Split (1)

train · ~97.7M rows (showing the first 849k)

text stringlengths 144 682k
close button अंग्रेजी मे अर्थ[+] Meaning of STATE in English 1. express in words 2. indicate through a symbol, formula, etc. 3. put before 5. a state of depression or agitation 6. the territory occupied by one of the constituent administrative districts of a nation 7. the territory occupied by a nation 8. the group of people comprising the government of a sovereign state 9. a politically organized body of people under a single government 10. the federal department in the United States that sets and maintains foreign policies 11. the way something is with respect to its main attributes 12. The circumstances or condition of a being or thing at any given time. 13. Rank; condition; quality; as, the state of honor. 14. Condition of prosperity or grandeur; wealthy or prosperous circumstances; social importance. 15. Appearance of grandeur or dignity; pomp. 17. Estate, possession. 18. A person of high rank. 19. Any body of men united by profession, or constituting a community of a particular character; as, the civil and ecclesiastical states, or the lords spiritual and temporal and the commons, in great britain. cf. estate, n., 6. 20. The principal persons in a government. 21. The bodies that constitute the legislature of a country; as, the states-general of holland. 22. A form of government which is not monarchial, as a republic. 23. A political body, or body politic; the whole body of people who are united one government, whatever may be the form of the government; a nation. 24. In the united states, one of the commonwealth, or bodies politic, the people of which make up the body of the nation, and which, under the national constitution, stands in certain specified relations with the national government, and are invested, as commonwealth, with full power in their several spheres over all matters not expressly inhibited. 26. Stately. 27. Belonging to the state, or body politic; public. 28. To set; to settle; to establish. 30. A statement; also, a document containing a statement. There are no Thesaurus in our Dictionary. उदाहरण और उपयोग[+] STATE Sentence, Example and Usage Usage of "STATE" in sentences 1. "They were circuiting about the state" 2. "The State taxes alcohol heavily" 3. "The voters were balloting in this state" डिक्शनरी सर्च STATE की तस्वीरें Images of STATE STATE की और तस्वीरें देखें... और भी आज का शब्द English to Hindi Dictionary आज का विचार और भी शब्द रसोई से Cookery Words फोटो गैलरी
Manage Your Stress Chapter 24 Beat Stress with Exercise Image Caption : Vigorous exercise can lower blood cortisol levels and trigger the release of feel-good neurotransmitters Endorphins, the body's home-grown pain relievers, are known to block pain signals to the brain, which brings about their feel-good effect. Just as endorphins are the body's version of morphine, endocannabinoids are its homemade version of the active ingredient in cannabis, or marijuana. Both are released into the bloodstream in great volume after intense aerobic exercise. Both bring about feelings of euphoria, calm and well-being. Exercise improves mood and controls anxiety in other ways. It unleashes the calming neurotransmitters serotonin, which regulates anxiety, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which inhibits neural activity in the brain. A study of subjects over 50 who had been diagnosed with major depressive disorder established three research groups. One group started an aerobic exercise training program. A second took the antidepressant medication Zoloft. The third group combined the two interventions-some exercise and Zoloft. After 16 weeks, all three groups showed improvement in their depression symptoms. The group taking the drug had more immediate improvement, but by the end of the research period it was clear that the exercise-only group had improved just as much as the other two. Exercise may be the best anti-stress prescription of all! Also called: Psychological stress Everyone feels stressed from time to time. Not all stress is bad. All animals have a stress response, and it can be life-saving. But chronic stress can cause both physical and mental harm. There are at least three different types of stress: • Routine stress related to the pressures of work, family, and other daily responsibilities • Traumatic stress, which happens when you are in danger of being seriously hurt or killed. Examples include a major accident, war, assault, or a natural disaster. This type of stress can cause post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Different people may feel stress in different ways. Some people experience digestive symptoms. Others may have headaches, sleeplessness, depressed mood, anger, and irritability. People under chronic stress get more frequent and severe viral infections, such as the flu or common cold. Vaccines, such as the flu shot, are less effective for them. Some people cope with stress more effectively than others. It's important to know your limits when it comes to stress, so you can avoid more serious health effects. NIH: National Institute of Mental Health
My Puzzles Report bug Collected Puzzles User listed puzzles Random Puzzle Log In/Out 1 2 4 5 1.a form of learning in which an aversive stimulus (e.g. an electrical shock) is associated with a particular neutral context (e.g., a room) or neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone), resulting in the expression of fear responses to the originally neutral stimulus or context. 3.a type of conditioned learning which occurs because of the subject’s instinctive responses 4.This type of stimulus unconditionally elicits a response, also referred to as a respondent. 6.Founder of Pavlovian conditioning; provided the most famous example of classical conditioning 7.attempts to eliminate an unwanted CR through massive exposure of the associated CS, as in extinction 9.a type of behavioral therapy used in the field of psychology to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders.;attempts to eliminate an unwanted CR, such as anxiety, by gradually exposing the patient to associated CS's (e.g. angry words) in a relaxing situation 10.a form of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences; the behavior may change in form, frequency, or strength 11.an initially neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus 12.Synonym for Classical Conditioning;developed by the Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov 13.A response may be produced with very high probability after a specific stimulus; doesnt require prior learning 14.psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century. With its roots running from Socrates through the Renaissance, this approach emphasises an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. 15.contingent on the willful actions of the subject 16.to an unconditioned stimulus without prior conditioning 17.a form of psychological treatment in which the patient is exposed to a stimulus while simultaneously being subjected to some form of discomfort. This conditioning is intended to cause the patient to associate the stimulus with unpleasant sensations in order to stop the specific behavior. 2.The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses such as phobia, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual arousal. 3.A stimulus that is present when a drug is administered or consumed may eventually evoke a conditioned physiological response that mimics the effect of the drug. 5.the response that the conditioned stimulus elicits after it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus Web armoredpenguin.com Copyright information Privacy information Contact us Blog
Web Results The Reason for the Electoral College - FactCheck.org Feb 11, 2008 ... Why does the United States have an Electoral College when it would be so easy to directly elect a president, as we do for all the other political ... Carson: 'Why do we need the Electoral College anymore?' - POLITICO Apr 15, 2016 ... Ben Carson questioned the point of the Electoral College during an exchange about ... "There's some things we need to look at from a historical ... Defending the Electoral College. - Slate Nov 12, 2012 ... The Electoral College is widely regarded as an anachronism, ... are likely to feel disfranchised—to feel that their votes do not count, that the ... The winner-take-all method of awarding electoral votes induces the candidates—as we saw in last .... Sensing a need to distance themselves from Trump's rhetoric, .... Why does the Electoral College exist? - Quora It was a compromise made toward the end of the constitutional convention in a committee, ... Presumably, we could devise any number of methods to select electors. So it exists because it ... Do we need the electoral college? Is the electoral ... Why the electoral College - History Central The first reason that the founders created the Electoral College is hard to understand ... Two states do not use the winner take all system, Maine and Nebraska. Why We Should Abolish the Electoral College - Huffington Post Jan 12, 2016 ... 1) The Distribution of Electoral College Votes Per State is Not Equally ..... to end, every vote should count we do not need the Electoral College. 10 reasons why the Electoral College is a problem \| MinnPost Oct 16, 2012 ... Sticking with the Electoral College system, but not yet plunging into the ... it elevates the already ever-present need candidates feel to pander to elderly ... If we could do nothing more than allocate the electoral votes on a ... Why does the U.S. have an Electoral College? \| HowStuffWorks Actually, both these ideas are off the mark. But your confusion isn't. Many Americans don't really understand how an Electoral College works -- or why we have ... The electoral college could still stop Trump, even if he wins the ... Mar 17, 2016 ... The electoral college does: Slates of electors pledged to support ... We take it for granted that the individual votes we cast will be the ones that ... The decision need not rest with a single state, of course. .... What do we do? Good Question: Why Do We Have The Electoral College? « WCCO ... Nov 5, 2012 ... When you vote tomorrow and fill in that oval for Mitt Romney or Barack Obama, you won't really be voting for the president. More Info Why do we still let the Electoral College pick our president? Aug 20, 2012 ... The President of the United States is not chosen through a national popular vote because the framers of the Constitution adopted the Electoral ... U. S. Electoral College: Frequently Asked Questions Why do we have the Electoral College? What proposals have been made to change the Electoral College system? How does the Electoral College process ... The Electoral College - Pros and Cons Those who object to the Electoral College system and favor a direct popular election of the president generally do so on four grounds: .... the Electoral College's role in reinforcing a two party system, proponents, as we shall see, find this to be a ...
SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online vol.33 issue4Physics teaching in the initial grades of elementary school in the rede municipal de ensino do Recife by their teachersBrownian motion: a proposal of using new technologies in Physics teaching author indexsubject indexarticles search Home Pagealphabetic serial listing Revista Brasileira de Ensino de Física Print version ISSN 1806-1117 GOMES, Tiago Carneiro; GIORGI, Cristiano Amaral Garboggini Di and RABONI, Paulo César de Almeida. Physics and painting: dimensions of a relation and its potential for teaching physics. Rev. Bras. Ensino Fís. [online]. 2011, vol.33, n.4, pp.4314-4314. ISSN 1806-1117. This article discusses possible uses of the relations between physics and painting in high school. Based on the official proposals for education, which already incorporate the need to revise the usual approach of physics concepts, and proposals of other authors who claim the need to give other meanings to physical concepts, we show how the development of physics and painting indicate rapprochements, and how they can contribute to the understanding of concepts of physics and other disciplines as well as for understanding the reality in its broadest sense. Keywords : physics; painting; physics teaching; art; high school.
Cassini Data Suggests Blocks of Hydrocarbon Floating on Titan's Lakes Press Release From: Jet Propulsion Laboratory Posted: Tuesday, January 8, 2013 Titan is the only other body besides Earth in our solar system with stable bodies of liquid on its surface. But while our planet's cycle of precipitation and evaporation involves water, Titan's cycle involves hydrocarbons like ethane and methane. Ethane and methane are organic molecules, which scientists think can be building blocks for the more complex chemistry from which life arose. Cassini has seen a vast network of these hydrocarbon seas cover Titan's northern hemisphere, while a more sporadic set of lakes bejewels the southern hemisphere. Up to this point, Cassini scientists assumed that Titan lakes would not have floating ice, because solid methane is denser than liquid methane and would sink. But the new model considers the interaction between the lakes and the atmosphere, resulting in different mixtures of compositions, pockets of nitrogen gas, and changes in temperature. The result, scientists found, is that winter ice will float in Titan's methane-and-ethane-rich lakes and seas if the temperature is below the freezing point of methane -- minus 297 degrees Fahrenheit (90.4 Kelvins). The scientists realized all the varieties of ice they considered would float if they were composed of at least 5 percent "air," which is an average composition for young sea ice on Earth. ("Air" on Titan has significantly more nitrogen than Earth air and almost no oxygen.) If the temperature drops by just a few degrees, the ice will sink because of the relative proportions of nitrogen gas in the liquid versus the solid. Temperatures close to the freezing point of methane could lead to both floating and sinking ice - that is, a hydrocarbon ice crust above the liquid and blocks of hydrocarbon ice on the bottom of the lake bed. Scientists haven't entirely figured out what color the ice would be, though they suspect it would be colorless, as it is on Earth, perhaps tinted reddish-brown from Titan's atmosphere. "We now know it's possible to get methane-and-ethane-rich ice freezing over on Titan in thin blocks that congeal together as it gets colder -- similar to what we see with Arctic sea ice at the onset of winter," said Jason Hofgartner, first author on the paper and a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada scholar at Cornell. "We'll want to take these conditions into consideration if we ever decide to explore the Titan surface some day." "Cassini's extended stay in the Saturn system gives us an unprecedented opportunity to watch the effects of seasonal change at Titan," said Linda Spilker, Cassini project scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. "We'll have an opportunity to see if the theories are right." Jia-Rui Cook + 818-354-0850 // end // More news releases and status reports or top stories. Please follow SpaceRef on Twitter and Like us on Facebook.
University of Vermont Cultivating Healthy Communities Food & Nutrition Programs Gluten-Free and Dairy-Free Meals If your doctor has instructed you to avoid gluten and dairy, it may seem like you have few food choices. In fact, many foods are both naturally gluten- and dairy-free. Crafting satisfying, healthy meals that follow your dietary restrictions does not have to be complicated or take too much of your time. Gluten-free, dairy-free menus feature proteins such as poultry, beef, fish, beans or tofu that is not breaded, batter-coated or marinated. While cheese, yogurt and milk are off the menu, you can use soy, almond, coconut or rice milk as well as soy-based cheeses and yogurt. All vegetables and fruits are naturally gluten- and dairy-free. Gluten-free pasta made with quinoa, corn or rice is another simple, gluten-free, dairy-free option. Other naturally gluten- and dairy-free foods include eggs, potatoes, beans, nuts, seeds, sugar, honey, molasses, spices, herbs, wine, distilled liquors, ciders and spirits. Simple preparations for proteins such as meat, poultry and fish include grilling, roasting or broiling. Toss green, leafy salads with chopped nuts and additional fruits such as dried cranberries or fresh strawberries and vegetables. Look for steam-in-the-bag vegetables without added sauces that may contain butter, cheese or wheat. Simmer grains such as brown rice in chicken broth to add flavor, then add vegetables and serve as a side dish. Flavor meats and vegetables with gluten-free, dairy-free seasonings such as chili powder, cumin, Italian seasoning and paprika. Citrus, balsamic vinegar, fresh herbs and oils are other simple gluten-free, dairy-free ways to add flavor to meals. Many gluten-free products may still contain dairy, so read labels carefully. Milk is often an ingredient in gluten-free breads, soups and cookies. If you have been diagnosed with celiac disease, your inability to eat dairy may be a side effect of your condition. You may find that after following a gluten-free diet for six months to a year and the villi in your intestine heal, you can again tolerate dairy. Always check with your doctor before making changes to your diet. Without dairy in your diet, you should seek out other sources of calcium. Leafy greens such as kale and spinach, along with calcium-fortified orange juice or soy milk, are foods you should be consuming regularly. Check with your nutritionist or physician to determine if you also should take a calcium supplement. A simple gluten-free, dairy-free breakfast can consist of two eggs scrambled with chopped tomatoes and topped with chopped, fresh basil. Have a smoothie made with frozen strawberries, bananas and soy or rice milk on the side. At lunchtime make a simple soup by bringing chicken broth to a boil and adding chopped carrots, celery and rice pasta. Simmer for about 15 minutes, or until pasta is tender, and stir in frozen peas and cooked chicken breast cut in bite-sized pieces. For dinner sprinkle tilapia or other white fish filets with cumin, salt and pepper and broil for about five minutes on each side. Serve with corn tortillas, chopped cabbage, sliced avocado and red salsa. Enjoy fruit or soy ice cream for dessert. Examples of simple gluten- and dairy-free snacks are nuts, air-popped popcorn, rice crackers, fresh fruit, soy yogurt, pouches of water-packed tuna and dried fruit such as dates, raisins or apricots. For a delicious, gluten- and dairy-free cookie, try this recipe. For additional gluten- and dairy-free recipes, visit 1 3/4 c. granulated sugar 1/2 c. coconut or rice milk 1/2 c. dairy-free margarine such as a soy or oil-based spread 4 Tbsp. unsweetened cocoa powder 1/2 c. almond butter 3 c. gluten-free oats 1 tsp. vanilla In a saucepan, combine sugar, milk, butter and cocoa. Bring to boil and cook for 1 1/2 minutes. Remove from heat and stir in almond butter, oats and vanilla. Drop on waxed paper and refrigerate until hard. Makes 36 servings. 1 cookie = 1 serving. Nutrition information per serving (one cookie): 60 calories; 4 grams (g) total fat; 7 g total carbohydrates.
Figure 1: Two methods of making cardiac tissues. Decellularized hearts are seeded with cardiac cells (a). The seeded cells embed themselves in the matrix framework of the decellularized organ and reestablish cardiac tissue. Alternatively, bottom-up technologies are used to connect small pieces of tissues produced in vitro to reconstruct cardiac tissue artificially. The small pieces used for reconstruction could be regenerated tissues produced from scaffolds, hydrogels, cell sheets, or a combination of such materials. Shown here is an example of cardiac stem cells seeded on hydrogels (b) and cell sheets lifting off of a temperature responsive culture dish (c).
Skip Navigation 2.1: Add and Subtract Decimals Difficulty Level: At Grade Created by: CK-12 Atoms Practice Estimated18 minsto complete Practice Decimal Addition Estimated18 minsto complete Practice Now Turn In The student council of F.W. Harris Middle School has decided to open a school store. There always seems to be a need for extra money whether it for school dances or for sporting events or to help with field trip costs. The student council has students on it from sixth, seventh and eighth grade and they have decided that this will be the best way to tackle fundraising in an ongoing way. “What do you think Mr. Janus?” Kelly asked of their teacher advisor at the meeting. “I think that it is a good idea. There will be some up-front costs involved however. Have you thought of how you are going to handle that?” Mr. Janus asked. “Yes,” Tyler responded. “Each grade has some money in their account. We have each decided to use this money to help purchase supplies for the store.” “Alright kids, it seems to me that you have this under control. Why don’t you begin by figuring out the sum of the money that you have so that you know what we have to work with?” Mr. Janus suggested. “Okay, let’s start their, Trevor, how much is in the sixth grade budget?” Kelly asked. Trevor flipped a few pages in his notebook before responding. “There is $345.67 in the sixth grade budget.” “Okay, let’s write that down. Mallory how about seventh grade?” “There is $504.89 in seventh grade,” Mallory answered. “Great and I know that there is $489.25 in the eighth grade budget,” Kelly responded. “How much do we have to work with?” Trevor asked. “Let’s start by estimating.” This is where you come in. This Concept is about adding sums and figuring out differences of decimals. Trevor’s suggestion is a great way to begin tackling the sum, with an estimate. Pay attention and you will learn all about estimating and adding sums with decimals. Then, you will have the chance to solve this problem for yourself. By this point in your learning of mathematics, you have some experience working with decimals. First, let’s think about identifying decimals. What is a decimal? A decimal is a number that uses a decimal point and place value to show tenths, hundredths, thousandths, and so on. The decimal point divides the whole number portion from the fractional portion of the number. The whole number portion is 35, or 3 tens and 5 ones. The fractional portion is 0.492, or 4 tenths, 9 hundredths, and 2 thousandths. Sometimes there are decimals with both wholes and parts, and sometimes, there are decimals with only parts. Let's take a look at adding and subtracting decimals. You can add and subtract decimals by adding according to place value or by rounding the values before adding them. First, let's take a look at adding according to place value. Add: 48.08+6.215 We can add decimals like we add whole numbers: by lining up the place values. For decimals, this means lining up the decimal points. This means that we add each place value with its common place value. We don’t add hundredths and tens. We add hundredths and hundredths. If you think about this logically, it makes perfect sense. Here is what a problem looks like when it is lined up according to place value. Now add each place value, remembering to carry when necessary. The sum is 54.295 Next, we can find a sum by estimating. Remember that when you estimate you will find an approximate answer, but it will not be exact. One way to estimate is by rounding. We round each value to the nearest whole number. To determine which whole number to round a number to, we look at the decimal portion of the number. If the decimal part is less than .5, then we round down. If the decimal part is .5 or greater we round up. Take a look. Round 4.56 to the nearest whole number. 4.56 rounds up to 5 We can also subtract decimals by using place value or by rounding. First, we line up the values according to place value so that we can subtract one from the other. The difference is 46.79. We can also find the difference by rounding to the nearest whole number. We round each number to the nearest whole number and then we find the difference between the two values. 56.93 rounds up to 57 10.14 rounds down to 10 Our answer is 47. Notice once again that the answers are close. This lets us know that our work is accurate. Example A Round 2.3 to the nearest whole number. Solution: 2 Example B Estimate by rounding 48.08+6.215. Solution: 48+6 is our new problem. Our answer is 54. Example C Subtract 49.456.234 Solution: 43.216 The first thing that the students need to do is to find an estimate. To find an estimate, we round each number to the nearest whole number. $345.67 rounds to $346 $504.89 rounds to $505 $489.25 round up to $490 We add 346+505+390=$1341 Look at your estimate is it close to this one? Why or why not? Now we can find the actual sum. $345.67$504.89+$489.25 $1339.81 Notice that our estimate is reasonable given the actual answer. In fact, our estimate is very close to the actual sum. a part of a whole. The numbers to the left of the decimal point represent whole quantities. The numbers to the right of the decimal point represent parts. Guided Practice Here is one for you to try on your own. Subtract the following decimals. First estimate the difference, then check your estimate by subtracting to find an accurate answer. First, we can round 5.678 to 6. Next, we can round .86 to 1. Our estimated difference is 5. Now let's actually subtract them. This is the actual difference. Our estimate was very close to the exact answer. Video Review Khan Academy Subtracting Decimals Directions: Find the exact sum or difference by adding or subtracting the following decimals according to place value. 1. 16.27+3.45= 2. 22.34+9.21= 3. 34.5+1.234= 4. 5.6+8.9= 5. 1.02+12.34= 6. 67.89+23.45= 7. 123.4+7.89= 8. 34.05+102.10= 9. 34.5611.23= 10. 67.092.34= 11. 88.913.24= 12. 234.516.7= 13. 708.9045.67= 14. 27.561.20= 15. 327.66301.20= 16. 540.2618.50= Notes/Highlights Having trouble? Report an issue. Color Highlighted Text Notes Show More Image Attributions Show Hide Details Difficulty Level: At Grade Date Created: Dec 19, 2012 Last Modified: Aug 11, 2016 Files can only be attached to the latest version of Modality Please wait... Please wait... Image Detail Sizes: Medium \| Original
Rethinking mental disorders Is promiscuity an illness? What about childhood tantrums? As psychiatrists set out to redraw definitions of mental disorder, controversy is inevitable. By Claire Prentice Where exactly does the difference lie between extreme human behaviour and a psychiatric illness? The question is being asked because as a US encyclopaedia of psychiatry is rewritten for the first time in more than a decade, controversy is already raging about what goes into it, and what gets thrown out. Critics say that the revised edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (or DSM, as it is commonly known) will lead to an explosion of healthy Americans being prescribed powerful drugs. Patients' rights groups are angry that it will lead to more people being stigmatised as mentally ill. "The conditions that we grew up thinking were in the normal spectrum of human behaviour – sadness, disappointment, anger – are now considered a psychiatric or psychological disorder. It has become part of a national epidemic," said Alex Beam, a newspaper columnist and author of Gracefully Insane, a book about the history of McLean psychiatric hospital in Massachusetts. The controversy over the DSM, which is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), shows just how political mental illness has become in America. And with good reason. At stake is not just the mental health of a nation, but also billions of dollars for insurance companies, doctors, researchers and pharmaceutical companies. The most serious claim made by critics is that psychiatrists are increasingly churning out new syndromes at the behest of their funders in the pharmaceutical industry. The claim is rejected by the APA, which insists that those with a vested interest, such as drug and insurance companies, have no influence on the process. The DSM is arguably the most influential mental health publication on the planet. It is used by doctors, psychiatrists, nurses, researchers and insurers all over the world. First published in 1952, it is at the heart of mental health research, planning, policy and treatment in the US. The definitions included in the new edition – the first complete revision since 1994 – will determine who gets diagnosed as mentally ill, who receives powerful drugs, who is confined to a psychiatric institution instead of being imprisoned, and if and how much insurance companies will pay for treatment. DSM diagnoses are routinely used in US court cases, employment background checks and child-custody cases. Pharmaceutical companies also use the manual as a guide to which psychiatric conditions exist, and for which they can develop drugs. Proposed additions to this, the fifth edition of the manual, include: "hypersexual disorder" for those experiencing severe problems with sexual fantasies, urges or behaviours; "temper dysregulation with dysphoria", which refers to children throwing acute temper tantrums; and "psychosis risk syndrome", a condition attributed to eccentric or marginalised teenagers. In the past, the DSM has been mocked for proposing to include conditions such as nicotine addiction, road rage and pre-menstrual tension. Dr William Narrow, research director of the task force working on the new edition, DSM-V, says it will lead to more effective treatment of the mentally ill. He said, "The revisions will help mental health professionals to make more accurate and consistent diagnoses." Critics include Dr Allen Frances, the editor of the previous edition of the manual, who described the new proposals as "reckless". In an editorial in Psychiatric Times, Dr Frances described the proposals as "a wholesale imperial medicalisation of normality that will trivialise mental disorder and lead to a deluge of unneeded medication treatment – a bonanza for the pharmaceutical industry but at a huge cost to the new false-positive 'patients' caught in the excessively wide DSM-V net.'' Even small changes in wording can have serious implications. If requirements for diagnosis are too stringent, some who need help will be left out. If they are too loose, healthy people will receive unnecessary, expensive and possibly harmful treatment. Dr Frances describes how his panel inadvertently contributed to three "false epidemics": attention deficit disorder, autism and childhood bipolar disorder. He says: "We felt comfortable that our relatively modest proposals wouldn't cause problems, but evidence shows that our definitions were too broad and captured many 'patients' who might have been far better off never entering the mental health system." The DSM contains a detailed listing of every psychiatric disorder recognised by the US healthcare system and defines how each is to be diagnosed. Its most recent edition, the 943-page DSM-IV, lists more than 300 separate disorders. The proposed revisions are the result of more than a decade of work by hundreds of experts across the US. Some observers say that the ever-widening DSM net, along with the routine advertisement on American television and in glossy magazines of powerful drugs to treat conditions such as attention deficit disorder and schizophrenia, help to promote a widespread belief that many rare disorders are more commonplace than they are. "There has been a real push back against the DSM this time around," says Beam. "People think a lot of these pills that are paid for by government or insurance companies aren't necessary. There's a flood of soft money for drugs. We're awash in drug money for these nebulous syndromes." Many healthcare professionals say there have not been sufficient advances in research to merit an entirely new edition. Dost Öngür, clinical director of the psychiatric disorders division at McLean Hospital, says, "We could have lived another five or seven years without a new edition." He describes the growing numbers of people diagnosed as mentally ill as part of a wider "sociological trend". Controversially, the editors of the new edition propose creating a new, all-encompassing category which they dub "autism spectrum disorder". High-functioning people with Asperger's disorder argue that they should not be in the same category as those with severe autism who cannot carry out basic day-to-day tasks such as dressing themselves. And the category dealing with eating disorders is likely to be expanded. Critics say the new definition of "binge eating disorder" as one eating binge per week for three months would apply to most Americans. But the new binge eating category has been welcomed by some specialists in the field, who said the expanded definition should lead to better diagnosis of the condition, more research and more treatments being covered by insurance companies. The proposed changes have been posted on the internet, at, so that members of the public can comment during the public consultation period, which lasts until 20 April. In May, field trials begin and are to last for 10 months. Then we will find out which way madness lies.
Mysteries of a nearby planetary system's dynamics now are solved ALMA probes mysteries of jets from giant black holes There are supermassive black holes -- with masses up to several billion solar masses -- at the hearts of almost all galaxies in the Universe, including our own galaxy, the Milky Way. Deciphering the ancient mysteries of the Maya The mysteries of photosynthesis Chemists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory say they can now explain one of the remaining mysteries of photosynthesis, the chemical process by which plants convert sunlight into usable energy and generate the oxygen that we breathe.
What is Viremia? Viremia is a condition in which viruses are present in the bloodstream. From the point of view of a virus, this is great news, because it means that the virus has access to a highly efficient distribution system which will spread it throughout the body. From the point of view of the owner of the body, of course, viremia is not good news at all. Viruses can enter the bloodstream in a wide variety of ways, ranging from slipping into an open wound to being introduced by a puncture wound. Once in the bloodstream, the viruses can start to replicate, and as they replicate, they will spread through the body. This can create a situation known as secondary viremia, in which the virus has colonized other areas of the body and it is feeding new copies of itself back into the bloodstream. A number of viruses are passed specifically through the blood, with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) being a very well known example. Other viruses will make the leap into the bloodstream if they see an opportunity to do so. For example, a viral infection of the respiratory tract could enter the bloodstream through cuts in the mouth. This condition is diagnosed by taking a blood sample and examining it in a lab. The blood can be run against viral antibodies which will react if a virus is present and flag the blood, and it can also be examined under a microscope to look for copies of the virus. Microscopy can also allow a lab technician to identify a virus when a test is not available. The treatment for viremia is administration of antiviral drugs to kill the virus. Not all viruses can be treated with medications; some have resisted the best efforts of drug developers. If no antiviral drug is available, the focus is on managing the patient's symptoms and keeping the patient as strong and healthy as possible in the hopes that the immune system will fight off the virus. People can have chronic viral illnesses, in which they always have some copies of a virus in their blood. In these cases, doctors monitor the patient's viral load, looking at how many copies are present. If the load is low, it suggests that the patient's body is keeping the virus in check. If it is high, it means that the patient is not controlling the virus, or that secondary viremia is occurring. You might also Like Discuss this Article Post 3 @strawCake - From what I understand, these days some people with HIV are practically asymptomatic since they have such a low viral load. Medical science regarding HIV and AIDs has come really far in the last ten years or so. I know a lot of people with AIDs get secondary viral infections, so I'm not too surprised to hear about secondary viremia. I imagine secondary viremia would make treatment really difficult, because you would probably have double or triple the amount of virus in your immune system versus if you just had regular viremia. Post 2 @indemnifyme - I think when they finally find something that will work against HIV and AIDs, the research will probably apply to other chronic viral infections as well. At least I hope so, because that would be really useful. Anyway, I always wonder what people mean when they talk about viral load. I guess they're talking about residual viremia: how many copies of the virus are present in the blood stream. From what I understand, these days a lot of people who have HIV have a very low viral load. I assume this means they still have viremia though, but not badly enough to actually do too much damage. Post 1 Before reading this article I definitely couldn't define viremia and I never thought about how much dangerous a blood borne virus could be. However, think about the fact that your blood basically circulates throughout your entire body (including your heart). I get the feeling that a blood borne virus could do a ton of damage. It's also really scary that anti-viral medications don't work on all viruses. Although I suppose if they did, we would have a cure for AIDs already. Post your comments Post Anonymously forgot password?
Evernote, Adobe, even Apple … just a few of the companies who have found their user data compromised by hackers in recent times. The possibility of a hacker being able to access one of your web accounts is worrying enough – but if you use the same email address and password for almost all the websites you use, the risk becomes huge. The first thing a hacker does when they get hold of a list of usernames and passwords is to use automated software to fire them at a whole bunch of popular websites. That means your online security is only as good as the most vulnerable of the websites you visit. Not good. The answer, of course, is to use a unique – and strong – password for each website you access. But that creates its own hassles. Strong passwords aren’t easily memorised. Sure, we can ask our browsers to store logins for us, but when you might use several different computers, an iPhone and an iPad, you’d have to login once from each device as soon as you chose the password so it gets stored before you forget it. Not very convenient. Which is where password managers come in. When you see the instructions, it’ll look like a long process, but it in fact takes only 10-20 mins if you have two or three devices … expand full story
Léon M'ba From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Gabriel Léon M'ba Léon M'ba 1964.jpg Léon M'ba in 1964 1st President of Gabon In office 12 February 1961 – 27 November 1967 Preceded by None (position first established) Succeeded by Omar Bongo Prime Minister of Gabon In office 21 May 1957 – 21 February 1961 Preceded by None (position first established) Succeeded by None (position abolished) Personal details Born (1902-02-09)9 February 1902 Libreville, Gabon Died 27 November 1967(1967-11-27) (aged 65) Paris, France Nationality Gabonese Political party Comité Mixte Gabonais, Bloc Démocratique Gabonais Spouse(s) Pauline M'ba[1][2] Religion Roman Catholic Gabriel Léon M'ba (UMM-bah) [3] (9 February 1902 – 27 November 1967) was the first Prime Minister (1959–1961) and President (1961–1967) of Gabon. A member of the Fang ethnic group, M'ba was born into a relatively privileged village family. After studying at a seminary, he held a number of small jobs before entering the colonial administration as a customs agent. His political activism in favor of black people worried the French administration, and as a punishment for his activities, he was issued a prison sentence after committing a minor crime that normally would have resulted in a small fine. In 1924, the administration gave M'ba a second chance and selected him to head the canton in Estuaire Province. After being accused of complicity in the murder of a woman near Libreville, he was sentenced in 1931 to three years in prison and 10 years in exile. While in exile in Oubangui-Chari, he published works documenting the tribal customary law of the Fang people. He was employed by local administrators, and received praise from his superiors for his work. He remained a persona non grata to Gabon until the French colonial administration finally allowed M'ba to return his native country in 1946. In 1946, he began his political ascent, being appointed prime minister on 21 May 1957. He served as this until 21 February 1961. In 1958, he directed an initiative to include Gabon in the Franco-African community further than before. He became president upon independence from France on 17 August 1960. Political nemesis Jean-Hilaire Aubame briefly assumed the office of president through a coup d'état in February 1964, but order was restored days later when the French intervened. M'ba was reelected in March 1967, but died of cancer in November 1967 and was succeeded by his vice president, Albert-Bernard Bongo. Early life[edit] Fangs in a Christian mission, c. 1912 A member of the Fang ethnic tribe,[4] M'ba was born on 9 February 1902 in Libreville, Gabon.[5] His father, a small business manager[5] and village chief,[6] once worked as the hairdresser to Franco-Italian explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza.[4] His mother, Louise Bendome, was a seamstress.[4] Both were educated[7] and were among the first "evolved couples" in Libreville.[8] M'ba's brother also played an important role in the colonial hierarchy; he was Gabon's first Roman Catholic priest.[6] In 1909, M'ba joined a seminary[4] to receive his primary education. From 1920, he was employed as a store manager, a lumberjack and trader before entering the French colonial administration as a customs agent.[8] Despite his good job performance, M'ba's activism in helping black Gabonians,[8] particularly for the Fangs, worried his superiors. In September 1922, M'ba wrote to Edmond Cadier, Lieutenant-Governor of Gabon: "If on the one hand, the fundamental duty of educating the Fangs is consistent with Gabon's evident economic, military, and even political interests, on the other side, growing in human dignity and the increase of their material well-being do stay, Mr. Governor, the first legitimization of the French authority on them."[9][10] His remarks upset authorities, and he suffered the consequences in December 1922, when he was sentenced to prison after having committed a minor crime of providing a colleague with falsified documents.[9] Under the colonial administration[edit] Chef de canton[edit] In either 1924[7] or 1926,[11] M'ba reconciled with colonial authorities and was chosen to succeed the deceased chef de canton (similar to a village chief) of Libreville's Fang neighbourhood.[6] As the leader of a group of young Libreville intellectuals, he ignored the advice of elder Fangs and quickly gained a reputation as a strong, confident, and able-minded man.[7] He once wrote in a letter that he was "[m]issioned to enforce public order and defend the general interest" and that he did "not accept that people transgress the orders received from the authority that I represent."[7] M'ba did not have an idealist vision of his job; he saw it as a way to become wealthy.[11] With his colleague Ambamamy,[12] he forced labour on the residents of the canton for his personal use, to cover his large expenditures. The colonial administration was aware of the embezzlement, but they chose to overlook it.[11] However, beginning in 1929, the colonial administration started to investigate his activities after they intercepted one of his letters to a Kouyaté,[12] secretary for the Ligue des droits de l'homme, who was accused of being an ally of the Comintern. Despite this suspected Communist alliance, the French authorities did not oppose M'ba's appointment as head chief of the Estuaire Province by his colleagues.[13] In those years, M'ba, a member of the Ligue,[14] distanced himself from Roman Catholicism, but did not break completely with his faith. He instead became a follower of the Bwiti[8] religious sect, which Fangs were particularly receptive to.[15][16] He believed this would help revitalise a society which he felt had been damaged by the colonial administration.[14] In 1931, the sect was accused of murdering a woman whose remains were discovered outside a market in Libreville.[15] Accused of complicity, even though his involvement in the crime was not proven, M'ba was removed from power[13] and sentenced to three years in prison and ten years of exile.[8] Officially this was for embezzlement of tax revenues and his abusive treatment of the local labour force.[13] Exile in Oubangui-Chari[edit] Map of Oubangui-Chari, c. 1910 While exiled in the French territory of Oubangui-Chari, first in the towns of Bambari and then Bria,[17] he continued to exert influence among Fangs via correspondence with his compatriots in Libreville. Worried by the situation, Governor-General Antonetti ordered in 1934, at the end of his prison sentence, that M'ba be placed under surveillance.[18] During his years in exile, he wrote about the customary rights of the Fang people in the "Essai de droit coutumier pahouin" (English: Essay of Pahouin customary rights) and published it in Bulletin de la société des recherches congolaises in 1938.[19] This work quickly became the main reference on Fang tribal customary law.[20] By 1939, the native ex-chief remained a persona non grata to Gabon, as stated in the letter from the head of the Estuarie Department, Assier de Pompignan: For Léon M'Ba not only was the leader who had claimed for personal use the colony's money. He enjoyed also a considerable amount of prestige, as his congeners could see, which he got from witchcraft activities he practiced. As he was intelligent, he exploited this situation to extort the people he had to administrate also the cabal which he had formed. But on the other hand, he knew how to flatter the representatives of the authority, beguiling their vigilance and gaining their confidence. That is why he had, years before, committed all kinds of abuses without ever being otherwise worried about it.[19][21] In spite of being in exile, M'ba was employed by local administrators. Placed in secondary offices and having no proper power, he was an accomplished and valuable employee. Thanks to praiseworthy reports from his superiors, he was once again seen as a reliable indigenous element on which the colonial administration could rely on.[22] In 1942, a sentence reduction was granted to him.[17] Following his release, he became a civil servant in Brazzaville, where his prestige increased.[23] Political ascension[edit] Return to Gabon and local politician[edit] In 1946, M'ba returned to Gabon, where he was greeted exultantly by his friends.[17] He was not reinstated as chef de canton; instead, he obtained an important position as store manager for the English trading house John Holt.[17][24] That same year, he founded the Gabonese Mixed Committee (CMG), a political party close to the African Democratic Rally (RDA), an inter-African party led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny.[16][25] The party's main objective was to obtain autonomy for its member states and oppose the Senegalese leader Léopold Sédar Senghor's idea of federalism.[16] Playing on his past as a former exile, and through the network of Bwiti followers, M'ba managed to rally support from the Fang and Myènè peoples.[26] His goal was to win indigenous administrative and judicial posts.[27] Based on his success in Libreville, M'ba aspired, at one point, to become the head of the region, an idea which many notable Fangs supported during the Pahouin congress at Mitzic in February 1947.[28] However, the colonial authorities refused to give him the position. Due to his relations with the RDA, which was linked to the French Communist Party, M'Ba was seen as a communist and propagandist in the colony; for the authorities, these suspicions had been confirmed when M'ba was involved in the 1949 RDA congress in Abidjan.[29] In 1951, the CMG decided to break its ties with the Communists, siding with the moderate position favored by Houphouët-Boigny while he did the same.[30] At the same time M'ba, while maintaining his "rebellious" image to the electorate, became close with the French administration.[31] However, the administration was already supporting his main opponent, Congressman Jean-Hilaire Aubame, who was M'ba's protégé and his half-brother's foster son.[26] In the legislative elections of 17 June 1951, Aubame was easily re-elected, as M'ba only received 3,257 votes, just 11% of the electorate.[32] In the territorial elections of March 1952, Aubame's Gabonese Democratic and Social Union (UDSG) won 14 of the 24 contested seats, against two for the CMG; however, the CMG received 57% of the votes cast in Libreville.[32] Rise to power[edit] Flag of the Autonomous Republic of Gabon (1959–1960) Initially rejected by the Territorial Assembly, M'ba allied himself with French representatives in the assembly.[32] However, using his charismatic traits and his reputation as a "man of the people", he managed to win a seat there in 1952.[33] He left the CMG to join the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG) led by Paul Gondjout in 1954,[33] whom M'ba intended to overthrow.[34] Gondjout, the secretary of the BDG, appointed M'ba secretary-general and formed a long term alliance against Aubame.[35] In the legislative elections of 2 January 1956, M'ba received 36% of the votes versus 47% for Aubame.[36] Though not elected, M'ba became the leader of the indigenous territory, and some of the UDSG began to ally themselves with him.[37] In the municipal elections of 1956, M'ba received support from the French logging industry, especially Roland Bru, and was elected mayor of Libreville[33] with 65.5% of the vote. On 23 November he was appointed the first mayor of the capital.[38] This has been cited as the BDG's first significant victory over the UDSG.[35] In the French practice of holding multiple posts known as cumul des positions, M'ba served as both mayor and deputy.[33] In the territorial elections of March 1957, his reputation as a "forester's man" worked against him;[33] the BDG finished second again, winning 16 of the 40 contested seats, against 18 for the UDSG.[39] Bru and other French foresters bribed several UDSG deputies to switch their political party to the BDG. M'ba's party won 21 seats against 19 for Aubame's party after a recount. However, in the absence of an absolute majority, both parties were obliged to submit on 21 May 1957, a list of individuals that both agreed were suitable for election into the government.[40] That same day, M'ba was appointed vice president of the government council under the French governor.[16] Soon, divisions grew within the government, and Aubame resigned from his position and filed a motion of censure against the government. The motion was rejected by a 21–19 vote.[41] With M'ba's victory, many elected UDSG members joined the parliamentary majority, giving the party a majority with 29 of the 40 legislative seats. Well installed in the government, he slowly began to reinforce his power.[42] After voting in favor of the Franco-African Community, similar to the British Commonwealth, in the constitutional referendum of 28 September 1958,[43] Gabon became pseudo-politically independent.[23] French journalist Pierre Péan asserted that M'ba secretly tried to prevent Gabonese independence; instead, he lobbied for it to become an overseas territory of France.[44] In December 1958, the Assembly voted to establish the legislature, and then promulgated the constitution of the Republic of Gabon on 19 February 1959.[43] On 27 February, M'ba was appointed Prime Minister.[45] After M'ba openly declared for the departmentalization of Gabon in November 1959,[46] Jacques Foccart, Charles de Gaulle's spin-doctor for African policy, told him that this solution was unthinkable.[47] M'ba then decided to adopt a new flag by affixing the design of the national tree, the Angouma, over the French flag. Again, Foccart, as a loyal Frenchman, refused.[47] From July 1958, a third political force tried to establish itself in Gabon: the Parti d'Union Nationale Gabonais (PUNGA), led by René-Paul Sousatte and Jean-Jacques Boucavel, created attempting to unite the southern Gabonese against the established BDG and UDSG. It was also supported by former UDSG members, "radical" students, and trade unionists.[35] Though it voted against the constitutional referendum,[48] PUNGA organised several events geared toward gaining independence and the holding of more parliamentary elections, which were also supported by the UDSG.[43] In March 1960, after independence had already been obtained, M'ba cracked down on PUNGA, claiming its goal had already been reached. He filed an arrest warrant for Sousatte for conspiring against him and searched the houses of UDSG members, who he accused of complicity. Intimidated, three deputies of the UDSG joined the majority.[49] President of Gabon[edit] Consolidation of power[edit] On 19 June 1960, legislative elections were organised through the scrutin de liste voting system, a form of bloc voting in which each party offers a list of candidates who the population vote for; the list that obtains a majority of votes is declared the winner and obtains all the contested seats. Through the redistricting of district and constituency boundaries, the BDG arbitrarily received 244 seats, while the UDSG received 77.[50] In the month before full political independence of Gabon was achieved on 13 August, M'ba signed 15 cooperation agreements with France, pertaining to national defense, technical cooperation, economic support, access to materials, and national stability.[23] On 17 August, independence was proclaimed. However, the Prime Minister realistically declared on 12 August, "We must not waste our chances by imagining that with independence, we now own a powerful fetish that will fulfill our wishes. In believing that with independence everything becomes easy and possible, there is a danger of descending into anarchy, disorder, poverty, famine."[51][52] M'ba aspired to establish a democratic regime, which, in his view, was necessary for the development and attraction of investments in Gabon. He attempted to reconcile the imperatives of democracy and the necessity for a strong and coherent government.[53] Yet in practice, the regime showed a fundamental weakness in attaining M'ba's goal in which he, who had by this time become known as "the old man",[54] or "the boss", would have a high degree of authority. A cult of personality developed steadily around M'ba; songs were sung in his praise and stamps and loincloths were printed with his effigy.[45] His photograph was displayed in stores and hotels across Gabon, in government buildings hung next to that of de Gaulle.[55] In November 1960, a crisis broke out within the majority party. After deciding to reshuffle the cabinet without consulting Parliament, the president of the National Assembly, Paul Gondjout, a previous ally of M'ba's, filed a motion of censure.[56] Gondjout supposedly hoped to benefit from a balance of power modified to his own advantage, and specifically sought the establishment of a strong parliament and a prime minister with executive power.[57] M'ba, who did not share these ideas, reacted repressively. On 16 November, under the pretext of a conspiracy, he declared a state of emergency, ordering the internment of eight BDG opponents and the dissolution of the National Assembly the day after.[56] Electors were asked to vote again on 12 February 1961.[58] Gondjout was sentenced to two years in prison. Sousatte, who also opposed the constitution, was also sentenced to the same amount of jail time.[59] Upon their releases, M'ba appointed Gondjout president of the economic council and Sousatte Minister of Agriculture, both mostly symbolic posts.[60] "Hyperprésident" of Gabon[edit] On 4 December, M'ba was elected to replace Gondjout as Secretary General of the BDG.[61] He turned to the opposition to strengthen his position.[58] With Aubame, he formed a number of sufficiently balanced political unions to appeal to the electorate.[62] On 12 February, they won 99.75% of the vote.[63] The same day, M'ba was elected President of Gabon, being the only candidate.[62] In thanks for his help, M'ba appointed Aubame as foreign minister to replace André Gustave Anguilé.[63] On 21 February 1961, a new constitution was unanimously adopted,[62] providing for a "hyperpresidential" regime.[64] M'ba now had full executive powers: he could appoint ministers whose functions and responsibilities were decided by him; he could dissolve the National Assembly by choice or prolong its term beyond the normal five years; he could declare a state of emergency when he believed the need arose, though for this amendment he would have to consult the people via a referendum. This was, in fact, very similar to the constitution adopted in favor of Fulbert Youlou at roughly the same time.[65] A report from the French secret service summarized the situation as follows: He regarded himself as a truly democratic leader; nothing irritated him more than being called a dictator. Still, he wasn't happy until he had the constitution rewritten to give him virtually all power and transforming the parliament into high-priced scenery that could be bypassed as needed.[57][66] The new constitution and the National Union (a political union they founded) suspended the quarrels between M'ba and Aubame from 1961 to 1963. Despite this, political unrest grew within the population,[67] and many students held demonstrations on the frequent dissolutions of the National Assembly and the general political attitude in the country.[68] The president did not hesitate to enforce the law himself; with a chicotte, he whipped citizens who did not show respect for him, including passersby who "forgot" to salute him.[47] In addition, in February 1961, he decreed the internment of approximately 20 people for these demonstrations.[61] On 9 February 1963, the President pardoned those arrested during the political crisis of November 1960.[69] On 19 February, he broke his ties with Aubame; all UDSG representatives were dismissed, with the exception of M'ba supporter Francis Meye.[70] In an attempt to oust Aubame from his legislative seat, M'ba appointed him President of the Supreme Court on 25 February.[69] Thereafter, M'ba claimed that Aubame had resigned from the National Assembly, citing incompatibility with parliamentary functions. Aubame resolved the problem by resigning from his post on the Supreme Court, complicating matters for M'ba.[71] Faced with reports of tension between the government and the National Assembly, even though 70% of it were BDG members, the Gabonese president dissolved the legislature on 21 January 1964[72] as an "economy measure".[73] The electoral conditions were announced as such: The election 67 districts were reduced to 47. M'ba disqualified Aubame by announcing anyone who held a post recently was banned. Any party would have to submit 47 candidates who had to pay US$160 or none at all. Thus, over US$7,500 would be deposited without considering campaign expenses. M'ba's idea was that no party other than his would have the money to enter candidates.[74] In response to this, the opposition announced its refusal to participate in elections that they did not consider fair.[72] 1964 Gabon coup d'état[edit] Gabonese and French military officers From the night of 17 February to the early morning of 18 February 1964, 150 Gabonese military personnel, headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone, arrested President of the National Assembly Louis Bigmann,[75] French commanders Claude Haulin and Major Royer,[76] On Radio Libreville, the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d'état had taken place, and that they required technical assistance and told the French not interfere in this matter. M'ba was instructed to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat.[77] "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits", he said. "It came to a boil."[77][78] During these events, no gunshots were fired. The people did not react strongly, which according to the military, was a sign of approval.[79] A provisional government was formed, and the presidency was offered to Aubame. The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Paul Gondjout.[80] The plotters were content to ensure security for civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene in the coup; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.[47] Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Ndjolé, Aubame's electoral stronghold. However, due to heavy rain, the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village. The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to Lambaréné. Several hours later, they returned to Libreville.[81] The new head of government quickly contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals was protected and to ask him to prevent any French military intervention.[82] But in Paris, de Gaulle decided otherwise.[47] M'ba was one of the most loyal allies to France in Africa. While visiting France in 1961, M'ba said: "All Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon."[83][84] Moreover, under his regime, Europeans enjoyed particularly friendly treatment.[84] The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government.[47] Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon. Since M'ba was otherwise occupied, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, Paul Marie Yembit, who had not been arrested.[82] However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter that Yembit would later sign, confirming their intervention.[47] Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in Dakar and Brazzaville landed in Libreville and restored M'ba back into power.[85][86] Over the course of the operation, one French soldier was killed, while 15 to 25 died on the Gabonese side.[85] Under the tutelage of France[edit] After he was reinstated into power, M'ba refused to consider the coup was directed against him and his regime.[87] He believed it was a conspiracy against the state. Soon, however, anti-government demonstrations sprang up, with slogans such as "Léon M'ba, président des Français!" (English: "Léon M'ba, president of the French") or ones that called for the end of the "dictatorship".[88] They showed solidarity after Aubame was charged on 23 March for his alleged involvement in the coup d'état.[87] Despite the fact that he did not participate in the planning of the coup, Aubame was sentenced at his trial to 10 years of hard labor and 10 years of exile.[89] Despite these events, legislative elections, which were planned before the coup, were held in April 1964. The major opposition parties were deprived of their leaders, who were prevented from participating in the elections due to their involvement in the coup.[90] The UDSG disappeared from the political scene, and the opposition consisted of parties that lacked national focus and maintained only regional or pro-democracy platforms. The opposition still won 46% of the votes and 16 of 47 seats, while the BDG received 54% of the vote and 31 seats in the assembly.[91] His French friends constantly surrounded him, protecting or providing him with counsel. A presidential guard was created by Bob Maloubier, a former French secret agent, and co-financed by French oil groups.[47] The oil groups, active in the country since 1957, had strengthened their interests in 1962 after the discovery of offshore oil deposits.[92] Gabon quickly became a major oil supplier for France. They carried such influence in Gabon that following the February 1964 coup, the decision to seek military intervention was taken by the CEO of Union Générale des Pétroles (UGP; now known as Elf Aquitaine), Pierre Guillaumat, Foccart, and other French businessmen and leaders.[92][93] Later on, another UGP executive, Guy Ponsaillé, was appointed as political adviser to the president and became M'ba's representative in discussions with French companies. However, the Gabonese president was afraid of internal strife or assassination, so he remained secluded inside his heavily defended presidential palace. Ponsaillé helped M'ba obtain support from political moderates and accompanied him in his visits around the country in order to restore his reputation among the Gabonese people.[47] French ambassador Cousseran and American ambassador Charles F. Darlington, suspected of sympathizing with Aubame, left shortly after the coup.[94] The new French ambassador François Simon de Quirielle, a "traditional diplomat", was determined not to interfere in the internal affairs of Gabon.[95] After a few months of misunderstandings with de Quirielle, M'ba contacted Foccart to tell him that he could no longer work with the Ambassador. Foccart recounted the events in his memoirs, Foccart Speaks: Do you realise, exploded the Gabonese President, I'm receiving de Quirielle to summarize the situation with him. I'm asking him his thoughts about this or that [Gabonese] minister, about this or that in the agenda [in Gabon's political interior]. And guess what his answer was? Mister President, I'm really sorry, but the duties I hold forbid me from intervening in the affairs of your country.[95][96] As a result of this incident, Foccart appointed a "colonialist", Maurice Delauney, as the new French Ambassador to Gabon.[95] Succession and legacy[edit] From 1965, the French began looking for a successor for M'ba, who was aging and sick.[97] They found the perfect candidate in Albert Bernard Bongo (later known as Alhaji Omar Bongo Ondimba), a young leader in the President's cabinet.[47] Bongo was personally "tested" by General de Gaulle in 1965, during a visit to the Élysée Palace.[98] Confirmed as M'ba's successor, Bongo was appointed on 24 September 1965 as Presidential Representative and placed in charge of defence and coordination.[47] In August 1966, M'ba was admitted to the Hôpital Charles Bernard, a hospital in Paris.[99] Despite his inability to govern, the president clung to his power. Only after a long insistence by Foccart did M'ba agree to appoint Bongo as Vice President in replacement of Yembit, announcing his decision through a radio and television message recorded in his room on 14 November 1966.[100] A constitutional reform in February 1967 legitimized Bongo as M'ba's successor.[99] The preparations for the succession were finalized by the early legislative and presidential elections held on 19 March 1967. Since no one dared to stand on the opposition ticket, M'ba was reelected with 99.9% of the vote, while the BDG won all seats in the Assembly.[101] On 27 November 1967, just days after he took his presidential oath at the Gabonese embassy, M'ba died from cancer in Paris, where he had been hospitalized since August of that year. He is survived by his wife, Pauline M'ba, and 11 children.[54] The day after M'ba's death, Bongo constitutionally succeeded him as President of Gabon.[99] Gabon's main airport, the Leon M'ba International Airport, was later named for him. Forty years after his death, the Léon M'ba Memorial was built in Libreville to honor his memory. President Bongo laid the cornerstone for the Memorial on 9 February 2007, and it was inaugurated by Bongo on 27 November 2007.[102] In February 2008, it was opened to the public.[103] In addition to serving as a mausoleum for M'ba,[102] the Memorial is a cultural center.[103] 2. ^ Darlington & Darlington 1968, p. 13 3. ^ His surname is also written as M'Ba and Mba. 4. ^ a b c d Biteghe 1990, p. 24. 5. ^ a b Bernault 1996, p. 215. 6. ^ a b c Appiah & Gates 1999, p. 1278. 7. ^ a b c d Bernault 1996, p. 216. 8. ^ a b c d e Biteghe 1990, p. 25. 9. ^ a b Keese 2004, p. 144. 10. ^ Si d'un côté le devoir fondamental d'instruire les Pahouins concorde par su[r]croît avec les intérêts économiques, militaires et même politiques les plus évidents du Gabon, de l'autre côté leur accroissement en dignité humaine et l'augmentation de leur bien-être matériel, demeurent, Monsieur le Gouverneur, la légitimation première de l'autorité française sur eux. 11. ^ a b c Keese 2004, p. 145. 12. ^ a b His first name is unknown. 13. ^ a b c Keese 2004, p. 146. 14. ^ a b Reed 1987, p. 293 15. ^ a b Bernault 1996, p. 218. 16. ^ a b c d Taylor 1967, p. 140. 17. ^ a b c d Biteghe 1990, p. 26. 18. ^ Keese 2004, p. 147. 19. ^ a b Keese 2004, p. 148. 20. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 217. 21. ^ C'est que Léon M’Ba n’était pas seulement le chef qui s’était approprié pour des besoins personnels les deniers de la colonie. Il jouissait aussi aux yeux de ses congénères d'un prestige considérable qu’il tirait des pratiques de sorcellerie auxquelles il s’adonnait. Comme il était intelligent, il exploitait cette situation pour rançonner les gens qu’il avait charge d'administrer et qui le redoutaient ainsi que la camarilla dont il s’était entouré. Mais il savait, par contre, amadouer les représentants de l'autorité, endormir leur vigilance et capter leur confiance. C’est ce qui explique qu’il ait, des années devant, commis toutes sortes d'exactions sans jamais être autrement inquiété. 22. ^ Keese 2004, p. 149. 23. ^ a b c Pederson, Nicholas (May 2000), French Involvement in Gabon, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, archived from the original (– Scholar search) on September 2, 2007, retrieved 2008-08-09 24. ^ Rich, Jeremy (2004), "Troubles at the Office: Clerks, State Authority, and Social Conflict in Gabon, 1920-45", Canadian Journal of African Studies, Canadian Association of African Studies, 38 (1): 58–87, doi:10.2307/4107268, JSTOR 4107268, OCLC 108738271 . 25. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 220. 26. ^ a b Bernault 1996, p. 222. 27. ^ Keese 2004, p. 150. 28. ^ Keese 2004, p. 151. 29. ^ Keese 2004, p. 153. 30. ^ Reed 1987, p. 294 31. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 223. 32. ^ a b c Bernault 1996, p. 224. 33. ^ a b c d e Yates 1996, p. 103. 34. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 28. 35. ^ a b c Reed 1987, p. 295. 36. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 227. 37. ^ Keese 2004, p. 159. 38. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 228. 39. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 261. 40. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 262. 41. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 263. 42. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 293. 43. ^ a b c Bernault 1996, p. 294. 44. ^ Péan 1983, pp. 40–42 45. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 29. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Biteghe29" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). 46. ^ Keese 2004, p. 161. 47. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k (French) Pesnot, Patrick (producer) & Billoud, Michel (director) (10 March 2007), 1964, le putsch raté contre Léon M'Ba président du Gabon, France Inter. Retrieved on 7 September 2008. 48. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 269. 49. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 296. 50. ^ Bernault 1996, p. 297. 51. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 33. 52. ^ Ne gaspillons pas notre chance en imaginant qu’avec l'indépendance, nous détenons désormais un fétiche tout puissant qui va combler tous nos vœux. En croyant qu’avec l'indépendance tout est possible et facile, on risque de sombrer dans l'anarchie, le désordre, la misère, la famine. 53. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 35. 54. ^ a b "Léon M'ba, President of Gabon Since Independence, Dies at 65", The New York Times, p. 47, 19 November 1967, retrieved 2008-09-07 55. ^ Matthews 1966, p. 132. 56. ^ a b Bernault 1996, p. 300. 57. ^ a b Keese 2004, p. 162. 58. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 41. 59. ^ Yates 1996, p. 105 60. ^ Yates 1996, p. 106 61. ^ a b Bernault 1996, p. 301. 62. ^ a b c Biteghe 1990, p. 44. 63. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 42. 64. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 46 65. ^ Matthews 1966, p. 123 66. ^ Se voulant et se croyant sincèrement démocrate, au point qu’aucune accusation ne l'irrite davantage que celle d'être un dictateur, il n’en a pas moins eu de cesse qu’il n’ait fait voter une constitution lui accordant pratiquement tous les pouvoirs et réduisant le parlement au rôle d'un décor coûteux que l'on escamote même en cas de besoin. 67. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 52 68. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 49 69. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 54. 70. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 53. 71. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 55. 72. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 59. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Biteghe59" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). 73. ^ "De Gaulle to the Rescue", Time, 28 February 1964, retrieved 2008-08-06 . 74. ^ Darlington & Darlington 1968, pp. 123–124. 75. ^ Giniger, Henry (20 February 1964), "Gabon Insurgents Yield as France Rushes in Troops", The New York Times, retrieved 2008-09-17 76. ^ Garrison, Lloyd (21 February 1964), "Gabon President Resumes Office: Mba, Restored by French, Vows 'Total Punishment' for All Who Aided Coup", The New York Times, p. 1, retrieved 2008-09-08 77. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 62. 78. ^ "Le jour J est arrivé, les injustices ont dépassé la mesure, ce peuple est patient, mais sa patience a des limites... il est arrivé à bout." 79. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 63. 80. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 64. 81. ^ Darlington & Darlington 1968, p. 134 82. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 19. 83. ^ "Tout Gabonais a deux patries : la France et le Gabon." 84. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 23. 85. ^ a b Bernault 1996, p. 19. 86. ^ Grundy, Kenneth W. (October 1968), "On Machiavelli and the Mercenaries", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 6 (3): 295–310, doi:10.1017/S0022278X00017420, JSTOR 159300 . 87. ^ a b Biteghe 1990, p. 100. 88. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 92. 89. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 104. 90. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 94. 91. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 96. 92. ^ a b Gaston-Breton, Tristan (9 August 2006), "Pierre Guillaumat, Elf et la " Françafrique "", Les Échos (in French), retrieved 2008-08-02 93. ^ Yates 1996, p. 112. 94. ^ Biteghe 1990, p. 71. 95. ^ a b c Foccart & Gaillard 1995, p. 277. 96. ^ Vous vous rendez compte, explose le président gabonais, je reçois de Quirielle pour faire un tour d'horizon avec lui. Je lui demande ce qu’il pense de tel ministre [gabonais], de telle question qui est à l'ordre du jour [de la politique intérieure du Gabon]. Devinez ce qu’il me réplique! Monsieur le président, je suis désolé, les fonctions que j’occupe m’interdisent d'intervenir comme vous me le demandez dans les affaires de votre pays. 97. ^ Foccart 1997, p. 58. 98. ^ Yahmed, Béchir Ben (17 July 2001), "Bongo par lui-même", Jeune Afrique (in French), retrieved 2008-08-04 . 99. ^ a b c Reed 1987, p. 299 100. ^ Biarnes 2007, p. 173. 101. ^ Biarnes 2007, p. 174. 102. ^ a b "REALISATIONS: Mémorial Léon Mba", Mosa Concept News (in French), 2007, retrieved 2008-09-14 103. ^ a b Batassi, Pierre Eric Mbog (2009-09-13), "Gabon: Mémorial Léon Mba, un devoir de mémoire réussi", Afrik.com (in French), retrieved 2008-09-14 . Preceded by office established President of Gabon Succeeded by Omar Bongo Ondimba
Popular Science Monthly/Volume 29/October 1886/Are Black and White Colors? From Wikisource Jump to: navigation, search ALTHOUGH there is no general agreement as to whether black and white are or are not colors, it is very commonly held both by scientists and artists that they are not colors. Encyclopædias, dictionaries, and text-books usually class black and white separately from colors, defining the former as the absence of all color and the latter as the sum of all colors. Von Bezold ("Theory of Color," p. 41) says, "An object appears black if, in the light falling upon it, those species of rays are wanting which alone it is capable of reflecting"; and, again, "White and black . . . which, indeed, are not colors at all in the true sense of the word." But, on page 90 of the same work, the heading of paragraph 48 is "White is a mixed color"; and, again, on page 113 it is stated that "white and all the very pale colors which are closely allied to it must be counted among the cold colors." It is not meant to attach much importance to such little inconsistencies in this very excellent work, but simply to indicate an indecision regarding the limitation of the word color. For another instance may be quoted Field, an English artist, who says of black that the artist is bound to regard it as a color; that "it is colorless, but extinguished light"; that "to be perfect it must be neutral with respect to color and destitute of sheen or reflective power in regard to light," and that "there is no perfectly pure and transparent black pigment." And the same author regards white light as colorless. These latter quotations are not made to emphasize their obvious inaccuracies, but to further illustrate the absence of anything like a unanimity of opinion regarding the classification of black and white in the chromatic scale. Many other opinions might be quoted, showing not only an indecision on the particular point herein discussed, but also widely different ideas concerning the nature of black and white. In endeavoring to answer the question propounded we can do little more than test the propriety of restricting the application of the word color to less than the entire range of visual impressions. It will be necessary first to inquire just what relation black and white have to other retinal impressions. At the outset it should be noted that we have no retinal standard. An object may convey a color impression which varies in the same individual with the conditions of rest or fatigue of the eye, with the character of the prevailing illumination, and also according to the influence of neighboring bodies which may produce effects of contrast. There is often a temporary or permanent difference in the color-perception of the two eyes of the same person; and among persons there are of course still wider differences, even excluding abnormal eyes from the comparison. It is easy to mix a paint which will be called black by one and gray by another, and with a little less illumination the most sensitive eye might detect no gray whatever in the mixture; and even among a number of pigments, all of which would be classed as undoubtedly black, one may by comparison see differences and be able to select some which are "blacker" than the rest. Crumple a piece of white paper, and it exhibits lights and shades of greatly different degrees, some of the shades perhaps being deep enough to be designated black, and all intermediate shades may exist, but any two persons would not be likely to agree upon exactly at what particular shade should be drawn the line between gray and black. The retinal impression, therefore, under ordinary circumstances is not a reliable guide to the classification of the cause which produces it. Consider, then, how we get impressions of color from objects. The sun emits waves of light varying in length by infinitesimal gradations between the extreme red and the extreme violet of the solar spectrum. As far as our purpose is concerned, we may disregard the ultra-violet and ultra-red rays, which are without perceptible effect upon the retina. These luminous or visible rays, acting together, produce in the eye the impression of white; separately, the longest waves produce red; those a little shorter, orange, and so on to the shortest, which produce violet. Aubert calculated that there were at least one thousand distinguishable primary color-impressions to be obtained from the solar spectrum. These rays of various lengths falling upon the things about us are partly absorbed, partly reflected, the latter portion producing in the eye sensations of color. Nearly all of our color-sensations are produced by this "selective reflection," and it will be unnecessary here to consider the other causes of color-production. Reference will be made, however, to subjective color-impressions further on. Now it is very rare indeed, or never, that but one kind or length of waves is reflected by a pigment or surface; usually several kinds are present, and even surfaces having apparently a pure color not uncommonly reflect rays differing considerably in wavelength from those of the predominant kind. Or, to put it another way, the rays from a surface having a definite hue may find their representatives in the solar spectrum not only in the portion corresponding to that particular hue, but also in one or more remote parts of the spectrum. For instance, the light from green leaves contains not only, in predominance, green rays, but some red rays and some violet rays, which find their representatives in the middle and each end of the spectrum respectively. It is true, further, that almost every hue in nature or art is made up not only of several kinds of rays, but of all kinds found in the spectrum; that is, some white light is almost always present in that which we receive from illuminated surfaces. Now, if blackness were the complete absence of light, the question as far as it is concerned would be much simplified; but I shall endeavor to show that black is not a negative impression. All black pigments and materials reflect light, and many of them to an extent which makes the fact readily demonstrable. Compare under a bright illumination half a dozen black things to be found in any home—cloths, book-covers, etc.—and it will be seen on a more or less close examination that they are not identical in appearance. Color-makers have their blacks of various intensities and shades. One of the commonest of blacks, lampblack, in comparison with some others, appears a very obvious gray. These black surfaces and pigments can not all be devoid of reflecting power, as they would then be incapable of making any impression upon the retina, and the differences must therefore be due to the various amounts or kinds of light which they reflect. Moreover, light reflected by black pigments is white light; that is, they reflect all the different kinds of rays in sunlight. Professor Rood ("Text-Book of Color") found that the black pigments used in his experiments reflected from two to six per cent as much white light as white paper (which, itself, reflects about forty per cent of the light falling upon it), the light being the same in kind and quantity as that from white paper under a sufficiently feeble illumination. There are, it is true, small differences in black pigments in power of reflecting the various components of white light. Blue may be slightly in excess of the normal proportion in white light, and so on, but these are so trifling that they do not affect the question before us. A black pigment with no reflecting power seems to be unknown, and is probably an impossibility. And it is by no means certain that absolute darkness should be taken as a standard of blackness, for several reasons. The impossibility of reaching the standard in practice and of making comparisons in perfect darkness would render it valueless. But the most important objection to it is this: after the retina has ceased to be affected by light, there become manifest certain subjective impressions, perhaps caused by circulation of the blood in the retina, which are not at all suggestive of black;[1] in fact, a very black pigment appears to the writer much "blacker" than the darkness of a closet. The influence of contrast, which is of course impossible in perfect darkness, seems to be necessary to the impression of the most intense black. An utter absence of retinal excitement would, of course, be no sensation at all, and would be of no more use as a standard of blackness than is the blind spot of the eye, of which we are unconscious until we find by experiment that it is capable of intercepting a retinal image. It seems legitimate, therefore, that black, which, as far as we know it, is but a feeble white, should be classed with other sensations produced by light. Inasmuch as black is nothing more than white very greatly reduced in intensity, if we can show that white is entitled to rank as a color, evidently black also should be similarly ranked. But with white the case is somewhat different from that of black, in that we have a recognized standard of white light, viz., the sum of the rays in the solar spectrum. These, as already stated, acting in concert upon the retina, produce the impression which we call white. The fact, however, that white light is composite, affords no reason for placing it without the scale of colors, for as far as the sensation produced by it is concerned it is quite as simple as red or green, and no eye is able to analyze it into its components. On the contrary, the sensation of white is brought into close relation with many colors because, like them, it may be produced by various mixtures of less than all kinds of rays. According to Rood, the following pairs of spectrum colors when combined produce a white which is indistinguishable from complete sunlight: red and green-blue, orange and cyanogen-blue, yellow and ultramarine-blue, greenish yellow and violet, green and purple. Groups of three or more kinds of rays may also produce a white, and these white mixtures seem to differ in no essential respect from such other mixtures as yellow and red, which make orange, or red and violet, which make purple. That all of the solar rays produce together white seems to be simply an accident of the retinal constitution; for it is quite conceivable, and consistent with the color theory of Young and Helmholtz, that an eye might be so constituted that the combined effect of the solar rays might be, for instance, blue, while pairs of colors similar to those mentioned might still produce white; and under these circumstances white would probably be called a color and blue would be the standard. Something of this kind does take place under artificial illumination. By gas or oil light, which are both very yellow compared with sunlight, a piece of paper which in sunlight is white would still be looked upon as white, although we know perfectly well that the light it sends to the eye is yellow in hue. The white of daylight appears blue by gaslight. On the other hand, objects which are yellow in daylight we are apt to believe white by gaslight, as they appear of the same hue as white paper seen under the latter light. These illusions are explained by the fact that the prevalent illumination is always regarded as white, no matter what hue it has referred to the standard of sunlight. White paper reflects equally well all the rays falling upon it, and, artificial light having an excess of yellow rays, the paper is really yellow in that light; a yellow object has the property of reflecting principally yellow light, which it exercises in gaslight the same as in sunlight, and it also is yellow under the former illumination; the white paper and yellow object, therefore, appear of the same hue; but knowing the paper to be white, and through an error of judgment accepting the prevailing illumination as white, the yellow object appears of this color. In view of these facts, it would seem that deductions drawn from the composition of white light are in favor of making it one of the colors. As supporting this view of the matter, might be mentioned Langley's investigations which have shown that the true color of sunlight, before some of its constituents have been filtered out by the atmosphere, is decidedly blue; and that, according to Brücke, ordinary daylight is slightly reddish in tint. It might be claimed as a reason for excluding white from the color series that it has no representative in the solar spectrum, but there is equal reason for excluding purple, unquestionably a color, which has no type in any part of the spectrum, being produced only by a mixture of rays from the red and violet portions of the spectrum. And it has been proved by several observers that all of the spectrum colors when increased in intensity tend toward white, and if made dazzling actually become white. Accepting this fact in a liberal sense, it is plain that white has a representative in every part of the spectrum; and this tendency toward white with increasing illumination being also a property of black, we have a direct argument for the inclusion of the latter with the colors. In conclusion, it may be urged that the adoption of white and black into the chromatic scale is desirable for the sake of simplicity and uniformity in the nomenclature of this subject. 1. With the writer these subjective images often take the form of a circular, or irregular, greenish ring closing in or contracting over a violet background near the center of the apparent field of view, other similar rings succeeding each other in the same way at pretty regular intervals. Although having no bearing upon the subject, it might be added that these images, with others of a similar character, may always be observed in darkness after retiring; and I have a number of times thought I had detected, during the moments between waking and dreaming, a merging of these images, with exaggerations and mental accompaniments, into dreams.
