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hair | A dose of my life.
Wen was the last time my hair looked amazing?
I want you to feel good about yourself! | c4 |
Lost a collar for your e-collar system or dog has finally got a hold of it? Buy a replacement or if you know it's bound happen, purchase a spare! This collar works fits our PET998DB, PET998DBB, PET916, PET998N, PET916N receivers. | c4 |
Which machines are suitable for gold mining? Update ... influence the choice of the machines. If your mining claim is in a ... What is the worldwide gold production? | c4 |
Sometimes it's hard to heed my own advice. Even when I know this particular piece of advice is perhaps the most important when it comes to creating content.
I can give you a number of tips to help you write better articles. But there is one simple thing you can do that can really improve the quality of your work, to make your content more useful and interesting. This tip is particularly ingenious - are you ready for it?
Prepare your content over two separate sittings, preferably on two different days. It's a simple concept but often not so easy to implement with deadlines looming. | c4 |
As a believer but also wary of pesky fakery, the 'echovox' was an obvious nonsense, insulting - & I doubt an early 19thC 'prostitute' would have used that word to describe her job, being from a tough London background she'dve used street slang - or maybe the magic app. updates words too?! Thought I recognised Ian Lawman from the ridiculous 'Most Haunted' (tho' I got him mixed up with Richard Felix, oops - similar voices)- Anyway I think Ian looks great! - more people should dress in an olde style, or at least make an effort. | c4 |
Buy 5 or More Bunches & Save 10%!
Shop Fabulous Florals’ huge collection of gorgeous, fresh-cut, wholesale flowers, DIY wedding flowers and luxurious foliage.
How to care for your flowers to ensure that they stay as fresh as possible!
Create an account to shop faster, check order status and save past orders.
Join our mailing list for flower specials, tips and inspiration! | c4 |
Hypnotherapy can help address the underlying cause of depression as well as helping to find more effective coping mechanisms.
It can also help achieve a brighter mood and dispel the pessimistic and negative thought patterns generally accompanying depression.
Anxiety is often closely linked to depression and hypnotherapy techniques can also prove beneficial when wishing to reduce anxious thoughts and the feelings amplifying depression.
Hypnotherapy is extremely effective when used in conjunction with behavioural therapy to help re-programme negative thought patterns and replacing these with more useful, positive mantras. Therapy can help a sufferer understand the impact of the past and to focus on the present in order to work towards the desired future. | c4 |
How about now? There’s no time like the present!
...and whether you’ll fill it out with anyone else? | c4 |
For the press, men do not matter!
Swimming pool gets teenage girl pregnant!
Of all the people I know, you're one of them. | c4 |
Help Just got essentials and need help with elite battle system.
check Thundaga's Pokemon essentials Tutorial videos.
Yeah the install notes for the resources neglect to mention that you also need the utilities resource above any of the other scripts. | c4 |
HippoEDIT is a powerful text editor that targets programmers, developers and power users. The editor is designed to make it faster and easier to program with its syntax highlighting that colors each correctly entered command in many different programming languages which helps to clarify any typos as they happen. The HippoEDIT package is big on features, but small on file size so it downloads quickly.
The total space needed is 13.3 MB.
The interface is pretty busy like most programming editors seem to be. There are menu options near the title, a file manager down part of the left sidebar and below that is a display which shows only certain files matching programming file extensions. The multi-tabbed main pane offers color coded support for multiple files open, using different languages, at one time.
Blocks of code can be expanded or collapsed to make it easier to jump to the right part of a programming file that is lengthy. A nice feature.
Notepad++ is a popular programming editor that offers similar features to HippoEDIT and more languages are supported with the standard package.
HippoEDIT is a professionally developed programming editor which offers syntax highlighting for a decent selection of the main programming languages used today. The interface, which is skinable, is quite busy looking but it has to pack a lot into the screen real estate. The colorful nature of the design makes it easier on the eye and faster to spot what you are looking for. The price is quite steep for HippoEDIT given that there are many programming editors available that are either cheaper or free.
What's new in this version: 1.50 is MAJOR update. Release contains huge number of new features and numerous enhancements for existing functionality. | c4 |
Get your boxing gloves in this group training workout. We’ll show you how to execute correct boxing techniques to improve your coordination and strength. You’ll tone your whole body as you utilise multiple punching technique in various combination of shadow boxing and sparring. Leave class feeling stronger, empowered and with a boost to your overall cardiovascular health. | c4 |
For this assignment you need to write a fictional narrative. Fiction means that it is made-up and did not really happen. Narrative means that it tells a story.
Pretend you got to go on an amazing vacation to a far away destination. Research your destination to learn what kinds of things there are to do, see and eat there. Then use that information to write a fictional story about what you did on the best day of your vacation. Your story can only be about ONE DAY. | c4 |
This entry was posted in fiction, poetry, prose and tagged bottle deposit, bottles, cans, cart lady, coca cola zero, monday, old asian women, recycling, shopping cart. Bookmark the permalink.
five and a palm. fun to say. flowy and easy to imagine – the whole piece. and yeah, it’s worth it. | c4 |
Abstract street. Zooming street lights.
Shot of the highway and car lights taken from the car with a tripod while travelling. | c4 |
Search Results for "women fitness stretching"
Close up shot of a young beautiful athletic woman working out in group Fitness Class stretching her arms. Sportswomen exercising at the gym. Lifestyle, athletics, motivation concept.
Shot of three beautiful young athletic women exercising together at the gym, stretching their legs. Sportswomen exercising during Fitness Class. Lifestyle, flexibility, gymnastics concept.
Beautiful young athletic woman smiling joyfully while stretching at the gym with her female friends. Attractive fitness girls exercising together. Flexibility, muscles, strength concept.
Woman stretching. Legs stretches fitness woman training one leg toe touch stretching on outdoor grass. Sport girl exercising doing body stretch on floor before strength training outdoors in summer.
Stretching exercise. Woman doing standing lower back pain stretch fitness woman stretching her legs holding on her ankles with toe touching exercises in summer outdoors. | c4 |
The children sit in two rows facing each other, with a space between. Blindfold two children, one being the "cat" and the other the "mouse."
The "cat" stands at one end of the row and the "mouse" at the other. They start in opposite directions and the "cat" tries to catch the "mouse." The children may give hints as to the direction the players are to go in. When the "mouse" is caught, he becomes "cat," and another child is chosen as "mouse." | c4 |
Silly but I can't wait to see them next week.
Mine got lost before UPS received it for delivery. Still waiting on my replacement. | c4 |
What is a conversion cost? What are prime costs? 3-10 Why might the term average cost be misleading?
How do total variable costs, total fixed costs, average variable costs, and average fixed costs react to changes in the cost driver?
What does the term unit cost mean?
Distinguish between product costs and period costs.
Explain the difference between cost of goods sold and cost of goods manufactured. 3-15 What are the three types of inventory in a manufacturing firm?
Cost management information should be timely and accurate. Which of these attributes is most important? Why? | c4 |
Have you made Double Decker Burgers?
1. In a large bowl, combine the first six ingredients; mix well.
2. Shape into 12 thin patties. Broil 4 inches from the heat for 7-8 minutes on each side or until no longer pink.
3. In a small bowl, combine cheese, mayonnaise, mustard and relish; mix well.
4. Spoon 2 tablespoons on each burger. Return to the broiler just until cheese softens.
5. Place lettuce and onion on bottom of buns; top each with two burgers, tomato and top of bun.
This recipe contains potential food allergens and will effect people with Wheat, Egg, Gluten, Tomato, Cheese, Malt, Mustard, Beef, Onion allergies. | c4 |
While this list can seem daunting, the rewards for those who plan and succeed will be great. Sustainability Planning is a vital element of a company’s management process. These plans identify which of the externalities listed above pose the greatest threat to an organization’s future and allocate resource to action plans that assure competitive advantage and sustainability. Sustainability has many parallels with the Quality Movement of the 1980’s. Like Quality, well-reasoned sustainability measures generate cash in the short-term and profitability in the long-term. I’m happy to field questions on this topic and please comment on any successes you have had with sustainability initiatives. | c4 |
JESUS, A NO NONSENSE GUY.
PETER & PAUL: SATANS or SAINTS?
CELIACS DIS-EASE: An intolerance to wheat. | c4 |
Limiting children’s recreational screen use has been linked with improved cognition. Children aged eight to 11 who used screens for fun for less than two hours a day performed better in tests of mental ability, a study found. Combining this with nine to 11 hours of sleep a night was found to be best for performance. | c4 |
“But that never happened,” Mr. Collins said. “I’ve had four survivors that I’ve known personally take . . . | c4 |
Alaska is a vast place, with great diversity in its ecology and its population.
About half of Alaska's population is scattered in the over 200 tiny villages which dot the state's riverbanks and coastline.
Alaska plays an important role in the Arctic and what happens in Alaska can have an impact on the rest of the Arctic and the entire globe. | c4 |
Also known as wind scorpions, jerrymunglum, sun scorpion and sun spiders, the camel spider may grow to a length of 12 inches (including legs) and generally inhabits warm and arid habitats, including virtually all warm deserts and scrublands on all continents; with the exception of Antarctica and Australia. Some camel spiders may also live in grassland or forest habitats.
