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Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Chemical_Thermodynamics_(Supplement_to_Shepherd_et_al.)/04%3A_Fundamental_2_-_Counting_Configurations/4.04%3A_Applying_the_Laws_of_Probability | The laws of probability apply to events that are independent. If the result of one trial depends on the result of another trial, we may still be able to use the laws of probability. However, to do so, we must know the nature of the interdependence. If the activity associated with event C precedes the activity associate... |
Courses/University_of_Georgia/CHEM_3212%3A_Physical_Chemistry_II/07%3A_Entropy_Part_II/7.03%3A_The_Third_Law_of_Thermodynamics | One important consequence of Botlzmann’s proposal is that a perfectly ordered crystal (i.e. one that has only one energetic arrangement in its lowest energy state) will have an entropy of 0. This makes entropy qualitatively different than other thermodynamic functions. For example, in the case of enthalpy, it is imposs... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_2e_(OpenStax)/05%3A_Thermochemistry/5.07%3A_Exercises | 1. A burning match and a bonfire may have the same temperature, yet you would not sit around a burning match on a fall evening to stay warm. Why not? 2. Prepare a table identifying several energy transitions that take place during the typical operation of an automobile. 3. Explain the difference between heat capacity a... |
Courses/Chandler_Gilbert_Community_College/Fundamental_Organic_ala_Mech/05%3A_Unit_2/5.04%3A_Apply_to_Acids_and_Bases/5.4.05%3A_Acids_and_Bases_-_The_Lewis_Definition | The Lewis definition of acids and bases is more encompassing than the Brønsted–Lowry definition because it’s not limited to substances that donate or accept just protons. A Lewis acid is a substance that accepts an electron pair, and a Lewis base is a substance that donates an electron pair. The donated electron pair i... |
Courses/Portland_Community_College/CH106%3A_Allied_Health_Chemistry_III/04%3A_Aldehydes_and_Ketones/4.02%3A_Aldehydes_and_Ketones-_Structure_and_Names | Learning Objectives Identify the general structure for an aldehyde and a ketone. Use common names to name aldehydes and ketones. Use the IUPAC system to name aldehydes and ketones. The next functional group we consider, the carbonyl group, has a carbon-to-oxygen double bond. Carbonyl groups define two related families ... |
Courses/Taft_College/CHEM_1510%3A_Introductory_College_Chemistry/16%3A_Acids_and_Bases/16.08%3A_The_pH_and_pOH_Scales_-_Ways_to_Express_Acidity_and_Basicity | Learning Objectives Define pH and pOH. Determine the pH of acidic and basic solutions. Determine the hydronium ion concentration and pOH from pH. As we have seen, \([H_3O^+]\) and \([OH^−]\) values can be markedly different from one aqueous solution to another. So chemists defined a new scale that succinctly indicates ... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_2e_(OpenStax)/18%3A_Representative_Metals_Metalloids_and_Nonmetals/18.06%3A_Occurrence_Preparation_and_Properties_of_Carbonates | Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: Describe the preparation, properties, and uses of some representative metal carbonates The chemistry of carbon is extensive; however, most of this chemistry is not relevant to this chapter. The other aspects of the chemistry of carbon will appear in t... |
Courses/Ursinus_College/CHEM322%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry/02%3A_Molecular_Structure/2.02%3A_Lewis_Structures_and_Molecular_Shape/2.2.03%3A_Resonance | Resonance structures are a set of two or more Lewis Structures that collectively describe the electronic bonding a single polyatomic species including fractional bonds and fractional charges. Resonance structures are capable of describing delocalized electrons that cannot be expressed by a single Lewis formula with an ... |
Courses/University_of_Illinois_Springfield/CHE_124%3A_General_Chemistry_for_the_Health_Professions_(Morsch_and_Andrews)/07%3A_Energy_and_Chemical_Processes/7.1%3A_Energy_and_Its_Units | Skills to Develop To define energy and he a t. Energy is the ability to do work. You can understand what this means by thinking about yourself when you feel “energetic.” You feel ready to go—to jump up and get something done. When you have a lot of energy, you can perform a lot of work. By contrast, if you do not feel ... |
Courses/San_Diego_Miramar_College/Chem_103%3A_Fundamentals_of_GOB_Chemistry_(Garces)/08%3A_Gases/8.02%3A_Kinetic_Molecular_Theory-_A_Model_for_Gases | Learning Objectives State the major concepts behind the kinetic theory of gases. Relate the general properties of gases to the kinetic theory. Gases were among the first substances studied in terms of the modern scientific method, which was developed in the 1600s. It did not take long to recognize that gases all shared... |
Ancillary_Materials/Worksheets/Worksheets%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry/Structure_and_Reactivity_in_Organic_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry/05%3A_Stereochemistry/5.11%3A_Carbohydrates_in_Cyclic_Form | Carbohydrates are complicated molecules. In solution, they slowly change into different isomers. In water, most carbohydrates can change from one form to another quickly; they are described as being in equilibrium with different structures. That means they can change back and forth. The most prevalent form for most car... |
Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Instrumental_Analysis_(LibreTexts)/25%3A_Voltammetry/25.06%3A_Stripping_Methods | Another important voltammetric technique is stripping voltammetry, which consists of three related techniques: anodic stripping voltammetry, cathodic stripping voltammetry, and adsorptive stripping voltammetry. Because anodic stripping voltammetry is the more widely used of these techniques, we will consider it in grea... |
Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Western_Civilization_(Lumen)/Ch._12_The_Rise_of_Nation-States/13.16%3A_The_Sun-King_and_Authoritarianism | Learning Objective Describe Louis XIV’s views on royal power and how he expanded his own authority Key Points At the time of King Louis XIII’s death in 1643, Louis XIV was only five years old. His mother, Anne of Austria, was named regent, but she entrusted the government to the chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin. Mazari... |
Courses/Indiana_Tech/EWC%3A_CHEM_1020_-_General_Chemistry_I_(Budhi)/01%3A_Matter_Measurement_and_Problem_Solving/1.9%3A_Matter_Measurement_and_Problem_Solving_(Exercises) | Template:HideTOC These are homework exercises to accompany the Textmap created for Chemistry: A Molecular Approach by Nivaldo Tro. Complementary General Chemistry question banks can be found for other Textmaps and can be accessed here . In addition to these publicly available questions, access to private problems bank ... |
Courses/Furman_University/CHM101%3A_Chemistry_and_Global_Awareness_(Gordon)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Chemistry | What is chemistry? Simply put, chemistry is the study of the interactions of matter with other matter and with energy. This seems straightforward enough. However, the definition of chemistry includes a wide range of topics that must be understood to gain a mastery of the topic or even take additional courses in chemist... |
Bookshelves/Environmental_Chemistry/Green_Chemistry_and_the_Ten_Commandments_of_Sustainability_(Manahan)/07%3A_Chemistry_of_Life_and_Green_Chemistry/7.01%3A_New_Page | Biochemistry is the science of chemical processes that occur in living organisms. 1 By its nature biochemistry is a green chemical and biological science. This is because over eons of evolution organisms have evolved that carry out biochemical processes sustainably. Because the enzymes that carry out biochemical proces... |
Courses/Riverland_Community_College/CHEM_1000_-_Introduction_to_Chemistry_(Riverland)/16%3A_Solutions | Template:HideTOC Solutions play a very important role in many biological, laboratory, and industrial applications of chemistry. Of particular importance are solutions involving substances dissolved in water, or aqueous solutions. Solutions represent equilibrium systems, and the lessons learned in the last chapter will ... |
Courses/Sacramento_City_College/SCC%3A_Chem_309_-_General_Organic_and_Biochemistry_(Bennett)/Text/10%3A_Organic_Functional_Groups_-_Introduction_to_Acid-Base_Chemistry/10.04%3A_Physical_Properties_of_Esters | Learning Objectives Compare the boiling points of esters with alcohols of similar molar mass. Compare the solubilities of esters in water with the solubilities of comparable alkanes and alcohols in water. Ester molecules are polar but have no hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen atom. They are therefore incapab... |
Courses/Brevard_College/CHE_104%3A_Principles_of_Chemistry_II/04%3A_Thermochemistry_and_Thermodynamics/4.18%3A_Spontaneous_and_Nonspontaneous_Reactions | Nitroglycerin is a tricky substance. An active ingredient in dynamite (where it is stabilized), "raw" nitroglycerin is very unstable. Physical shock will cause the material to explode. The reaction is shown below. \[4 \ce{C_3H_5(ONO_2)_3} \rightarrow 12 \ce{CO_2} + 10 \ce{H_2O} + 6 \ce{N_2} + \ce{O_2}\nonumber \] The e... |
Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)_Complete_and_Semesters_I_and_II/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)/18%3A_Reactions_of_Aromatic_Compounds/18.11%3A__NAS_Reactions_-_the_Elimination-Addition_(Benzyne)_Mechanism | Elimination-Addition Mechanism of Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution via Benzyne (Arynes) The reactivities of aryl halides, such as the halobenzenes, are exceedingly low toward nucleophilic reagents that normally effect displacements with alkyl halides and activated aryl halides. Substitutions do occur under forcing co... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_-_Atoms_First_1e_(OpenSTAX)/02%3A_Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions/2.2%3A_Evolution_of_Atomic_Theory | Learning Objectives Outline milestones in the development of modern atomic theory Summarize and interpret the results of the experiments of Thomson, Millikan, and Rutherford Describe the three subatomic particles that compose atoms Introduce the term isotopes In the two centuries since Dalton developed his ideas, scien... |
Courses/Duke_University/CHEM_310L%3A_Physical_Chemistry_I_Laboratory/CHEM310L_-_Physical_Chemistry_I_Lab_Manual/01%3A_Orientation_to_this_course | 1.1: Pre-lab orientation assignment 1.2: Introductory Details Experiments have been set up for students working in small groups. Be sure to have a work plan that makes efficient use of your time. Lengthy sample preparation procedures should be started early in the six hours assigned to a given experiment. 1.3: Rubrics ... |
Courses/SUNY_Oneonta/Chem_322_Lecture_Content/06%3A_Nucleophilic_Acyl_Substitution_Reactions/6.10%3A_Nucleophilic_Acyl_Substitution_Reactions_in_the_Laboratory | All of the biological nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions we have seen so far have counterparts in laboratory organic synthesis. Mechanistically, one of the biggest differences between the biological and the lab versions is that the lab reactions usually are run with a strong acid or base as a catalyst, whereas bi... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/08%3A_Properties_of_Organic_Compounds/8.23%3A_Synthetic_Macromolecules-_Some_Applied_Organic_Chemistry | Other important classes of substances containing very large molecules are the plastics and artificial fibers, which are such a conspicuous, though not always a positive, feature of modern life. Most of these materials are made in the same basic way. The starting materials or monomers are relatively simple molecules—usu... |
Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_Lab_Techniques_(Nichols)/01%3A_General_Techniques/1.05%3A_Filtering_Methods | There are many methods used to separate a mixture containing a solid and liquid. If the solid settles well, the liquid can sometimes be poured off (decanted). If the solid has very small sized particles or forms a cloudy mixture, the mixture can sometimes be centrifuged or passed through a filter pipette (on the micros... |