Processing.js vs P5.js – What’s The Difference? By Bruno Skvorc A couple of days ago, P5.js was released into the wild. It’s a JavaScript library for visual programming that follows the Processing doctrine. As per this post: Processing is an environment/programming language that is meant to make visual, interactive applications extremely easy to write. It can be used for everything from teaching children how to code to visualizing scientific data. It’s the language that’s partially behind wizardry like this: and this: and, of course, everything you can find here. But, if we had processing.js before, what’s P5.js? What is P5.js? P5.js is a JavaScript library aiming So, it sounds like Processing itself. But what is it really? Ease up, confused reader, we’ll get to it! First, watch their amazingly enthusiastic introduction here, then come back. Did it click? Get it now? No? Ok. Let’s break it down. Differences between Processing.js and P5.js TL;DR: P5 is a direct JS port of the Processing language. Processing.js is a converter which interprets pure Processing code into JS on the fly. The latter requires you to learn Processing, but not JS, and vice versa. Live compilation vs Language Translation: Processing.js is a library which takes raw Processing code (which is similar to Java, with types and all) and converts it to JavaScript on the fly. The examples you see running in your browser on the Processing.js website are, in fact, pure Processing code translated live into JS. This conversion is, for example, similar to what you get when you use Dart2js to run Dart code in browsers without a built-in Dart VM. On the other hand, P5 is a full conversion of Processing into JS code – all the functions will eventually be translated, and you’ll be writing in JavaScript. In Processing.js, you need to define a canvas area with a data source which leads to a PDE file (a file with Processing source code). There are alternative approaches, too, but in a nutshell, that’s it. In P5, you write JS code directly, and it gets executed like any other JS file you include on your website. Extending: Another difference is that P5 can be extended with addon libraries. For example, the p5.dom.js library addition adds the option of creating and manipulating HTML elements with P5, adding sliders, buttons, form elements and much more to your sketches – much like the demonstrators did in the Hello video we linked to in the previous section. Note that of the two, only P5 is officially supported by the Processing Foundation and there’s even a transition manual for Processing users here. Let’s see a demo comparison to get the full gist of it. I’ve made a Github repository containing the same demo written with each approach. git clone In the processing folder, you have two subfolders: processing and p5. Each will contain demo1 and demo2 subdirectories, which contain an index.html file. This is what you can run in your browser and test. The first sample is from the P5 website – a continually drawn ellipse which turns black when the mouse is clicked. Note that Processing.js loads the pde file with an Ajax request (via XHR), so you will get a cross-origin error if you try to open it in your browser by just running index.html. To get it to run properly, you should probably set up a virtual server through which to access the samples. That’s best done with an instance of Homestead Improved in a Vagrant box – you’ll be up and running in five minutes flat. In this case, we need the sketch.js file which contains our sketch code, and the index.html file in which it runs. The sketch.js code is as follows: function setup() { createCanvas(640, 480); function draw() { if (mouseIsPressed) { } else { ellipse(mouseX, mouseY, 80, 80); The index.html file contains only this: <script language="javascript" src="../p5.js"></script> <!-- uncomment lines below to include extra p5 libraries --> <!--<script language="javascript" src="../addons/p5.dom.js"></script>--> <!--<script language="javascript" src="../addons/p5.sound.js"></script>--> <script language="javascript" src="sketch.js"></script> For this example, we need a pde file with Processing code. In our case, that’s sketch.pde with the following P5-translated code: void setup() { size(640, 480); void draw() { if (mousePressed) { } else { ellipse(mouseX, mouseY, 80, 80); Then, we have our index.html file: <script language="javascript" src="../processing.min.js"></script> <canvas data-processing-sources="sketch.pde"></canvas> At first glance, there is no discernible difference. Both samples run at approximately the same speed, perform well, and have similar syntax. However, if you’re using Google Chrome, and go to chrome://flags, then activate the frame rate counter (see the image below), you’ll notice that drawing in the Processing.js canvas maintains a steady frame rate of around 58 to 60, while P5 goes as low as 50 when drawing, and back up to 60 when idle. Another interesting fact is that Processing uses hardware acceleration all the time, even when your cursor is outside the canvas area. P5, on the other hand, pauses the rendering if no changes to the canvas are pending (your cursor is outside the drawing area), hence lightening the load while not drawing. Demos 2 Let’s do another demo now – a simple particle effect. This particle emitter will spawn gravitationally sensitive particles in random directions, and we’ll take another look at the frame rate. The example we’ll be using (and translating to P5) is this. The code for sketch.pde is the one from the example linked above: ParticleSystem ps; void setup() { ps = new ParticleSystem(new PVector(width/2,50)); void draw() { // A simple Particle class class Particle { PVector location; PVector velocity; PVector acceleration; float lifespan; Particle(PVector l) { acceleration = new PVector(0,0.05); velocity = new PVector(random(-1,1),random(-2,0)); location = l.get(); lifespan = 255.0; void run() { // Method to update location void update() { lifespan -= 1.0; // Method to display void display() { // Is the particle still useful? boolean isDead() { if (lifespan < 0.0) { return true; } else { return false; // A class to describe a group of Particles // An ArrayList is used to manage the list of Particles class ParticleSystem { ArrayList<Particle> particles; PVector origin; ParticleSystem(PVector location) { origin = location.get(); particles = new ArrayList<Particle>(); void addParticle() { particles.add(new Particle(origin)); void run() { Particle p = particles.get(i);; if (p.isDead()) { The code for P5 when translated from the above is as follows: var ps; function setup() { createCanvas(640, 360); ps = new ParticleSystem(new p5.Vector(width/2, 50)); function draw() { function Particle(lvector) { this.location = lvector.get(); this.acceleration = new p5.Vector(0,0.05); var random1 = Math.random() * ((Math.random() > 0.5) ? -1 : 1); var random2 = Math.random() - ((Math.random() > 0.5) ? 1 : 2); this.velocity = new p5.Vector(random1, random2); this.lifespan = 255.0; } = function() { Particle.prototype.update = function() { this.lifespan -= 1.0; Particle.prototype.display = function() { stroke(255, this.lifespan); fill(255, this.lifespan); ellipse(this.location.x, this.location.y, 8, 8); Particle.prototype.isDead = function() { return (this.lifespan < 0); function ParticleSystem(location) { this.origin = location.get(); this.particles = []; ParticleSystem.prototype.addParticle = function() { this.particles.push(new Particle(this.origin)); } = function() { var p; for (var i = this.particles.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) { p = this.particles[i];; if (p.isDead()) { this.particles.splice(i, 1); Once again, we see a slightly better frame rate with Processing.js. P5 maintains it at around 56, while Processing.js looks to be standing ground at 58 or so. In both cases, Processing.js has proven victorious, performance-wise. P5js is a young and ambitious project that aims to bring visual programming to the masses in a manner more approachable than Processing was until now. While it is currently being forced to be dumbed down somewhat feature-wise, the team is hard at work porting the rest of the Processing language to this JS counterpart. The advantages of using P5 over Processing.js are: • Writing JS code you’re probably already familiar with • Officially supported by the Processing Foundation • HTML DOM manipulation with the DOM library addon – adding common HTML elements to your P5 sketches and more • Lighter on the resources when not drawing The advantage of using Processing.js: • You learn Processing and can use it in environments where it’s faster and more portable to non-web environments • Seems to have a steadier frame rate and performs better in both demos we tried We’ll be keeping an eye on this library and playing around with it regularly. Will you? Let us know if you whip up some interesting examples, we’d love to write about them! Meet the author • Jon Howard Thanks for the article, since I first saw P5, this was the first question I had. With regards processing both systems seem to use canvas to provide rendering support. Is there any plans to add webgl support in the future. Also for anyone looking to get into “creative coding” in Javascript I’d advise looking at Pixi.js which provides a seamless layer on top of and supports both canvas and webgl rendering if available. Also Phaser.js which uses Pixi as it’s rendering engine appears to be gathering more and more support as one of the better game / creative coding platforms.- • Mike Farrow Thanks for a clear concise overview of the differences, I wanted to try processing and P5 is definitely the path I will be following. • Bruno Škvorc Cheers, glad you liked the post! • Bruno Škvorc Thank you for the input, that’s valuable information • James Michael Stone Great article and nice break down of the performance differences. Processing can be a confusing beast. It was originally created as a programming language and ide for artists and desginers. It is both an IDE (the one which the Arduino IDE is based on) as well as an API or Library for Java (core.jar in the Processing app). It is sometimes called p5 which adds to the confusion. A few years back John Resig did the original port of Processing.js. This allowed you to run many of the Processing .pde sketches (the file format used by Processing) directly in the browser. You can also use it directly as a library for abstraction in JavaScript, much like other libraries such as paper.js. I did a talk a while back doing exactly this at the html5 dev conf. If you are interested, here is a link to some of the code samples and the slides: Then recently p5js was released. It is really exciting because they are building it from the ground up to create a Processing-like abstraction for graphics that runs in a more JavaScript friendly way. It is a rethinking of what the ideas from Processing can mean when used directly in the browser in ways that make the most sense for it. I think it can encourage people who may not spend the time to learn all of the JavaScript specific ways of interacting with graphics to just go out there and try out some ideas, to experiment and to hopefully create some really cool stuff. The other really exciting thing is that there are a ton of resources and amazing books that show you how to do some pretty mind blowing graphics work without having to be an expert to figure out and experiment with. Here are just a few that are really worth checking out: * Generative Design: Visualize, Program, and Create with Processing by Hartmut Bohnacker, Benedikt Gross, Julia Laub and Claudius Lazzeroni * The Nature of Code by Daniel ShiffmanThe Nature of Code by Daniel Shiffman * Processing: Creative Coding and Computational Art (Foundation) by Ira Greenberg * Visualizing Data: Exploring and Explaining Data with the Processing Environment by Ben Fry • Bruno Škvorc Thank you for your comment! • lukeP One of the biggest down falls of P5 is also that you can’t do any 3D stuff currently • lokitoki how could set the cavas size to the width and height of the browser windows? • lgto4 The article seems to confuse Processing (for Java) with Processing.js, a port of some Processing functionality to a Javascript library. Processing.js is not “a converter which interprets pure Processing code into JS on the fly.” • iefreer Processing.js is exactly a parser converting process language to js, this is how it works in most cases in my view. Processing.js also provides new APIs if you don’t want to use process language. • iefreer In html codes, we can use processing codes like below: your processing codes here , this type of script could not work alone, we need load processing.js, which will partially act as converter, translate it into js based on it’s new apis on the fly. • Andrew Valesky Nice! Thank you. How difficult do you think it will be to use java server and P5 client? I need data to be used in the viz. Learn Coding Online Learn Web Development Start learning web development and design for free with SitePoint Premium!
Monday, June 6, 2016 Middle School Project-based Learning How do we inform the general public about how to prevent spreading the invasion of nonnative species? This was the driving question that guided Mrs. Vann and her 8th grade English students through a challenging and relevant project this spring. To answer this question, the students first did in-depth research on their chosen invasive species in collaboration with our librarian Mrs. Besselsen. They used this research to write a formal research paper highlighting their chosen species including how to prevent the spread of this species in our local region. In addition to their own research, the class hosted three park rangers from Sleeping Bear Dunes National Park to learn more about the park service and the invasive species that threaten our natural areas. The students also spent a day at the park learning through hands-on experiences. Mrs. Vann explained, "Students adventured to Glen Haven to complete dune restoration along the shoreline as well as beach and trail clean-up. Students started their work at different areas in the park, including the Dune Climb Heritage Trail, Glen Haven Cannery and Sleeping Bear Point Trailhead." Park rangers visiting the 8th Grade English classes to share their knowledge and expertise. Students playing a "deer and wolves" game to learn about predators and natural selection. The top of the dune climb! As a culmination for their project, students were tasked with using a variety of technologies to share their new knowledge and understanding with a specific audience in order to make a positive difference in the world. Students created items such as bumper stickers, t-shirt designs, children's games, video productions and brochures. See the pictures below for a few examples. Mrs. Vann had this to say about the project "There's nothing that makes a person appreciate something more than giving of one's time and energy. After watching my students clean up the beaches for the piping plovers and the Heritage Trail for our community, I know they appreciate the beauty that surrounds us. Knowledge is power." What an amazing experience for our students. Great job Mrs. Vann! The tough guys with their tough message on how to prevent the spread of invasive species in our local lakes and rivers Spencer's informative tri-fold brochure for park visitors. An informative and fun matching game for kids!
National fascisms Common characteristics of fascist movements There has been considerable disagreement among historians and political scientists about the nature of fascism. Some scholars, for example, regard it as a socially radical movement with ideological ties to the Jacobins of the French Revolution, whereas others see it as an extreme form of conservatism inspired by a 19th-century backlash against the ideals of the Enlightenment. Some find fascism deeply irrational, whereas others are impressed with the rationality with which it served the material interests of its supporters. Similarly, some attempt to explain fascist demonologies as the expression of irrationally misdirected anger and frustration, whereas others emphasize the rational ways in which these demonologies were used to perpetuate professional or class advantages. Finally, whereas some consider fascism to be motivated primarily by its aspirations—by a desire for cultural “regeneration” and the creation of a “new man”—others place greater weight on fascism’s “anxieties”—on its fear of communist revolution and even of left-centrist electoral victories. One reason for these disagreements is that the two historical regimes that are today regarded as paradigmatically fascist—Mussolini’s Italy and Nazi Germany—were different in important respects. In Italy, for example, anti-Semitism was officially rejected before 1934, and it was not until 1938 that Mussolini enacted a series of anti-Semitic measures in order to solidify his new military alliance with Hitler. Another reason is the fascists’ well-known opportunism—i.e., their willingness to make changes in official party positions in order to win elections or consolidate power. Finally, scholars of fascism themselves bring to their studies different political and cultural attitudes, which often have a bearing on the importance they assign to one or another aspect of fascist ideology or practice. Secular liberals, for example, have stressed fascism’s religious roots; Roman Catholic and Protestant scholars have emphasized its secular origins; social conservatives have pointed to its “socialist” and “populist” aspects; and social radicals have noted its defense of “capitalism” and “elitism.” For these and other reasons, there is no universally accepted definition of fascism. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify a number of general characteristics that fascist movements between 1922 and 1945 tended to have in common. Opposition to Marxism Fascists made no secret of their hatred of Marxists of all stripes, from totalitarian communists to democratic socialists. Fascists promised to deal more “firmly” with Marxists than had earlier, more democratic rightist parties. Mussolini first made his reputation as a fascist by unleashing armed squads of Blackshirts on striking workers and peasants in 1920–21. Many early Nazis had served in the Freikorps, the paramilitary groups formed by ex-soldiers to suppress leftist activism in Germany at the end of World War I. The Nazi SA (Sturmabteilung [“Assault Division”], or Brownshirts) clashed regularly with German leftists in the streets before 1933, and when Hitler came to power he sent hundreds of Marxists to concentration camps and intimidated “red” neighbourhoods with police raids and beatings. For French fascists, Marxism was the main enemy. In 1925, Valois, leader of the Faisceau, declared that the guiding principle of his organization was “the elimination of socialism and everything resembling it.” In 1926 Taittinger declared that the primary goal of his Patriotic Youth was to “defeat the progress of communism by any means necessary,” adding that “We defend the hierarchy of classes.…Everyone knows that there will always be different social levels, the strong and the weak, the rich and the poor, the governing and the governed.” In 1936 French Popular Party leader Doriot announced that “Our politics are simple. We want a union of the French people against Marxism.” Similarly, La Rocque, head of the Cross of Fire/French Social Party, warned that communism was “the danger par excellence” and that the machinations of Moscow were threatening France with “insurrection, subversion, catastrophe.” In 1919–20 the Heimwehr in Austria performed the same function that the Freikorps did in Germany, its volunteer militia units (Heimatschutz) doing battle with perceived foreign enemies and the Marxist foe within. Many of these units were organized by members of the landed gentry and the middle class to counter strikes by workers in the industrial districts of Linz and Steyer. In 1927 violent clashes between the Heimwehr and the Schutzbund, a socialist defense organization, resulted in many deaths and injuries among the leftists. In 1934 the Heimwehr joined Dollfuss’s Fatherland Front and was instrumental in pushing Dollfuss toward fascism. Many Finnish fascists began their political careers after World War I as members of the anticommunist paramilitary group the White Guards. In Spain much of the Falange’s early violence was directed against socialist students at the University of Madrid. Portuguese Blue Shirts, who called themselves “national syndicalists,” regarded systematic violence against leftists to be “revolutionary.” During the Spanish Civil War, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and German fascists joined forces to defeat the Popular Front, a coalition of liberals, socialists, communists, and anarchists who had been democratically elected in 1936. In 1919 a number of fascist groups emerged in Japan to resist new demands for democracy and to counter the influence of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Although there were important differences between these groups, they all opposed “bolshevization,” which some Japanese fascists associated with increasing agitation by tenant farmers and industrial workers. Fascists acted as strikebreakers; launched violent assaults on left-wing labour unions, peasant unions, and the socialist Levelling Society; and disrupted May Day celebrations. In 1938 Japanese fascists, having become powerful in the national government, supported the mass arrest of leaders of the General Council of Trade Unions (Nihon Rodo Kumiai So Hyogikai) and the Japan Proletarian Party (Dai Nippon Seisan-To) and of professors close to the Labour-Peasant Faction. Celebrations of May Day in Japan were prohibited in 1938, and in 1939 Japan withdrew from all international labour organizations. Despite the fascists’ violent opposition to Marxism, some observers have noted significant similarities between fascism and Soviet communism. Both were mass movements, both emerged in the years following World War I in circumstances of political turmoil and economic collapse, both sought to create totalitarian systems after they came to power (and often concealed their totalitarian ambitions beforehand), and both employed terror and violence without scruple when it was expedient to do so. Other scholars have cautioned against reading too much into these similarities, however, noting that fascist regimes (in particular Nazi Germany) used terror for different purposes and against different groups than did the Soviets and that fascists, unlike communists, generally supported capitalism and defended the interests of economic elites. Opposition to parliamentary democracy Fascist movements criticized parliamentary democracy for allowing the Marxist threat to exist in the first place. According to Hitler, democracy undermined the natural selection of ruling elites and was “nothing other than the systematic cultivation of human failure.” Joseph Goebbels, Hitler’s minister of propaganda, maintained that the people never rule themselves and claimed that every history-making epoch had been created by aristocrats. Primo de Rivera wrote that “our Spain will not emerge from elections” but would be saved by poets with “weapons in their hands.” In Japan the Tojo dictatorship dissolved all political parties, even right-wing groups, and reduced other political freedoms. Before they came to power, Hitler and Mussolini, despite their dislike of democracy, were willing to engage in electoral politics and give the appearance of submitting to democratic procedures. When Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933, he abandoned his military uniform for a civilian suit and bowed profusely to President Paul von Hindenburg in public ceremonies. In 1923 Mussolini proposed an electoral reform, known as the Acerbo Law, that gave two-thirds of the seats in Parliament to the party that received the largest number of votes. Although Mussolini insisted that he wanted to save Parliament rather than undermine it, the Acerbo Law enabled the Fascists to take control of Parliament the following year and impose a dictatorship. In France, La Rocque declared in 1933 that no election should take place without a preliminary “cleansing of [government] committees and the press,” and he threatened to use his paramilitary squads to silence “agitators of disorder.” In 1935 he called elections exercises in “collective decadence,” and early in 1936 he told his followers that “even the idea of soliciting a vote nauseates me.” A few months later, faced with the prospect that the Cross of Fire would be banned by the government as a paramilitary organization, he founded a new and ostensibly more democratic party, the French Social Party, which he publicly claimed was “firmly attached to republican liberties.” He privately made it clear to his followers, however, that his conversion was more tactical than principled: “To scorn universal suffrage,” he said, “does not withstand examination. Neither Mussolini nor Hitler…committed that mistake. Hitlerism, in particular, raised itself to total power through elections.” With the collapse of the Third Republic in 1940 and the creation of the Vichy regime, La Rocque returned to condemning democracy as he had before 1936: “The world situation has put a halt to democracy,” he wrote. “We have condemned the thing as well as the word.” In 1941 La Rocque insisted that the French people obey Vichy’s new leaders the way soldiers obeyed their officers. Opposition to political and cultural liberalism Although circumstances sometimes made accommodation to political liberalism necessary, fascists condemned this doctrine for placing the rights of the individual above the needs of the Volk, encouraging “divisiveness” (i.e., political pluralism), tolerating “decadent” values, and limiting the power of the state. Fascists accused liberal “fellow travelers” of wittingly or unwittingly abetting communism. In 1935 the Cross of Fire berated “moderates”—i.e., democratic conservatives—for indirectly aiding the communists through their taste for “compromise and hesitation.” La Rocque urged the French people to stand up against revolution and its “sordid ally” moderation, warning that, on the final day of reckoning, complicit moderates—“guardians unfaithful to their charge”—would be “at the head of the list of the guilty.” Fascist propagandists also attacked cultural liberalism, claiming that it encouraged moral relativism, godless materialism, and selfish individualism and thereby undermined traditional morality. Anti-Semitic fascists associated liberalism with Jews in particular—indeed, one precursor of Nazism, the political theorist Theodor Fritsch, claimed that to succumb to a liberal idea was to succumb to the Jew within oneself. Totalitarian ambitions Although Hitler had not revealed the full extent of his totalitarian aims before he came to power, as Führer (“Leader”) of the Third Reich, he attempted not only to control all political power but also to dominate many institutions and organizations that were previously independent of the state, such as courts, churches, universities, social clubs, veterans groups, sports associations, and youth groups. Even the German family came under assault, as members of the Hitler Youth were told that it was their patriotic duty to inform on anti-Nazi parents. In Italy, Mussolini adopted the title of duce (“leader”), and his regime created billboards displaying slogans such as “The Duce is always right” (Il Duce ha sempre ragione) and “Believe, obey, fight” (Credere, obbedire, combattere). It should be noted that, despite their considerable efforts in this direction, neither Hitler nor Mussolini succeeded in creating a completely totalitarian regime. Indeed, both regimes were riven by competing and heterogeneous power groups (which Hitler and Mussolini played off against each other), and the Fascists in Italy were significantly limited by the wishes of traditional elites, including the Catholic church. Before fascists came to power, however, they often disavowed totalitarian aims. This was especially true in countries such as France, where conservatives were alarmed by reports of the repression of dissident conservatives in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. After Hitler’s crackdown on Roman Catholic dissidents in Germany in 1934 and 1935, French fascists took pains to deny that they were totalitarians, lest they alienate potential Catholic supporters in France. Indeed, they attacked “statism” and advocated a more decentralized government that would favour local economic elites. However, La Rocque’s claim in 1936 that he supported republican liberties did not prevent him in 1941 from demanding “unanimity” under Pétain and a purge of practitioners of Freemasonry from all government departments. Conservative economic programs Alleged equality of social status Military values Mass mobilization The leadership principle The “new man” Glorification of youth Education as character building Decadence and spirituality Extreme nationalism Whereas cosmopolitan conservatives often supported international cooperation and admired elite culture in other countries, fascists espoused extreme nationalism and cultural parochialism. Fascist ideologues taught that national identity was the foundation of individual identity and should not be corrupted by foreign influences, especially if they were left-wing. Nazism condemned Marxist and liberal internationalisms as threats to German national unity. Fascists in general wanted to replace internationalist class solidarity with nationalist class collaboration. The Italian, French, and Spanish notion of integral nationalism was hostile to individualism and political pluralism. Unlike democratic conservatives, fascists accused their political opponents of being less “patriotic” than they, sometimes even labeling them “traitors.” Portuguese fascists spoke of “internal foreigners” who were “antination.” In the 1930s some French fascist organizations even rejected the label “fascist,” lest they be perceived as beholden to Germany. In France, immigrants—particularly left-wing immigrants—were special targets of fascist nationalism. Jean Renaud of French Solidarity demanded that all foreigners seeking residence in France be rigorously screened and that the unfit be denied entry “without pity”—especially social revolutionaries, who made France “not a refuge for the oppressed but a depository for trash.” In 1935 La Rocque blamed Hitler for driving German refugees into France and condemned the “foolish sentimentality” that prompted the government to accept them. He also criticized France’s naturalization policies for allowing cities like Marseille and Paris to be inundated by a rising tide of “undesirables.” France, he declared, had become the shepherd of “a swarming, virulent mob of outlaws,” some of whom, under the pretext of fleeing Nazi persecution, were really infiltrating France as spies. Fascists often blamed their countries’ problems on scapegoats. Jews, Freemasons, Marxists, and immigrants were prominent among the groups that were demonized. According to fascist propaganda, the long depression of the 1930s resulted less from insufficient government regulation of the economy or inadequate lower-class purchasing power than from “Judeo-Masonic-bolshevik” conspiracies, left-wing agitation, and the presence of immigrants. The implication was that depriving these demons of their power and influence would cause the nation’s major problems to go away. Fascists praised the Volk and pandered to populist anti-intellectualism. Nazi art criticism, for example, upheld the populist view that the common man was the best judge of art and that art that did not appeal to popular taste was decadent. Also populist was the Nazi propaganda theme that Hitler was a “new man” who had “emerged from the depth of the people.” Unlike left-wing populism, fascist populism did not attribute workers’ hardships to big business and big landowners and did not advocate measures such as progressive taxation, higher pay for industrial and farm workers, protection of unions, and the right to strike. In general it spared the wealth of the upper classes—except that belonging to Jews. Revolutionary image Fascists sometimes portrayed their movements as “new” and “revolutionary,” an image that appealed not just to the young but to older literary modernists such as Filippo Marinetti, T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, Wyndham Lewis, William Butler Yeats, D.H. Lawrence, and Paul de Man. However, dozens of fascist writers also praised cultural traditionalism, or “rootedness.” Under the Third Reich, Goebbels subsidized an exhibition of modern art not to celebrate its glory but to expose its decadence; he called it simply the “Exhibition of Degenerate Art.” Fascism’s claims to newness did not prevent its propagandists from pandering to fearful traditionalists who associated cultural modernism with secular humanism, feminism, sexual license, and the destruction of the Christian family. Fascists also pandered to antiurban feelings. The Nazis won most of their electoral support from rural areas and small towns. In Nazi propaganda the ideal German was not an urban intellectual but a simple peasant, and uprooted intellectualism was considered a threat to the deep, irrational sources of the Volk soul. Jews were often portrayed—and therefore condemned—as quintessential city dwellers. In 1941 La Rocque commented: “The theory of ‘families of good stock who have their roots in the earth’ leads us to conclusions not far from [those of] Walter Darre, Minister of Agriculture for the Reich.” Romanian fascism relied heavily on the support of landed peasants who distrusted the “wicked” city. The agrarian wing of Japanese fascism praised the peasant soldier and denigrated the industrial worker. Sexism and misogyny Under fascist regimes women were urged to perform their traditional gender role as wives and mothers and to bear many children for the nation. Mussolini instituted policies severely restricting women’s access to jobs outside the home (policies that later had to be revised to meet wartime exigencies), and he distributed gold medals to mothers who produced the most children. In Germany the Nazis forbade female party members from giving orders to male members. In a speech in 1937, Charles Vallin, vice president of the French Social Party, equated feminists with insubordinate proletarians: “It is not with class struggle that the social question will be resolved. Yet, it is toward a sort of class struggle, opposing the feminine ‘proletariat’ to the masculine ‘capitalist,’ that feminism is leading us.” De Jouvenel equated women with hedonism and hedonism with decadence. Europe, he wrote in 1938, had grown soft and feminine from pleasure seeking, becoming “like a woman who had just escaped a frightening accident. [She] needed light, warmth, music.” According to de Jouvenel, an atmosphere of “facility” corrupted everything, and people had become increasingly unwilling to take on painful tasks. In short, he believed the feminization of Europe had been its downfall. In a similar vein, Drieu La Rochelle claimed that educated women undermined his manhood. He characterized political movements he disliked as feminine and those he admired as masculine—fascism, for him, being the most masculine of all. Varieties of fascism Just as Marxists, liberals, and conservatives differed within and between various countries, so too did fascists. In some countries there were rivalries between native fascist movements over personal, tactical, and other differences. Fascist movements also displayed significant differences with respect to their acceptance of racism and particularly anti-Semitism, their identification with Christianity, and their support for Nazi Germany. Acceptance of racism Although not all fascists believed in biological racism, it played a central role in the actions of those who did. Nazism was viciously racist, especially in its attitude toward Jews. The Nazis blamed the Jews for almost everything wrong with Germany, from the Great Depression and the rise of Marxism to the evils of international capitalism and decadence in art. The Holocaust, culminating in the “final solution to the Jewish question,” was the immensely cruel outcome of this hatred. From 1933 to 1945 some six million Jewish men, women, and children were exterminated by gassings, shootings, hangings, and clubbings, and about three million Slavs (whom the Nazis regarded as only slightly less racially inferior than Jews), as well as approximately 400,000 Gypsies (Roma), were murdered as well. Croatian fascists preached the racial inferiority of Serbs, and in the late 1930s they became increasingly anti-Semitic. When Germany invaded Yugoslavia in 1941, Ante Pavelić, the Ustaša’s leader, became head of a German puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), and established a one-party regime. The NDH moved against the more than one million Orthodox Serbs in Croatia, forcing some to convert and expelling or killing others in campaigns of genocide. About 250,000 Serbs in Croatia were eventually liquidated, many in village massacres. The regime also murdered some 40,000 Jews in concentration camps, such as the one at Jasenovac. Elsewhere in Europe and in South Africa, Latin America, and the United States, fascist movements were racist, and sometimes specifically anti-Semitic, to varying degrees. In Poland members of the Falanga attacked Jews in the streets and created “ghetto benches” for Jewish students in the lecture rooms of the University of Warsaw. In the United States, the Ku Klux Klan and other groups preached the supremacy of the white race. Some fascists in Japan taught that the Japanese were a superior race, and Syrian fascists claimed superiority for their people as well. In contrast to fascists in most other European countries, Mussolini opposed anti-Semitism during the first 12 years of his rule. After 1933, however, he sometimes allowed anti-Semites within his party to condemn “unpatriotic” Jews in the press. In 1938 the Italian government passed anti-Semitic legislation, and later it abetted the Holocaust. Prior to the German takeover of Austria, the fascist regimes of Dollfuss and Schuschnigg also rejected anti-Semitism, and many Austrian Jews—including Sigmund Freud—supported them for resisting Nazism. During the early interwar period, France’s largest fascist parties—the Faisceau, the Young Patriots, the Cross of Fire, and the French Popular Party—rejected anti-Semitism, and right-wing Jews were accepted into these movements until at least 1936, when the left-wing Popular Front, under the premiership of the Jewish socialist Léon Blum, came to power. Other fascist groups, such as French Action and French Solidarity, were more openly anti-Semitic, though they claimed to object to Jews on “cultural” rather than racial grounds. In 1941 La Rocque placed responsibility for the “mortal vices” of France on Jews and Freemasons. Although British fascism was not anti-Semitic at the outset—Mosley’s Blackshirts were trained by the British boxer Ted (“Kid”) Lewis, who was Jewish—it became so by 1936. Identification with Christianity Most fascist movements portrayed themselves as defenders of Christianity and the traditional Christian family against atheists and amoral humanists. This was true of Catholic fascist movements in Poland, Spain, Portugal, France, Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, and Brazil. In Romania, Codreanu said he wanted to model his life after the crucified Christ of the Orthodox church, and his Legion of the Archangel Michael, a forerunner of the Iron Guard, officially called for “faith in God” and “love for each other.” In France, Valois, Taittinger, Renaud, Bucard, and La Rocque were all Catholics, and Doriot, previously an atheist, appealed to Catholic sentiments after he became a fascist. Although Maurras was an agnostic, he defended the Catholic church as a pillar of social order, and there were many Catholics among his followers. The fascist intellectual Robert Brasillach described the Spanish Civil War as a conflict between Catholic fascism and atheistic Marxism. Drieu La Rochelle rejected liberal Catholicism but praised the “virile, male Catholicism” of the Middle Ages and the “warrior Christianity of the Crusades.” Although fascists in Germany and Italy also posed as protectors of the church, their ideologies contained many elements that conflicted with traditional Christian beliefs, and their policies were sometimes opposed by church leaders. The Nazis criticized the Christian ideals of meekness and guilt on the grounds that they repressed the violent instincts necessary to prevent inferior races from dominating Aryans. Martin Bormann, the second most powerful official in the Nazi Party after 1941, argued that Nazi and Christian beliefs were “incompatible,” primarily because the essential elements of Christianity were “taken over from Judaism.” Bormann’s views were shared by Hitler, who ultimately wished to replace Christianity with a racist form of warrior paganism. Although Hitler was cautious about dangerously alienating Christians during World War II, he sometimes permitted Nazi officials to put pressure on Protestant and Catholic parents to remove their children from religious classes and to register them for ideological instruction instead. In the Nazi schools charged with training Germany’s future elite, Christian prayers were replaced with Teutonic rituals and sun-worship ceremonies. Despite the many anti-Christian elements in Nazism, the vast majority of Nazis considered themselves to be religious, and most German anti-Semites supported Christianity purged of its “Jewish” elements. The pro-Nazi German Christians, who were part of the Lutheran church in Germany, held that Christ had been a blond-haired, blue-eyed Aryan, and male members called themselves “SS men for Christ.” In many German families children began their prayers before meals with the phrase, “Führer, my Führer, bequeathed to me by the Lord.” In Italy, Mussolini signed a concordat with the papacy, the Lateran Treaty (1929), which, among other things, made Roman Catholicism the state religion of Italy and mandated the teaching of Catholic doctrine in all public primary and secondary schools. Later, many practicing Catholics joined the conservative wing of the Fascist Party. In 1931, however, Pope Pius XI issued an encyclical, Non abbiamo bisogno, that denounced fascism’s “pagan worship of the State” and its “revolution which snatches the young from the Church and from Jesus Christ, and which inculcates in its own young people hatred, violence and irreverence.” Although many Italian fascists remained Catholic, the regime’s mystique contained pagan elements that glorified the spirit of ancient Rome and the military virtues of its soldiers. Support for Germany Many non-German fascists were just as nationalistic toward their countries as Hitler was toward his. Many Polish fascists fell resisting the German invasion of 1939, and others were later condemned to Nazi concentration camps—as were some Hungarian fascists after 1942. Before he was assassinated in 1934, the Austrian fascist Dollfuss sought Mussolini’s support against Hitler, and the Heimwehr received important financial support from Mussolini to create a fascist government in Austria that would resist the Germans. Before 1940 all French fascists opposed a German invasion of France. Doriot enlisted in the French army when war broke out between France and Germany in 1939, and in 1940, as a sergeant, he commanded a unit that held back the enemy for several hours (he was later decorated for his exploits). Following France’s military defeat, some French fascists, including Doriot, subordinated their nationalism to Hitler’s crusade against bolshevism, as did many Hungarian, Croatian, and other non-German fascists. Others, such as Philippe Barrès, a former member of the Faisceau, crossed the channel in 1940 to serve under Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French movement. Eugène Deloncle, one of the leaders of the Cagoule, France’s major right-wing terrorist organization of the 1930s, was killed in 1944 while shooting at Gestapo agents who had come to arrest him. Another Cagoulard, François Duclos, was awarded the Croix de Guerre for his heroism in the Resistance. Salazar’s Portugal and Franco’s Spain remained officially neutral or nonbelligerent during World War II, despite the fascist characteristics of their own regimes. Fascist Italy and fascist Japan were allies of Germany during the war, though Mussolini’s autonomy in this alliance was lost when German divisions occupied Italy in 1942 following the landing of American and British troops in North Africa. In the mid-1930s, other non-German fascists, including members of the British Union of Fascists and the German-American Bund, expressed admiration for Hitler’s forceful leadership without inviting a German invasion of their countries. Indeed, in 1938 La Rocque suggested that the best way for France to avoid such an invasion was to become more fascist itself. In 1941, following France’s defeat by Hitler’s armies, La Rocque called for “continental collaboration” with Germany and criticized de Gaulle and his British allies for threatening to “enslave” France. He soon became disillusioned with Germany’s treatment of France, however, and in early 1942 he formed a resistance organization that provided military information to the British. Intellectual origins Mussolini and Hitler did not invent fascist ideology. Indeed, fascism was neither a 20th-century creation nor a peculiarly Italian or German one. Originating in the 19th century, fascist ideas appeared in the works of writers from France as well as Austria, Germany, and Italy, including political theorists such as Theodor Fritsch, Paul Anton de Lagarde, Julius Langbehn, Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels, Joseph de Maistre, Charles Maurras, and Georges Sorel; scientists and philosophers such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Giovanni Gentile, Gustave Le Bon, Friedrich Nietzsche, Vilfredo Pareto, Karl Vogt, and Ernst Haeckel; historians and social thinkers such as Joseph-Arthur, comte de Gobineau, Hippolyte Taine, and Heinrich von Treitschke; artists, writers, and journalists such as Gabriele D’Annunzio, Richard Wagner, Édouard Drumont, Maurice Barrès, and Guido von List; and conservative politicians such as Otto Böckel and Adolf Stoecker. Many fascist ideas derived from the reactionary backlash to the progressive revolutions of 1789, 1830, 1848, and 1871 and to the secular liberalism and social radicalism that accompanied these upheavals. De Maistre condemned the 18th-century Enlightenment for having subverted the dominance of traditional religion and traditional elites and paid homage to the public executioner as the protector of a divinely sanctioned social hierarchy. Taine lamented the rise to power of the masses, whom he suggested were at a lower stage of biological evolution than aristocrats. Le Bon wrote a primer on how to divert the barbarism of the masses from revolution to reaction. Barrès fused ethnic rootedness with authoritarian nationalism and contended that too much civilization led to decadence and that hatred and violence were energizing remedies. German populist politicians and writers such as Stoecker, Böckel, and Fritsch extolled the idea of racially pure peasants close to the soil who would one day follow a charismatic leader able to intuit the Volk soul without benefit of elections. Anti-Semitism was a staple in the work of Drumont, Maurras, Lagarde, Langbehn, and a host of other best-selling authors. Britain’s Houston Stewart Chamberlain preached Aryan racism, and many of the anti-Semitic ideas espoused by Carl Lueger’s Christian Social Party and Georg von Schönerer’s Pan-German movement in Austria were later adopted by Hitler. Racial Darwinists such as Vogt, Haeckel, Treitschke, Langbehn, Lagarde, and Chamberlain glorified the survival of the fittest, scolded humanitarians for attempting to protect the racially unfit, and rejected the idea of social equality (“Equality is death, hierarchy is life,” wrote Langbehn). Chamberlain saw no reason to give inferior races equal rights. Treitschke raged against democracy, socialism, and feminism (all of which he attributed to Jews), insisted that might made right, and praised warrior imperialism (“Brave peoples expand, cowardly peoples perish”). Lagarde said of the Slavs that “the sooner they perish the better it will be for us and them,” and he called for the extermination of the Jews—a sentiment that was shared by his contemporary Langbehn. As John Weiss remarked of Lagarde and Langbehn, “The two most influential and popular intellectuals of late nineteenth century Germany were indistinguishable from Nazi ideologists.” Weiss also noted that “the press and popular magazines of Germany and Central Europe had fed a steady diet of racial nationalism to the public since the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and anti-Semitic stereotypes were nothing if not commonplace in German mass culture.” In the late 19th century many conservative nationalists were philosophical idealists who accused liberals and socialists of materialism and thereby portrayed their own politics as more spiritual. Other 19th-century thinkers propagated some protofascist ideas while rejecting others. Nietzsche rhapsodized about the heroic vitality of elite souls who were uninhibited by Christian ethics or liberal humanitarianism, but he was appalled by völkisch nationalism and anti-Semitism. Similarly, Sorel preached violence as an antidote for decadence—an idea that Mussolini admired—but his economic thought was too socialistic for most fascists. Social bases of fascist movements Despite their long history in European thought, fascist ideas prospered politically only when perceived economic threats increased their appeal to members of certain social groups. In 1928, before the onset of the Great Depression in Germany, Hitler received less than 3 percent of the vote; after 1930, however, far more voters—many of them middle and lower-middle class individuals fearful of “proletarianization”—gave him their support. The economic anxiety underlying the success of Nazism was reflected to some extent in party membership, which was drawn disproportionately from economic elites and other high-status groups—especially for leadership positions. These posts also contained large numbers of university professors, high school teachers, higher civil servants, former military officers, doctors, lawyers, businessmen, and landed aristocrats. In the lower ranks of the party, white-collar workers were overrepresented and blue-collar workers were underrepresented. Similarly, in Italy, as historian Charles Maier has shown, fascism originally received most of its support from large and small landowners who felt beleaguered by landless farm workers and from businessmen and white-collar workers who felt a similar threat from industrial workers. In 1927, 75 percent of the membership of Mussolini’s party came from the middle and lower-middle classes and only 15 percent from the working class. Nearly 10 percent came from Italy’s economic elites, who represented a much smaller portion of the general population. The Nazis drew more support from small towns than they did from large cities. In rural areas, Protestants were overrepresented in the party, and Catholics were underrepresented. In less-industrialized countries—such as Spain, Portugal, Poland, Romania, and Hungary—fascists relied more heavily on rural support. In Japan many fascist activists were originally young army officers, low-level civil servants, small landowners, small factory owners, masters of small workshops, primary school teachers, and Shintō and Buddhist priests. Fascism and nonfascist conservatisms: Collaboration and crossover Although in principle there were significant differences between fascism and nonfascist conservatism, the two camps shared some of the same goals, which in times of crisis led some nonfascists to collaborate with fascists. As Weiss observed, “Any study of fascism which centers too narrowly on the fascists and Nazis alone may miss the true significance of right-wing extremism. For without necessarily becoming party members or accepting the entire range of party principles themselves, aristocratic landlords, army officers, government and civil service officials, and important industrialists in Italy and Germany helped bring fascists to power.” Without the aid of President Paul von Hindenburg, Chancellor Franz von Papen, and other German conservatives, Hitler, who never won an electoral majority, would not have been appointed chancellor. During the Great Depression, thousands of middle-class conservatives fearful of the growing power of the left abandoned traditional right-wing parties and adopted fascism. The ideological distance traveled from traditional conservatism to Nazism was sometimes small, since many of the ideas that Hitler exploited in the 1930s had long been common currency within the German right. In Italy thousands of landowners and businessmen were grateful to Mussolini’s Blackshirts for curbing the socialists in 1920–21, and many in the army and the Catholic church saw fascism as a bulwark against communism. Before the beginning of Franco’s rule in Spain, many monarchists had close relations with the Falange. Although the Franco regime arrested some of its fascist rivals, it gave others important positions in its propaganda agencies. Horthy’s government in Hungary was soft on fascism, and in its early stages it employed fascist methods itself, sending strong-arm squads to raid leftist trade unions, clubs, and newspaper offices and countenancing the slaughter of hundreds of communists and socialists throughout the country. In Greece, King George II and conservatives in the parliament helped Metaxas to establish his dictatorship in 1936. Fascists also received support from Christian conservatives. Between 1930 and 1932 Hitler was supported by many Protestant voters in rural Prussia, and after 1933 the Catholic church in Germany largely accommodated itself to his regime. In 1933 the Vatican, which had previously interdicted Catholic membership in socialist organizations, signed a concordat with Germany that forbade priests to speak out on politics and gave Hitler a say in naming bishops. In France the leading Catholic newspaper, La Croix, expressed early support for Hitler’s crusade against bolshevism, and the largest Catholic parliamentary party, the Republican Federation (Fédération Republicaine), included fascists in its ranks. In 1936, when the Cross of Fire became an electoral party (changing its name to the French Social Party), it absorbed much of the Republican Federation’s membership. By the 1990s the FN had acquired a broad-based and diverse following, including small businessmen and self-employed artisans, unemployed white-collar and blue-collar workers, socially conservative Catholics, and young people. In 1998 Le Pen’s associate Bruno Mégret split from the FN to form a new party, the National Movement (Mouvement National; MN), taking with him most of the FN’s departmental secretaries and city councillors. For Le Pen, Mégret’s action was not only a “crime against the National Front” but a “crime against France.” In elections for the European Parliament in 1999, the two parties received a total of only 9 percent of the vote, a major setback for Le Pen and French neofascism. After the end of World War II, few Russians needed to be reminded of the evils of German fascism. Nevertheless, several fascist groups emerged in Russia after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. Resentment over the loss of the Soviet empire, concern for the fate of ethnic Russians in the successor states, bad economic conditions, the breakdown of law and order, the desire for a strong leader, and the fact that democratic institutions were not deeply rooted in Russia all combined to make fascist ideas appealing to some segments of the Russian population. Some Russian fascists attempted to revive the reactionary ideology of the Black Hundreds, a loose association of extreme right-wing organizations formed in Russia during the early years of the 20th century. Black Hundred ideology was highly nationalistic, anticosmopolitan, anti-Semitic, anti-Masonic, anti-Western, antidemocratic, antiegalitarian, antiliberal, and anti-“decadence.” The Black Hundreds were strong supporters of the Russian Orthodox church, the army, and authoritarian government (favouring either monarchy or military dictatorship), and they indulged in conspiracy theories that blamed most of Russia’s troubles on Jews and Freemasons. In the 1980s the leading group espousing Black Hundred ideology was Pamyat (“Memory”), whose main spokesman after 1984 was Dmitry Vasiliev. During the communist era Pamyat worked for the restoration of churches and national monuments in Moscow, and Vasiliev generally supported the Communist Party and praised Lenin, Stalin, and the KGB for defending national traditions. After 1989, however, Vasiliev increasingly supported the Russian Orthodox church and began to advocate monarchism. Pamyat writers denounced communists as “godless,” “cosmopolitan,” and “antipatriotic,” and they criticized the neglect of national traditions, anti-Russian sentiment in the Baltic countries, the moral decline of youth, increased crime, the weakening of the family, and alcoholism. Although Pamyat had a near monopoly on the extreme right in 1987–88, by 1991 it had been overtaken by rival movements. One of these movements was the Liberal-Democratic Party of Russia (Liberalno-Demokraticheskaya Partiya Rossi; LDPR), led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky. Founded in 1990, the party grew rapidly, and in presidential elections in 1991 Zhirinovsky won almost 8 percent of the vote, which placed him third after Boris Yeltsin and Nicolay Ryzhkov. In parliamentary elections in 1993, the LDPR gained nearly 23 percent of the vote, more than the Russian Communist Party (12.4 percent) did. However, by 1996 Zhirinovsky’s support had declined precipitously, and in presidential elections that year he managed to win only 6 percent of the vote. Most neofascists denied that they were “fascists,” and Zhirinovsky was no exception. On various occasions he asserted his adherence to democratic values, the rights of man, a multiparty system, and the rule of law. However, in 1991 he declared: “I say quite plainly, when I come to power there will be a dictatorship. Russia needs a dictator now.” He added: “I’ll be ruthless. I will close down the newspapers one after another. I may have to shoot 100,000 people, but the other 300 million will live peacefully. You want to call it Russian fascism, fine.” Zhirinovsky also indulged in racism and anti-Semitism, even though his own father was apparently Jewish and he himself had been active in a Russian Jewish group in 1989. When asked about his parents in 1993, he replied, “My mother was Russian, my father a lawyer”—a comment that became a popular joke in Russia about people who try to conceal their origins. Zhirinovsky also claimed that the Russian Revolution of 1917 was mainly the work of “baptized Jews” and that the state of Israel and Mossad, the Israeli intelligence agency, were engaged in anti-Russian conspiracies. Although he sometimes complained that the United States was becoming a nonwhite society, he declared that only an alliance between the United States, Germany, and Russia could “preserve the white race on the European and American continents.” Zhirinovsky wanted to ensure Russia’s greatness by retaining control of the constituent republics of the former Soviet Union, and he condemned independence movements in the Baltic states and Chechnya and threatened harsh measures against them. As he told a Lithuanian newspaper in 1991, “I’ll destroy you. I’ll bury nuclear waste…along the border [with the Baltic states].…You Lithuanians will die from diseases and radiation.… Soon there will be no Lithuanians, Estonians, and Latvians in the Baltic. I’ll act the way Hitler did in 1942.” Zhirinovsky made similar threats to Western countries, which he believed were working against Russia’s interests. On a visit to Belgrade in 1994, he warned the West to stay out of the conflict in the Balkans or risk a Russian nuclear attack. After being denied a visa to Germany in the same year, he threatened to completely destroy that country and occupy it with 300,000 Russian troops. Like many fascists of the interwar period, Zhirinovsky had little regard for women, and he was openly contemptuous of women with education or political power. Following a television debate with a representative of the Women’s Movement of Russia in 1995, he remarked that women such as her enjoyed being beaten and had fantasies about being raped, though they were too ugly for their fantasies to come true. Such comments were consistent with the negative portrayal of women—especially younger women—in Black Hundreds literature. Zhirinovsky’s economic program favoured a mixed economy. He proposed both that taxes on industry be reduced and that 70 percent of the economy be controlled by the state, including transportation and communication. However, he blamed most of Russia’s economic problems on scapegoats, claiming that Russia was so poor because the country had been robbed of its natural resources by Jews, Freemasons, and Americans. The Russian National Unity (Russkoe Natsionalnoe Edinstvo; RNE), a paramilitary organization founded in 1990 by Aleksandr Barkashov, claimed to have an extensive network of local branches, but its electoral support was significantly less than that of the LDPR. Barkashov, a former commando in the Russian army, touted his blackshirts as a reserve force for the Russian army and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. He blamed many of Russia’s economic problems on Jews, claimed that two RNE blackshirts had been victims of Jewish ritual murder, insisted that only a “few hundred” Jews had perished in German concentration camps, and said that the Holocaust was a “diversion” created to conceal a Jewish-inspired genocide of 100 million Russians. The RNE’s symbol was a left-pointed swastika together with a four-pointed star. The RNE emphasized the “primary importance” of Russian blood, accused “internationalists-communists” of undermining the “genetic purity” of the nation with a program of racial mixture, and called for a rebirth of “Russian-Aryan traditions.” Although Barkashov denied that he was a fascist, he admired Hitler enormously, once stating that “I consider [Hitler] a great hero of the German nation and of all white races. He succeeded in inspiring the entire nation to fight against degradation and the washing away of national values.” Barkashov insisted in 1994 that he would come to power by “absolutely legal means.” Nevertheless, the RNE’s program stated that conventional democracy was inefficient, and it called for an “ethnic democracy” in which the right to vote would be restricted to those who had demonstrated their loyalty to the nation. As part of Barkashov’s program of racist nationalism, he insisted that the state should protect motherhood to ensure the growth of the ethnic Russian population. Families with many children should be rewarded, and a “cult of the family” should be encouraged on a “traditional patriarchal basis.” Farmers, he said, were the best part of the nation, representing as they did a union of blood and soil. A major plank in the RNE’s platform was its defense of ethnic Russians outside Russia proper. Barkashov denounced the oppression of ethnic Russians in Estonia and Latvia and later supported Russian military intervention in Chechnya to protect Russian citizens “from force and arbitrary rule,” calling for harsh measures—ranging from temporary internment to deportation—against the 80,000 Chechen “criminals” who lived in Russia. Following the collapse of communism in the former Yugoslavia and the secession of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Yugoslav federation in 1991–92, units of the Yugoslav army and Serbian paramilitary forces engaged in campaigns of “ethnic cleansing” aimed at driving out non-Serb majorities in northeastern Croatia and parts of northern and eastern Bosnia and establishing nominally independent Serb republics in the vacated territories. The attacks, which were compared in their ferocity and cruelty to the Nazi invasions of eastern Europe and Russia, involved mass executions (mostly of men and boys), forced marches, torture, starvation, and systematic rape. These tactics were aimed at creating irreversible ethnic hatreds that would permanently prevent the development of multiethnic states in the areas under attack. In 1998–99 similar tactics were employed in Kosovo, a province of Serbia in which 90 percent of the population was ethnically Albanian and predominantly Muslim. Organized and directed by the regime of Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic, leader of the Socialist Party of Serbia (Socijalisticka Partija Srbije; SPS), the campaigns in Croatia and Bosnia were undertaken in part to bolster Milosevic’s image as a staunch nationalist and to consolidate his power at the expense of Vojislav Seselj’s Serbian Radical Party (Srpska Radikalna Stranka; SRS), then the largest neofascist party in Serbia. Although the SPS had won 65 percent of the vote in elections to the Serbian assembly in 1990, deteriorating economic conditions and perceived threats to Serbian enclaves in Croatia and Bosnia (where Serbs constituted 12 percent and 31 percent of the population, respectively) resulted in a significant loss of support for Milosevic’s SPS and a corresponding growth in the SRS and other extreme nationalist and neofascist groups. In 1992 the SPS won only 40 percent of the vote and was forced to enter into an unofficial “red-brown” alliance with the SRS, which finished with 20 percent. To counter the growing threat from the right, Milosevic gradually adopted many of the neofascists’ policies, including support for the creation of a “Greater Serbia” that would incorporate Montenegro, Macedonia, and large areas of Croatia and Bosnia. In May 1993, after a year of severe economic hardship caused by UN-imposed sanctions, Milosevic accepted an international agreement for the division of Bosnia into 10 ethnic cantons. The Vance-Owen plan (named after its principal negotiators, former U.S. secretary of state Cyrus Vance and former British foreign minister David Owen) was rejected by the self-styled parliament of the Bosnian Serbs and condemned by Seselj, who attacked Milosevic for “selling out” and called for a parliamentary vote of no confidence. Milosevic responded by launching an “antifascist” campaign against Seselj and the SRS, charging Seselj with profiteering and committing war crimes in Croatia and Bosnia and arresting several members of the SRS’s paramilitary wing, the “Chetniks” (named after the Serbian nationalist guerrilla movement that battled the Nazis and later the communist Partisans in Yugoslavia during World War II; see Chetnik). Milosevic subsequently attempted to weaken nationalist support for the SRS by allying himself with the notorious paramilitary leader Zeljko Raznjatovic (popularly known by his nom de guerre, Arkan) and his new Serbian Unity Party (Srpska Partja Jedinstva; SJP). In elections in December 1993, the SPS increased its representation in the Serbian assembly at the expense of the SRS, taking 49 percent of the vote, compared with the SRS’s 14 percent. In early 1998 Serbian military and police forces began attacks in Kosovo on alleged strongholds of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an ethnically Albanian guerrilla movement fighting to end Serbian control of the province. The Serbs’ harsh repression of the Albanian civilian population drew international condemnation and resulted in renewed UN sanctions on Yugoslavia. On March 24, 1999, after a Serbian delegation at peace talks in Rambouillet, France, rejected an accord that had been signed by representatives of Kosovar Albanians and the KLA, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) began an intensive bombing campaign directed at Yugoslav military targets and later also at civilian infrastructure and government buildings in Serbia. In response, Serbian security forces in Kosovo conducted a massive campaign of ethnic cleansing, including large-scale massacres of civilians, and eventually forced more than 850,000 Kosovars to flee to border areas in Albania, Macedonia, and Montenegro. The bombing came to an end in early June after Milosevic agreed to the withdrawal of Serbian forces from Kosovo, the deployment of NATO peacekeeping troops, and the repatriation of Albanian refugees. In the meantime, Milosevic and four top officials of his government were indicted for crimes against humanity by the UN International Criminal Tribunal at The Hague. In the early 1990s the main spokesman for neofascism in Croatia was Dobroslav Paraga, founder in 1990 of the Croatian Party of Rights (Hrvatska Stranka Prava; HSP). A former seminary student and dissident under the communist regime in Croatia in the 1980s, Paraga believed that Serbia was a mortal danger to Croatian national survival, and he called for the creation of a “Greater Croatia” that would include much of Serbia and all of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He insisted that war with Serbia was inevitable and had to end in the “total defeat” of the enemy with “nothing left of Serbia except Belgrade and its surroundings.” Paraga’s followers openly endorsed the pro-Nazi Ustaša regime, which had carried out large-scale exterminations of Serbs, Jews, and Gypsies (Roma) in Croatia during World War II. Reflecting the enthusiasm for Ustaša symbolism that swept Croatia after the outbreak of the Bosnian war in 1991, HSP members often wore caps marked with a U and donned black shirts in imitation of the former Ustaša paramilitary; they also gave fascist salutes and repeated the old Ustaša slogan “Ready for the homeland.” The HSP’s paramilitary wing, the Croatian Defense Association (Hrvatska Obrambeni Savez; HOS), was heavily involved in fighting against Serbia. The economic program of the HSP was vague, maintaining that the principal solution to all social and economic problems was the creation of a Greater Croatia. In elections in 1992, the HSP received only about 7 percent of the parliamentary vote and Paraga only 5 percent of the presidential vote. The party’s electoral impact was reduced by its insistence on continuing the unpopular war against Serbia and by Paraga’s refusal to join forces with other neofascist parties in Croatia, such as the Croatian Party of Pure Rights (Hrvastska Ci sta Stranka Prava; HCSP), the Croatian Democratic Party (Hrvatgska Demokratska Stranka Prava; HDSZP), and the National Democratic League (Nacionalna Demokratska Liga; NDL). Like the SRS in Serbia, the HSP was opposed by a larger ruling party—the Croatian Democratic Union (Hrvatska Demokratska Zajednica; HDZ), founded in 1989 by Franjo Tudjman—that eventually adopted neofascist policies in order to undercut the appeal of its extreme nationalist and neofascist rivals. Like the HSP, the Tudjman regime employed many Ustaša symbols, and it even rehabilitated many Ustaša leaders and nominated some of them to government posts. The HDZ incorporated into its ranks the Croatian National Committee, a group founded by Ranimir Jelic, a close associate of Ante Pavelić, the founder of the original Ustaša. In 1995 Tudjman’s troops undertook extensive ethnic cleansing campaigns in western Slavonia and the historically Serbian region of Krajina, forcing the evacuation of some 150,000 Croatian Serbs to Serbia and Serb-held areas of Bosnia. Beginning in 1991, Tudjman took various repressive measures against the HSP, including the arrest of Paraga on charges of having formed an illegal paramilitary group and the formal incorporation of the HOS into the regular Croatian army. In 1993 the government launched a largely successful “antifascist” campaign aimed at curbing the influence of HSP supporters in the military. In the same year, Paraga was brought to trial for having allegedly plotted a coup, though he was later acquitted. Neofascism outside Europe The largest neofascist movements outside Europe after World War II emerged in Latin America, South Africa, and the Middle East. Juan Perón, who ruled Argentina as the legally elected president in 1946–55 and again in 1973–74, served as a military attaché to Italy in the 1930s and was a great admirer of the duce. As he later said, “Mussolini was the greatest man of our century, but he committed certain disastrous errors. I, who have the advantage of his precedent before me, shall follow in his footsteps but also avoid his errors.” Perón won the support of poor industrial workers (the descamisados, or “shirtless ones”) as well as many wealthy businessmen by promoting higher wages and benefits as well as industrial development. He also had the backing of many middle-class nationalists and a large portion of the army officer corps. His charismatic wife, Eva Perón, popularly known as Evita, attracted a cult following for her charitable activities and her storybook rise from “rags to riches.” However, owing to inflation, corruption, and Perón’s conflicts with the formerly dominant landowning class and the Catholic church, the military eventually turned against him, and he was ousted in a coup in 1955. After a long exile in Spain, Perón returned to Argentina in 1973 and, in a special election in October of that year, was elected president with his second wife, Isabel Perón, as vice president. Succeeding her husband after his death in 1974, Isabel Perón could not prevent a split between rightist and leftist factions of the Peronist coalition. The economy deteriorated dramatically, with inflation reaching triple digits by 1975, and the country was plagued by waves of kidnappings and assassinations of government and business leaders by leftist guerrillas—violence that was soon answered in kind, and on a much larger scale, by the military and secret police. Having lost all popular support, Isabel Perón was overthrown in a military coup in March 1976. The most significant neofascist group in South Africa after 1945 was the South African Gentile National Socialist Movement (the “Greyshirts”), which changed its name to the White Workers Party in 1949. Although the party did not succeed in creating a mass movement, it did encourage the adoption of policies of white supremacy and apartheid by the dominant National Party of South Africa. In the Middle East the regimes of Muammar al-Qaddafi in Libya and Ṣaddām Ḥussein in Iraq were neofascist in several respects. A charismatic dictator and devout Muslim, Qaddafi came to power in 1969 in a military coup that overthrew King Idris. He advocated what he called “true democracy,” characterized by state ownership of key sectors of the economy, strict adherence to Islamic law, and the mobilization of mass support through “people’s congresses,” government-controlled labour unions, and other organizations. In Iraq, Ḥussein’s Baʿth movement defended an extremely nationalistic brand of socialism that rejected Western liberalism as well as “materialistic communism.” Ḥussein’s regime, which came to power in a coup in 1968, was essentially a personal dictatorship based on an Arab version of the Führerprinzip. In the 1990s a number of racist “militia” groups were active in the United States, and many of them made use of paramilitary uniforms and neo-Nazi symbolism. However, they lacked the popular support necessary to launch a strong political movement or to engage in electoral politics on their own.