Because the camel spider moves very quickly on land, in comparison to other invertebrates, most species successfully feeding on termites, darkling beetles, and other small ground-dwelling arthropods. Furthermore, some camel spiders are opportunistic feeders and have been recorded feeding on rodents, snakes and small lizards.
Because of the many exaggerated urban legends about their size, speed, behaviour, appetite, and lethality, many people who encounter a camel spider are startled by; or afraid of them. The greatest threat this species of spider poses to people, is a defensive bite they may inflict when handled. There is little or no chance of death directly caused by the bite, however due to the strong muscles of their chelicerae, they can produce a large, ragged wound that is prone to infection. Other than that, camel spiders have no venom, do not spin webs and generally do not cause pest control problems, for property and home owners. | c4 |
Everyone, even the brightest students, have their off days when it comes to studying. What you should avoid is to get in the habit of not studying because you are not in the mood. There are ways so that you can motivate yourself to study. If you want to know how then read on.
Most often, reminding yourself of your goals in life can trigger you to study once again. What do you want to achieve five or ten years from now? Think of all the positive things that you can have if you are already successful in your chosen career. You have to look at studying as a bridge that can help you get to your goals faster.
When you are faced with loads of study materials and books, you will naturally feel overwhelmed and then you start to procrastinate and eventually stop studying. Too much worrying will not help you. What you should do is to move yourself into action. Little things can add up even if it is just a small action. Worry always disappears in the face of action. So you have to force yourself to start studying or start writing.
You can also visualize yourself that you are already taking action in studying. Visualize that you are making your study schedule, typing in your laptop or solving a math problem. This simple step can keep you focused on your task and what you need to do.
You have to dare yourself to succeed. There are many barriers and hurdles we have to overcome to achieve success. You should always allow yourself to do the things that can contribute to your personal achievement. Daring yourself to do the right thing for you is a good way to bring out the best in you. | c4 |
I haven’t tried alkaline drinking water yet, but I heard it’s good for the body. Some people claim that alkaline water helps remove toxins from the body, while others say it helps slow down the aging process and that it prevents certain diseases, like cancer. However, I read somewhere that there is no scientific basis for such health benefits. Nevertheless, I still want to try it.
According to wwww.livestrong.com, “Alkaline water is water with a higher pH level.” Now I have no idea what alkaline drinking water tastes like or how much it costs, but I know that ph meters are used to test the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of liquid. The pH level of alkaline water is anything higher than 7.
Do you know where I can buy alkaline drinking water?
This entry was posted in Alkaline Drinking Water, Alkaline Water. Bookmark the permalink. | c4 |
The insulation on the keyboard cables tends to crack and flake off, You can see in the last two photos that I’ve replaced the keyboard cable with an AT Keyboard extender cable. I cut one end off the extender and soldered it to the keyboard.
Keyboard cable replaced, old taped up cable shown. | c4 |
A great way to use up small pieces of fabric, Cheryl. My fabric keeps multiplying no matter how I try to get it down.
Same here, Pam. Seems even if I give some away there is always more. | c4 |
His sexiness can not be contained.
Holy smokes! Des is definitely missing out! | c4 |
a nail gathered up and penetrating the sole of the horse's hoof. See hoof abscess, tetanus. Called also nail prick. | c4 |
One of the most important ways of caring for your baby during the first few months is through exclusive breastfeeding. Breastfeeding your baby comes with a number of health benefits for your baby, which is why experts advocate that you give your baby as much breast milk as possible. The human breast milk is known to be rich in all the nutrients required to give your baby the best start in life to ensure optimum health. According to studies by expert pediatricians, your baby is not the only one who benefits from breastfeeding, as a nursing mum, breastfeeding your baby helps you in a number of ways as well. Below are some well-known benefits of breastfeeding.
Studies by National Institute of Health and Environmental Health Sciences have shown that breastfeeding your babies lowers their risk of dying before 28 days and one year by 20%.
The first breast milk your body produces for your baby contains a substance known as secretory immunoglobulin found in large amounts in colostrums and smaller amounts in mature breast milk. This substance guards your baby against invading germs through the formation of mucous membranes in the intestines, throat and nose of your baby.
Adequate breastfeeding has been found to help children avoid several diseases that strike in later years like high cholesterol, diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease, etc. Studies have shown that babies who were not breastfed face high risks of developing diseases like ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease.
Babies who are fed a formula based on cow's milk or soy tend to have more allergic reactions than breastfed babies. The layer of protection formed on babies intestinal tract when they are fed on breast milk are not found in babies fed on other types of milks, which exposes them to allergies and lots of other health problems.
Various researches carried out by notable scholars have shown that there is a connection between breastfeeding and your baby’s cognitive development. Prolonged and exclusive breastfeeding have been found to give babies very high IQ levels. | c4 |
Behavioral issues are very different from obedience issues. Behavior Modification is individualized to your specific dog and problem.
A suitably trained and qualified behavioral specialist is required to diagnose and implement a behavior modification plan. Behavior Modification is intense training and personalization that requires private training. Please contact us for more information on your personal dog and situation.
Board and train is the premium and most effective training offered. Your dog will live with the trainer for 1-4 weeks while the training plan is implemented. Board and Train is ideal for most behavioral issues, general obedience, and unsuccessful previous training. The safety of our trainers and their pets are a priority, therefore dogs with severe aggression issues will not be considered. | c4 |
Okay, lurkers. I know you’re out there. Reading and commenting – or not. And that’s fine. But today, I’m curious – who’s reading me? Everybody holla! | c4 |
To say the least I was quite skeptical about buying a security system online and with a DIY installation. But now having had the chance to check it out, I'm quite impressed relative to the much higher priced, but technologically inferior options out there. Plus DIY installation is simple and saves a bundle. | c4 |
Beauty products targeted for every skin type and concern, that are based on natural ingredients! Sisley is a French sucessful brand, with great success worldwide, having been founded in 1976, by Hubert and Isabelle D'Ornano. Most of the production is carried out in France at a plant located in Blois, while the Research and Development Laboratories are located in Paris. | c4 |
iWindsurf Community :: View topic - Spirit Airlines and a windsurfer?
Spirit Airlines and a windsurfer?
Posted: Thu Jan 10, 2019 9:38 pm Post subject: Spirit Airlines and a windsurfer?
Their website says they don't take a windsurfer, but do take surfboards (2 boards in a bag for $100 each way, which the website says covers overweight and oversize fees).
My board with a mast, boom and 2 sails is about 42 pounds and not much bigger than a surfboard coffin bag. How strict are they if I say it is a surfboard?
I don't have a specific answer to this, but I've lied about it and gotten away with it by telling them I had beach umbrellas and other gear in with it. | c4 |
ঘ. The States of Guernsey issue their own sterling coins and banknotes (see Guernsey pound).
↑ F. Le Maistre, The Language of Auregny, Jersey/Alderney 1982. | c4 |
No pants parties. — This is where I have poured some of my heart in soul, in ink!
So my friend said "come meet us out!"
And I replied with "I have pizza, beer and no pants"
Totally understood, I was not going anywhere. I mean, this is what bliss is like! There is something so comfy about getting home and shedding the bla's of the day, unhooking the bra (when I wear one) taking off smothering pants, and being bare foot. Freedom!
People always assume no pants parties are something more, involving another human, but I can assure you it is usually as non-sexual as it can be. I'm not sure why I like to be pants free, I do love jeans and leggings, but getting home and throwing on an over-sized shirt, shorts if the kiddo is home, and lounging around is a certain level of heaven.
Fair warning, if the pants have come off, chances are I will not be going anywhere. | c4 |
Pizza Delivery by Michaela Wuehr? What’s in the Box?
Munich Artists Hanging Out at Stroke Ltd.
Art News From Everywhere But Munich – Can Your Art Last Half a Million Years? | c4 |
Conrad may have pulled off his last heist, but not without making some new enemies. Is anyone in his life safe? Find out in "The Hit List!"
Collects THIEF OF THIEVES #20-25. | c4 |
I've installed some new fonts that I'd like to use in my visualizations. Unfortunately, only some of the fonts that I've installed are available in Tableau. Are there limitations on the types of fonts that Tableau supports? If so, what fonts types does Tableau support? Any ideas why I'd see only some of the custom fonts that I've installed?
Whichever fonts that are on your machine should be able to be recognized by Tableau. One thing to try is to make sure to close Tableau Desktop and relaunch it AFTER the fonts have been installed on the machine. Hope this helps!
The list of fonts in a Tableau drop down list will not necessarily list all the fonts on the machine. If yours doesn't appear, you can just type the name of the font in the box and Tableau will use it.
I believe we only list fonts we know about and have checked that they work in Desktop. | c4 |
Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchi, the airways that branch out from the trachea (wind pipe) into the lungs. The inflammation can be caused by viruses, bacteria and other particles which irritate the bronchi.The symptoms include persistent cough lasting for more than 5 days, wheezing, fatigue, shortness of breath, chest discomfort, headache, fever and chills. Bronchitis is of two types: acute and chronic. Acute bronchitis is characterized by cough that lasts around three weeks. Chronic bronchitis is defined by cough that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years.