Courses/SUNY_Potsdam/Book%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Walker)/05%3A_Physical_Organic_Chemistry/5.06%3A_Reactive_intermediates | In chemistry, a reactive intermediate or an intermediate is a short-lived, high-energy, highly reactive molecule. When generated in a chemical reaction, it will quickly convert into a more stable molecule. Only in exceptional cases can these compounds be isolated and stored, e.g. low temperatures, matrix isolation. Whe... |
Courses/Palomar_College/PC%3A_CHEM100_-_Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/15%3A_Chemical_Bonding/15.4%3A_Lewis_Structures%3A_Counting_Valence_Electrons | Learning Objectives Draw Lewis structures for covalent compounds. The following procedure can be used to construct Lewis electron structures for more complex molecules and ions: How-to: Constructing Lewis electron structures 1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or ion. Add together the val... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Quantum_Chemistry_(Blinder)/01%3A_Chapters/1.03%3A_Quantum_Mechanics_of_Some_Simple_Systems | The simple quantum-mechanical problem we have just solved can provide an instructive application to chemistry: the free-electron model (FEM) for delocalized \(\pi\)-electrons. The simplest case is the 1,3-butadiene molecule \[\rho =2\psi _{1}^2+2\psi _{2}^2\label{28}\] A chemical interpretation of this picture might be... |
Courses/Saint_Francis_University/Chem_114%3A_Human_Chemistry_II_(Hargittai)/18%3A_Amino_Acids_and_Proteins/18.05%3A_Handedness | Learning Objectives Explain how a peptide is formed from individual amino acids. Explain why the sequence of amino acids in a protein is important. Two or more amino acids can join together into chains called peptides. In an earlier chapter, we discussed the reaction between ammonia and a carboxylic acid to form an ami... |
Courses/Widener_University/Widener_University%3A_Chem_135/10%3A_Liquids_and_Solids | The great distances between atoms and molecules in a gaseous phase, and the corresponding absence of any significant interactions between them, allows for simple descriptions of many physical properties that are the same for all gases, regardless of their chemical identities. As described in the final module of the cha... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/05%3A_The_Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms/5.01%3A_Prelude_to_Electronic_Structure | Once scientists had accepted the idea that electrons were constituents of all matter, theories attempting to explain just how electrons were incorporated in the structure of the atom began to develop. This was especially true after Rutherford had discovered that most of the volume of an atom was occupied by electrons. ... |
Courses/Smith_College/CHM_223_Chemistry_III%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(2024)/06%3A_Carbonyl_Alpha-Substitution_Reactions/6.01%3A_Chapter_Objectives_and_Introduction_to_Carbonyl_Alpha-Substitution_Reactions | Objectives After completing this section, you should be able to write a general mechanism for an alpha substitution reaction of a carbonyl compound. Key Terms Make certain that you can define, and use in context, the key terms below. alpha ( α ) position alpha substitution reaction Study Notes An “alpha substitution re... |
Courses/University_of_Alberta_Augustana_Campus/AUCHE_110_-_General_Chemistry_I_(Elizabeth_McGinitie)/01%3A__Review/1.15%3A_Stoichiometric_Calculations-_Amounts_of_Reactants_and_Products | Stoichiometry is a section of chemistry that involves using relationships between reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data. In Greek, stoikhein means element and metron means measure, so stoichiometry literally translated means the measure of elements. In order to use stoi... |
Courses/SUNY_Oneonta/Organic_Chemistry_with_a_Biological_Emphasis_(SUNY_Oneonta)/12%3A_Reactions_at_the_-Carbon_Part_I/12.03%3A_Isomerization_at_the_-Carbon | Enolate ions, as well as enols and enamines (section 7.6) are the key reactive intermediates in many biochemical isomerization reactions. Isomerizations can involve either the interconversion of constitutional isomers, in which bond connectivity is altered, or of stereoisomers, where the stereochemical configuration is... |
Courses/Modesto_Junior_College/Chemistry_143_-_Bunag/Chemistry_143_-_Introductory_Chemistry_(Bunag)/04%3A_Atomic_Structure/4.17%3A_Isotopes | Are all the members of the football team shown above identical? They are on the same team and are all known by the same team name, but there are individual differences among the players. We do not expect the kicker to be as big as the quarterback. The tight end is very likely to weigh less than the defensive tackle on ... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Chemical_Bonds/Valence_Bond_Theory_and_Hybrid_Atomic_Orbitals | However, the application of VSEPR theory can be expanded to complicated molecules such as 0 H H H O | | | // H-C-C=C=C-C=C-C-C | | \ H N O-H / \ H H By applying the VSEPR theory, one deduces the following results: \(\ce{H-C-C}\) bond angle = 109 o \(\ce{H-C=C}\) bond angle = 120 o , geometry around \(\ce{C}\) trigonal ... |
Courses/El_Paso_Community_College/CHEM1306%3A_Health_Chemistry_I_(Rodriguez)/07%3A_Energy_and_Chemical_Reactions/7.01%3A_Energy | Learning Objectives Define heat and work. Distinguish between kinetic energy and potential energy. State the law of conservation of matter and energy. Just like matter, energy is a term that we are all familiar with and use on a daily basis. Before you go on a long hike, you eat an energy bar; every month, the energy b... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Quantum_Mechanics__in_Chemistry_(Simons_and_Nichols)/04%3A_Atomic_Orbitals | Valence atomic orbitals on neighboring atoms combine to form bonding, non-bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals. In Section 1 the Schrödinger equation for the motion of a single electron moving about a nucleus of charge Z was explicitly solved. The energies of these orbitals relative to an electron infinitely far ... |
Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Analytical_Sciences_Digital_Library/In_Class_Activities/Molecular_and_Atomic_Spectroscopy/04_Learning_Objectives/02_Ultraviolet_Visible_Spectroscopy | After completing this unit the student will be able to: Compare and contrast atomic and molecular spectra. Explain why atomic spectra consist of lines whereas molecular spectra at room temperature are broad and continuous. Justify the difference in molecular spectra at room temperature and 10K. Describe the cause of Do... |
Courses/De_Anza_College/CHEM_10%3A_Introduction_to_Chemistry_(Parajon_Puenzo)/08%3A_Acids_and_Bases/8.02%3A_Acids_and_Bases | Learning Objectives Identify an Arrhenius acid and an Arrhenius base. Identify a Brønsted-Lowry acid and a Brønsted-Lowry base. Write chemical reactions between an Arrhenius acid and an Arrhenius base and between Brønsted-Lowry acid and a Brønsted-Lowry base. There are three major classifications of substances known as... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_5%3A_Rates_of_Chemical_and_Physical_Processes/19%3A_Nuclear_Chemistry/19.1%3A_Mass-Energy_Relationships_in_Nuclei | Learning Objectives To understand the factors that affect nuclear stability. Although most of the known elements have at least one isotope whose atomic nucleus is stable indefinitely, all elements have isotopes that are unstable and disintegrate, or decay, at measurable rates by emitting radiation. Some elements have n... |
Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Inorganic_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/06%3A_Acid-Base_and_Donor-Acceptor_Chemistry/6.03%3A_Brnsted-Lowry_Concept/6.3.01%3A_Brnsted-Lowry_Concept | The Brønsted-Lowry acid-base concept The Brønsted-Lowry acid-base concept overcomes the Arrhenius system's inability to describe reactions that take place outside of aqueous solution by moving the focus away from the solution and onto the acid and base themselves. It does this by redefining acid-base reactivity as invo... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Topics_in_Thermodynamics_of_Solutions_and_Liquid_Mixtures/01%3A_Modules/1.05%3A_Chemical_Potentials/1.5.15%3A_Chemical_Potentials-_Solute-_Concentration_and_Molality_Scales | For a given solution we can express the chemical potential of solute \(j\), \(\mu_{\mathrm{j}}(\mathrm{aq})\) in an aqueous solution at temperature \(\mathrm{T}\) and pressure \(\mathrm{p}\left(\approx \mathrm{p}^{0}\right)\) using two equations. Therefore, at fixed \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\), \[\begin{aligned} ... |
Courses/University_of_North_Texas/UNT%3A_CHEM_1410_-_General_Chemistry_for_Science_Majors_I/Text/03%3A_Using_Chemical_Equations_in_Calculations/3.07%3A_Energy | Energy is usually defined as the capability for doing work. For example, a billiard ball can collide with a second ball, changing the direction or speed of motion of the latter. In such a process the motion of the first ball would also be altered. We would say that one billiard ball did work on (transferred energy to) ... |
Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_US_History_I_(OS_Collection)_(Lumen)/16%3A_Troubled_Times%3A_The_Tumultuous_1850s/16.7%3A_Assignment%3A_Pre-Civil_War_Perspectives | History contains many people with different circumstances and perspectives. To understand actions in the past, a historian mustunderstand their perspective and concerns and how they interacted. Imagine you are one of the following people from the decades before the US Civil War: An abolitionist (white or black, male or... |
Courses/Brevard_College/CHE_201%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I/03%3A_Unsaturated_Hydrocarbons/3.09%3A_Alkynes | Learning Objectives Describe the general physical and chemical properties of alkynes. Name alkynes given formulas and write formulas for alkynes given names. The simplest alkyne—a hydrocarbon with carbon-to-carbon triple bond—has the molecular formula C 2 H 2 and is known by its common name—acetylene (Figure \(\PageInd... |
Courses/Honolulu_Community_College/CHEM_100%3A_Chemistry_and_Society/14%3A_Earth/14.01%3A_Spaceship_Earth-_Structure_and_Composition | Learning Objective Describe the chemical composition and structure of Earth. The layers found inside Earth are divided by composition into core, mantle, and crust or by mechanical properties into lithosphere and asthenosphere. Scientists use information from earthquakes and computer modeling to learn about Earth’s inte... |
Courses/SUNY_Oneonta/Chem_221%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Bennett)/3%3AStuff_to_Review_from_General_Chemistry/05%3A_Electronic_Structure_and_Periodic_Properties/5.03%3A_Periodic_Variations_in_Element_Properties | Learning Objectives Describe and explain the observed trends in atomic size, ionization energy, and electron affinity of the elements The elements in groups (vertical columns) of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number and distribu... |
Courses/Chabot_College/Chem_12A%3A_Organic_Chemistry_Fall_2022/05%3A__Alkanes_and_Conformations/5.02%3A_Generic_(Abbreviated)_Structures_(aka_R_Groups) | learning objective use R groups to draw generic functional groups - refer to section 3.1 Drawing Generic (abbreviated) Organic Structures In chapter 2, we learned to recognize and distinguish between organic functional groups. Often when drawing organic structures, chemists find it convenient to use the letter 'R' to d... |
Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introductory_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/15%3A_Chemical_Equilibrium/15.08%3A_The_Effect_of_a_Concentration_Change_on_Equilibrium | Consider the following system under equilibrium: \[ \underbrace{\ce{Fe^{3+}(aq)}}_{\text{colorless}} + \underbrace{ \ce{SCN^{-}(aq)}}_{\text{colorless}} \rightleftharpoons \underbrace{\ce{FeSCN^{2+}(aq)}}_{\text{red}} \nonumber \] If more \(Fe^{3+}\) is added to the reaction, what will happen? According to Le Chatelier... |
Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_(Morsch_et_al.)/13%3A_Structure_Determination_-_Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopy/13.11%3A_DEPT_C_NMR_Spectroscopy | Objectives After completing this section, you should be able to Understand why the peaks do not have splitting like in 1 H NMR. Using DEPT, distinguish whether a methyl (CH 3 ), methylene (CH 2 ), methine (CH) or quarternary C is present in the molecule and how many. Propose a structure based on 13 C spectral data. DEP... |
Courses/Fullerton_College/Introductory_Biochemistry/01%3A_Organic_Chemistry_-_Alkanes_and_Halogenated_Hydrocarbons/1.07%3A_Halogenated_Hydrocarbons | Learning Objectives To name halogenated hydrocarbons given formulas and write formulas for these compounds given names. Many organic compounds are closely related to the alkanes. As we noted previously, alkanes react with halogens to produce halogenated hydrocarbons, the simplest of which have a single halogen atom sub... |
Courses/Howard_University/General_Chemistry%3A_An_Atoms_First_Approach/Unit_4%3A__Thermochemistry/09%3A_Thermochemistry/Chapter_9.04%3A__Heats_of_Formation | 0 1 NaN Howard University General Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach Unit 1: Atomic Theory Unit 2: Molecular Structure Unit 3: Stoichiometry Unit 4: Thermochem & Gases Unit 5: States of Matter Unit 6: Kinetics & Equilibria Unit 7: Electro & Thermo Chemistry Unit 8: Materials Unit 1: Atomic Theory Unit 2: Molecular Stru... |
Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Map%3A__Introductory_Chemistry_(Corwin)/09%3A_The_Mole_Concept/9.02%3A_Mole_Calculations_I-_atom_conversions | Welcome to the Chemistry Library. This Living Library is a principal hub of the LibreTexts project , which is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. The LibreTexts approach is highly collaborati... |
Courses/American_River_College/CHEM_309%3A_Applied_Chemistry_for_the_Health_Sciences/11%3A_Lipids_-_An_Introduction/11.10%3A_Fatty_Acid_Catabolism | Learning Objectives To describe the reactions needed to completely oxidize a fatty acid to carbon dioxide and water. Like glucose, the fatty acids released in the digestion of triglycerides and other lipids are broken down in a series of sequential reactions accompanied by the gradual release of usable energy. Some of ... |
Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_US_History_I_(OS_Collection)_(Lumen)/04%3A_Early_Globalization%3A_The_Atlantic_World%2C_1492-1650/04.8%3A_Primary_Source_Reading%3A_Vasco_De_Gama | Introduction to the Source Vasco da Gama was born about 1460 at Sines, Portugal. Both Prince John and Prince Manuel continued the efforts of Prince Henry to find a sea route to India, and in 1497 Manuel placed Vasco da Gama, who already had some reputation as a warrior and navigator, in charge of four vessels built esp... |
Courses/National_Yang_Ming_Chiao_Tung_University/Chemical_Principles_for_Medical_Students/01%3A_Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms/1.01%3A_The_Wave_Nature_of_Light | Learning Objectives To learn about the characteristics of electromagnetic waves. Light, X-Rays, infrared and microwaves are among the types of electromagnetic waves. Scientists discovered much of what we know about the structure of the atom by observing the interaction of atoms with various forms of radiant, or transmi... |
Courses/University_of_Connecticut/Organic_Chemistry_-_Textbook_for_Chem_2443/06%3A_Stereochemistry/6.01%3A_All_Stereochemistry_Topics/6.1.07%3A_Stereochemistry_in_Chemical__Reactions | Objectives After completing this section, you should be able to identify a compound as being prochiral. identify the Re and Si faces of prochiral sp 2 centre. identify atoms (or groups of atoms) as pro - R or pro - S on a prochiral sp 3 centre. Key Terms Make certain that you can define, and use in context, the key ter... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Quantum_Tutorials_(Rioux)/03%3A_Chemical_Bonding/3.03%3A_The_Covalent_Bond_Clarified_Through_the_Use_of_the_Virial_Theorem | Abstract Slater's method of analyzing the covalent bond using the virial theorem is presented for the hydrogen molecule. The overall conclusion reached is the same as that reached with Ruedenberg's well-known ab initio quantum mechanical study - electron kinetic energy plays an important role in chemical bond formation... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/08%3A_Advanced_Theories_of_Covalent_Bonding/8.05%3A_Molecular_Orbital_Theory | Learning Objectives Outline the basic quantum-mechanical approach to deriving molecular orbitals from atomic orbitals Describe traits of bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals Calculate bond orders based on molecular electron configurations Write molecular electron configurations for first- and second-row diatomic ... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_Structure_and_Reactivity_in_Organic_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Schaller)/Structure_and_Reactivity_in_Organic_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_II%3A_Practical_Aspects_of_Structure_-_Purification_and_Spectroscopy/07%3A_Purification_of_Molecular_Compounds/7.15%3A_Instrument... | Liquid chromatography is often done with more sophisticated equipment. One kind of method is called "high performance liquid chromatography" or HPLC. Rather than packing stationary phase into a glass column, a steel column containing the stationary phase can be purchased. The column can be plumbed into a system that co... |
Courses/SUNY_Potsdam/Book%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Walker)/06%3A_Acids_Bases_and_Electron_Flow/6.03%3A_Bronsted-Lowry_acids_and_bases | A: The Brønsted-Lowry definition of acidity and basicity We’ll begin our discussion of acid-base chemistry with a couple of essential definitions. The first of these was proposed in 1923 by the Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted and the English chemist Thomas Lowry, and has come to be known as the Brønsted-Lowry definiti... |
