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both demand and supply curves, the equilibrium quantity increases whereas the equilibrium price remains unchanged, and in Figure 5.4(b), equilibrium quantity remains the same whereas price decreases due to a leftward shift in demand curve and a rightward shift in supply curve. 5.1.2 Market Equilibrium: Free Entry and ...
of the firms imply that the market price will always be equal to the minimum average cost, that is p = min AC From the above, it follows that the equilibrium price will be equal to the minimum average cost of the firms. In equilibrium, the quantity supplied will be determined by the market demand at that price so that...
180 30 = 6 Thus, with free entry and exit, the equilibrium price, quantity and number of farms are Rs 20, 180 kg and 6 respectively. Shifts in Demand Let us examine the impact of shift in demand on equilibrium price and quantity when the firms can freely enter and exit the market. From the previous section, we know th...
response to this excess supply, some firms, which will be unable to sell their desired quantity at p0, will wish to lower their price. The price tends to decrease which will lead to the exit of some of the existing firms and the price will again reach p0. Therefore, in the new equilibrium, less quantity will be suppli...
will be an excess demand for wheat in the market at that price. The consumers demand qc kilograms of wheat whereas the firms supply cq'kilograms. Effect of Price Ceiling in Wheat Market. The equilibrium price and quantity are p* and q* respectively. Imposition of price ceiling at pc gives rise to excess demand in the ...
equilibrium here would occur at price p* and quantity q*. But when the government imposes a floor higher than the equilibrium price at pf, the market demand is qf whereas the firms want to supply q ′ f, thereby leading to an excess supply in the market equal to qf q ′ f. In the case of agricultural support, to prevent...
supply for a commodity in the market? 4. What will happen if the price prevailing in the market is (i) above the equilibrium price? (ii) below the equilibrium price? 5. Explain how price is determined in a perfectly competitive market with fixed number of firms. 6. Suppose the price at which equilibrium is attained in...
situation when free entry and exit is permitted. Explain. 22. Suppose the demand and supply curve of commodity X in a perfectly competitive market are given by: qD = 700 – p qS = 500 + 3p for p ≥ 15 = 0 for 0 ≤ p < 15 Assume that the market consists of identical firms. Identify the reason behind the market supply of c...
combined, and similarly, the amount purchased by each consumer is extremely small in comparison to the quantity purchased by all consumers together; (ii) firms are free to start producing the commodity or to stop production; i.e., entry and exit is free (iii) the output produced by each firm in the industry is indisti...
one of monopoly in a single commodity market. Competitive Behaviour versus Competitive Structure A perfectly competitive market has been defined as one where an individual firm is unable to influence the price at which the product is sold in the market. Since price remains the same for any level of output of the indiv...
supplied. This idea is reflected in the statement that the monopoly firm faces the market demand curve, which is downward sloping. Price D p0 p1 D q1 q0 O Output Fig. 6.1 The above idea can be viewed from another angle. Since the firm is assumed to have perfect knowledge of the market demand curve, the monopoly firm c...
5 7.5 7 42 6.5 45.5 6.5 6 48 5.5 49.5 5.5 50 10 5 11 4.5 49.5 4.5 12 4 13 3.5 45.5 3.5 48 5 6 4 7 – 9.5 8.5 7.5 6.5 5.5 4.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 -0.5 -1.5 -2.5 2019-20 the the case of the monopoly firm, the total revenue is not a straight line. Its shape depends on the shape of curve. Mathematically, TR is represented as a ...
line passing through the value 6 on the horizontal axis. This line will Relation between Average Revenue and Total Revenue Curves. The average revenue at any level of output is given by the slope of the line joining the origin and the point on the total revenue curve corresponding to the output level under considerati...