The underlying causes of bronchitis include tobacco smoke, dust, air pollution and low resistance. The prevention of bronchitis should, therefore, include abstaining from tobacco smoking and avoiding secondary smoke, washing hand frequently to reduce the risk of infection, boosting immunity and wearing a mask when in areas with high air pollution.
Treatment of bronchitis includes drinking lots of water, getting plenty of rest and using over the counter medication to relieve pain and cough.
© 2018. drkailash.in. All Rights Reserved. | c4 |
A street cam in Peru filmed a guy walking down a side street, and he's so glued to his phone that he falls into an open manhole. He didn't see the caution tape. A passerby called the fire department. | c4 |
Holiday travel is tough enough without the added complication of bed bugs. Our infographic shows you how to do a quick inspection to be sure your hotel room is free of these biting pests.
Read More about How do you get bed bugs? | c4 |
Uhoh! These Pets Have Been Up to No Good!
These naughty pets couldn't help but make a mess and cause mayhem while their owners weren't looking!
Which pet do you think is the naughtiest?
The dog giving himself a makeover?
The pillow fight poop puppers? | c4 |
If you've been in real estate the last 10 years, chances are, you've heard of a short sale. So what is a short sale? Selling your property for less than the balance owed (the proceeds from the sale fall short of the amount necessary to pay off your mortgage) is a short sale.
A short sale is an option to avoid foreclosure for homeowners. In a short sale, your mortgage lender agrees to accept less than the amount owed on the debt. If you qualify for a short sale, your Realtor will work closely with a short sale negotiator to determine a fair sale price based on current market conditions. Your lender will also set a timeline for the sale of your home.
Click the following links to download your specific lender's short sale package*. The link will forward you to the Dropbox folder containing the documents. You may view, print, or download at your leisure.
*Packages deemed current to the best of knowledge. Lender may require updated or additional documents during the short sale process.
This is not intended to be legal advice. | c4 |
Brown and white dog barking.
Old stray dog sitting on the ground.
Silhouette Young girl listening something attentively. | c4 |
Listening to His Purple Highness all day, so this felt like the obvious choice.
Prince. Do I need to say more? | c4 |
What would u spend a $1,000 on?
What do you usually do before going to sleep?
Is kindness always winning the evil?
What brand bog roll do you use?
If u had one wish what would u wish for?
Would you rather stay indoor or outdoor for your romantic dinner date?
How do you get acquainted with people who seem interesting for you?
Are you avoiding someone ? Or trying to ?
What's your date of birth? (This sounds too personal) what's your birthday?
Would you ever date someone 10 years older than you? | c4 |
Weighty Matters: Funny or Die channels the Michele Bachmann crazy!
All I have to say is, "Poor America".
We've got our shares of crazies here, but wow.
Today's Funny Friday has Funny or Die spinning gold from Michele Bachmann and her concerns regarding the HPV vaccine. | c4 |
The perfect gift to help your loved ones with their stress, aches & pains, and general well-being.
Gift certificates are valid for any massage service. Expires one year after date of purchase. | c4 |
To teach players not to hold onto the ball too long.
One ball is being passed around, with each passer calling out the name of the receiver. The pass and throw must be received and released quickly. If coach thinks player(s) have held on to the ball too long, player must swim across pool and back to position.
Add more and more balls into the circle to help with hand-eye coordination and verbal skills towards teammates. | c4 |
Baltimore Ravens receiver LaQuan Williams suffered a hamstring injury in the Baltimore Ravens preseason finale against the St. Louis Rams, per Aaron Wilson of the Baltimore Sun.
Williams will be evaluated today to determine the seriousness of the injury.
Williams, who has been with the Ravens since 2011, has mostly played on special teams for Baltimore. | c4 |
Where can I find a Hooters Casino Hotel Cashier/ supervisor resume example?
This is an actual resume example of a Cashier/ supervisor. LiveCareer’s Resume Directory contains real resumes created by subscribers using LiveCareer’s Resume Builder. | c4 |
Joe Hill’s amazing novel NOS4A2 is about to get the adaptation treatment and AMC just let loose with the release date – June 2nd, write it down, you’re not going to want to forget it – and we also get a look at the trailer that they debuted at WonderCon. Too cool!
Remember, June 2nd is the series debut – that gives you a few months to read the book – if you haven’t already! | c4 |
The cast talks about liftings effect on biomechanics, tightening your nutrition, shoulder injuries, and much more!
Martin Rooney joins Kevin to talk about training around the world and MMA Training. Kevin and Jon open up the mailbag to talk about sets and reps, injuries, and more. And PJ Striet talks about the fitness industry with Kevin.
Kevin talks about ZMA, Casein, The Anabolic Diet, Creatine, and much more! | c4 |
The link "Add Friends" ask my phone number or Google, LinkedIn or Yahoo! account, but I want my actual Skype Contacts from my Skype account!. The same contacts that I get from when I connect from another 3 versions. | c4 |
funny – A Guy Called Bloke and K9 Doodlepip!
QQ – Ask Me a Question, Anything You Like!
QQ – As Me a Question, Anything You Like! | c4 |
When it comes to building a case for a project, cutting the joinery is sometimes the easiest part of the job. The challenge comes when you get out the glue and clamps for the assembly. This article shows you 10 simple tips and techniques to make sure your case comes out square with strong tight-fitting joints. | c4 |
99 beautiful shrimp pictures from my Facebook group Aquarium Shrimp Keeping. Thank you to all the people that helped contribute to this page it is really appreciated.
3 Reasons You Should Subscribe To Marks Shrimp Tanks YouTube Channel. | c4 |
Louise O’Neill talks about her experience of watching Asking For It for the first time at the Everyman.
‘What’s it like to be an Irish teenager embracing womanhood? More than a little scary’.
Author Louise O’Neill talks modern life and sexuality with secondary-school students in Cork.
The kids are alright, but make sure by being part of the conversation.
Author Louise O’Neill and Mary Crilly from Cork Sexual Violence Centre talk with secondary-school students in Cork. | c4 |
The Second Amendment in the Bill of Rights was melded together from several proposals and simplified into twenty-seven words. This brevity is often blamed for the enigmatic meaning that has fueled the recent debate on guns, government, and individual rights. Lawyers, judges, historians, and political scientists delve repeatedly into the 18th century world of the Framers in attempts to ascertain the intended meaning of the Second Amendment.
There are several opposing interpretations of the Second Amendment. For some, the amendment is strictly martial and should be seen as ensuring the continued funding and arming of state militias. Others see the militia clause as a utopian ideal that only amplifies a direct right of the individual to keep and bear arms. Other variations range from reading a right to revolution in the amendment to dismissing the amendment entirely as obsolete and outdated for the twenty-first century.
The recent Supreme Court decisions of District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008 – Opinion PDF) and McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 3025 (2010 – Opinion PDF) specifically addressed two of the most contentious interpretations of the Second Amendment. In District of Columbia v. Heller the individual ownership of guns for self-defense was recognized as a Second Amendment right by the Supreme Court for the first time. In 2010, McDonald v. Chicago then added that the Fourteenth Amendment incorporated the Second Amendment extending the amendment’s reach to state governments. Both of these decisions were split five to four and dissenting opinions highlighted the difference in interpretations of the Second Amendment that persist. While it is expected that these rulings will remain as precedent for some time, the history and debate about the Second Amendment continues. Indeed, if history has taught us anything it is that this amendment has not been easily or clearly defined since its ratification under the Bill of Rights.
One of the difficulties in interpreting the Second Amendment is deciding which sources to use for analysis. In part, the choice in sources depends on a scholars training and background. Lawyers and judges often focus on the amendment in one of two ways: original intent or original meaning. Both methods are focused on finding the correct legal interpretation. Original intent concentrates on the word choice, word placement, and, sometimes, drafts of the amendment as it made its way through legislation. The focus on original meaning includes a broader spectrum of primary sources to elucidate the context and understanding of those writing the amendment. Popular sources include records from ratification at the state level, popular opinions from Framers such as The Federalist Papers, and private correspondence from key figures like James Madison. At times, the longer legal and legislative tradition from England may also be discussed to further clarify meaning. Historians often add even more sources using a wider range of documents from both before and after ratification in attempts to gain a picture of the overall context of the late 18th century. This broader stroke can help inform how the amendment was understood but can include interpretation beyond the intended meaning of the Framers. Nonetheless, historians find viewing the amendment in this full context more informative than restricting sources to a single moment that cannot be pinpointed with certainty. The very idea that there is a singular "truth" is both limiting and unrealistic and runs the risk of fabricating a monolithic meaning instead of embracing the disparate opinions that existed even when the Bill of Rights was drafted. Everyday people often countered the ideal (and some may argue elite) expectations of the Framers. For example, our forthcoming article on popular rebellions will show that many "rebels" thought they were following the mandate of the Second Amendment. While falling outside the direct legal interpretation, these populist views are still informative and highlight the multiple interpretations of the amendment even as it was being ratified. Both approaches have created a large library of material for understanding the Second Amendment.
Partial: "The great object is, that every man be armed...Every one who is able may have a gun."