Delhi existed much before the arrival of the lift-pump, electricity and chlorine. The seat of one empire after another since the 11th century, it has always been a prosperous and populous city. The Tomar king Anangpal's city of Dhilli was founded around 1020 AD, near the present Surajkund in Haryana, 5 km from Tughlaqabad in Delhi. Having a semi-circular shape and called Surajkund because it had a sun temple, the tank had a stepped stone embankment. Its purpose was to impound the rainwaters of the Aravalli hills. During the Sultanate period that followed, several cities were built in the terrain of the Aravalli hills. All these cities had extensive water harvesting systems, which enabled the people to meet their daily needs. Sultan Iltutmish (1210-1236 AD) built a large tank known as Hauz-e-Sultani or Hauz-e-Iltumish. Alauddin Khilji and Feroz Shah Tughlaq later had the tank repaired. In the regime of Feroz Shah Tughlaq, the channels supplying water to the tank were blocked by miscreants. The sultan ordered the cleaning of the water channels and the reservoir was filled with water. This tank, measuring 200 m x 125 m, is still used by pilgrims visiting the Dargah of Kaki Saheb. The tank has recently silted up and its catchment area has been encroached upon by private builders and the Delhi Development Authority (DDA) best creation of the time. Back to Previous
Point of difference Genius or simply dotty? Preoccupied by the science of colour, the neo-impressionists shared links with the anarchist movement, writes John McDonald. Georges Seurat is a member of that small and unfortunate group of artists who were destined for greatness but died prematurely. When Seurat was carried off by diphtheria in 1891, at the age of 31, modern art lost one of its most remarkable innovators. It is a loss that bears comparison to that of Masaccio, the Renaissance prodigy who perished at 26. Seurat's legacy is explored in the National Gallery of Victoria's summer exhibition Radiance: The Neo-Impressionists. It is inevitably a partial overview because the artist's best and largest paintings are rarely allowed to travel. I saw a Seurat retrospective at the Grand Palais in Paris in 1991 and was dismayed to find three of his most important pictures represented only by giant-sized cibachrome photographs. Paul Signac's Saint-Tropez Fountain (1895) Paul Signac's Saint-Tropez Fountain (1895) The co-curator of Radiance, Marina Ferretti Bocquillon, notes that Seurat's masterpiece, A Sunday on La Grande Jatte (1884-86), has not left the Art Institute of Chicago since 1958. If even the Grand Palais could not coax owners to lend their Seurats, we should be thankful the NGV has managed to secure no fewer than five oils. Two of them - The Bec du Hoc, Grandcamp (1885), from the Tate, and Port-en-Bessin, the outer harbour, high tide (1888), from the Musee d'Orsay - are outstanding. A major disappointment is that none of Seurat's drawings has been included in the show, even though drawing was more crucial for the neo-impressionists than it was for their predecessors, such as Monet and Renoir. It is a revelation to see the differences between Seurat's clear, analytical paintings and the dense, impacted nature of his black-crayon sketches. That complaint aside, it is tedious to dwell on pictures that are not in an exhibition. Among those pieces that made it to the NGV are some startling works by artists who are hardly household names. Although viewers may not be yearning to see paintings by Maximilien Luce, Henri Cross, Theo van Rysselberghe, Achille Lauge or even Paul Signac, each of these painters made a significant contribution to the movement. Signac, who took the lead when Seurat died, is a seminal figure as artist, theoretician and proselytiser, although his pictures are of variable quality. The term neo-impressionism was reputedly coined by the critic Felix Feneon in an article in September 1888. The artists preferred the title ''divisionism'', which paid proper regard to the orderly, unspontaneous way in which their paintings were composed. They disliked the popular label of ''pointillism'', as it seemed to reduce a complex practice to the mere laying on of dots. If art historians prefer to call these artists neo-impressionists, it is because this emphasises their continuity with an earlier generation. The most basic point of contrast is that impressionism was devoted to the fleeting instant - the play of sunlight and shadow, a figure captured in an unguarded moment. Seurat and his peers were part of a general disenchantment with this tactic, which set in as impressionism became fashionable. The desire to make works that were more structured and substantial was shared with artists identified as impressionists, such as Degas and Manet, and by those we think of as post-impressionists, such as Cezanne and Gauguin. It was a return to the classical underpinnings of French art, as found in Poussin, Claude and Ingres. Theo VAN RYSSELBERGHE Tea in the garden (1903) oil on canvas. Theo VAN RYSSELBERGHE Tea in the garden (1903) oil on canvas. Photo: Gabriel Wilder The distinguishing characteristic of neo-impressionism was its preoccupation with the science of colour. For Seurat and Signac, this meant an immersion in the works of writers such as Charles Blanc, Michel Eugene Chevreul, Ogden Rood and Charles Henry. This led to a thorough investigation into the properties of contrasting and complementary colours. By putting paint onto a canvas in small dabs, it was believed the actual mixing of colours would take place in the viewer's eye. Although it anticipates the pixellated screens of today, the hypothetical mixing never occurred. Instead, it produced paintings in which the surfaces seemed to be fizzing with busy atoms. It was as if light had been broken down into particles that were then used as building blocks for a composition. Painted forms appear to radiate light rather than simply reflect it. In works such as Seurat's Port-en-Bessin, the dots are small and fine, but not many of his followers had this degree of patience. As the movement aged, the size of the dots tended to increase. In the late works made in the south of France by Signac and Cross, we could be looking at mosaics rather than paintings. There is no longer any thought of mixing colours in the retina - the effect has become largely decorative. Seurat was a man with a method, who believed in the scientific correctness of the style he had masterminded. If people found his pictures to be beautiful and harmonious, that was due to the way the works had been constructed, not because of any personal poetic qualities. Yet one can hardly believe Seurat was quite so extreme in denying the value of his own imaginative input, even if he argued that the motif was nothing without the method. No great art is attributable solely to technique, and theory is futile without talent. Despite their Egyptian mannerisms, his paintings did not strike his contemporaries as cold and clinical, and they do not appear like that today. They are studies in frozen emotion, held perpetually on the brink of reanimation. Seurat was a leader in both word and example. At a first viewing of La Grande Jatte, the 56-year-old Camille Pissarro was so blinded by Seurat's science that he and his artist son, Lucien, became converts to the new style. Pissarro weathered a lot of criticism for his conversion but he pursued the pointillist approach for a few years until he found it too restrictive. One could argue that Pissarro's neo-impressionist pictures are more sensual and painterly than those of his younger colleagues. He continued to produce landscapes and scenes of peasant life using small dabs of colour but his canvases were never so rigidly designed as the works done by Seurat or Signac. One of the oddities of neo-impressionism, and perhaps a reason for Pissarro's attraction, was its links to the anarchist movement. Although some histories tend to view the anarchists as bomb throwers and assassins, this was the extreme end of a political philosophy that held utopian views on political freedom and equality. Most of the neo-impressionists seem to have been anarchists or sympathisers. Maximilien Luce drew blazing illustrations for left-wing magazines, although only the critic Feneon was known to have planted a bomb. The anarchist dream of perfect equality had its parallel in Seurat's method, which downplayed individual expression in favour of a simple rational means of production. It was also reflected in the everyday nature of his subjects, which showed ordinary people at leisure. As the anarchist movement became more violent, and subsequently more persecuted, the artists turned away from the class struggles of the metropolis. The works Signac and Cross would produce on the Mediterranean presented visions of a golden age, with men and women living in harmony with nature. They were joined briefly by Henri Matisse, who painted one of his few divisionist pictures, Luxe, Calme et Volupte (1904), under Signac's influence. The joy of a method - even one as imperfect as Seurat's - is that it is applicable to many different subjects. Feed an image into one end of the machine and it comes out the other end as a divisionist picture. Putting aside stylistic differences, the landscapes and genre scenes favoured by the impressionists were just as popular with the neo-impressionists. Both groups of artists had thorough academic training. They may have concentrated on depictions of modern life rather than the high-blown fantasies of the salon painters but they did not venture far from convention. Portraiture was one of the genres that cut across all styles and movements, usually in a paying commission. The surprises of this exhibition are two impressive portraits by van Rysselberghe - one of the Belgian poet Emile Verhaeren and the other of Alice Sethe, daughter of a Brussels industrialist. These works were convincing demonstrations that the divisionist method could produce paintings that stood alongside the best society portraiture, while retaining the characteristic surface buzz generated by those thousands of minuscule dots. Achille Lauge achieves a similar feat in his Portrait of Madame Astre (1892), using a predominantly white palette that lends the painting a stark, cold beauty. As with all pictures done in this manner, one needs to examine it up close to see the way the dots coalesce into solid forms. It cannot have been easy to paint like this, partly because it required an artist to discipline any natural fluency with the brush. Perhaps there is a greater art in self-restraint than self-expression. National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, until March 17
Edit Article How to Learn About Other Cultures Community Q&A There are a lot of ways to experience other cultures without having to take a long plane flight. You can travel via the Internet, without ever leaving your house, and learn about other countries, without having to go broke. This website will guide you on ways to learn a new culture. 1. 1 Visit the library and check out travel books. Reading through travel books and travel journals gives you great ideas about local and international destinations and begins to expose you to new cultures. 2. 2 Volunteer to practice English with people in your community who speak English as a second language. In exchange for practicing English, you can ask to learn more about their culture and language. 3. 3 Take a class at your community college about another culture. It doesn't have to be a language class, it can be a dance class, like capoeira from Brazil, or a cooking class like learning how to make mole from Mexico. 4. 4 Visit local museums and cultural centers, especially when they are exhibiting works from other countries. 5. 5 Explore the Internet, subscribe to newspapers from other countries online to read more about what they are reading. Browse local websites with data on entertainment, outings, trends. Take a look at local communities, forums, blogs to get into real everyday slang and culture. You can even get a pen/email pal. 6. 6 Realize that if you would still like to travel, investigate exchange programs in your community. Many cities have "sister city" exchange programs where they select young people to visit the town's sister city for a week. Other options include Rotary, church programs and volunteer organizations. Many of these groups offer supervised travel and travel grants. 7. 7 Remember it is always good if you have a friend of another culture. This way you learn more about how people look, act, etc. Community Q&A Ask a Question • Depending on how old you are, you may also be able to work abroad. Club Med, cruise ships and other tourist organizations often hire young, but over 18, people to run events, take guests ashore, etc. • Ask your teachers about special travel programs. Many teachers take trips during the summer and learn a lot about exchange programs abroad. • Make sure your parents know why you want to travel and learn more about other cultures. They might be able to help you, and, by keeping them informed, you are more likely to be able to make a trip. Article Info Categories: Travel Tips In other languages: Deutsch: Andere Kulturen kennenlernen, Español: aprender acerca de otras culturas, Русский: изучать другие культуры, Português: Aprender Sobre Outras Culturas Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 79,130 times. Did this article help you?
From Wikisource Jump to: navigation, search There is hardly anything else in Crater to interest us, and we pass over the border into Corvus, and go at once to its chief attraction, the star δ. The components of this beautiful double are of magnitudes three and eight; distance 24″, p. 211°; colors yellow and purple. PSM V46 D759 Wonders of the night sky map 8.jpg Map No. 8 Sweeping westward, we come upon ∑ 1669 a pretty little double with nearly equal components of about the sixth magnitude; distance 5·6", p. 124°. But our interest is not fully aroused until we reach γ, a star with a history. The components of this celebrated binary are both nearly of the third magnitude, distance about 5'0″, p. 150º. They revolve around their common center in something less than two hundred years. According to some authorities, the period is one hundred and seventy years, but it is not yet certainly ascertained. It was noticed about the beginning of the seventeenth century that γ, Virginis was double. In 1836 the stars were so close together that no telescope then in existence was able to separate them, although it is said that the disk into which they had merged was elongated at Pulkowa. In a few years they became easily separable once more. If the one-hundred-and-seventy-year period is correct, they should continue to get farther apart until about 1921. According to Asaph Hall, their greatest apparent distance is 6·3″, and their least apparent distance 0·5″; consequently, they will never again close up beyond the separating power of existing telescopes. There is a great charm in watching this pair of stars even with a three-inch telescope—not so much on account of what is seen, although they are very beautiful, as on account of what we know they are doing. It is no slight thing to behold two distant stars obeying the law that makes a stone fall to the ground and compels the earth to swing round the sun. In θ we discover a fine triple, magnitudes four and a half, nine, and ten; distances 7″, p. 345º, and 65″, p. 295º. The ninth-magnitude star has been described as "violet," but such designations of color are often misleading when the star is very faint. On the other hand it should not be assumed that a certain color does not exist because the observer can not perceive it, for experience shows that there is a wide difference among observers in the power of the eye to distinguish color. I have known persons who could not perceive the difference of hue in some of the most beautifully contrasted colored doubles to be found in the sky. Such persons miss one of the finest pleasures of the telescope. In examining θ, Virginis we shall do best to use our largest aperture, viz., the five-inch. Yet Webb records that all three of the stars in this triple have been seen with a telescope of only three inches aperture. The amateur must remember in such cases how much depends upon practice as well as upon the condition of the atmosphere. There are lamentably few nights in a year when even the best telescope is ideally perfect in performance, but every night's observation increases the capacity of the eye, begetting a kind of critical judgment which renders it to some extent independent of atmospheric vagaries. It will also be found that the idiosyncrasies of the observer are reflected in his instrument, which seems to have its fits of excellence, its inspirations so to speak, while at other times it behaves as if all its wonderful powers had departed. Another double that perhaps we had better not try with less than four inches aperture is 84 Virginis. The magnitudes are six and nine; distance, 3·5″, p. 233°. Colors, yellow and blue. 1846 PSM V46 D761 Wonders of the night sky map 9.jpg Map No. 9 is a fifth-magnitude star with a tenth-magnitude companion, distance only 4″, p. 108°. Use the five-inch. And now we approach something that is truly wonderful, the "Field of the Nebulæ." This strange region, lying mostly in the constellation Virgo, is roughly outlined by the stars β, η, γ, δ, and ε, which form two sides of a square some 15º across. It extends, however, for some distance into Coma Berenices, while outlying nebulæ belonging to it are also to be found in the eastern part of Leo. Unfortunately for those who expect only brilliant revelations when they look through a telescope, this throng of nebulæ consists of small and inconspicuous wisps as ill defined as bits of thistle-down floating high in the air. There are more than three hundred of them all told, but even the brightest are faint objects when seen with the largest of our telescopes. Why do they congregate thus? That is the question which lends an interest to the assemblage that no individual member of it could alone command. It is a mystery, but beyond question it is explicable. The explanation, however, is yet to be discovered. The places of only three of the nebulae are indicated on the map. No. 2806 has been described as resembling in shape a shuttle. Its length is nearly one third of the moon's diameter. It is brightest near the center, and has several faint companions. No. 2961 is round, 4′ in diameter, and is accompanied by another round nebula in the same field of view toward the south. No. 3105 is double, and powerful telescopes show two more ghostly companions. There is an opportunity for good and useful work in a careful study of the little nebulae that swim into view all over this part of Virgo. Celestial photography has triumphs in store for itself here. Scattered over and around the region where the nebulae are thickest we find eight or nine variable stars, three of the most remarkable of which, R, S, and U, may be found on the map. R is very irregular, sometimes attaining magnitude six and a half, while at other times its maximum brightness does not exceed that of an eighth-magnitude star. At minimum it sinks to the tenth or eleventh magnitude. Its period is one hundred and forty-five days. U varies from magnitude seven or eight down to magnitude twelve or under and then regains its light, in a period of about two hundred and seven days. S is interesting for its brilliant red color. When brightest, it exceeds the sixth magnitude, but at some of its maxima the magnitude is hardly greater than the eighth. At minimum it goes below the twelfth magnitude. Period, three hundred and seventy-six days. Next east of Virgo is Libra, which contains a few notable objects (map No. 10). The star α has a fifth-magnitude companion, distant about 230″, which can be easily seen with an opera glass. At the point marked A on the map is a curious multiple star, sometimes referred to by its number in Piazzi's catalogues as follows: 212 P. xiv. The two principal stars are easily seen, their magnitudes being six and seven and a half; distance 15″, p. 290°. Burnham found four other faint companions, for which it would be useless for us to look. The remarkable thing is that these faint stars, the nearest of which is distant about 50″ from PSM V46 D763 Wonders of the night sky map 10.jpg Map No. 10. the largest member of the group and the farthest about 120″ do not share according to their discoverer, in the rapid proper motion of the two main stars. In ι we find a double a little difficult for our three-inch. The components are of magnitudes four and a half and ninth, distance 57″, p. 110. Burnham discovered that the ninth-magnitude star consists of two of the tenth less than 2″ apart, p. 34. No astronomer who happens to be engaged in this part of the sky unless his attention is entirely absorbed by something of special interest, ever fails at least to glance at β, Libræ, which is famous as the only naked-eye star having a decided green color. The hue is pale, but manifest.[1] The star δ, is a remarkable variable, belonging to what is called the Algol type. Its period, according to Chandler, is 3 days, 7 hours, 51 minutes, 22·8 seconds. The time occupied by the actual changes is about twelve hours. At maximum the star is of magnitude five and at minimum of magnitude 6·2. We may now conveniently turn northward from Virgo in order to explore Boötes, one of the most interesting of the constellations (map No. 11). Its leading star α, Arcturus, is the brightest in the northern hemisphere. Its precedence over its rivals Vega and Capella has been settled by the Harvard photometry. You notice that the color of Arcturus, when it has not risen far above the horizon, is a yellowish red, but when the star is near mid-heaven the color fades to yellow. The hue is possibly variable, for it is recorded that in 1852 Arcturus appeared to have nearly lost its color. If it should eventually turn white, the fact would have an important bearing upon the question whether Sirius was once a red or flame-colored star. But let us sit here in the starlight, for the night is balmy, and talk about Arcturus, which is perhaps actually the greatest sun within the range of terrestrial vision. Its parallax is so minute that the consideration of the tremendous size of this star is a thing that the imagination can not placidly approach. Calculations, based on its assumed distance, which show that it outshines the sun several thousand times may be no exaggeration of the truth! It is easy to make such a calculation. Dr. Elkin's parallax for Arcturus is 0018″. That is to say, the displacement of Arcturus due to the change in the observer's point of view when he looks at the star first from one side and then from the other side of the earth's orbit, 186,000,000 miles across, amounts to only eighteen one-thousands of a second of arc. We can appreciate how small that is when we know that it is about equal to the apparent distance between the heads of two pins placed an inch apart and viewed from a distance of a hundred and eighty miles! Assuming this estimate of the parallax of Arcturus, let us see how it will enable us to calculate the probable size or light-giving power of the star as compared with the sun. The first tiling to do is to multiply the earth's distance from the sun, which may be taken at 93,000,000 miles, by 206,265, the number of seconds of arc in a radian, the base of circular measure, and then divide the product by the parallax of the star. Performing the multiplication and division, we get the following: 19.182.645,000,000/·018 1,065,790,250,000,000. The quotient represents miles! Call it, in round numbers, a thousand millions of millions of miles. This is about 11,400,000 times the distance from the earth to the sun. Now for the second part of the calculation: The amount of light received on the earth from some of the brighter stars has been experimentally compared with the amount received from the sun. The results differ pretty widely, but in the case of Arcturus the ratio of the star's light to sunlight may be taken as about one twenty-five-thousand-millionth—i. e., 25,000,000,000 stars, each equal to Arcturus, would together shed upon the earth as much light as the sun does. But we know that light varies inversely as the square of the distance; for instance, if the sun was twice as far away as it is, its light would be diminished for us to a quarter of its present amount. Suppose, then, that we could remove the earth to a point midway between the sun and Arcturus, we should then be 5,700,000 times as far from the sun as we now are. In order to estimate how much light the sun would send us from that distance we must square the number 5,700,000 and then take the result inversely, or as a fraction. We thus get 1/32,490,000,000,000, representing the ratio of the sun's light at half the distance of Arcturus to that at its real distance. But while receding from the sun we should be approaching Arcturus. We should get, in fact, twice as near to that star as we were before, and therefore its light would be increased for us fourfold. Now, if the amount of sunlight had not changed, it would exceed the light of Arcturus only a quarter as much as it did before, or in the ratio of 25.000,000,000/4 6,250,000,000 to 1. But, as we have seen, the sunlight would diminish through increase of distance to one 32,490,000,000,000th part of its original amount. Hence its altered ratio to the light of Arcturus would become 6,250,000,000 to 32,490,000,000,000, or 1 to 5,198. This means that if the earth were situated midway between the sun and Arcturus, it would receive 5,198 times as much light from that star as it would from the sun! It is quite probable, moreover, that the heat of Arcturus exceeds the solar heat in the same ratio, for the spectroscope shows that although Arcturus is surrounded with a cloak of metallic vapors proportionately far more extensive than the sun's, yet, smothered as the great star PSM V46 D766 Wonders of the night sky map 11.jpg Map No. 11. If we suppose the radiation of Arcturus to be the same per unit of surface as the sun's, it follows that Arcturus exceeds the sun about 375,000 times in volume, and that its diameter is no less than 62,350,000 miles! Imagine the earth and the other planets constituting the solar system removed to Arcturus and set revolving around it in orbits of the same forms and sizes as those in which they circle about the sun. Poor Mercury! For that little planet it would indeed be a jump from the frying pan into the fire, because, as it rushed to perihelion. Mercury would plunge more than 2,500,000 miles beneath the surface of the giant star. Venus and the earth would perhaps melt like snowflakes at the mouth of a furnace. Even far-away Neptune, the remotest member of the system, would be bathed in torrid heat. But stop! Look at the sky. Observe how small and motionless the disks of the stars have become. Back to the telescopes at once, for this is a token that the atmosphere is steady, and that "good seeing" may be expected. It is fortunate, for we have some delicate work before us. The very first double star we try in Boötes, Σ 1772, requires the use of the four-inch, and the five-inch shows it more satisfactorily. The magnitudes are sixth and ninth, distance 5″; p. 140º. On the other side of Arcturus we find ζ, a star that we should have had no great difficulty in separating thirty years ago, but which has now closed up beyond the reach even of our five-inch. The magnitudes are both fourth, and the distance about 0·5″, p. 285º. It is apparently a binary, and if so will some time widen again, but its period is unknown. The star 279, also known as Σ, 1910, near the southeastern edge of the constellation, is a pretty double, each component being of the seventh magnitude; distance 4″; p. 212º. Just above ζ, we come upon π, an easy double for the three-inch, magnitudes fourth and sixth; distance 6″; p. 99º. Next is ξ, a yellow and purple pair, whose magnitudes are respectively fifth and seventh; distance. less than 3″; p. 231º. This is undoubtedly a binary with a period of revolution of about a hundred and thirty years. Its distance decreased about 1″ between 1881 and 1891. It was still decreasing in 1894, when it had become 2·9″. The orbital swing is also very apparent in the change of the position angle. The telescopic gem of Boötes, and one of "the flowers of the sky," is ε, also known as Mirac. When well seen, as we shall see it to-night, ε Boötis is superb. The magnitudes of its two component stars are two and a half (according to Hall, three) and six. The distance is about 2·8″, p. 326º. The contrast of colors—bright orange yellow, matched with brilliant emerald green—is magnificent. There are very few doubles that can be compared with it in this respect. The' three-inch will separate it, but the five-inch enables us best to enjoy its beauty. It appears to be a binary, but the motion is very slow, and nothing certain is yet known of its period. In δ we have a very wide and easy double; magnitudes three and a half and eight and a half; distance 110″, p. 75º. The smaller star has a lilac hue. We can not hope with any of our instruments to see the three stars contained in μ, but two of them are easily seen; magnitudes four and seven; distance 108″, p. 172º. The smaller star is again double; magnitudes seven and eight; distance 0·77″, p. 88º. It is clearly a binary, with a long period. A six-inch telescope that could separate this star at present would be a treasure. Σ 1926 is another object rather beyond our powers, on account of the contrast of magnitudes. These are six and eight and a half; distance 1·3″, p. 256º. Other doubles are: 44 (2 1909), magnitudes five and six; distance 4·8″, p. 240º; 39 (Σ 1890), magnitudes both nearly six; distance 3·6″, p. 45º. Smaller star light red; ι, magnitudes four and a half and seven and a half, distance 38″, p. 33º; κ, magnitudes five and a half and eight, distance 12·7″, p. 238º. Some observers see a greenish tinge in the light of the larger star, the smaller one being blue. There are one or two interesting things to be seen in that part of Canes Venatici which is represented on map No. 11. The first of these is the star cluster 3930. This will reward a good look with the five-inch. With large telescopes as many as one thousand stars have been discerned packed within its globular outlines. The star 25 (Σ 1768) is a close binary with a period estimated at one hundred and twenty-five years. The magnitudes are six and seven or eight, distance about 1″, p. 137º. We may try for this with the five-inch, and if we don't succeed in separating the stars we may hope to do so some time, for the distance between them is increasing. Eastward from Boötes shines the circlet of Corona Borealis, whose form is so strikingly marked out by the stars that the most careless eye perceives it at once. Although a very small constellation, it abounds with interesting objects. We begin our attack with the five-inch on Σ 1932, and we may heartily congratulate ourselves if we come off victors, for this binary has been slowly closing for many years. The magnitudes are six and a half and seven, distance 0·94″, p. 317º. Not far distant is another binary, at present beyond our powers, η. Here the magnitudes are both six, distance 0·86″, p. 245º. Hall assigns a period of forty years to this star. It is widening, The assemblage of close binaries in this neighborhood is very curious. Only a few degrees away we find one that is still more remarkable, the star γ. What has previously been said about 42 Comæ Berenicis applies in a measure to this star also. It, too. has a comparatively small orbit, and its components are never seen widely separated. In 1826 their distance was 0·7″; in 1880 they conld not be split; in 1891 the distance had increased to 0·36″, and in 1894 it had become 0·53″, p. 123º. The period has been estimated at one hundred years. While the group of double stars in the southern part of Corona Borealis consists, as we have seen, of remarkably close binaries, another group in the northern part of the same constellation comprises stars that are easily separated. Let us first try ζ. The powers of the three-inch are amply sufficient in this case. The magnitudes are four and five, distance 6·3″, p. 300º. Colors, white or bluish-white and blue or green. Next take σ, whose magnitudes are five and six, distance 4″, p. 200º. With the five-inch we may look for a second companion of the tenth magnitude, distance 54″, p. 88º. It is thought highly probable that σ is a binary, but its period has simply been guessed at. Finally, we come to ν, which consists of two very widely separated stars, ν1 and ν2, each of which has a faint companion. With the five-inch we may be able to see the companion of v2, the more southerly of the pair. The magnitude of the companion is variously given as tenth and twelfth, distance 137″, p. 18º. With the aid of the map we find the position of the new star of 1866, which is famous as the first so-called temporary star to which spectroscopic analysis was applied. When first noticed, on May 12, 1866, this star was of the second magnitude, fully equaling in brilliancy a, the brightest star of the constellation; but in about two weeks it fell to the ninth magnitude. Huggins and Miller eagerly studied the star with the spectroscope, and their results were received with the deepest interest. They concluded that the light of the new star had two different sources, each giving a spectrum peculiar to itself. One of the spectra had dark lines and the other bright lines. It will be remembered that a similar peculiarity was exhibited by the new star in Auriga in 1893. But the star in Corona did not disappear. It diminished to magnitude nine and a half or ten, and stopped there; and it is still visible. In fact, subsequent examination proved that it had been catalogued at Bonn as a star of magnitude nine and a half in 1855. Consequently this "blaze star" of 1866 will bear watching in its decrepitude. Nobody knows but that it may blaze again. Perhaps it is a sunlike body; perhaps it bears little resemblance to a sun as we understand such a thing. But whatever it may be, it is there, and it has proved itself capable of doing very extraordinary things. We have no reason to suspect the sun of any latent eccentricities like those that have been displayed by "temporary" stars; yet, acting on the principle which led the old emperor-astrologer Rudolph II to torment his mind with self-made horoscopes of evil import, let us unscientifically imagine that the sun could suddenly burst out with several hundred times its ordinary amount of heat and light, thereby putting us into a proper condition for spectroscopic examination by curious astronomers in distant worlds. 1. Has the slight green tint perceptible in Sirius deepened of late? I am sometimes disposed to think it has.
Current Issue This Month's Print Issue Follow Fast Company We’ll come to you. 1 minute read Today's Tech Giants Are Creating Loads Of Wealth But Pitifully Few Jobs Unlike leaders in the early computer revolution, today's digital tech firms employ far fewer workers—and that's worrisome for the future. [Photos: cherrytana via Shutterstock] The rise of sites like Facebook and Airbnb has enabled a few people to get very rich. That Mark Zuckerberg has $45 billion to give away shows the sort of numbers we're talking about. But how much are these gains percolating down to the rest of the economy? Not too much, suggests a new study from Oxford University. When researchers Carl Benedikt Frey and Thor Berger tallied up the total jobs created by "digital technologies" between 2000 and 2010, they found that only 0.5% of the U.S. labor force is employed in industries that did not exist at the turn of the century. "Relative to major corporations of the early computer revolution, the companies leading the digital revolution have created few employment opportunities," the paper says. "While IBM and Dell still employed 431,212 and 108,800 workers respectively [in 2013], Facebook’s headcount reached only 7,185." Using employment categories from the U.S. Census Bureau, the researchers identified 71 new types of "tech" jobs, including those in online auctions, video and audio streaming, web design, and biotech. Many of these positions are being created in "skilled cities," like San Francisco and San Jose, that are able to "adapt to new technologies to reinvent themselves." Silicon Valley had a new job rate of 1.8%, compared to the 0.5% national average and a 0.2% rate in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The study finds a strong correlation between levels of college education and new job creation. The research adds to a growing debate about the impact of technology on jobs, with several forecasts predicting massive losses as we adopt robots and other artificially intelligent machines. Some economists think these warnings are overblown and that technology has a way of eliminating some positions while creating others. But Frey and Berger are decidedly pessimistic. "Because digital businesses require only limited capital investment, employment opportunities created by technological change may continue to stagnate as the U.S. economy is becoming increasingly digitized," they say.
A- A A+ Free Email News The Creation Answers Book by Various US $14.00 View Item Robotic folly by , CMI–Australia 5 September 2000 Some media outlets have generated great excitement over the development of some simple robots by supposedly evolutionary means. A computer programmer and an engineer managed to program a computer to produce ‘virtual robots’ (i.e. that operated only inside the computer rather than the outside world) that moved along a surface. They then modeled real robots on some of the virtual robots, constructing them from plastics and pistons, etc., with electronic controls to operate the pistons.1 Popular media have waxed lyrical about this development, probably because funny little robots make for an interesting story, but also supposedly because it shows that ‘evolution works’. Do these computer games have any relevance to biological evolution? Not much. Scientists and engineers have used computers to optimize structures and equations for many years, by getting the computer to change the values of some coefficients slightly and then test to see if the result is closer to the desired outcome. If it is, then vary the coefficients in the same direction some more and test again. If not, then go back and try varying the coefficients in a different direction and test again. Many thousands of such cycles can produce the desired outcome that would be impossible to find by manual techniques. These are known as ‘iterative’ methods. In recent times it has become fashionable to invoke ‘evolution’ everywhere (even to justify infidelity, rape and the like—see ‘Evolution made me do it!’). In keeping with this fashion, the iterative procedures used for many years in engineering have been recast as ‘evolutionary computation’. The variation in the coefficients has been likened to mutations and the testing of the outcome as ‘survival of the fittest’. This has then been used as evidence that ‘evolution works’. Atheist Richard Dawkins popularized the idea of computer simulations of evolution, using highly unrealistic programs to indoctrinate naive readers with his materialistic views (see Weasel words and Dawkins’ weasel revisited). There are a number of reasons why these computer exercises are not relevant to biological evolution: 1. Such computer simulations are strictly confined to a limited number of components. For example, in the current example, the maximum number of components is about 13. The number of critical components—that is, those necessary for the robot to function—is only about 4 or 5 parts. Real organisms have many thousands of different components, with millions of DNA ‘letters’ to code for them all. 2. The components are ‘given’ by the programmer. In this case the program has available rods (‘bars’) and pistons (‘actuators’)—only two possible types of components. The rods and pistons are joined or not joined at their ends by ball-joints. The lengths are varied one at a time in small increments. The ‘neural network’ that ‘evolved’ is also very simple in effect: operate the piston, or if there is more than one, the choices are to operate them together or not. In other words, there is a very limited set of options for ‘mutations’ to occur. Dawkins used this trick also in his ‘methinks its like a weasel’ con. In the real world, even the simplest bacterium has hundreds of thousands of sites where mutations can occur. Computer programmers have to strictly limit their ‘mutations’, otherwise they know that error catastrophe will result—where the program gets lost and cannot arrive at any solution. This is a fundamental problem with the evolutionary story for living things—mutations cause the destruction of the genetic information (and so they are known by the thousands of diseases they cause), not its creation. 3. The ‘selection’ is only for one trait—movement. In the real world of living organisms, selection must be for hundreds of different traits at once. It is not possible to confine mutations to one part of the organism’s program (DNA), and therefore to one trait. For every mutation that might affect a trait such as movement, hundreds of mutations will affect other traits, such as reproduction, metabolism of sugars, etc., so they all have to be selected for. And to complicate things further, a given trait can be affected by mutations in different parts of an organism’s DNA, and a single mutation can affect more than one trait. Inclusion of many traits in the computer program would render the procedure unworkable (it is very difficult to get iterative processes to work with more than one goal). 4. The ‘selection’ of these virtual robots is far more efficient than natural selection in the real world. As Walter ReMine points out in The Biotic Message (see review), with realistic natural selection coefficients, there would be insufficient time for this process to work in the Dawkinsian simulations or the real world. 5. The programmer has pre-programmed the computer for a specific goal. ‘Evolution’ can have no specific goals, such as locomotion, as it is purposeless, being driven by chance, not intelligence. 6. The computer exercise did not start with nothing—it started with a program generated by intelligent scientists that specified the way in which the robots could be constructed. And this program presupposed the existence of complex components. 7. Given the components (pistons, rods, etc.) programmed into the computer, it is no great achievement to have achieved movement in the robots—all that is required is to lift one end of a piston off the ground and have it expand and contract. 8. In spite of the chutzpah (calling the robots ‘lifeforms’), the robots cannot reproduce themselves. They are dependent on their human creators to manufacture them. They are not ‘lifeforms’ in any meaningful sense of the word. The simplest of living things can gather the raw materials and manufacture all the components to reproduce themselves 9. The robots produced by the program contrast with living things in that they look ‘jerry-built’. Even atheists like Richard Dawkins admit that living things look like they are beautifully designed—they look like an intelligent creator cleverly designed them (and then he uses evolutionary storytelling to try to explain how they actually made themselves by mutations and natural selection). However, the robots ‘evolved’ in the computer do not look like they were cleverly designed—they look like they were thrown together. The most complex virtual robot illustrated on the Nature website, dubbed the ‘arrow’, can be seen at The model made of it can be seen at It is clear that the parts of it that look like they were the result of intelligent design are the components specified in the original computer program (pistons, joints and rods). The arrangement of the parts looks like the result of a haphazard process. Living things do not look like they came about by a haphazard (random) process. They look like they were designed. These are some of the reasons that ‘evolution’ simulations in computers—such as this latest one given a ‘beat up’ by the popular press—have no relevance to the materialists’ belief in molecules-to-man evolution. In fact the severe limitations on such procedures, even with fast, powerful modern computers, shows how real-world (biological) evolution is impossible, even if there were the eons of time claimed by evolutionists. 1. Hod Lipson & Jordan B. Pollack, Automatic design and manufacture of robotic lifeforms, Nature 406:974–978, 31 August 2000. Return to text. Copied to clipboard Product added to cart. Click store to checkout. In your shopping cart Remove All Products in Cart Go to store and Checkout Go to store
Sam Evans-Brown / NHPR Most of today’s students and their parents are used to report cards based on the letters A through F. But a new grading system is taking root in schools across the country that seeks to give parents a lot more information. Standards based grading breaks classes down to specific skills students have mastered. A is good, F is bad. But what about E, M, IP, and LP? Those are the grades that kids in Sanborn High School in Kingston get. They stand for exceeding, meeting, in-progress, and limited progress. Phil Jern via flickr Creative Commons If recent revelations about the NSA’s domestic surveillance programs have you worried about the future of American privacy, it might do you good to think back to when you were still in high school… and nearly all of your activities were monitored by another powerful domestic agency: your parents. Since then, technology has made surveilling students remotely, easier than ever before...Including a new program called “Power-School”, which offers parents around-the-clock online access to their children’s grades and academic progress. Jessica Lahey is a New Hampshire parent and educator, and author of the forthcoming book Why Parents Need To Let Their Children Fail. She recently wrote for The Atlantic about why her family is choosing not to use the system to monitor their fourteen-year old son. Flikr Creative Commons / Dean Terry
From left to right: Salk scientists Kuo-Fen Lee and Tsung Chang Sung. (Source: Salk Institute for Biological Studies)More than 11,000 Americans suffer spinal cord injuries each year, and since over a quarter of those injuries are due to falls, the number is likely to rise as the population ages. The reason so many of those injuries are permanently disabling is that the human body lacks the capacity to regenerate nerve fibers. The best our bodies can do is route the surviving tissue around the injury site. "It's like a detour after an earthquake," says Kuo-Fen Lee, the Salk Institute's Helen McLoraine Chair in Molecular Neurobiology. "If the freeway is down, but you can still take the side-streets, traffic can still move. So your strategy has to be to find a way to preserve as much tissue as possible, to give yourself a chance for that rerouting." "As a biochemist and neurobiologist, this discovery gives me hope that we can find a potential target molecule for drug treatments," says Lee. "Nevertheless, I must caution that this is only the first step in knowing what to look for." Spinal cord injury triggers massive cell death, as indicated by the number of pink cells (left). However, this process is markedly reduced when the levels of p45 are increased in those cells (right). (Source: Salk Institute for Biological Studies) But there's more to how P45 works that gives Lee hope that he may be on to a unique approach to finding new ways to treat spinal cord injuries. In other recent findings, which are being prepared for publication, his team saw P45 also yield positive effects, specifically the encouragement of healthy tissue growth. Thus, Lee concludes its real role may be as a sort of "see-saw" molecule that tips the balance in the cascade from negative to positive. "If you can understand where you could tilt the balance of positive/negative signal, it would give you less damage while helping to promote healing," says Lee. "It could be combinatorial-maybe one molecule can do both, or maybe it's a combination of two molecules, one to negate, one to promote. The hope is if such a control switch could be found, more tissue could be preserved at the site of injury, thus increasing the chances that movement might someday be restored." Other researchers on the study were Tsung-Chang Sung, Zhijiang Chen, Sandrine Thuret, Marçal Vilar, Fred Gage and Roland Riek of the Salk Institute. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Aging, MDA, Clayton Foundation, Paralyzed Veterans of America Spinal Cord Research Foundation, the Paralysis Project of America, Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation, Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad and the Institute of Health Carlos III.
Piazza Venezia, Rome. (Image by Markus Bernet, CC) Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.Encyclopedia of Food and CultureEncyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology Further reading Getting There Getting Around Public Safety Health Care Parks and Recreation Performing Arts Libraries and Museums Holidays and Festivals Famous Citizens For Further Study Rome, Italy, Europe Founded: 753 b.c.; Unified: 1870 Location: Lazio region in Italy, Europe, on a peninsula extending from southern Europe into the Mediterranean Sea, bordering France to the northwest, Switzerland and Austria to the north, Slovenia to the northeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south Flag: Vertical bands of orange (left) and yellow. Ethnic Composition: Italian; German, French, Slovenes, Albanian-Italians, Greek-Italians Elevation: 4,336 m (14,453 ft) above sea level Latitude and Longitude: 41°54N, 12°30E Climate : Temperate, mild winters and long, dry, hot summers Annual Mean Temperature: 7.4°C (45.3°F) in January; 25.7°C (78.3°F) in July Average Annual Rainfall: 890 mm (35 in) Government: Multi-party republic, headed by a president and prime minister, legislative power held by bicameral Parliament: Senate and Chamber of Deputies Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: The euro (EUR). As of January 1, 1999, the lira became a subdivision of the Euro (conversion rate: 1,936.27 lira to one Euro; one Euro equals 100 cents.) Telephone Area Codes: Italy country code 39; Rome city code 6 1. Introduction Near the banks of the Tiber River, 2,700 years ago on seven hills, the foundation of Rome was laid. It is one of the most ancient cities in Europe. Since then, it has been continuously inhabited and has grown into a city of almost three million people, covering 1,502 square kilometers (580 square miles). Rome is in southern Italy, in southern Europe, and has a parallel latitude with New York state. Located inland about 27 kilometers (17 miles) from the Tyrrhenian Sea, Rome is the capital city of Italy. Within Rome's enclave is Vatican City. The seat of the papacy of the Roman Catholic Church, Vatican City has been recognized as an independent state by the Italian government since 1929. The majestic dome of St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City dominates the Roman skyline. Once the center of the Roman Empire, Rome has been the capital of united Italy since 1871. The economy remains strongessentially based on tourism and government operations. After World War II (193945), the city developed a wide base of industries; thus, the Rome of today hosts the headquarters of many multinational corporations and agencies. Divided into two regions, the sprawling outer city is changing with suburban growth. The historical center is a small area, located on the eastern bank of the Tiber River and contains many monuments of Rome's past greatness. The city is an unparalleled repository of monuments from all periods in European history. The legacy of the Roman Empire is extensive, witnessed from the preservation of the Pantheon, considered one of the finest surviving temples of antiquity, to the impressive Colosseum, an amphitheater that hosted gladiatorial combat and other spectacles. Ancient city walls, triumphal arches, public meeting places, churches, and palaces are scattered throughout Rome. With an extraordinary wealth of artwork, Rome is a major world center for creative study and performing arts. 2. Getting There Italy is bound to the north by Switzerland and Austria, to the east by Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea, to the south by the Mediterranean, Tyrrhenian, and Ligurian seas, and to the west by France. It covers 301,308 square kilometers (116,335 square miles), and Rome is located about halfway down Italy's western coast. Driving to and around Rome can be challenging. The main road linking Rome to the north and south of Italy is the Autostrade del sole, which connects with the ring road circling the city. The 13-kilometer (8-mile) Mount Frejus highway tunnel, integrating France and Italy through the Alps, opened in 1980. The legal age for an auto rental is 21 years of age. There are several rental car agencies at both airports and a few at Termini Stazione. Rome Population Profile Population: 2,688,000 Area: 1502 sq km (580 sq mi) World population rank 1: 115 Percentage of national population 2: 4.7% Average yearly growth rate: 0.0% 1. The Rome metropolitan area's rank among the world's urban areas. 2. The percent of Italy's total population living in the Rome metropolitan area. Bus and Railroad Service Train is by far the most efficient means of transportation for any land journey within Italy, to or from Rome. The Italian State Railways have several levels of service, from local trains that stop at every station, to the Pendolino, a fast, luxurious first-class-only train. From the airport, the Stazione Termini direct train runs hourly. The Stazione Termini, Rome's main train station, is the hub of the urban transportation system. Beneath it is the only interchange between the city ' s two Metro lines, and directly outside, on Piazza dei Cinquecento, is the central bus terminal, a stunning twentieth-century building. Buses run from 6:00 am to midnight, with some services running throughout the night. The city ' s Metro service has two lines, and both go through Termini. A bus ticket is also valid for the city's subway and train services. Rome is serviced by two international airports. Leonardo da Vinci, commonly known as Fiumicino, handles most scheduled flights and is about 29 kilometers (18 miles) southwest of the city. Ciampino is about 14 kilometer (nine miles) southeast and is used for charter flights. The national airline carrier Alitalia is 89.3 percent owned by the state. 3. Getting Around Navigating the streets of Rome can be tricky. Often it is easiest to take advantage of the city's public transportation. Tickets for city metros, buses, and trams must be purchased before boarding. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Metro system is useful and simple to master. There are two lines, A and B, which cross at Termini. Metro trains run approximately every ten minutes, from 5:30 am until 11:30 pm, 12:30 am on Saturday. Tickets for metros are valid for one single journey only. Daily and weekly travel passes are also available. For sightseers, favorite metro stops include the Spanish Steps, Spagna, Vatican Museums, Ottaviano, Colosseo, Circus Maximus, Bath of Caracalls, Circo Massimo, the Catacombs, and Colli Albani. The main bus terminal is outside Termini Stazione. Most day buses have only a driver while night buses usually have a conductor who issues tickets. Tickets are not sold on day buses, and passengers board from the rear. There are several bus lines that run from 5:30 am until midnight. Night buses run from 1:00 am until 5:30 am. Tickets are time stamped and are valid for 90 minutes of travel. Rome's public orange buses and handful of trams cover much of the city, but they do not travel through the narrow streets of the historic center. Several routes, however, are within a short distance of most main attractions. Communal stops include the Vatican, Spanish Steps, and Trevi Fountain. Official taxis in Rome are yellow and must bear the taxi sign on the roof. An expensive venture, taxis also charge extra for baggage, late night trips, Sunday travel, or public holiday travel. The fare may begin from the telephone request, not from the point of origin. Bike tours from the north to the south of the city are actually a popular way to see the sights of Villa Borghese, Piazza del Popolo, Piazza Venezia, and the Spanish Steps. Conversely, the narrow streets combined with steep hills can make cycling a bit of a challenge. City Fact Comparison Indicator Rome Cairo New York Beijing Population of urban area1 2,688,000 10,772,000 16,626,000 12,033,000 Date the city was founded 753 BC AD 969 1613 723 BC Daily costs to visit the city2 Hotel (single occupancy) $172 $193 $198 $129 Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner) $59 $56 $44 $62 Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) $15 $14> $26 $16 Total daily costs $246 $173 $244 $207 Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city 20 13 10 11 Largest newspaper La Repubblica Akhbar El Yom/Al Akhbar The Wall Street Journal Renmin Ribao Circulation of largest newspaper 754,930 1,159,339 1,740,450 3,000,000 Date largest newspaper was established 1976 1944 1889 1948 1United Nations population estimates for the year 2000. Mopeds and scooters, called Vespa or wasps in Italy because of the buzzing noise they make, are an efficient way to get around the narrow streets. Bikes and mopeds can be rented from Roma Rent and Scoot-a-Long, among others. 4. People Due to improved economic and social conditions in southern regions, and the influence of the media, differences between northern and southern Italians are diminishing. However, Italians still refer to one another by their city of origin (Milanese, Roman, Florentine), and some regional attitudes remain. Adopting practices of their German and Austrian neighbors, people in the industrialized north traditionally value punctuality, reliability, organization, and economic success. They view time as a precious resource not to be wasted. Communities take pride in maintaining a low tolerance for public corruption and escalating crime. Southerners tend to be gracious and known for their warm character and friendliness. Neighborhoods and citizens of Rome value leisurely days and take their time conducting business. Family values prevail in the south and are often revered over economic success. Regional economic differences have contributed to tensions within the country. Northern Italians feel they are too heavily taxed for subsidized projects in the south. Southerners resent the higher income and better employment opportunities offered only in the north. Political movements that call for regional autonomy in a federal system have gained momentum in the north, but most Romans oppose any political separation. Social life and interaction is important to Romans. Citizens enjoy public events, parties, and celebrations. Humor, reliability, and success in business and social lives are all regarded more favorably than individual assertiveness. The dominant language in Rome and throughout the country is Italian. However, German and Ladin, a dialect of the Rhaeto-Romanic, are spoken in the Alto Adige region on the Austrian border; French is spoken in the Valle d'Aosta region bordering France and Switzerland; and Greek and Albanian are spoken in southern Italy. English is a common second language. 5. Neighborhoods According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 b.c. on one of the Seven Hills, a term coined to describe the Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, and Palatine hills surrounding the old community. Archaeological evidence indicates, however, that human settlement dates from at least 1000 b.c. Capitoline Hill was long the seat of Rome's government, and Palantine Hill was the site of the epic Palace of the Flavins, built by the Roman emperor Domitian. As a result of construction throughout the centuries, today most of the Seven Hills are hardly distinguishable from the adjacent plain. Rome is easily divided into two regions: the inner city, within the Aurealian Wall, built in the late third century to enclose the area around the Seven Hills; and the sprawling outer city, with its suburbs. The historical center is a small area, located almost entirely on the eastern bank of the Tiber River. Monuments of Rome's past eminence are located mostly within the historical center and are a stark contrast to the modern districts. The street pattern of the city reflects its long and complex history. The Via del Corso traverses most of the historic center from Piazza Venezia, the geographic center of Rome, to the Piazza del Popolo at the foot of Pincio Hills. Its use dates from the Middle Ages when it was a horse-racing course. 6. History Of all of Italy's historic cities, Rome summons the most compelling fascination. There is more to experience in Rome than almost any other city in the world, with relics of more than 2,700 years of continuous occupation packed into a sprawling urban area. As a contemporary European capital, Rome has a unique sense of leadership. The city features are classical, the Colosseum, the Forum, and Palantine Hill, while relics from the early Christian period decorate ancient basilicas. The Baroque and Romanesque fountains and churches are only part of the picture. First headquarters of the Roman Empire, and then of the Catholic Church, Rome has had an immense impact on social customs throughout the world. Several European languages are based on Latin; many political and legal systems follow the ancient roman model of civil service, and buildings all over the world demonstrate styles and techniques perfected in Rome. The ancient city spaces are filled with layers of buildings spanning two millennia. Rome began as an Iron Age hut village founded in the mid-eighth century b.c. In 616 b.c. , the Romans' neighbors, the Etruscans, seized power but were ousted in 509 B. C. when Rome became a Republic. By the time Rome entered into the first of the three Punic wars in 264 b.c. , its power in Italy spanned the whole peninsula as far north as Ariminum. The driving motivation behind all three Punic wars was for Rome to defeat the African city of Carthage and gain Mediterranean dominance. In 241 b.c. the Romans won Sicily. In the Second Punic War (218201 b.c. ), they defeated General Hannibal of Carthage (247182 b.c. ), and in the Third Punic War (149146 b.c. ) they seized the city of Carthage itself. Rome then went on to conquer Syria and Macedonia to gain dominance over the western Hellenistic world. The expansion of the empire provided opportunity for individuals to gain power and rule. However, leaders became abusive of their power, and the clashing of egos led to the crashing of democracy. Julius Caesar (c. 10044 b.c. ) ruled for a time as dictator, but the Roman Republic came to an end when he was assassinated in 44 b.c. Taking his place was the famous triumvirate: Mark Antony (c. 8030 b.c. ), Aemilius Lepidus (d. 13 b.c. ), and Octavian Caesar (63 b.c.a.d. 14). Octavian defeated Lepidus in 39 b.c. and Antony in 31 b.c. to become emperor of the Roman world. He then gave all his power to the Senate in an effort to create a "restored republic." The Senate placed him in control of nearly all Rome's military strength, and he was given the title Augustus. Upon Octavian's death in a.d. 14, his chosen heir, Tiberius (42 b.c.a.d. 37), took the throne. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus Christ was crucified. Within a few years, the followers of Christ became legendary in Rome, but their teachings were perceived as a threat to public order, and many Christians were executed. Even so, the new religion spread through all levels of Roman society. By the time the apostles Peter and Paul had arrived in Rome, a small Christian community had been established, and in spite of persecution by the state, Christianity flourished. Having little success with the Senate, Tiberius withdrew himself from office and was succeeded by a medley of emperors, including Caligula (1241), Claudius (10 b.c.a.d. 54), and Nero (3768). Nero's suicide in a.d. 68 ended the Augustus reign of emperors, and Rome entered into a state of constant civil war. Sulpicius Galba (3 b.c.a.d. 69), governor of Spain, seized control, but the throne changed hands four more times. It wasn't until Diocletian (a.d. 245313), a traditional militaristic Roman, took control in a.d. 284 that Rome was restored to order. He divided the empire in half and appointed two rulers for both east and west Rome. In a.d. 302, Diocletian banned Christians from the Roman Army, brought religion into the office of emperor, and made the position a "divine monarchy." In a.d. 313, the Emperor Constantine (c. 274337; r. 306337), proclaimed ruler by Britiain, issued an edict granting Christians freedom of worship, and he founded the city of Constantinople as the new capital. Even after securing Rome's position as the center of Christianity, its political importance waned in the fifth century, and the city fell to Goths and other invaders. For a while, Rome was reduced to a few thousand residents and little power. But the next couple centuries uncovered a newfound strength. The growing importance of the papacy revived the city and rejuvenated its power. Conversely, ongoing conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor undermined the papacy. The tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries were among the bleakest in Roman history: violent conflict with invaders left Rome poverty stricken, and constant warring tore apart the city. In 1309, the papacy moved to Avignon, leaving Rome to slide further into squalor and strife. The city recovered spectacularly in the mid-fifteenth century. Pope Nicholas V (13971455; r. 14471455) came to power and groomed Rome to be a city worthy of the papacy and the center of Renaissance culture. Successors followed his lead, and the city's appearance was transformed. The Classical ideals of the Italian Renaissance (14501600) inspired artists, architects, and craftsmen, such as Michelangelo, Bramante, and Raphael. A newly confident Rome was nurturing a massive papal patronage of the arts. By the sixteenth century, the Catholic Church had accumulated extensive wealth and was therefore criticized by other reformed religions. Displays of grandeur and extravagance by the papal court contrasted vividly with the poverty of the people. Galileo (15641642), a physicist/astronomer, was condemned to death for heresy (beliefs opposed to the traditionally accepted beliefs of the church). Rome was also discovering a new style of its own in Baroque (16001750). Under Napoleon, Italy tasted unity but by 1815 was again divided into many small states, and papal rule was restored in Rome. The next 50 years experienced patriots struggling to create an independent, unified Italy, and Rome was briefly declared a Republic, but forces were driven out by French troops. The French continued to protect the Pope while the rest of Italy united as a kingdom under Vittorio Emanuel of Savor. In 1870, troops stormed the city, and Rome became the capital of the newly unified Italy. Twentieth-century Rome endured the dictator Benito Mussolini (18831945; r. 19221945) and his dreams of recreating the immense order and power of the Roman Empire. In 1922, the fascist leader was appointed prime minister. In 1929, the Lateran Treaty brought over a century of tension between Church and State to an end by creating a separate Vatican State. During the World War II (193945), British forces captured much of Italy's colonial empire. From 1947 to the early 1990s, Italy had no less than 57 governments, and the first non-Italian pope since the sixteenth century, Pope John Paul II (b. 1920), was appointed in 1978. Rome is in many ways the ideal capital of Italy. Each era in history added its own layer of culture to create a city unparalleled by any other in the world. 7. Government The Italian Republic is divided into 20 regions, five of which (Sicily, Sardinia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Valle d ' Aosta) enjoy a special status; there is a large degree of regional autonomy. Each locale has a council elected every five years by universal suffrage, and a Giunta regionale is responsible to the regional council. The regional council is a legislative assembly while the Giunta holds executive power. The regions are subdivided into a total of 95 provinces. Officers of the government include the president, who is chief of state, and the prime minister, who is head of government. The prime minister is generally head of a majority party or a majority coalition of parties but can also be appointed from other parties. A proposed prime minister must be approved by a parliamentary vote of confidence and can be removed from office at any time if parliament passes a vote of no confidence. 8. Public Safety In Rome, speed limits are fixed at 50 kilometers (31 miles) per hour in urban areas, 110 kilometers (68 miles) per hour on main roads outside urban areas, 90 kilometers (56 miles) per hour on secondary and local roads, and 130 kilometers (81 miles) per hour on motorways. The new highway code recently introduced in Italy also stipulates that one must not drive at a speed which is so slow as to hinder the flow of traffic. There are speed limits of 80 kilometers (50 miles) per hour on all roads outside urban areas and 100 kilometers (62 miles) per hour on motorways for cars towing trailers or caravans. Drivers and passengers are required by law to wear seat belts in front and rear seats. Also, while driving, the use of portable telephones is prohibited if they require intervention by hand to function. Helmets are required by law for drivers on two-wheeled vehicles. Emergency breakdown services in Italy are run by ACI (Automobile Club d'Italia). The service operates 24 hours a day throughout the road network. On the motorways, breakdown services can be summoned using the yellow emergency posts located approximately every two kilometers (one mile). Information about breakdown service is provided by the 18 ACI representatives at the frontier posts for entry to Italy. 9. Economy Since World War II, Italy has evolved from an economy based on agriculture into an economy of industrial ranking, with approximately the same total and per capita output as France and the United Kingdom. Yet, the country remains partially divided by the private companies developing in the industrial north and the public enterprise that governs the agricultural south. Rome is headquarters to many multinational corporations, including the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and several World Food programs. Service accounts for 48 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), industry for 35 percent, public administration for 13 percent, and agriculture for four percent. Most raw materials needed by Italian industry are imported, including over 75 percent of energy requirements. In the early 1990s, Rome was unsettled at the prospect of not qualifying to participate in plans for European economic and monetary union; thus, the city's financial imbalance was addressed, and subsequently the government adopted stringent budgets, abandoned an inflationary wage index system, and scaled back social welfare programs, including pension and health care. Monetary officials were forced to withdraw the lira in September 1993 when it came under extreme pressure in currency markets; it was not re-engaged until in November 1996. On January 1, 1999, the euro (EUR) became the legal currency in Italy, and the lira became a subdivision of it, the irrevocable conversion rate being 1,936.27 lira to one euro. The euro, which consists of 100 (U.S.) cents, will not be in circulation until January 2002. With the start of the new millennium, Rome's economy is strong, but familiar issues remain a concern: high unemployment figures, government deficit, tottering communications systems, and environmental concerns for the ongoing expansion and industrial integration of the European Union. 10. Environment Italy has limited mineral resources but has consistently increased its production of mineral imports, like petroleum, lignite, iron ore, sulfur, mercury, and marble. The country is rich with deposits of natural gas; however, reserves are dwindling. Demanding energy requirements keep Italy dependent on oil. Cultivated hydroelectricity does generate some power, and there are several nuclear stations in the country. Roman industrial groups and environmental organizations have made a joint declaration to reduce the environmental impact of energy use, signed in December 1998. The declaration aims to reduce emission of carbon dioxide, improve electrical sector efficiency, diversify energy sources, reduce energy consumption in both urban and transport, and double production of renewable energy. 11. Shopping Rome is a city full of treasures. The prime shopping area for fashion is along Via dei Condotti and Via Frattina, from Via del Corso to Piazza di Spagna, and all of the avenues in between. Shop windows are dressed with jewelry, foot-wear, and of course, Italian designer clothes. Moderately priced fashions coupled with quality workmanship make the area popular. The elegant Ludovisi District is lined with famous cafes, divine restaurants, and exclusive shops. Radiating out from one of the world's most famous streets, Via Veneto, the surrounding area has a wealth and style all its own. Between Via Del Tritone and Via Nazionale, the scaled-down boutiques are competitive and of classic quality. The Trevi Fountain area shops are plentiful and quite shoe savvy. Antique shopping can be found between Via Margutta, Via Ripetta, Via dei Coronari, and Via Del Babuino. Across the Tiber River is the Via cola di Rienzo and the Via Ottaviano, and both avenues are lined with clever shops. The department stores in Rome range from the Coin and Rinascente to Upim and Standa. The Coin is in Piazzale Appio at Porta San Giovanni, and La Rinascente is in Piazza Colonna and in Via del Corso. Both Upim and Standa are more accessible at various locations throughout the city. Stores close on Sundays and for a half day during the week (Thursday afternoon for food stores, Monday morning for most others); however, some tourist area shops will remain open on Sundays. During the summer, the half-day closing schedule is on Saturday afternoon. Some shops and most department stores have opted for non-stop operating hours. The markets are another facet of shopping in Rome, especially the flea markets. One of the most famous in Italy is the Porta Portese market, held every Sunday morning. Merchant wares that contain everything from antiques to the unlikely cover a three-kilometer (two-mile) stretch of streets, from the Porta Portese to the underpass that leads into Piazza della Radio. 12. Education School attendance is compulsory from ages six to 14 in Italy. Classes may be held six days a week, and education is a serious matter. There are many universities, educational centers, and degrees available in higher education. Italy's largest institution, the University of Rome, has an enrollment of 190,000 students. Founded in 1303, the university confers many degrees in international relations and communications. Due to an extraordinary wealth of art, Rome is a major center for studies in creative dance, dramatic arts, music, and art restoration. The oldest university in Europe was founded in Bologna in the twelfth century. Present-day academic institutions and educational centers near Rome include Istituto Guglielmo Tagliacarne, Istituto Quasar Design school, John Cabot University, Pontifical Athanaeum Regina Apostolorum, Pontifical University of Saint Bonaventure, Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas in Rome, Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Universita degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza, Universita degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata, Universita Popolare di Roma, Universita degli Studi Roma Tre, Libera Universita degli Studi Maria SS Assunta, Libera Universita, Internazionale Studi Sociali Guido Carli, Libero Istituto Universitario Campus Bio medico, Pontifico Ateneo della Santa Croce, Pontifica Universita Gregoriana, Pontifica Universita Lateranense, Libero Istituto Universitario San Pio V, and the Osservatorio Astronomico. 13. Health Care The problems that plague Italy's health care system are complex and deeply rooted in the nation's political history and economy. The withdrawal of the lira from the monetary system signaled the beginning of a period of economic austerity. In an attempt to control spending by Rome, social benefits, including health care, were cut back. Despite Italy being the world's fifth-largest economy, governmental intervention policy has strangled productive growth. Generally, health care services are coordinated through government agencies, and 95 percent of Italians rely on the public system for health care. The system provisions offer cradle-to-grave medical and surgical care at public facilities throughout the nation. Of those 95 percent relying on public health care, about five percent have private insurance, which debuted about three years ago, and they tend to live in the northern region of Italy. About one percent of the population pays privately for health services, and a small number of private hospitals and clinics exist to serve their needs. Italy spends about seven-and-a-half percent of its GDP on health care or, in terms of U.S. dollars, about $1500 per person. Large public hospitals are the prominent features of the Italian health care landscape. Managed by the government, medical universities, or the Roman Catholic Church, the number of services available and the quality of service at public facilities correlates with each hospital's geographic location. Private urban hospitals that tout the best equipment are rivaled by large public facilities in big cities. There are three types of hospitals in Italy: general care facilities, specialist centers, and psychiatric care hospitals. Facilities are further defined by the number of patients they intend to serve. Local or zone hospitals serve 25,000 to 30,000 people and are the most common facilities. Provincial hospitals serve about 400,000 people, and regional facilities, located in large urban areas, serve about one million and offer the most services. The Italian Ministry of Health's National Health Service, known as the SSN, oversees the operation of all government facilities, but each hospital is governed directly by an administrative council whose members are locally elected. Overall, health care tends to be unevenly distributed in Italy; the north is equipped with a greater number of facilities and more professionals than the neighboring south. 14. Media Rome's two main newspapers are La Republica and Il Messaggero. British and American newspapers are readily available, and the International Herald Tribune is sold on the day of issue. British Broadcast Communications (BBC) world service can be heard on radio 15.070 MHz (shortwave) in the morning and 648KHz (medium wave) at night. Listeners can tune in to Vatican Radio on 93.3 MHz, and 105 MHz broadcasts news in English. The state television channels include RAI, Uno, Due, and Tre; all are politically aligned. Satellite dishes and cable TV allow for reception of various European channels, as well as channels for sports and news in English. 15. Sports Romans are sports enthusiasts and play with passion. A peaceful afternoon may suddenly explode with the sounds of victorycheers from excited crowds and honking car horns. Football, commonly known as soccer in North America, is the national sport. Playing for Rome in the Campionato Italiano (Italian championship league) are two teams, Roma and Lazio, and they take turns playing in Stadio Olimpico on Sundays at 3:00 pm. Spring in Rome is synonymous with tennis. For tennis players, there are an abundance of clubs from which to choose. For tennis fans, the International Tennis Championship meets for two weeks every May at Foro Italico. The event draws the world's top tennis players to smash it out on clay courts. Spring also brings out golf enthusiasts. Golfers in Rome can play at several golf associations in and around the city. Some will accept a touring golfer with a home membership. Golf fans can also watch the National Championships in and around the city. The tournament play runs in October, and the Rome Masters is held in April. Rome also hosts a plethora of racing venues. For horseracing fans, the trotters run at the Ippodromo di Tor di Valle. Steeple chase or flat races are run at Ippodromo delle Capannelle. Auto-racing enthusiasts head to Valle Lunga, where Formula-1 and Formula-3 cars vie for the lead position on Sundays. Dogs race at the Cinodromo Track, where greyhounds run Wednesday and Thursday evenings, as well as Sunday mornings. Finally, for the fans of rowing, a British Oxbridge team challenges the historic Aniene team to race, alternately on the Thames and the Tiber rivers, in mid June. 16. Parks and Recreation Rome's perfect climate and stunning scenery beckon many people into the plentiful city parks. People don't have to travel far to experience park settings and exquisite monuments. The Trevi Fountain, begun by Italian sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini (15981680) in 1640, is a perfect example. The Roman Forum's archaeological area is a public garden in itself that is open from morning until sunset. The largest park in Rome, Villa Doria Pamphilj, is located just south of the Vatacian. The park was designed in the mid-seventeenth century for Prince Camillo Pamphilj. A beautiful place to stroll, there is plenty of open space, a network of paths to explore, and three different tracks for walking dogs or jogging. On a hillside above Piazza del Popolo is another lush and inviting park, Pincio Gardens. The streets are skillfully terraced with umbrella pines, palm trees, and evergreen oaks to hide the zig-zag road that climbs up to the gardens. Villa Borghese, designed in 1605 for Cardinal Borghese, was the first park of its kind in Rome, with 400 planted pine trees and dramatic waterworks. The garden layout was often imitated by prominent Roman families. Honoring the eighteenth-century renovation, the intersections of paths and avenues are now marked by fountains and statues. Long avenues of trees are dotted with picturesque villas that double as museums and galleries. The woods, lakes, and grass cover a vast area. This park also offers a running track. A beautiful villa and garden, Villa Torionia was once the Mussolini family residence. Its well-maintained commons area contains a variety of exotic plants and ample trees. Another small, serene park villa with a scenic view of the city is Rome's Villa Aldobrandini. The supreme Villa Celimontana is located between the Colosseum and the baths of Caracalla. Open dawn until sunset, only a part of another comely city park, Villa Ada, is open to the public. If exercise is on the agenda, bicycles are available for rent from many places, including Porta Pinciana in Villa Borghese, Collalti, and Via del Corso. Organized bike tours are advertised in various publications. For the indoor enthusiast, there are sport centers that offer swimming pools, gym facilities, and dance classes. Some health clubs do require membership. 17. Performing Arts Italy is considered by many to be a birthplace of the arts. Today Romans still enjoy cultural events and are proud of their country's artistic heritage. Throughout the year there are numerous musical and artistic venues to experience, both indoors and outdoors. For classical music, the city's churches host a range of choral, chamber, and organ recitals, many free of charge. For jazz and blues afficionados, the gardens at Villa Celimontana host premiere musicians for an evening of music under the stars. Throughout the year, the local Accademia di Santa Cecilia stages concerts, with either national artists or visiting orchestras, at Via dei Greci 18, and in the summer concerts are held at the Piazza del Campidoglio. Rome's opera scene concentrates on the Teatro dell' Opera. Winter season is conducted on the Via Firenze; for summer season, the ensemble moves outdoors to Villa Borghese park. Finally, for a colorful open-air theater, Janiculum Hill plays host to Teatro di Pulcinella Puppets on late afternoons and weekend mornings. Reflecting diverse styles, the magnificence of Rome is preserved through arts and culture. The city is host to hundreds of theaters throughout the streets, in open spaces, and among ancient ruins. 