MR Fig. 6.4 Relation between Marginal Revenue and Total Revenue Curves. The marginal revenue at any level of output is given by the slope of the total revenue curve at that level of output. Graphically, the values of the MR curve are given by the slope of the TR curve. The slope of any smooth curve is defined as the s...
the AR curve is less steep, the vertical distance between the AR and MR curves is smaller. Figure 6.5(a) shows a flatter AR curve while Figure 6.5(b) shows a steeper AR curve. For the same units of the commodity, the difference between AR and MR in panel (a) is smaller than the difference in panel (b). 6.1.3 Marginal ...
is put up for sale. The Simple Case of Zero Cost a TR, AR, MR, Price Suppose there exists a village situated sufficiently far away from other villages. In this village, there is exactly one well from which water is available. All residents are completely dependent for their water requirements on this well. The well is...
by offering to sell to them at a lower price, say, Rs. 4/bucket.. Some other well-owner can offer to sell at a still lower price, and the story will repeat itself. In fact, competition among well-owners will drive the price down to zero. At this price 20 buckets of water will be sold. Through this comparison, we can s...
fit’ in Figure 6.7. It should be noticed that the Profit curve has its maximum value at the level of output q0. The price at which this output is sold is the price consumers are willing to pay for this q0 quantity of the commodity. So the monopoly firm will charge the price corresponding to the quantity level q0 on the...
Output D = AR q0 qC MR O e 96 At qo the firm will make maximum profits. It has no incentive to change from qo. This level is called the equilibrium level of output. Since this equilibrium level of output corresponds to the point where the MR equals MC, this equality is called the equilibrium condition for the output p...
eq0 which is less than aq0, the firm would expect a gain in profit by increasing the output. This would continue as long as the price remained higher than the MC. At the point ‘f ’ in Figure 6.8, where the MC curve cuts the demand curve, price received by the firm becomes equal to the MC. Hence, it would no longer be ...
threat of competition is always present and the monopoly firm is unable to behave in the manner we have described above. 97 2019-20 Still another view argues that the existence of monopolies may be beneficial to society. Since monopoly firms earn large profits, they possess sufficient funds to take up research and dev...
look like? The monopolistic competitive firm is also a profit maximizer. So it will increase production as long as the addition to its total revenue is greater than the addition to its total costs. In other words, this firm (like the perfectly competitive firm as well as the monopoly) will choose to produce the quanti...
the total supply in the market will increase substantially, causing the price to fall. This fall in price affects the profits of all firms in the industry. Other firms will respond to such a move in order to protect their own profits, by taking fresh decisions regarding how much to produce. Therefore the level of outp...
of the • • • • tangent at the relevant point on the total revenue curve. The average revenue is a declining curve if and only if the value of the marginal revenue is lesser than the average revenue. The steeper is the negatively sloped demand curve, the further below is the marginal revenue curve. The demand curve is ...
and therefore behave as a firm in a perfectly competitive market), and the government decide to set the price so that demand and supply in the market are equal. What would be the equilibrium price, quantity and profit in this case? 6. Comment on the shape of the MR curve in case the TR curve is a (i) positively sloped...
. Break-even point is the point on the supply curve at which a firm earns normal profit. Budget line consists of all bundles which cost exactly equal to the consumer’s income. Budget set is the collection of all bundles that the consumer can buy with her income at the prevailing market prices. Constant returns to scale...
. Law of diminishing marginal product If we keep increasing the employment of an input with other inputs fixed then eventually a point will be reached after which the marginal product of that input will start falling. Law of variable proportions The marginal product of a factor input initially rises with its employment...
a one per cent change in the market price of the good. Price floor The government-imposed lower limit on the price that may be charged for a particular good or service is called price floor. Price line is a horizontal straight line that shows the relationship between market price and a firm’s output level. Production ...
�� the change in total revenue (marginal revenue) is positive then demand is price elastic, if the change in total revenue is negative the demand is price inelastic. If the marginal revenue is exactly zero then demand is unit elastic. 5. The following determinants of the price elasticity of demand will determine how re...
Consumer equilibrium is where the highest indifference curve they can reach is exactly tangent to their budget constraint. Therefore if the price of pizza increases we can identify the price from the slope of the budget constraint and the quantities purchased from the values along the pizza axis and derive and individ...
. a. normal profit includes an opportunity cost - the profit that could have been made in the next best alternative allocation of productive resources. 3. In other words, there is a difference between economic and accounting cost; accountants are unconcerned with opportunity costs. 2. Time Periods are defined by the ty...
summation of the average fixed and average variable cost curves. The marginal cost curve intersects both the average total cost and average variable cost curves at their respective minimums. The following graph relates average and marginal product to average variable and marginal cost. Notice that at the maximum point...
to where MR = MC) for the purely competitive firm. 4. The profit-maximizing rule is that a firm will maximize profits where Marginal Cost is equal to Marginal Revenue. a. MC = MR b. Where MC = MR; revenue is at its maximum and costs are at their minimum. 5. Model of the purely competitive industry: The purely competit...