Whole: "May we not discipline and arm them [the states], as well as Congress, if the power be concurrent? so that our militia shall have two sets of arms, double sets of regimentals, &c.; and thus, at a very great cost, we shall be doubly armed. The great object is, that every man be armed. But can the people afford to pay for double sets of arms, &c.? Every one who is able may have a gun. But we have learned, by experience, that, necessary as it is to have arms, and though our Assembly has, by a succession of laws for may years, endeavored to have the militia completely armed, it is still far from being the case."
-- Patrick Henry speaking at the 1788 Virginia debate to ratify the Constitution. The partial quote was used by Stephen Halbrook in The Right to Keep and Bear Arms.
In addition to sources used, the approaches taken by lawyers and historians often differ. Lawyers examine the Second Amendment looking for an exact interpretation while historians are content discussing the "grey areas" with the prospect that not all explorations lead to a definitive resolution. These expectations often influence how these scholars use their sources. While both aim to argue a particular point of view, attorneys are trained to prove a case. This has led to accusations of cherry-picking quotes or highlighting minority opinions until they appear to speak for a majority. Alternatively, historians have been accused of the same. Proving one's thesis has even led to accusations of evidence fabrication and misuse as exemplified in the controversy around Arming America: The Origins of a National Gun Culture by Michael A. Bellesiles. Additionally, primary sources are interpreted in their historical context by both lawyers and historians. However, law and legislation become active/living documents for lawyers and court decisions are used outside their direct historical context. The opinion of a court can easily stand as good law for half a century or longer. Historians are more likely to push for the reexamination of court decisions in their immediate context highlighting popular reactions to a ruling rather than focusing solely on the judicial interpretation. Neither of these approaches are incorrect and both create a rich debate. But an awareness of these differences is useful for navigating the sources and conclusions as one delves into this controversy.
Indeed, whether lawyer, historian, or political scientist, accusations of bias and agendas abound. A scholar's training does influence the way they use sources or present a thesis. However, despite these differences in scholarship, there are real problems with bias when interpreting the Second Amendment. All scholars struggle with understanding the 18th century context and must be vigilant against imposing current ideals and perceptions on the past. Contemporary debates can also seep into past interpretations or influence the selection of sources towards a predetermined conclusion. Especially with the Bill of Rights, there is the danger of "rights-talk" with its "exaggerated absoluteness" that not only limits modern discourse but influences the study of the amendment to exclude any consideration of alternate or even concurrent interpretations. Inflammatory and narrow labels are often used to further accentuate difference over compromise. For example, an author may set up the debate between gun-rights activists against "gun prohibitionists" which suggests an all or nothing dichotomy. Finally, both gun-rights and gun-control political groups have funded research which perpetuates the idea that there are only two viewpoints available and also suggests an automatic bias in the scholar. The political motivation and economic self-interest of some of these financial backers suggests both scholars and their audience should fine tune their critical thinking and analysis when researching the Second Amendment.
Despite the challenges of bias, the rich selection of sources and variety in scholarship have created several angles for interpreting the Second Amendment. In order to better evaluate the meaning of the Second Amendment it is necessary to understand perceptions of citizenship, power, and liberty in the 18th century. A review of the historical context for the Bill of Rights which follows will provide the background behind some of more common interpretations of the Second Amendment. This introduction attempts to summarize some popular ideas and should not be considered all-inclusive or absolute. The rich scholarship on the Second Amendment shows consistently that even the Founders did not agree on one interpretation.
Second Amendment scholarship has highlighted several political ideals and historical experiences behind the citizen militia and the armed citizen. The works of Niccolo Machiavelli are credited for invoking a republican ideal that was expanded by later authors such as James Harrington, John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon, and Walter Moyle (to name a few). These ideas were fueled by the historical experiences in England that transferred questions of sovereignty and safeguarding rights to the new colonies in America.
Early modern republican ideals centered on virtuous citizens who preserved a just government. Machiavelli promoted the citizen-soldier as superior to standing armies because they were loyal to their communities and thus more fierce in protecting their homes. Soldiers who sold their services to the highest bidder, were susceptible to corruption, and could be used by tyrants to oppress others. The virtuous citizen-soldier was willing to take up arms to protect the state and would return to civil occupations after a threat was defeated. Their prowess would make standing armies and their corruptible soldiers obsolete. This ideal mirrored the highly romanticized view of Republican Rome where mythical men like Cincinnatus put down the plow to engage the enemy but then humbly returned to the farm when their civic role was done. Later political theorists like Harrington associated these heroes with the 17th century yeoman farmer who likewise courageously left the field when called to service. These yeomen were property owners which Harrington thought would make them independent from the coercion of landlords and employers. This independence meant they could provide the self-governing voice required of citizens in a strong state.
The idealized English yeoman farmer offered a tangible example of the citizen-soldier for political theorists. Since 1181, the Assize of Arms under King Henry II required knights and freemen to arm themselves in service to their king and country. These freemen not only served in the King's wars but also protected their communities and were drafted into the sheriff's posse comitatus as needed. Over the centuries the types of arms required of militiamen changed with the technology but they were expected to only supply weapons and armor that matched their social status. This structured militia, that included a wider breadth of Englishmen, was praised by theorists like Machiavelli and Francis Bacon for keeping England secure and enabling the Crown's victories on the continent. However, by the 17th century some complained the yeomen militia shirked their duties and left their defence in the hands of tradesmen and laborers in select militias. Even after the Restoration in 1660, Charles II's volunteer militias were better organized than the general militia. James II later argued that he needed to retain the army since the general militia was not up to task. However, James II's promotion of Catholics contrary to the Test Acts, including promoting Catholic officers in the military, helped inspire the Glorious Revolution which ousted the Catholic monarch in favor of the Protestant William of Orange and Mary in 1689. Both were required to sign a Declaration of Rights by Parliament which acknowledged that James II had wrongfully kept a standing army "in time of peace" and caused "several good subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to law." It also declared that, "subjects which are Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law."
The meaning of the arms clauses in the English Declaration of Rights of 1689 is also contested when used to interpret the English legal influence on the Second Amendment. For some, the declaration did not grant any new privileges but ensured the return of control to the Protestant majority. Although the "ancient rights and liberties" included some access to arms, these were still determined by law and social status which included civic expectations and limitations. Others argue the use of "their defence" instead of "their common defence" means the right to arms included self-defense separate from a specific civic duty. The armed citizen could act for the greater good but also independently respond to protect his person, property, and liberty.
The armed citizen, although not necessarily exclusive from the citizen-soldier, was a free man because he recognized he was responsible for protecting his freedom. Machiavelli noted that just as states exist by arms or fortune, so it is with the citizens who are trained in arms. Trenchard and Gordon, like Locke, note self-defense as a natural right that justifies the armed citizen who uses force to defend his liberty against unjust tyrants and governments. Both roles work together to protect society and the state: the armed citizen protects his own which instills a love for liberty and expands his knowledge of arms and his rights which in turn ensures his response as the citizen-soldier for a just government. However, for some political theorists, both libertarian and republican, the English yeomen were too complacent to match this ideal and they instead looked to the American colonies where "an agrarian society of armed, self-sufficient husbandmen" flourished.
The circumstances of colonial living impacted the expectations for armed citizens. Several 17th century statutes required adult males to keep arms for militia service similar to the laws in England. But changes in England prompted laws like the Game Act of 1671 which banned guns (at least on paper) for those with less than £100 in property value. Conversely, the colonists were required to arm and efforts were made to ensure they were supplied. Even after Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, Virginian colonists were still allowed to keep arms. By 1684, the militia statute in Virginia specifically protected militiamen from the confiscation of their weapons such as arms taken in "disstresse" (payment for money owed) or impressed for service. Circumstance did create different expectations of armed citizens than in England, however, access to arms was still not universal. Some colonies barred indentured servants and non-Protestants from owning firearms while race also outlawed guns to Native Americans, free African Americans, those of mixed decent, and slaves. Over the next century these statutes continued to change as colonies expanded and urban centers developed. By the time of the Seven Years' War/French and Indian War (1754-1763) the militia were still viable but considered inadequate for the scale of the war and Britain increased the presence of the standing army.
The standing army in the colonies became a focal point of tension at the same time taxes to pay for the war incited protest. The use of army soldiers to police the population escalated tensions and the Quartering Act of 1765 forced colonists to house and feed these military police in their communities. During the Liberty Riot (1768) Boston residents rallied against the British sailors acting for the port authority which lead to a munitions ban and the confiscation of some arms. For many colonists, the threat of military oppression was dramatically realized in the Boston Massacre of 1770. In addition to the confiscation of arms in hotbeds like Boston, efforts were also made to disarm militias or render them obsolete. Colonists mustered militia companies in spite of these efforts which famously came to a breaking point with the "shot heard 'round the world" at Lexington and Concord in 1775.
During the American Revolution the rhetoric praising the militia as the answer to standing armies continued but was again tempered by the realities in the field. At the start of the war several states edited their charters and constitutions to include a Declaration of Rights that promoted the militia as the natural protector of liberty. However, the experience on the battlefield was mixed and General George Washington often found militiamen inefficient compared to the Continental soldiers. Washington defended the necessity of developing an army in a letter to the Continental Congress in 1776 where he noted that, "To place any dependence upon Militia is, assuredly, resting upon a broken staff."
