lancastrians (mostly the nobles). The young king summoned and ordered his followers to march towards York to take back his family's city and to formally depose Henry through force of arms. The Yorkist army moved along three routes. Warwick's uncle, Lord Fa... | 6,118,585 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
the River Aire. They were rebuilding the bridge when they were attacked and routed by a band of about 500 Lancastrians, led by Lord Clifford.
Learning of the encounter, Edward led the main Yorkist army to the bridge and was forced into a gruelling battle; although the Yorkists were superior in numbers... | 6,118,586 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
but were chased to Dinting Dale where they were all killed; Clifford was slain by an arrow to his throat. Having cleared the vicinity of enemy forces, the Yorkists repaired the bridge and pressed onwards to camp overnight at Sherburn-in-Elmet. The Lancastrian army marched to Tadcaster, about north of T... | 6,118,587 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
of its proximity and it being the most prominent in the area.
# Force compositions.
Contemporary sources declare that the two armies were huge, stating that more than 100,000 men fought in the battle. An account in William Gregory's "Chronicle of London" (15th century) by a soldier who had served in ... | 6,118,588 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
of life; they were on average 30 years old and several were veterans of previous engagements. Many knights and noblemen, approximately three-quarters of the English peers fought in the battle. Eight of them were sworn to the Yorkist cause whereas the Lancastrians had at least 19.
The battle would deci... | 6,118,589 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
led his men from the front, motivating them to do their best and uplifting their spirits. Edward's preference for bold offensive tactics determined the Yorkist plan of action for this engagement. Historian Nigel H. Jones nonetheless points out the superior number of Lancastrian peers over their Yorkist... | 6,118,590 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
wounded at Ferrybridge, slew his horse and cried, "Let him fly that will, for surely I will tarry with him that will tarry with me", daring any Yorkist to quit the fight ahead. The description is likely apocryphal; military historian Christopher Gravett said that the tale demonstrates Warwick's loyalty... | 6,118,591 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
the administration of the French town of Calais, leading several piracy expeditions of import, and the command of the vanguard at the Battle of Northampton. Of those appointed to raise men for the battle, Norfolk likely never made it to the engagement due to his advanced age, and his knights—Walter Blo... | 6,118,592 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
fairly experienced in matters of war and is credited with clever manoeuvres that led the Lancastrians to victory at Wakefield and St Albans. According to several historians, however, Sir Andrew Trollope, and not Somerset, was the Lancastrians' primary strategist. Trollope formerly served under Warwick ... | 6,118,593 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
Dacre, who also accompanied the army. Another leading northern Lancastrian was Lord Clifford, who had died earlier in the retreat from Ferrybridge.
# Deployment.
Very few historical sources give detailed accounts of the battle and they do not describe the exact deployments of the armies. The paucity ... | 6,118,594 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
discouraged historians at that time from using it. Later reconstructions of the battle were based on Hall's version, supplemented by minor details from other sources.
The battle took place on a plateau between the villages of Saxton (to the south) and Towton (to the north). The region was agricultural... | 6,118,595 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
west and extended into the North Acres in the east. Woodlands were scattered along the beck; Renshaw Woods lined the river on the north-western side of the plateau, and south of Towton Dale, Castle Hill Wood grew on the west side of the plateau at a bend in the beck. The area to the north-east of this ... | 6,118,596 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
deployed on the north side of the dale, using the valley as a "protective ditch"; the disadvantage of this position was that they could not see beyond the southern ridge of the dale. The Lancastrian flanks were protected by marshes; their right was further secured by the steep banks of the Cock Beck. T... | 6,118,597 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
finished deployment. Line after line of soldiers crested the southern ridge of the dale and formed up in ranks opposite their enemies as snow began to fall. Edward's army was outnumbered and Norfolk's troops had yet to arrive to join them.
The Lancastrian army was organised in three divisions. The Duk... | 6,118,598 |
50236 | Battle of Towton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Towton | Battle of Towton
the direction and strength of the wind, Fauconberg ordered all Yorkist archers to step forward and unleash a volley of their arrows from what would be the standard maximum range of their longbows. With the wind behind them, the Yorkist missiles travelled farther than usual, plunging deep into the masse... | 6,118,599 |
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