= MR, however, at that level of production the ATC is above the demand curve, in other words, costs exceed revenues and the firm is making a loss. 47 j. shut-down case 1. The firm will continue to operate in the case presented in (d.) above because the firm can cover all of its variable costs and have something left t...
run. The monopolist produces where MC = MR, but the price charged is all the market will bear, that is, where the demand curve is above the intersection of MC = MR. 51 c. Economic losses 1. This monopolist is making an economic loss. The ATC is above the demand curve (AR) at where MC = MR (the loss is the labeled rect...
return P = D = AC 1. The fair rate of return enforces a normal profit because the firm must price its output and produce where ATC is equal to demand. This eliminates economic profits and the risk of loss or of even putting the monopolist out of business. c. The dilemma of regulation is knowing where to regulate, at t...
cost is the amount that the addition of one more unit of a productive resource adds to total resource costs. a. MRC = ÎTRC/ÎL 7. The profit maximizing employment of resources is where MRP = MRC, where MRC is the supply curve of the resource in a purely competitive resource market. 57 a. resource market equilibrium 8. ...
that MRC breaks out to the right of the supply curve and is much steeper; this is due to the pricing policy the monopolist can employ. Also the wage and employment levels in the monopsony are much lower than in a competitive labor market. 4. Control of Monopsony: a. minimum wages has been one approach to the control o...
. 1. The pure craft and pure industrial union virtually no longer exist. The AFL and CIO merged in the mid-1950s and the distinction between the two types of unions had all but disappeared by this time -- the exception is some of the building trades unions. 6. Bilateral Monopoly is where there is a monopsonist that is ...
. Differences in productivity 1. Ability 2. Difference in price of final product 10. Human Capital refers to the various aspects of a person that makes them productive. Gary Becker=s book in the 1950s Human Capital earned him the Nobel Prize, but also brought greater attention to skills and knowledge as a determinant o...
in economics. As with most introductory courses there are certain foundations that must be laid before the structure of the discipline may be meaningfully examined. This chapter and the following two chapters will lay those foundations -- the rudimentary definitions, and basic concepts upon which the following ideas w...
76 Adam Smith penned An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. With its publication, capitalism was born, from the ashes of the mercantilist system that preceded it. Smith described an economic system of cottage industries and relatively unfettered pursuit of self-interest, and how that unfettered...
academic disciplines have evolved over the years to become collections of 73 closely associated scholarly endeavors of a specialized nature. Economics is no exception. An examination of one of the scholarly journals published by the American Economics Association, The Journal of Economic Literature, reveals a classifi...
economics. A good theory is one that accurately predicts future human behavior and can be supported with evidence. Nobel Prize Winners in Economic Science 1969 J. Tinbergen (Netherlands); R. Frisch (Norway) 1970 P.A. Samuelson (USA - Indiana) 1971 S. Kuznets (USA, Soviet Union) 1972 J. R. Hicks (United Kingdom); K. J. ...
be a very abstract area of the discipline. Mathematical modeling was introduced into the discipline early in the eighteenth century by such scholars as Mill and Ricardo. In the middle of the twentieth century, an economist, Paul 75 Samuelson, from M.I.T., published his book, Mathematical Foundations of Economic Analys...
of hypotheses can only serve to reject or fail to reject a hypothesis. Therefore, empirical methods are focused on rejecting hypotheses and those that fail to be rejected over large numbers of tests generally attain the status of principle. However, examples of both types of logic can be found in each of the social sc...
do, at least, rudimentary planning, the purpose of planning is the establishment of an organized effort to accomplish some economic goals. Planning to finish your education is an economic goal. Goals are, in a sense, an idea of what should be (what we would like to accomplish). However, goals must be realistic and wit...