"It may be laid down as a primary position, and the basis of our system, that every Citizen who enjoys the protection of a free Government, owes not only a proportion of his property, but even of his personal services to the defence of it, and consequently that the Citizens of America (with a few legal and official exceptions) from 18 to 50 Years of Age should be borne on the Militia Rolls, provided with uniform Arms, and so far accustomed to the use of them, that the Total strength of the Country might be called forth at a Short Notice on any very interesting Emergency, for these purposes they ought to be duly organized into Commands of the same formation; (it is not of very great importance, whether the Regiments are large or small, provided a sameness prevails in the strength and composition of them and I do not know that a better establishment, than that under which the Continental Troops now are, can be adopted."
Washington was not alone in the belief that citizens "owed" service to their country which, as outlined above, was a central characteristic of the republican citizen who served the community good over personal gain. But defining what was good for the community often differed and conflicts of interest impacted the efficiency of the militia. Shay's Rebellion (1786-1787) pitted urban interests against rural economies and some of the militia sent to suppress the rebellion sided with the rebels' cause instead. Both the rebels and their militia sympathizers believed their actions a just response to oppression while city and state officials bemoaned the lack of respect for the legal process and government. Shay's Rebellion was not the only event to highlight the disorganization and insubordination of local militias but it did galvanize the efforts to form a central government under a new constitution that could maintain stability for the new country.
"7. That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and their own state, or the United States, or for the purpose of killing game; and no law shall be passed for disarming the people or any of them, unless for crimes committed, or real danger of public injury from individuals; and as standing armies in the time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up: and that the military shall be kept under strict subordination to and be governed by the civil powers."
Federalists argued that a declaration of rights was not necessary for the national government since these rights were already protected by state constitutions. Although not against a bill of rights, James Madison thought these "parchment barriers" could be limiting and unnecessarily threaten fundamental rights omitted from the document. Additionally, the Constitution was considered unique since the people were granting power to the government and therefore did not require declarations of their rights from a government obligated to them. But the insistence by Anti-Federalists on the inclusion of rights was popular and, in the end, ratification of the constitution in several states hinged on the assurances that a bill of rights would be considered by the first Congress. States forwarded their proposals for amendments which included several versions concerning the right to bear arms.
The experiences of Americans combined with the ideals expressed in political thought and the English legal heritage promoted the republican ideal of the citizen-soldier who not only protected the government when mustered but also protected freedom. The balancing and melding of all these ideas and experiences fell to the first Congress when they created the Bill of Rights.
The Bill of Rights was composed and then edited down from over a hundred proposed amendments submitted to the first Congress after the contentious ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
"XIII. That a well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that, in all cases, the military should be under strict subordination to, and be governed by, the civil power."
"Art. XVII. The people have a right to keep and to bear arms for the common defence. And as, in time of peace, armies are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be maintained without the consent of the legislature; and the military power shall always be held in an exact subordination to the civil authority and be governed by it."
"XIII. That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and the state; and as standing armies in the time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; And that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power."
As noted above, several variations of a Declaration of Rights were created by state governments before the U.S. Constitution was written. Eight states would add a Bill of Rights or Declaration of Rights to their state constitutions after the start of the Revolutionary War. These declarations were well known and influential in phrasing the Second Amendment. Some, like Virginia, included an amendment which focused on the role of militia in retaining civic authority and preventing standing armies. Massachusetts stated the people had a right keep and bear arms for the "common defence" which was interpreted by some contemporaries as too vague for not explicitly protecting the personal right to bear arms for self-defense. Most states followed the language stressing the militia similar to Virginia and Massachusetts. The Declaration of Rights for Pennsylvania and Vermont were two that explicitly protected the right of individuals to keep arms for their individual protection in addition to the defense of the state. Thus, even before the Bill of Rights was drafted, several versions and expectations for rights to arms were already enacted by the states.
"Seventeenth, That the people have a right to keep and bear arms; that a well regulated Militia composed of the body of the people trained to arms is the proper, natural and safe defence of a free State. That standing armies in time of peace are dangerous to liberty, and therefore ought to be avoided, as far as the circumstances and protection of the Community will admit; and that in all cases the military should be under strict subordination to and governed by the Civil power....Nineteenth, That any person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms ought to be exempted upon payment of an equivalent to employ another to bear arms in his stead."
"Eleventh, That each State respectively shall have the power to provide for organizing, arming and disciplining it's own Militia, whensoever Congress shall omit or neglect to provide for the same. That the Militia shall not be subject to Martial law, except when in actual service in time of war, invasion, or rebellion; and when not in the actual service of the United States, shall be subject only to such fines, penalties and punishments as shall be directed or inflicted by the laws of its own State."
“ARTICLE THE FIFTH. A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the People, being the best security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed, but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person.
On September 4, the Senate agreed to amend Article 5 to read as follows: A well regulated militia, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.
The mistrust of the central government was raised in the Congressional debate about this amendment on August 17, 1789. Representative Elbridge Gerry from Massachusetts objected to the inclusion of the clause protecting religious objectors because he was concerned the government would then "declare who are those religiously scrupulous," and effectively disarm political opponents. His objection was narrowly defeated by two votes in the House but this clause was later removed after the Senate debate. Some suggest the effort to protect religious objectors highlights the focus of this amendment on the duty expected of every citizen. However, others retain that the concern was to ensure a more general right to arms beyond any civic duty. Contemporary debates highlight the difficulty in discerning the exact meaning of these carefully phrased amendments. Indeed, the debates from 1789 show there were concerns the amendments would be misunderstood or even deliberately misconstrued. They also illustrate that agreement over the intended meaning and ideology was never absolute even as the Bill of Rights was written.
1 "Bill of Rights," The Charters of Freedom, National Archives.
2 Jack N Rakove, "The Perils of Originalism," in What Did the Constitution Mean To Early Americans?, ed. Edward Countryman (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999) 148.
3 Although his analysis is considered abusive by some scholars, Wills does highlight some of the quote splicing and other inconsistencies in scholarship. Garry Wills, "To Keep and Bear Arms," in Whose Right to Bear Arms did the Second Amendment Protect?, ed. Saul Cornell (Boston: Bedford, 2000) 66-67 and 73. After reading several books and articles I would note that this is done by both lawyers and historians but I have noted it more often with attorneys who I think are responding to their training.
4 Patricia Cohen, "Scholar Emerges From Doghouse," The New York Times, August 3, 2010.
5 Robert J. Spitzer, The Right to Bear Arms: Rights and Liberties Under the Law (ABC-CLIO, 2001) 52.
6 Jack N Rakove, Declaring Rights: A Brief Documentary History, The Bedford Series in History and Culture (Palgrave Macmillan, 1998) 18.
7 Stephen P Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed: The Evolution of a Constitutional Right (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984) ix.
8 Peter Finn, "NRA Money Helped Reshape Gun Law," Washington Post, March 13, 2013.
9 Several scholars note J.G.A. Pocock's thesis in The Machiavellian Moment as influential for understanding the significant texts and events of the 16th to 18th centuries that solidified republican thought.
10 Carl J. Richard, Greeks and Romans Bearing Gifts: How the Ancients Inspired the Founding Fathers (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008) 125-126.
11 Unlanded tradesmen and laborers could not be trusted since their votes could be paid for or coerced by their employers and landlords. Of course this ideal does not take into account the social expectations that also influenced yeomen farmers. Edmund S. Morgan, "The People in Arms: The Invincible Yeoman,” in Whose Right to Bear Arms did the Second Amendment Protect?, ed. Saul Cornell (Boston: Bedford, 2000) 127.
12 Roy G. Weatherup, "Standing Armies and Armed Citizens: An Historical Analysis of the Second Amendment," in Gun Control and the Constitution, ed. Robert J. Cottrol (New York: Garland Pub., 1994) 189.
13 Those who failed to raise the "hue and cry" or did not respond when called to participate in law enforcement could be fined or imprisoned. Joyce Lee Malcolm, "The Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms: The Common Law Tradition," in Gun Control and the Constitution, ed. Robert J. Cottrol (New York: Garland Pub., 1994) 233.
14 Morgan, "The People in Arms,” 125-126.
15 Robert Ward in Animadversions of Warre (1639) stated, "our yeomandrie would not be so proud and base to refuse to be taught, and to thinke it a shame to serve in their own armes, and to understand the use of them; were they but sensible, that there is not the worth of the peny in a kingdome well secured without the due use of Armes." Malcolm, "The Common Law Tradition," 233, 236 and 240-241.
16 Weatherup, "Standing Armies and Armed Citizens," 195.
17 "An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown," 1689, The Avalon Project of the Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School.
18 Weatherup, "Standing Armies and Armed Citizens," 198.
19 Malcolm, "The Common Law Tradition," 230-231.
20 Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, Ch.1 and Discourses, III Ch. 31, Project Gutenberg.
21 John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, An Argument, shewing that a Standing Army is inconsistent with a Free Government, and absolutely destructive to the Constitution of the English Monarchy, 1697, The Online Library of Liberty and Chapter 3 in John Locke, Second Treatise of Government, 1690, Project Gutenberg.