Courses/Modesto_Junior_College/Chemistry_142%3A_Pre-General_Chemistry_(Brzezinski)/zz%3A_Back_Matter/20%3A_Glossary | Words (or words that have the same definition) The definition is case sensitive (Optional) Image to display with the definition [Not displayed in Glossary, only in pop-up on pages] (Optional) Caption for Image (Optional) External or Internal Link (Optional) Source for Definition (Eg. "Genetic, Hereditary, DNA ...") (Eg... |
Courses/SUNY_Oneonta/Chem_221%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Bennett)/2%3ALab_Textbook_(Nichols)/07%3A_Technique_Summaries/7.02%3A_Using_Calibrated_Glass_Pipettes | 0 1 2 3 NaN NaN NaN NaN Place pipette tip in reagent bottle, squeeze pipette bulb, and connect to the pipette. Partially release your hand to create suction. Do not let to completely or liquid will withdraw forcibly and possibly into the bulb. Apply suction until liquid is withdrawn to just past the desired mark. Remov... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Liquids/Cohesive_and_Adhesive_Forces | Cohesive and adhesive forces are associated with bulk (or macroscopic) properties, and hence the terms are not applicable to the discussion of atomic and molecular properties . When a liquid comes into contact with a surface (such as the walls of a graduated cylinder or a tabletop), both cohesive and adhesive forces wi... |
Courses/Athabasca_University/Chemistry_350%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I/10%3A_Organohalides/10.07%3A_Organometallic_Coupling_Reactions | Objectives After completing this section, you should be able to write an equation for the formation of an alkyllithium from an alkyl halide. write an equation for the formation of a lithium dialkylcopper (Gilman) reagent from an alkyllithium and copper(I) iodide. write an equation for the coupling of a lithium dialkylc... |
Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Coordination_Chemistry/Complex_Ion_Equilibria | Complex ions typically exist in complex equilibrium involving its central metal ion and the ligands. Chelation A metal ion in solution does not exist in isolation, but in combination with ligands (such as solvent molecules or simple ions) or chelating groups, giving rise to complex ions or coordination compounds. These... |
Courses/Purdue/Chem_26505%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Lipton)/00%3A_Front_Matter/02%3A_InfoPage | This text is disseminated via the Open Education Resource (OER) LibreTexts Project ( https://LibreTexts.org ) and like the hundreds of other texts available within this powerful platform, it is freely available for reading, printing and "consuming." Most, but not all, pages in the library have licenses that may allow i... |
Courses/Grinnell_College/CHM_364%3A_Physical_Chemistry_2_(Grinnell_College)/01%3A_The_Dawn_of_the_Quantum_Theory/1.08%3A_The_Bohr_Theory_of_the_Hydrogen_Atom | Introduce the fundamentals behind the Bohr Atom and demonstrate it can predict the Rydberg's equation for the atomic spectrum of hydrogen Rutherford's Failed Planetary Atom Ernest Rutherford had proposed a model of atoms based on the \(\alpha\)-particle scattering experiments of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. In these... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_A_Molecular_Approach_(Tro)/15%3A_Chemical_Equilibrium/15.08%3A_Le_Chateliers_Principle-_How_a_System_at_Equilibrium_Responds_to_Disturbances | Learning Objectives Describe the ways in which an equilibrium system can be stressed Predict the response of a stressed equilibrium using Le Chatelier’s principle As we saw in the previous section, reactions proceed in both directions (reactants go to products and products go to reactants). We can tell a reaction is at... |
Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Chemical_Reactions/Stoichiometry/Theoretical_and_Actual_Yields | Key Terms (Excess reagent, limiting reagent) Theoretical and actual yields Percentage or actual yield Learning Objectives Use stoichiometric calculation to determine excess and limiting reagents in a chemical reaction and explain why. Calculate theoretical yields of products formed in reactions that involve limiting re... |
Courses/Rutgers_University/General_Chemistry/Chapter_7._Chemical_Reactions_and_Chemical_Quantities/7.2%3A_Classifying_Chemical_Reactions | Learning Objectives Define three common types of chemical reactions (precipitation, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction) Classify chemical reactions as one of these three types given appropriate descriptions or chemical equations Identify common acids and bases Predict the solubility of common inorganic compounds by usi... |
Bookshelves/Environmental_Chemistry/Green_Chemistry_and_the_Ten_Commandments_of_Sustainability_(Manahan)/03%3A_The_Elements_-_Basic_Building_Blocks_of_Green_Chemicals/3.01%3A_Elements_Atoms_and_Atomic_Theory | Chemistry is the science of matter. The fundamental building blocks of matter are the atoms of the various elements, which are composed of subatomic particles , the positively charged proton (+), the negatively charged electron (-), and the electrically neutral neutron (n). It is the properties of these atoms that dete... |
Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Analytical_Chemiluminescence | The aim of the book is to give a comprehensive account of the chemiluminescence subject suitable for students, research workers, professional analytical chemists and life scientists. The chemistry of each reagent that has been used in chemiluminescence is explained and the techniques for increasing the magnitude of the... |
Courses/Rio_Hondo/Chemistry_110%3A_An_Introduction_to_General_Organic_and_Biological_Chemistry_(Garg)/06%3A_Chemical_Quantities_and_Reactions/6.11%3A_Combustion_Reactions | How do you cook the perfect marshmallow? Roasting marshmallows over an open fire is a favorite past-time for campers, outdoor cook-outs, and just gathering around a fire in the back yard. The trick is to get the marshmallow a nice golden brown without catching it on fire. Too often we are not successful and we see the ... |