easy for the very wealthy to cite as their primary goal, economic freedom, but it is doubtful that anybody living in poverty is going to get very excited about economic freedom; but equitable distributions of income, full employment and economic security will probably find rather wide support among the poor. Notice, i...
complementary are consistent and can often be accomplished together. Therefore, conflict need not be the centerpiece of establishing economic goals. Because any society's resources are limited there must be decisions about which goals should be most actively pursued. The process by which such decisions are made is cal...
and biases to economics. After all, economics deals with people's material well-being – a very serious matter to most. Because of political beliefs and other value system components rational, objective thinking concerning various economic issues fail. Rational and objective thought requires approaching a subject with ...
events. For example, during the thirteenth century people noticed that the black plague occurred in a location when the population of cats increased. Unfortunately, some concluded that the plague was caused by cats so they killed the cats. In fact, the plague was carried by fleas on rats. When the rat population incre...
have it, we didn't have good trade relations with the new management -- the Japanese. Therefore we did not have access to Manila fibre, necessary in making everything from rope to battleships. We had not yet developed synthetic fibre and therefore has to rely on the fibre previously available. That fibre was hemp. Now...
the purpose of rejecting that a causal relation does not exist, it cannot be used to prove causality exists. These types of statistical methods are rather sophisticated and are generally examined in upper division or graduate courses in statistics. As is true with economics, statistics are simply a tool for analyzing ...
evidence and explain the role of empirical economics in developing economic theory. Sample Questions: Multiple Choice: Which of the following is not an economic goal? A. Price Stability B. Full Employment C. Economic Security D. All of the above are economic goals If we provide school lunches for children from househo...
systems. The concept of scarcity is embedded in virtually every analysis found in economics. Because there is scarcity there is always the question of how resources are allocated and the effects of allocations on various economic agents. Each decision allocating resources to one use or economic agent is also, by neces...
what people normally think of when they think of land. However, iron ore, water resources, oil, and other natural resources obtained from land are also one dimension of this factor of production. Another, perhaps equally important dimension, is space. The location of a building site for a business is an important cons...
and maintenance of productive capacity. Full employment includes the natural rate of unemployment, which economists estimate to be between four and six percent (unemployment due to job search and normal structural changes in the economy). Empirical evidence suggests that about 80% capacity utilization is consistent wi...
must be technically efficient. Again, a technically efficient operation is difficult to find in the real world. However, most profit-maximizing firms (as well as government agencies and non-profit organizations) will at least have technical efficiency as one of its operational goals. For an economic system to be econo...
of a decision. For example, reading this chapter is costly, you have implicitly decided not to watch T.V. or spend time doing something else by deciding to read this chapter. Every choice is costly; that is, there is an opportunity cost. Economic costs are dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 7. 91 Production Possi...
a point inside the production possibilities curve, as shown above. A point consistent with inefficiency, unemployment, or underemployment is identified by the symbol to the inside of the curve. Economic growth can also be illustrated with a production possibilities curve. The dashed line in the above model shows a shi...
and less efficient phases of industry. Such is also its character in all cases where the “niggardliness of nature” is so strict as to afford but a scanty livelihood to the community in return for strenuous and unremitting application to the business of getting the means of subsistence. But in all progressing communiti...
society (according to their needs), at least theoretically. Generally, there is no private holdings of productive resources, and government is a trustee until such time as what is called "Socialist Man" fully develops (where the individual is more concerned with aggregate welfare than individual gain). The former Sovi...
production increases in power and size. The worker becomes an even cheaper commodity the more commodities he creates. With the increasing value of the world of things proceeds in direct proportion the devaluation of the world of men. Labor produces not only commodities: it produces itself and the worker as a commodity...
mployment Economic Efficiency Allocative Efficiency Technological Efficiency Full Employment Opportunity Cost Implicit vs. Explicit Costs Production Possibilities Frontier (or Curve) Growth Inefficiency Law of Increasing Opportunity Costs 97 Economic Systems Pure capitalism Command Tradition Socialism Communism Mixed S...
of money in a global economic system. The final section of this chapter develops the circular flow diagram that illustrates interdependence within a global economy. Open Economic System The modern economy of most nations is no longer a closed-localized system. Virtually every nation on earth has some sort of relations...
deficits in our balance of payments. The balance of payments is the net investment abroad (capital accounts) plus the net exports (current accounts) of the United States. If the balance of payments is positive, ignoring investment (capital accounts) for the moment, that means we are exporting more than we are importin...
always the worse for society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common...