22 Robert E. Shalhope, "The Armed Citizen in the Early Republic," in Whose Right to Bear Arms did the Second Amendment Protect?, ed. Saul Cornell (Boston: Bedford, 2000) 34.
23 Find a summary of these statutes in Clayton Cramer's "Colonial Firearm Regulation," Journal on Firearms and Public Policy, Second Amendment Foundation, 16 (2004) 2-6.
24 But colonists were not allowed to assemble armed in groups of five or more unless officially mustered. Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed, 57.
25 "An act for the better supply of the country with armes and ammunition," III, The Statutes at Large (VA), ed. William Waller Hening (Philadelphia, 1823) 13-14.
26 Weatherup, "Standing Armies and Armed Citizens," 199.
27 Sailors were attempting to act on the port officials' order to seize John Hancock's ship Liberty that was the center for a smuggling/taxation dispute. Saul Cornell, A Well-regulated Militia: The Founding Fathers and the Origins of Gun Control in America (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2006) 10-14.
28 Lawrence Delbert Cress, "A Well-Regulated Militia: The Origins and Meaning of the Second Amendment," in Whose Right to Bear Arms did the Second Amendment Protect?, ed. Saul Cornell (Boston: Bedford, 2000) 53.
29 Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed, 74.
30 Morgan, "The People in Arms," 132-133.
31 Quoted in Weatherup, "Standing Armies and Armed Citizens," 203.
32 George Washington, "Sentiments on a Peace Establishment," May 2, 1783, The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745--1799, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931), The Founders' Constitution, The University of Chicago Press.
33 Cornell, A Well-regulated Militia, 31-34.
34 Our future article on Right to Insurrection will discuss these rebellions more closely.
35 For example see the comments by George Mason during the ratification debates in Virginia on June 14, 1788. Constitution Society.
36 The Address and Reasons of Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of Pennsylvania to their Constituents, December 12, 1787, Constitution Society.
37 James Madison, "James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, October 17, 1788," Letter, The Writings of James Madison, ed. Gaillard Hunt, The Library of Congress, American Memory.
38 Gordon S. Wood, "The American Science of Politics," in What Did the Constitution Mean To Early Americans?, ed. Edward Countryman (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999) 97.
39 Rakove, Declaring Rights, 36.
40 Saul Cornell found that during the ratification of the state constitution communities like Williamsburg raised objections that the declaration did not explicitly protect the "privilege to keep Arms in our houses for Our Own Defense." Cornell, A Well-regulated Militia, 25.
41 "Virginia Declaration of Rights," Wikisource.
42 "Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts," Wikisource.
43 "A Declaration of the Rights of the Inhabitants of the Commonwealth or State of Pennsylvania," Wikisource.
44 Rhode Island did not ratify the Constitution until 1790 so their recommendation was not specifically part of Madison's Bill of Rights in 1789. Kates notes several other popular amendments, such as the freedom of speech were proposed less often. Don B. Kates, Jr., "Handgun Prohibition and the Original Meaning of the Second Amendment,” in Gun Control and the Constitution: Sources and Explorations on the Second Amendment, ed. Robert J. Cottrol (New York: Garland Pub., 1994) 84.
45 "Ratification of the Constitution by the State of New Hampshire," June 21, 1788, The Avalon Project of the Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School.
46 "Ratification of the Constitution by the State of Virginia," June 26, 1788, The Avalon Project of the Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School.
47 Robert J. Spitzer, Gun Control: A Documentary and Reference Guide (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009) 36-37.
48 "The Congressional Register (August 17, 1789)," ConSource.org.
49 Unfortunately the Senate's debates were not recorded so we cannot be certain if the clause was removed for Gerry's reasons but the narrow margin of defeat suggests he was not alone in his concerns.
50 For examples, see the discussion on Gerry's statements in Cornell, A Well-regulated Militia, 61-62 and Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed, 77-79.
51 Seen in Madison's remarks during the Virginian ratification convention. Weatherup, "Standing Armies and Armed Citizens," 215-216.
52 "The minuteman ideal was far less individualistic than most gun rights people assume, and far more martial in spirit than most gun control advocates realize." Cornell, A Well-regulated Militia, 2.
53 Secretary of War Henry Knox proposed that citizenship should be withheld until one served in the militia, but this was unpopular. Don Higginbotham, "The Federalized Militia Debate: A Neglected Aspect of Second Amendment Scholarship," in Whose Right to Bear Arms did the Second Amendment Protect?, ed. Saul Cornell (Boston: Bedford, 2000) 109.
54 George Washington would have welcomed a select militia that was kept separate from the standing army but more efficient than the general militia. Ibid. 101-102 and 109-110. Most Anti-Federalists, like the authors of the Letters from a Federalist Farmer, did not like the idea.
55 The republican rhetoric tying armed citizens with free citizens has already been noted. The longevity of this ideal can also be seen in the rhetoric of abolitionists who embraced the idea of arming slaves so they could obtain the natural state of freedom. Additionally, during Reconstruction several Republican legislators believed keeping black Americans armed was the only way to ensure their continued freedom. Cornell, A Well-regulated Militia,154 and Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed, 100 and 153.
56 Excerpts from Beccaria's work was translated by Thomas Jefferson and sometimes falsely attributed to him because it supports several other comments by Jefferson for gun ownership. Cesare Beccaria, "On False Ideas of Utility," Of Crimes and Punishments, 1764, Constitution Society.
57 Early exclusions of citizenship could be based on economic class, religion, and race. The debate over the Fourteenth Amendment shows how racism largely influenced the limitation of citizenship. Spitzer, The Right to Bear Arms, 17-19 and Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed, 108-115.
58 Local rebellions were often viewed by others as too individual and not for the common good. Thomas Jefferson's letter to William Stephen Smith November 13, 1787 quoted in Weatherup, "Standing Armies and Armed Citizens," 205.
59 Washington mustered the militia against the Whiskey Rebellion (1791-1794) and John Adams did the same for Fries's Rebellion (1799-1800).
Beccaria, Cesare. Of Crimes and Punishments. 1764. Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/cb/crim_pun40.htm.
"Bill of Rights," The Charters of Freedom, National Archives. http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/.
Cornell, Saul. A Well-regulated Militia: The Founding Fathers and the Origins of Gun Control in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
-----, ed. Whose Right to Bear Arms did the Second Amendment Protect? Boston: Bedford, 2000.
Cottrol, Robert J., ed. Gun Control and the Constitution: Sources and Explorations on the Second Amendment. New York: Garland Pub., 1994.
Countryman, Edward, ed. What Did the Constitution Mean To Early Americans? Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999.
Elliot, Jonathan, ed. The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution. III Philadelphia: Washington, Taylor & Maury, 1836. Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/rc/rat_va_12.htm.
Locke, John. Second Treatise of Government. 1690. Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7370.
Machiavelli, Niccolò The Prince, Ch.1 and Discourses, III Ch. 31, Project Gutenberg, http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/563.
Madison, James. "James Madison to Thomas Jefferson." October 17, 1788. Letter. The Writings of James Madison. Edited by Gaillard Hunt. The Library of Congress, American Memory. http://memory.loc.gov/.
Rakove, Jack. Declaring Rights: A Brief Documentary History. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998.
Richard, Carl J. Greeks and Romans Bearing Gifts: How the Ancients Inspired the Founding Fathers. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008.
-----. The Right to Bear Arms: Rights and Liberties Under the Law. ABC-CLIO, 2001.
Trenchard, John and Thomas Gordon. An Argument, shewing that a Standing Army is inconsistent with a Free Government, and absolutely destructive to the Constitution of the English Monarchy. 1697. The Online Library of Liberty. http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2315/220983.
As is illustrated in the lamentably brief summary above, the context surrounding the Second Amendment is not simple. There are several events, ideas, and expectations that influence actions taken in the past. Unraveling all the puzzle pieces can be engaging, frustrating and galling. The expectations and ideology of the Founders varied greatly, which is exemplified in the debates surrounding the ratification of the Constitution and the disparate opinions expressed about how to respond to challenges that arose in the early years of the new nation. The same could be said for the modern interpretations of the Second Amendment. Scholarship is rich with sources that offer several interpretations around several aspects of the amendment. At the very heart of these competing interpretations are three main arguments - that the Second Amendment protects an individual right, a collective right, or a civic right.
The Second Amendment protects a personal right to bear arms for self-defense so an individual can protect their life, liberty, and property. These arms also help individuals protect the country in times of need but likewise serve as a reminder to the government to respect the liberties of its free citizens. The Second Amendment was designed to protect the states and the state militias against encroachment by the federal government. An individual only has the right to keep arms in service of the militia and bear them to protect the sovereignty of the state and maintain order for the state. The Second Amendment protects the people and their government (both federal and state) through the militias. Citizens have a duty to keep and bear arms that can be regulated (e.g. assigned and inventoried) to maintain a strong militia and negate the need for a standing army.
These summaries are based on an evaluation of several interpretations of the Second Amendment. Although these charts are not exhaustive, they do provide a guide to some of the more common arguments made for interpreting this amendment. In some instances, the questions posed have more than one answer within a given category. The three categories are meant to simplify the subject but does not deny the variation that exists even among these interpretations.
What do the individual words and word placement in the Second Amendment mean?