18. Libraries and Museums Italy has more than 2,400 public libraries and 3,442 museums that store and specialize in information. Some institutions circulate only materials that cover a particular field of studyarchaeology, ancient art, bio-medics, to name a few. With a history as rich as Rome's, it takes numerous institutions to house and display all the ancient treasures. The following is only a partial list of the many libraries: Accademia Dei Lincei, Accademia di Danimarca, Accademia di Ungheria, Accademia Spagnola di Storia, Biblioteca A. Sarti, Angelica, Casanatense, Comunale Rispoli, Belle Donne, Di Storia Moderna E Contemporaena, Raccolta Teatrale Del Burcardo, Nazionale Centrale, Universitaria Alessandrina, Vallicelliana, Vaticana, British Council, Centro Studi Americani, Fondazione Lelio Basso, Fondazione Luigi Einaudi, Goethe Institut, Istituto Austriaco Di Cultura, Istituto di Norvegia a Roma, and Istituto Svizzero Di Roma. Rome also hosts more than 50 different visual art museums and galleries. Not all are inside structures; some museums operate within the very structure they represent, like the Catacombs. The oldest art collection in Rome, housed in the Capitoline Museum, was established in 1471 and contains exceptional antiquities. Other Roman museums are the National Museum of the Villa Giulia, which has an outstanding collection of Etruscan and Roman art, and is located in the mid-sixteenth-century country house of Pope Julius II (14431513). The Borghese Gallery, a museum of paintings and sculpture is housed in an early seventeenth-century palace. The National Roman Museum, designed by Michelangelo (14751564), features exhibits of Greek and Roman sculpture, including the Ludovisi collection of antiquities. Important collections of art and decorative pieces can also be seen in the city's other palaces. Among these are the Farnese Palace, built between 1514 and 1589; the mid-fifteenth-century Venetian Palace, with a noted collection of small renaissance bronzes; and the Palazzo Barberini, a seventeenth-century Baroque palace with a remarkable picture gallery. The Vatican Museum, Viale Vaticano, is open from March through October and offers student pricing. Archaeological museums tend to be closed on Mondays. Several within the city include Antiquarium Comunale, Museo Barracco Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Capitoline Museums Piazza del Campidoglio, Museo Della Civilta' Romana Piazza Giovanni Angel, Museo Nazionale Romano, and Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico L. Pigorini. For inspirational art, visitors should see Museo Gregoriano Profano, Museo Pio Clementino, Museo Chiaramonti, Museo Gregoriano Etrusco, Museo Storico, Castel Sant'Angelo Museum, National Roman Museum of the Thermae, Museum of Roman Civilization, Natural History Museum, Napoleonic Museum, Palazzo delle Esposizioni Via Nazionale, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, Galleria dell; Accademia, Galleria Colonna Via della Pilotta, and Galleria Doria Pamphili. Museums and monuments to the deceased are also popular places to visit in Rome. One rather unusual place is an eclectic museum devoted to the dead souls trapped in purgatory who leave messages for the living. Admission is free at Museo delle Anime dei Defunti. Near the Pantheon on Piazza della Minerva is Santa Maria Sopra Minerva. Here lies the body of St. Catherine. After her death in 1380, her body was severed from her head, which remained in Siena, the town of her birth. The Saint Maria della Concezione's Cappuccini monk cemetery is elaborately decorated with the bones of 4,000 monks and a Barberini princess. Located on Via Vittorio Veneto, it is a place of startling spirituality. 19. Tourism A great number of tourists are attracted to Rome by its Alpine and Mediterranean scenery, sunny climate, archaeological remains, medieval and Baroque churches, Renaissance towns and palaces, painting, sculpture, and famous opera houses. Each province of Italy has a Board of Tourism; in addition, there are more than 300 supplemental listings for further information in Rome. The latest figures indicate that close to 60 million people visit Italy every year. Tourist dollars spent in 1996 amounted to more than 46 million lira. City authorities estimate more than 40 million pilgrims traveled to Rome during the year 2000. 20. Holidays and Festivals Lenten season Ides of March Easter (The Pope says mass on Holy Friday at the Colosseum.) Natale di Roma (Rome's birthday is celebrated with fireworks.) Liberation Day International Horse Show Rome Masters Golf Tournament Labour Day Foro Italico (Roman International Tennis Championship) Spanish Steps Azaleas Display Derby Horse Racing Anniversary of the Republic St. Peter's Square papal benediction (Sundays) Crew race between teams Oxbridge and Aniene Expo Tevere (artisan fair) Assumption of the Virgin Mary National Golf Championship All Saints Day National Unity Day Premio Roma horse race Birth of the Virgin Mary Feast of St. Stephen 21. Famous Citizens Francisco Accorso Accursius (c. 1182c. 1260), jurist and professor, compiled Glossa Magna on Roman law. Alfieri (17491803), poet. Saint Ambrose (340397), patron saint. Fra Angelico (13871455), renaissance painter. Saint Anthony of Padua (11951231), Franciscan preacher, who holds the record for being canonized in the shortest period of time after his death, less than one year. Saint Augustine (354430), bishop whom scholars call the greatest thinker in the Latin language. Augustus Caesar (63 b.c.a.d. 14), the first and perhaps greatest Roman emperor. Dario Bellezza (194495), poet and novelist. Saint Benedict (c. 480c. 547), founder of the Benedictine monastic order, patron saint of engineers. Filippo Brunelleschi (13771446), architect and sculptor. Enrico Caruso (18731921), tenor. Saint Clare of Assisi (11981253), revered female of the early Franciscan Order. Dante (12651321), poet and founder of modern Italian literature with his The Divine Comedy. Federico Fellini (192093), film director. Saint Francis of Assisi (11821223), religious figure, founder of the Franciscan Order (1209). Augustus William Hare (17921824), author of guidebooks and travelogues of Italy and the Mediterranean. Pope John Paul I (Albino Luciani, 19121978), Catholic Pope. Julius Caesar (c. 10044 b.c. ), assassinated a month after being named imperial Roman dictator for life. Niccolo Machiavelli (14691527), author. Angelo Mariani (182173), music director, collaborator of Verdi. Saint Mark (d. 68), patron saint of Venice. Giulietta Masina (192094), actress, wife of Federico Fellini. Marcello Mastroianni (192496), actor, discovered by Fellini. Michelangelo Buonarroti (14751564), painter, sculptor and architect, who rejected the restrictions of classical design theory and generated an imaginative approach to architectural composition. Claudio Monteverdi (15671643), composer. Niccolo Paganini (d. 1840), violin virtuoso. Pope Paul VI (Giovanni Montini, 18971978), Catholic pope. Giacomo Puccini (18581924), composer. Raphael (14831520), artist. Gioacchino Rossini (17921868), composer. Tintoretto (15181594), Venetian painter. Arturo Toscanini (18671957), conductor. Giuseppe Verdi (18131901), composer. Gianni Versace (194697), fashion designer. Virgil (7019 b.c. ), Rome's champion epic poet, wrote literary masterpiece the Aeneid. 22. For Further Study Enjoy Rome. [Online] Available (accessed February 7, 2000). Northern Italy. [Online] Available (accessed February 7, 2000). Theodora. [Online] Available (accessed February 7, 2000). Government Offices Consiglio Superiore della Magistratura Piazza dell' Indipendendza 6, 00185 Rome Francesco Paolo Fulci Ambassador to United Nations Unione Italiana delle Camere di Commercio Piazza Sallustio 21, 00187 Rome Tel: (6) 47041 U. S. Embassy Via Veneto 119A/121 Tel.: 467 41 Tourist and Convention Bureaus Dipartimento del Turismo: Via della Ferratella in Laterano 51, 00184 Ente Nazionale Italiano per il Turisom (ENIT) Via Marghera 2, 00185 Absalom, R. Italy since 1880: A Nation in the Balance. Harlow, 1995. Smith, D.M. Modern Italy: A Political History. Yale University Press, 1997. Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities. 2000. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Rome." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities. 2000. (August 30, 2016). "Rome." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities. 2000. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Rome (city, Italy) The Modern City In the past half century Rome has expanded well beyond the walls started in the 3d cent. by Emperor Aurelian, and it now extends north to the Aniene. Long sections of the ancient walls have been preserved, however, and archaeology remains an essential element of modern city-planning in Rome. Ancient marble columns and ruins rising beside modern apartments and offices, noisy boulevards, and luxurious villas and gardens characterize the modern city of Rome. As in ancient times, the larger section of Rome lies on the left bank of the Tiber, which intersects the city in three wide curves and is spanned by over 20 bridges. As in ancient times Rome is a center of transportation. It is the focus of international traffic by road, rail, sea (at the port of Civitavecchia), and air (at Leonardo da Vinci international airport at Fiumicino) and is as well a cultural, religious, political, and commercial center of international importance. Public transportation in Rome is provided by an elaborate bus system. A subway, the Metropolitana, was opened in 1955. Rome's large number of automobiles has caused serious traffic congestion, and in the 1970s and 80s various attempts were made to deal with the problem, including the banning of traffic in certain parts of the city. The economy of Rome depends to a very large extent on the tourist trade. The city is also a center of banking, insurance, printing, publishing, and fashion. Italy's movie industry (founded in 1936) is located at nearby Cinecitta. Landmarks and Institutions Aside from modern residential quarters, the right-bank section of Rome contains Vatican City, including Saint Peter's Church, the Castel Sant' Angelo, and the ancient quarter of Trastevere. In describing the larger left-bank section one may use the Piazza Venezia, a central square, as a convenient point of departure. It lies at the foot of the old Capitol (see Capitoline Hill) and borders on the huge monument to King Victor Emmanuel II and on the Palazzo Venezia, a Renaissance palace from the balcony of which Mussolini used to address the crowds. A broad avenue, the Via dei Fori Imperiali, runs from the Piazza Venezia SE to the Colosseum, leaving the Emperors' Fora and at a distance the Church of St. Peter in Chains (San Pietro in Vincoli) to the left, and the Capitol and the ancient Forum to the right. From the Colosseum the Via di San Gregorio continues south past the Arch of Constantine and the Baths of Caracalla to the Appian Way. There, as in other places on the outskirts of Rome, are large catacombs. From the Piazza Venezia another modern thoroughfare, the Via del Mare, leads southwestward to the Tiber and then east past the Basilica of St. Paul's Outside the Walls (San Paolo fuori le Mure) to Ostia, Rome's ancient port now blocked by silt, to the sea at Lido di Roma. The narrow and busy Via del Corso leads N from the Piazza Venezia past the Piazza Colonna (now the heart of Rome) to the Piazza del Popolo at the gate of the old Flaminian Way. East of the Piazza del Popolo are the Pincian Hill, commanding one of the finest views of Rome, and the famous Borghese Villa. In the widest westward bend of the Tiber, W of the Via del Corso, is the Campo Marzio quarter (anciently, Campus Martius), where most of the medieval buildings are located; there also are the Pantheon (now a church) and the parliament buildings. To the east of the Via del Corso the fashionable Via Condotti leads to the Piazza di Spagna; a flight of 132 steps ascends from that square to the Church of the Santa Trinità dei Monti and the Villa Medici. The Quirinal palace is NE of the Piazza Venezia. In the southeastern section, near the gate of San Giovanni, are the Lateran buildings. As an educational center Rome possesses—aside from the Univ. of Rome (founded 1303)—the colleges of the church, several academies of fine arts, and the Accademia di Santa Cecilia (founded 1584), the world's oldest academy of music. The opera house is one of Europe's grandest. The various institutes of the Univ. of Rome were formerly scattered throughout the city but were transferred in 1935 to the northeastern section. Among the countless churches of Rome there are five patriarchal basilicas—St. Peter's, St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major (Santa Maria Maggiore), St. Lawrence Outside the Walls, and St. Paul's Outside the Walls. With the exception of St. Mary Major, the basilicas and other ancient churches occupy the sites of martyrs' tombs. Characteristic of the old Roman churches are their fine mosaics (4th–12th cent.) and the use of colored marble for decoration, introduced in the 12th cent. by the workers in marble known as Cosmati. Rome's first mosque opened in 1995. Among Rome's many palaces and villas the Farnese Palace (begun 1514) and the Farnesina (1508–11) are particularly famous; others, all dating from the 17th cent., are those of the great Roman families, the Colonna, Chigi, Torlonia, and Doria. Rome is celebrated for its beautiful Renaissance and baroque fountains, such as the ornate Fontana di Trevi (18th cent.). Its richest museums and libraries are in the Vatican. Others include the National (in the Villa Giulia), Capitoline, and Torlonia museums, notable for their antiquities; and the Borghese, Corsini, Doria, and Colonna collections of paintings. Rome before Augustus The Roman Republic The Subduing of Italy The Samnites were subdued in the wars dated conventionally 343–341 BC, 326–304 BC, and 298–290 BC, and the inhabitants of Picenum, Umbria, Apulia, Lucania, and Etruria were pacified. The Roman policy in subduing Italy was that of a master toward slaves. Tarentum, besieged by the Romans, called for the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus; he won victories at Heraclea (280 BC) and Asculum (279 BC), but after a dispute with his Italian allies he returned to Greece, leaving the Romans masters of central and S Italy. Conquests Overseas and to the East With Carthage humbled, the Roman republic turned its attention eastward. Philip V of Macedon was defeated after two campaigns (215–205 BC, 200–197 BC), and Antiochus III of Syria was conquered at Magnesia (190 BC); eventually the defeat of Perseus (171–168 BC) made Macedonia a Roman province. Greece did not become a Roman province, but the brief opposition of the Achaean League was disposed of, and the Greeks became subject to Rome. Egypt acknowledged vassalship to the republic in 168 BC Effects of Expansion Marius defeated Jugurtha (106 BC) and the Cimbri and the Teutons (101 BC), and he heralded a new era by definitively introducing Roman arms into Transalpine Gaul. Rome was forced by the Social War (90–88 BC) to extend citizenship widely in Italy, but the republic was nevertheless doomed. A slave revolt led by Spartacus was put down mercilessly. Marius, the idol of the populace, used proscription to rid himself of his foes, but Sulla, a conservative, destroyed Marius' party by the same method. Julius Caesar On Pompey's return from the East, he found an ally for his ambitions in Julius Caesar, a popular democratic leader of the best patrician blood. With Marcus Licinius Crassus to furnish the funds, Pompey and Caesar formed the First Triumvirate (60 BC), and Caesar departed to make himself immortal in the Gallic Wars. Within ten years Caesar and Pompey fell out; Pompey joined the senatorial party, and Caesar (as the champion of the people and of republican legality) led his devoted army against Pompey. Pharsalus was the result (48 BC), and Caesar was master of Rome. The Roman Empire Augustus and the Pax Romana Caesar's assassination brought anarchy, out of which the Second Triumvirate emerged with the rule of Octavian (later Augustus), Antony, and Lepidus. Octavian was Caesar's nephew, ward, and heir, and his true successor. At Actium (31 BC) he defeated Antony and Cleopatra and made the empire one. No change was made in the government, but Octavian received from the senate the title Augustus and from the people life tribuneship; this, with the governorship of all the provinces conferred by the senate, made him the real ruler. He was called imperator [commander] and princeps [leader] and is usually considered the first Roman emperor. (For a list of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to the fall of Rome and the years they reigned, see the table entitled Rulers of the Roman Empire.) Augustus organized provincial government and the army, rebuilt Rome, and patronized the arts and letters. His rule began a long period (200 years) of peace, called the Pax Romana. During this time the Roman Empire was the largest it would ever be; its boundaries included Armenia, middle Mesopotamia, the Arabian desert, the Red Sea, Nubia, the Sahara, the Moroccan mountain mass, the Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea, Scotland, the North Sea, the Rhine, the Danube, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus. Augustus' chief additions to the empire were a strip along the North Sea W of the Elbe and part of the Danubian area. The blessings of peace were great for the empire. The extensive system of Roman roads made transportation easier than it was again to be until the development of railroads. A postal service was developed closely tied in with the organization of the army. Commerce and industry were greatly developed, particularly by sea, over which grain ships carried food for Rome and the West from the ports of northern Africa. The Roman Empire became under Augustus one great nation. The enlarged view of the world made a great impression on Rome, where literary and artistic interests were of importance, although nearly always tending to imitation of Greece and of the East. Augustus died AD 14 and was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius; his general Germanicus Caesar fought fruitlessly in Germany. Caligula, who followed, was a cruel tyrant (AD 37–AD 41); he was succeeded by Claudius I (AD 41–AD 54), who was dominated by his wives, but during his rule half of Britain was conquered (AD 43). In his time Thrace, Lydia, and Judaea were made Roman provinces. His stepson Nero (AD 54–AD 68) was an unparalleled tyrant. In his reign occurred the great fire of Rome (AD 64), attributed (probably falsely) to Nero; it burnt everything between the Caelian, the Palatine, and the Esquiline, but it was a boon to the city, for Nero moved the population to the right bank of the Tiber, then very thinly populated, and rebuilt the region with broader streets and great buildings. At that time an entirely new element, Christianity, made itself felt in Rome. On Nero's orders a barbarous persecution took place in which many Christians died, among them St. Peter and St. Paul. Throughout the Roman Empire the Christians expanded steadily for the next centuries. Their conflict with the empire, which brought on them continual persecution, was chiefly a result of the Christian refusal to offer divine honors to the emperors. But Christianity penetrated the army and the royal household in spite of the constant danger of detection and persecution. There were many periods in the first three centuries when Christians worshiped openly, even in Rome, where the catacombs housed not only graves but also churches. With Nero the Julio-Claudian line ended. There was a brief struggle (see Galba; Otho; Vitellius) before Vespasian (AD 69–AD 79) became emperor. Under him his son Titus destroyed Jerusalem (AD 70); Titus then briefly succeeded his father. After his mild, rather benign rule, his brother Domitian (AD 81–AD 96), a despot and persecutor of Christians, gained the empire. In Domitian's reign Agricola conquered Britain almost entirely. Domitian was unsuccessful in his dealings with the Daci and finally bought them off. After Nerva came Trajan (AD 98–AD 117), one of the greatest of emperors. Trajan undertook great public works, defeated the Daci and established Roman colonies there (in what is now modern Romania), and pushed the eastern borders past Armenia and Mesopotamia. Trajan's successor, Hadrian, withdrew Roman rule to the Euphrates and in Britain built his wall (Hadrian's Wall) to hold back the barbarians who constantly threatened that fast-developing province. He also reorganized the senate and the army. Roman armies were then seldom seen far from the boundaries of the empire, and life continued throughout the Roman world in peace and quiet. Italy was sinking into a purely provincial state, although many emperors made attempts to make it a special country. The successors of Hadrian were Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), who ruled in what is commonly called the Golden Age of the empire. The Empire Declines With Commodus (180–192) the decline of the empire is usually said to have begun. The age of the Praetorians was then at hand, when the rise and fall of emperors was determined by this elite corps of soldiers. Septimius Severus (193–211) was unusually able for his period; he campaigned with success against the Parthians and against the Picts of N Britain. His son Caracalla is noteworthy for extending Roman citizenship to all free men of the empire and for the famous baths named after him. Emperors succeeded one another rapidly in the 3d cent.: Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus, Philip (Philip the Arabian), and Decius among them. Decius was one of the most violent persecutors of Christians; he fell fighting the Goths, first of the Germans, who were eventually to overwhelm the empire. In 260 the emperor Valerian was captured by the Persians, and the empire fell into anarchy. The provinces suffered from increasingly bad government as well as from a pestilence that carried off half the population. Claudius II (268–70) revived Roman fortunes somewhat, while Aurelian (270–75) overthrew the Palmyrene kingdom of Zenobia. In 284, Diocletian was made emperor by the army. He was a reformer of government and of the social order, but only one of his efforts was successful. This was the division of the empire into four political sections, two eastern and two western. There were to be two Augusti and two Caesars. The division of East and West was resumed after the death (337) of Constantine I, who moved the capital to Byzantium, renamed Constantinople. By the Edict of Milan (313), Constantine granted universal religious tolerance, thus placing Christianity on the same footing as the other religions. He divided the empire administratively into prefectures, dioceses, and provinces; the bishops thus gained great influence and shared in the authority of the civil administration. There was a brief resurgence of paganism under Julian the Apostate, but Christianity was securely established. On the death of Jovian, Julian's successor, Valentinian I (364–75) ruled the Western Empire; Valentinian II (375–92) succeeded him. After the death (395) of Theodosius I the empire was permanently divided into Eastern (see Byzantine Empire) and Western, and Rome rapidly lost its political importance. Under the emperors, Rome had been the center of the world. It must have presented a splendid, although heterogeneous, appearance. Little remained of the original city, for the emperors had replanned it to glorify themselves as well as the city. Parts of the Aurelian Wall still stand. On the Capitoline were the citadel (the arx) and the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus; the Palatine was the site of the palaces of Augustus and Tiberius (the word palace derives from the hill); the palace of Nero and Trajan's baths were on the southern slopes of the Esquiline. South of the Palatine was the Circus Maximus, where the famous chariot races were held. The old Roman Forum (see forum), extending from the Palatine almost to the Colosseum, remained the center of the city; northwest of it were the Emperors' Fora, with many fine public buildings, and the Temple of Peace. On the Martian Field were Pompey's theater, the Circus Flaminius, the Pantheon (see under pantheon), and the baths of Agrippa and Nero. Across the Tiber was Nero's circus, where St. Peter's now stands; Hadrian's tomb, now known as the Castel Sant' Angelo, has survived as a major landmark. The largest of the many public baths were those of Caracalla, near the Appian Way. At its height, imperial Rome counted well over a million inhabitants. It was well policed, sanitation was excellent, and a fire-fighting force of seven brigades was maintained. Nineteen imposing aqueducts, of which many remains are extant, supplied the city with water. Among the rich such luxuries as central heating and running water were not unknown. The indigent (c.200,000) were cared for at public expense. Not until the 18th cent. were luxury and technical proficiency on a comparable scale to return to any European city. Decline, once it began, came quickly, however. Honorius (395–423) made Ravenna the capital of the West; other emperors chose Milan and Trier (Treves), where they were nearer the border to check Germanic attacks. The West sank into anarchy, and Italy was ravaged by invaders. Alaric I took Rome in 410, and Gaiseric conquered it in 455. Attila was kept from sacking it, supposedly through the efforts of the pope, Leo I (St. Leo the Great). In this general disintegration the popes, originally the bishops of Rome, greatly increased their power and prestige, thus restoring to Rome in the religious field the importance it had lost in the political. In 476 the last emperor of the West, appropriately called Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Goths under Odoacer; this date is commonly accepted as the end of the West Roman Empire, or Western Empire. The so-called Dark Ages (now usually called the Early Middle Ages; see Middle Ages) that followed in Western Europe could not eradicate the profound imprint left by the Roman civilization. Roman law is still alive; the Romance languages are but modifications of Roman speech. Roman Catholicism for nearly 12 centuries was the only religion and the main cultural force of Western Europe. The fall of Rome marked no abrupt ending of an era, for the barbarians that filled the gap left by the disappearance of the old order were quick in accepting and adapting what vital elements remained of it. The survival of the East Roman Empire, or Eastern Empire, and the creation of the Holy Roman Empire showed how much vitality was left in the imperial ideal. Italy itself, however, did not recover from the fall of Rome until the 19th cent. Medieval Rome The history of Rome in the Middle Ages, bewildering in its detail, is essentially that of two institutions, the papacy and the commune of Rome. In the 5th cent. the Goths ruled Italy from Ravenna, their capital. Odoacer and Theodoric the Great kept the old administration of Rome under Roman law, with Roman officials. The city, whose population was to remain less than 50,000 throughout the Middle Ages, suffered severely from the wars between the Goths and Byzantines. In 552, Narses conquered Rome for Byzantium and became the first of the exarchs (viceroys) who ruled Italy from Ravenna. Under Byzantine rule commerce declined, and the senate and consuls disappeared. Pope Gregory I (590–604), one of the greatest Roman leaders of all time, began to emancipate Rome from the exarchs. Sustained by the people, the popes soon exercised greater power in Rome than did the imperial governors, and many secular buildings were converted into churches. The papal elections were, for the next 12 centuries, the main events in Roman history. Two other far-reaching developments (7th–8th cent.) were the division of the people into four classes (clergy, nobility, soldiers, and the lowest class) and the emergence of the Papal States. The coronation (800) at Rome of Charlemagne as emperor of the West ended all question of Byzantine suzerainty over Rome, but it also inaugurated an era characterized by the ambiguous relationship between the emperors and the popes. That era was punctuated by visits to the city by the German kings, to be crowned emperor or to secure the election of a pope to their liking or to impose their will on the pope. In 846, Rome was sacked by the Arabs; the Leonine walls were built to protect the city, but they did not prevent the frequent occupations and plunderings of the city by Christian powers. By the 10th cent., Rome and the papacy had reached their lowest point. Papal elections, originally exercised by the citizens of Rome, had come under the control of the great noble families, among whom the Frangipani and Pierleone families and later the Orsini and the Colonna were the most powerful. Each of these would rather have torn Rome apart than allowed the other families to gain undue influence. They built fortresses in the city (often improvised transformations of the ancient palaces and theaters) and ruled Rome from them. From 932 to 954, Alberic, a very able man, governed Rome firmly and restored its self-respect, but after his death and after the proceedings that accompanied the coronation of Otto I as emperor, Rome relapsed into chaos, and the papal dignity once more became the pawn of the emperors and of local feudatories. Contending factions often elected several popes at once. Gregory VII reformed these abuses and strongly claimed the supremacy of the church over the municipality, but he himself ended as an exile, Emperor Henry IV having taken Rome in 1084. The Normans under Robert Guiscard came to rescue Gregory and thoroughly sacked the city on the same occasion (1084). Papal authority was challenged in the 12th cent. by the communal movement. A commune was set up (1144–55), led by Arnold of Brescia, but it was subdued by the intervention of Emperor Frederick I. Finally, a republic under papal patronage was established, headed by an elected senator. However, civil strife continued between popular and aristocratic factions and between Guelphs and Ghibellines. The commune made war to subdue neighboring cities, for it pretended to rule over the Papal States, particularly the duchy of Rome, which included Latium and parts of Tuscany. Innocent III controlled the government of the city, but it regained its autonomy after the accession of Emperor Frederick II. Later in the 13th cent. foreign senators began to be chosen; among them were Brancaleone degli Andalò (1252–58) and Charles I of Naples. During the "Babylonian captivity" of the popes at Avignon (1309–78) Rome was desolate, economically ruined, and in constant turmoil. Cola di Rienzi became the champion of the people and tried to revive the ancient Roman institutions, as envisaged also by Petrarch and Dante; in 1347 he was made tribune, but his dreams were doomed. Cardinal Albornoz temporarily restored the papal authority over Rome, but the Great Schism (1378–1417) intervened. Once more a republic was set up. In 1420, Martin V returned to Rome, and with him began the true and effective dominion of the popes in Rome. Renaissance and Modern Rome A last effort at restoring the Roman republic failed utterly in 1453. The history of Rome became more than ever that of the papacy. The successors of Martin V in the 15th cent. and the first half of the 16th cent. were chiefly interested in increasing the temporal power of the papacy, in patronizing the arts and letters, in beautifying the city, and in raising the fortunes of themselves and their relatives. The moral tone of the papal court was a scandal to Christendom and contributed to the success of the Reformation. Rome during the Renaissance The period of the great popes of the Renaissance—Sixtus IV, Innocent VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, and Paul III—was one of sensuous splendor. Among the countless artists and architects who served the papal court, Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Domenico Fontana were the chief creators of Rome as it is today. Saint Peter's Church and the frescoed Sistine Chapel in the Vatican are outstanding examples of the artistic resources of Renaissance Rome. The popes also played a leading part in the Italian Wars of the 16th cent. As a result of Clement VII's alliance with Francis I of France, Rome was stormed (1527) by the army of Emperor Charles V and subjected to a thorough plundering. The triumph of the Counter Reformation in the late 16th cent. restored dignity and moral power to the papal court and gave the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) great influence. Although the power of the pope was established as absolute, more religious tolerance (particularly toward the Jews) could be found at Rome than in many other capitals of Europe. The city continued to prosper and to benefit by the influx of hundreds of thousands of pilgrims (see jubilee). The great creative wave of the Renaissance was largely spent, but the noble baroque monuments—notably those of Bernini—that were erected in the 17th and early 18th cent. added to the grandiose harmony of the city. The splendor of religious ceremonies, as well as the encouragement given by the popes to art, music, classical and archaeological studies, and the restoration of ancient monuments, continued to make Rome a center of world culture. Napoleon to the Present When, in 1796, French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Papal States, a truce was bought by Pope Pius VI, and many art treasures passed into French possession. In 1798 the French occupied Rome, deported the pope, and proclaimed Rome a republic. Pius VII reentered Rome in 1800, but in 1808 Napoleon reoccupied the city and in 1809 annexed it to France. Papal rule was restored in 1814. Pope Pius IX, who ruled during a crucial period (1846–78), yielded to liberal demands and granted a constitution. However, disorders in 1848 caused his flight to Gaeta, and once more Rome became a republic, under the leadership of Giuseppe Mazzini. French troops intervened, defeated the republican forces under Giuseppe Garibaldi, and restored Pius IX, who made no further attempts at liberalism. The Italian kingdom, proclaimed in 1862, included most of the former Papal States but not Rome, which remained under papal rule as a virtual protectorate of Napoleon III. Napoleon's fall in 1870 made possible the occupation of Rome by Italian troops, and, in 1871, Rome became the capital of Italy. Pius IX and his successors, however, did not recognize their loss of temporal sovereignty. The conflict between pope and king—or Vatican and Quirinal, as the antagonists were designated because of the location of their palaces—was not solved until the conclusion (1929) of the Lateran Treaty, which gave the pope sovereignty over Vatican City. With the Fascist march on Rome (1922) Benito Mussolini came to power. In World War II, Rome fell to the Allies on June 4, 1944. The postwar years were marked by a vigorous economic, artistic, and intellectual revival. The year 1950 was designated a holy year by Pope Pius XII, and Rome, more than ever the spiritual capital of Catholicism, was host to many thousands of pilgrims. In 1960 the Olympics were held in Rome. Ancient Rome General histories of ancient Rome are countless. Among the ancient histories, that of Livy is the only comprehensive work. Other great Roman historians were Julius Caesar, Tacitus, Suetonius, Polybius, Dio Cassius, and Josephus. The works of Mommsen and Edward Gibbon are monumental. General works on ancient Rome include those of J. B. Bury, Guglielmo Ferrero, Tenney Frank, and Michael Rostovtzeff. See F. F. Abbott, History and Description of Roman Political Institutions (3d ed. 1911, repr. 1963); J. Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome (tr. 1940, repr. 1962); R. H. Barrow, The Romans (1949, repr. 1964); C. G. Starr, Civilization and the Caesars (1954, repr. 1965); E. T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World (6th ed. 1968); F. W. Wallbank, Awful Revolution: The Decline of the Roman Empire in the West (2d ed. 1969); J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Rome: The Study of an Empire (1970); P. A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (1970); D. Dudley, The Romans (1970); J. Heurgon, The Rise of Rome to 264 BC (1973); G. Masson, A Concise History of Republican Rome (1973); A. Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines (1974); M. Cary and H. H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine (3d ed. 1975); H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World (4th ed. 1980); A. Massie, The Caesars (1984); P. Garnsey and R. Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and Culture (1987); E. Nash, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome (2 vol., 1989); T. J. Cornell, Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (1995); T. Holland, Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic (2005) and Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the House of Caesar (2015); S. L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (2010); A. Carandini, Rome: Day One (2011); R. C. Knapp, Invisible Romans (2011); G. Wills, Rome and Rhetoric (2011); B. Campbell, The Romans and Their World (2012); G. Woolf, Rome: An Empire's Story (2012); M. Beard, S.P.Q.R.: A History of Ancient Rome (2015). Medieval Rome See Ferdinand Gregorovius, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages (8 vol. in 13, 1903–12; repr. 1968); Alain de Boüard, Le Régime politique et les institutions de Rome au moyen âge (1920); Peter Llewellyn, Rome in the Dark Ages (1970); Ferdinand Gregorovius, Rome and Medieval Culture (1973). Renaissance and Modern Rome See bibliographies at Renaissance and Italy. See also R. Hughes, Rome: A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History (2011); Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome (city, Italy)." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Rome (city, Italy)." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. (August 30, 2016). "Rome (city, Italy)." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Rome and The Roman Empire ROME AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Roman gastronomy, or gluttony, impresses all who read the Latin and Greek literature composed under the great Mediterranean empire of the first four centuries C.E. Feasting was a central feature of Roman society. The cuisine of Rome, much influenced by ancient Greece and the Near East, is the direct ancestor of the national cuisines of most of western Europe. Ancient texts form one of the source materials for reconstructing Roman food behavior. These texts include scientific and technical writings (such as the earliest surviving recipe book, Apicius, probably compiled in the fourth century C.E.) as well as lively depictions of food, wine, and banquets in classical Latin prose and poetry. Archaeology is is an equally important source of information on this topic. Notable in this context are the finds at Pompeii, the Italian city buried in 79 C.E. by the disastrous eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Historical Outline Rome was said to have been founded by Romulus and Remus in 753 B.C.E. on the banks of the Tiber in central Italy. It was a country town whose power gradually grew until it was the center of a world empire. In the third and second centuries B.C.E., Rome fought and defeated the Carthaginians of north Africa, a victory that opened the way to Roman domination of the whole western Mediterranean; in the second and first centuries B.C.E., successive victories in Greece, Anatolia (Turkey), Syria, and Egypt extended Rome's power and wealth eastward. The rule of the first Roman emperor, Augustus (27 B.C.E.14 C.E.), marks the beginning of a four-hundred-year period, unique in history, during which a single political power governed the whole Mediterranean. Travel and trade were relatively free throughout the region and there was intensive cultural interaction. Travel was slow, however: it was a five-month voyage from the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar) to Antioch at the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Only foods that were dried, pickled, or salted, and only special wines (see below), would withstand the rigors of such a journey. Crises in the third and fourth centuries C.E. led to the division of the empire into two parts, which had quite different fates. The Eastern Roman Empire was directly continued in the Byzantine Empire. The Western Roman Empire collapsed, finally disappearing in 476 C.E. However, the "barbarian" kingdoms that took its place inherited Roman dietary ideas and developed a way of life that had many Roman features. Even before those eastern conquests, Romans had become rich enough to spend their wealth enthusiastically on imported luxuries. Lavish banquets became fashionable, and the price of slave cooks rose steeply. Moralists inveighed against these developments, but they did so in vain. Meanwhile, other changes had affected the Roman diet. The acquisition of new territories provided the opportunity for experimentation in agriculture and food production. Romanization in the provinces encouraged people to demand that what was available in the capital should also be available more widely, especially to Roman legionaries and provincial administrators. The province of Britain, whose conquest began in 43 C.E., provides an example: vines, peaches, walnuts, celery, coriander (cilantro), carrots, and several other important foods were first transplanted to that province in Roman times. Wine, olive oil, olives, figs, lentils, chickpeas, and rice were among the commodities that Roman traders first exported to Britain in response to the popularity of Roman fashions in that region. Many special features of Roman administrative and economic life left their marks on the food and cuisine of the vast region that was once the Roman Empire. Great frontier armies, whose zones of recruitment ensured movement and mixture of populations, required the delivery of reliable, standardized supplies on well-built roads. Inscriptions show that periodic markets existed: they were held every eight days in Italian towns, twice a month in North Africa, and three times a month in Asia Minor. The Literature of Food The oldest Latin prose text, written about 175 B.C.E., is De Agri Cultura (On farming) by the statesman Cato. This work focuses on the two great cash crops of Italywine and olive oiland also includes recipes for cakes and flavored and medicinal wines suitable for farmhouse production. The tradition of Roman agricultural texts culminated in Columella's detailed manual On Agriculture, written about 50 C.E. Columella provides much information on food throughout the manual, as well as a long section (Book 12) full of recipes for household preserves and other food products. Written at about the same date, the Latin encyclopaedia Historia Naturalis (Natural history) by Pliny the Elder contains eight books (1219) on plants and their uses, with special attention to fruits and vegetables. Book 14 is devoted entirely to grapes and wine. Although Latin was the native language of Rome, many medical and scientific texts of the Roman Empire were written in Greek: examples are a dietary manual, On the Properties of Foods, by the imperial physician Galen (129199 C.E.), and a medical and dietary textbook by one of his successors, Oribasius (c. 325400 C.E.). These dietary manuals list foods in great detail, which allowed the reader to work out suitable diets. The manuals also make allowances for seasonal factors and each individual's constitution, lifestyle, and current state of health, in accordance with ancient medical theories. (For English translations of all the texts named in this paragraph see the bibliography.) Poetry and literary prose give a different perspective on food from that of the technical texts. The personal poetry from the period of Augustus is full of insights on food and dining among the elite, demonstrating the growth of gastronomy and the ways in which food articulated social relations. Authors of this period include Propertius, Horace, and Ovid. Written about one hundred years after the time of Augustus, the picaresque novel Satyrica by Petronius mocks the luxurious lifestyle of the new rich. The series of biographies of emperors by the imperial archivist Suetonius (Lives of the Twelve Caesars, written about 115 C.E.) provides a glimpse into palace lifestyles, in which feasts sometimes turned into Roman orgies. Lives of poorer people are depicted in the fictional Metamorphoses (often translated under the title The Golden Ass ) by Apuleius (born 125 C.E.), and later in the biographies of Christian hermits and saints. It was common in Roman writing to despise complicated dishes designed for show rather than for taste. Yet, in practice, Romans reveled in the spices and delicacies of the whole ancient world: the pepper of south India and even the cloves of the Spice Islands were prized luxuries. In the recipes of Apicius, the flavor of the main ingredient is often enhanced with ten or fifteen spices and herbs. Rich households must have spent much money and slave labor on the finding of rare ingredients and the elaboration of showpiece dishes. The parrot wrasse (a type of fish) and the dormouse fetched high prices not because of their flavor but because of the way they looked on the table. Peacocks, and peahens' eggs, were in demand among gourmets for their rarity more than their quality. It was also a commonplace to boast of the freshness and simplicity of the farm produce that one was offering to one's guests. There is a tradition of poetic "invitations to dinner" that demonstrate changes in style as well as individual responses to food fashion, extending from about 50 B.C.E. to 110 C.E.: authors of this genre include Catullus (Poems 13), Horace (Epistles 1.5; Odes 3.29, 4.12), Martial (Epigrams 5.78, 10.48, 11.52), Juvenal (Satires 11), and Pliny the Younger (Letters 1.15). Staple Foods and Major Flavorings Rome's status as an overgrown city-state was signaled in one of the special privileges enjoyed by inhabitants of the city: the free bread ration. Interruptions in the wheat supply led to riots. Rome's annexation of Egypt, after Cleopatra's suicide in 30 B.C.E., ensured the continuity of the supply. Thereafter, huge grain ships left Alexandria regularly throughout the sailing season, bringing wheat to Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. It was on such a ship that St. Paul reached Italy after having been shipwrecked on Malta. Roman bakers baked leavened bread, both white and wholemeal. Small-scale baking required a dome-shaped baking-crock (testum and clibanus ). Archaeologists often find fragments of these. A commercial bakery, complete with fossilized loaves, has been excavated at Pompeii. The traditional staple food of early Italy had been not wheat bread but puls (porridge made from emmer wheat). The staple diet of the Roman provinces varied considerably, depending on climate and local custom. Barley, although widely considered a respectable, even desirable, staple food in ancient Greece and Italy, was viewed by Roman soldiers as punishment rations. This increased the demand for wheat wherever Roman armies were stationed. Always in use in the Roman kitchen were olive oil, fish sauce, and wine. All three were manufactured and distributed on a large scale. Garum was the major source of dietary salt: scarcely any Apicius recipes call for pure salt. Grape syrup was also much used in flavoring, as were honey and dates. Many recipes begin with the instruction, "Pound pepper and lovage," a reminder that both exotic spices and local herbs were appreciated (lovage, native to Liguria in northern Italy, is a bitter culinary herb resembling parsley). Other commonly used flavorings were onion, mustard, dill, fennel, rue, savory, thyme, mint, pine kernels, caraway, cumin, ginger, and asafoetida, the central Asian substitute for the silphium that the Greeks had appreciated so much. Pliny the Elder and Galenboth of whom were wine enthusiasts, judging from their writingsprovide full information on the wines that Romans drank with their meals. Italy had many fine wines to boast of. The famous Caecuban vineyards in Latium (modern Lazio) succumbed to urbanization, but Falernian wine, from hillsides in northern Campania, maintained its reputation throughout the empire. In the world's oldest recorded tradition of wine vintage years, fine wines were labelled with the name of one of the consuls elected for the year. The Opimian vintage (121 B.C.E.) was legendary: Opimian wines were served, already 160 years old, at a banquet given for the emperor Caligula in 39 C.E. Horace addressed an amusing poem to a jar of wine: "born, as I was, when Manlius was consul," (that year was 65 B.C.E.). It was in Roman times that the wine-growing regions of Spain and southern Gaul (France) first came to real economic importance. Long-distance transport of wines was less risky if they were "cooked" and sweetened with honey or grape syrup; it was in this form that Greek wines were enjoyed in Rome. Roman territory eventually extended northward far beyond the latitude at which grapes ripen to full sweetness. In these regions, including northern Gaul and Britain, Roman legionaries developed a taste for local beer, which was usually brewed from malted barley. Food in Roman Society City dwellers in imperial Rome, many of whom lived in apartment blocks, had little opportunity to cook: cooking required an open fire, often an unacceptable risk. However. street food was always available to the city dweller. Street stalls and cookshops sold cakes and sweets, mulled wine, hot sausages, hot chickpea soup, and porridge. "In the tavern all are equally free," wrote Juvenal (born 67 C.E.) with an undertone of disapproval. He continues, "all drink from a common cup, the couch is barred to no man, the table is no closer to one than it is to another," (Satires 8.177-8). The philosopher Seneca the Younger (died 65 C.E.) gives us the sounds of the busy street just outside his apartment window: "pancakesellers and a sausage-vendor and a confectioner and all the proprietors of cookshops selling their wares, each in his distinctive accent" (Letters to Lucilius, 56). Poor countryfolk had to depend largely on food from their own fields and gardens, supplemented by herbs and fruits gathered from the wild. Meat and fish were uncommon in their diets. For a sense of the flavors of a Roman peasant diet, see the poem "Moretum" (c. first century b.c.e.). For the peasant population of the ancient countryside, food preparation was a shared task, but in general it was the special responsibility of women. Large house-holds had kitchens staffed with slaves, the skilled cook himself often being an expensive and carefully-chosen acquisition. Romans tended to eat little during the first part of the day: a breakfast (ientaculum ) was a snack that many did not trouble to take at all, and only the greedy wanted a heavy lunch (prandium ). There was no better preparation for a full evening meal, (cena ) the one big meal of the day, than a couple of hours at the baths. These were fashionable meeting places, ideal locations for informal business discussions. One could easily spend a whole evening there, for food and wine were available at bars and restaurants. Typical larger Roman houses had a special dining room, the triclinium. Three couches arranged in a U-shape, each large enough for three diners, surrounded a central table. A house with a big enough garden might have had a garden dining area, as well, which was shaded by vines and creepers, with three stone couches sloping gently upwards to the middle (cushions and pillows made these comfortable). The open side of the square was for waiters to come and go. Servants took off guests' sandals as they reclined and brought water to wash their hands. A sequence of dishes began with the appetizer or hors d'oeuvre (gustus ), followed by an aperitif such as honeyed wine (mulsum ) or spiced wine (conditum ). The appetizers were generally more varied and more costly than the main course, though not as bulky. At one religious dinner attended by Julius Caesar, sixteen hors d'oeuvres awaited the priestly celebrants. The appetizers ranged from sea urchin and clams to slices of venison and wild boar. The main courses were accompanied by bread and wine. Diners ate with their hands, with the occasional help of a knife. Waiters were constantly coming and going, bringing new courses, clearing away dishes, and supplying perfumed water for finger-rinsing. Music and dance from hired performers, usually slaves, often accompanied the drinking, which tended to continue long after the meal itself was over. The emperor Augustus preferred to entertain his guests by employing traditional storytellers. A napkin, which lay in front of the diners as they reclined, might serve as a knapsack to take home the little gifts (apophoreta ) with which a host would regale his friends as they departed. Similar gifts were given to dependents not lucky enough to be invited to a real dinner. Martial (c. 100 C.E.) wrote a collection of short poems intended to accompany such gifts. They are the most obvious sign that hospitality helped to articulate the patron/client relations that permeated Roman society. The Greek satirist Lucian (second century C.E.) wrote a convincing sketch of daily life in a rich Roman household and addressed it to a friend who had been offered a post as private tutor. Placed at the lowest table, Lucian warned, the friend would be sneered at by slaves and would taste little of the fine cuisine except the mallow leaves that garnished the serving dishes (On Salaried Posts in Great Houses, 26). Among upper-class Romans, unlike Greeks, the sexes were not segregated at meals. It was said that Roman women once sat demurely at the feet of their husbands' dining couches, but by imperial times the women also reclined. It was said, too, that in the old days women did not drink wine, and that the kiss a Roman husband gave his wife when returning home was a way of assuring himself that this rule had been kept. See also Ancient Kitchen, The ; Ancient Mediterranean Religions ; Apicius ; Feasts, Festivals, and Fasts ; Greece, Ancient ; Greece and Crete ; Italy ; Luxury ; Petronius ; Wine in the Ancient World . The standard modern survey of Roman food and the most detailed study of Roman wine are both in French: André, Jacques. L'alimentation et la cuisine à Rome [Food and cuisine in Rome]. 2d ed. (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1981. Tchernia, André. Le Vin de l'Italie romaine [The wine of Roman Italy]. (Rome: Ecole Française de Rome, 1986). Plenty of useful information in English will be found in: Alcock, Joan P. Food in Roman Britain. (Brimscombe Port, Gloucestershire, U.K.: Tempus, 2001); Fleming, Stuart J. Vinum: the Story of Roman Wine. (Glen Mills, Pa.: Art Flair, 2001); Garnsey, Peter. Food and Society in Classical Antiquity. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Slater, William J., ed. Dining in a Classical Context. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991); White, K. D. Roman Farming. (London and New York: Thames and Hudson, 1970); Wilkins, John, David Harvey, and Mike Dobson, eds. Food in Antiquity. (Exeter, U.K.: Exeter University Press, 1995). Modern translations of most of the Roman literary texts cited in this article are easily found in libraries. For examples of Christian biographies see Russell, Norman, trans. The Lives of the Desert Fathers. (Oxford: Mowbray; Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1981). The following is a list of specialized Roman sources on food that are available in English: Dalby, Andrew, trans. Cato, On farming. (Totnes, Devon, U.K.: Prospect Books, 1998); Ash, Harrison Boyd, E. S. Forster, and Edward H. Heffner, trans. Columella, On Agriculture. 3 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19411955); Rackham, H., et al., trans. Pliny, Natural History. 10 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19381963); Grant, Mark. Galen on Food and Diet. (London and New York: Routledge, 2000); Grant, Mark. Dieting for an Emperor: A Translation of Books 1 and 4 of Oribasius' Medical Compilations. (Leiden: Brill, 1997). For Roman recipes with modern adaptations see: Grant, Mark. Roman Cookery: Ancient Recipes for Modern Kitchens. (London: Serif, 1999); Dalby, Andrew, and Sally Grainger. The Classical Cookbook. (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum; London: British Museum Press, 1996. See also under Apicius). For information on the spice trade see: Miller, J. Innes. The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969); Dalby, Andrew. Dangerous Tastes: the Story of Spices. (London: British Museum Press; Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). For works on country people and their food see: Frayn, Joan M. Subsistence Farming in Roman Italy. (London: Centaur Press, 1979); Kenny. E. J., ed. Moretum: the Ploughman's Lunch, A Poem Ascribed to Virgil (Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1986). For information on markets see: Frayn, Joan M. Markets and Fairs in Roman Italy. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993); de Ligt, L. Fairs and Markets in the Roman Empire. (Amsterdam: Gieben, 1993). Emily Gowers, in The Loaded Table (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) explores the hidden meanings of food in Latin poetry: she makes a special study of the poetic invitations to dinner. Andrew Dalby's Empire of Pleasures: Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman Empire (London and New York: Routledge, 2000) is a survey of the empire's foods and other luxuries, showing their use in constructing Roman imperial identity. The best outline of Roman daily life, dated in some ways, but well documented and not superseded, is: Carcopino, Jérôme. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940; London: Routledge, 1941). Andrew Dalby Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA Dalby, Andrew. "Rome and The Roman Empire." Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. 2003. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. Dalby, Andrew. "Rome and The Roman Empire." Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. 2003. (August 30, 2016). Dalby, Andrew. "Rome and The Roman Empire." Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. 2003. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Rome (Ancient Religion & Magic) Rome (Ancient Religion & Magic) Magical practice was widespread among the ancient Romans. Magic was integral to their worship and operated as an organized system of magical rites for communal ends. Magic formed a foundation for thought and outlook upon the world, entered daily life, and directly affected many laws and customs. This ingrained tendency eventually developed into a broad polytheistic system, which led during bad times, especially in the later years of the Empire, to a frenzied search for new gods, borrowed from various countries Rome had conquered. In times of misfortune and disaster, the Romans were always ready to utilize a non-Roman deity if his or her favors promised more than those of their own deities. Although there was a strong conservative element in the populous, and the "custom of the elders" was strongly upheld by the priestly fraternity, this usually gave way before the momentary impulses of the people. Thus, as a rock shows its geological history by its differing strata, so the theogony of the Roman gods tells its tale of the race that conceived it. There are prehistoric nature deities, borrowed from indigenous tribes; gods of the Sabines, from whom the young colony stole its wives; gods of the Etruscans, and of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Persians. The temple of Jupiter on the capitol contained the altar of an ancient deity, a stone-god, Terminus, the spirit of boundaries. In the temple of Diana of the Grove, a fountain nymph was worshiped. Additional instances of this kind abound. Belief in Spirits In addition to the gods, the spirits needed to be propitiated. Indeed the objects offered to the Roman for veneration were seemingly numberless. Apuleius gave a description of popular supernaturalism when he told of a country road where one might meet an altar wreathed with flowers, a cave hung with garlands, an oak tree laden with horns of cattle, a hill marked by fences as sacred, a log rough-hewn into shape, an altar of turf smoking with libations, or a stone anointed with oil. Every single action of man's daily life had a presiding spirit, as did commerce and husbandry. Ednea was concerned with eating and Potina with drinking. Other spirits oversaw departures, travel, approaching, and homecoming. In commerce Mercurius reigned as the spirit of gain and Pecunia of money. Farmers had to pay attention to the spirits of cutting, grinding, sowing, and bee-keeping. A deity presided over streets and highways; Cloacina served as goddess of the sewers, while the lowly Mephitis was the spirit of bad smells. Spirits of evil, such as Robigo, the spirit of mildew, also had to be propitiated by pacificatory rites. In Rome there was an altar to fever and bad fortune. From the country came Silvanus, god of farms and woods, and his fauns and nymphs with Picus, the woodpecker god who fed the twins Romulus and Remus with berries. Each deity or spirit possessed some influence, and had to be approached with proper rites. The names of these spirits were inscribed on tablets, indigitamenta, which were in the charge of the pontiffs (priests), who thus knew which spirit to evoke according to need. Most of these spirits were animistic in origin. Rites and Worship Worship in ancient Rome consisted largely of magical rites destined to propitiate the powers controlling human beings, to bring people into touch with those powers, to renew life and the land that supported it, and to stop that process of degeneration constantly set in motion by evil influences. Everything connected with worship typified this restoration. The priests, who represented the life of the community, were therefore bound by strict observances from endangering it in any way. Rules as to attire, eating, and touch were numerous. Sacrifices were systematized according to the end desired and the deity invoked. Worship instructions designated the age and gender of all animal sacrifices; oxen were to be offered to Jupiter and Mars, and swine to Juno, Ceres the corn-goddess, and Silvanus. At one shrine, a pregnant cow was sacrificed and the ashes of the unborn young were considered to be of special magical efficacy. Even human sacrifice existed within historical times. After the battle of Cannæ, the Romans sought to divert misfortune by burying two Greeks alive in the cattle-market, while in the time of Julius Cæsar, two men were put to death with sacrificial solemnities by the pontiff and flamen of Mars. Again, in the time of Cicero and Horace, boys were killed for magical purposes. Fire possessed great virtue and was held sacred in the worship of Vesta, in early belief Vesta being the fire itself; it presided over the family hearth; it restored purity and conferred protection. Blood had the same quality and, smeared on the face of the god, symbolized and brought about the oneness of the deity with the community. On great occasions the statue of Jupiter was treated thus: the priests of Bellona made incisions in their shoulders and sprinkled the blood upon the image. The face of a triumphant general was painted with vermilion to represent blood. Kneeling and prostration brought one into direct contact with the earth of the sacred place. Music was also used as a species of incantation, probably deriving its origin in sounds made to drive away evil spirits. Dancing too was of magical efficacy. In Rome there were colleges of dancers for the purposes of religion, youths who danced in solemn measure about the altars, who, in the sacred month of Mars, took part in the festivals and were sent throughout the city dancing and singing. One authority stated that there were four kinds of "holy solemnity"sacrifice, sacred banquets, public festivals, and games. Theatrical performances also belonged to this category, in one instance being used as a means of diverting a pestilence. Sacred banquets were often decreed by the Senate as thanksgiving to the gods. Tables were spread with a sumptuous repast in the public places and were first offered to the statues of the deities seated around. The festivals were numerous, all of a magical and symbolic nature. In the spring there was the Parilia, when fires of straw were lighted, through which persons passed to be purified, and the Cerealia, celebrated with sacrifice and offerings to Ceres, the corn-goddess, and followed by banquets. The Lupercalia, the festival of Faunus, was held in February and symbolized the wakening of spring and growth. Goats were slain as sacrifice and with their blood the Luperci, youths clad in skins, smeared their faces. They took thongs made of the goatskin and, laughing wildly, rushed through the city striking the crowd, Roman matrons believing that the blows thus received rendered them prolific. Juno, the goddess of marriage and childbirth, also had her festival, the Matronalia, celebrated by the women of Rome. During festivals of the dead, the door leading to the other world was opened, the stone removed from its entrance in the Comitium, and the dark spirits who came forth were appeased with offerings. On these days, three times in the year, when the gods of gloom were abroad, complete cessation from all work was decreed. No battle could be fought nor ship set sail, neither could a man and woman marry. To the sacred games were taken the statues of the gods in gorgeous procession, chariots of silver, companies of priests, and youths singing and dancing. The gods viewed the games reclining on couches. The chariot races also partook of the nature of rites. After the races, in the Field of Mars, came one of the most important Roman rites, the sacrifice of the October Horse. The righthand horse of the victorious team was sacrificed to Mars, and the tail of the animal, running with blood, carried to the Altar of the Regia. The blood was stored in the temple of Vesta until the following spring and used in the sacrifice of the festival of Parilia. The sacrifice was essentially magical, all citizens present being purified by the blood-sprinkling and bonfire. The Roman outlook upon life was largely colored by magic. Bodily foes had their counterpart in the unseen world wandering spirits of the dead, spirits of evil, the anger of innocently offended deities, and the menace of the evil eye. Portents and prodigies were everywhere. In the heavens, strange things might be seen. The sun had been known to double, even treble itself, its light turn to blood, or a magical halo to appear round the orb. Thunder and lightning were always fraught with presage. Jove was angered when he opened the heavens and hurled his bolts to earth. Phantoms, too, hovered amid the clouds. Upon the Campagna, the gods were observed in conflict, and afterward tracks of the combatants were visible across the plain. Unearthly voices were heard amid the mountains and groves and cries of portent sounded within the temples. Blood haunted the Roman imagination. Sometimes it was said to have covered the land as a mantle, the standing corn dyed with blood, the rivers and fountains flowing with it, while walls and statues were covered with a bloody sweat. The flight and song of birds might foretell the decrees of Fate; unappeased spirits of the dead were known to lurk near and steal away the souls of men, who then died. All these happenings were attributable to the gods and spirits, who, if the portent was one of menace, must be propitiated, if one of good fortune, thanked with offerings. Down to later times, this deep belief in the occurrence of prodigies persisted. When Otho set out for Italy in 69 C.E. , Rome rang with reports of a gigantic phantom rushing forth from the Temple of Juno and of the statue of Julius turning from east to west. Divination and Augury Divination was connected with Roman worship. There was a spot on the Capitol from which the augur, with veiled head, read the auspices in the flight of birds. Augurs also accompanied armies and fleets and read the omens before an engagement was entered upon. Divination was also practiced by reading the intestines of animals, by dreams, by divine possession, as in the case of the Oracles, when prophecies were uttered. These had been gathered together in the Sibylline Books and were consulted as oracles by the state. With the worship of fortune were connected the Lots of Praœneste. The questions put to the goddess were answered by means of oaken lots a boy drew from a case made of sacred wood. The fortune-tellers also used a narrow-necked urn that, filled with water, only allowed one lot at a time to rise. Astrologers from Chaldea were also much sought after and were attached to the kingly and noble houses. Familiar things of everyday life took on magical import. Words and numbers, especially odd ones, were of special significance. The Kalends, Nones, and Ides were so arranged as to fall upon odd days. Touch was binding, and so recognized in the law of Rome, as the grasp of a thing sold, from a slave to a turf of distant estate. Knotting and twisting of thread was injurious, so that women must never pass by cornfields twisting their spindles. A strange sympathy existed between the trees and humankind, and great honor was paid to the sacred trees of Rome. On the oak tree of Jupiter, the triumphant general hung the shield and arms of his fallen foe, while the hedges about the Temple of Diana at Nemi were covered with votive offerings. The trees also harbored the spirits of the dead, who came forth as dreams to the souls of men. Pliny the Elder stated in this matter: "Trees have a soul since nothing on earth lives without one. They are the temples of spirits and the simple countryside dedicates still a noble tree to some god. The various kinds of trees are sacred to their protecting spirits: the oak to Jupiter, the laurel to Apollo, olive to Minerva, myrtle to Venus, white poplar to Hercules." These trees therefore partook of the nature of their presiding spirits and it was desirable to bring about communion with their magical influence, as in the spring, when laurel boughs were hung at the doors of the flamens and pontiffs, and in the temple of Vesta, where they remained hanging until the following year. Trees and their leaves were also possessed of healing and purifying value. Laurel was used for the latter quality after triumphs, when the spears and javelins of legionaries were wreathed with its branches to purify them from the blood of the enemy. Man himself had a presiding spirit, his genius, each woman her "Juno" and the Saturnalia was really a holiday for this "other self." The Roman kept his birthday in honor of his genius. He would offer frankincense, cakes, and unmixed wine on an altar garlanded with flowers while making solemn prayers for the coming year. Cities and villages had their genii. Beliefs About Death Death was believed to be the life and soul enticed away by revengeful ghosts, hence death would never occur save by such agencies. The dead therefore must be appeased with offerings or else they wandered abroad working evil among the living. One manifestation of this belief appeared in Ovid's lines, "Once upon a time the great feast of the dead was not observed and the manes failed to receive the customary gifts, the fruit, the salt, the corn steeped in unmixed wine, the violets. The injured spirits revenged themselves on the living and the city was encircled with the funeral fires of their victims. The townsfolk heard their grandsires complaining in the quiet hours of the night, and told each other how the unsubstantial troop of monstrous specters rising from their tombs, shrieked along the city streets and up and down the fields." Beans were used in the funeral feasts. They were supposed to harbor the souls of the dead, and the bean-blossom to be inscribed with characters of mourning. Dreams were considered of great importance by the Romans and many historical instances of prophetic dreams may be found. They were thought to be like birds, the "bronze-colored" hawks; they were also thought to be the souls of human beings visiting others in their sleep or the souls of the dead returning to earth. In Virgil much may be found on this subject. Lucretius tried to find a scientific reason for dreams; Cicero, although writing in a slighting manner of the prevalent belief in these manifestations of sleep, recorded dreams of his own. Sorcery & Witchcraft Sorcery in all its forms, from love-magic to death-magic, was rife among all classes, as were necromantic practices. There were charms and spells for everything under the sun. The rain-charm of the pontiffs consisted of the throwing of puppets into the Tiber. The charm against thunderbolts was compounded of onions, hair, and sprats. The charm against an epidemic required the matrons of Rome to sweep the temple-floors with their hair. There were many more charms, including the simple love-charm strung around the neck of the country maiden. Witches were prevalent. The poets often chose these sinister figures for their subjects, as when Horace described the ghastly rites of two witches in the cemetery of the Esquiline. Under the light of the new moon they crawled about looking for poisonous herbs and bones. They called the specters to a banquet consisting of a black lamb torn to pieces with their teeth, and afterward these phantoms had to answer the questions of the sorceresses. Witches made images of their victims and prayed to the infernal powers for help; hounds and snakes glided over the ground, the moon turned to blood, and as the images were melted so the lives of the victims ebbed away. Virgil gives a picture of a sorceress performing love-magic by means of a waxen image of the youth whose love she desired. Lucan, in his Pharsalia, discusses Thessaly, notorious in all ages for sorcery, and drew a terrific figure of Erichtho, a sorceress of illimitable powers, one whom even the gods obeyed, and to whom the forces of earth and heaven were bond-slaves. Both Nero and his mother Agrippina were reported to have had recourse to the infamous arts of sorcery, while in the New Testament may be found testimony as to these practices in Rome. The attitude of the cultured class towards magic is illustrated by an illuminating passage to be found in the writings of Pliny the Elder. He states, "The art of magic has prevailed in most ages and in most parts of the globe. Let no one wonder that it has wielded very great authority inasmuch as it embraces three other sources of influence. No one doubts that it took its rise in medicine and sought to cloak itself in the garb of a science more profound and holy than the common run. It added to its tempting promises the force of religion, after which the human race is groping, especially at this time. Further it has brought in the arts of astrology and divination. For everyone desires to know what is to come to him and believes that certainty can be gained by consulting the stars. Having in this way taken captive the feelings of man by a triple chain, it has reached such a pitch that it rules over all the world and in the East, governs the King of Kings." Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome (Ancient Religion & Magic)." Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. 2001. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Rome (Ancient Religion & Magic)." Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. 2001. (August 30, 2016). "Rome (Ancient Religion & Magic)." Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. 2001. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from ROME. From 1500 to 1789, Rome's population grew from about 50,000 to over 160,000. A small civic government maintained some autonomy well into the seventeenth century, but the papacy increasingly controlled local and regional administration, even as its own role in European politics declined. As the center of Catholic Christendom, Rome remained the focal point for the church hierarchy, for numerous religious orders, and for pilgrims. From the 1540s on, concern for doctrinal orthodoxy circumscribed written and artistic expression, but for another two centuries the city of the popes remained a site of cultural creativity and accomplishment, particularly in architecture. In 1500, papal revenues still came primarily from dioceses and church landholdings throughout Europe. After the Protestant Reformation diminished that source, the popes relied more upon heavy taxation of their territories in central Italy, known as the Papal States. A funded debt established in 1526 helped rationalize the curial economy. By 1600, Rome's administration of its territories was arguably as sophisticated as that of any other European state, but its failure to develop new sources of wealth meant reliance upon deficit spending and foreign patronage. The economy of the city beyond the Curia, built largely around the annual influx of pilgrims, perennially lacked a strong industrial or agricultural base. Bad harvests could readily lead to famines, as happened in 17631764. Whereas sixteenth-century popes such as Julius II (reigned 15031513) and Paul III (reigned 15341549) engaged in wars with powerful Roman families such as the Colonna, over time the local nobles were subsumed into the church hierarchy. A civic government, the Senate and People of Rome, retained some judicial powers and provided a forum for rallying public opinion. It had influence particularly during periods of vacant see (i.e., between popes). But by 1600 all top state officials were churchmen: a cardinal-chamberlain (camerlengo) headed administration of the papacy's temporal domain, with cardinal-legates governing different regions and a cardinal serving as secretary of state. Thereafter, Roman nobles played an essentially ceremonial role, except to the extent that family members obtained high curial offices. By 1500, Italian politics were being transformed by the presence of French and Spanish armies. Pope Julius II played the two against each other while strengthening his economic and political hold on the Papal States. By the mid-1520s, however, the might of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, united in the person of Charles V (ruled 15191556), became decisive. Clement VII (reigned 15231534) sought intermittently to form alliances to contain imperial power on the peninsula, but the League of Cognac (formed 22 May 1526), in which the pope joined forces with Venice and France, was too disunified in purpose to prevent an imperial army from sacking Rome on 6 May 1527. Clement VII ultimately made peace with Charles V, and he officially crowned Charles emperor in Bologna in February 1530. Thereafter, Spanish sovereigns often proved critical in defending Rome and in furthering papal goals beyond Italy. Paul IV (reigned 15551559) bucked this trend, forming with France an alliance designed to drive the Spaniards from Italy, but the strategy backfired when an imperial army under the duke of Alba encamped near Rome in 1557, forcing the pope to make peace. French defeats soon led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), following which Spain enjoyed a uniquely privileged relationship with Rome: Spanish kings exerted influence in the papal court and gained control over substantial church revenues in Spain. In turn, the kings generously endowed religious institutions in Rome and provided military support to the papacy. Meanwhile, the Vatican diplomatic service grew more complex and systematic, especially under Gregory XIII (reigned 15721585) and Clement VIII (reigned 15921605), and it came under official control of cardinals. By the 1620s, the balance of power between Spain and France shifted temporarily in the direction of the latter, and Urban VIII (reigned 16231644) was elected pope with strong support of French cardinals. Spain remained influential throughout the century, particularly during the pontificate of Alexander VII (reigned 16551667). But following the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years' War, religion became sharply less important in European politics, and so Rome ceased to be as critical to dynastic strategies. Although the building of Renaissance Rome was well under way by 1500, Pope Julius II gave it added impetus. Seeking to make the city suitably dignified for his ambitions, he sponsored construction projects including the Via Giulia and St. Peter's Basilica (begun 1506). Paul III enhanced the fortifications of the Vatican, employed Michelangelo to restore the city capitol (the Campidoglio), and saw to the construction of major urban thoroughfares. Subsequent pontiffs, notably Sixtus V (15851590), further edified and embellished the city. Classical models inspired both urban design and the building of suburban villas with gardens. The seventeenth century saw the addition of massive baroque structures, many designed by Francesco Borromini (15991667) and Gian Lorenzo Bernini (15981680). Commissioned in 1638 to build the Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Borromini later designed its imposing curved facade. Bernini's projects included overseeing the completion of St. Peter's and designing the colonnade that surrounds its square (completed 1667). In the eighteenth century, elaborate new facades for churches and other buildings transformed the appearance of existing squares and streets. Wealthy families such as the Corsini and the Doria Pamphili commissioned private palaces whose facades vied for attention in the public theater of the city. There was more practical construction, as well: some structures were divided into private apartments of varying size to house the burgeoning ranks of mid-level papal officials, and new buildings were erected for oratories, monasteries, convents, and charitable institutions. By the later eighteenth century, construction was curtailed amidst economic crises, but there was by then a dense core of buildings in central Rome, surrounded on the outskirts by the villas of the wealthy. Although the Protestant Reformation cut into the papacy's prestige and revenues, Rome remained the world center of the Catholic faith. Starting in the pontificate of Paul III, it was also a center of reform. When the papacy convened the Council of Trent (15451563), which enacted extensive doctrinal and institutional reforms, new religious groups had already emerged, including the Capuchins (1528) and the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits (1540). The latter's zealous and at times controversial promotion of the faith, which could threaten secular rulers' prerogatives, led in 1773 to its temporary suppression by Pope Clement XIV (reigned 17691774). Beginning in the mid-sixteenth century, the Roman Inquisition and the Index of Prohibited Books (first promulgated in 1559) limited the scope of acceptable theological expression but did not entirely stifle other forms of intellectual creativity. The University of Rome, strong before the Sack of 1527, had to shut down for eight years. After reopening, it had mainly regional importance, educating lawyers, mid-level papal and civil officials, and some doctors. Bologna remained the premier university in papal territories. Within Rome, religious orders' schools, especially the Jesuits' Collegio Romano (established 1551), dominated theological education. Literary, scientific, and archaeological culture flourished in the later sixteenth century and beyond, when private collections of manuscripts and antiquities became increasingly fashionable. The constraints of orthodoxy limited radical religious expression, at times forcefully, as in the case of Giordano Bruno, who was burned at the stake in Rome in 1600. Philosophical, scientific, and literary pursuits that did not directly contravene church dogma flourished, especially in academies such as that of the Lincei (16031630) and the Arcadia, founded in 1690 by scholars who had enjoyed the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden (d. 1689), who had converted to Catholicism. The early sixteenth century, a peak period for artistic creativity in Rome, encompassed Michelangelo's painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling (15081512) and Raphael's work in the Vatican stanze (begun 1509). Later influential contributions included Michelangelo's Last Judgment (completed 1541), and around 1600 Rome still drew major painters like Annibale Carracci (15601609) and Caravaggio (15711610). Achievements in architecture reached new heights the following century in the works of Borromini and Bernini, the latter of whom also made enduring contributions to baroque statuary, notably his Ecstasy of St. Theresa (1652) in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, and the Fountain of the Four Rivers (1651) in the Piazza Navona. In the eighteenth century, public spaces were redesigned with an eye to theatricality. Major projects included the Spanish Steps (17231726), the Piazza Sant' Ignazio (17271735), and Nicola Salvi's design for the Trevi fountain (mid-1730s), which still today dominates its piazza. By 1789, Rome had ceased to be a center even of architectural innovation. Still, prints designed and compiled by the architect and engraver Giovanni Battista Piranesi (17201778) helped disseminate abroad an appreciation for the city's cultural riches, as did its distinction as the final stop on European aristocrats' grand tour. Although Rome's cultural role had waned, the Renaissance, Reformation, and baroque ages would bequeath a rich legacy to future generations, much as the culture of antiquity had done for them. See also Art: The Conception and Status of the Artist ; Catholicism ; Christina (Sweden) ; Jesuits ; Papacy and Papal States ; Rome, Architecture in ; Rome, Art in ; Rome, Sack of ; Trent, Council of . Dandelet, Thomas James. Spanish Rome, 15001700. New Haven and London, 2001. Gross, Hanns. Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: The Post-Tridentine Syndrome and the Ancien Regime. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1990. Partner, Peter. Renaissance Rome, 15001559: A Portrait of a Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Signorotto, Gianvittorio, and Maria Antonietta Visceglia, eds. Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 14921700. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 2002. Kenneth Gouwens Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA GOUWENS, KENNETH. "Rome." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. 2004. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. GOUWENS, KENNETH. "Rome." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. 2004. (August 30, 2016). GOUWENS, KENNETH. "Rome." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. 2004. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Ancient Rome Ancient Rome The most powerful of the ancient empires, the civilization that became the Roman Empire rose from humble origins as a city in central Italy. At the height of its power, the Roman Empire stretched from Spain in the west to present-day Syria in the east, and from Egypt in the south to Britain in the north. The story of the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, including what the Romans wore during this fascinating era, has captivated historians for two thousand years. From city to empire Legend has it that the city of Rome was founded in 753 b.c.e. by Romulus and Remus, the twin sons of the god Mars, who had been raised by wolves. They established a small town that grew, over time, into a small city that controlled the surrounding region. Rome was one of many small city-states on the Italian peninsula. The most powerful of these city-states was inhabited by the Etruscans, who dominated most of Italy from about 800 b.c.e. until they finally were defeated by the Romans in 250 b.c.e. These small cities, and especially the Etruscans, had a great influence on the developing Roman civilization. Many of the cultural and costume traditions of the Romans were borrowed from the Etruscans. Initially ruled by a king, in 509 b.c.e. the powerful families of Rome took control of the city-state and established it as a republic, with representatives of the citizens of the city choosing people to form a ruling senate. This began a long period of Roman history known as the Roman Republic (50927 b.c.e.). At first only the wealthiest members of Roman society could join the government, but over time more of the poorer citizens, called plebeians, gained access to power. It was not a perfect democracy, but many people had the right to vote and thus to call themselves citizens. During the republic the Romans grew more powerful, and slowly they extended their rule. First they took control of much of the Italian peninsula, and then they extended their control into present-day Greece, Spain, and northern Africa. But the rise of powerful armies and the problems with managing an expanding society brought the republic many troubles that were soon addressed by a change in government. In 27 b.c.e. a new era in Roman history began when a powerful general established himself as the first Roman emperor, thus beginning a period known as the Roman Empire (27 b.c.e.476 c.e.). This emperor, Augustus (63 b.c.e.14 c.e.), took full control of the empire, and he ruled over an era known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. For nearly two hundred years the empire flourished. New cities were created and trade with other societies expanded. The empire as a whole grew very rich. Conflict between the rulers of different cities, each with their own armies, soon began to tear the empire apart in a long civil war. The emperor Diocletian (c. 245c. 316) reorganized the empire in 293 c.e., creating a Western Roman Empire centered in Rome and an Eastern Roman Empire centered in modern-day Turkey. These were united in 324 c.e. under an emperor known as Constantine the Great (c. 285337 c.e.), yet even Constantine could not hold the empire together. The Western Empire slowly crumbled, attacked by armies from outside and beset by economic trouble from within, and ended in 476 c.e. The Eastern Roman Empire survived, however, as the Byzantine Empire, which lasted until 1453 c.e. Triumphs and excesses of the empire The great power that the Roman Empire held in the ancient world led to many accomplishments. Romans build a vast system of roadways and waterways that connected Europe and parts of the Middle East. They created a system of republican government, in which power lies with a group of citizens versus a supreme ruler, which lasted for several hundred years. And they established trade networks that stretched throughout the world, including a thriving trade with China and the Far East. Yet the great successes of Rome also brought troubling changes. The once sparing and simple Romans became lovers of luxury. The rulers had such great power and wealth that they felt anything was possible. The legend that the third-century-b.c.e. emperor Nero played his fiddle while the city of Rome burned has become a symbol for an uncaring ruler. The vicious combat that occurred in the arenas of Rome among gladiatorssoldiers who fought to the death as public entertainment for ancient Romansalso showed a lack of concern for human life. Rome's leaders lost the support of their citizens, and eventually the empire could not hold together. These larger historical changes can be seen in the way that Romans dressed and decorated themselves. Over the entire history of Roman civilization, a few garments provided the basis for the Roman wardrobe. Yet as Rome grew wealthier, these garments became more highly decorated and were made from richer fabrics. Romans became great lovers of jewelry and did not hesitate to display their wealth by wearing numerous jewels. As more and more Romans earned enough money to buy expensive fabrics and adornments, Roman politicians began to limit access to various clothing styles by passing sumptuary laws, which regulated what people could wear and how much money they could spend. Roman clothing also shows the influence of territorial expansion, as the Romans adopted the clothing styles of those they conquered in northern Europe and the fabrics of the Orient. Today we remember Roman clothing through the popular image of the toga, but the Roman clothing tradition offers many other fascinating insights into this amazing ancient society. Hart, Avery. Ancient Rome!: Exploring the Culture, People, and Ideas of This Powerful Empire. Charlotte, VT: Williamson, 2002. Hunt, Alan. Governance of the Consuming Passions: A History of Sumptuary Law. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996. Nardo, Don. The Ancient Romans. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, 2001. The Roman Empire. (accessed on July 11, 2003). Simpson, Judith. Ancient Rome. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1997. Steele, Philip. Clothes and Crafts in Roman Times. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens, 2000. Sumptuary Laws Regulate Luxury Roman Clothing Roman Headwear Roman Body Decorations Roman Footwear Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Ancient Rome." Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages. 2004. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Ancient Rome." Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages. 2004. (August 30, 2016). "Ancient Rome." Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages. 2004. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Ancient capital of the Roman Empire, later the headquarters of the Papacy and an important center of patronage and artistic innovation during the Renaissance. At the fall of the western empire in the fifth century, Rome entered a chaotic period when the city was subject to invasion by barbarian tribes and civil war among its most powerful families, the Colonna and the Orsini. The emergence of the Papacy gave the city prominence in the late Middle Ages. After the schisms within the church were settled in the early fifteenth century, the Papacy was established permanently in the city. The city attracted artists from all over Italy with its ancient ruins and monuments that inspired them to emulate the architectural styles of antiquity. Pope Nicholas V, whose reign began in 1447, invited scholars and artists to the city and commissioned Leon Battista Alberti to design a new basilica. The new Saint Peter's Basilica was constructed over the next century from the plans of Alberti, Donato Bramante, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, and several other renowned artists and architects. Pope Sixtus IV established the Vatican Library in 1475, began construction on the Sistine Chapel, and ordered new roads to clear away the city's dark and sinister medieval alleys. Rome became a major political center as the popes expanded their authority to the Papal States in central Italy and contended for power in northern Italy. The city was occupied by the French in 1494 and in 1527 sacked by the mutinous troops of the Emperor Charles V. In the meantime, several popes gained a reputation for nepotism and corruption, and the city remained a lawless place where murder and riots were frequent occurrences. Under Pope Julius II, Leo X, and Clement VII, Rome became a thriving artistic center of the Renaissance, the home of new churches, palaces, and masterpieces created by Michelangelo, Bramante, and Raphael. At the same time, the popes and the Catholic Church were being directly challenged by the Protestant Reformation sweeping northern Europe. By convening the Council of Trent, Pope Paul III attempted to reform the church and return Protestant territories to the religious authority of Rome. The Catholic Reformation that followed discouraged new scholarship and placed new restrictions on the style and subject of art and literature, with an Index banning certain works entirely and an Inquisition accusing and trying many for religious heresy. The popes ended the lavish feasts and festivals that had entertained the city, and adopted new costumes and regalia meant to display the church's more devout, somber, and modest character. Under Pope Sixtus V, the Papacy established a large police force and banned all manner of unruly behavior, from prostitution to public assembly to dueling. Pope Sixtus cleared away many old neighborhoods in order to make Rome a more welcoming center for religious pilgrims. By the end of the Renaissance the city had been completely transformed, with new churches and palaces raised in the new style largely inspired by the city's ancient ruins. See Also: Julius II; Papacy; Papal States; Sack of Rome Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome." The Renaissance. 2008. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Rome." The Renaissance. 2008. (August 30, 2016). "Rome." The Renaissance. 2008. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Rome (cities, United States) Rome:1 City (1990 pop. 30,326), seat of Floyd co., NW Ga., where the Etowah and Oostanaula rivers meet to form the Coosa, in a farm, timber, and quarry area; inc. 1847. The city was first established as cotton market and an industrial center, with textile and lumber mills, clothing factories, and foundries, and has become a manufacturing center that produces concrete and crushed stone, transportation and electrical equipment, plastics, tires, and metal and food products. Rome was settled (1834) on the site of a Cherokee village. It was captured by Union forces in the Civil War; Sherman burned the city in Nov., 1864. Shorter College is there, and Berry College is nearby. The tall clock tower (1871) atop one of the city's hills is Rome's famous landmark. 2 Industrial city (1990 pop. 44,350), Oneida co., central N.Y., on the Mohawk River and the Erie Canal; laid out c.1786 on the site of Fort Stanwix, inc. as a city 1870. It became recognized for its copper and brass manufactures and was dubbed the "Copper City." Cooking utensils, machine tools, and strip steel are some of the products now manufactured. Nearby is the Rome Development Center as well as state parks. Rome is situated on Wood Creek, .5 mi (.8 km) from the Mohawk River. Because of its location, the city was a busy portage point, and it had great strategic importance during the French and Indian Wars and in the American Revolution. The Six Nation Treaty of 1768 was concluded at Fort Stanwix there. The unsuccessful British siege of the fort in the American Revolution led to the battle of Oriskany (see Saratoga campaign). Construction on the Erie Canal began (1817) in Rome. Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome (cities, United States)." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. Rome according to tradition the ancient city was founded by Romulus (after whom it is named) in 753 bc on the Palatine Hill; as it grew it spread to the other six hills of Rome (Aventine, Caelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal). Rome was ruled by kings until the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus in 510 bc led to the establishment of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. By the time of the empire's fall the city was overshadowed politically by Constantinople, but emerged as the seat of the papacy and as the spiritual capital of Western Christianity. In the 14th and 15th centuries Rome became a centre of the Renaissance. It remained under papal control, forming part of the Papal States, until 1871, when it was made the capital of a unified Italy. In allusive use, Rome is traditionally seen as standing for the Roman Empire or the Roman Catholic Church: the heart and emblem of a major power. Rome was not built in a day proverbial saying, mid 16th century, used to warn against trying to achieve too much at once. when in Rome, do as the Romans do proverbial saying, late 15th century, meaning that you should conform to the customs of the society you find yourself in; St Ambrose, the 4th-century bishop of Milan, wrote in a letter, ‘When I go to Rome, I fast on Saturday, but here [Milan] I do not. Do you also follow the custom of whatever church you attend.’ See also Roman, Romans. Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA ELIZABETH KNOWLES. "Rome." The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 2006. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. ELIZABETH KNOWLES. "Rome." The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 2006. (August 30, 2016). ELIZABETH KNOWLES. "Rome." The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 2006. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Rome (Roma) Capital of Italy, on the River Tiber, w central Italy. Founded in the 8th century bc, it was probably an Etruscan city-kingdom in the 6th century bc. The Roman Republic was founded in c.500 bc. By the 3rd century bc, Rome ruled most of Italy and began to expand overseas. In the 1st century ad, the city was transformed as successive emperors built temples, palaces, public baths, arches, and columns. It remained the capital of the Roman Empire until ad 330. In the 5th century, Rome was sacked during the Barbarian invasions, and its population (already in decline) fell rapidly. In the Middle Ages, Rome became the seat of the papacy. In 1527, it was sacked by the army of Charles V. The city began to flourish once more in the 16th and 17th centuries. Italian troops occupied it in 1870, and in 1871 it became the capital of a unified Italy. The 1922 Fascist march on Rome brought Mussolini to power, and he did much to turn Rome into a modern capital city. It is also home to the Vatican City. Industries: tourism, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, oil refining, engineering, textiles, films, printing and publishing, banking and finance. Pop. (2001) 2,656,000. Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome." World Encyclopedia. 2005. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Rome." World Encyclopedia. 2005. (August 30, 2016). "Rome." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Rome, ancient Rome, ancient Capital of the Roman republic. According to tradition, Romulus and Remus founded Rome in 753 bc. By 509 bc, the Latin-speaking Romans had thrown off the rule of Etruscan kings, and established an independent republic dominated by an aristocratic elite. Its history was one of continual expansion, and by 340 bc Rome controlled Italy s of the River Po. By the 3rd century bc, the plebeian class had largely gained political equality. The Punic Wars gave it dominance of the Mediterranean in the 2nd century bc, when major eastward expansion began with the conquest of the Greek lands around the Aegean. Social division and military dictatorship placed strain on the republic. Spartacus' slave revolt was crushed by Pompey, who emerged as Sulla's successor. Pompey and Julius Caesar formed the First Triumverate (60 bc). Caesar emerged as leader and greatly extended Rome's territory and influence. His assassination led to the formation of the Roman Empire under Augustus (27 bc). Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome, ancient." World Encyclopedia. 2005. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Rome, ancient." World Encyclopedia. 2005. (August 30, 2016). "Rome, ancient." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Rome. ‘The eternal city’, capital of modern Italy (embracing the Vatican City since the Lateran Treaty in 1929 between the pope and the Italian government of Mussolini), and major centre of Christianity since the arrival of Paul and Peter (the presence of the latter having sometimes been disputed). Both apostles are believed to have been martyred in Rome: St Peter's Basilica stands on the traditional site of Peter's burial. Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA JOHN BOWKER. "Rome." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. 1997. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. JOHN BOWKER. "Rome." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. 1997. (August 30, 2016). JOHN BOWKER. "Rome." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. 1997. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Cite this article • MLA • Chicago • APA "Rome." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. 30 Aug. 2016 <>. "Rome." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. (August 30, 2016). "Rome." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Retrieved August 30, 2016 from Facts and information from other sites
Mandarin is the official language of Taiwan and the language in which school lessons are taught. It is understood by the vast majority of people in the country. Some seventy percent of the population also speaks Taiwanese, which is the language of the Hoklo ethnic group. Other languages include Hakka, the language of the Hakka ethnic group comprising fifteen percent of the population and several Aboriginal languages, which are understood by less than two percent of the population. English is taught in many schools as a subject and is a common additional language choice for the Taiwanese. However, English is not generally as widely spoken or understood enough for English speaking travelers to safely assume that they will be understood. Traveler may find it advantageous to carry a phrasebook to help with basics like ordering food. The official currency of Taiwan is the New Taiwan dollar, which is made up of 100 yuan. Currency can be exchanged at banks and currency exchange agencies. Travelers will usually be asked to show a passport. Travelers wishing to exchange American dollars need to be aware that many places will only accept notes printed after 2003, due to forgery issues associated with older notes. ATMs are widely available and Visa and MasterCard credit cards are accepted at most large hotels and shops although a surcharge often applies. Diners Club and Amex are not commonly accepted. Taiwan is generally a cash society and travelers will be expected to pay for most food, travel and other smaller items with cash. Travelers’ checks are not generally accepted in shops but can be exchanged at banks, often for a fee. Taiwan is in the Chinese Standard Time zone, which is 8 hours ahead of GMT (GMT +8). Taiwan uses electricity at 110-60V with type A and B plug sockets. Visitors wishing to use electrical appliances that require a different voltage in Taiwan will need a transformer and electrical devices with different plugs will need an adaptor. Appliances from North America or Japan will usually work in Taiwan without the need for an adaptor. The dialing code for Taiwan is +886, with area codes being in use. The dialing prefix for calling overseas from Taiwan is 002. Calls to mainland China or Hong Kong are treated as overseas calls so the full number must be dialed. Pay phones are commonly available and can be used with a card that can be purchased from convenience stores. Taiwan has four major mobile network providers: Chunghwa Telecom, Far EasTone, Taiwan Mobile, and Vibo. Mobile coverage tends to be excellent, except in extremely rural mountain areas. Internet cafes are common in more populated areas and tend to be on floors above street level. Free internet access is possible at libraries. Taipai has Wi-Fi across the city, access cards for which can be purchased from convenience stores. McDonalds outlets across the country have Wi-Fi. Overseas arrivals into Taiwan, who are over 20 years old, are subject to the following duty-free allowances: 200 cigarettes or 454gms of tobacco, one bottle of alcohol to a maximum of one liter. Tourist Office Tourism Bureau, Republic of China (Taiwan): +886-2-2349-1500 or Consulates and Embassies in Taiwan British Consulate, Taipei: +886-2-8722-1000 Canadian Embassy, Taipei: +886-2-2544-3000 Emergency services: 110 Police: 112 Fire/Ambulance: 119
The Daily In the news Indicators Releases by subject Special interest Release schedule Information Production and value of honey, 2015 Released: 2015-12-09 Sales of honey $232.0 million (annual change) Canadian beekeepers produced 95.3 million pounds of honey in 2015, up 11.4% from 2014. There were 8,533 beekeepers in 2015, 365 less than in 2014. Chart 1 Chart 1: Production of honey Production of honey The total value of honey rose 10.9% from 2014 to $232.0 million as a result of increased production. The average price of honey was stable at $2.43 per pound. On average, each colony had a yield of 132 pounds of honey, 9 pounds more than in 2014. The number of colonies rose 3.6% from 696,252 to 721,106. This increase was attributable to favourable weather conditions that reduced winter losses, particularly in the Prairie provinces. Honey production in Alberta, the top producer in Canada, was 42.8 million pounds, up 20.4% from 35.5 million pounds in 2014. Yields rose from 125 pounds per colony to 145 pounds. In Saskatchewan, honey production increased from 16.5 million pounds in 2014 to 18.8 million pounds in 2015, as a result of more colonies and higher yields. In Manitoba, although yields were lower, production rose from 14.1 million pounds in 2014 to 16.0 million pounds. This increase was attributable to more honey-producing colonies in the province in 2015. Contact information Date modified:
Become a fan of Slashdot on Facebook Forgot your password? Compare cell phone plans using Wirefly's innovative plan comparison tool × Is A "Well-Rounded" Education a Good One? 741 hendridm asks: "Universities seem to push being well-rounded, or knowing a little bit about everything but nothing about anything in particular. They attempt to teach courses that could help you succeed in your lifelong career, whatever it might be. It seems to me that it would be better to teach skills that would help us in the first 10 years of employment. As a senior Information Systems major in a state university in the Midwest, I can think of countless examples that support this idea." Of course, a well-rounded education can be a good one, it just depends on your definition of 'rounded'. It doesn't exactly do students a favor by exposing them to the forrest until they have a good grasp of the concept of the "tree", which is hedridm's main point. Do any of you know of curriculums that are good examples of a true well-rounded education? "In my Finance course, I learn how to balance a corporate stock portfolio, but I have no clue how to start a business or pay my employees. In my System Analysis & Design course, I spend 3 hours constructing data-flow diagrams, entity-relationship diagrams, and Ghantt charts for programs that take around an hour to code! In my Management course, my professor discusses techniques for being an effective CEO, but I don't even know how to manage a few subordinates, much less an entire company. In my MIS course, we learn about client-server technology, but when I ask if my peers have tested their web pages on Macintosh, they reply, "Why would I have to do that?" Most of them don't even think of Linux as an operating system, but more as a hacker's toy. Forget about asking them to make it Mozilla or Lynx compatible. They don't want to waste their time. But the University will make sure it is ADA compliant, since any institution that receives federal funding must require this... Don't most "big picture" lessons come with experience, through person's journey from entry-level employee to a skilled IT/business professional? Wouldn't it make more sense to teach things that will help students early in their careers, like technical skills and other trade/foundation skills that are often required of entry-level, non-management employees? Does the average entry-level IT person need to make the sort of decisions a CEO or CIO needs to make? Do companies really want me to spend more time diagramming a program than I need to program it in the first place? (What about just documenting the code?) Knowing the big picture is good, but how do you get to that level if you don't have any skills? My question for Slashdot readers is: Is this really what companies want of today's graduates?" Is A "Well-Rounded" Education a Good One? Comments Filter: • Teach Thinking! (Score:5, Informative) by smnolde ( 209197 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:43PM (#2370838) Homepage Schools should teach you to think for yourself. Learning any trade for a career is good, but there is always the need for additional training as the years wane by. For example, in my chemical engineering school, we were taught to be correct to twenty percent eighty percent of the time. Once more thing: "Imagination is more important than knowledge." - Albert Einstein • Re:Teach Thinking! (Score:5, Insightful) by djmcmath ( 99313 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:06PM (#2370930) Teaching thinking really begins long before college. If you haven't figured it out by the time you hit college, you probably never will. Learning how to think starts extremely young, and is taught (or should be taught, rather) by your parents. It is primarily their role to make you well-rounded in your foundational years. For example -- the graduates from my college tend to be well-rounded thinkers not so much because the school trains them that way, but rather because it weeds out those who do not have the ability. (1100 inductees, 837 graduates, woohoo!) The graduates from Podunk U of South Carolina were probably hicks who were never good at thinking to begin with, so even if you sent them to Harvard or Oxford, they wouldn't somehow magically be transformed into critical thinkers with good leadership ability and an inate charisma. Ad: One slightly used soapbox for sale, $.02, or highest bidder... • Re:Teach Thinking! (Score:5, Insightful) by nano-second ( 54714 ) on Monday October 01, 2001 @11:11AM (#2373489) The type of thinking required in university is different from most high schools. In high school you have to know how to research and regurgitate ... the teachers tell you exactly what they want you to do. In a good university course you have to research and analyse the information you find. There is much less direction from good professors, rather you are expected to figure out what to do on your own and to realise that there isn't just one right way to do things. University is about getting some basic knowledge in a number of fields so you learn how to think about different types of problems. How you tackle a history essay is different from a mathematical proof is different from a studio art assignment. University is meant to make you a well-educated person, not a well-trained person. If you are concerned about your technical skills in a particular field, go to a technical/vocational institute and take a training course. University is not job-training. • i agree, and believe that thinking for yourself should be a focus as early in life as possible. public schools really should progress beyond training children for the factories of today and providing day care services. it doesn't seem to me that the public school system has really advanced much in the past century or two, given the animosity occasionally demonstrated towards free thought as well as the strong disciplinarian atmosphere that seems to pervade schools. in some ways, public education (i mean k-12) seems to have drastically deteriorated, as in an 8th grade final from 1895 []. • It's called "Mathematics" (I'm a math grad ;-). Unfortunately, math is so botched before college it's a wonder anyone studies it at all. -Paul Komarek • Re:Teach Thinking! (Score:4, Interesting) by nachoworld ( 232276 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @04:03PM (#2371163) Homepage How do you teach thinking when there are many different types of intelligent thinking? I'm just starting med school now and we've had a couple of exams. I'm in class with some of the brightest minds of America. You would think that my class would have similar types of minds, because we all had to go through the same screening process, but we all perform differently on different types of exams. I'm not so good at brute force memorization. It takes me much longer than my collegues to study for a biochem exam and i only do average on them. Yet I can rock the molecular bio exam with little studying because it's based on applied knowledge. Thinking is very different for different people. It develops at an early age (thank you parents for pushing me) but takes years to develop. i didn't learn how to think for myself until i got to high school. I felt I was behind my classmates until I learned how to do applied knowledge very well. I suppose when others were memorizing, I was using connecting schematics. To answer my first question, I would probably go about it through a "well-rounded" education. If I hadn't majored in philosophy as an undergraduate, I'm sure I wouldn't have been good at applied knowledge skills. If I had taken more classes where memorization plays a big role, then maybe I would have been better at that. As of right now, I'm the only one in my class that cannot remember more than 20% of the names of our classmates. • Re:Teach Thinking! (Score:3, Insightful) by unformed ( 225214 ) Rote memorization isn't a sign of intellectual ability. Anybody can memorize something, given enough time. As the other reply said, med school is tough but only becuase there's a lot of memorization. Understanding the concepts is a sign of intelligence. Being able to use applied knowledge is the same. It kills me when people think they're really intelligent just because they got a 4.0 GPA or becuase they did really well because they "memorized the answers", not learned how to dod it.... • ahh this is the problem. Here at BGSU [] they don't want to teach that. They want to teach you how THEY want you to think. The president (Sidney Ribeu) has recently instated his "Core Values" program. * respect for one another * cooperation * intellectual and spiritual growth * creative imaginings * pride in a job well done Now, what I am really annoyed w/is his "minority initative" trying to recruit more minorities to the University and promote "diversity". Doing this is not such a problem but the campus itself is primarily caucasion. He is trying to show that we are not this way by making sure that all University ads, etc are showing minority students as the majority. Basically lying to the public about the massive exclusion of non-white students. All teachers at the University seem to teach certain topics and want nothing else. It has been said in the Opinion columns of the University paper (The BGNews [] that everyone knows that if you want a good grade on a paper just write about the political agenda that the teacher openly discusses (differs per prof) and you are set. Go against that and you will Fail. Now, myself I haven't seen too much of that (as far as paper writing goes) but I definitly disagree w/the profs openly expressing their political/social views to the class. No one cares if you are Republican/Democrat and if you hate Gore/Bush (for example purposes only). In college you are supposed to learn to learn. Not learn how the prof/president feels how you should act outside the University. Stop worrying about core fucking values (Kindergarten is for that) and start worrying about teaching us what we should learn. That is just my worthless .02 • You teach thinking by learning to apply what to you know to the full spectrum of Life. Thus a well rounded education in preimary and secondary education is highly recommended. And to be down right, should not be done as something that everyone dreads. Drawn up, it almost reminds me, of something I read in a science fiction story. • Mastery of communication: Ability to write with a style which is clear and readable - Mastery of the mechanics of written communication-handwriting, spelling, punctuation, usage - Not dependent on slang in communication - Ability to read and comprehend a wide range of literature; can also read newspapers and magazines easily - familiar with their cultural heritage through literature. • Mastery of Arts and Culture - Proficient in at least one art form outside of Writing - Strong Familiarity with history and cultures of several peoples not part of one's personal heritage. - Ability to speak well 1 additional language, and basics of a second (sufficient to do well as a traveller) • Mastery of fundamental of Science along with their applied fields - for example Biology, Medicine, and Agriculture would go together to somer degree. Etc etc etc. with corresponding practical courses along side theory. Mathematics would have to something like navigation, architecture, or similar attached. Essentially, this becomes the old style "hacker ethic" as applied to everything else in life, not just technology. Curiousity about everything. • Re:Teach Thinking! (Score:4, Insightful) by madajb ( 89253 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @05:32PM (#2371454) The problem is people confusing what a college is for with what elementary/high school is for. How people here have taken a "General Education" course or a "Western Civilization" course and ended up learning the same thing you learned in High School? How many have taken Math courses that could be transplanted to 11th grade with no changes? You should be a "Well-rounded" person when you graduate from High School. Able to talk coherently about current events, understand most of the points of the English language, hell, even be able to find the area under a curve. The current "need" for a BS when applying for an entry level job is simply a reflection of the failure of our public schools to make a well-rounded education a requirement for graduation. College is for learning a specific skill ie. Doctor/Lawyer/Ph.D whatever, NOT for learning (Yet again) about the vagaries of the 2 party system. • Re:Teach Thinking! (Score:3, Insightful) by singularity ( 2031 ) Are you suggesting that people graduating from high school are at the peak of their ability to learn? That they have mastered /how/ to learn and should now move soley on to /what/ to learn? If you are taking classes that could be straight out of a high school, your college is guilty of dumbing down their curriculum. As someone with friends and family working in smaller colleges, I know there is a lot of pressure by the student body (and therefore the administration who watch the purse strings and attendence numbers, especially at smaller community-college-type private schools) to dumb down the curriculum. There is an astounding gap between the intellectual ability of a high school senior and a college senior in terms of their ability to learn. Colleges are there to further refine your learning ability as you mature. I work with some of the most gifted kids in the country (I work at the Illinois Math and Science Academy). These are kids who are going to go to Ivy League schools and places like MIT. And they struggle with some concepts and some of the more college-based ways of approaching subjects. Does this mean that our high schools are failing them? No, it simply means that they have not developed fully intellectually. Colleges teach things like getting information from research journals, and learning from those. How to effectively look at original documents and judge their veracity. What you are suggesting is that the only difference between a high school senior and a college senior is what they know. You obviously have not been around students in a learning environment if you truly believe that. Colleges teach how to learn the same as elementary and high schools. They simply teach it at a much more advanced level. • by Savatte ( 111615 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:45PM (#2370841) Homepage Journal Do you have any idea what you are going to do for your first 10 years after school? That's quite a long time. Knowing a variety of different subjects is pretty useful if your original career plan doesn't work out. • by dsplat ( 73054 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:45PM (#2370845) There are a number of skills I wish that I had acquired before I went out into the wider world. I would have liked a course on getting a job. It could have included: • Resume writing • Researching companies as potential employers • Interviewing skills • Networking Universities could do a lot to help new graduates entering the workforce. Since jobs today are far from employment for life, those skills would prove useful a number of times. • My school [] has a well-respected career development center that is very connected to the corporate world and alums. Perhaps your school had a career center also, but didn't advertise very well. Just a thought... • Or... * You can be right, or you can be rich. (Humility 101) • by internic ( 453511 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:41PM (#2371069) The point is that a University is an institution of higher learning, not a job training center. Their goal is to impart knowledge and expand the scope of knowledge, not to get you a particular job. The former role is of course their historical origin, and, I think is very worthwhile, because it is that attitude that continues expansion of knowledge in many fields. This especially applies to fields that are not terribly marketable, such as some of the humanities, arts, and pure math and science. While these may not be cash cows directly, their developement does lead eventually to innovation with commercial or political application, or enrichment of the culture as a whole. I think these are very worthwhile, even essential goals that must be maintained. Many people at Universities these days (both students and faculty) want to turn them into vocational school. While I think the school definitely has to provided guidence to resources, it is wrong to pervert an institution of higher learning into a job training center. I think there's certainly nothing wrong with wanting an education that just trains you for a job. There are certainly places for that, places more like DeVry or Strayer, so you might look into something like that and/or interships. Finally, I think that they don't teach all the neccessarry skills for an entry level position also as a pragmatic matter. They simply can't. The variety of requirements for different jobs are too large or it requires an amount or kind of experience (say coding a major project), that they can't provide in the limited setting of classes. I think they feel that they can't teach you the specifics, so the best solution is to teach you the things that will allow you to learn the skills you will need, and integrate them into a coherent framework. • Good show! I couldn't agree more. The purpose of a well-rounded education is to have an arsenal of rhetorical and logical weapons on hand for every situation. AND IT WORKS. Unfortunately there are a lot of uneducated folks running around touting the glories of a paractical education. One that prepares the student for a job....we used to have that type of school. It was called the guild system and was eventually replaced by the better, more adaptive school system we have now. It is interesting that on a message board with so many smart people, there are still idiots who don't think learning about art or language or history is important. Granted, it is LESS important if you are a CS major than if you are a history major but education has intrinsic value of its own far removed from the dollar sign. Studying many things does NOT make one ignorant of all of them (as the lead stories writer so erroneously pointed out) it makes one well informed and gives one a broad bas from which he can draw knowlege and expand in many directions. A person who is trained in one thing only will not be able to synthesize information from many sources, will not be able to branch out and will be continually trapped into whatever their "practical" education gave them. Furthermore, it isn't as if there is no specialization in college....did the original writer graduate, I wonder?....once one declares his major, that becomes his focus. In the first two years I was "well rounded" taking foreing language, history, english, astronomy, psychology, chemical biology among other things. I declared as a history major and that become my primary (though not singular) focus. A University education is meant to make one EDUCATED! The purpose is not to make one a great job candidate. To elevate the human race as a whole, and rescue our culture from the gutter, it is neccessary for each one of us to become as enlightened and educated about as many subjects as possible while maintaining a core sbject we are excellent in. For those who want practicality to come from their after-high-school education: Get your second rate education at Devry and shut the fuck up. • by rgmoore ( 133276 ) <> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @07:35PM (#2371757) Homepage I think that you miss two important points. First, as valuable as a modern education is to somebody who learns from it, not everyone has the intelligence or personality to benefit from it. Having an alternative system so that people who don't fit in to the modern educational system are able to learn something and become productive members of society is very valuable. Second, that system still does exist and is actually quite strong still. Vocational education and even straight apprenticeship programs still exist; many union jobs, for instance, follow more that approach more or less closely. Also, much as it pains me to point it out, graduate school is much, much closer to a traditional apprenticeship program than most academics are willing to admit. • Resume writing • Researching companies as potential employers • Interviewing skills FWIW, I took a course [] over the summer that went into these areas (among others). For the catalog under which I'm graduating (I'm on the "ten-year graduation plan" :-) ), this is a required course. The degree requirements [] in the current catalog (and the past two or three) haven't included it, however; instead of ENG 404 (technical writing), CSC 472 (software design and development, which is primarily a group-project class) is now required. Odds are fair that you have something similar to ENG 404 available; if you're interested in it, you should be able to take it as one of your open electives...or maybe even just for shts and grins, if you're so inclined (it was an easy A, and as a summer-session class, it only took five weeks). • by solios ( 53048 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @04:42PM (#2371294) Homepage I should know, I took the course when I was at the Art Institute of Pittsburgh. It was folded into the flat portfolio class for some reason, and went over the basics* of how to go about doing everything you want out of a course like that. I passed it through social engineering - I made friends with the instructor, cut her under-the-table deals in the print lab and scan lab, and pushed prints for any student she sent me. And I gave a lecture to my class on printing above 72 DPI (I was the ONLY computer animation student at the time that knew how to print at 300 dpi!). So I passed. A class is basically an expensive cliff's notes for something you're going to need in real life. There's no better way to pick it up than hands-on experience, and no - repeat- NO- class can do that for you. Let me address these proposed course points of yours from my personal experience: Resume Writing: the ProDev class sucked for this, being incredibly basic. How did I get a decent resume? Simple- when work was slowing down at my current job, my boss told me "make up your resume and let me see it." So I did. He shot down about half of it and suggested changes. I made them. Repeat until he was happy with it- THEN he told me to run it by the assistant chair of Education, who has a Masters in English. He had a few suggestions. By the time I passed the gauntlet, my Resume rocked the casbah. Researching Companies and Potential Employers: I've never had to do this, actually- it's been calls out of the blue, or emails from friends saying "hey, this guy's looking for...." since day one. This is a good thing- I live in Pittsburgh, and none of the local companies look like anything I'd want to work for. I'm happy where I'm at. Interviewing Skills: This is the essence of social engineering. If you don't convince the interviewer that you're a guy who not only does the job well, but can get along with him, you should be fine. If you click, you're almost guranteed in. If you're not laid back and congenial, and don't have some social skills, forget it. I have friends that are a hell of a lot better at various aspects of what I do, but they couldn't talk a rock into sitting still. Networking: What it ALL boils down to. No one ever got a job without knowing somebody- unless the case is 100% pure "we need somebody NOW." Case in point- my first supervisor at my job was a guy like that. I got in because he knew me. My next supervisor got in because he knew him (both of these guys left), and a future coworker is getting in by virtue of strong recommendations from myself and my last supervisor. That's three people getting jobs because they knew one guy that was in the right place at the right time. I was barely competent when I got in- I was the only guy this person knew - and that everyone he asked knew- who could do the job. I picked up the details as I went along, and forget nascent capabilities into actual skills. Having friends in good places can only get you so far- your actual skills are going to carry you the rest of the way. So it's not enough to have a lot of friends OR be amazingly good at what you're doing- you gotta have BOTH, or you're going to be having a hell of a time of it. That's my experience- which I'm slowly melding into a collection of essays with intent to stick on a website when I have enough of them. If you have questions, replace AT with @ and ask away. • There are a number of skills I wish that I had acquired before I went out into the wider world. I would have liked a course on getting a job. It could have included: Resume writing Researching companies as potential employers Interviewing skills My undergrad alma mater (and I'm sure many other colleges) did indeed teach this kind of stuff, but not as part of the curriculum: they were optional short tutorial classes held after normal school hours for seniors. I'm currently an MS student at a midwestern Univ also, I'm sure I've seen bulletin board postings for resume writing and interviewing skills. Though having been in the workforce for 13 years, I think I know enough to get by. I agree with the other poster who said that university is not a trade school. But at the same time, there should be some assistance with making the transition from the academic to the working world. • Public Vs. Private (Score:3, Insightful) by ekrout ( 139379 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:48PM (#2370852) Journal First off, the differences between a public and a private university cannot be tossed aside. When you're not just a number, but a well-embraced member of an intimate community of learning, the experience can be amazingly more valueable. • A directed education (Score:5, Informative) by Coryoth ( 254751 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:48PM (#2370853) Homepage Journal I'm from New Zealand, and in combinationn with education directions there, along with with my acceptance into honours programs at University I completed a Masters degree in Mathematics only taking 5 (small/short) courses that were not mathematics. All the other courses I took were physics courses (as I was contemplating doing physics honours at the time. In some ways this benefitted me greatly - it enabled me to complete a Masters' degree by the time I was 21, and thoroughally cover a wide variety of subjects within mathematics. In other ways I feel that I really did miss out. I enrolled for courses in German literature, Poetry, and philosophy, but simply had to drop them very early due to course overload (I was doing 1.6 times a full load at the time). I would have loved to have had an opportunity to properly pusue those subjects. As it is I have simply done my best to do some self directed learning - but it would have been nice to have more direction etc. in the matter. Fortunately I had friends who did take a wide variety of courses (and I'm widely read anyway) so that helped provide some direction for my extra studies. So, having taken an extremely directed course of study, and having studied a diverse range of subjects outside of that field, here's my advice: Ideally a directed course of study is best, but people should be encouraged to take a few courses that are well outside their fundamental area. I don't believe in mandating what those courses are. They should be alternate areas of interest for the student. For me it was poetry and literature. For others it may be film, biology, maths, or history. It is worth doing a little bit of something else though, and it should be encouraged. • by gouldtj ( 21635 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:48PM (#2370855) Homepage Journal I think that too many people look to not have a well rounded education. I remember people in my CS classes, where all they wanted to do is learn how to code. The idea of learning how the compiler works they considered a waste of time. Who cares? And the hardware? They really didn't care about that. I recently had a CS from Standford tell me that the I couldn't get the 4th bit from an integer because the computer stores that in decimal. Some of your examples are valid, but many are not. I think that you have to realize that it is total imposible to build a Gantt chart for an entire project in a semester. Just like it would be imposible to build a entire peice of useful software. There are always corners that are cut. You need to yourself, abstract what is being taught into the general principles. Those don't change with time, your first 10 years or anything else. I think people look at college as learning the details, it is not about the details, they are unimportant. The idea is that you need to learn the principles. Ahh, there's the problem! You should be looking for Stanford grads, not Standford! grin Reminds me of the Dilbert cartoon where Dilbert's boss introduces a new manager from "Harfurd University." But seriously, I know these people, too. My upper level CS classes were full of people completely incapable of making simple changes to their .cshrc file without blowing up their environment. They banged out crappy code they mostly stole from the web, cheated on their tests, generally got the same grades as I did, but with a lot less hard work, and some got jobs making $65k+/yr right after graduation. Maybe they learned more from their general ed classes than I learned from Operating Systems, Compiler Construction, File Processing, Programming Languages, Database Systems, Database Theory, etc., etc. A well-rounded education is one in which other skills are learned that are not necessarily directly related to one's major. Intelligence alone doesn't ensure a well-paying job. A "well-rounded" education teaches you how to think abstractly, analyze complex problems, interact with others, perhaps to even understand them better (and manipulate them to your advantage -- I'm not exactly joking). This is true, but many colleges (mostly public institutions) are pressured by industry to teach "the details" because they don't want to have independent thinkers that want to design the next operating system, ORDBMS, etc., they want productive drones that bang out code, or set up a router, or whatever needs doing for the moment. Students also apply pressure in this direction, because they want to have jobs when they graduate. • by pgpckt ( 312866 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:49PM (#2370856) Homepage Journal At my college Clemson University [], this is an ongoing debate. The University is considering making the general education requirements more flexable so you can take courses more in line with your major. This is probably going to occur, but I oppose it. I believe in the General Education requirements. Why? Because everyone that graduates from a University should have some basic skills that can help them regardless of their profession of choice. People wanting to go into non-computer related professions should still have a vauge idea of how to use a computer. People going into computer related fields should be able to appreciate literature. Everyone in every type of profession should be able to preform some of the same basic skills. Not only does this allow any college graduate to be able to converse intelegently about any subject, but it allows people the ability to change jobs in the future without going back to school. Because prospective employers know that any college graduate has basic skills, there is potential for starting level jobs in fields unrelated to one's degree. Without general education requirements, none of this is possible. We all should, upon graduating from college, know the basic facts about everything. Once we know the basics, we have the foundation to learn whatever our heart desires in the future. Without general education requirements, people graduating in a given field will know more about that field from the start, but the cost is the lack of the basic knowledge of other fields, which provides for a very narrow minded person. • I couldn't agree more with you. Here at NC State University, many if not most of our Computer Science graduates are, in fact, functionally illiterate. Gifted C++ and Java programmers, they nonetheless lack even the most rudimentary writing and networking abilities. I personally would not employ a single one of them, no matter the project. Why would I want a Big Dumb Cracker from the Carolina foothills who couldn't write an intelligent, cogent email to save his or her life, when I can get a polished individual with the same skill set, who also knows how to communicate with people? I believe that this hints at the (unfortunately) changing role of many higher learning institutions. At many colleges, there has always traditionally been this dichotomy between the information one learns which can turn one into a more worldy, knowledgeable individual, and what sneaks its way into the curriculum because it can prepare you for a certain occupation. I personally don't feel that colleges should be methodically turned into white collar trade schools, although that is inarguably the current trend. When we're left with nothing but skilled, IT professionals who can't answer the first 4 questions on "Who Want's to Be a Millionaire?", then we'll know that our colleges have failed us. • by JohnsonWax ( 195390 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @04:04PM (#2371173) A well-rounded education is good, but is often not implemented well. All too often, a university throws together a collection of courses that are humanities related, social sciences related, etc. and asks all students to take some to be well-rounded. Unfortunately, it rarely works well. Students focus on a specific field of study (hopefully) because they are interested in that field. If you ask a history major to take physics or a physicist to take history, the student will likely be uninterested in the course and probably will take almost nothing away from the course. What is lacking is breadth in the context of the student's field of interest. If you want a physicist to take something from history, the course needs to be taught from the perspective of a physicist: How has science influenced historical developments at various times in various places? The course can be taught with the expectation that the student has a high level of knowledge about science and the focus allows the student to see why history is important as the student can see how they may play a larger role. Not only does the student learn some facts (which are actually irrelevant - we learn facts as we need to learn facts) but gains an appreciation of why a broad education is important and can see more directly how it is relevant. That appreciation leads to lifelong learning, which is really the ultimate goal of a college education. • by ( 184378 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:49PM (#2370858) Journal Isn't the whole idea of education to teach you how to learn, and not what to know? Granted, you will remember a good portion of the material presented when I'm being taught how to learn. But that's not really that important. A well rounded education is going to be better anyways. People have terrible writing skills, and at least if they have to take more classes they should improve them (in theory -- but how you can get to college and not know algebra or basic writing skills is a failure of elementary/high school education). • No. (Score:4, Interesting) by sheetsda ( 230887 ) <doug,sheets&gmail,com> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:50PM (#2370860) As a university student majoring in Computer Science, I have been made to take classes such as Greek Mythology and American History. I'm not paying my tuition every semester so that they can waste my time (and money!) teaching me things that I'll never use in my career and that I either could've learned in high school or on my own if the need arises. I'm paying them, if I want to learn about history, I'll tell them so. It shouldn't be the other way around. • Re:No. (Score:3, Insightful) by NonSequor ( 230139 ) They make you take things not related to your major because that makes you a better person. There is nothing more pathetic than a person who only understands one subject. Look at everyone on Slashdot. If you just want to learn enough to get a job then maybe you should consider a two year technical school like DeVry. • Re:No. (Score:2, Insightful) by Heem ( 448667 ) If you just want to learn what to do in an IT position - go out and get certifications and don't waste your (or your parents) money on college. It's Greek Mythology and American history that sets those with a degree aside from those who just go out and get certs. • Re:No. (Score:2, Informative) by riley ( 36484 ) Then attend a trade school. Universities teach a broad range of subjects, and the best will always make you learn things you would've have chosen. Trust me on this: I have a CS degree and most of a Masters in CS, and I've worked in the field for a good while. All those things that are directly important to your career are less important to it than you think. You end up learning most of what your career requires while you are working, because you need it. It is the information (and more importantly, how to place any new information in a larger context) that can make you special with regards to what you can do in yor career. And that is what making students learn about a broad range of subjects teaches. I used to think as you do, when I was still an undergrad. When I entered the real world, I found that what I thought would get me ahead while I was a student was way off base. • Re:No. (Score:5, Interesting) by ClarkEvans ( 102211 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:32PM (#2371037) Homepage As a university student majoring in Computer Science, I have been made to take classes such as Greek Mythology and American History... I'm paying them, if I want to learn about history, I'll tell them so. It shouldn't be the other way around. Universities are certifying bodies that grant you a certificate once you have demonstrated a particular level of intellectual maturity. The whole point of a University is to expose you to ideas that you would not otherwise expose yourself to. Those ideas that you are exposed to is what your employer is paying for -- they are paying for critical thinking. That being said, you should stop poo-pooing your American History papers and dig into the Federalist Papers. There is alot of ideas packed in there about how to run organizations and talk of the human condition. These topics are valueable. As well as the discusion techniques you learn in class and dealing with other classmates. Hamilton, Jay, and Madison are serious thinkers. You can learn alot from them. • Ignore Greek Mythology and you will not be able to recognize testosterone as Ares, and the rest of the modern scientific pantheon will escape your grasp. Ignore American History and you will not know freedom. Ignore liberal learning and you will be a simple tool. People with degrees are looked on as leaders, you had better learn what that means while you can. Do you really know what other people want out of life? Have you thought about what you want out of life? Money, mentioned in every one of your sentances, is not a very good answer. If you don't figure these things out now, other people will have an advatage over you. Think about how that will work with your career. Don't think that you can lock yourself in a room and get things right. Some intersting self educated folks I can think of are Adolf Hitler (he thought like you too, hated French!), and the Unibomber (ended up hating everyone). Peer checks are important, and a good teacher's guidance is invaluable. Find courses where you can express yourself honestly and recieve honest criticism. Propaganda classes ARE worthless. Classes that teach you how to analyze things and present them to others are valuable. Classes that force you to understand and catagorize unfamiliar ideas are useful. It will serve you and your friends later. • Re:No. (Score:4, Insightful) by trcooper ( 18794 ) <coop@redout.POLLOCKorg minus painter> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @05:41PM (#2371484) Homepage You can take any class you want. If you want a degree you have to fill the requirements. If you just want a certification, get a certification. If you want a degree, you have to be educated, not trained. That doesn't happen on your schedule, because some things need to be standard. As someone who is in the position to hire people, I don't look so much at certifications, and I don't even look so much at degrees. What I look for is a broad experience base, and the willingness to learn new things. If you came to me looking for a job saying that you took all the courses for your degree except the general education classes, because they were a waste of time, there's no way I'd hire you. Says to me that you don't have patience, and aren't open minded enough to take on tasks that may require learning new skills. May be wrong, but that's tough, employers are going to call them as they see them. • by Gogl ( 125883 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @02:50PM (#2370861) Journal The school I'm going to (University of Rochester []) is very light on specific required courses. You have to take one writing course freshman year, under the logic that no matter what you do with your life you should be able to write. Besides, that, you have your major and minor (or double major or double minor), and then you must satisfy a "cluster" (which is sort of like a mini-minor) in the area(s) that your major/minor are not in. If you major in something that is a liberal art, you must have a more technical cluster. You still get to choose which one though. It allows you to diversify and such, but not have your entire schedule dictated to you (unless you're one of those silly premeds). • by gjohnson ( 1557 ) There is a difference between education and training. A liberal arts school is supposed to provide a well rounded education -- to provide you with the tools you need to learn and be self-sufficient. Training should teach you how to do one thing well. • It is entirely appropriate that universities (notice the name of the insitution) should attempt to teach you more general skills. Their aim is not to help you to succeed in the first 10 years of your career, but to teach you the life skills you will need to lead a full and fruitful life. To me, this is far more important. I want programmers to understand a bit about ethics, philosophy, social sciences, and, yes, even how to write. After all, programmers in one of my fields of research (medical informatics) have the power to influence how people receive medical care, and the quality of the care they get. I want them to consider more than just bits and bytes. The skills the original poster discusses are narrow professional skills, and if that is all you want to learn you can attend a professional school (like ITT), or learn it on your own. It is worth asking, though, why those degrees, or why a lack of a degree, leaves you at a disadvantage. Many of those who hire recognize the value that a well-rounded person brings to their institution. Over the course of your career you will find that it is far easier to learn the next popular programming language than it is to learn basic critical thinking skills, or to grasp the greater social and political contexts for your work. You can use those narrow technogolies much more effectively when you understand their general significance. • Part of the problem is what exactly is supposed to be meant by well rounded. There's a lot to be said for forcing highly focused students to take courses outside of their primary interests just so that they don't become excessively one-dimensional. I certainly feel that having been required to do so as a student was ultimately beneficial. OTOH, most of the people I know think that I'm interested in too many things already, so I'm not sure if I'm strong evidence or not. But getting good results also depends on the requirements being reasonable and well thought out. Forcing people to take classes for which they have no preparation is pointless even if you do accept the idea of being well-rounded. You're not going to learn much if you don't have the background to get the most out of a class. But that's a potential weakness in any curriculum. I've certainly heard of a lot of tightly focused programs that tend to push students into classes for which they have inadequate grounding, so it's not unique to this kind of program. Blame it on stupidity in choosing the wrong courses within the topic, not on the general idea of requiring students to be well-rounded. • Seriously. What you want is a vocational education, so leave the university, because that's not what a university education is about. A university education is designed to ground you in general principles that will be of value through your lifetime, as long as you have the intelligence to adapt and apply those principles to whatever challenges you face. It is not designed to teach you specific skills so that you can immediately land a job. A reasonably intelligent person can quickly learn whatever specific skills are needed for a job while on the job. • Foundations (Score:5, Insightful) by JanneM ( 7445 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:01PM (#2370908) Homepage The most important skills to learn in college or at university are foundational subjects. For people in Computer Science and similar, this means mathematics (there is no such thing as too much math), writing (what's the use of an idea if you can't communicate it?), and the core subjects of your chosen field. What specific programming languages you use is totally incidental; with a good grounding in programming you can pick up a new language in a couple of weeks. This is not to say peripheral subjects is not a good idea - in moderation. Take a semester learning something non-technical just for fun. Among CS students in Lund, psychology and philosophy are both very popular (and a semester of psychology is what landed me in cognitive science...). The point is not to learn a useful work skill during that semester, it's to pig out on something just because it's fun to learn. The point is to do it in moderation; having peripheral subjects half of all your college time seems way too much. • I have a ComSci degree from an accredited university, and I disagree to some extent. Math and Physics is overrated. The skills I use most have to do with logic and dissecting algorithms. This has more to do with Geometry than Differential Calculus. Writing skills are underrated and should have been stressed more because they are so absolutely critical in our field. I only had one writing course labeled 'technical writing' but turned out to be how to write business proposals. The course I had on Software Engineering was a complete joke and had nothing to do with the subject. At the time I graduated in '91 there seemed to be a disconnect between ComSci and Management Information Systems. The MIS dept tended to teach real world skills which were useful in jobs, and ComSci was trying to teach develop new university professors. That has changed somewhat over time, but probably not by much. • by ClarkEvans ( 102211 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:05PM (#2370924) Homepage I watched a friend (business major) take a programming course. They were teaching this person all kinds of low-level chores. What the individual took from the class: "Programming is tedious grunt work" Does he respect programmers? No. Does he have any more of a clue what goes into programming? No. Instead he thinks he knows about programming, aka "slinging code". I think the problem is his class was too "applied" and ignored the basics. He wasn't taught anything about the history of computing, use the words "Babbage", "Turing", "Shockley", etc., and they draw a blank stare. For him, computers just emerged from thin air. He doesn't know how a transitor works. Thus, when it comes time to explain anything to him, changes in the industry, how it may impact his business, he just doesn't have the background. However, he does know how to print "Hello World" ten times. How practical. In the other end of the spectrum, I was not encouraged to dig mightly into English and History. Both of which I've had to play "catch-up" due to years of neglect. In high school we completely ignore Contract Law, instead we focus Business class on investing and accounting. Admittedly, both of these can be useful, however my high-school business class ('87) completely left out contract law. What is business but contract law? I've signed many more contracts than I've had dollars to invest or accounting books to balance. Also, they should renew the focus on civics. I recently found out that the same friend of mine didn't have a civics class. He has never read the constitution nor had a discussion of its importance beyond "US is great, we are a free country." Admittedly, I goofed off in my civics class but I do remember the day we talked about the constitution. And on Sept 11, I recalled a very long, detailed class discussion about our foreign policy. Helpful it was. History of Politics is very useful indeed. • by HongPong ( 226840 ) <`hongpong' `at' `'> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:05PM (#2370927) Homepage Today on Ask Slashdot, we ask, "What is this 'liberal-arts college' thing currently hot in tech circles? Seeing as how giant swaths of tech workers who only studied their technical fields in college are now out of work without useful skills, many wish they'd gotten a more 'well-rounded' education, but have no idea what it means. Today we'll explore the possibilities, remote as they may seem, of getting a well-rounded education. There must be a few people out in /. land who went to these so-called "liberal arts" places, what do you have to say?" • by anomaly ( 15035 ) <tom.cooper3@gmail. c o m> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:06PM (#2370933) I know that this carries the emacs/vi type of flamefest capacity, but here's my take: Specific skills are only REALLY directly applicable for a very short span of time. By the time you get to the place where you could use the "practical" stuff, it will be deprecated. (e.g. If your school taught you VB programming, by the time you graduate and get a job, people would expect you to know WSH or C#) In my school I had the benefit of a curriculum which tried to balance practical information (how serial ports worked) with theory (signal propagation delay.) When I graduated I was able to make cables, because I had a bit of experience doing that, but I also understood the requisite theory behind protocols. When I learned that ARCNet was a token-passing protocol, and ethernet was csma it helped me to make the transition. I knew more than just that the ARCNet adapters needed a unique MAC and that Ethernet adapter MACs were hard-coded. I knew enough to easily make the transition to the "new" technology - the same was true when I began to work with TokenRing. Additionaly, the object theory I learned has been greatly helpful in my understanding of components, layers, directories, code libraries, etc. If I had merely learned the practical technology application, I would have been poorly prepared for the innovative technologies that were to come. One thing to keep in mind is that what you learn in school is foundational for what you will learn once employed. You will learn throughout your career. If you do not, you will lose your job (or wish that you'd lose your job.) University is the place to learn more about learning. Those skills will benefit you for a lifetime. You may start out at the same level as the person who went to trade school to learn programming, but your deeper understanding will allow you to move up much more quickly than that person. Finally, and most importantly, it's people skills and not technical acumen that determine your earning potential. If you define success as title and pay, learn to interact with others and that will help you attain your goals much more rapidly than being able to code more widgets than the next guy. (Dale Carnegie's How to Win Friends and Influence People is an excellent book that those business majors are reading right now. That's why they are the "B" part of PHB.) PS - God loves you and longs for relationship with you. If you'd like to know more about this, please email me at tom_cooper at bigfoot dot com. • This is a debate that continually occurs amongst the faculty of reputable institutions. Should Computer Science departments become vocational institutions, or remain academic in the traditional sense? The university [] where I did my CS degree [] maintains that CS majors, like other students in the college of Letters & Sciences, take a majority of classes outside the major - 80 credits of the 120 needed for a baccalaureate degree must be outside the declared major. As a result, CS grads need to have a decent background in literature, history, hard sciences, and social sciences. This does a lot for critical thinking skills. The opposing view is that CS students should be "prepared for industry", which essentially boils down to teaching some vendor's tools exclusively - Oracle DBA classes, MS programming tools, Cisco certifications. I'm firmly of the opinion that CS students should be kept in the traditional academic program. Good analytical skills are worth more in the long run than knowing how to use vendor tools right out of the box. Bear in mind that the average adult goes through seven career changes in a lifetime - a general education will still be useful to me when the paradigms of today come crashing down. • Most of the cited examples are of specifics being taught out of context. So isn't the problem more one of not being provided the context - the big picture - first? Or at least of not being taught the details so that they add up to a big picture? From one critique, departments and courses are much too fragmented - far too many small pictures incoherently presented. It's worth keeping in mind that knowledge wasn't approached that way until the last century - scholars of the 18th century had a much broader vantage. Making colleges into trade schools isn't bad for some students, if you can be sure that the trades they learn will still be around, and the skills taught pertinent, in five or ten years. In my own experience, I've done fine in technology after not studying it at all, because I learned how to learn at The Evergreen State College [] in Olympia, WA - which structures everything without disciplinary boundaries. People who can work across and between disciplines are often more valuable than those who can merely work within them. We've got far more specialists than people who can meaningfully and profitably coordinate them. The bust wasn't because of a lack of technical talent, but because most of what passed for 'big picture' was too thinly conceived. On the other hand, a lot of folk from Evergreen end up going up the street to Microsoft for employment - so the untraditional structure of the curriculum may have some small reflection in the muddled structure in the code from that shop. But I'd lay more of the blame at Harvard's Gates. • While some people seem to only want to know what they need to say write a great C program and develop software I think there is something important in learning to think. You may not think the classes your taking are worth very much to your career. You may not enjoy the subject matter. You may not even want to be in school. But if you really take the meaning of what is being taught you have learned to think that much more. I don't really believe you will ever be prepared for a job coming out of college without some sort of serious extra cirricular activities in your chosen career field. A college degree should prove your trainable and that you know how to learn. Long term, I would rather hire someone who proves they can learn over someone who has a narrow focus on some limited subset of technology. We may not be programming Java in 20 years, but we will still be learning and still be progressing with technology. Having the ability to communicate and write and express your thoughts clearly are just as important as knowing what the finalize method does in Java. Unless you plan on working alone all your life you have to communicate and work with others. I started programming right out of highschool, while I was in highschool actually. I understand the frustration of not really understanding the technology at play right away. I was just like most college graduates only coming out of high school in that respect. Now I have a couple of years of college under my belt and the changes in the developer I am today and the developer I was four years ago are amazing. It is just a complete perspective thing that you really can't have until you have been out there in the real world. It gives me complete 100% appreciation for every college class I ever took, even religion. Now I can stand around and know the difference in the two major muslim factions without feeling clueless. My main point is, you learn to learn and you get perspective on life and whats out there in college. You don't really gain a ton of ultra important skills until your in the work world. I did it backwards. I worked right outta high school programming, and have filled in the gaps with college at night. To each their own, I guess. • by maggard ( 5579 ) <> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:12PM (#2370957) Homepage Journal The question seems more debating the value between a "Universal" education (hence University) or a trade-oriented education like, er, Trade School or vocational or other terms. Frankly as all studies show folks changing careers several times in their lifetimes to train exclusively for one type of position seems to me to be needlessly limiting. Furthermore the assumption that an advanced education is only obtained as a means of advancing one's-self in a profession is a remarkably presumptive one. The skills that have been invaluable in my life weren't the slot-A/tab-B mechanical stuff that seems to be advocated but rather means of thought, formulating opinions, understanding situations, making decisions, and just understanding the world generally. Knowing how to learn, resources and techniques for obtaining and structuring further knowledge, as well as familiarity with the various world-views one will interact with in life (both professionally and privately) are things that are well developed