.S. markets and successfully competed with the U.S. manufacturers. This caused the U.S. manufacturers to significantly increase the quality of their products and keep their prices in check. By 2004 many of the top ten vehicles in quality according to consumer reports are U.S. automobiles. Consumer Guide’s Recommended L...
Developed Countries permit far more free enterprise than we do. Whatever the proportions, two things are certain. First, no two societies are alike in their mix of allocative mechanisms, and second the mix evolves and changes over time with the societies the system serves. Market System Characteristics The characteris...
divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this kind where ten men only were employed, and where some them consequently performed two or ...
folly in that of a great kingdom. If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them with some part of the produce of our own industry, employed in a way in which we have some advantage. Consider the following illustration: Texas Cows Oranges 1000 100 Flori...
hours are spent in negotiating for even simple transactions, these hours are resources that could have been spent on other activities (therefore the hours of negotiations are the opportunity cost of a money economy). The functions of money include; (1) medium of exchange, (2) store of value, and (3) a measure of worth...
the Mongol Empire, Genghis Kahn began to issue orders, in writing, that the written order was to be given deference as a specific amount of gold or silver. Genghis was known to a be nononsense sort of guy, and the violation of his decrees were clearly unhealthy acts, therefore these orders were the first fiat money re...
to the example above, if the 2.2 million Yen vehicle was available at $17,600 at 125 Yen per dollar, the additional cost of $2400 would be observed if the dollar could only purchase 110 Yen. The same sort of analysis applies to American exports. With an expensive dollar it is hard to sell American goods abroad. If the...
and consume the outputs of these other sectors. The markets in which land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurial talent are sold are called resource markets. The markets in which the output of business and in some cases government is sold are called product markets. To this point, the circular flow diagram is relatively...
what will each state produce? What will the terms of trade be? Explain the role of currency exchange rates in international trade. What cause these exchange rates to change? Sample Questions: Multiple Choice: 114 Which of the following is not a function of money? A. Store of value B. Measure of worth C. Medium of exch...
mystical about markets. If competitive, a market will always satisfy those consumers willing and able to pay the market price and provide suppliers with the opportunity to sell their wares at the market price. To understand the market, one need only understand the ideas of supply and demand and how they interact. Dema...
everything will be demanded. The income effect suggest that as income goes down (price increases) then less of the commodity will be purchased. 117 The substitution effect is the fact that as the price of a commodity increases, consumers will buy less of it and more of other commodities. In other words, a consumer wil...
in demand). A decrease in the number of consumers or their income will result in a shift of the demand curve toward the origin (a decrease in demand). Consumers will also react to expectations concerning future prices and availability. If consumers expect future prices to increase, their present demand curve will shif...
) so too does quantity supplied. As with the demand curve a change in the price will result in a change in the quantity supplied. An increase in price will result in an increase in the quantity supplied, and a decrease in price will result in a decrease in the quantity supplied. Again, this is because the supply curve ...
P2 to P1 causes an increase in the quantity supplied from Q2 to Q1; a decrease in price from P1 to P2 causes a decrease in the quantity supplied from Q1 to Q2. Market Equilibrium Market equilibrium occurs where supply equals demand (supply curve intersects demand curve). An equilibrium implies that there is no force t...
either the supply or demand curve and get: 22 - 6 = 16 (Demand side) & 10 + 6 = 16 (Supply side) The system of equations approach to solving for equilibrium gives a specific number for price and for quantity. Unless the numbers are specified along the price axis and the quantity axis, the graph does not yield a specif...
. Consider the following graphs: Increase in Demand Decrease in Supply Decrease in Demand Increase in Supply Price D1 D2 S2 Price S1 P2 P1 P1 P2 S1 S2 D1 D2 Q Quantity Q Quantit Notice that the quantity remains the same in both graphs. Therefore, the change in the equilibrium quantity is indeterminant and its direction...
can and does actively enforce the price ceiling. With the exception of the Second World War, there is little evidence that the government can effectively enforce price ceilings. Consider the following diagram that demonstrates the effect of a price ceiling in an otherwise purely competitive industry. SHORTAGE Supply P...
of a purely competitive market is offered. What this chapter presents is the industry in pure competition, which is based on assumptions that do not exist in reality. The assumptions are (1) perfect information about all past, and future prices, (2) no barriers to entry or exit from the market, (3) no non-price compet...