- The "right of the people to keep and bear Arms" is the focus of the amendment and protects a natural right that does not disappear under government.
- The use of "the people" instead of "the body of the people" guarantees the right to all individuals and is not collective in meaning.
- "The people" is recognized to protect individual rights in other amendments (e.g. the Fourth Amendment) and does not change in meaning here.
- The clause for "a well regulated Militia" is amplifying in the purpose but not qualifying the right.
- The Senate voted against using "for the common defense" to ensure the amendment was not restricted to the militia.
- The right "shall not be infringed" prevents gun control laws. - The militia clause states the purpose of the amendment and qualifies the "right of the people to keep and bear Arms."
- To "bear" arms is martial in meaning.
- The use of "the people" is collective as seen in quotes where James Madison uses "the people" and "the militia" interchangeably.
- The "security of a free State" is only assured when the people use their arms collectively and not as individuals.
- It is the states' right to arm and maintain their regulated militias that "shall not be infringed" by the federal government.
- The "well regulated" militia allows the government to regulate guns and other weapons. - Neither state nor federal governments can infringe the right of the people to keep arms which would prevent them from executing their civic duty to maintain the free state.
- The people can "keep" arms (collectively or in their own homes) to make certain the militia is armed.
- The "well regulated Militia" requires government maintenance (both state and federal) which can include training and organizing the people, supplying arms, and maintaining a record of arms available for service.
- The government can regulate guns and gun owners (through inventory and training) but must allow access to martial weapons appropriate for a state militia.
What is a well regulated militia? Does the Second Amendment limit the right to bear arms to the militia?
- Citizens who train together in arms to police communities and protect the free State.
- Regulation by states or the federal government is limited since militias also check the government when liberties are threatened.
- Citizens do not have to serve in the militia.
- No, the militia is one focus of the Second Amendment but it does not limit the natural right to self-protection and preservation with arms if necessary. - Citizens who train together in arms to police communities and protect the free State.
- The states can use the militias to resist the overreach of the federal government upon their local interests.
- Citizens do not have to serve in the militia and the state may deny the right to bear arms to select groups (e.g. criminals) and non-citizens.
- Yes, ensuring the maintenance of the state militias was a direct response to the federal control of the militias in the Constitution. The protection of the state militias was the only reason for the amendment. - Citizens who train together in arms to police communities and protect the free State.
- Both state and federal governments regulate and organize the militia to ensure the people are both armed and trained.
- Citizens do not have to serve in the militia but the best citizens would be compelled to by their virtue.
- Maybe, but likely no. The amendment's objective is to get arms into the hands of the people and organize them in their civic duty. Citizens were often expected to supply their own arms for militia duty which supports the inclusion of individual ownership. However, the amendment does not specifically promote or deny individual use of arms.
Did the National Guard replace the militia in the Second Amendment? Does this make the right to arms obsolete?
- The National Guard did not replace the state militias.
- Citizens do not need to be enlisted in the National Guard to have guns.
- The National Guard is another military and/or police force that is removed from the people. The people should be wary of relying on forces removed from their power. - The National Guard effectively replaced the defunct state militias.
- States can rely on the National Guard and do not therefore need to guarantee the right to arms for other citizens.
- The National Guard did not replace the state militias but has helped to ensure their discontinuance.
- The presence of the National Guard does not impact arms regulation under the Second Amendment. - The National Guard did not replace the state militias.
- The states' reliance on the National Guard would terrify some of the Founders who specifically warned against specialized militias that would effectively become part of the standing army.
- The dependency on the National Guard makes the need to arm and train citizens that much more important.
If the people have the right to keep and bear arms do they have the right to use them in self-defense?
- The right to self-defense is a natural right that is inherently protected from government infringement.
- One is not ensured freedom unless willing to protect themselves with arms. - Yes, but this is governed by common law and not the Second Amendment.
- Citizens should look to their state constitutions which have their own Bill of Rights and "right to arms" declarations. Some of these do specify an individual's right to self-defense but the federal Second Amendment does not. - Yes, but this is specifically covered under common law.
- The Second Amendment does not permit or deny the right to self-defence but the armed citizen's duty includes policing the community and citizens who can protect themselves create a safer society.
What types of laws and regulation are allowed under the Second Amendment?
- Rational laws should focus on punishment of actions taken not restrictions on a fundamental rights.
- Limiting the access to arms creates a less secure society since it disarms "those only who are not disposed to commit the crime which the laws mean to prevent." - The right is preserved through the existence of the militia and arms can therefore be regulated by the state.
- States and cities may enact laws to regulate and police their communities as deemed necessary. - Federal and state government can regulate arms inasmuch as they support and maintain citizen militias.
- Protecting the security of the whole community outweighs the rights of the individual.
"Section 1: All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
Did the Fourteenth Amendment incorporate the Second Amendment? How does this impact state laws and the regulation of guns?
- The legislators who proposed the Fourteenth Amendment expected it to incorporate the first eight amendments in the Bill of Rights and even stressed the importance of the Second Amendment to maintain freedom.
- Even if one interprets the Second Amendment as protecting the states from federal infringement, then the Fourteenth Amendment extends that protection and shields citizens from both federal and state infringement. - The Second Amendment protects the states and not individuals which means the Fourteenth Amendment does not apply.
- Note: Most for the collective right had argued that the Supreme Court had failed to incorporate the Second Amendment as it had with other amendments but this changed in 2010 in McDonald v. Chicago. The dissenting opinion highlights the strong differences in interpretation that persist. - If the states are preventing citizens from performing their civic duty then the Fourteenth Amendment applies.
- The extension of citizenship is most significant as many states, both north and south, restricted access to arms based on one's citizenship status which inevitably influenced the expectations of their civic rights and duties.
Does the Second Amendment include a right to revolution?
- The armed citizen defends freedom which includes fighting against a tyrannical government. This action does not need to be ordered by the state. - Yes for states but not for individuals.
- The Second Amendment protects the states' right to check the federal government militarily. However, this requires a "well regulated militia" acting together. Individuals fighting the government is anarchy. - Yes.
- Armed citizens defend freedom collectively which includes fighting against a tyrannical government.
- In response to Shay's Rebellion, Thomas Jefferson said, "The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots & tyrants."
- The Constitution specifically addresses the use of the militia to suppress insurrections (Art. I Sec. 8).
- Citizens return to their natural rights during a just revolution because the laws, procedures, and protections embodied in the Constitution and Bill of Rights no longer apply. A new social contract must be created after the revolution.
These interpretations of the Second Amendment persist in the public debate over firearm regulation and control. The summary above only glances at some of the sources and history behind the framing of the Second Amendment and attempts to highlight the complexity in demystifying its meaning. Quotes, passages, and whole essays can be found in the historical record that support aspects of each of the positions listed above. This does not ease the challenge for legislators and judges in interpreting the legal guarantees and/or limitations controlled by the Second Amendment. Despite the challenge, courts repeatedly incorporate the history surrounding the amendment in their decisions. Next month we continue our introduction with an examination of the judicial decisions influencing the legal interpretation of the Second Amendment which often includes references to the history outlined above. | c4 |
Have a sick or injured animal?
veterinarian and we recommend establishing a relationship with your pet and a local clinic.
All animals receive modern anesthetics and pain medications that follow published standards of care in veterinary medicine. | c4 |
Should I eat smaller meals to lose weight?
So does eating smaller meals actually equate to weight loss?
I believe in Volumetrics. From my experience and expertise, it’s really not so much about how much you’re eating if you’re eating real food that is nutritious and energizing for your amazing body! And yes, I said “amazing” because it is in fact A MAZ ING. What will help it to function even better? Good food, so rather than focusing on the amount, focus on the WHAT. Does it look appetizing? Does it have tons of nutrients?
If you’re hungry, you will think about food the entire day. And why do that to yourself? ENJOY your meals and snacks.
So while you will probably lose weight if you cut your portion size while maintaining the exact food choices, you may have a tough time with that and feel deprived.
I would love to hear how this goes for you!
Have more questions? Email Amanda@thevivant.com and your question might become one of the weekly questions here at The Vivant! | c4 |
Tomatoes macédoine are stuffed salad tomatoes, filled with a macédoine of vegetables in mayonnaise.
Peel 4 tomatoes, slice off the top and empty out the inside (use a teaspoon or, better still, a pommes parisiennes spoon).
Sprinkle the insides of the tomatoes with salt and stand them upside down on a wire rack. Leave to drain like this for 30 minutes.
Your tomatoes macédoine are ready. | c4 |
Be the Production Planner with the skills and knowledge to meet manufacturing demands. Learn how to use the most common functions in the Capacity Planning submodule of SAP's Production Planning (PP). Essential learning for working in SAP Logistics. | c4 |
Check out this amazing big waves video that shows a ship fighting its way through extremely rough seas. The ship bounces up and down as the huge waves crash into it.
Bad weather is well known to cause dangerous sea conditions so it’s important to check forecasts and also hope for a little good luck. | c4 |
These are great football gripper gloves. you get 2 pairs of black and 1 x navy blue pair.
Each with a football design on the palm, so that you can grip more easily.