in a broad education. That these lessons are often taught in framework makes them appear directly relevant to their subject but these are broadly applicable skills even if not always approached as such. Understanding how to manage folks gives one insights into the actions and goals of your own management. Learning certain types of finances provides an entry into understanding all other related types of finance. Exposure to a broad range of subjects allows one to make informed decisions about what is interesting or amenable to one's intellect and what is less so. By the way, I'm an IS professional who was seduced away from college by the lure of earning good money and a more interesting life then studying topics I wasn't interested in. I don't regret the course of my life and feel that I've obtained an excellent education from my own efforts but would appreciate at some later time the opportunity to once again devote myself to less-distracted learning in an environment so amenable. I've recently begun running into barriers resulting from my not having a degree (of any sort) and have so far been able to negotiate these but they are becoming more and more bothersome. Indeed some peers in the same situation have begun obtaining cheap degrees simply in order to appease employers. Back to the main point however, there are many folks with different needs and goals and a vast array of institutions for learning. It seems to me there's very little chance of determining a generalized answer and everyone need rather to determine what is right for their own unique needs and goals. • No, I don't think this is what companies want. Companies (at least ones that stay in business long enough to pay their employees) want results, and last I checked, they don't care how you accomplish them, as long as they're delivered on time and on budget. Isn't it amazing how the education system in this country is so screwed up?! It starts in public education and ends after your first two years of college. This whole "well-rounded" thing is there to hold you back an additional 2 years before you go into the workforce. "Know a little about a lot" and "widen your horizons" are just excuses. It's impossible to teach people everything they need beforehand. School isn't an initialization routine, yet for some reason, this is what schools try to do. To be fair, there is the rare professor who teaches something beyond the subject matter. Most teachers basically program us with case statements, by drilling information into our heads and then testing us on it. This is nothing more than memorization. How many of you have crammed for a mid-term or final only to completely forget all the information one week later? This is because you didn't actually learn anything, and that's why the education system sucks. What do I suggest? I mentioned the rare professor in the previous paragraph. This kind of prof teaches you how to teach yourself. Let's say I'm coding a tight loop and I need to learn some detail of switching theory or something. What do I do, cram for a test and get certification? No! I open the book on the subject, read about it, and then do what the book says. It never fails. You can learn almost anything better on your own (and by doing) than in school. Just like literature... I hated that class because they made us read some boring stuff, but nowadays, I routinely pick up a good classic and get all sorts of neat knowledge out of it, because it's something I want, not an assignment that's taking away from my Saturday night. So how do you teach how to learn? You make the students think in directions they didn't know existed before. Why is a hammer built the way it is? What was Paul Revere's occupation (and consequently, what was he doing at midnight, before his ride?) Why does the website of Le Grand Louvre depict certain pieces of art? (Why those pieces instead of others?) Who is the source of the news we read and see and hear? (Who is that source's source? Where is the root of all sources?) These things aren't "just there"--people made decisions and took certain actions, but most folks don't think in these terms. That's because most folks were taught to think in tunnel vision mode. It's very difficult to get out of that mode once you're in it--try teaching a BASIC programmer C and you'll understand what I mean. The problem with our education system is that we're taught to expect the teacher to know the answer, and we memorize case statements--we're essentially being programmed like computers that have web browsers built into the CPU. (Hey, it's a well-rounded operating system.) We should be taught how to actually use our brains and teach ourselves whatever we need to know on the fly. Like I said, school isn't an initialization routine. I think that's dependent upon the company and the position within the company. I work for a newspaper and I can immediately see about three classes of employee. The first is the post press packager or carrier. We need a lot of these people to learn a rote task quickly and execute it quickly and reliably. It's hard to argue over "training" when the paper promises a neatly folded copy on the correct doorsteps with the correct ad inserts by 5:30 every morning. At the other extreme, we have people like our press operators. Newspaper presses are large, complex, multistory machines and are evidently very sensitive in their adjustment. The apprenticeship to be a printer is about four years long. It's not to say they aren't useful in that whole time, but they're considered in training for that amount of time. Somewhere in the middle, we have my dept., New Media. While we expect some expertise coming in (HTML, AP copyediting skills, news judgment), we don't expect everyone will know every aspect of the operation. I believe we expect a new employee to be at or near expected productivity in about three to six months. One of my instructors wrote about a similar mindset among her students about five years ago. Basically, she wanted to present material and coursework that challenged her students' abilities, experiences and resources. A large part of the students pushed back on the grounds that, with work and other classes, they didn't "have time" to do anything more than skim the daily reading material and show up to class. To be sure, my university was/is a commuter school with a high average undergraduate age (26-28) and a low on campus population (900 out of 25,000). And I think the "student attitude" is why folks like myself sometimes wonder if that two years of upper division work could have been spent doing something more productive. Put it this way. Education - though in some areas the trend has been changing - has had a diminished set of expectations from students. As college education and access broadened, its rigor decreased. (my argument is not against higher access, btw). So, having experienced lower expectations in many classes, general ed in particular, students bristle against challenge. A friend of mine from college didn't have to write a term paper from Junior High until her second year of college. And complained the instructor was making her do it. The lack of challenge and experience set her back a year with remedial courses. • I think I should add something to my earlier comment. Several folks have given their argument for well-rounded educations, based on the idea that people should be functional in other areas of life besides the details of their career. In a way, I'm arguing for the same result but against the approach currently taken by many schools and professors. (Part of keeping an open mind is knowing that there are often more than two choices.) The current approach is teaching various subjects to students, whether they like it or not. I believe in a somewhat different approach: There are a small number of subjects that must be a requirement of school, as they are a requirement of modern life. These are reading, writing and math. And, the fourth subject, the subject of learning, as I described (not so well) in my previous post. These provide the foundation on which everything else (history, the arts, the sciences and technical subjects) can be learned. Unless I've forgotten something, everything goes under those categories, including bartending, machine operation, brain surgery, truck driving, web design, manufacturing engineering, money laundering, astronomy and archeology. I would say that nearly all known knowledge is printed in a book somewhere. All the student needs is the foundation, self respect, desire and ability to learn, at runtime, on the fly. A well-rounded education won't give you that but an education--starting in kindergarden, not college--that teaches you how to learn will. • Personally, I didn't go to college to learn what companies want from me, and I'm pretty happy about that. I was a CS major [], and I learned a lot about algorithmic designs, etc. More importantly, I spent those 4 years with other students from all over the country, I spent a year in Germany, and I took classes outside the core CS curriculum. I sucked at them, but I took them anyway. College isn't about learning a skill, as some one else pointed out: Tech schools are about learning technical skills. College is about broadening yourself beyond the ability to read slashdot, and understanding why other people might not read it. For a lot of people its about getting out of home and not living with their parents: learning self sufficiency. It's about people who don't come from the same little burb they live in, and it's about learning to deal with people who have vastly different experiences and backgrounds from themselves. I'm all for a broader educational experience. Six years after school, I wish I had learned more history, I wish i had learned more writing skills (as this post is witness to), and I wish I had learned more about other non-CS related sciences. If you don't want to learn that stuff, then good. Don't go to college. Learn your skill, and be a grunt for the next 20 years of your life. If you want to learn, and understand , why you're doing something, then accept that the whole situation has to be a little more broad. • by denshi ( 173594 ) <> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:16PM (#2370976) Homepage Journal This is not to say that a "Well-Rounded Education" is a good thing, or if the current attempts to implement such are effective. There are, IMHO, two solid things that constitute a serious education. One is a broad comprehension of many fields. When one has this knowledge, one can generalize approaches and draw on many different patterns of thought. The holder of such can be called "educated", but perhaps "instructed" might be a better term. The second is to know at least one subject deeply -- to the point of mastery. There are major changes in how you think when you have focused yourself enough on any one field. You know its boundaries, where it is malleable, the history of the field and what questions have been answered, and how evidence is evaluated in the field. The holder of this kind of training can be called "intelligent", and it is the practice of this that creates knowledge. Both are required to call a person fully educated, and it is laughable to think that the average person, with average dedication, can complete this by the end of their bachelor's degree at the age of 22 or so. Currently schools try to teach the former, and only in certain fine companies will the latter be picked up by the cunning. Neither one is really useful by themselves -- the unintelligent educated man can make insights, but accomplish little; the uneducated intelligent man can achieve much that is empheral or unwanted. In response to your final question, I should say "screw what a company really wants". What is needed is for a student to know a broad enough base to keep their mind open, and a willingness to work hard to develop focus and intelligence. You are soft iron -- you will be forged. • In the U.S., we have an unfortunate focus on the vocational utility of higher education. I understand that this may be necessary, since many students take on crushing debt to complete their studies. On the other hand, I believe that the best place to learn how to work is work. I'm confused that the poster thinks he's getting too general an education when he's taking exclusively finance and management courses. It's good to have a focus for research that interests you, no need to wait for grad school. But why take only courses that apply to what you think you want to do when you're ~20 years old? No. Go get a job doing what you want to do. Do it right now. Get a job doing something related for the school. Do IT work for a charity. Just don't expect school to make you a dream employee. Expect it to teach you how to think. Take some physics, some math, some biology. Given your interest in management, maybe a little Shakespeare, Homer, or Sun Tzu would be good.:) There's a parable about this one, can't remember it, but the gist is that you should spend way more time planning than you probably do. It might not seem practical for small CS projects, but it becomes exponentially more useful as projects get bigger. So you need to know how to do it, unless you want to spend the rest of your life writing shell scripts for intranets.:) • Well, I'm probably going to be modded down to the dirt for this, but...part of your problem is that you seem to be taking an MIS curriculum at your school. Not to get too down on those MIS folks out there, but in my experience, MIS programs are all very good at skimming lots of topics superficially, and very rarely delving deeply into any one area. In a way, it's understandable: they've tried to create programs that will teach "business" and "computers" in the same time frame as a regular CS or Business degree. You have to expect that there's going to be some topics in both areas that don't get covered well... Now, since I can hear the flamethrowers revving up already, let me say this: I'm sure there are good MIS programs out there. In particular, I'm sure that your MIS program is the best one out there, and that you're getting a better education than everyone else. That said, I've sat through non-introductory CS classes with MIS students, and in my experience, the MIS students were far less prepared for the curriculum than the CS students. To me, it sounds like you're dissatisfied with the content of your program, more than a "liberal arts" education. So, before you blame it on the school, why don't you try out a different major and see how things go. In particular, try out a CS major + Business minor (or even a CS/Business double, if you can), and see how you like that. I think you'll find that a lot of your complaints will go away... • To answer these concerns, I think one has to broaden the historical context. When universities were first conceived of in the 14th century, most fields which we are familiar with today did not even exist in the imagination. You couldn't study information technology, any of the sciences or fields of engineering (as we know them today), or even art practice. One basically studied to become a clergyman, a lawyer, or a teacher. It wasn't until the 19th century that academia even began to consider training engineers and other practical folk within their halls using modern curricular methods, which as the poster points out, do sometimes have their drawbacks. The point is that all of the institutional traditions of academia are set in place to create future generations of academics and professionals. We have similar discussion continuously in academia -- it has been pointed out than in steady state, a professor will train one graduate student to succeed him. Yet the average number of graduate students trained by a professor over his lifetime will often go into the dozens. Where do most of those students end up? Not in academia usually, but in industry. My own personal opinion is that academia is not constructed for the practical "real life" experiences the poster is concerned about, nor is there any reason to expect that it would do a good job at it. That is primarily what internships and summer research experiences are intended for. Ideally, in good internship and co-op programs, not only will students bring their classwork education into industry and academic research, but students will bring back their practical knowledge into the classroom. • Looking back... (Score:2, Interesting) by Mendenhall ( 32321 ) A number of times during the time I spent on the teaching faculty at a University, we reviewed how to adjust the curriculum. One of the more interesting things that often came up was various polls of people in technical fields (engineers, scientists) who had been out 20+ years. When asked what they thought they should have taken more of at the university, in retrospect, the majority response was for more humanities, philosophy, languages, literature and music. Few thought they needed more engineering/science courses. Many of the technical details one learns in college are quickly outdated, and only serve the first few years of a career. After that, you must learn on your own what you need to keep ahead at work. Good, insightful courses in how our civilizations work, though, and how we live and think, are seen as highly valuable many years later. • You said you were an Information Systems major? For most universities that means you know Visual Basic, and Cobol. "Knowing the big picture is good, but how do you get to that level if you don't have any skills?" This is where general education comes in handy. Take lots of Math an Computer Science courses so you know how to break down problems you come across into bite size chunks. Take science courses so you can understand how your company's products work. Take humanities courses so you know how to relate to your customers. And take business courses to boost your GPA. • by RobertGraham ( 28990 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:43PM (#2371078) Homepage The entry-level IT person needs to understand the decisions a CEO or CIO makes. Young people are a pain in the neck because they are not well-rounded. They come into companies thinking they have all the answers, but they don't understand what all the questions are. BTW, I'm describing myself here - I would not hire the person I was at 22. Take the example you mention. What happens when management wants to only invest in creating content for Internet Explorer on Windows? A typical kid out of school will fight for making it work on Macintoshes, Mozilla on Linux, and possibly Lynx. The kid thinks management doesn't understand the Big Picture, but the reverse is true. It is the kid that doesn't understand all the data that management is using to make their decision. Another example is Linux within IT. There are Big Picture issues why management is afraid of using it. Note that when I ran my own business (which eventually grew to 100 people in size), I made sure that our webpages worked on Lynx (Opera, HotJava, etc.) and I our poor little 486 running RedHat 5.2 handled huge volumes of e-mail. However, I also understand the big picture - I know why the decisions I made here do not apply to others. (The company has been bought out, we are using MS Exchange e-mail, which I find loathsome, but I don't dispute the decision, because I understand the big-picture). Yes. This is exactly the point. The company doesn't care about the code you right, they only care about whether others can fix bugs or make enhancements to your code 5 years from now. The "design" of the code is far more important than the implementation. It is actually far more complicated than that (heck, I've watched company's so afraid of actual coding that they get into design-paralysis, but that's a different issue). The point is simply that what your employer wants out of you is often different from what you want to do - that's why they pay you. First, as an employer, I want somebody who will do what I want them to do. If that means writing content only for Internet Explorer, then so be it. Second, I want them to understand what is valuable to me. If I want Internet Explorer specific content, I don't want them to meekly submit and do it, I want them to understand why it is important to me. Fresh perspectives that youth tends to have are indeed valuable, but only when they can fit within my existing framework. Finally, there is the general question of being "well-rounded". This is indeed the definition of a "university": its goal is not to educate you so much as prevent you from being ignorant. It depends upon your values. Some people find that ignorance is bliss. Do you want to be a raving ignorant paranoid (cough JonKatz cough) that thinks they always have the right answers? Or do you want to be somebody who knows enough of the Big Picture that never has all the answers? This sounds like asking to have your cake and eat it, too. If you want to hire yes men, go right ahead. But at the same time, don't try to encourage understanding if you're coming across as inflexible. Here's our general office criteria (and maybe this is what you were getting at): Decisions or thought processes by management are adjustable to employee imput. We do occasionally encouter some resistence when we rip into an idea that we think is utter crap. But, the basis for our arguments is we are where the work is done and hence have working knowledge that perhaps doesn't occur to folks who repesent the dept in meetings six hours out of eight. Ultimately, we'll do as we're asked, but we won't hide our opinions along the way. By and large, our manager is good about listening and making adjustments where they need to be made. It's expected that no one is above discussing the reasoning behind a decision. Secondly, we've found that management "existing frameworks" can lead to valuable ideas being ignored or dismissed when raised by "new employees." Instead, we can find ourselves behind when six to nine months later, it becomes part of someone's "existing framework" • This post has a very idealistic view of what a CEO or CIO is capable of. The "big picture" you describe has been, in my experience, more often a "details of the bottom line" that is the opposite of overview-level thinking. Most CEOs are not technicians, nor have they been. They tend to graduate from one of these universities that teaches business and are dumped straight into management. They have to work their way up, but they tend to be management the entire time. Management is quite prone to fads. Not only the Dilbertesque slogans and terminology, but also to techniques ("the one thing to keep in mind is to maximize billability"--this in a company that has 90% fixed-price contracts). The CEO who assumes they understand all the issues of a breaking technology from reading articles in CIO is going to have a dot-bomb on their hands quite soon. Yes, there are innumerable enthusiastic young things that want to sacrifice the bottom line to whatever cool idea they've come up with, but, for example, with your example of IE versus the world, you've cut yourself off from 10-15% of your marketshare. Now, unless you know your target demographic is 100% WinIE, or you absolutely need some downloadable ActiveX control to carry out the client's part of the transaction, there are very few reasons why coding to a wider set of standards than WinIE should be a bad business decision at the "big picture" level. I agree that an employee who knows as much as is useful about the bigger picture is a more valuable employee than someone who only knows their business, but no one comes from any education instinctively knowing the "Big Picture". The "Big Picture" is made up of judgements about a wide range of information specific to each situation as well as general trends. If you're expecting someone to come in knowing what you know by psychic phenomena and don't actually say, "Yes, in an ideal world we'd code to Mac, Linux, and Netscape, but in our market that would only gain us 2% marketshare for 5% increased cost due to additional testing, and that just doesn't make business sense," then you're going to end up with blind yes-men who will not let you know that the customer is pissed, there's a new technology that would reduce your costs, or even that half your employees are planning to leave for a company that values their input. That is preventing ignorance. The purpose of education is a very old debate and the term "well-rounded" is a much watered-down version of the a principle defended by Cicero (106 - 43 B.C) that the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake is a defining human characteristic. In contrast, Cato the Elder (234 - 149 BC) insisted that knowledge be judged by what it produce and held what might now be called a liberal education in contempt. The definitive exposition of the issue is Cardinal Newman's The Idea of a University []. He makes a useful distinction between "servile" education ("mechanical employment, and the like, in which the mind has little or no part") as being the opposite of "liberal" education, which "is the cultivation of the intellect, as such, and its object is nothing more or less than intellectual excellence." Newman does not disparage the professions as being devoid of intellectual value. However, one can see in his distinction between the two types of education that putting one's mind purely in the service of earning a living ignores a much larger world beyond one's immediate needs. Newman argues: "Liberal Education makes not the Christian, not the Catholic, but the gentleman. It is well to be a gentlemen, it is well to have a cultivated intellect, a delicate taste, a candid, equitable, dispassionate mind, a noble and courteous bearing in the conduct of life;--these are the connatural qualities of a large knowledge; they are the objects of a University." • You seem to be assuming that the entire meaning and purpose of a college degree is to prepare you for a job. If that's your goal, if all you want are job-specific skills, you probably are in the wrong place. You want a trade school. Of course, then all you get are job-specific skills. When those are out-of-date - or if you change fields - they're useless. Fortunately, what I learned both in and out of my major has proved to have more lasting relevance over the past 10 years. Is a "well-rounded" education a good one? It's the only real kind. Anything else is a mere collection of facts and tricks to be memorized. • At my college we don't require the (non-computer science) science majors to take any computing courses more advanced than the CSC100 Beginners Computing. This class is nothing more than a 'get aquainted with computers' style course. The kind of class that shows us how to turn on a computer. What the Web is and could be used for. How to write a Word document and get an Excel spreadsheet to show a simple graph. We all take the course. Those of us who knew computers before the course get A's and the few who didn't get computers in high school tend to get B's. The next time we see computers will be 5 semesters later when we use the NMR or Mass Spec. Those B's have long since forgotten how computers work. If they hadn't wasted so much time on English classes to be well rounded and took a programming course they would have a much easier time using the machines. Their lab reports do look nicely formatted though. Too bad they blead the Liquid Helium half way through the run. • Well rounded educations build enlightened people. Trade-Based educations build employees. I cannot even believe someone would make this suggestion, the world needs people to think LESS of their business and careers and more about the important ideas around them... what a profoundly, supremely TERRIBLE idea. Imagine a world where ONLY capitalistic function is relevant... more so than now, extended all the way to our education systems... branded, maximized, cost-structured all for building soul-less and ignorant employees. I am really incapable of understanding why anyone would consider this... have we finally begun the wholesale-sale of all of Humanity? Would we stoop so low as to welcome only "job-function-learning"? Can you imagine a world completely without wisdom or context where everyone has been given a corporate-centered education - will we loose our ability to function in our community and devolve into endless sterile business dealings. This kind of thinking is so glued to American Capitalism Ethos that im sure my ranting sounds crazy to those living in the Belly-of-the-Beast, but please people, there is more to life than work and money.... remember all those things that they TAUGHT YOU IN SCHOOL... remember your WELL ROUNDED and BROAD education? • If all you want from school is to graduate immediately into a high-paying job in your field of choice, then yes, screw all those other courses, and forget being "well-rounded." But consider this: most people do not spend their entire lives in the same field of work. What were you doing when you were 5? Can you imagine doing that now, or 20 years from now? If you think you won't have the same perspective then ("But ... I was such a child at 5 ... it'll be different when I'm 45") you're wrong. The primary purpose of a good education is to give you tools to continue educating yourself. Quick example: every war movie ever made has the "touch-as-nails ass-kicking Sergeant who knows everything" and the "greenhorn Lieutenant who gets in the way." These are stereotypes obviously, but instructive. What's the difference between these two? It's experience vs. education. I got a degree in English literature and philosophy and what am I doing for a living? Programming and database design. My education (and my parents) taught me how to teach myself, how to think and learn and enjoy it. My education gave me a set of tools to apply to any problem, kind of like lock picks, or being a locksmith. No, they don't fit any lock exactly, but with a little screwing around I can get most locks open. Compared with having a specific key which smoothly and perfectly opens a given lock but is useless for anything else. The downside is that "screwing around" period, but I think my life's much more interesting for it. Finally, to this point: "Is this really what companies want of today's graduates?" A resounding "yes." When you interview for a job you'll be up against any number of people with better academic credentials. The trick is, neither of you will know nearly enough to really do your job, and you'll both need extensive training before you're productive and can repay the company's investment in you. You have to know your shit, but that's only the baseline - if you didn't have that you wouldn't have made the interview. The interview's to discover if you can learn and adapt and think, and that's the most valuable thing you can learn in school. • As someone who has a professional degree (I'm a physician), has helped establish 2 venture funded companies, run a small IT department, worked in the private sector in IT, security and sales just for starters, I can't say enough good things about a well rounded education. I think that any idea of specializing early in life is misguided. Sure it produces narrow thinkers who can't manuever when push comes to shove. When major economic changes come or even life changes, you need to be able bob and weave like a metaphorical boxer. That ability can't be had by specializing. My liberal art emphasized collegiate education is at least partly to thank for my successes. Hooray small colleges []. If nothing else, a broad education preps the mind for accepting new ideas, something that a narrow educational perspective just can't be credited with. • by tshak ( 173364 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @03:51PM (#2371110) Homepage If you're too well rounded then you're not very sharp. • Every time I run into this argument, I keep wondering what people like you are doing in a university. You're not there for what the university teaches. You're there for vocational skills - that's it. So, why are you bothering with a university? Why are you wasting their time, and your money? Why aren't you letting someone who could _get something_ out of that education in, when you obviously (a) don't get it, (b) don't give a sht, and (c) really just want those initials after your name. Seriously - what you're after is what vocational schools are about. What's the point of a university? It produces research. It produces well-rounded people. It makes you learn how to learn, so you can go do it yourself. If all you want is how to program, how to configure a Cisco box, or how to sysadmin, save everyone a lot of trouble, and go find a VocTech school. • One thing you will find when you go to work in a large corporation is that the people who get ahead generally don't know what they are doing. They are selected for advancement based on personality factors that allow them to tolerate a high degree of meaningless, bureaucratic routine and get along with others so inclined. No university is going to teach those skills, nor should it, although many of the professors are exceptionally adept at departmental politics themselves. I've found that for being well-rounded, nothing beats mathematics. The ability to apply mathematical concepts in analyzing a wide range of problems has been an enormous and unexpected asset. I've found my technical progress barred by the limits of my mathematical training more than any other area. Personally, I've found that after many years, the courses that seemed most useless in college have afforded me the greatest enjoyment in later life. The literature and history courses never go out of date and form the basis of the contemplative pleaures that supply most of life's satisfaction. • The problem with a "well rounded" education, as defined by most universities, is that in general, it doesn't serve you. There are some exceptions. In the U.S. and other English speaking countries, I think English should be a core part of the curriculum. I was never a particularly good English student, but I have a decent command of the language, and that's important in most aspects of life. For example, I get illiterate e-mails from co-workers, and frankly, it affects my opinion of their intelligence, fair or not. Politics, Geography, and History are all very important as well. Politics because to be an effective member of society, you must understand politics. History because, to coin a phrase, those who don't know history are destined to repeat it. And finally Geography because it is required by History and Politics. I was not a particularly good student. I was a damn good programmer. I started when I was 10. School was "boring" for me. I never did particularly well. This brings me to my final point. In the words of Mark Twain, "Never let your schooling interefere with your education." The point is this: I'm primarily self-educated in most of the subjects I've raised above. Though I was a poor English student in school, I've written a number of articles and a book in my field. Not that you have to be particularly well read or a particularly good writer to get published in the software field. Nevertheless, you must be able to put together a coherent sentence and be able to express yourself in writing. I think that the education in the U.S. is abysmal in many respects. But school was never for me. You sit me down with a book and a need or an interest to learn something, and I'll learn it. I spent two years, more or less, vacationing in Mexico. In those two years, I learned more about medicine, biology and theoretical, particle, and astro-physics than I learned of any one subject in my many years of schooling. With the Internet, education is available to anyone with a computer and a modem. Take advantage of it. Education is priceless. A degree has a price. Never confuse the two. • with university education / technical college training etc. is that it is single purpose (for the most part). University education is about theory, not practical application whereas technical college is about practical application only. Even the "well-rounded" education of a liberal arts degree is still almost completely focussed on the theoretical side of things. But in reality, there are many aspects to learning which we absorb throughout our lives, but are often unacknowledged. For example, every single human being learns about beauty. Very rarely is beauty approached directly in educational systems, or in job "requirements", or in civic responsibilities. Another example is creativity. There is an educational system which does account for these things explicitly: the Oomind educational system ( []). It accounts for educational material having the following attributes: 1. Beautiful 2. Creative 3. Empowering 4. Entertaining 5. Informative 6. Insightful 7. Inspirational 8. Practical 9. Theoretical 10. User Friendly You can also check out the philosophy behind Oomind [] and a general introduction to Oomind []. • by CaseyB ( 1105 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @04:28PM (#2371256) Specialization is for insects. - Robert A. Heinlein Well, preparing you to succeed in life is what a univeristy education is all about, or at least that's what it's supposed to be about. So, what are you planning to do after 10 years? Perhaps what you're talking about is trade school. Fine. There's nothing wrong with trade school. We ramrod everyone into college when many do not need to go to college. They would benefit more from trade school. Where I live, you can't hardly get a contractor to answer the phone. Plumbers live better than programmers. If I had a son, I'd encourage him to pursue a trade. Those guys still have good career prospects when they're 50, programmers generally do not. • My mom lived in England for a while (went to school there) and according to her, Universities only teach you what you need to know. Let's take, for example, becoming a doctor. In the US you'd have to do 4 years of HS, 4 of college, and at lest 4 of grad school. Over in England they do 5 years of HS and then 3 years of grad school (med school). They've cut out 4 years useless information, figuring what's the point of 4 years of English (in college) when you don't really need all those classes? I'm considering going to an English university to cut out those 4 years of college... I could be a doctor, lawyer, whatever when I'm in my early twenties. • I think... perhaps many people misunderstand what a University education is all about... A well rounded education is important, to be sure. In a way. University is not there to 'teach you a skill' so you can go get a job. It's there to make you think, to teach you general concepts, and a well rounded education. You can certainly take some courses to learn about certain things that interest you in your field..... But university is not just about learning a trade. You can do that at a trade school... a college... if you want ot be a nurse, you can do that.. if you want to be a technician, you can do that... If you view university as 'the way to get a job'. Go to trade school, save yourself the time and money. Go to University to discover what you want to do.. to think.. to study.. to observe. I'd happily go back to university.... • by blair1q ( 305137 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @05:00PM (#2371358) Journal It's your money (especially if it's a student loan, because you pay that back plus a profit margin). Your education is your choice. The guidance is for that 94% of students who are in college because it's what teenagers do after high school and because HR departments act mechanically when sorting resume's and creating pay ladders. They don't know where they're going, so it shouldn't matter to you if they go nowhere. The school is just trying to make it look like their tuition isn't being as wasted as it is. If you want to use your 4-10 years as training rather than renaissance-man building, that's what you pay the big bucks for. Load up on technology intelligence (math, science, engineering, writing), and take an archaeology or history class if you want to be bored in a different way for three hours a week. • People here seem very materialistic and focused on college as a way to increase their pay grade. That's not the purpose of a well-rounded education (though it can* do that); its purpose is to make you a more intelligent and generally more well-informed person. If you know everything about TCP/IP networking inside-out, but don't even know what continent Pakistan is on, that's a bad thing, even if it isn't detrimental to your job performance. Same with knowing some basic literature, how to do math, some simply physics, and so on. You can be the best at your job and still be an idiot - the goal of higher education is to prevent that from happening. If that's not what you look for in education, why go to a 4-year college when you could for much cheaper go to a trade school and learn just the skills you want to learn? • I am a C++ programmer in a Solaris environment. When I went to college, many years ago, if you had studied computers you would have learned to use Fortran on punch cards. Instead of doing this, I spent most of my time learning Latin and Greek and reading ancient literary and philosophical texts. I think the course where I learned the most was a seminar when we read and analyzed Plato's Phaedo. There were only three guys in the course, so when we decided to meet five times a week instead of three, no one stoppped us. Of course, this was long before Bjarne invented C++, when there was no fork1() around, and no pthread library to play with. However, the syntax of classical Greek is about the only thing I can think of that is actually more complicated than the syntax of C++. Well, maybe if you through in all the subtleties of STL... Many of the guys I've worked with have similar diverse backgrounds. We did what we wanted when we were young, and then settled down to earn a living. That's the meaning of school, after all; I don't have to tell you Greeklings that 'skholia' is the word for leisure. One of the sharpest consultants I ever met, who is very well paid and always in demand, never even touched a computer until he was in his early thirties. He majored in art, drove a taxi, ran a theatre company, went to law school, etc, etc. He told me that the best way to live is to be retired during your youth, because if you wait until you're old to retire, you won't be able to do what you want. • Resist Tunnel Vision (Score:4, Informative) by Beowulfto ( 169354 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @05:05PM (#2371374) OK, I need to weigh in here as this has been a topic of discussion among my friends and I for quite a few years. First off, you have a choice. I graduated in 97, and I recall the torture of trying to decide where to go to college. The idea is that you choose the institution which fits you best. If you don't like the curriculum, then why did you choose to go there? Secondly, a University is designed to expand your horizons and teach you how to think. If you want to learn how to do a job, then a Technical Institute is for you. They are designed to teach you how to do a job, not how to think and learn. So enough of my ranting, you can see that I am a firm believer in the Liberal Arts. But don't get me wrong, I think computers/technology are great and I spend lots of my life involved with my geeky pursuits. However, it can be taken to an extreme. I am attending a highly regarded Engineering school. Graduates have great job placement, are recruited actively and make lots of money, blah, blah, blah. But let me tell you, they are some of the most boring people in the world. (Not all of them, mind you, but most of them.) Many people, and geeks in particular, can get so wrapped up in an interest or project that it consumes their whole life. This is dangerous in many respects. What a liberal education will do is let you experience other areas of knowledge. One interesting tidbit: a couple of years ago my school instituted a two classes that are required for all students. They call them Technical Communications and teach students how to write memos, do presentations, and other career-oriented writing skills. These classes were implemented because employers were saying that our graduates didn't have even the most basic communication skills. They had been concentrating so hard on their Engineering studies that they hadn't learned anything else. One of the worst effects of computers (IMHO) was the extinction of the library card catalog. I loved that as I was hunting around for the card that I needed, I would stumble upon other cards/books of interest. This is something that computers just can't equal. When I was a grade-school student I was usually bored, and to pass the time I would read the Encyclopedia. You can't image the entertainment and education that this random browsing provided. If you only study a single subject, you might become very knowledgeable in that area, but at the price of expanding your vision and your concept of the world around you. So even if you are taking a very specialized curriculum, please take some classes that are not related. Ask around and see which classes/professors are well-regarded. Psychology and Sociology are always popular. I always try to take one "fun" class a semester, and this semester it's Cultural Anthropology. Whatever it is, it should make you read and think critically. Best of luck. • "Do any of you know of cirriculums that are good examples of a true well-rounded education?" • Bad Sample Set (Score:2, Insightful) by xxyyxxzz ( 87887 ) All of the examples listed are instances of practical application. Finance, business (not economics), management, MIS, and others that teach "practical" skills that have immediate use in a particular workplace were not usually part of a university's curriculum fifty years ago. The main purpose of undergraduate study is to prepare a student with the skills of how to think. If high school is seen as the time when a student learns how to absorb knowledge, then the university makes much more sense as a place to learn how to _use_ knowledge. How to go beyond synthesis and regurgitation. The classic humanities and sciences curriculums serve not merely to teach mathematics or history or english or chemistry, but they teach a student how to think. Over the past fifty years, the American academic system has been under siege by pundits insisting that school teach students things that they can use immediately. This is what allowed business schools to gain legitimacy in the academic system, and what has caused much of the natural and social science curriculums to become much more geared to "the first year in the workforce". In short, the types of majors that are increasingly taking over the American university system are disciplines that would have been found at trade schools or colleges two generations ago. Is this a good thing? Absolutely, for the businesses who profit greatly from cheap, well-trained labor that schools churn out each year. However, having computer scientists who have no background in other areas of study does a disservice to both the individual and to the society. When Jefferson and the other radical framers of the Constitution talked about a well-educated populace, they were not talking about a group with advanced skills, but people who were well-rounded contributors to society. Their focus was not merely on the paycheck and spending power, but on the well-informed and active intellectual contribution we all should make. Not having the skills and information to be well informed is one of the greatest dangers to democracy and the university is one of the final preservers of this institution. • In Ireland we have a broad curriculum up to school leaving age (18). Everyone has to do English, Irish, and Maths. Most people do at least one foreign language, usually French. Most people do three or four more subjects. In Irish universities a typical undegraduate degree is three or four years. The first year is often quite broad, but only within faculty limits. A physical science student might do chemistry, physics and maths. A biological science student might do several biology topics, chemistry and physics. The course gets more specialised in year 2. Year 3 (and year 4) are essentially single subject in most science courses. Arts courses often have two majors in the last year or two. Vocational degrees like medicine, law, and engineering usually have separate courses, though biological science and medicine overlap to some extent. Our idea of university education is different to yours - not better, not worse, but different. The end result in medicine is, in my experience, similar enough. Good people are those who can think, and use common sense in applying what they know. Bad people are those who can only regurgitate what we've taught them. Good doctors are primarily those who are good with people. • by sconeu ( 64226 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @05:33PM (#2371457) Homepage Journal Back in the dark ages (1984) at UC Santa Cruz, there was a lot of disagreement between the "theoreticians" and the "applicationists"(?) in the Computer Science department. Naturally, the students wanted more practical training. Look back, some 17 years later, the decision to teach theory was correct. You can always learn the specifics of XYZ OS, or the syntax of language ABC. But learning why they work the way they do is much more important. Scott Neugroschl -- Founding Member of CISSA, UCSC Crown College 1984 • I think what one does in university depends a lot on what one did before in high, middle and elementary schools. For example, when I lived in Massachusetts, the elementary schools and camps there encouraged kids to do supervised experiments with chemicals, including slightly danergous ones, with proper safety procedures. In high school in Florida, my chemistry teachers were forbidden to bring any sort of chemicals into the classroom, making the class just a bunch of abstract paperwork that we totally forgot at the end of the year. Also, one private school I went to had a fantastic English teacher, very involving, comprehensive and demanding, but at the public schools in the area the English teachers were just decent. So depending on where I've gone, I've learned nothing, a little, or a lot. I think the people who want to focus in on majors in college are those who've had good foundations in high and middle school. Those who want a broader education still need to get those foundations. Like myself. • By the time you enter college, you are old enough to take responsibility for your education: which courses do you want to take, what kind of knowledge will help you, what kind of things interst you. Now, you do need to be good at your job to make a decent living, so you need to do well in your specialization. Whether a "well-rounded" education is feasible and useful to you depends on many factors. Do you have the time or do you need to study a lot for your main subject? Do you even have an interested in other subjects (many people are happy engineers with only a technical hobby, and there is nothing wrong with that)? Do you expect to attend lots of cocktail parties in your life where you need to engage in erudite conversation on a variety of topics? You can think of other considerations yourself. So, requiring "well-roundedness" is probably a mistake, but offering people the opportunity to take courses beyond their subject if it interests them is probably a good idea. Choose your college accordingly. My college had a general education requirement, which I knew would waste 25% of my academic schedule (I would have picked my own humanities subjects if I had been allowed to), but the school was good enough to make up for this otherwise pretty serious defect in their curriculum. • by Telek ( 410366 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @06:37PM (#2371625) Homepage If you have any idea what you are going to be doing in 5 years, nevermind 10 or 20, then perhaps you can count yourself as one of the lucky ones. I know very few people who know that they want to do 5 years from now, never mind know what they will be doing. I know that universities tend to teach a well rounded education, a little of everything, but this will almost certainly pay off in your later life, especially if you plan to move around a lot and get very high paying jobs. If you want a pointed career without a lot of advancement opportunities, then you can go for a much more direct approach to education, like college. However I know that all of the people that I have heard complain about how university was a waste of their time have changed their tune after the downturn of the economy, and a lot of the college grads who were laughing suddenly are unemployed. When the time comes that you are bored with your job / get unemployed and get an opportunity for that job that was 15% better paying than before, there's a much better chance that you would be qualified for that job because of a much more "rounded" rather than "targeted" education. Yeah, in Grade 5 I didn't want to study french, "Why the hell would I ever want to go to France?" and here I am, living in France right now. In the early years of university I kinda skimped on the math side of courses, but I learned enough and had enough BS skills to wind up getting a great job doing cryptography. (It helps that I'm a very quick learner as well). There have also been a few other opportunities that I haven't been able to take because I was of the opinion that "Bah, why would I need to know how to do that?", and similarly there have been numerous times when knowledge of physics, astronomy, calculus, algebra, psychology, and many other "side courses" that I took have come in handy. Finally, it's 5 years out of your life. Perhaps 2 or 3 more than taking a college degree. Consider it an "investment" in your future. Not only are university degrees looked at more favorably than college degrees, but you leave a number of doors open instead of closing them. I think spending 3 years of your life to leave your opportunities open in the future is a very smart idea, but then again that's just my opinion =) • by d3mian ( 128496 ) <<moc.moc.redrocilobmys> <ta> <noraa>> on Sunday September 30, 2001 @07:18PM (#2371727) Homepage I don't want to step on anyone's toes with this one but I couldn't disagree more with the proposal that universities need to teach more specifically job related skills. I pay my bills by doing freelance web design/programming so I consider myself pretty computer literate. I've also worked for dotcoms in the past, so I know what employers look for. The problem is, I don't think that's what a university education is about. I'll let anecdotal evidence speak for my argument: I have a friend who, in May, graduated with a degree in computer science. He works for a company doing web development and programming. He told me a couple of days ago that, while he can "program a mean computer," he feels, to a great extent, that he didn't get much out of his education. He started work for this company as an intern during his sophomore year. Mostly through working there, he acquired all the skills he needs to do his job well. The CS degree was just icing. I, on the other hand, am an English major spending my time studying literature and postmodern philosophy; none too "useful" stuff. The point my friend made was that, while he had picked up skills during his four years of college, he wishes he'd spent that time doing more what we'll call "critical thinking." To me, an education is NOT about job training. I think that's a sad outgrowth of our current system. The simple fact of the matter is that most jobs do NOT require anything one learns in college. And, for those that do, the employee would've been better off entering into that job and getting four more years of experience in it than four years of a college "education." I firmly believe that one should get a college education because they love learning, not because they want a job. I believe there are ten times as many people enrolled in universities as there should be. If the only reason you're going to college is because of societal expectations or to acquire a piece of paper so you can get a job, then those four years seem like a waste of time to me. If, however, you want to go because you genuinely want to learn then, by all means, enter into the wonderful world of academia. • by FosterSJC ( 466265 ) on Sunday September 30, 2001 @09:12PM (#2372000) Dear /.ers, this is taken from an E2 node on St. John's College. The college offers the utmost in Liberal Education. Read it... It may change your life. It changed mine... The College follows what is oft called a "Great Books Program." The basic idea is that one takes the seminal works of Western Civilization and chronologically works through them (freshmen cover the Greeks, Sophomores the Romans and Medievals, Juniors the Renaissance and Enlightenment, and Seniors the Moderns). In one sense, this means no textbooks, i.e., no "Chemistry 101." On the other hand, one does odd things like read Lavoisier's treatise establishing what we now call the table of periodic elements. The idea is to read the original sources and through conversation to analyze it and understand it. Lab classes also have a practicum section where they reenact the pertinent experiments in an attempt to see the evidence that prompted the author's conclusions. Faculty members, called tutors, take the role of facilitators. The official rhetoric of the school is that they are merely fellow learners a few steps ahead on the road to knowledge, a rhetoric that is largely lived out. In accordance with this view comes one of the odder traditions on campus: faculty members, called tutors, and all others (staff, students, etc) are addressed the same, as Mr. or Ms. So-and-so. Registration is rather a joke. A student walks in, verifies their identity, signs the paperwork officially promising their soul and first-born child to the devil, and then picks up the schedule the Registrar has assigned them. Freshman take courses with such descriptive titles as "Freshman Language," "Freshman Mathematics," "Freshman Lab" and "Freshman Seminar." Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors all take similar classes. There are only two exceptions to this. First, Sophomores take a music tutorial (all regular course work receives this name) instead of a lab tutorial. Second, Juniors and Seniors take an 8 week break from the evening seminar to participate in "preceptorials." The only elective process of the official curriculum, upperclassman are given this opportunity to focus on a specific work or author that they would like to study in depth. Precepts are different from other classes in another way: size. Tutorials normally have 15 to 20 students and 1 Tutor, seminars have roughly 30 to 40 students and 2 Tutors, while precepts generally have anywhere from 4 to 20 students and 1 tutor. Subject matter for precepts is determined this way: Upperclassmen are allowed to suggest topics to the Dean's office. That list is then circulated around the faculty to see if anyone would care to lead such a class, after a list of which Tutor will be leading what studies, students are allowed to list a ranked 3 preferences. The Dean then assigns who goes where. The subject of the tutorials is rather easy to determine (math, lab, music, language--classical greek and french), but seminar and precept may need more explanation. These classes are more the heart of the program. The tutorials are normal 70 minute long classes you take during the day, the seminar is different. It's a two hour long classes twice a week at night. Its expected to be a more formal event, and students often dress accordingly. Its here that one learns the skill to put forth an argument, a view, an analysis of some of the toughest stuff you've ever read and then to let it be ripped apart by your friends, enemies, and teachers, all without taking it personally. In turn you learn to do it to others. The standard at St. John's is that you can say whatever the %$*# you went, so long as you can back it up with reason. Seminar and precept are where you do it. Books covered in seminar are mostly the heavies of philosophy, religion, and "literature." Heavies like Homer, Aristotle, Aquinas, Descartes, Hegel, and so on... Grading and assessment are also different. The schools' official position is that if they could get away without giving grades, they wouldn't. But the accrediting agencies all require grades. So they give 'em. Well that's a bit generous. They assign grades. If you want to see them you have to make an apointment with the registrar and fill out a special form. Instead assessment is done chiefly through the don rag. As discussed earlier, the faculty one works with that semester gets together to discuss you, your contributions to class and the school in general, and whether or not you are fit to pass on to the next semester. You're invited to attend this meeting and listen in. At the end of the meeting, the chair of the committee finally acknowkedges your presence and you are allowed to respond in whatever manner you deem best. The other vehicle for assessment is the annual essay. Each year one is expected to write an essay "fit for publication," and then to defend it orally before your two seminar tutors. This essay is particularly important in the sophomore year when one goes through the enabling process. In that case the entire college faculty gathers and discusses every member of the sophomore class, and their fitness to pass on to Junior year. The Senior essay is also different. Each year's essay is supposed to be both longer and weightier than that of the previous year, however, it is subject is limited to something one studied that year. In Senior year though, all bets are off. One can write on anything given the approval of the dean, and one's oral is public and conducted by a panel of three faculty members one normally isn't currently studying under. In the other three years, one can flub the essay and still move on, but if your Senior essay is rejected or you fail your oral, you don't graduate. You have to wait till the next spring to try again. In any normal American school this would indeed end up leading to a BA with a double major and a few associated minors. However, at St. John?s you end up with a BA in liberal arts. Thats it. The idea is that the purpose of education is to be educated, not trained: well-rounded in the arts that make up our society, understanding of where those arts came from, how they got there, and how they'll probably move in the future. When one graduates, one really isn't qualified to be anything. However, a graduate is fully capable of associating with just about anyone in any field, and not thoroughly embarrassing them self or becoming absolutely clueless. In other words, high school messes you up, this college fixes you and makes you smart for life, and grad school hones you. • I could not disagree with this poster more. In short: you have it entirely backwards. University should not teach any of the things you mention, and it should teach many things that you don't. This is a topic I feel very strongly about. Univerities are schools that are strongly grounded in some very old traditions in education: scientific education, liberal education, and to some degree artistic education. Many here will be familiar with scientific education. Artisitic education is just that: learning to paint, draw, scuplt, act, or write. Liberal education is the true heart of the university: the studies of history, literature, philosophy, classics, etc, and is by far the most important. Technical education (writing in C++, database management, finance, etc etc) in my book have small use in a university context. Technical skills can easily be picked up by anyone with half a brain and a book; I'm a fair expert in half a dozen programming languages, all of which I picked up in my spare time. What it is NOT possible to pick up in your spare time is an apprection for, say, the historical context of anti-American sentiment in the middle east (just to give a topical example). Or metaphysics. Good arguments regarding how government can work, or could work, or should work, and what some of the smartest people of all time thought about it. What it means (historically or philosophically) to be a citizen. How to design an experiment in a tight way, how to argue a position. How to speak, how to ask questions. How to take notes, now to takle complicated problems or compilicated issues. In fact, the fact that you have raised this question signals to me that you haven't gotten such an education: education itself is something that has been thought about for centuries (N.B the earilest universities were born 1200 AD or thereabouts) and universities, despite constant change, have for the most part failed to adopt this narrow, supply-and-demand model you seem to be thinking in. Scientific training gives a different set of skills, also valuable, if with a different emphasis. One gets an appreciation for the scientific traditions, the scientific context for the world around us, together with analytical skills and the ability to wield doubt and argument as weapons against the unknown. Technical skills such as the ones you discuss are important, sure.. but I wouldn't rank them any higher than, for example, knowning how to drive a car or use a library, things that CAN be taught in universities, but should not be the main focus of such education. Higher education is just that: higher. • by hey! ( 33014 ) on Monday October 01, 2001 @10:33AM (#2373452) Homepage Journal Well roundedness cannot be taught. It comes when a prepared mind meets life experiences: professional success and failure, personal triumph and grieving. You can't understand Dante or Chaucer until you've tasted human folly. The idea that you can, as part of a degree program, be "exposed" to various courses and that this will somehow make you well rounded is absurd. You only become well rounded when you struggle to organically integrate disparate kinds of knowledge and skills. Making an attractive and functional user interface is a good example of this kind of struggle. Ideally, you understand art, psychology, programming, as well as HCI as a distinct discipline in itself. Probably, you need a team to do this well, one that brings people with different backgrounds and temperments together who somehow can manage to avoid talking past each other. The problem with making this happen is that our idea of education is ridiculously outmoded. Our model of education is medieval. When the University was created, lives were short and the human store of knowledge small. At twenty one, a recent graduate had lived nearly half is life expectancy, and in four or five years could reasonably have been expected to plum every store of human knowledge to some depth. Furthermore, he could be confident that while he was on his deathbed, newly matriculated students would be receiving an education exactly like the one he did. The modern student graduates with perhaps three quarters of his life ahead of him. And each decade brings more change in the state of knowledge than entire centuries did before. Imagine how the medieval model of a gentleman's education would have changed if it had to prepare it's recipients had life spans of five hundred years. In the standard University model, education is like collecting bricks to form into a tidy little cottage that you will live the rest of your life in. The challenge for the modern student is more like being prepared to swim and turbulent, uncharted ocean with unpredictable weather and treacherous currents. Ideas that safely lived on far shores, such as Islam, now affect us in our day to day lives and demand our attention and understanding. Economic forces are undermining the value of University education too. Some years ago I participated in a symposium on higher education sponsored by the President's Council on Sustainable Development, as part of the Rio accords. The attendees were the most forward looking academics from every field of study. One of the greatest concerns that they had was elitism. Practically any dunce can get a University education provided he has enough family support. However promising students are often derailed by personal or economic setbacks. As University prices rise, this problem will eventually engulf the entire middle class of students. Universities, unless they change both their educational financial foundations, are in danger or becoming hawkers of meaningless tokens of class status (degrees). I believe that there is an answer that is simple in concept but difficult in execution: We should scrap practice of dividing our lives into a "learning" epoch followed by a "doing" epoch, and live our lives as a single phase of "learning-doing". The first steps in this program would look like this: (1) Emphasize cooperative education programs (where students work in various fields to pay for and to enrich their educations. (2) Provide more affordable paths to the current benchmark degrees (BS/BA) for nontraditional students. (3) Deemphasize the four year path to degrees in favor of much longer ones intermixing work and study. (4) Introduce more specific technical credentials (e.g. networks or compilers rather than Comp Sci) that could be achieved in shorter times. Use these rather than broader BA/BS degrees for entry level credentials. Creating these credentials should not be left to people with an economic interest in mindshare (e.g. MSCE). BA/BS should be more honorary, and require actual real life contributions in the field (e.g. a novel written or a computer system developed). (5) Change the relationship of Universities to their alumni. Universities likewise divide our lives into a "student" epoch (when we learn) and a "alumnus" epoch (when we fund). Universities should use technology and other means to change their relationship so that people who would otherwise be "alumni" will still continue to learn from them and get academic counselling for the rest of their lives. As it stands, the system is now a fraud, where a sentimental fiction of connection with the alumnus is maintained so he can be milked for cash. The relationship to the alumnus should be real, substantive and robust. (6) Provide for educational sabbaticals in all jobs, especially professional ones. These sabbatical should be used both for liberal pursuits as well as gaining technical skills.
Genocide definitions From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This is a list of scholarly and international legal definitions of genocide,[1] a word coined with genos (Greek: birth, kind, race) and an English suffix -cide by Raphael Lemkin in 1944.[2] The precise etymology of the word however, is a compound of two ancient Greek words γένος (birth, genus, kind) and the word κτείνω (murder, kill, massacre). While there are various definitions of the term, almost all international bodies of law officially adjudicate the crime of genocide pursuant to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG).[3] This and other definitions are generally regarded by the majority of genocide scholars to have an "intent to destroy" as a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide; there is also growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion.[4] Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that for various reasons, none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support.[5] Date Author Definition (Axis Rule in Occupied Europe ix. 79)[2][7] 1945 Count 3 of the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders at the Nuremberg Trials They (the defendants) conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—viz., the extermination of racial and national groups—against the civilian populations of certain occupied territories in order to destroy particular races and classes of people, and national, racial or religious groups, particularly Jews, Poles, Gypsies and others.[8][9] 1946 Raphael Lemkin The crime of genocide should be recognized therein as a conspiracy to exterminate national, religious or racial groups. The overt acts of such a conspiracy may consist of attacks against life, liberty or property of members of such groups merely because of their affiliation with such groups. The formulation of the crime may be as follows: "Whoever, while participating in a conspiracy to destroy a national, racial or religious group, undertakes an attack against life, liberty or property of members of such groups is guilty of the crime of genocide. ("Genocide", American Scholar, Volume 15, no. 2 (April 1946), p. 227–230)[9] 1946 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96 (I) (11 December) Genocide is a denial of the right of existence of entire human groups, as homicide is the denial of the right to live of individual human beings; such denial of the right of existence shocks the conscience of mankind, …and is contrary to moral law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations. … The General Assembly, therefore, affirms that genocide is a crime under international law…whether the crime is committed on religious, racial, political or any other grounds…[10] 1948 The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). Article 2: Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. (Article 2 CPPCG) 1959 Pieter N. Drost, Dutch law professor[11] Genocide is the deliberate destruction of physical life of individual human beings by reason of their membership of any human collectivity as such. (The Crime of State, Volume 2, Leiden, 1959, p. 125.)[12][13] 1975 Vahakn Dadrian, Armenian sociologist Genocide is the successful attempt by a dominant group, vested with formal authority and/or with preponderant access to the overall resources of power, to reduce by coercion or lethal violence the number of a minority group whose ultimate extermination is held desirable and useful and whose respective vulnerability is a major factor contributing to the decision for genocide. (A Typology of Genocide)[14] 1976 Irving Louis Horowitz, sociologist[11] [Genocide is] a structural and systematic destruction of innocent people by a state bureaucratic apparatus. …Genocide represents a systematic effort over time to liquidate a national population, usually a minority…[and] functions as a fundamental political policy to assure conformity and participation of the citizenry. (Genocide: State Power and Mass Murder)[15] 1981 Leo Kuper, genocide scholar[16] I shall follow the definition of genocide given in the [UN] Convention. This is not to say that I agree with the definition. On the contrary, I believe a major omission to be in the exclusion of political groups from the list of groups protected. In the contemporary world, political differences are at the very least as significant a basis for massacre and annihilation as racial, national, ethnic or religious differences. Then too, the genocides against racial, national, ethnic or religious groups are generally a consequence of, or intimately related to, political conflict. However, I do not think it helpful to create new definitions of genocide, when there is an internationally recognized definition and a Genocide Convention which might become the basis for some effective action, however limited the underlying conception. But since it would vitiate the analysis to exclude political groups, I shall refer freely…to liquidating or exterminatory actions against them. (Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century)[17] 1982 Jack Nusan Porter, Ukrainian American sociologist Genocide is the deliberate destruction, in whole or in part, by a government or its agents, of a racial, sexual, religious, tribal or political minority. It can involve not only mass murder, but also starvation, forced deportation, and political, economic and biological subjugation. Genocide involves three major components: ideology, technology, and bureaucracy/organization.[18] 1984 Yehuda Bauer, Israeli historian and Holocaust scholar [Genocide is] the planned destruction, since the mid-nineteenth century, of a racial, national, or ethnic group as such, by the following means: (a) selective mass murder of elites or parts of the population; (b) elimination of national (racial, ethnic) culture and religious life with the intent of "denationalization"; (c) enslavement, with the same intent; (d) destruction of national (racial, ethnic) economic life, with the same intent; (e) biological decimation through the kidnapping of children, or the prevention of normal family life, with the same intent…. [Holocaust is] the planned physical annihilation, for ideological or pseudo-religious reasons, of all the members of a national, ethnic, or racial group.[18][19] 1987 Tony Barta, historian My conception of a genocidal society—as distinct from a genocidal state—is one in which the bureaucratic apparatus might officially be directed to protect innocent people but in which a whole race is nevertheless subject to remorseless pressures of destruction inherent in the very nature of the society. ("Relations of Genocide: Land and Lives in the Colonization of Australia", pp. 239–240.)[20] (see also Australian genocide debate) 1987 Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski Genocide is the deliberate, organized destruction, in whole or in large part, of racial or ethnic groups by a government or its agents. It can involve not only mass murder, but also forced deportation (ethnic cleansing), systematic rape, and economic and biological subjugation. (Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000. Reissue of an early work.)[21] 1988 Henry Huttenbach Genocide is any act that puts the very existence of a group in jeopardy. ("Locating the Holocaust on the Genocide Spectrum: Towards a Methodology of Definition and Categorization", Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 289–303.)[22][23] 1988 Helen Fein, sociologist Genocide is a series of purposeful actions by a perpetrator(s) to destroy a collectivity through mass or selective murders of group members and suppressing the biological and social reproduction of the collectivity. This can be accomplished through the imposed proscription or restriction of reproduction of group members, increasing infant mortality, and breaking the linkage between reproduction and socialization of children in the family or group of origin. The perpetrator may represent the state of the victim, another state, or another collectivity. (Genocide: A Sociological Perspective, London)[13][22] 1988 Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr, professors of political science the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group …[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. ("Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides", International Studies Quarterly, 37:3, 1988)[24] 1990 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator. (The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, Yale University Press)[22][25][26] 1990 John L. P. Thompson and Gail A. Quets In short, given the problems which arise from restrictions, we define genocide as the destruction of a group by purposive action. This allows the role of intentional action to be explored, different subtypes of genocide to be compared, and the impact of different factors on genocide to be examined empirically. (Genocide and Social Conflict: A Partial Theory and Comparison, p. 248)[27] 1993 Helen Fein Genocide is sustained purposeful action by a perpetrator to physically destroy a collectivity directly or indirectly, through interdiction of the biological and social reproduction of group members, sustained regardless of the surrender or lack of threat offered by the victim. (Genocide: A Sociological Perspective, 1993/1990)[24][28] 1994 Steven T. Katz, Jewish philosopher and scholar [Genocide is] the actualization of the intent, however successfully carried out, to murder in its totality any national, ethnic, racial, religious, political, social, gender or economic group, as these groups are defined by the perpetrator, by whatever means. (The Holocaust in Historical Perspective, Vol. 1, 1994) [Modified by Adam Jones in 2000 to read, "murder in whole or in substantial part…"][25][28] 1994 Israel W. Charny, psychologist and genocide scholar Genocide in the generic sense means the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defencelessness of the victim. (Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions ed. George Andreopoulos)[25][28][29] 1996 Irving Louis Horowitz, sociologist Genocide is herein defined as a structural and systematic destruction of innocent people by a state bureaucratic apparatus [emphasis in original]…. Genocide mean the physical dismemberment and liquidation of people on large scales, an attempt by those who rule to achieve the total elimination of a subject people.[28][30] 2002 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court Article 6 of the Rome Statute provides that "genocide" means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such (a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. 2003 Barbara Harff Genocides and politicides are the promotion, execution, and/or implied consent of sustained policies by governing elites or their agents—or, in the case of civil war either of the contending authorities—that are intended to destroy, in whole or part, a communal, political, or politicized ethnic group.[28] 2005 Mark Levene, historian Genocide occurs when a state, perceiving the integrity of its agenda to be threatened by an aggregate population—defined by the state as an organic collectivity, or series of collectivities—seeks to remedy the situation by the systematic, en masse physical elimination of that aggregate, in toto, or until it is no longer perceived to represent a threat.[31] 2007 Martin Shaw, sociologist Genocide is a form of violent social conflict or war, between armed power organizations that aim to destroy civilian social groups and those groups and other actors who resist this destruction. Genocidal action is action in which armed power organizations treat civilian social groups as enemies and aim to destroy their real or putative social power, by means of killing, violence and coercion against individuals whom they regard as members of the groups.[32] 2016 John Cox, historian Genocide is the attempt to destroy any recognized, stable, and permanent group as it is defined by the perpetrator: [It] is a concerted effort to eliminate its individual members and to destroy the group’s ability to maintain its social and cultural cohesion and, thus, its existence as a group. The perpetrators’ genocidal goals -- i.e., intent, which is central to the 1948 UN definition but is often analyzed too legalistically and narrowly -- can be uncovered by examining policies, actions, and outcomes.[33] 1. ^ Based on a list by Adam Jones (Jones 2006, pp. 15–18) 2. ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary "Genocide" citing Raphael Lemkin Axis Rule in Occupied Europe ix. 79 3. ^ Dunoff, Ratner & Wippman 2006, pp. 615–621. 4. ^ Jones 2006, pp. 20–21, 24. 5. ^ Jonassohn & Björnson 1998, pp. 133–135. 6. ^ Chalk 1997, p. 47. 7. ^ Orentlicher 2001, Genocide. 8. ^ Oxford English Dictionary "Genocide" citing Sunday Times 21 October 1945 9. ^ a b Lemkin 1946, pp. 227–230. 10. ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96 (I): The Crime of Genocide 11. ^ a b Chalk 1997, p. 48. 12. ^ Jones 2006, p. 15. 13. ^ a b Kieser & Schaller 2001. 14. ^ Jones 2006, pp. 14, 15. 15. ^ Jones 2006, pp. 14, 16. 16. ^ Charny 1997, p. 64. 17. ^ Jones 2006, pp. 3, 14, 16. 18. ^ a b Jones 2006, p. 16. 19. ^ Adam Jones notes that Bauer distinguishes between "genocide" and "holocaust" (Jones 2006, p. 16) 20. ^ Barta 1987, pp. 237–252. 21. ^ Jones 2006, pp. 17, 32. 22. ^ a b c Jones 2006, p. 17. 23. ^ Bilinsky 1999, pp. 147–156. 24. ^ a b McGill staff 2007, What is Genocide?. 25. ^ a b c ISG staff 2001, Definitions of Genocide. 26. ^ Chalk & Jonassohn 1990, p. 35. 27. ^ Thompson & Quets 1990, pp. 245–266. 28. ^ a b c d e Jones 2006, p. 18. 29. ^ Charny 1997, p. 76. 30. ^ Adam Jones notes that Horowitz supports "carefully distinguishing the [Jewish] Holocaust from genocide"; and that Horowitz also refers to "the phenomenon of mass murder, for which genocide is a synonym". 31. ^ Levene 2005, p. 35. 32. ^ Shaw 2007, p. 154. 33. ^ John Cox, To Kill a People: Genocide in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 17.