. Change in Quantity Supplied Price changes v. Non-price determinant changes Shortage and Surplus Price Floor and Price Ceiling STUDY GUIDE Food for Thought: Demonstrate what happens to a market equilibrium when: (1) demand increases, supply increases, (2) demand decreases, supply decreases, (3) demand increases, suppl...
-elasticities, the income elasticity of demand and the interest elasticity of demand. Price Elasticity of Demand The price elasticity of demand is how economists measure the responsiveness of consumers to changes in prices for a commodity. In other words, as price increases (decreases), the quantity demanded by consume...
not respond very much to changes in price; with inelastic demand the coefficient is less than one. Unit elastic demand means that the consumers' quantity demanded respond proportionately to change in price; with unit elastic demand the coefficient is exactly one. What this equation states is illustrated in the graph b...
other variable. The slope of the curve is concerned with values of the respective variables at each position along the curve (i.e., its' shape and direction). Demand Curve and Total Revenue (total revenue = P x Q) Curve Price Elastic Total Revenue t i n U Inelastic Demand Quantity Total Revenue Quantity The total reve...
then the demand for the commodity will be price inelastic, ceteris paribus. If there are substitutes then consumers can switch their purchasing habits in the case of a price increase, but if there are no substitutes then 138 consumers are more likely to buy even if price goes up. For example, if the price of Pepsi goe...
the period in which plant and equipment cannot be varied, but most other factors' usage can be varied, therefore it depends on a producers capital - intensity as to how elastic supply is at any particular point. 139 Other Elasticities There are three other standard applications of the elasticity of demand. The cross e...
attractive financing rates are the hooks offered to get the consumer in the showroom and into the new car. In May of 2003 all of the American producers were offering zero percent financing on all but a very few of their vehicles, and even some of the European and Japanese producers were following suite with either ver...
-run Long-run Cross Elasticity of Demand Income Elasticity Interest Rate Sensitivity Pricing Power 142 STUDY GUIDE Food for Thought: List and explain the determinants of the price elasticity of demand and of supply. What are the income and cross elasticities of demand? Why might they be useful? Explain. 3. Consider the...
and Substitution Effects Revisited The income and substitution effects combine to cause the demand curve to slope downwards as was discussed earlier in Chapter 4. In fact, an individual consumer's demand curve can be rigorously derived using concepts from intermediate microeconomics (E321) called indifference curves w...
example, if the price of rice increases in a less developed country, people may buy more of it because of the pressure placed on their budget prevents them from buying beans or fish to go with their rice. To maintain their caloric intake rice will be substituted for the still more expensive beans and fish. The other s...
, the marginal utility received from the consumption of the good is greater than the price, and this means the consumer has not purchased enough of that good. Therefore the consumer must purchase more of that good (causing price to increase and marginal utility to go down to the point they are equal), where MU > P. If ...
rant is associated with exactly one indifference curve (every place thick), (2) indifference curves do not intersect (an indifference above another shows greater utility unequivocally), and (3) indifference curves are strictly convex toward the origin (bow toward the origin). The following indifference curve shows the ...
= MUb =... = MUz D. None of the above describe the rule True - False: The law of diminishing marginal utility states that total utility will become negative as more units of a commodity are consumed. {FALSE} Typically, the income and substitution effects combine to cause a downward sloping demand curve. {TRUE} 153 CHA...
(1) the market period, (2) the short-run, and (3) the long-run. In the market period, all costs are fixed costs (nothing can be varied). In the short-run, there are both fixed and variable costs observed. Generally, plant, equipment, and technology are fixed, and things like labor, electricity, and materials can still...
marginal product where marginal product changes from positive to negative (first derivative is zero, second derivative is negative). When the total product curve reaches its maximum, increased output results in negative marginal product. The maximum on the marginal product curve is also associated with the first infle...

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