Ideal for boys and girls, they are one size up to age 12. | c4 |
Have you ever wondered how economics affect you personally? Are you interested in how your financial behavior affects the prices and availability of the goods and services you use every day? This easy introduction to microeconomics gives you an opportunity to learn about the basic concepts of the economics of individuals and businesses in simple terms and easy to understand graphics. | c4 |
This entry was posted on June 26, 2014 at 11:34 am and is filed under Chef, Halibut with tags east coast, halibut. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site. | c4 |
I have no idea what to do with this thing.
It looks like a weapon. I’m really not a weapon kind of dog.
It’s not a weapon, honey. It’s a tug-toy. You bite one end and pull and I pull on the other end. Let’s try it.
Just give it a try! Dogs love these things!
That thing bonked me on the head. Are you sure it’s a toy?
Well normally dogs know what to do with it. You’re supposed to hang on.
I’m not sure that’s something I’m cut out for.
I could try throwing it and you bring it back.
Do what? Bring it back?
Yes bring it back! Or not. Maybe we should just give this toy to a more athletic dog. | c4 |
The human figure is riding a small scale horse. The figure and horse are decorated in black and white. There is black on the legs and torso of both and on the neck and head of the horse. | c4 |
Ballet Shoes: Canvas Or Leather?
5 LIFE HACKS that will change your life – Waterproof shoes and more!
25 Ways to Wear a Scarf in 4.5 Minutes!
Stephanie Perez on 5 LIFE HACKS that will change your life – Waterproof shoes and more!
Ashanty Lopez on Fat People Life Hacks!
Виолетта Цветкова on Fat People Life Hacks!
Chheman Lama on 25 Ways to Wear a Scarf in 4.5 Minutes!
Kellyn Nguyen on Fat People Life Hacks!
Watch This FREE Video now! | c4 |
Fantastic news for parents, now you can affordably find out about your children’s behavioural tendencies. Get valuable knowledge about your child’s cognitive abilities and physical attributes too with Children’s DNA Discovery.
Thanks to genetic testing, being a parent can be made slightly easier. You can make more informed decisions about what is best for your particular child according to their genetic profile. This will enable a parent to try to give them the best start in life and use all their innate ability, skills they have a propensity for and DNA combined!
What is included in the Children’s DNA Discovery package?
Your child’s genetic profile can help you decide which training or sports they should pursue. This can help a parent decide if athletics and running are a good fit or more endurance training or long distance type sports are more of a good fit for their child’s athletic profile.
How tall will your child grow to be? The test can provide information on whether your child will be average or above or below average height.
Is your child a dare-devil? Sensation seeking type behaviour is motivated in a huge part by his or her DNA.
Can you child remember details of an event or forgets events or details straight away? Memory recall capability could be stored in his or her DNA.
Is your child a night owl or a happy morning person? A lot of factors impact the body’s internal clock but scientists have discovered that DNA also plays a role in determining your body clock.
Genetic testing can predict whether your child may or may not need glasses in the future.
Does your child rely on previous experiences to help make decisions? DNA unlocks how your child’s genetics help to play a role in their decision making processes.
Does your child actively seek social support or prefers to cope alone during times of stress? This response to crisis lies in his or her DNA.
Are My Samples And Results Safe?
We take your privacy very seriously and offer confidentiality and security when collecting personal information. All the systems and methods used to take and measure your results are confidential and safe. We are committed to excellence and quality whilst securing and protecting the privacy of our clients.
Once you have decided which test is for you all you have to do is order the test online and it will be mailed to you at home.
We use scientific studies published and reviewed by the most reliable sources that are available today. These studies relay on statistical measures and are not deterministic. Other factors such as environment and lifestyle can also affect certain traits. | c4 |
He failed to meet the court’s deadlines.
And he’s only getting better!
Everyone committed to the theme! | c4 |
This is the only 4 in 1 EPROM known to exist. No board or cartridge shell was found with the EPROM, a prototype label has turned up. This label most likely came from a folder or binder that the EPROM was stored in. | c4 |
Turkey carving is not an art, but sometimes seems that way. Watch Alton’s tutorial. He says the first tool to have is…A SHARP KNIFE!!! Happy Carving! | c4 |
Home / Facebook Tricks / ඩේටා කපාගන්නේ නැතුව fb යමුද??
ඩේටා කපාගන්නේ නැතුව fb යමුද?? | c4 |
Work at least a day ahead if you can. Get your schedule together. Preparing a to-do list for tomorrow is an excellent way to end your working day. Once your tasks are in front of you, it will be easy to jump right in when morning arrives. | c4 |
What to do to help seal after drywall?
A Recommended Material for Soundproofing?
Ceiling (with cans). Spend soundproofing $$$ below or above?
is a suspended ceiling better than a drywall one? | c4 |
XFire change name or report, like AIM's report change.
When you can select a screen name (much like M$N) rather then using the account name (e-mail addy in M$Ns case) is there really a need to create a another X-Fire account?
I thought I put this under the Fix-it post. Sorry, must have had two pages open, and hit the wrong one. | c4 |
PRO Writingz!! – Write Catchy, Get Readers!!! | c4 |
In the background two paper figures approach each other cautiously . They stop, reach out . One of the figures pulls from his pocket some scissors and cuts the finger off the other's hand. Confetti pours out. Suddenly this same man is approaching. An old woman cackles. The singer starts to sing again and wanders off. He walks past the woman.
The buildings in the set twist slightly and alter in perspective.She turns to watch the action on stage. Cut to a wide shot. The Old woman appears next to her and nods.
This is like a story of a story that I started about myself. There’s a man in the story that I want to meet. What if there isn’t a part for me? | c4 |
Who is the lucky person? Great post.. If you got offended by the question, I am sorry beforehand..
My husband William is a wonderful man. I am blessed. Thanks for reading. | c4 |
Does the crime pay or not?
criminal deeds. This question is important today as never before.
idea that the crime pays.
you steal little sums of money.
suffer for all my life, go to police, and tell everything. | c4 |
The filed report indicates the object was black in color with no structural features. The object size was larger than 300 feet. No exterior lights. No emissions. The object was hovering at less than 500 feet in altitude. The object was over one mile away from the witness. No landing was observed.
Malmstrom Air Force Base is in Cascade County, Montana, adjacent to Great Falls. It is the home of the 341st Missile Wing (341 MW) of the Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC). As a census-designated place, it has a population of 3,472. | c4 |
Go Weight Loss Now - Medical Weight Loss - Safe, healthy medical weight loss.
This entry was posted in Home Page All Section on June 2, 2018 by Emely Edwards.
How to get started with your Customized Weight Loss Program? | c4 |
There was NO WAY I’d let Valentines Day go by without doing a Couple’s Edition Cooking Class!
I came up with the idea way back when I started the classes, and I must say, this is the most excited I’ve been for my special edition classes! I am a hopeless romantic, I love, LOVE! I am so excited to see all of my couples this evening! I have so many great things in store! Purchase tickets at the link below. 1 ticket, permits 1 couple! See you all February 10th!
1 Ticket permits 1 couple. | c4 |
squishable.com: Squishable Ermine. An Adorable Fuzzy Plush to Snurfle and Squeeze!
The Ermine is on the bench for now because we couldn't get the construction to work quite right!
Huh! It looks like an Ermine, but somewhat less like a Squishable. This is going to take some work! | c4 |
New apprentices join the team in Rhode Island as the roof goes up. The homeowners visit a cabinet showroom to finalize their plans. The house gets sheathed. It’s the finish line at Judith’s house in Charleston. Kevin and Tom take the grand tour. | c4 |
I had a vague memory about the phrase "stop on a dime" being connected with trains. A search online leads to some references about the area of contact between a train wheel and the track being about the size of a dime. So trains really do "stop on a dime". However, in this case the fact that trains are stopping on a dime means that it takes them a great distance to stop. I haven't come across anything more definitive than that. | c4 |
would not be complete without singing!
I've always dreamed of having family gatherings around the piano. Looks like so much fun! | c4 |
This page lists all fightmon that are and are not yet on this wiki. All fightmon listed here are listed in the order of their creation.
Note: Series does not refer to show. | c4 |
Stress can be good or bad for you, it's all about balance. Discover how stress can wreak havoc with your hormones and cause PMS, painful periods, migraines and much more. Plus learn some useful and practical tips on how to de-stress, naturally. | c4 |
Negligence is a legal theory that is the basis for many car accident lawsuits. If you've been in a car accident and have been sued or are suing the other party, there's a good chance you've heard the term "negligence" kicked around.
Most car accident lawsuits filed are due to a driver’s carelessness or negligence, because intentional acts are not involved. | c4 |
Polyuria is defined as a urine output of more than 30 ml/kg body weight/24 h. Thorough anamnesis and physical examination can reveal the underlying disease for polyuria. The first diagnostic step is to rule out uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. The next diagnostic step is to determine serum and urine electrolytes and serum and urine osmolality. By this means, the pathophysiologic differentiation between solute diuresis and water diuresis can be made. | c4 |
Posted on June 27, 2015 by jcharles00. This entry was posted in bikes and tagged bicycles, bikes, cranks, history. Bookmark the permalink. | c4 |
Here’s a little recipe I developed using tiger nuts for a little texture and depth but feel free to use any chopped nut! It will still be delicious!! | c4 |
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