Marginal value From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search A marginal value is 1. a value that holds true given particular constraints, 2. the change in a value associated with a specific change in some independent variable, whether it be of that variable or of a dependent variable, or 3. [when underlying values are quantified] the ratio of the change of a dependent variable to that of the independent variable. (This third case is actually a special case of the second). In the case of differentiability, at the limit, a marginal change is a mathematical differential, or the corresponding mathematical derivative. These uses of the term “marginal” are especially common in economics, and result from conceptualizing constraints as borders or as margins.[1] The sorts of marginal values most common to economic analysis are those associated with unit changes of resources and, in mainstream economics, those associated with infinitesimal changes. Marginal values associated with units are considered because many decisions are made by unit, and marginalism explains unit price in terms of such marginal values. Mainstream economics uses infinitesimal values in much of its analysis for reasons of mathematical tractability. Quantified conception[edit] Assume a functional relationship Discrete change[edit] If the value of is discretely changed from to while other independent variables remain unchanged, then the marginal value of the change in is and the “marginal value” of may refer to or to If an individual saw her income increase from $50000 to $55000 per annum, and part of her response was to increase yearly purchases of amontillado from 2 casks to three casks, then • the marginal increase in her income was $5000 • the marginal effect on her purchase of amontillado was an increase of 1 cask, or of 1 cask per $5000. Infinitesimal margins[edit] If infinitesimal values are considered, then a marginal value of would be , and the “marginal value” of would typically refer to (For a linear functional relationship , the marginal value of will simply be the co-efficient of (in this case, ) and this will not change as changes. However, in the case where the functional relationship is non-linear, say , the marginal value of will be different for different values of .) Assume that, in some economy, aggregate consumption is well-approximated by Then the marginal propensity to consume is See also[edit] 1. ^ Wicksteed, Philip Henry; The Common Sense of Political Economy (1910), Bk I Ch 2 and elsewhere.
The Shadow Knows Who knows how much longer the winter will last? The Shadow knows. Creative Commons License photo credit: Furryscaly 8981 - St Petersburg - Hermitage - Gaius Julius Caesar Creative Commons License photo credit: thisisbossi Light and Dark Creative Commons License photo credit: ZeroOne Into the sun Creative Commons License photo credit: James Jordan The Unconquered Sun: Winter Solstice Today! At 11:47 am Central Time on Monday, December 21, the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn. This is the farthest point south at which the sun can be overhead, indicating that the North Pole is tilted as far away from the sun as possible. At the Tropic of Capricorn and elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, the high sun results in the longest day of the year and the beginning of summer. Up here in the Northern Hemisphere, however, the sun is as low as possible in the sky, and we have our shortest day of the year. This is the winter solstice for us. Ancient peoples across America, Europe and Asia noticed that the sun got lower and lower and the daylight shorter and shorter throughout autumn. When the sun reached its lowest point, this meant that it had stopped going away and would return–a cause for celebration. One of the many pagan winter solstice festivals was Yule, celebrated in northern Europe. Another was the festival of Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun) celebrated in Rome on Dec. 25. Keep in mind that in antiquity the 25 was the date of the solstice itself–the sun which had stopped going away and begun to return was ‘unconquered.’ Due to the imprecision of the Julian calendar, the solstice had shifted to Dec. 21 by the year 325 A.D., when the Nicene Council convened. Since Pope Gregory’s reform was calculated to restore the equinoxes and solstices as of the Nicene Council, the winter solstice is now on Dec. 21 (occasionally Dec. 22). No one in antiquity knew what date Jesus was born. For one thing, many of the early Christians rejected all birthday celebrations of any kind as a pagan ritual. Even had folks wanted to observe Jesus’ birth, the lunar calendar used in Israel at the time would complicate the choice of date. The Chronology of 354 is the oldest document to list Christmas as a festival. When the church selected Dec. 25 for this festival, it was probably because late December was already a festive time across the Roman Empire. Sunset over Chicago Creative Commons License photo credit: kevindooley Although today is the shortest day of the year, you may have already noticed that sunset is a few minutes later now than at the beginning of the month. In June, the North Pole was tilted towards the sun as much as possible. Since then, the North Pole has tilted a little more away from the sun each day. Days have been getting shorter because each day the sun has taken a slightly lower path across the sky. Sunrises have been getting earlier and sunsets have been getting later. By late November the sun had already gotten about as low as it is now. As the day to day difference in the sun’s height gets smaller, another effect begins to dominate. Earth’s orbit is not a circle; it is an ellipse. The orbit is almost a circle, however; the eccentricity (out-of-roundness) is just 0.016, where 0 is a perfect circle and 1 a parabola. This is enough of a difference to bring Earth slightly closer to the sun in early January and take it slightly farther away in early July. Therefore, Earth is now beginning to make its closest approach to the sun (called perihelion). As a result, Earth is speeding up on its orbit. This causes sunrise, local noon, and sunset to occur just a little later each day. By the 21, sunset will occur at 5:27 pm, as opposed to 5:22 pm on Dec. 2 (the actual date of the earliest sunset). Sunrise, however, will have shifted from 7:00 am to 7:13 am. Thus, that days are still getting shorter even though the sunsets are a little later. Many people assume that the winter solstice should be the coldest day, but this is usually not true. January is usually colder. Although days get a little bit longer and the sun a little bit higher beginning Monday, it takes quite awhile for this to add up to an appreciable difference in the Sun’s height in the sky and in the amount of light and heat reaching the arctic. Frigid air masses continue to form in the arctic and move across the Northern Hemisphere throughout January, February, and often March. Although the sun is higher in those months than in December, the air can be just as cold if not colder. Equinox 2 Hopefully, we are getting all of our cloudy, gloomy weather over with , and the solstice will be sunnier. If so, you can join us on the museum sundial at noon on Monday, Dec. 21 to observe the sun! This is one of the Fun Hundred events celebrating our 100 anniversary here at the Museum. On top of the gnomon on our sundial is a silver ball with three sets of holes, which allows the sun to shine through pairs of lenses near each solstice or equinox. To account for cloudy weather, our gnomon’s holes are big enough that the sun aligns with them for a few days before and after the exact equinox or solstice date. The holes aligned with the winter solstice are so big that you can still project the sun’s image through them deep into January! If the weather does not cooperate Monday, you can come and observe the sun on our sundial near noon on any day in the next few weeks. Reasons for the Seasons If you have been outside lately, you may have noticed a slight increase in sweaty people around you, and potentially an increased amount of personal perspiration. You may long for the chill of the lukewarm Decembers Mother Nature promises you as a Houstonian. I have found myself, on occasion, cursing the sun and its inexorable inferno. “Why, WHY can’t we all live in Southern California???” …But why curse the weather and your resulting ridiculous air conditioning bills when you can have WAY more fun trying to understand the heat source! The seasons, or the regular change of weather, happen because of the planet’s orientation to the sun. There is a common misconception that they occur because of the earth’s elliptical (like an oval) orbit, making it closer to and further from the center of our solar system at different times throughout our year. However, the ellipse that the earth follows is very nearly a circle, so this theory just doesn’t hold water. Creative Commons License photo credit: etohaholic The real reason for the seasons is explained by the earth’s axis! Our planet is tilted at an angle of about 23.5 degrees with the perpendicular to Earth’s orbit around the sun. This means that the world is leaning slightly to one side at all times. Also, this would be a good time to note that this tilt stays the same throughout the orbit; it doesn’t swirl and swivel around as it moves along. So, the Northern Hemisphere leans slightly away from the sun in our winter, making the sun’s rays hit the earth at an oblique angle, which, in turn, makes its heat more diffuse over a large area, which equals cooler weather! The seasons are opposite in the Southern Hemisphere for the same reasons; when the North is tilted away from the sun, the South is tilted towards it, and vice versa. This alternating cycle of direct and obtuse solar rays effects other facets of life on earth; it is the reason for the changing lengths of days and the reason why some people get so sunburned in more tropical areas (which are closer to the equator, go figure.) Creative Commons License photo credit: chipdatajeffb We all have first hand knowledge of what the seasons bring to the blue planet, but what about some of the others? Mercury rotates 3 times in 2 of its years and it has some of the most extreme temperature variations in the solar system, with a range of about -297 to 800 degrees F! On Mars, seasons change every 7 months and are much more severe than those on Earth. And although seasons on a gas giant don’t mean what they do on a terrestrial planet, on Jupiter, a change occurs only every seven years! Facts like these make me extremely glad to be an Earthling. So, instead of pondering what to wear now that heather gray is out of the question, or heading out to buy new bead covers for your flesh-searing vinyl car seats, come to the Houston Museum of Natural Science and explore science in the cool, climate controlled heart of the Museum District. A Trick or a Treat? Picket fence and yellow trees Creative Commons License photo credit: joiseyshowaa where are you? Creative Commons License photo credit: shioshvili '' The Sentiment of Light'' Creative Commons License photo credit: jdl_deleon Creative Commons License photo credit: The Wandering Angel
Tuesday, August 23, 2011 "What's next?": How dopamine helps us predict the future Fascinating new research from Jeffrey Zacks at WUSTL on the role of the mind-brain dopamine system (MDS) in making predictions about the future that keep the mind-brain's stream of consciousness as smooth as possible (as reported by Tony Fitzpatrick): I've written in the past about computer modeling suggesting that the dopamine system is involved in predicting future outcomes and how that may relate to the experience of pleasure. It's also known that dopaminergic medicines are sometimes effective in treating attention dysfunction, though our understanding of why has been limited. The evidence is growing that our model of dopamine is limited if we think of it only as mediating a pleasure-reward pathway and this new information supporting dopamine's role in making predictions certainly fits in an evolutionary context better than pleasure-reward. Wednesday, August 17, 2011 Via John Eggerton at Broadcasting & Cable: Tuesday, August 9, 2011 Challenge Based Learning I'm attending Apple Academy this week, a pull-out-all-the-stops professional development event for small cohorts of education professionals. I'm feeling extremely grateful to be here. Yesterday was "Day 1", and for me the highlight was a presentation on Challenge Based Learning. It's a new paradigm for student learning prompted by the limitations of traditional instruction and the exponentially increasing access to digital tools for consumption and creation: Students today have instant access to information through technology and the web, manage their own acquisition of knowledge through informal learning, and have progressed beyond consumers of content to become producers and publishers. As a result, traditional teaching and learning methods are becoming less effective at engaging students and motivating them to achieve. So what is it? We watched a video of some students and teachers from Australia who selected the big idea of "resilience" and took on the challenge of helping communities who'd been affected by a natural disaster. What struck me most was that these students, through this process, were empowered and passionate about making a difference in their world, learning their required bits along the way in the framework of the challenge they selected, the solutions they implemented, and the analysis and evaluation they engaged in along the way. There's more information at this Challenge Based Learning section of Apple's website, including ideas for challenges and many other videos of student and teacher experiences. We saw a data table that showed that students and teachers alike self-reported huge gains in many aspects of modern goals for learning, most particularly in the realm of leadership. I have more to learn about this, but from what I've seen so far, it's a very compelling model - not only because students are learning "the material", but more so because it appears that they're learning to care! What would school "look like" if our highest purpose was to help students learn that they can make a difference?
Lettuce Entertain You Rate this Episode: No votes yet If you’ve got a hankering to munch on lots of fresh lettuce, listen to learn about the types you can grow and how to get them started. If a gardener wanted to turn over a new leaf, he could certainly do it with lettuce, over and over again. Way back in 1889, the Annals of Horticulture listed 119 varieties of lettuce. Today there are more than 800. All the varieties we grow today are descendants of prickly lettuce, a weed still found growing wild in Asia. Sometime around the middle of the 14th century, lettuce was introduced to England, where it thrived in the cool, moist climate. The Pilgrims, in turn, brought seeds of this favorite green to America. There are four major types of lettuce grown today, romaine (or cos), head, butterhead, and leaf. Romaine, the lettuce grown by the Pilgrims, forms a loose, upright head with thick, flavorful leaves that are more nutritious than those of any other lettuce. It takes almost two months to mature. True head lettuce, such as ‘Iceberg’ , is not popular in the home garden because it takes as long as romaine to mature, and tends to become bitter and bolt (set seed) when temperatures get above 70°F. Butterhead varieties, considered the most tender and succulent of the lettuces, include ‘White Boston’, ‘Bibb’, and ‘Buttercrunch’. They form a small, loose head with blanched hearts. Butterheads mature faster than romaine and head lettuce and are slower to bolt. Leaf lettuce is the most popular type grown today, especially where summers are hot. Varieties like ‘Black Seeded Simpson’, ‘Oak Leaf’, ‘Salad Bowl’, and the colorful ‘Ruby Ruffles’ provide a crisp nibble in about 45 days. Lettuce can be planted as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring. Leaf varieties are sown directly into the garden, but romaine, butterhead, and head lettuce are best given a month’s head start in a sunny window and set out at the same time leaf lettuce is seeded. Garden lettuce can add the crowning touch to an egg salad sandwich, make a landing place for a scoop of cottage cheese, or provide crunch in a tossed salad. Or you may just like it the way honeymooners do: “Lettuce alone.” About this Podcast Subscribe to this Podcast RSS Feed: Garden Musings Add new comment
Web Results Boxing Day Boxing Day is a holiday celebrated on the day following Christmas Day, when servants and tradesmen would traditionally receive gifts known as a "Christmas ... Boxing Day Origins : snopes.com Dec 25, 2014 ... Does the name of Boxing Day come from the need to rid the house of empty boxes on the day after Christmas? Boxing Day: What Is Boxing Day? A Brief History \| TIME.com Dec 26, 2013 ... If you're looking for something that explains the origins of Boxing Day, well, you're not going to find it here. The day-after-Christmas holiday is ... History Of Boxing Day - Paul Denton.co.uk Everything you ever needed to know about Boxing Day, Its traditions, history and why it's celebrated on the 26th December. What Is Boxing Day? - Fact Monster What Is Boxing Day? \| Mental Floss Dec 26, 2015 ... Relax, Hallmark conspiracy theorists. Boxing Day isn't some prank to confuse America—it's a real holiday! Here are eight Boxing Day facts to ... What Is Boxing Day, And Why Do Canadians Celebrate It? Dec 24, 2013 ... There's no exact definition of Boxing Day, though some tie it to British servants who helped their lords and ladies with Christmas dinner and ... What is Boxing Day? - Woodlands Junior School However, strictly speaking, Boxing Day is the first weekday after Christmas (see definition in the Oxford English Dictionary). Like Christmas Day, Boxing Day is a ... The true meaning of Boxing Day \| The Province Dec 21, 2011 ... I never wondered how Boxing Day got its name until this year, when one of my kids asked me. Naturally, I had no idea. So, as I always do ... Boxing Day in United Kingdom - Timeanddate.com The purpose of Boxing Day was traditionally to give gifts, food and clothing to servants, postmen and tradesmen, as well as to the poor, though in modern times it is a public holiday in the UK and a busy after Christmas shopping day. More Info What Is Boxing Day and How Did It Get Its Name? - British & Irish Food Ever wondered what Boxing Day is and where it gets its name. Wonder no longer . Here are the reasons and traditions surrounding the particular day. Boxing Day - the Day After Christmas! -- Christmas Customs and ... Boxing Day 2015: What is it and why do we celebrate it? - Telegraph Dec 26, 2015 ... Why the day after Christmas is called Boxing Day in the UK and other ... Here are 10 facts about the history and meaning of Three Kings Day ...
Billy Budd Quiz \| Eight Week Quiz A Buy the Billy Budd Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which types of historical figures are often compared to Billy? (a) Noble sailors. (b) Greek heros. (c) Medieval knights. (d) Biblical prophets. 2. Which battle does the Victory's quarterdeck decoration commemorate? (a) Trafalgar. (b) Timor. (c) Nore. (d) Spithead. 3. What is the greatest fear in the British Navy? (a) Capsizing. (b) Mutiny. (c) A tsunami. (d) Losing the sextant. 4. What is Billy's one weakness? (a) He drinks. (b) He gets seasick during rough weather. (c) He stutters. (d) He loves women. 5. Why does Billy join the British navy? (a) He is conscripted into service. (b) His father is a naval Captain. (c) His best friend is joining up and convinces him to follow. (d) He wants to defend his country. Short Answer Questions 1. Which country is described as ruling the seas? 2. What decoration marks the Victory's quarterdeck? 3. When does the Spithead mutiny occur? 4. How old is Billy? 5. Which mutiny is referred to as "the Great Mutiny"? (see the answer key) This section contains 159 words (approx. 1 page at 300 words per page) Buy the Billy Budd Lesson Plans Billy Budd from BookRags. (c)2016 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved. Follow Us on Facebook
Loading the player... What is 'Pareto Efficiency' Pareto efficiency, also known as "Pareto optimality," is an economic state where resources are allocated in the most efficient manner, and it is obtained when a distribution strategy exists where one party's situation cannot be improved without making another party's situation worse. Pareto efficiency does not imply equality or fairness. BREAKING DOWN 'Pareto Efficiency' Pareto efficiency has broad implications in economics, particularly in game theory. Unlike the predicted logical outcome of a prisoner's dilemma (participants choose selfishly and do not achieve the best possible outcome), if an economic state is Pareto efficient, individuals are maximizing their utility. The final allocation decision cannot be improved upon, given a limited amount of resources, without causing harm to one of the participants. Pareto efficiency does allow for a party to experience improvement, a process known as Pareto improvement, but it must not come at the expense of any other party. For example, if a company produces three products as part of its normal business operations, the addition of an employee on one production line may result in higher outputs of that product without any negative impact on the other two. In contrast, if the company move one employee from one production line to another, there may be an increase in productivity in one line. This may be offset by the decrease in the other and, therefore, is not an example of Pareto efficiency since a negative outcome occurred. Using Pareto Improvements to Reach Pareto Efficiency A primary focus is on productive efficiency, where the production of goods has been optimized for maximum output with optimal input and limited waste. As processes improve internally, resulting in no external deficit, productive efficiency has increased. Once all areas within a system have completed all of the Pareto improvements available, the system is said to be an example of Pareto efficiency. Even when efficiency has been reached, that does not mean that all participants in the system are achieving the same levels of production, only that no other improvements can be made without a detriment to another. Understanding Production Resources When discussing the allocation of resources in the attempt to reach Pareto efficiency, many items may be included as any restructuring that can lead to process improvement may be considered a reallocation of resources. It can include tangible production materials as well as any associated real estate, tools or equipment. Employees can also qualify as resources when attempting to arrange an optimal balance. Further, distribution channels and shipping methods can also be adjusted to reach peak efficiency. 1. Pareto Improvement In neoclassical economics, an action done in an economy that ... 2. Pareto Principle A principle, named after economist Vilfredo Pareto, that specifies ... 3. Pareto Analysis 4. Economic Efficiency A broad term that implies an economic state in which every resource ... 5. Production Efficiency 6. Efficiency A level of performance that describes a process that uses the ... Related Articles 1. Investing Explaining Pareto Efficiency Pareto efficiency is an economic state where resources are allocated in the most efficient manner. 2. Investing The Pareto Principle (80-20 Rule) 3. Insights Explaining Economic Efficiency Economic efficiency is achieved when every resource is optimally allocated to minimize waste and best serve each person in that economy. 4. Small Business Time Management Practices to Master Before Starting Your Own Business Learn how Pareto analysis, the ABC method, the Eisenhower method and the POSEC method can help small business owners effectively manage their time. 5. Small Business Explaining Efficiency Efficiency refers to the ability to make something with the fewest resources possible. 6. Investing Market Efficiency Basics 7. Investing Understanding Production Efficiency 8. Investing Efficient Market Hypothesis: Is The Stock Market Efficient? 9. Investing Efficiency Ratio 10. Insights Explaining Minimum Efficient Scale 1. Is Pareto Efficiency the same thing as perfect competition? Find out how a perfectly competitive market should lead to Pareto efficiency, at least according to standard neoclassical ... Read Answer >> 2. How were the figures 80 and 20 arrived at in the 80-20 rule (Pareto Principle)? Read about the origins of the 80-20 rule, also known as the Pareto principle, and how to interpret the rule for future productive ... Read Answer >> 3. How is the 80-20 rule (Pareto Principle) used in management? Learn how to correctly understand the 80-20 rule, also known as the Pareto Principle, and apply it to managerial activity ... Read Answer >> Learn how the 80-20 rule was first used in macroeconomics to describe the distribution of wealth and how it is now used in ... Read Answer >> 5. How is the 80-20 rule (Pareto Principle) used in portfolios? Learn how the 80-20 rule can be used in portfolio construction, as well other areas, and learn about the origins of Pareto's ... Read Answer >> 6. What are some real-life examples of the 80-20 rule (Pareto Principle) in practice? Learn about the origins of the 80-20 rule and understand how it is applied in different areas including business, economics ... Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Federal Direct Loan Program 2. Cash Flow 3. PLUS Loan 4. Graduate Record Examination - GRE 5. Graduate Management Admission Test - GMAT 6. Magna Cum Laude Trading Center
In today's headlines:‏ תג בכותרות Shoah Day Marks 70 Years since Warsaw Ghetto Rebellion Central theme for Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Day 2013: Defiance and Rebellion. Gil Ronen, Yad VaShem Yad VaShem Flash 90 The central theme for Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Day, 2013, is Defiance and Rebellion in the Holocaust. This year, the ceremony will mark 70 years since the Warsaw ghetto uprising. The day will be marked in a ceremony Sunday evening, and as the embedded video shows, rehearsals are ongoing. "The most notable armed uprising that took place in the ghettos broke out in Warsaw on the first night of Pesach 5703 (19 April 1943)," writes Shoah memorial museum Yad Vashem in its website. "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was the first large-scale urban civilian rebellion against the Nazis, predating similar non-Jewish underground activity and uprisings in Europe, and strengthening and uniting Jewish youth in other places."
Picks and Pans Main: Etc. updated 07/18/1988 AT 01:00 AM EDT In the United States, Kiefer has been hailed as a brilliant neo-Expressionist painter. But in his native West Germany, some critics label him a neo-Nazi. This charge stems from photographs Kiefer, 43, took of himself in the 1960s dressed as a Nazi officer. Kiefer said he donned Nazi clothes to understand an experience many Germans have preferred to bury. "I do not identify with Nero or Hitler," Kiefer said in a rare public statement. "But I have to reenact what they did just a little bit in order to understand the madness." Don't expect a further explanation. For the first American retrospective of his work, now at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles, he laid down strict ground rules—no interviews, no photo sessions. But even though Kiefer, living quietly in Buchen, West Germany, avoids celebrity, his art speaks powerfully. This is a mysterious, disturbing exhibition by a major painter whose works transcend national boundaries. Kiefer is a fervid intellectual forager, and references to the Bible, alchemy, Wagnerian opera and Norse myth turn up repeatedly in his paintings. Yet he can create distinctly German art, with charred landscapes and vast architectural spaces suggesting buildings that were constructed during the Third Reich and are now crumbling under the weight of history. Some of Kiefer's monumental canvases (as large as 12 feet by 18 feet) seem to exude the stench of suffering that rises from a burning land. In "Iron Path" (1986), railroad tracks rise vertically toward a grim sky. Like the waters of a stormy sea, the earth has been churned into an impasto of mud-colored oils. Do the tracks lead to the Nazi death camps? There are no signs, only symbols. Two golden orbs hang in the shallow sky; iron shoes used to scale telephone poles and decorated with olive branches are attached to the tracks. To create this piece, Kiefer adapted a photograph he had taken of a switching yard in France. Typically, Kiefer uses a free range of materials. Besides oils, he applies photographs, woodcuts, lead, steel, copper and wire to his surfaces. To the despair of art conservators, Kiefer even uses straw in some works. In "Nuremberg" (1982), rows of straw lie scattered across a painting of barren, scorched earth. (Kiefer singed the canvas with a blowtorch.) The Kiefer show also features booklike creations the size of Gutenberg Bibles. Page turners wearing white gloves rhythmically turn the heavy leaves of such volumes as "Thorough-Glow" (1985-87), in which 12 pages are scarred with clay, shellac, copper wire, lead and porcelain to suggest scenes of devastation in a nuclear reactor meltdown. The exhibition—16 books and 76 paintings and watercolors—was mounted by the Art Institute of Chicago and the Philadelphia Museum of Art. It is at the Museum of Contemporary Art through Sept. 11, then moves to New York's Museum of Modern Art on Oct. 17. A fine catalog by Mark Rosenthal, a Philadelphia Museum curator, accompanies the show. From Our Partners
MCAT in a quiz (Physics Version) Random Science or Physics Quiz Can you name the physics concepts that are tested on the MCAT ? Quiz not verified by Sporcle How to Play QuestionAnswerAdditional Info A physical quantity with both magnitude and direction Weight (Fluids)Use p for density What is the change in momentum called What is the flow of electric charge A collision where some energy is dissipated into internal energy Formula for Electric field A physical quantity with magnitude but no direction What do currents generate Formula for translational motion using variables v, v0, a, x What stays constant for a circuit in parallel SI units for Resistance Rate of change in an objects velocity Is Q negative or positive when heat is gained What is the combination of two nuclei for from a heavier nucleus? A collision where objects stick together Formula for Ohm's lawSolve for V Centripetal force equation Formula for resistance for circuit in seriesSolve for Rtotal, 3 Rs Coulomb's LawUse q1 for one charge, q2 for another What radioactive decay particle is a Helium nucleous What type of heat transfer is the direct transfer of energy via molecular collisions Formula for frequency Sound travels in this type of wave QuestionAnswerAdditional Info Formula for translational motion using variables v, v0, a, t What is the time for half the given substance to decay What stays constant for a circuit in series Change in position independent from the path taken The force that must be overcome to set an object in motion Formula for power (use V in formula) Formula for Density Formula for Force on a spring Kinetic Energy formula (Solve for KE) Is momentum scalar or a vector What makes an object be in equilibrium What type of frictional force (static or kinetic) causes a wheel to roll SI unit for Work? Formula for specific heattype in Delta for ∆ State Newton's 3rd law Formula for momentum Formula for torque (Use T for torque) Name of the Force that pushes back against gravity A collision where mechanical energy is conserved and no energy is dissipated to internal energy 2nd Law of ThermodynamicsJust write one word What is the opposition to the flow of charge What is a zero for dynamic equilibrium Formula for translational motion using variables x, x0, v0, a and t QuestionAnswerAdditional Info What radioactive decay particle is an electron SI units for Current Formula for Work This type of wave displaces medium perpendicular to the direction of the wave In an isolated system, momentum is State the conservation of Energy Theoremtype in Delta for ∆ What is the formula for capacitors in parallelSolve for Ctotal, 3 Cs What type radioactive decay is the most penetrating Potential Energy formula (gravity) 1st Law of Thermodynamics (Write the formula)type in Delta for ∆ Formula for voltage for a circuit in seriesSolve for Vtotal 3Vs The force that opposes the motion of objects Formula for Snell's law (Refraction)type in Theta for θ What type of heat transfer is the transfer of the energy of electromagnetic waves Magnetic force on a moving chargeB = magnetic field State Newton's 1st law What type of heat transfer is the transfer of heat by the physical motion of the heated material (only liquids and gases) What is the stable proton to neutron ratio for most small atoms What is a constant zero for static equilibrium? State Newton's 2nd lawwrite the formula What is the splitting of an atom to from two different atoms You're not logged in! Compare scores with friends on all Sporcle quizzes. Sign Up with Email Log In You Might Also Like... Show Comments Your Account Isn't Verified!
Take the first steps to physical fitness by understanding how the human body works and how it compares to other animals with our brand new Body Works programs! There will be three different programs, each focusing on a different portion of the body: Movin’ and Shakin’, Pump It Up and Head Honcho. How do the different parts of your body work in coordination to throw a football? We’ll discuss human anatomy in Science Start: Body Works! Any discussion of sports and fitness needs to include a lengthy section on the human body’s skeleton and muscles, and we’ll tackle those topics in Movin’ and Shakin’! The components of our endoskeleton give our body its shape and stability; it would be pretty tough to shoot some hoops without bones! The muscles, tendons and ligaments allow for efficient and calculated motion that lets humans do everything from riding a bike to kicking a ball. We’ll explore differences between our arms and the appendages of other animals that have different purposes, like a bird’s wing or a whale’s flipper. We’ll discover how our muscles work together to make simple actions like smiling possible. And we’ll do it all with museum specimens and a museum educator leading the way! Next, it’s important to understand how the body gets the energy it needs to keep going. Pump It Up takes a look at the heart, blood and kidneys and how they work together to keep the body running smoothly. The bloodstream is vital for exercise, as our red blood cells carry oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, supplying cells in muscles with important resources to continue working properly. Of course, the blood won’t get very far without the pumping action of the heart, and the bloodstream would not be as effective without the filtering power of the kidneys. In Pump It Up, we’ll compare the human heart with that of an animal much smaller than us (a rat) and an animal much larger (a cow). We will take a look at the rainbow of different colors of blood represented by various animals around the world as well as how human kidneys keep our blood pure. We’ll certainly get your heart racing! Of course, to complete an action as complex as throwing a curveball, there has to be a manager, coordinating all of the motions to produce a consistent result. That’s the head honcho, so to speak, or the brain! The human brain has around 100 billion neurons, and many of those have hundreds of synapses (essentially connections between neurons). It’s estimated that there are over 100 trillion synapses in the human brain! In Head Honcho, we’ll compare our brain with animals of all kinds, from the ancient Tyrannosaurus rex to modern sharks. From there, we’ll look at the skulls and teeth of other animals and how we can figure out what that animal ate from what its teeth look like. Each of these programs correlates to TEKS objectives and is perfect for young learners! Book now for these awesome programs, beginning June 1. To schedule a presentation, contact us at or (713) 639-4758! Your Dino Mummy Questions, Answered …theoretical stripes. What animals alive today would be most like Leonardo? Creative Commons License photo credit: The Anti-ZIM Want to learn more about Leonardo and other dinosaurs? See David Temple repairing and gluing a fossil back together. Draw a dinosaur with Dr. Bakker. Science Doesn’t Sleep (7.3.08) Lotus heart Creative Commons License photo credit: tanakawho So here’s what went down after you logged off. Brain food. And, heart food. Looking Back… Saturn portrait Creative Commons License photo credit: Elsie esq. Creative Commons License photo credit: Karl Palutke
Climate Variability Project Description CLIVAR- An International Programme on Climate Variability and Predictability CLIVAR is an international research programme investigating climate variability and predictability on time-scales from months to decades and the response of the climate system to anthropogenic forcing. CLIVAR, as one of the major components of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), started in 1995 has a lifetime of 15 years. The overall purpose and goal of CLIVAR is: To describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales, identify the physical processes responsible, including anthropogenic effects, and develop modeling and predictive capabilities where practicable. The specific CLIVAR Objectives are: Describe and understand the physical processes responsible for climate variability and predictability on seasonal, interannual, decadal and centennial time scales, through the collection and analysis of observations and the development and application of models of the coupled climate system and its component parts, in co-operation with other relevant climate research and observing programmes; Extend the record of climate variability over the time scales of interest through the assembly of quality-controlled paleoclimate and instrumental data sets; Extend the range and accuracy of seasonal to interannual climate prediction through the development of global coupled predictive Understand and predict the response of the climate system to increases of radiatively active gases and aerosols and to compare these predictions with the observed climate record in order to detect any anthropogenic modification of the natural climate signal. CLIVAR Home Page: International CLIVAR Project Office 256/20 Southampton Oceanography Centre Empress Dock, SOUTHAMPTON SO14 3ZH, UK Phone: +44-2380 596777 Fax: +44-2380 596204
Othello Test \| Mid-Book Test - Easy Buy the Othello Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Multiple Choice Questions 1. Why does Iago think he should have been promoted instead of Cassio? (a) Cassio is known for having a drinking and gambling problem. (b) Iago has seniority. (c) Cassio has no real military experience. (d) Cassio has a criminal record. 2. Why is Cassio so hesitant to do what Iago is pressuring him to do? (a) He has lost a fortune to gambling. (b) Roderigo is his good friend. (c) He does not hold his liquor well. (d) He knows that pursuing a married woman is wrong. 3. What does the Duke of Cyprus praise about Othello before he comes ashore in Cyprus? (a) His courage. (b) His style. (c) His creativity. (d) His love. 4. How do Iago and Roderigo wake up Brabantio to tell him of the marriage? (a) They knock on his window while he is sleeping. (b) They rush into the house after the doorman opens the door. (c) They knock on the door. (d) They sneak into his bedroom. 5. Who is the main figure in Act 3, Scene 1? (a) Othello. (b) Iago. (c) Desdemona. (d) Cassio. 6. How is Brabantio related to Desdemona? (a) He is her grandfather. (b) He is her father. (c) He is her godfather. (d) He is her uncle. (a) She has a lot of money. (b) He loves her. (c) She is very beautiful. (d) He has had a vision about her. 8. What is announced in Act 2, Scene 2? (a) A wedding. (b) A trial. (c) A mass feast. (d) An invasion. 9. How does Othello really feel about Cassio, even after his brawl in the street? (a) He is ashamed of Cassio but thinks he has learned his lesson. (b) He is embarassed by Cassio and never wants to see him again. (c) He loves Cassio and wants him back in his service. (d) He is jealous of Cassio and his easy way with women. 10. What is Roderigo's first step toward revenge against Othello when he hears of their marriage? (a) He plots with Iago to frame Othello for infidelity. (b) He pays a man to kill Othello. (c) He tells Brabantio. (d) He tells a policeman to arrest Othello. 11. Why is Iago so upset with Othello at the beginning of the play? (a) He is a moor. (b) He married Desdemona. (c) He promoted Cassio instead of Iago. (d) He slept with his wife. 12. What is the shortest scene in the book? (a) Act 2, Scene 3. (b) Act 2, Scene 2. (c) Act 3, Scene 1. (d) Act 1, Scene 4. 13. What is so different about Desdemona and Othello's relationship? (a) Othello is a black man and Desdemona is a white woman. (b) Othello has been promised to another woman for years. (c) Desdemona is much older then Othello. (d) Desdemona has alread been married twice. 14. Who does Cassio beg to talk with after his hired group has been sent away the morning after his street brawl? (a) The Duke. (b) Iago. (c) Desdemona. (d) Othello. (a) The Duke. (b) Emilia. (c) Desdemona. (d) Othello. Short Answer Questions 1. How does Iago plan to ruin Othello's marriage? 2. Who does Cassio hear is already pleading his case with Othello the morning after his embarrassing street brawl? 3. What is the big event of Act 2, Scene 2 in honor of? 4. Where is Iago from? 5. Who does Cassio fight with on his first night in Cyprus? (see the answer keys) This section contains 574 words (approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page) Buy the Othello Lesson Plans
Several elements contribute to calf stress including weather changes, weaning, handling and medical treatment, just to name a few. Developing and keeping a consistent schedule for calves may aid in reducing some of these stress factors. Some suggested newborn practices include: 1. Keeping your hands and equipment clean, if assisting with calving. 2. Remove mucus from the calf's mouth and nose. 3. Rub the calf vigorously if stimulation is necessary. 5. Clean the navel area and apply a navel dip, such as iodine solutions (1, 2 and 7%) or chlorhexidine (0.5%). 6. Identify the calf. 7. Move the calf into the calf housing area and do not move again until after it is weaned. 8. DCHA Gold Standards III recommends feeding clean, high-quality colostrum equaling a minimum of 10% of body weight in the first 2 hours of life. Having a plan and following it on a daily basis is important. DCHA Gold Standards III strongly recommends working with your herd veterinarian and nutritionist to determine a successful plan that will incorporate these important elements. Investing in a healthy start includes providing your calves with the 5 C's: Colostrum, Calories, Cleanliness, Comfort and Consistency. For additional information, please refer to the following: The 5 C's Raising Calves Calf care consistency checklist
DEFINITION of 'Tequila Effect' Also referred to as the "Mexican Shock". BREAKING DOWN 'Tequila Effect' 1. MXN (Mexican Peso) The currency abbreviation for the Mexican peso (MXN), the currency ... 2. MXN In the currency market, this is the abbreviation for the Mexican ... 3. ARP (Argentinian peso) The currency abbreviation, or currency symbol, for the Argentinian ... 4. UYU (Uruguayan Peso) The currency abbreviation for the Uruguayan peso (UYU), the currency ... 5. COP 6. CLP (Chilean Peso) The currency abbreviation for the Chilean peso (CLP), the currency ... Related Articles 1. Investing Why Greece, Oil and China Affect the Mexican Peso Discover how oil, Greece and China have all played a part in the rapid devaluation of the Mexican peso compared to other currencies. 2. Trading What Are the Best Hours to Trade the Mexican Peso? (MXN, USD) 3. Investing Hamburger Economics: The Big Mac Index 4. Insights 4 Economic Challenges Mexico Faces in 2016 Learn how the Mexican economy improved in 2015 and why 2016 looks like a repeat. Find out why the biggest drag on the economy is still government corruption. 5. Trading What Causes A Currency Crisis? 6. Investing Forex Investing: How To Capture Commodity Fluctuations For individual or retail investors looking to gain exposure to hot commodity trends, the foreign exchange markets provide the answer. 7. Trading 3 Reasons The Mexican Peso Is So Liquid (MXN, USD) 8. Insights How Does a Currency Peg Work? When a government initiates a currency peg, it pegs its currency’s value to that of another country. 9. Investing This Might Be the Best Time to Buy Colombian Pesos 10. Investing Explaining Devaluation 1. What are the most common market indicators to follow the Mexican stock market and ... Learn the primary stock market indicators for the Mexican stock market and the leading economic indicators analysts use to ... Read Answer >> 3. How did Carlos Slim start America Movil? Dig deeper into the origin and history of America Movil, one of the largest corporations in the world and the dominant telecommunications ... Read Answer >> Learn about key benefits to a country engaging in a policy of currency depreciation, such as smaller trade deficits, employment ... Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Federal Direct Loan Program 2. Cash Flow 3. PLUS Loan 4. Graduate Record Examination - GRE 5. Graduate Management Admission Test - GMAT 6. Magna Cum Laude Trading Center
Video: 'Gravity-Defying' Beads Form Fountain If one lays a long chain of beads in a neat pile in a beaker, pulls an end of the chain and releases it, the chain will not only flow to the floor due to gravity but also spontaneously arc upward as it moves. credit : John Biggins/University of Cambridge
Book Cover Organic Chemistry 4e Carey Online Learning Center Chapter 8: Nucleophilic Substitution Summary \| Overview \| SN1 \| Carbocations \| SN2 \| Nucleophiles \| Nucleophilicity versus Basicity \| Leaving Groups \| Solvent Effects \| Substitution versus Elimination \| Substitution reactions involving Alcohols \| Substitution reactions of Alkyl Halides \| Self Assessment \| Quiz \| Chapter 8: Nucleophilic Substitution selection of possible nucleophiles A collection of important nucleophiles are shown to the left. Nucleophilicity trends (compared with basicity) 1. Across a row in the periodic table nucleophilicity (lone pair donation) C- > N- > O- > F- since increasing electronegativity decreases the lone pair availability. This is the same order as for basicity. 2. If one is comparing the same central atom, higher electron density will increase the nucleophilicity, 3. e.g. an anion will be a better Nu (lone pair donor) than a neutral atom such as HO- > H2O. This is the same order as for basicity. 4. Within a group in the periodic table, increasing polarization of the nucleophile as you go down a group enhances the ability to form the new C-X bond and increases the nucleophilicity, so I- > Br- > Cl- > F-. The electron density of larger atoms is more readily distorted i.e. polarized, since the electrons are further from the nucleus. 5. Note that is the opposite order to basicity (acidity increases down a group) where polarisability is much less important for bond formation to the very small proton. Here is a table of relative nucleophilicities as measured in methanol (CH3OH): Very Good I-, HS-, RS- Good Br-, HO-, RO-, NC-, N3- Fair NH3, Cl-, F-, RCO2- Weak H2O, ROH Very Weak RCO2H Begin a search: Catalog \| Site \| Campus Rep For further information about this site contact Corporate Link
Talk:Mater lectionis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search WikiProject Judaism (Rated C-class, Low-importance) Etymology and pronunciation[edit] Can we get an etymology and pronunciation with this article. Would be very helpful. Also - I am unclear as to whether the system is historical or current. —Preceding unsigned comment added by (talkcontribs) 04:54, 4 October 2005 Supplied translation of the Latin. The English-language pronunciation of "Mater Lectionis" can be variable. The system is currently used, but it's no longer the ONLY method of indicating vowels (as it was before the invention of the diacritic "points"). However, it's still the most frequently used method for writing vowels in Hebrew and Arabic. AnonMoos 16:25, 17 October 2005 (UTC) Examples, "מלא millō"[edit] Where is מלא ever vocalized millō? It's typically male, although it is occasionally mlō. In any case, מלא is not an example of א as "mostly ā." This example should be deleted. -- חנינא — Preceding undated comment added 00:17, 30 August 2006 "Middle Kingdom"?[edit] What is "middle kingdom" supposed to mean in the article? It sure doesn't mean the Egyptian middle kingdom (which is the most common meaning of the phrase "Middle Kingdom" in English). AnonMoos 16:25, 17 October 2005 (UTC) Actually, the most common meaning of the phrase "Middle Kingdom" in English is China, but I'm pretty sure that the article is not referring to China either. —Lowellian (reply) 00:30, 6 February 2009 (UTC) Well, in a scholarly ancient near east context, the most common meaning is the Egyptian middle kingdom... AnonMoos (talk) 02:36, 6 February 2009 (UTC) is the letter "y" in english considered a Mater lectionis given it's usage as an effective vowel in words like sky? —Preceding unsigned comment added by (talk) 00:21, 2 March 2010 (UTC) The concept is only related to Abjad scripts. --Mahmudmasri (talk) 19:20, 21 October 2011 (UTC) At the section Usage in Hebrew, I see the character ǣ used for י, but, what does it stand for? Is it meant to transcribe /ei/? --Mahmudmasri (talk) 19:14, 21 October 2011 (UTC) I assume it's meant to be a transcription of segol-yod, as in אבותיך "your fathers, ancestors", which in fact probably was not pronounced ǣ... AnonMoos (talk) 22:39, 21 October 2011 (UTC) Short vowels[edit] I think this needs further explanation. As far as I know, in Modern Hebrew vowel length is not phonemic. Presumably, "short vowel" here refers to biblical/classical phonology, and the modern spelling is still based on it. But it's not clear. Rcaetano (talk) 05:30, 1 April 2013 (UTC) It's used for vowels which would be short in classical/historical terms, particularly in the Pu'al and Hoph'al (Huf'al) verb stems, where the u/o vowel marks passive. The modern spelling actually uses a ו (waw/vav) letter in cases where it wouldn't have ordinarily been used in Biblical spelling. Not sure about "grammatically incorrect", though -- it's fine as modern (not Biblical) Hebrew... AnonMoos (talk) 06:18, 1 April 2013 (UTC) Another example is in the name of the Likud party -- it would be spelled לכוד in traditional/classicizing orthography, since the "k" consonant was originally doubled, but ליכוד in full modern orthography. Wikipedia article is Ktiv hasar niqqud, but I'm not sure how helpful it is... AnonMoos (talk) 06:26, 1 April 2013 (UTC) Construct- and absolute-state[edit] These terms should be explained (or have links to explanations). — Preceding unsigned comment added by (talk) 22:57, 9 February 2015 (UTC) I linked to the Construct state article (but not sure how much good it will do people who don't have any direct experience with relevant languages)... AnonMoos (talk) 03:52, 10 February 2015 (UTC) use of the article "a" with a plural noun[edit] This comment is based upon this ("02:18, 31 July 2015‎") version of the article. In the Hebrew sub-section of (the "History" section of) the article, the sentence that begins "Around the 9th century CE, it was decided [...]" ends with a part that says -- with one (parenthesized) portion elided -- [...] so a supplemental vowel pointing systems (niqqud) [...] joined matres lectionis as part of the Hebrew writing system. I think this should be changed. [IMHO], either [a] the plural noun "systems" should be changed to the singular, by deleting the suffix "s", or else -- if for some reason it must remain plural -- then [b] the article "a" does not belong in that phrase. Personally I think that it is likely that the original intent was: to say [or, write] that only one "vowel pointing system" -- (namely, niqqud) -- "joined matres lectionis [...]". (See [a].) (right?) I plan to update the article accordingly. (But this explanation might not fit in an edit comment). --Mike Schwartz (talk) 21:11, 11 September 2015 (UTC) Either the singular or plural could be used (there were multiple variant systems), but there was certainly an inconsistency. AnonMoos (talk) 08:48, 20 May 2016 (UTC)
From ArchWiki Revision as of 16:52, 7 January 2010 by 10wattmindtrip (Talk \| contribs) (fixed a spelling error and grammar error) Jump to: navigation, search EncFS is a userspace cryptographic file-system, and aims to secure data with the minimum hassle. It uses FUSE to mount an encrypted directory onto another directory specified by the user. It does not use a loopback system like some other comparable systems such as TrueCrypt and dm-crypt. This has a number of advantages and disadvantages compared to these systems. Firstly, it does not require any root privileges to implement; any user can create a repository of encrypted files. Secondly, one does not need to create a single file and create a file-system within that; it works on existing file-system without modifications. This does create a few disadvantages, though; because the encrypted files are not stored in their own file, someone who obtains access to the system can still see the underlying directory structure, the number of files, their sizes and when they were modified. They cannot see the contents, however. This particular method of securing data is obviously not perfect, but there are situations in which it is useful. Install the Template:Package Official package using pacman: # pacman -S encfs To create a secured repository, type: $ encfs ~/.DIRNAME ~/DIRNAME This will be followed by a prompt about whether you want to go with the default (paranoid options) or expert configuration. The latter allows specifying algorithms and other options. The former is a fairly secure default setup. After entering a key for the encryption, the encoded file-system will be created and mounted. The encoded files are stored, in this example, at Template:Filename, and their unencrypted versions in Template:Filename. To unmount the file-system, type: $ fusermount -u ~/DIRNAME To remount the file-system, issue the first command, and enter the key used to encode it. Once this has been entered, the file-system will be mounted again.
This is an old revision of the document! Hardware virtualization with QEMU Virtualization in Linux One of the often cited reasons people have for not completely switching to Linux, is the fact that for some Windows applications, there is no real Linux alternative. Solutions for running DOS/Windows applications in Linux have been available for quite some time though: there is the Wine Project that allows you to run individual Windows applications by translating the Windows library calls to Linux library calls. In DOSemu and DOSBox you can run old DOS based programs. DOSemu and DOSBox provide a more or less complete virtual computer environment to the DOS Operating System. For the Windows OS there are a few virtualization solutions, too. The most prominent is the commercial VMWare which is also the fastest performer. Open Source alternatives like Bochs and Plex86 (formerly called FreeMWare) have tried, but failed to result in a workable environment. The new kid on the block is QEMU which is an actively developed project with a fairly large base of enthousiast followers and contributors. QEMU is able to provide a virtualized computer hardware environment on which you can install and run Windows, Linux, and lots of other Operating Systems. QEMU calls this System Emulation. QEMU can also operate in User Emulation mode, where it is able to run single Linux processes - thereby translating calls for a specific architecture into another architecture. Most notably, User Emulation is used on non-intel platforms to run a version of the Wine Emulator, so that individual Windows applications can actually be used on foreign platforms. Because QEMU source code is licensed under the GPL, a third party has used it to develop an enhanced version they sell under the name Win4Lin Pro. Modifications to the GPL-ed source code are contributed back to qemu, so both parties profit. The qemu PC emulator can be made a lot faster by loading a special driver which is able to accelerate the Virtual Machine on x86 hosts. This driver is implemented as a separate kernel module called kqemu. Qemu can use this to run the virtual machine (the guest) at nearly the raw speed of the host machine. The kqemu software has a proprietary license, but nevertheless, you're free to use it for non-commercial as well as commercial purposes. You may distribute kqemu only with the author's explicit permission. Emulated hardware and supported Guest OS-es The QEMU Virtual Machine emulates a set of hardware components that is independent of the real hardware on which it is running. Since Slackware runs on x86 architecture, I will limit myself to a list of emulated hardware available to Slack (other emulated architectures may have other hardware peripherals available to the Guest OS). • IDE-Controller supporting up to 4 drives (the drives are disk images on the host computer • IDE CDROM device (in the form of a CD ISO image, or a real CDROM device) • Floppy disk controller supporting up to 2 drives (floppy disk images) • Graphics card (either a Cirrus Logic GD5446 PCI, or VGA-VESA) • PS/2 Mouse • Ethernet network card (Realtek RTL8139 PCI or NE2000 PCI) • A serial port (COM 1) • A parallel port (LPT 1) • Soundcard (Soundblaster 16 and/or ES1370) • A USB-UHCI host controller (the Intel SB82371) The list of Operating Systems that run inside QEMU is quite long. Here is an unofficial list of supported Guest OS-es. I have run various Linuxes (for x68 and x86_64) and Windows 98/2000/XP inside QEMU. Recent developments in the kqemu accelerator module bring performance of QEMU on par with the commercial VMware. However, VMware offers quite a few extra features compared to QEMU. Now that you can get certain VMware software versions for free, VMware has again become a compelling alternative (although Open Source lovers will still prefer QEMU naturally!). You should realize that running an operating system directly on the hardware is always faster than running the same operating system inside a virtual machine, because of the processor overhead that the virtualization of all hardware dictates. Even so, the guest operating system inside the QEMU virtual machine feels suprisingly responsive if you have a decent CPU and lots of RAM. Obtaining and building QEMU NOTE Building qemu and kqemu has changed with qemu 0.8.1. Until qemu 0.8.0, if you want to use kqemu you need to 1. unpack the qemu source archive 2. change into the 'kqemu' subdirectory of the extracted directory structure 3. unpack the kqemu archive in this subdirectory 4. move up one directory level to the top of the qemu source tree and run the make install commands to install the software (both qemu and kqemu. With the release of 0.8.1, building kqemu is separated from building qemu. When you want kqemu to accelerate the emulation in qemu, you 5. download and unpack qemu sources 6. configure and build qemu with kqemu support (this is the default if you run ./configure) 7. install qemu on your computer using make install 8. download, unpack kqemu archive 9. configure and build kqemu, and install it on your computer using make install. Running QEMU and kqemu Running QEMU is as easy as just… running qemu <many parameters>. QEMU all by itself results in quite sluggish emulation which makes the experience working with the Guest OS not an exhilarating one. The accelerator module kqemu improves QEMU's emulation speed a lot. If you installed my kqemu package, several files in /etc/ will be altered, so that kqemu's acceleration will be available to you after each boot of the computer. If you do not want to reboot, but want to use QEMU with kqemu right away, then you should run these commands once (as root) before you start QEMU: mount /dev/shm modprobe kqemu You should prepare your Slackware system for the kqemu module so that it can operate as efficiently as possibble. Your computer will automatically have been setup in case you installed my Slackware packages from the URL I provided in the previous section. If you compiled everything yourself, please follow these instructions: • The acceleration that kqemu offers works best if kqemu can map the Virtual Machine's memory pages to your computer's physical RAM. If kqemu finds a mounted RAM filesystem at /dev/shm it will create a hidden file there which will hold the RAM of the virtual machine. If it does not find a RAM filesystem, the VM's memory will be mapped to a disk file in your /tmp directory, and of course this will not nearly be as fast as working entirely in RAM. So, add this line to /etc/fstab none /dev/shm tmpfs defaults 0 0 By default, adding this line in /etc/fstab will allow a maximum of 50% of your physical RAM to be used up by the RAM filesystem. If you want your QEMU to emulate a computer with an X MB amount of memory, then this amount of memory “X” must be available to qemu in /dev/shm, or else qemu will refuse to start. This means for instance, that if your computer has 1GB of RAM, and the above line is present in /etc/fstab, qemu will be able to emulate a computer with a maximum of 500MB RAM (actually, a little less than 50% is effectively available to the VM, so try to give QEMU a couple of percents less than 50% of your physical RAM). If you need more RAM for QEMU, you must change the defaults like this: none /dev/shm tmpfs size=750M 0 0 Reserving part of your RAM to be used by /dev/shm and a tmpfs, does not mean that you permanently loose this amount of RAM for other applications! Only the memory in /dev/shm that is actually used by an application will become unavailable to other applications. Having a line like above in your /etc/fstab does in no way affect your machine and it's performance if no program uses it. So would be OK to always have such a line. ## the lines below: ## ## ## # Create the KQEMU device if ! [ -e /dev/kqemu ]; then mknod /dev/kqemu c 250 0 chmod 666 /dev/kqemu My kqemu package also installs a udev rule file as /etc/udev/rules.d/50-kqemu-rule in case you run QEMU on a 2.6 kernel, with these contents: # kqemu KERNEL=="kqemu", NAME="%k", MODE="0666" If you decided to restrict access to /dev/kqemu, then you should modify this file to for instance # kqemu /sbin/modprobe kqemu Use the following line instead for kqemu if you have UDEV: /sbin/modprobe kqemu major=0 This will automatically create the device node /dev/kqemu on demand. Note that nowadays Slackware comes with /etc/rc.d/rc.modules as a symbolic link to the file /etc/rc.d/rc.modules-<kernelversion>. You have to check carefully that you modify the modules file for the kernel you are currently running. This concludes the alterations needed for a performance boost of your Virtual Machines inside QEMU. As I said earlier, running qemu is really simple - it is a single binary with a lot of optional commandline parameters that customize the virtual machine it will setup for use. QEMU will use the kqemu accelerator if it finds the kernel module loaded in memory (and if it's built with support for kqemu). QEMU provides an additional layer of acceleration called kernel-kqemu. In this acceleration mode, the Guest kernel processes will also be accelerated as opposed to the “regular” functionality of kqemu to only accelerate the Guest's user processes. You do need to supply an explicit parameter to the qemu commandline: qemu -kernel-kqemu <other parameters> If you don't want kqemu functionality at all, for instance because some programs and Guest OS-es will not work reliably or not at all with acceleration enabled, you can explicitly tell qemu on the commandline to do without: qemu -no-kqemu <other parameters> Installing an Operating System in QEMU In this section, we're going to install a Guest Operating System in QEMU. Since my guess is that many people use QEMU to run a copy of Windows on a Linux host, I will use Windows XP as an example. The hardware that QEMU emulates (see the previous section for a list) is fully supported by at least Windows Xp/2000/NT and the few tweaks that are needed to make Windows 98/95 work well are documented in the qemu user-documentation. In my experience, Windows 2000 is an optimal compromise between speed and functionality, but Windows XP works well on fast hardware and with the latest kqemu accelerator. The instructions and tips that are documented in this section will mostly apply to the installation of any other Operating System. Remember that QEMU builds a virtual computer around the Operating System you're going to use inside of it. So, the hard drives are virtualized as well. So, before starting QEMU, we will create a big file that QEMU can then use as the virtual hard disk: When you run the above command, you'll see a new window appear, and you'll actually see the Windows XP installer boot (assuming you didn't mess up during one of the previous steps)! To use the mouse in QEMU, you need to click in the window to give it focus. QEMU grabs the mouse, and to give it back to your other applications you press Ctrl+Alt (it even says so in QEMU's window bar). Another key combination worth mentioning is the full-screen toggle Ctrl+Alt+F. If QEMU is running full-screen you can fool anyone that you're suddenly running the evil OS :-) The installation of XP is a process that I'm not going to repeat, I am assuming you'll know how to proceed. What you need to be aware of, is that the installation of Windows 2000/XP in QEMU still has a couple of annoyances. These are: • Errors of “disk full” half-way the install. QEMU even knows a separate commandline parameter -win2k-hack that you should add exclusively for the duration of a Windows 2000 installation if you experience disk full errors during the installation • Windows XP sometimes installs without a problem but at the first boot displays the following message: A problem is preventing Windows from accurately checking the license for this computer. Error code: 0x800703e6. If you see this, you have bad luck. You can get around this by booting XP in Safe Mode without networking support. When you're done with installing from CD, do not forget to at least remove the -boot d commandline parameter, so that the virtual computer will start from it's hard drive instead of booting from the CDROM. Networking your virtual machine By default, QEMU uses a feature which is called user-mode network. QEMU will run an internal DHCP server that can assign an IP address to the virtual computer in case that is configured to use DHCP. The network range and gateway are hard-coded into QEMU but it allows your virtual machine to call out to your host machine and beyond. For user-mode networking, you don't need to configure anything on your host. I will probably document user-mode networking sometime later, but for now I suggest you read my article on VDE where I show how you can use VDE (virtual distributed ethernet) in combination with dnsmasq to get a much enhanced network experience. Advanced topics So far we have been through the bare minimum to get your Guest OS installed and working on your host computer and interacting with the network. Much more is possible with QEMU, and I will dedicate this chapter to the advanced topics that are most interesting or least wel-documented in other places. I will also assume you're running a recent version of QEMU. The emulator advances in great strides, and some of the features and command line switches I talk about are not available in all releases. Generally speaking, try to upgrade to the latest official release. At the point of writing, I am using 0.8.1. Using copy-on-write files QEMU uses a disk image file containing your installed Operating System. We created that image file in a previous section as a raw image, meaning the file has no special format. QEMU knows of several disk image formats, and one of them I want to introduce to you: the QCOW or ”“qemy copy-on-write” format. The QCOW file can be used in combination with a base image file. Suppose you're happy with the installed OS in your winxp.img disk image file. You want to try out a new application, or you want to do some potentially disastrous tests in your virtual machine. You don't want to risk the possibility to thrash your installed OS and want a safe way to test with the option to revert to the original state if things go terribly wrong. qemu-img create -b winxp.img -f qcow winxp.qcow You then change the qemu commandline from qemu -localtime -m 256 -hda winxp.img qemu -localtime -m 256 -hda winxp.qcow to use your new QCOW file. When you tell QEMU to use the QCOW file instead of the RAW image file, QEMU will do all file writes to the QCOW image, thus treating the original RAW file as a read-only file. The effect is, that if you stop QEMU after you did some work, the original image file winxp.img is unaltered and all changes are recorded into the QCOW file winxp.qcow. If you delete the QCOW subsequently and re-start QEMU with the original commandline using the original winxp.img file, there will be no trace left of the previous QEMU session you ran using the QCOW file. So, this is ideal for testing stuff out - in fact, this is how I test and build my new Slackware packages. When you're happy with the result, you don't delete the QCOW file, bit instead commit the changes recorded in that file back to the base image file: qemu-img commit winxp.qcow If you want, you can get rid of the now emptied QCOW file. The qemu monitor • Inspect the virtual machine state without an external debugger. • Send key presses to the guest OS running inside the virtual machine. Changing a CD/floppy in the virtual machine eject -f cdrom i.e. supply the full path to the ISO image on the Host filesystem. eject -f cdrom change cdrom /dev/cdrom Switch back out of the monitor to the Guest using Ctrl+Alt+1. Send key presses sendkey ctrl-alt-delete 1. You're running X on the host as well as on the guest. In the guest, you need to run a keyboard sequence containing Ctrl+Alt - like, you want to switch to a console using Ctrl+Alt+F6 or end your X session using Ctrl+Alt+Backspace. The host will intercept this key combination even if the QEMU window has focus. The solution here is to switch to the QEMU monitor (Ctrl+Alt+2) and then run the literal command - for instance sendkey ctrl-alt-f6 By 'literal' i mean that you type the characters exactly as I showed you. Mounting a QEMU disk image on the Host On the host, you can mount filesystems created in partitions that are present in QEMU's virtual disk image - and access the files contained in there - under certain conditions: $ /sbin/fdisk -lu slack102.img You must set cylinders. You can do this from the extra functions menu. Disk slack102.img: 0 MB, 0 bytes Units = sectors of 1 * 512 = 512 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System slack102.img1 * 63 208844 104391 83 Linux slack102.img2 208845 401624 96390 82 Linux swap slack102.img3 401625 4192964 1895670 83 Linux Accessing the host parallel port qemu -parallel /dev/parport0 <other qemu parameters> cd /dev ln -s lp0 parport0 Printing to the Host's CUPS server The Guest OS can print to a CUPS printer that you configured on the Host. No other software on the Host or the Guest is needed. The Guest's printing system must be able to use IPP, the “Internet Printing Protocol”. This is the CUPS native protocol. If your Guest is Windows 2000/XP, you need to do the following: 1. Click on “add printer” from the printer list window; 2. Select “networkprinter or a printer connected to another computer”; 3. Pick “Connect to a printer on the Internet …” and enter the correct URL; 4. Install the driver for your printer (you will need to have the driver setup program ready if it is not supported by Windows by default); The URL for your CUPS printer will look like where the address is the IP address for the Host and lp0 is the name of the printer that you defined in CUPS. Naturally, you will need to substitute values that are appropriate for your own computer! If you use the rc.vdenetwork init script I documented in my QEMU/VDE network page then will actually be the correct IP address to use. If your Guest is Slackware Linux, then you need to setup the CUPS client in the Guest. I assume that you already installed the CUPS package when you installed Linux in the Guest. This is what you should do: 1. Edit the file /etc/cups/client.conf and look for the line that says ”#ServerName myhost.domain.com”. Change that line into where you supply a correct IP address for your host. If you use the rc.vdenetwork init script I documented in my QEMU/VDE network page then will actually be the correct IP address to use; 2. Make the CUPS init script executable so that CUPS will start automatically when the Guest boots: chmod +x /etc/rc.d/rc.cups 3. Reboot the Guest or (re-) start CUPS: /etc/rc.d/rc.cups restart 4. Your Guest should now be able to use your Host CUPS printer. In case you configured your Host's CUPS server to make it visible to other CUPS clients on your network (read my "setting up CUPS" page), then the above CUPS client configuration won't be necessary. The Host's CUPS printer will automatically appear - ready for use - in your Guest even if CUPS is running in its default configuration. Sound support in the Guest QEMU has pretty good sound support. It emulates several sound hardcards. You can print a list of the emulated cards by running qemu -soundhw ? Support for the Adlib sound card in QEMU is not enabled by default (Soundblaster 16 and Ensoniq ES1370 are available in the VM by default) You can add support for Adlib to the emulator when you build the software, by adding to the configure command. If you want information about the tunable audio parameters, run qemu -audio-help For sound output, QEMU uses SDL which in turn uses OSS. Slackware uses the ALSA sound driver which has OSS emulation support. Since version 0.8.0, QEMU can use ALSA directly for sound output, but you will have to explicitly enable this when building the sofware. Add to the configure command. The scripts in the final section of this Wiki page show you how to setup your environment so that you can actually hear the sound that QEMU outputs. The requirement for sound to come from your speakers is the environment variable QEMU_AUDIO_DRV which must have a value of either ”sdl” or ”oss”, or in case you compiled-in ALSA support, it may have a value of ”alsa” as well. Using an USB device in QEMU USB devices that are connected to the host machine can be accessed directly inside the Virtual Machine. QEMU needs an aditional parameter -usb to actually enable USB support in the VM. The emulated Intel SB82371 UHCI-Controller has a 8-port USB hub. If you want access to one of your physical devices, you will need to find out it's Vendor-ID and Product-ID. This information is obtained by examining the output of cat /proc/bus/usb/devices . You can either tell QEMU to make the device available by looking up the VendorID and ProductID and passing it on the commandline qemu -usb -usbdevice host:<VendorID>:<ProductID> <other_parameters> or starting QEMU just with USB support enabled: qemu -usb <other_parameters> After booting the guest OS in the VM, switch to the monitor by pressing Ctrl+Alt+2 and enter the following command usb_add host:<VendorID>:<ProductID> When you return to the graphical screen of the Guest by pressing Ctrl+Alt+1 you will see a USB “device attach” event in the messagelog (Linux) or on-screen (Windows). • An example: You have a HP Scanjet 3300C connected to the USB port of your computer. The output of lsusb is # lsusb Bus 003 Device 002: ID 03f0:0205 ScanJet 3300C The command that you use to make this scanner accessible in QEMU is qemu -usb -usbdevice host:03f0:0205 <other_parameters> The important thing to consider with using real USB devices, is that the Host must not have any driver loaded for the USB device. If your hotplug loads drivers automatically, you can enter the driver's name into the file /etc/hostplug/blacklist to make sure that hotplug will leave it alone. In the QEMU dccumentation I noticed that this is supposedly no longer an issue with (recent) 2.6 kernels. YMMV as I have not yet tried this. PXE booting your QEMU virtual machine In another article on this Wiki, i talk about the advantages of network booting (PXE boot) when you are installing Slackware. Booting the Slackware installer from the network can sometimes be the only way of installing Slackware - imagine a PC without floppy and CDROM drives. QEMU on the other hand, has no need for network boot since you can just create an ISO image and pass that as the ”-cdrom” parameter and that's it. Yet there are times when you'd want your QEMU virtual machine were able to use PXE to boot from the network, if only to test your network setup without sacrificing real hardware. There is only one problem, the emulated QEMU network card (Realtek 8029, a NE2000 clone) does not support booting from the network (it does not emulate a boot ROM). There are two ways to overcome this problem. • The first is to use the ROM-o-Matic. ROM-o-matic.net dynamically generates Etherboot ROM images. We will let it create a PXE-capable ISO image that has support for our emulated Realtec network card. We can then use this small (~130kB) ISO image with the ”-cdrom” parameter to QEMU to let it serve as a “replacement” PXE-boot ROM for the emulated network card. The ISO generation works as follows - on the ROM-o-Matic start page, • Select latest production release • Choose NIC/ROM type ns8390:rtl8029 - [0x10ec,0x8029] • Choose ROM output format ISO bootable image without legacy floppy emulation (.iso) • To generate and download a ROM image press: Get ROM No further customizations are needed, the default options are exactly right for our purposes. • Save the generated ISO file on your local hard disk (for instance as qemu_pxeboot.iso) To use this ISO to boot from your PXE server, run qemu as follows: qemu -cdrom qemu_pxeboot.iso -boot d <other options> Read the article on installing Slackware using PXE if you want to know more about how to setup a full-blown PXE server. • The other option you have is available since QEMU 0.9.0 and that is to use the -option-rom parameter. As of the 0.9.0 release, QEMU can do a PXE boot using one of the PXE-capable boot roms available in /usr/share/qemu: • /usr/share/qemu/pxe-ne2k_pci.bin • /usr/share/qemu/pxe-pcnet.bin • /usr/share/qemu/pxe-rtl8139.bin In order to support booting from the network, the -boot parameter has been extended with the possible value n for “network”. An example of the command to PXE-boot your QEMU Virtual Machine from the network follows: qemu -localtime -m 256 -hda slackware.img -boot n -option-rom /usr/share/qemu/pxe-ne2k_pci.bin <other_parameters> If you read the Wiki article on VDE in order to improve the networking support for QEMU, and are running dnsmasq using the example rc.vdenetwork script, you can easily add support for network booting to the script. Look in the script for and change it into The two assumptions here (which you are free to change of course) are: • QEMU sees your host as having the IP Address • Your host has a TFTP server setup so that /slackware-11.0/pxelinux.0 is the location under the tftproot directory where the PXE bootloader pxelinux.0 can be downloaded. If your TFTP server is not installed on the host but somewhere on the “real” network, you're in a bit of a problem: the PXE client and the TFTP server are separated by a NAT firewall! Actually, there is no problem if you are using VDE for the network support. The rc.vdenetwork script installs a few basic iptables rules that make your host act as the NAT (masquerading) router for the QEMU guests. The TFTP requests will not be able to pass the NAT (which causes Slackware's tftp-hpa server to log errors like in.tftpd[8146]: tftpd: read(ack): Connection refused). We need a some extra work on the iptables firewall here, to let the TFTP traffic pass along. Add the following commands to the rc.vdenetwork script, or another place if your firewall is not setup there: modprobe ipt_state modprobe ipt_helper modprobe ip_conntrack_tftp modprobe ip_nat_tftp iptables -A INPUT -m helper --helper tftp -j ACCEPT iptables -A OUTPUT -m helper --helper tftp -j ACCEPT after which the QEMU VM will find the TFTP server and start downloading the bootcode, and the Operating System. Copy/paste text between Host and Guest Sharing files between Host and Guest Code Text A QEMU start script # Start Windows XP Pro in QEMU # Qemu can use SDL sound instead of the default OSS export QEMU_AUDIO_DRV=sdl # Whereas SDL can play through alsa: # Now, change directory to your image directory # Qemu can use SDL sound instead of the default OSS export QEMU_AUDIO_DRV=sdl # Whereas SDL can play through alsa: # Now, change directory to your image directory # This command returns to the command prompt immediately, # and QEMU's error output is redirected to files. Further info and pointers Personal Tools
Contested Will Contested Will Who wrote Shakespeare? That is the question asked and answered in James Shapiro’s new book “Contested Will” (Simon & Schuster), which addresses the centuries-old authorship controversy from a unique perspective, focusing not on what Shakespeare doubters believe, but why they believe it. Of course, there’s abundant evidence that William Shakespeare of Stratford wrote Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and the rest of the plays and poems attributed to him, but that hasn’t stopped the likes of Sigmund Freud, Mark Twain, and Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia from joining the ranks of the skeptics. For their part, the doubters seem unable to consider the evidence from anything but a modern perspective, and cannot accept that a part-time actor with minimal formal education produced such literary masterpieces—“a stunning failure to grasp the power of the imagination,” writes Shapiro. With all of the above in mind, I questioned Shapiro about the authorship controversy, the skeptics and their beliefs, and why he’s absolutely certain that Shakespeare wrote the works attributed to him. When and why did the authorship controversy arise? Until I began researching the book the answer I would have given—based on the standard authorities, who agree on this—was 1785, when James Wilmot first claimed that Francis Bacon was the author of the plays. But I discovered that the document on which this claim was based is a forgery, so can say with some confidence that the controversy is more recent, dating back no further than the 1840s. Why did it take more than two centuries before people began questioning Shakespeare’s authorship? It took 200 years before an unbridgeable gap emerged between the mundane facts of Shakespeare’s life and the over-the-top deification of him. The gap made it impossible for some to believe that a man of modest origins and education could have written such divine works. How has the Internet given this controversy new life? Why is the authorship question taboo among Shakespeare scholars? How do you and other defenders of Shakespeare answer these arguments? I spend the last quarter of “Contested Will” setting out the evidence, and to my mind it’s conclusive. There’s plenty of evidence that can be found in the printed texts of his plays, small details that confirm that only a man of the theater could have written them. Then there’s further confirmation provided by other Elizabethan poets, dramatists, and historians—all of whom knew Shakespeare and whose recollections indicate that the man from Stratford did indeed write the plays. Can this argument ever be resolved based strictly on objective evidence? What constitutes evidence? Supreme Court Justice Stevens, who believes that the Earl of Oxford wrote the plays, thinks that the circumstantial evidence is sufficient to make the case. Shakespeare scholars have a different view of evidence, and hold a comparatively dim view of what Justice Stevens and others believe adequate. So the controversy is in part about what constitutes evidence, especially when we are dealing with so few documents, which are subject to different kinds of interpretation. Some find this exciting; others exasperating. Is that why you believe it’s more interesting to look not at what people believe about Shakespeare’s authorship, but why they believe it? Having spent the past four or five years investigating this controversy, I can say with some confidence that it doesn’t take long to learn what people are arguing. Nor, after a while, do these arguments seem all that interesting, since positions are fixed and debate pointless. What I find fascinating, though, is when and why people think what they do, and how cultural forces or values have shaped the debate and subtly altered our views of authorship. What does it matter who wrote the plays? What is at stake? When I began researching the book I was sympathetic to the idea that it didn’t really matter, that what counts are the plays themselves, though I still sensed that a lot more was at stake. What I learned was that the plays, once reattributed to others, were being reinterpreted in what to my mind were disturbing ways. If you follow Delia Bacon [the first Baconian], you end up arguing that the plays are left-wing revolutionary tracts; if you are a disciple of J. T. Looney [the first Oxfordian], you have to conclude the plays are deeply reactionary and that their author despised democracy. I’m not comfortable with either position and now believe that anyone who asks “what difference does it make?” hasn’t confronted just how much is contested here. Tell me why you chose the title “Contested Will.” The title works a couple of ways. First, it underscores that there’s ongoing disagreement about who Will Shakespeare really was. Second, it puns on Shakespeare’s Last Will and Testament, in which he notoriously left his wife Anne Hathaway their “second best bed.” We don’t know exactly what this means, but it sounds stingy to modern ears. There’s yet one more play on words: the title signals I’m challenging the kind of popular biography of Shakespeare—one that reads his life through his works, accepting them as autobiographical documents—typified by Stephen Greenblatt’s “Will in the World.” What makes you so confident that Shakespeare wrote Shakespeare? Because a score of his fellow writers—whose words survive in print and manuscript—tell us so. Because surviving documents—such as the official Revels Accounts for 1604—confirm that Shakespeare wrote the plays attributed to him. Because his name appears on over 50,000 copies of his works in his lifetime, when he was one of the most familiar faces in London. If you refuse to believe this and think it’s all faked or a fraud perpetuated by professors with a vested interest in doing so, all you are left with are conspiracy theories. We live in a culture addicted to conspiracy theories, a wiki-world in which everyone is an expert and there are two valid sides to every argument. Sometimes there really aren’t. What are you hoping the book will do? I don’t expect to persuade ardent anti-Stratfordians that Shakespeare wrote the plays. They have thought hard about these questions and it’s not only my conclusion with which they will disagree, but also my underlying assumptions about authorship. I don’t think that we can mine the plays and poems for evidence about their author’s life. Yet they do, and one my points is that nobody thought to do so for more than 200 years. But I hope to reach those who minds are not yet resolved and provide those who find themselves arguing with skeptics the right counter-arguments. Another aim is to discourage my fellow Shakespeareans from reading the plays autobiographically; unless and until they stop doing so, the controversy will never go away. Finally, I hope my book will show—at a time when some people believe that men never walked on the moon, that the Holocaust never happened, and that 9/11 was the work of the U.S. government—that it’s possible for reasonable folk to get at the root of conspiratorial thinking, and with luck, root it out. But I’m the first to admit that with the decline of truth and the ascent of “truthiness,” I just may fail. James Shapiro’s Web site
What causes hyperventilation? About the causes of the hyperventilation syndrome much is written, but only little is clear. Non-psychological causes mentioned are: asthma, pain, pneumonia, anemia, chest or heart complaints, fever, long speeches, high altitudes, diabetes, kidney and liver disorders, increased progesterone levels, glandular fever, virus infections, etc. However, hyperventilation is usually the result of psychosocial stress in people’s lives and thus it is labeled as a psychosomatic disease. Hyperventilation – how does it start? Before the first apparent attack, often a long period of psychosocial stress, fear, anxiety or depression has occurred. Frustrations, anger, sadness, divorce, unemployment, a forced move, conflict, puberty; emotions that come with these situations are often not sufficiently expressed. It is likely that other factors also contribute to chronic hyperventilation. For example, the deep inhaling of cigarettes can be regarded as a form of hyperventilating, and it too can develop into full chronic hyperventilation syndrome. Also excessive use of caffeine can cause symptoms of the syndrome. Caffeine in coffee, tea, chocolate, cola (theobromine), but also aspirin, nicotine and amphetamines can put – especially when overused – the respiratory center in the brain into increased activity. In all these situations, the patient breathes more than is actually needed. As a result, the CO2 buffers of the body are depleted. (See explanation of chronic hyperventilation) Ready to use HyperVen? The psychological profile of people suffering from chronic hyperventilation People that hyperventilate are usually unsure of themselves, even though they manifest themselves as being strong and independent. Often, they are afraid to make a weak or childish impression, and set (unrealistically) high standards for themselves. Usually, they show excessive devotion for duty and perfectionism. Under conditions of psychosocial stress they keep continuing with ‘business as usual’, sometimes even until they drop. They have a continuing tendency to control their feelings and expressions of frustration. Loneliness can also lead to an increased risk of hyperventilation. Interested to know how HyperVen can help you?
