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Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Chemical_Thermodynamics_(Supplement_to_Shepherd_et_al.)/04%3A_Fundamental_2_-_Counting_Configurations/4.04%3A_Applying_the_Laws_of_Probability | The laws of probability apply to events that are independent. If the result of one trial depends on the result of another trial, we may still be able to use the laws of probability. However, to do so, we must know the nature of the interdependence. If the activity associated with event C precedes the activity associate... |
Courses/University_of_Georgia/CHEM_3212%3A_Physical_Chemistry_II/07%3A_Entropy_Part_II/7.03%3A_The_Third_Law_of_Thermodynamics | One important consequence of Botlzmann’s proposal is that a perfectly ordered crystal (i.e. one that has only one energetic arrangement in its lowest energy state) will have an entropy of 0. This makes entropy qualitatively different than other thermodynamic functions. For example, in the case of enthalpy, it is imposs... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_2e_(OpenStax)/05%3A_Thermochemistry/5.07%3A_Exercises | 1. A burning match and a bonfire may have the same temperature, yet you would not sit around a burning match on a fall evening to stay warm. Why not? 2. Prepare a table identifying several energy transitions that take place during the typical operation of an automobile. 3. Explain the difference between heat capacity a... |
Courses/Chandler_Gilbert_Community_College/Fundamental_Organic_ala_Mech/05%3A_Unit_2/5.04%3A_Apply_to_Acids_and_Bases/5.4.05%3A_Acids_and_Bases_-_The_Lewis_Definition | The Lewis definition of acids and bases is more encompassing than the Brønsted–Lowry definition because it’s not limited to substances that donate or accept just protons. A Lewis acid is a substance that accepts an electron pair, and a Lewis base is a substance that donates an electron pair. The donated electron pair i... |
Courses/Portland_Community_College/CH106%3A_Allied_Health_Chemistry_III/04%3A_Aldehydes_and_Ketones/4.02%3A_Aldehydes_and_Ketones-_Structure_and_Names | Learning Objectives Identify the general structure for an aldehyde and a ketone. Use common names to name aldehydes and ketones. Use the IUPAC system to name aldehydes and ketones. The next functional group we consider, the carbonyl group, has a carbon-to-oxygen double bond. Carbonyl groups define two related families ... |
Courses/Taft_College/CHEM_1510%3A_Introductory_College_Chemistry/16%3A_Acids_and_Bases/16.08%3A_The_pH_and_pOH_Scales_-_Ways_to_Express_Acidity_and_Basicity | Learning Objectives Define pH and pOH. Determine the pH of acidic and basic solutions. Determine the hydronium ion concentration and pOH from pH. As we have seen, \([H_3O^+]\) and \([OH^−]\) values can be markedly different from one aqueous solution to another. So chemists defined a new scale that succinctly indicates ... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_2e_(OpenStax)/18%3A_Representative_Metals_Metalloids_and_Nonmetals/18.06%3A_Occurrence_Preparation_and_Properties_of_Carbonates | Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: Describe the preparation, properties, and uses of some representative metal carbonates The chemistry of carbon is extensive; however, most of this chemistry is not relevant to this chapter. The other aspects of the chemistry of carbon will appear in t... |
Courses/Ursinus_College/CHEM322%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry/02%3A_Molecular_Structure/2.02%3A_Lewis_Structures_and_Molecular_Shape/2.2.03%3A_Resonance | Resonance structures are a set of two or more Lewis Structures that collectively describe the electronic bonding a single polyatomic species including fractional bonds and fractional charges. Resonance structures are capable of describing delocalized electrons that cannot be expressed by a single Lewis formula with an ... |
Courses/University_of_Illinois_Springfield/CHE_124%3A_General_Chemistry_for_the_Health_Professions_(Morsch_and_Andrews)/07%3A_Energy_and_Chemical_Processes/7.1%3A_Energy_and_Its_Units | Skills to Develop To define energy and he a t. Energy is the ability to do work. You can understand what this means by thinking about yourself when you feel “energetic.” You feel ready to go—to jump up and get something done. When you have a lot of energy, you can perform a lot of work. By contrast, if you do not feel ... |
Courses/San_Diego_Miramar_College/Chem_103%3A_Fundamentals_of_GOB_Chemistry_(Garces)/08%3A_Gases/8.02%3A_Kinetic_Molecular_Theory-_A_Model_for_Gases | Learning Objectives State the major concepts behind the kinetic theory of gases. Relate the general properties of gases to the kinetic theory. Gases were among the first substances studied in terms of the modern scientific method, which was developed in the 1600s. It did not take long to recognize that gases all shared... |