Courses/Colorado_State_University_Pueblo/Elementary_Concepts_in_Physics_and_Chemistry/06%3A_Chapter_6_-_Survey_of_Chemical_Reactions/6.01%3A_Prelude_to_Chemical_Reactions | The space shuttle—and any other rocket-based system—uses chemical reactions to propel itself into space and maneuver itself when it gets into orbit. The rockets that lift the orbiter are of two different types. The three main engines are powered by reacting liquid hydrogen with liquid oxygen to generate water. Then the... |
Courses/Southeast_Missouri_State_University/CH185%3A_General_Chemistry_(Ragain)/13%3A_Solutions/13.04%3A_Solution_Equilibrium_and_Factors_Affecting_Solubility | ↵ Learning Objectives To understand the relationship among temperature, pressure, and solubility. The understand that the solubility of a solid may increase or decrease with increasing temperature, To understand that the solubility of a gas decreases with an increase in temperature and a decrease in pressure. Experimen... |
Courses/Modesto_Junior_College/Chemistry_142%3A_Pre-General_Chemistry_(Brzezinski)/CHEM_142%3A_Text_(Brzezinski)/02%3A_Numbers_and_Measurement/2.02%3A_Significant_Figures_in_Calculations | Note from Dr. B. It is not obvious in the last example and exercise that the number 2 and the number 5 are meant to be exact numbers. In problems that I write, I would specify that a number is counted or exact. If it is not specified, you should assume that the number 2 has only one significant figure. Learning Objecti... |
Courses/can/CHEM_232_-_Organic_Chemistry_II_(Puenzo)/14%3A_Biomolecules_-_Nucleic_Acids/14.01%3A_Chapter_Objectives | Learning Objectives Understand the components and chemical structure of nucleotides, and their role in forming DNA and RNA molecules. Analyze the principles of base pairing and hydrogen bonding in nucleic acids, and how they contribute to the stability and specificity of DNA and RNA structures. Examine the chemical mec... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Topics_in_Thermodynamics_of_Solutions_and_Liquid_Mixtures/01%3A_Modules/1.05%3A_Chemical_Potentials/1.5.03%3A_Chemical_Potentials-_Solutions-_General_Properties | A key quantity in chemical thermodynamics is the chemical potential of chemical substance \(j\), \(\mu_{j}\). The latter is the differential dependence of Gibbs energy on amount of substance \(j\) at fixed \(\mathrm{T}\), \(\mathrm{p}\) and amounts of all other substances in the system [1]. \[\mu_{\mathrm{j}}=\left(\fr... |
Courses/Mount_Aloysius_College/CHEM_100%3A_General_Chemistry_(O'Connor)/03%3A_Ionic_Bonding_and_Simple_Ionic_Compounds | There are only 118 known chemical elements but tens of millions of known chemical compounds. Compounds can be very complex combinations of atoms, but many important compounds are fairly simple. Table salt, as we have seen, consists of only two elements: sodium and chlorine. Nevertheless, the compound has properties com... |
Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_English_Composition_I-3_(Lumen)/22%3A_Research_Process%3A_Writing_Ethically/21.3%3A_CRAAP_Analysis | Let’s take a closer look at how analyzing the C.R.A.A.P. in a source can serve as a valuable source evaluation tool. Currency: The timeliness of the information Key Question : When was the item of information published or produced? Determining when an item of information was published or produced is an aspect of evalua... |
Courses/Modesto_Junior_College/Chemistry_143_-_Bunag/Old_Textbook_for_Chemistry_143_-_2019_to_2021/12%3A_Acid-Base_Equilibria/12.05%3A_Buffers | Learning Objectives Describe the composition and function of acid–base buffers Calculate the pH of a buffer before and after the addition of added acid or base A mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base (or a mixture of a weak base and its conjugate acid) is called a buffer solution, or a buffer . Buffer solutions... |
Courses/Diablo_Valley_College/DVC_Chem_106%3A_Rusay/Vocabulary_II | The assignment is to define and build a comprehensive list of the Key Vocabulary Terms, which are pertinent to and used in Chem 106. Phase I and Phase II have been completed, and open to the public. This is an ongoing, expanding list and will be added to throughout the course. Acid: A chemical species that donates prot... |
Courses/DePaul_University/Physical_Chemistry_for_Biological_Sciences/01%3A_The_Dawn_of_the_Quantum_Theory/1.02%3A_Quantum_Hypothesis_Used_for_Blackbody_Radiation_Law | To understand how energy is quantized in blackbody radiation By the late 19th century, many physicists thought their discipline was well on the way to explaining most natural phenomena. They could calculate the motions of material objects using Newton’s laws of classical mechanics, and they could describe the propertie... |
Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_(Morsch_et_al.)/18%3A_Ethers_and_Epoxides_Thiols_and_Sulfides/18.01%3A_Names_and_Properties_of_Ethers | After completing this section, you should be able to write two acceptable names for a simple dialkyl ether, given its Kekulé, shorthand or condensed structure. name a complicated ether by the IUPAC system, given its Kekulé, shorthand or condensed structure. draw the Kekulé, condensed or shorthand structure of an ether,... |
Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Organometallic_Chemistry_(Evans)/03%3A_Structural_Fundamentals/3.02%3A_Open_Coordination_Site | The concept of coordinative unsaturation can be confusing for the student of organometallic chemistry, but recognizing open coordination sites in OM complexes is a critical skill. Introduction Let’s begin with a famous example of coordinative unsaturation from organic chemistry. An analogy from organic chemistry. The r... |
Courses/De_Anza_College/CHEM_10%3A_Introduction_to_Chemistry_(Parajon_Puenzo)/02%3A_Atoms/2.04%3A_The_Mole_and_Molar_Mass | Learning Objectives Define mole and molar mass. Perform calculations to convert between moles and mass of a substance. Perform calculations to convert between mass of a substance and number of particles. The Mole and Avogadro's Number It certainly is easy to count bananas or to count elephants (as long as you stay out ... |
Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Book%3A_Organic_Chemistry_with_a_Biological_Emphasis_v2.0_(Soderberg)/11%3A_Nucleophilic_Acyl_Substitution_Reactions/11.06%3A_Acyl_Phosphates | Thioester formation Thioesters, which are themselves quite reactive in acyl substitution reactions (but less so than acyl phosphates), play a crucial role in the metabolism of fatty acids The ‘acyl X group’ in a thioester is a thiol. Coenzyme A is a thiol-containing coenzyme that plays a key role in metabolism. Coenzym... |
Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Beginning_Chemistry_(Ball)/03%3A_Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions/3.01%3A_Prelude_to_Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions | Although not an SI unit, the angstrom (Å) is a useful unit of length. It is one ten-billionth of a meter, or 10 −10 m. Why is it a useful unit? The ultimate particles that compose all matter are about 10 −10 m in size, or about 1 Å. This makes the angstrom a natural—though not approved—unit for describing these particl... |
Ancillary_Materials/Reference/Reference_Tables/Equilibrium_Constants/E5%3A_Acid_Dissociation_Constants_of_Organics | The following table provides p K a and K a values for selected weak acids. All values are from Martell, A. E.; Smith, R. M. Critical Stability Constants , Vols. 1–4. Plenum Press: New York, 1976. Unless otherwise stated, values are for 25 o C and for zero ionic strength. Those values in brackets are considered less rel... |
Courses/Modesto_Junior_College/Chemistry_143%3A_Introductory_College_Chemistry_(Brzezinski)/CHEM_143%3A_Text_(Brzezinski)/10%3A_Equilibrium/10.05%3A_Disturbing_a_Reaction_at_Equilibrium-_Le_Ch%C3%A2telier%E2%80%99s_Principle/10.5.01%3A_The_Effect_of_a_Concentration_Change_on_Equilibrium | Consider the following system under equilibrium: \[ \underbrace{\ce{Fe^{3+}(aq)}}_{\text{colorless}} + \underbrace{ \ce{SCN^{-}(aq)}}_{\text{colorless}} \rightleftharpoons \underbrace{\ce{FeSCN^{2+}(aq)}}_{\text{red}} \nonumber \] If more \(Fe^{3+}\) is added to the reaction, what will happen? According to Le Chatelier... |
Courses/North_Dakota_State_University/CHEM_354L%3A_Majors_Organic_Chemistry_Lab/Organic_Chemistry_Reactions/Extra_Credit_19 | Welcome to the Chemistry Library. This Living Library is a principal hub of the LibreTexts project , which is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. The LibreTexts approach is highly collaborati... |
Courses/Athabasca_University/Chemistry_350%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I/04%3A_Organic_Compounds-_Cycloalkanes_and_their_Stereochemistry/4.07%3A_Conformations_of_Monosubstituted_Cyclohexanes | Objectives After completing this section, you should be able to account for the greater stability of the equatorial conformers of monosubstituted cyclohexanes compared to their axial counterparts, using the concept of 1,3‑diaxial interaction. compare the gauche interactions in butane with the 1,3‑diaxial interactions i... |
Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Beginning_Chemistry_(Ball)/00%3A_Front_Matter/07%3A_Preface | In 1977, chemists Theodore L. Brown and H. Eugene LeMay (joined in subsequent editions by Bruce Bursten and Julia Burdge) published a general chemistry textbook titled Chemistry: The Central Science. Since that time, the label the central science has become more and more associated with chemistry above all other scienc... |
Courses/University_of_British_Columbia/CHEM_100%3A_Foundations_of_Chemistry/15%3A_Chemical_Equilibrium/15.04%3A_The_Equilibrium_Constant_-_A_Measure_of_How_Far_a_Reaction_Goes | Learning Objectives Write equilibrium constant expressions. Use equilibrium constant expressions to solve for unknown concentrations. Use known concentrations to solve for the equilibrium constants. Explain what the value of \(K\) means in terms of relative concentrations of reactants and products. In the previous sect... |
Courses/University_of_Illinois_Springfield/CHE_124%3A_General_Chemistry_for_the_Health_Professions_(Morsch_and_Andrews)/07%3A_Energy_and_Chemical_Processes/7.E%3A_Energy_and_Chemical_Processes_(Exercises) | 7.1: Energy and Its Units Concept Review Exercises What is the relationship between energy and heat? What units are used to express energy and heat? Answers Heat is the exchange of energy from one part of the universe to another. Heat and energy have the same units. Joules and calories are the units of energy and heat.... |
Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/13%3A_The_Group_13_Elements/13.04%3A_The_Elements/13.4A%3A_Appearance | Welcome to the Chemistry Library. This Living Library is a principal hub of the LibreTexts project , which is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. The LibreTexts approach is highly collaborati... |
Courses/Williams_School/Chemistry_I/06%3A_Chemical_Bonding_and_Molecular_Geometry/6.E%3A_Chemical_Bonding_and_Molecular_Geometry_(Exercises) | 7.1: Ionic Bonding Q7.1.1 Does a cation gain protons to form a positive charge or does it lose electrons? S7.1.1 The protons in the nucleus do not change during normal chemical reactions. Only the outer electrons move. Positive charges form when electrons are lost. Q7.1.2 Iron(III) sulfate [Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ] is composed... |
Courses/Howard_University/General_Chemistry%3A_An_Atoms_First_Approach/Unit_4%3A__Thermochemistry/Chapter_10%3A_Gases/Chapter_10.2%3A_Gas_Pressure | 0 1 NaN Howard University General Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach Unit 1: Atomic Theory Unit 2: Molecular Structure Unit 3: Stoichiometry Unit 4: Thermochem & Gases Unit 5: States of Matter Unit 6: Kinetics & Equilibria Unit 7: Electro & Thermo Chemistry Unit 8: Materials Unit 1: Atomic Theory Unit 2: Molecular Stru... |
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