Ancillary_Materials/Worksheets/Worksheets%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry/Structure_and_Reactivity_in_Organic_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry/05%3A_Stereochemistry/5.11%3A_Carbohydrates_in_Cyclic_Form | Carbohydrates are complicated molecules. In solution, they slowly change into different isomers. In water, most carbohydrates can change from one form to another quickly; they are described as being in equilibrium with different structures. That means they can change back and forth. The most prevalent form for most car... |
Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Instrumental_Analysis_(LibreTexts)/25%3A_Voltammetry/25.06%3A_Stripping_Methods | Another important voltammetric technique is stripping voltammetry, which consists of three related techniques: anodic stripping voltammetry, cathodic stripping voltammetry, and adsorptive stripping voltammetry. Because anodic stripping voltammetry is the more widely used of these techniques, we will consider it in grea... |
Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Western_Civilization_(Lumen)/Ch._12_The_Rise_of_Nation-States/13.16%3A_The_Sun-King_and_Authoritarianism | Learning Objective Describe Louis XIV’s views on royal power and how he expanded his own authority Key Points At the time of King Louis XIII’s death in 1643, Louis XIV was only five years old. His mother, Anne of Austria, was named regent, but she entrusted the government to the chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin. Mazari... |
Courses/Indiana_Tech/EWC%3A_CHEM_1020_-_General_Chemistry_I_(Budhi)/01%3A_Matter_Measurement_and_Problem_Solving/1.9%3A_Matter_Measurement_and_Problem_Solving_(Exercises) | Template:HideTOC These are homework exercises to accompany the Textmap created for Chemistry: A Molecular Approach by Nivaldo Tro. Complementary General Chemistry question banks can be found for other Textmaps and can be accessed here . In addition to these publicly available questions, access to private problems bank ... |
Courses/Furman_University/CHM101%3A_Chemistry_and_Global_Awareness_(Gordon)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Chemistry | What is chemistry? Simply put, chemistry is the study of the interactions of matter with other matter and with energy. This seems straightforward enough. However, the definition of chemistry includes a wide range of topics that must be understood to gain a mastery of the topic or even take additional courses in chemist... |
Bookshelves/Environmental_Chemistry/Green_Chemistry_and_the_Ten_Commandments_of_Sustainability_(Manahan)/07%3A_Chemistry_of_Life_and_Green_Chemistry/7.01%3A_New_Page | Biochemistry is the science of chemical processes that occur in living organisms. 1 By its nature biochemistry is a green chemical and biological science. This is because over eons of evolution organisms have evolved that carry out biochemical processes sustainably. Because the enzymes that carry out biochemical proces... |
Courses/Riverland_Community_College/CHEM_1000_-_Introduction_to_Chemistry_(Riverland)/16%3A_Solutions | Template:HideTOC Solutions play a very important role in many biological, laboratory, and industrial applications of chemistry. Of particular importance are solutions involving substances dissolved in water, or aqueous solutions. Solutions represent equilibrium systems, and the lessons learned in the last chapter will ... |
Courses/Sacramento_City_College/SCC%3A_Chem_309_-_General_Organic_and_Biochemistry_(Bennett)/Text/10%3A_Organic_Functional_Groups_-_Introduction_to_Acid-Base_Chemistry/10.04%3A_Physical_Properties_of_Esters | Learning Objectives Compare the boiling points of esters with alcohols of similar molar mass. Compare the solubilities of esters in water with the solubilities of comparable alkanes and alcohols in water. Ester molecules are polar but have no hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen atom. They are therefore incapab... |
Courses/Brevard_College/CHE_104%3A_Principles_of_Chemistry_II/04%3A_Thermochemistry_and_Thermodynamics/4.18%3A_Spontaneous_and_Nonspontaneous_Reactions | Nitroglycerin is a tricky substance. An active ingredient in dynamite (where it is stabilized), "raw" nitroglycerin is very unstable. Physical shock will cause the material to explode. The reaction is shown below. \[4 \ce{C_3H_5(ONO_2)_3} \rightarrow 12 \ce{CO_2} + 10 \ce{H_2O} + 6 \ce{N_2} + \ce{O_2}\nonumber \] The e... |
Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)_Complete_and_Semesters_I_and_II/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)/18%3A_Reactions_of_Aromatic_Compounds/18.11%3A__NAS_Reactions_-_the_Elimination-Addition_(Benzyne)_Mechanism | Elimination-Addition Mechanism of Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution via Benzyne (Arynes) The reactivities of aryl halides, such as the halobenzenes, are exceedingly low toward nucleophilic reagents that normally effect displacements with alkyl halides and activated aryl halides. Substitutions do occur under forcing co... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_-_Atoms_First_1e_(OpenSTAX)/02%3A_Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions/2.2%3A_Evolution_of_Atomic_Theory | Learning Objectives Outline milestones in the development of modern atomic theory Summarize and interpret the results of the experiments of Thomson, Millikan, and Rutherford Describe the three subatomic particles that compose atoms Introduce the term isotopes In the two centuries since Dalton developed his ideas, scien... |
Courses/Duke_University/CHEM_310L%3A_Physical_Chemistry_I_Laboratory/CHEM310L_-_Physical_Chemistry_I_Lab_Manual/01%3A_Orientation_to_this_course | 1.1: Pre-lab orientation assignment 1.2: Introductory Details Experiments have been set up for students working in small groups. Be sure to have a work plan that makes efficient use of your time. Lengthy sample preparation procedures should be started early in the six hours assigned to a given experiment. 1.3: Rubrics ... |
Courses/SUNY_Oneonta/Chem_322_Lecture_Content/06%3A_Nucleophilic_Acyl_Substitution_Reactions/6.10%3A_Nucleophilic_Acyl_Substitution_Reactions_in_the_Laboratory | All of the biological nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions we have seen so far have counterparts in laboratory organic synthesis. Mechanistically, one of the biggest differences between the biological and the lab versions is that the lab reactions usually are run with a strong acid or base as a catalyst, whereas bi... |
Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/08%3A_Properties_of_Organic_Compounds/8.23%3A_Synthetic_Macromolecules-_Some_Applied_Organic_Chemistry | Other important classes of substances containing very large molecules are the plastics and artificial fibers, which are such a conspicuous, though not always a positive, feature of modern life. Most of these materials are made in the same basic way. The starting materials or monomers are relatively simple molecules—usu... |
Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_Lab_Techniques_(Nichols)/01%3A_General_Techniques/1.05%3A_Filtering_Methods | There are many methods used to separate a mixture containing a solid and liquid. If the solid settles well, the liquid can sometimes be poured off (decanted). If the solid has very small sized particles or forms a cloudy mixture, the mixture can sometimes be centrifuged or passed through a filter pipette (on the micros... |
Courses/SUNY_Potsdam/Book%3A_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Walker)/05%3A_Physical_Organic_Chemistry/5.06%3A_Reactive_intermediates | In chemistry, a reactive intermediate or an intermediate is a short-lived, high-energy, highly reactive molecule. When generated in a chemical reaction, it will quickly convert into a more stable molecule. Only in exceptional cases can these compounds be isolated and stored, e.g. low temperatures, matrix isolation. Whe... |
Courses/Palomar_College/PC%3A_CHEM100_-_Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/15%3A_Chemical_Bonding/15.4%3A_Lewis_Structures%3A_Counting_Valence_Electrons | Learning Objectives Draw Lewis structures for covalent compounds. The following procedure can be used to construct Lewis electron structures for more complex molecules and ions: How-to: Constructing Lewis electron structures 1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or ion. Add together the val... |
Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Quantum_Chemistry_(Blinder)/01%3A_Chapters/1.03%3A_Quantum_Mechanics_of_Some_Simple_Systems | The simple quantum-mechanical problem we have just solved can provide an instructive application to chemistry: the free-electron model (FEM) for delocalized \(\pi\)-electrons. The simplest case is the 1,3-butadiene molecule \[\rho =2\psi _{1}^2+2\psi _{2}^2\label{28}\] A chemical interpretation of this picture might be... |
Courses/Saint_Francis_University/Chem_114%3A_Human_Chemistry_II_(Hargittai)/18%3A_Amino_Acids_and_Proteins/18.05%3A_Handedness | Learning Objectives Explain how a peptide is formed from individual amino acids. Explain why the sequence of amino acids in a protein is important. Two or more amino acids can join together into chains called peptides. In an earlier chapter, we discussed the reaction between ammonia and a carboxylic acid to form an ami... |
Courses/Widener_University/Widener_University%3A_Chem_135/10%3A_Liquids_and_Solids | The great distances between atoms and molecules in a gaseous phase, and the corresponding absence of any significant interactions between them, allows for simple descriptions of many physical properties that are the same for all gases, regardless of their chemical identities. As described in the final module of the cha... |
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