Steve Connor: Why plastic is the scourge of sea life One cigarette lighter, a toothbrush, a toy robot and a tampon applicator. The list of plastic items recovered from the stomach of a Laysan albatross chick that died on a remote Pacific island reads like a random assortment of everyday household objects. It is now clear this chick is among many thousands of seabirds that have died from ingesting plastic debris, and nowhere in the world seems to be too isolated for this deadly form of marine pollution. It is fairly well established that certain toxins in the ocean, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), the pesticide DDT and other potentially dangerous substances, can become concentrated on the surface of plastic debris. The reason why plastic is so ubiquitous in our homes and offices, of course, is for the same reason why it builds up in the wider environment: it is resilient and takes years to break down into its constituent molecules. This is even more so in the marine environment, where the sea tends to protect plastic from the ultraviolet light that helps to break it down. In fact, it is estimated that much of the plastic rubbish that fell into the sea 50 years ago is still there today, either floating in the huge circulating "gyres" of the Pacific or sitting on the seabed waiting to be gobbled up by a passing sea creature. It is estimated that the amount of plastic we are consuming will continue to grow substantially, by as much as a third in the space of a single decade in the case of each American consumer. The only way to deal with the growing threat plastic poses to wildlife and the environment is to curb our consumption and to no longer treat plastic as an innocuous disposable commodity. Indeed, there is now a case for it to be treated as a potentially toxic waste product with the stiffest sanctions for its desultory disposal.
What is to 'Commoditize' Commoditize refers to a process in which goods or services become relatively indistinguishable from competing offerings over time. Generally speaking, commoditized products within specific categories are so similar to one another that the only distinguishing feature is pricing. Commoditization runs the gamut across consumer goods, ranging from computer keyboards to software programs managing complex processes such as supply chain management and business accounting. BREAKING DOWN 'Commoditize' The path to commoditization often starts with products and services offering differentiating features that allow for premium pricing. For example, when Apple Inc. introduced the iPhone in 2007, the differentiating features included a touch-screen interface and multi-tasking features that allow owners to surf the web while on a phone call. While all of these features were later commoditized, the iPhone clearly differentiated itself from every other mobile phone on the market at the time, and sold at premium prices. While existing features were being copied and commoditized, however, Apple continued to differentiate its iPhones with regular releases of updated versions. For example, Apple’s introduction of the iPhone 4s in 2011 included the introduction of Siri, the voice-activated digital assistant. In addition to separating iPhones from competing models, the new voice recognition feature generated buzz with consumers and widespread media coverage for the 4s. The Challenge for Businesses Due to declining prices and narrow profit margins from products with no distinguishable features, one of the primary challenges for businesses is delaying commoditization. Apple’s constant innovations with each new iteration of the iPhone is one such example of delaying commoditization. Bundling commoditized products or services with related offerings can also provide identifiable differences. For example, cable companies commonly bundle highly commoditized landline phones with internet and television services. Companies may also be able to delay commoditization by marketing products with varying levels of after-purchase services, specifically to price-insensitive market segments. For example, several airlines, including Delta Air Lines and American Airlines, target business travelers for premium memberships to access their airport lounges. Available services include snacks, personal travel assistance, and shower suites at specific locations. The Benefit to Consumers Commoditized products benefit consumers with increased access and lower prices. With truly commoditized products, consumers can comparison shop based on price only, with the assurance that the product with the lowest cost is the equivalent of higher-priced versions. As companies compete to sell commoditized goods, consumers also benefit by being able to choose among the different offerings that are put forth to differentiate products from competitors. Examples of these offers include holiday-themed sales, promotions, free shipping, flexible payment options, and the extension of standard warranties. 1. Commoditization 1. A situation when illiquid financial contracts are changed ... 2. Dog Eat Dog 3. Product Differentiation A marketing process that showcases the differences between products. ... 4. Apple Pay (AAPL, GOOG) Apple Pay is a payment system, introduced by Apple in September ... 5. Value Added The enhancement a company gives its product or service before ... 6. Apple iOS (AAPL, GOOG) Apple iOS stands for Apple iPhone Operating System. iOS is currently ... Related Articles 1. Investing Is Apple Extending the iPhone Product Cycle? (AAPL) Explore the product development for Apple's iPhone 7 and subsequent iPhone releases. 2. Investing The Economics of an iPhone (AAPL) Discover the economics of the iPhone 6, and why Apple's leading handheld device is one of the most influential products in the United States. 3. Financial Advisor Has Apple Finally Hit the Wall With the iPhone? (MSI, MSFT) We look at how the iPhone has sold over its brief existence and what that means for the future of the smartphone market. 4. Investing Will iPhone Sales Decline in 2016? (AAPL) Learn about a report that says lack of innovation and economic weakness may lead to a dramatic slowdown in sales of Apple's newest iPhone model. 5. Small Business Understanding Product Differentiation Product differentiation is a marketing tool companies use to distinguish their products or services from the competition’s. 6. Investing Apple Q3 Earnings Coming Up: Revenue Expected Down The Cupertino-based tech giant is expected to report its second straight quarter of declining revenue, thanks to weakening iPhone demand in China. 7. Investing Can Apple Stay on Top Forever? Most Apple investors feel good about the company's future. Here's what they're missing. 8. Insights Why You Should Wait for the New iPhone Reasons to hang on to the iPhone you have instead of buying new now. 9. Investing Apple iPhone 7 Release Date a Guessing Game (AAPL) On what day Apple will release its iPhone 7 model has become a topic of guessing, speculation and tea-leave reading on Wall Street and in Silicon Valley 10. Insights What the Rumors are Suggesting About the iPhone 7 Speculation about the iPhone 7 is gaining pace ahead of the expected release in September 2016. We review some of the major rumors currently circulating. 1. What's the best-selling iPhone model of all time? 2. What are the differences between product bundling and product lines? Understand the differences between product bundling and product lines. Learn why a company would want to expand its product ... Read Answer >> 3. What is the difference between product differentiation and price discrimination? Learn about product differentiation and price discrimination, how the two strategies are used in marketing and economics, ... Read Answer >> Learn how two marketing strategies, product differentiation and product positioning, are similar and work together to effectively ... Read Answer >> 5. Why is product differentiation important in today's financial climate? Learn the importance of product differentiation and how businesses today are utilizing it to set themselves apart from the ... Read Answer >> 6. What are some common ways product differentiation is achieved? If you would like to differentiate your product from the rest, there are a few basic steps you need to follow. Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Federal Direct Loan Program 2. Cash Flow 3. PLUS Loan 4. Graduate Record Examination - GRE 5. Graduate Management Admission Test - GMAT 6. Magna Cum Laude Trading Center
CS 241 Lab 3: Using Stacks to Match Brackets This assignment follows up on an example from lecture, namely: the algorithm for matching balanced brackets in strings, using a stack (the algorithm is also described in the Weiss textbook). The coding itself is fairly straightforward, so you should be able to complete it quickly; the intent of the lab is to get you used to the idea of using multiple implementations of a data structure which support a single interface. Two implementations of a stack interface As we have seen by now in lecture, stacks can be supported using an interface with just a few methods (pop, push, and isEmpty; we won’t need the top method). Furthermore, we can easily implement this interface using two different data structures, namely arrays and linked lists. In order to demonstrate your understanding of these techniques, you should write an interface file called Stack and two classes which implement this interface. You will also write a main project class called BracketMatcher which will use these other interfaces and classes to solve the bracket matching problem, but in an especially flexible way. Specifically, you should write your bracket matcher so that it uses a single stack variable of interface type Stack. Your code should run the bracket matching algorithm twice, once using an array-based stack and once using a list-based stack. Of course, the two different runs should both agree on the status of the string (do the brackets match or not)! Your program should also be flexible enough to read string input either from the console or from a file: in the case of console input, you should expect the entire string on one line. In the case of file input, you should prompt the user for the name of the file and read it in one line at a time until the end of the file is reached, but continuing the check through each line (i.e., carrying the contents of the stack through intact between lines) so that you check for matched brackets across the whole input file. (You may re-read the file for the second run, i.e., for the array-based or list-based stack.) The sense of “or” used here is intended to be such that your program can read either from a console or from a file, meaning that the choice should be available to the user. I suppose “and” could also be used here, but I think this “or” is well within the bounds of colloquial usage (and, frankly, rather implied by the use of the term “flexible”). Those who are especially keen to be accurate might acquaint themselves with Jean-Yves Girard’s Linear Logic and its resource-sensitive, game-theoretic-flavored splitting of the notions of choice and combination into what are ultimately four different conjunction and disjunction operators. For details see, e.g., this exposition by Patrick Lincoln, especially the vending-machine example and “Lafont’s café”. (See also pages 8 and following in Pierre-Louis Curien’s Introduction to linear logic and ludics, Part I.) Modern students will have to be tolerant of the cigarettes used in the former analogy: it was a more innocent time! Furthermore, the culturally-sensitive student should make allowances for (and celebrate!) the Gallic background of the original author. Stacks in two styles Write up the following interfaces and classes for stacks in Java, along with one main program class (the bracket checker). If you can, use generics in your Stack interface and implementing classes, so that they can hold any specific type of data. (See your textbook, Chapter 1, for an overview of generics.) The bracket matcher Your main program should check for balanced brackets in a string, using a stack. The idea is that an input string (read in from the console or from a file) will contain a mixture of parentheses (round: "()"), brackets (square: "[]") and braces (curly: "{}"), along with possibly other characters, which should be ignored. Your program should either validate that the string contains only well-nested, well-sequenced bracket pairs, or it should indicate what sort of error occurred. For example, on input "( ()[] { [] () } )" your program would respond that the brackets (in the general sense) are all balanced properly. But on input "( [ ] { ( } ) )" you would report a mis-match at the first closing (curly) brace, since it does not match the preceding open parenthesis. On input "The (quick) [brown] {{fox()}} jumps [over{}] () the lazy ((dog))." you should also report success (since the brackets match properly and the other characters are ignored). (How do you implement this? Simple! Just use a stack! Push every “left” bracket and make sure you can pop (off the top of the stack) a matching left bracket for each “right” one you encounter in the input. You should always find a match, never see an empty stack when matching, and end up with an empty stack at the end. (Why?) Or, to be very explicit about it, you can accomplish the matching process according to this pseudo-code: for( every input character c ) { if( c is a left bracket ) push(c) // on the stack else { if( c is a right bracket ) { if( the stack is empty ) generate an error (too many right brackets) else { match( c against the popped left bracket ) // for shape if( they don't match ) generate an error (bracket mis-match) (or just keep going if they do match) } // no need to do anything for non-bracket characters! // when the for loop is done (no more characters) if ( the stack is empty ) generate an error (too many right brackets) generate success! (the brackets all match correctly) Note that this “code” will shrink down considerably when actually written up in Java. For example, if you generate errors by using a return statement, some of the else branches will become unnecessary, as there will be no possibility of continuing past the return. You might also use a switch statement to distinguish between left brackets, right brackets, and other (non-bracket) characters.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The ultracentrifuge is a centrifuge optimized for spinning a rotor at very high speeds, capable of generating acceleration as high as 1 000 000 g (approx. 9 800 km/s²).[1] There are two kinds of ultracentrifuges, the preparative and the analytical ultracentrifuge. Both classes of instruments find important uses in molecular biology, biochemistry, and polymer science.[2] Theodor Svedberg invented the analytical ultracentrifuge in 1925,[3][4] and won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1926 for his research on colloids and proteins using the ultracentrifuge. The vacuum ultracentrifuge was invented by Edward Greydon Pickels in the Physics Department at the University of Virginia. It was his contribution of the vacuum which allowed a reduction in friction generated at high speeds. Vacuum systems also enabled the maintenance of constant temperature across the sample, eliminating convection currents that interfered with the interpretation of sedimentation results.[5] In 1946, Pickels cofounded Spinco (Specialized Instruments Corp.) to market analytical and preparative ultracentrifuges based on his design. Pickels considered his design to be too complicated for commercial use and developed a more easily operated, “foolproof” version. But even with the enhanced design, sales of analytical centrifuges remained low, and Spinco almost went bankrupt. The company survived by concentrating on sales of preparative ultracentrifuge models, which were becoming popular as workhorses in biomedical laboratories.[5] In 1949, Spinco introduced the Model L, the first preparative ultracentrifuge to reach a maximum speed of 40,000 rpm. In 1954, Beckman Instruments, now Beckman Coulter, purchased the company, forming the basis of its Spinco centrifuge division.[6] Analytical ultracentrifuge[edit] In an analytical ultracentrifuge, a sample being spun can be monitored in real time through an optical detection system, using ultraviolet light absorption and/or interference optical refractive index sensitive system. This allows the operator to observe the evolution of the sample concentration versus the axis of rotation profile as a result of the applied centrifugal field. With modern instrumentation, these observations are electronically digitized and stored for further mathematical analysis. Two kinds of experiments are commonly performed on these instruments: sedimentation velocity experiments and sedimentation equilibrium experiments. Sedimentation velocity experiments aim to interpret the entire time-course of sedimentation, and report on the shape and molar mass of the dissolved macromolecules, as well as their size-distribution.[7] The size resolution of this method scales approximately with the square of the particle radii, and by adjusting the rotor speed of the experiment size-ranges from 100 Da to 10 GDa can be covered. Sedimentation velocity experiments can also be used to study reversible chemical equilibria between macromolecular species, by either monitoring the number and molar mass of macromolecular complexes, by gaining information about the complex composition from multi-signal analysis exploiting differences in each components spectroscopic signal, or by following the composition dependence of the sedimentation rates of the macromolecular system, as described in Gilbert-Jenkins theory. Sedimentation equilibrium experiments are concerned only with the final steady-state of the experiment, where sedimentation is balanced by diffusion opposing the concentration gradients, resulting in a time-independent concentration profile. Sedimentation equilibrium distributions in the centrifugal field are characterized by Boltzmann distributions. This experiment is insensitive to the shape of the macromolecule, and directly reports on the molar mass of the macromolecules and, for chemically reacting mixtures, on chemical equilibrium constants. [8] The kinds of information that can be obtained from an analytical ultracentrifuge include the gross shape of macromolecules, the conformational changes in macromolecules, and size distributions of macromolecular samples. For macromolecules, such as proteins, that exist in chemical equilibrium with different non-covalent complexes, the number and subunit stoichiometry of the complexes and equilibrium constant constants can be studied. Analytical ultracentrifugation has recently seen a rise in use because of increased ease of analysis with modern computers and the development of software, including a National Institutes of Health supported software package, SedFit. Preparative ultracentrifuge[edit] Preparative ultracentrifuges are available with a wide variety of rotors suitable for a great range of experiments. Most rotors are designed to hold tubes that contain the samples. Swinging bucket rotors allow the tubes to hang on hinges so the tubes reorient to the horizontal as the rotor initially accelerates.[citation needed] Fixed angle rotors are made of a single block of material and hold the tubes in cavities bored at a predetermined angle. Zonal rotors are designed to contain a large volume of sample in a single central cavity rather than in tubes. Some zonal rotors are capable of dynamic loading and unloading of samples while the rotor is spinning at high speed. Preparative rotors are used in biology for pelleting of fine particulate fractions, such as cellular organelles (mitochondria, microsomes, ribosomes) and viruses. They can also be used for gradient separations, in which the tubes are filled from top to bottom with an increasing concentration of a dense substance in solution. Sucrose gradients are typically used for separation of cellular organelles. Gradients of caesium salts are used for separation of nucleic acids. After the sample has spun at high speed for sufficient time to produce the separation, the rotor is allowed to come to a smooth stop and the gradient is gently pumped out of each tube to isolate the separated components. The tremendous rotational kinetic energy of the rotor in an operating ultracentrifuge makes the catastrophic failure of a spinning rotor a serious concern. Rotors conventionally have been made from lightweight metals, aluminum or titanium. The stresses of routine use and harsh chemical solutions eventually cause rotors to deteriorate. Proper use of the instrument and rotors within recommended limits and careful maintenance of rotors to prevent corrosion and to detect deterioration is necessary to mitigate this risk.[9][10] More recently some rotors have been made of light weight carbon fiber composite material, which are up to 60% lighter, resulting in faster acceleration/deceleration rates. Carbon fiber composite rotors also are corrosion-resistant, eliminating a major cause of rotor failure.[11] See also[edit] 1. ^ "Optima MAX-XP". Retrieved 2016-02-20. 2. ^ Susan R. Mikkelsen & Eduardo Cortón. Bioanalytical Chemistry, Ch. 13. Centrifugation Methods. John Wiley & Sons, Mar 4, 2004, pp. 247-267. 3. ^ "Svedberg". Retrieved 2010-06-23. 4. ^ Joe Rosen; Lisa Quinn Gothard. Encyclopedia of Physical Science. Infobase Publishing; 2009. ISBN 978-0-8160-7011-4. p. 77. 5. ^ a b Elzen B. Vacuum ultracentrifuge. In: Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology, Colin Hempstead & William Worthington, eds. Routledge, 2005. p. 868. 6. ^ Arnold O. Beckman: One Hundred Years of Excellence. By Arnold Thackray and Minor Myers, Jr. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2000. 7. ^ Perez-Ramirez, B. and Steckert, J.J. (2005). Therapeutic Proteins: Methods and Protocols. C.M. Smales and D.C. James, Eds. Volume 308: 301-318. Humana Press Inc, Totowa, NJ. 8. ^ Ghirlando, R. (2011). "The analysis of macromolecular interactions by sedimentation equilibrium". Modern Analytical Ultracentrifugation: Methods. 58 (1): 145–156. 9. ^ Beckman Instruments, Spinco Division. Urgent corrective action notice: Reclassification to Minimize Ultracentrifuge Chemical Explosion Hazard. June 22, 1984. 10. ^ Goodman, T. Centrifuge Safety and Security. American Laboratory, February 01, 2007 11. ^ Piramoon, Sheila. "Carbon fibers boost centrifuge flexibility: advancements in centrifuge rotors over the years have led to improved lab productivity." Laboratory Equipment Mar. 2011: 12+. General Reference Center GOLD. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. External links[edit]
Tag Archives: Women’s rights 1. Foreign Affairs and International locate campuses in the different Geographical Regions. 6. Social Welfare, Gender and Children Set up the network of women Ministers 100th ANNIVERSARY OF INTERNATIONAL WOMEN’S DAY by Mamy Ranaivoson, M.Div. Senior This year the whole world celebrated the 100th anniversary of International Women’s Day. It is a big day in developing countries each spring. People can’t wait for this day to cry out for women’s issues, women’s rights, gender balance, gender equity, and empowerment of women because of the great injustices done to women in the world. We don’t hear much about it in the United States. Is it because we believe the women here are treated with more dignity? Maybe… I am from Madagascar and I would like to share a bit about our country. Many people heard about Madagascar from the Hollywood movie titledMadagascar . Basically, people know some facts about animals, like Lemurs, butterflies, and chameleons that cannot be found anywhere else in the world, but very few people know that before colonization, before Christianization, we already had queens in Madagascar. You can Google it on the internet by typing Queens of Madagascar in the search and it will give you the names and pictures of them. Our country was led by women until the French came and colonized our country. They made a law that no women were allowed in the high office and they deported our last queen to die outside of Madagascar. Since then, we went back to the patriarchal system of leadership. Too bad! My hope is that the Malagasy Lutheran church will recognize the qualities of women in leadership and our church will ordain women soon. We need to keep the rights of women in the forefront in all the world, including the United States. Remember International Women’s Day
+ Submit News Link News Archives This NASA image taken by the Curiosity rover amazingly shows what looks like a discarded childs toy boat. There are some other interesting anomalies to be seen as well. The toy boat is intriguing and makes one wonder about the possibilities. Posted: 6/17/2014 7:00:35 AM Reads: 973 Submitted By: reamils Source: extraterrestrialtv.blogspot.com Category: Mars Anomalies Category: Mars Anomalies The Nebra Sky Disc is a bronze disc approximately 30cm in diameter and weighs about 2.2 kg. It has a blue-green patina and is inlaid with gold symbols. The symbols are generally interpreted as the sun or full moon, a lunar crescent, and stars including a cluster thought to be Pleiades. There are two golden arcs along the sides which mark the angle between the solstices and were added later. There was the addition of a final arc at the bottom that was surrounded with multiple strokes, the meaning of these is uncertain interpreted as possibly a solar Barge with multiple oars , the Milky way , or a rainbow. The disc was found at a site near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany and dated to approximately c. 1600 B.C. it has been associated with the Bronze Age Unetice culture. The disc is unlike any known artistic style from that period, because of that it was initially suspected of being a forgery but has since become widely accepted as authentic. In June of 2013 it was included in the UNESCO's Memor Posted: 5/28/2014 9:07:39 PM Reads: 1185 Submitted By: reamils Source: extraterrestrialtv.blogspot.com Category: Ancient Mysteries What appears to be a large piece of wood is clearly visible in this NASA Mars Opportunity image.The edges are splintered, the wood grain is visible along the length of the piece and the texture of the bark can be seen. It looks just like wood on Earth. Pretty amazing. These NASA images lead one to believe that there is more to Mars than what we are being told. While some may try to dismiss some of these anomalies individually, on an item by item basis, when one looks at the whole body of evidence though it becomes far more difficult to dismiss easily. Posted: 5/14/2014 12:01:05 PM Reads: 805 Submitted By: reamils Source: extraterrestrialtv.blogspot.com Category: Mars Anomalies Category: Mars Anomalies This amazing NASA image(Video) has a vehicle in it.What appears to be a pickup truck,a car ramp, mechanical objects an enclosure or remnants of a circular structure and various other fascinating objects are seen. One of the mechanical objects looks like a water heater, and the other is very unusual to say the least. There is also a rather interesting satchel to be seen... These objects are all clearly visible and well defined. If we weren't told that this image had been taken on Mars, we would not give it a second thought. We would think nothing of it. Just and old pickup truck and some discarded junk. We see it all the time...but this image WAS taken on Mars and that's what piques our interest... Posted: 5/8/2014 7:58:05 AM Reads: 1099 Submitted By: reamils Source: extraterrestrialtv.blogspot.com Category: Mars Anomalies Category: Mars Anomalies Strange Alien Creature In Cocoon Spotted in NASA Enceladus Image. Is This An Alien Grey? Or is this a glimpse of a different kind of Alien ? Saturn moon anomaly. The original image is high resolution and very clear. It shows a being in a cocoon surrounded by a web like material attached to the wall. Is this the alien beings natural state? Or is it some hapless being captured and held captive by something even more frightening for some unknown purpose? The image and video are somewhat spooky, eerie and make one ponder what forms of life may have developed on Enceladus. The possibility of this being a human possibly abducted by aliens and trapped there was also considered. There are many tales of alien human abduction. We also have a great many people disappear without a trace every year. The thought of this possibly being a human being is horrifying to say the least. Some background info on Enceladus: Enceladus is Saturn's sixth largest moon. It orbits the densest part of Saturn's diffuse Posted: 5/1/2014 4:26:34 PM Reads: 1061 Submitted By: reamils Source: extraterrestrialtv.blogspot.com Category: UFOs Category: UFOs
Ask a School Meals Expert: How are Schools Helping Students Adjust to the New School Meals? We’re continuing to answer questions we’ve received from folks about the improvements to school meals that started this school year. One concern we’ve heard is that students who may not be accustomed to eating particular foods may throw them away. We know it is important that students get the calories and nutrition they need to stay alert and energized through the day and schools are doing a number of things to make sure this happens. First, it’s important to know that while some of the new school meals are different, most schools are continuing to serve old favorites—with a few healthy updates. For example, instead of fried chicken nuggets, now kids are getting baked ones and instead of fully-loaded pizza slices, schools are now offering slices with lower-fat cheese and more veggie toppings. Schools can also allow kids a certain amount of flexibility to choose only the foods they intend to eat. We refer to this as “offer vs. serve” (OVS). OVS allows students to decline one or two of the food items offered in a school lunch. Schools can decide how to implement OVS including which grades and how many items can be declined. Still, we don’t want students to make a habit of skipping unfamiliar fruits and veggies and other new healthy items. That’s why USDA is encouraging schools to get students involved in guiding and shaping the food selections offered by their school districts. Students across the country are participating in taste testing sessions, providing feedback on meals to food service staff, and trying the new foods and recipes in the cafeteria every day. We know that many parents are already making changes at home to help the whole family eat healthier. We recommend reviewing school menus with kids at home and working to incorporate foods that are being served at school into family meals as much as possible. In many schools, parents are working through their Parent-Teacher Associations to take a lead role in helping kids adjust. Adapting to the changes may be challenging at first, as students are introduced to new flavors and foods in the cafeteria. But as you can see there are many ways to make the transition easier. Check back here frequently as we continue to answer questions about the new and improved school meals. Also, please don’t forget to check out the web site we created to help folks understand the meal changes and how they make the school day healthier. 30 Responses to “Ask a School Meals Expert: How are Schools Helping Students Adjust to the New School Meals?” 1. Greg Pfister says: Because you’ve made mistake after mistake on what food “guidelines” to offer children time and time again over the years, what makes you EVER THINK your knowledge of feeding children is worth the paper (or in this case, the screen) it is printed on. I can show you years of YOUR RECOMMENDATIONS that have changed without real thought or basic common sense. Current point in fact, you failed to realize that some children expend many more calories than the “average norm” and have made no allowances for it as common sense dictates. For this reason, as well as many others, I do not send my children to any school following your requirements, nor would I every do so in my own home. It is better that my tax dollars do not fund an agency such as yours as your agency have not demonstrated good stewardship. cc: Honorable Randy Forbes cc: Honorable Mark Warner cc: Honorable Jim Webb 2. Rodger says: The government’s role is not to promote “healthy” eating at the tax payer’s expense. 3. Edward says: Where on earth do you think it’s your responsibility to tell, or even suggest what parents should feed their kids. While you at it, explain to all us bitter clingers where in the Constitution you have the authority to have anything to do with school lunch programs. 4. Joe says: It is NOT the kind of food primarily. It IS the amount of food being served. These kids are growing by leaps and bounds and they are NOT getting the calories they need at lunch. The best thing you could do for the CHILDREN is to get out of the way and stop telling schools and people what they should be eating. it is NONE of your business!!!!! 5. C. Menard says: You people, are a joke! You don’t know your behinds from a hole in the ground. Kid’s are eating more junk food than ever, because they are HUNGRY when they get home from school. Our once great country has become a Nanny State… 6. Lawnmowerman1 says: Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution 1. Please list in these powers where you find the right to tell citizens of America,what they should serve to their family for food or food content ? 2. I think you people need to read some documentation of what our founders views were as follows: Jefferson’s Opinion on the Constitutionality of a National Bank : 1791 7. Walter Dixon says: Janey Thorton take your meal suggistions and put them you know where. Eat that! 8. Steve Hubbard says: You people are frightening. Absolutely frightening. 9. Vicki says: I don’t believe that obesity among the younger generation is just a problem caused by eating habits at home or in the schools. Looking at the bigger picture it’s a problem first caused by the food industries in our society. I am an anthropologist and do very well at analyzing the whole situation. This is societies mistake, now they want to fix it? I’ve seen children growing bigger and taller, not your average growth, so I have to question it. If the food sold today was anything like it was when my parents, grandparents or I were growing up, there wouldn’t be a problem. Food is tampered with so much that it’s hard to recognize to the days gone by. They give animals steroid. People eat the meat and drink the milk, and we all know that steroids do. You have these food companies who have doubled the sugars in their foods, and those artificial sweeteners do even more damage. They add so many additives and poisons to foods and beverages, that eating the food becomes more unhealthy then breathing the air. Now we know why there are so many different drugs you can by for upset stomachs and allergies. Food is no longer immune to any of us. When did cows ever eat corn? Seriously. Food is making people sick and obese. They want parents to feed their kids healthy? Tell that to a family with five kids, whose yearly income is say 35 thousand dollars. Those parents ate going to buy food that is going to feed their family for the week. They are the ones who can afford hotdogs and speghetti, not lean meats and fresh fruits and vegtables, maybe can goods. If they want to change the obesity problem, well the first place to start is with these food companies. The way we package and process our food. Maybe we should go back to the older days, make your own breads, go to the market each day and buy fresh meat, fruits and vegetables.maybe they just need to stop tampering with the food. And if I had anything to do with it, Monsanto and the rest of those out their who tamper with food would be out of business. 10. Peggy Phillips says: We have always been a family that cared about nutition. What I don’t like is how condescending you are towards people. You treat them like they are stupid by forcing this on them. And now you are saving me money because my kids refuse to eat it. One thing you don’t understand is that if the economy was better people could feed their kids better. In addition it is the hectic lifestyle of single-parent homes and both parents working that may be the cause of obesity. Not to mention the fact that the price of food is skyrocketing. Don’t use food for fuel and maybe food would be cheaper for all including whole grains. 11. Mike says: Why dont you guys go by the same standards you are forcing on our schools? Now you want to put cameras on trash cans to see how much waste there is? Now the kids are throwing away tons of produce and going hungry.. stupid policy 12. Moon Walker says: First and foremost, it is not your job to determine what students eat or not. You usurped that authority and CLAIM it as your own but it is not yours. Parents can choose to feed whatever they want their lids to have without your permission OR approval. Secondly, install your guidelines on your own employees up to and including FORCING them to “choose” you healthy offerings. Making someone choose something is not making a choice, you understand….No I do not think you do. Otherwise, shut up. Hypocrisy reeks. 13. R. A. Harrison says: Yet while USDA/Thornton encourage parents to serve healthy choices at home, the USDA cafeteria offers high-cal selections for its adult employees (who need less calories than kids!) like cheese steaks, BLTs with cheddar cheese and french toast. Do as I say, not as I do, Ms. Thornton? 14. Michael Mason says: Please explain why the USDA is starving many children, especially those experiencing a “growth spurt” and those who participate in athletics who, thereby, require additional calories. My children say that even with their lunch they are hungry all day. You are limiting the amount of protein these children can consume to a level that does not nearly meet the requirements of a growing body. Also, you are limiting the fat intake of these children to the point that they do not experience satiation. How challenging do you think it is for a child to concentrate on school work when they are hungry? It isn’t nutrition until it’s consumed. I’ve been to the cafeteria at our school. This is a school serving 2nd grade through high school. They have 2,200 students. A staggering amount of food is going into the garbage and the kids are left hungry. Dictating how these kids should eat isn’t working. I grew up in the 70′s when obesity wasn’t a problem. We were able to eat foods back then that would leave today’s nutrition radicals speechless. Yet, we weren’t obese and grew up to be productive adults. The problem isn’t with calories in, it’s with calories burned. You are trying to solve a problem caused by a sedentary lifestyle by restricting calories. The result is that you are starving your students; our children. Even though most people realize the fallacy of this approach, you continue to justify your means to the desired end. Maybe things have changed since I recieved my PhD in biochemistry, focused on human nutrition and food science, but I don’t think it has. You are starving the majority because a minority cannot manage their weight appropriately. The fedgov is trying to do something that has to come from the home. You cannot replace parents no matter how much you may want to try. My children now bring their lunch from home. They are not alone. As long as you insist on doing this, the number of children participating in this failed approach will decline. Deprivation is not education. 15. Jeff Jones says: Many of you at the USDA are obese. Why not serve yourself the same calorie restricted disgusting meals you want to serve kids? I’d like to see the numbers of how many USDA employees are obese, how many suffer from diabetes brought on by their piggery, and how much their piggery is costing us. I’d like to see a list of the typical meal a USDA employee packs away on a typical day. 16. kringeesmom says: Before you tell me what to do in my own home with my own child, please implement your ideas at all federal buildings. Include the White House, the House of Representatives and The Senate. Let the Federal employees eat your diet before try to implement your dietary ideas on private citizens. 17. Bradley Niven says: Fox news just used this blog to spend 5 minutes claiming the FDA is trying to control what we feed our children at home. Suggested the fda is in the process of figuring out a way to police this issue and force americans to comply with the menu at home. 18. Janet Alvord says: I am on the food committee at our local school district. Recently we ate lunch at our kindergarten building. The little girl next to me ate her cheese stick and drank her milk, AND THREW THE REST OF HER LUNCH IN THE TRASH! If you ask my own children, they will tell you I am all for eating in a healthy manner, but the new restrictions imposed have forced schools into such a tight corner that many children simply won’t eat what is being offered. I believe these guidelines need to be loosened to allow the districts more freedom to choose for themselves, while still making healthy choices. And to suggest that we follow the same plan in our homes?! NO COMMENT! 19. rwilymz says: How is a school lunch being tossed without a nibble an improvement? Are you suggesting that eliminating the steps of mastication, digestion and deglutition make it more efficient? 20. F Kaiser says: People started becoming obese when the USDA started the food pyramid. The more you emphasize carbohydrates, the heavier people will become. And the kids have so little fat in the new meals that they are leaving lunch hungry. Offer fewer grains and potatoes. Offer lower carb fruits and veggies. Give them more fat, more protein. Two ounces of protein is not enough. You do want them to be able to think, right? Ohhhhhh, maybe that’s the plan. A generation that can’t think….. 21. Jere Krischel says: Instead of restricting calories at schools, why not restrict carbohydrates, the true root cause of obesity and other chronic diseases? If someone invites you to a gourmet meal, and asks you to “bring your appetite”, you may decide to skip a few meals before, or maybe go and do some exercise so you can get really hungry. Why would we think, then, that this same course of action, which increases hunger, would help obese people lose weight? We need to realize that obesity is caused by elevated insulin levels, which is driven by elevated blood sugar levels, which is driven by carbohydrate intake. Want to make a dent in childhood obesity? Stop serving our kids carbohydrates, and instead give them lots of fat, and adequate protein. 22. Silvia says: If your kids are eating their school lunch and are still hungry, pack a snack. If they won’t eat what’s being offered, save your money (and whatever tax money is being used) and pack a lunch and the snack. No one is making your kids buy the school lunch; you have the choice to bring your own. 23. rwilymz says: [[When did cows ever eat corn? Seriously]] Whenever they got an opportunity to, actually. They’d eat themselves sick because it tastes better than dried weed stalks. They’d give themselves acidosis and sometimes die – terminal case of indigestion. Little boy blue, come blow your horn The sheep’s in the meadow, the cow’s in the corn… But, yes, nature designed ruminants to be the scrap-vegetation eaters: whatever plants nothing else will eat, give it to cows, sheep, goats, camel, deer … they’re aren’t picky. Their stomachs came in four sections for a reason. On the other hand, I highly approve of all the critical comments here. It took a generation to get into this mess, it’ll take AT LEAST one generation to get out again. It’s not enough that USDA bans soda pop and Hostess Twinkies from school vending machines [they did, right? I mean, that would have been a logical first step ...]. They’ve got to go getting all high-handed and draconian in one fell swoop. Name once that this method of intervention has ever worked. Just once … please. 24. Morgan says: The school lunch is bad, calorie this calorie that. Just saying!I didnt even eat lunch as my brother says there is no way to ruin lunch but wheat grilled cheese and no salted noodle… REALLY!! my whole health class is thinking about “boycouting” and everybody pack. Our lunch ladies arent to blame though. The whole school is going over edge we are growing teens and should be able to eat enough. Today in health we watched “We are hungry” check it out on youtube, and this is how we feel! 25. John says: As a high school senior I would love to complain. But that’s not why I’m here. I’m here to ask WHY DOES THE GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIZE CORN AND NOT OTHER HEALTHIER THINGS? I blame corn for most of the obesity caused around the U.S. It isn’t the parents fault or the kids. Its the big buisness making unhealthy products so cheap you have to buy them. I would love for a member of the USDA to answer my one measly question. THANKS! 26. Tambry says: Don’t you just love the “nanny state government” we now have? Love all the critical comments on this site. Glad to see we are all not sheeple. Government out of school lunches!! Don’t you have more important things to mess up than our children’s lunch rooms? 27. Tanya says: I just don’t understand why the goverment feels the need to decided what our children eat. I feed my child healthy filling meals. She comes home everyday from school telling me how hungry she is. I went and ate with her and found out exactly why that is. The get the smallest piece of protein and very little carbohydrates. Yes! they get all of the fruit and vegetables that their little bodies can eat. That doesn’t fill them up and keep them going. The human body gets energy from fats, carbohydrates and protein. Not fruits and vegetables. Kids are obese because their parents don’t feed them properly, that is not my problem so why should my child have to suffer. Parents need to start being parents and take care of their kids. That is not the goverments job to be the everyones keeper. 28. Kristy says: My oldest a 10th grader plays sports all year round. He refuses to eat the lunch not because it is healthy because he says it is horrible. This is a child who does eat healthy outside of school. He then will turn around and go to football for 3 hours after school without eating. My 6th grader has allergies to milk, peanuts and tree nuts. They can accomodate the nut allergies no problem but I was told they must give her milk to drink it is a USDA guidelines now. They can offer her lactaid milk but she is not lactose intolerant she has a milk allergy. They are not allowed to give her a water instead. 29. Doug Wieboldt says: Obviously a lot of ignorant wingers decided to vent… How vexed are they? It’s disconcerting that the wingers think that science is static (I understand wingers that you don’t know what I’m talking about – but that’s ok cause I’m talking to the people in the forum who aren’t dingbats). Shouldn’t they study up on an issue before demonstrating how ignorant they are??? Leave a Reply
WebSockets Latency Visualization Matthias Nehlsen WebSockets bring bi-directional communication to the browser. This enables you to deliver interactive, real time web applications where all the data is as of right now, rather than always being outdated, and then constantly refreshed. But how fast is this transport mechanism? Let's have a look. You may have noticed the circle around the mouse pointer on this page, What happens here is that movements of the mouse (or your finger on your mobile device) are captured. The more reddish one is then painted immediately, whereas the bluish one is painted after the event is sent to a server somewhere in Germany, and then back to wherever you are.or in fact the two circles, where one of them appears to follow the other. Both represent your last mouse position, only that one was sent to and returned from the server in the meantime. This gives you an intuition for how long it takes. Also, with your movement of the mouse, you generate data for the histograms below, which show the roundtrip duration: Now, since we are already capturing the movement of the mouse, you may think that it could be interesting to see where the users' mouses go, as a proxy for where they are looking on a page. Surely not as accurate as actual eye tracking, but probably much better than nothing. Now let's see where your mouse was since you started interacting with this page. Click the "show all" button in the info section below,By clicking those buttons again, you can switch the display on or off. and you see where your mouse goes. Then, by clicking "show all (server)", you can also display the most recent mouse positions of all visitors on this page. You are looking at a web application written in Clojure andClojureScript. It is one of the example applications of the systems-toolbox library. The histograms above are rendered entirely in ClojureScript - without any additional charting library.The Freedman-Diaconis rule determines the number of bins in the histograms. The first histogram takes the entire sample into account whereas the second only displays the observations that fall within the 99th percentile to remove potential outliers. Structure of the ClojureScript application, with their message flow visualized as rx and tx LEDs, like on a network card. If you want to know how this application was built, have a look at the code on GitHub or the book Building Systems in Clojure(Script). Also, check for a future blog post on matthiasnehlsen.com. Finally, if you like the layout of this page, you need to look at Tufte CSS. It allowed me to write this application with only around 30 lines of CSS, most of which is related to the flexbox layout for histogram SVGs.
23 February 2011 Science Shorts Physics News The news in the land of physics is one of tighter experimental boundaries on potential weird stuff a.k.a. "new physics" without actually finding any or ruling it out. I've previously mentioned the closing parameter space of SUSY. The LIGO and VIRGO experiments designed to detect gravity waves have similarly not found them but have placed experimental limits on their magnitude (although still about tens times larger that their expected magnitude apparently). Our Secretary of Energy, who is also a practicing physicist, is a co-author of a recent paper putting experimental limits on any potential deviations from the general theory of relativity attributable to quantum gravity theories (any deviations are less than one part per million of a certain kind of atom interferometry measurement). New measurements have increased with accuracy with which we can determine the distance of some of the farthest galaxies which allows more precision in estimating the amount of dark energy in the universe (or, more or less equivalently, the value of the cosmological constant in general relativity). The Large Hadron Collider (same source) has also put limits on the maximum size of any preons that could be present if quarks were composite, rather than fundamental particles: "if quarks are made of smaller particles, the constituents are no larger than 60 trillionths of a billionth of a meter in diameter. That new limit, about 60 percent smaller than the previous estimate[.]" In terms more familiar to most people who work with subatomic physics that is 10^-21 meters. Alternately, in terms of the Plank length, the new limit is about 10^12 Plank length units. The semi-classical diameter of an electron is 10^17 Plank length units, while the semi-classical diameter of a proton is 10^20 Plank length units. (I use the caveat semi-classical because it isn't obvious that it is real meaningful to think of fundamental particles like quarks and electrons as anything other than point-like for most purposes.) Thus, the Large Hadron Collider tells us that any component part of a quark has to be at least one hundred thousand times smaller than an electron. Data gathered but not yet analyzed from LHC should make it possible to probe limits half that size. Many physicists expect that the "minimum length" called the Plank length, is 1.616252(81)×10^−35 meters, based on natural combinations of Plank's constant (which measures the minimum energy of photons of particular wave lengths), the gravitational constant and the speed of light. String theorists, likewise, often assume that the string of string theory are of lengths on the order of magnitude of the Plank length. Thus, the LHC findings, themselves aren't inconsistent with the possibility of composite quarks and electrons although there is really nothing to indicate that they exist either. The bottom line from all of these studies is that the Standard Model and General Relativity continue to be accurate descriptions to the universe to remarkable levels of precision, despite some lingering concerns about unexpected CP violations in the Standard Model and some theoretical disconnects between the two fundamental theories that crop up only in domains we don't have a capacity to observe at this point. The vast majority of physicists I'm aware of who study quantum mechanics and general relativity think that there is something beyond these theories to discover and I agree with them. But, whatever new physics are out there, it is also increasingly clear that it is very subtle. In the same way, one can still do a lot of very good science and engineering in a wide variety of useful areas using classical Newtonian mechanics and gravity, classical thermodynamics, Maxwell's Equations for electro-magnetism, a proton-neutron-electron model of the atom, and the Periodic table. It isn't that modern physics is irrelevant. Every computer designer relies on quantum tunnelling to make the machines work. Every cell phone and GPS unit makes calculations that require the application of general relativity from moment to moment. Both general relativity and quantum mechanics provide insights critical to making nuclear power plants, nuclear bombs, cancer treatments and carbon dating work. But, the weird physics that goes into making these things work seems a lot less weird when broken down to the particular aspect of them that matters for an engineering application and the average person doesn't need to know the science behind these devices and can simply view them as "black boxes" that produce certain results when used in particular ways. It isn't at all obvious that "new physics" will have any practical engineering applications at all, even if it would be an immense source of intellectual pride and accomplishment for our species. Also (from the news link above): Supermassive black holes at the centers of distant galaxies, previously estimated to range in mass between 10 million to 1 billion suns, may weigh about one-half to one-tenth as much. . . . The downsizing indicates that black holes in distant and nearby galaxies weigh about the same, eliminating what had been a puzzling mismatch. One of the more interesting experimental facts from astronomy is the close relationship between the size of a black hole and the size of its surrounding matter, and the apparent maximum black hole size that is observed. A finding that black holes in distant galaxies (whose light started moving towards us more deeply in the past) are similar in size to black holds in galaxies that are closer (and hence sending light from a less distant part of the past) would seem to rule out a scenario in which the earliest black holes were very large and have steadily shrunk over time due to Hawking radiation, and also a scenario in which the earliest black holes were very small and have steadily grown over time due to the absorbtion of more surrounding material. Shrinkage and growth appear to be roughly balanced over a long span of the history of the universe. Psychopathy Starts Young Finallly, the evidence that psychopathy is an early onset condition that manifests as early as age seven (or even age three!) continues to mount, most recently from a study of 9,578 British school children evaluated by teachers and parents at ages 7, 9 and 12, for behavior problems and callous-unemotional traits. The researchers involved in the latest study on the point specifically disavow the loaded "psychopth" word, because research has not yet established a definitive link between callous-unemotional traits in children with behavior problems and psychopathic traits in adults, but another study found "that 3-year-olds who have difficulties learning to fear impending punishments in lab experiments — a key facet of callous-unemotional traits — commit criminal offenses at much higher rates than their peers by age 23." When an unrelenting penchant for misbehaving joins forces with lack of emotion, guilt and empathy, 7-year-olds are headed for years of severe conduct problems. . . . Youngsters who regularly misbehave and get into trouble at age 7, and who also display so-called callous-unemotional traits, frequently stay on a troubled course until at least age 12. . . . 5 to 10 percent of schoolchildren persistently engage in antisocial behaviors such as fighting, lying and stealing. . . . A total of 4.4 percent of these children, mostly boys, exhibited high levels of both misbehavior and callous-unemotional traits throughout the study. Compared with their peers, this group of youngsters came from particularly chaotic families that used harsh forms of punishment. These kids also displayed many hyperactive symptoms and got along poorly with peers. Another 4 percent of kids in the study displayed consistent conduct problems with either increasing or decreasing levels of callous-unemotional traits from age 7 to 12. . . [C]hildren with high levels of callous-unemotional traits almost always misbehaved regularly. In contrast, only about half of the kids who constantly misbehaved also lacked remorse, guilt and empathy, indicating that a variety of influences play into conduct problems. . . . callous-unemotional children respond best to interventions that reward them for good behavior rather than punishing them for misdeeds[.] "Adult psychopaths similarly show no remorse for crimes and blunted emotional reactions, although they often possess considerable empathy that they use to prey on others." Adult psychopaths respond best to the same kinds of incentives. An important reason to care is that the DSM-V definition of conduct disorder is being revisited and there is faction that thinks it should distinguish callous-unemotional conduct disorder as something distinct from mere chronic misbehavior. “I’m not suggesting that these children are psychopaths, but callous-unemotional traits can be used to identify kids at risk of persistent, severe antisocial behavior,” said psychologist Nathalie Fontaine of Indiana University in Bloomington, who directed the study. These findings indicate that callous-unemotional traits should be factored into the definition of a particularly virulent form of childhood conduct disorder in the next manual of psychiatric disorders, Fontaine said. Chronic misbehavior alone defines conduct disorder in the current fourth edition of the psychiatric manual used by doctors to define mental ailments, now being revised. There are about 3 million children born each year in the United States. About 150,000 to 300,000 of them will persistently engage in anti-social behavior. About 13,000 to 26,000 of them, one or two in every couple hundred, will have notable callous-unemotional streaks. These patterns of behavior, if not in place at birth, are at least in place by the time they are in elementary school. The extent to which it is becoming clear that both future academic performance and future behavior is predictable in early elmentary school is remarkable. But, we don't really know what to do with this knowledge. The only career paths we seem to have in our society for callous-unemotional children is gang hitman and Ponzi scheme engineer, which aren't precisely the sort of paths we'd like to encourage. Similarly, we aren't really sure what to do in our society with mentally retarded children. We don't even have support groups for parents of children who do things like torture little animals, con teachers and bully peers, much to the consternation of the adults in their lives. Sometimes we try to hold those parents morally responsibile, but we don't offer them a lot of organized resources for coping. Alas, psychopathy (and close cousins like "borderline personality disorder") isn't anything as simple as some particular gene with a simple inheritance pattern. They've looked. It isn't there. It may be hereditary, and almost certainly has a strong congenital component at the very least, although environmental factors may influence how it develops. But, the family histories that researchers have seen involve a variety of mental health issues in a fairly wide swath of cousins and uncles and aunts, as well as closer relations, rather than a simple parent to child pattern. It isn't uncommon for siblings to be very different in this regard - one typically empathetic, another calleous and unemotional. Apparently, there are a number of pieces of the puzzle, some of which are symptomatic even by themselves, that have to come together to produce a person who has this kind of emotional makeup that are relatively independent of each other. Nobody has found a drug that turns callous-unemotional children into loving empathetic ones either. No comments:
Navigation Links UH Manoa researchers discover novel chemical route to form organic molecules An international team of scientists led by University of Hawai'i at Mānoa Professor Ralf I. Kaiser, Alexander M. Mebel of Florida International University, and Alexander Tielens of Leiden Observatory in the Netherlands, discovered a novel chemical route to form polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) complex organic molecules such as naphthalene carrying fused benzene rings in ultra-cold regions of interstellar space. The team announced their findings in the January 3 issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Funding for the study was provided by the U.S. Department of Energy, Basic Energy Sciences. These findings have crucial implications not only to reduce the emission of PAHs as toxic byproducts from internal combustion engines, but also rationalize the synthetic routes to a key class of organic molecules in the interstellar medium associated with the origins of life. On Earth, PAHs are associated with incomplete combustion processes and can be formed readily at elevated temperatures in combustion engines of cars and in cigarette smoke. Once liberated into the ambient environment, PAHs can be transferred into the lungs by inhalation and are strongly implicated in the degradation of human health, particularly due to their high carcinogenic risk potential. PAHs are also serious water pollutants of marine ecosystems and bioaccumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms. Together with leafy vegetables, where PAHs deposit easily, they have been further linked to soil contamination, food poisoning, liver lesions, and tumor growth. Whereas on Earth, PAHs are classified as highly toxic, PAHs have been dubbed as the 'cradle of life' in the interstellar medium and are considered as key players in the astrobiological evolution. On the molecular level, functionalized PAHs carrying carbonyl and hydroxyl groups were found in organic extracts from the Murchison meteorite and form membrane-like boundary structures, the first indications of a cell type structure, which are requisite to the origin of life. The compounds that are water soluble form non-soluble vesicles, constituting molecules that possess both polar and non-polar components. The hollow droplets formed by this lipid multilayer are essential for the origin of life process since they provide an environment in which the functionalized PAHs can evolve by isolating and protecting them from the surrounding medium. Scientists have been researching the formation of PAHs in combustion flames and in the interstellar medium for decades, but the formation mechanism of even the simplest PAH prototype the naphthalene molecule (C10H8) as present in earthly mothballs - has remained an open question. Textbook knowledge postulates that classical reaction mechanisms involve complex reactions following hydrogen abstraction and acetylene addition (HACA) sequences with substantial 'activation energies.' These processes can only operate at high temperatures of a few 1,000 K as present, for instance, in combustion processes and in the outflows of carbon-rich stars and planetary nebulae. However, in recent years it has become quite clear that interstellar PAHs are rapidly destroyed in the interstellar medium upon photolysis, interstellar shock waves driven by supernova explosions, and energetic cosmic rays. The destruction time scales are much shorter than the timescale for injection of new material into the interstellar medium by carbon-rich Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) stars and carbon-rich planetary nebulae as the descendants of AGB stars. Therefore, the ubiquitous presence of PAHs in the interstellar medium implies a crucial, previously unexplained route to a fast chemical growth of PAHs in the cold environment of the interstellar medium at temperatures down to 10 K, where the classical HACA reaction mechanism cannot function, since entrance barriers (classical 'activation energies') cannot be overcome. To unravel the formation of naphthalene as the simplest representative of PAHs, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa chemists Dorian S.N. Parker, Fangtong Zhang, Seol Kim, and Ralf I. Kaiser conducted gas phase crossed molecular beam experiments in their laboratory and presented that naphthalene can be formed as a consequence of a single collision event via a barrier-less and exoergic reaction between the phenyl radical and vinylacetylene involving a van-der-Waals complex and submerged barrier in the entrance channel. Angular resolved mass spectrometer measurements of the reaction products together with isotopic labeling confirmed that naphthalene plus a single hydrogen atom, were produced. To support the derived mechanism involved in the formation of naphthalene, theoretical chemists at Florida International University (Alex Landera, Vadim V. Kislov, Alexander Mebel), merged the experimental results with theoretical computations. Theoretical computations also provide the three-dimensional distribution of electrons in atoms and thus the overall energy level of a molecule. Mebel's computations showed that naphthalene is formed from the reaction of a single phenyl radical colliding with vinylacetylene. Most importantly, since the temperatures of cold molecular clouds are very low (10 K), the computations indicate that the reaction has no entrance barrier ('activation energy'). "These findings challenge conventional wisdom that PAH-formation only occurs at high temperatures such as in combustion systems and implies that low temperature chemistry can initiate the synthesis of the very first PAH in the interstellar medium," said co-author Tielens. In the future, the team plans to expand these studies to unravel the formation routes to more complex PAHs like phenanthrene and anthracene, and also to nitrogen-substituted PAHs such as indole and quinoline. This concept can be also expanded to functionalized PAHs with organic side chains thus bringing researchers closer to solving the decade old puzzle of how complex PAHs and their derivatives can be synthesized in combustion flames and in cold interstellar space. Contact: Ralf Kaiser University of Hawaii at Manoa Related biology news : 1. UH Manoa researcher examines possible implications of daily commute and mosquito-borne diseases 2. University of Hawaii at Manoa researchers reveal ocean acidification at Station ALOHA 3. University of Hawaii at Manoa professor published in science journal 4. UH Manoa researchers release results of statewide survey of snail, slug invasions in Hawaii 5. Researchers: Honeybee deaths linked to seed insecticide exposure 6. Worm seeks worm: Caltech researchers find chemical cues driving aggregation in nematodes 7. La Jolla Institute researchers identify pivotal immune cell in Type 1 diabetes in humans 8. Boston University School of Medicine researchers clarify link between salt and hypertension 9. New findings by St. Michaels researchers about the way cells work 11. Researchers discover novel anti-viral immune pathway in the mosquito Post Your Comments: Related Image: UH Manoa researchers discover novel chemical route to form organic molecules Breaking Biology News(10 mins): Breaking Biology Technology:
Type 1 Diabetes Diet Plan Type 1 diabetics know the importance that food plays in the overall management of their disease. Eating the right foods helps to control glucose levels on a more natural level instead of having to only rely on medications to do it. Following a type 1 meal plan is essential to getting what you need, and staying away from what you don't. One common misconception about diabetic eating plans is that people often refer to them as a diet, when in fact, they shouldn't be classified in that manner. The truth is that diabetics can eat basically everything that any other person can eat, as long as they do so in moderation. That is the key. When a diabetic thinks about what they can eat they need to break the foods down into three distinctive categories: carbs, fat and protein. The reason for the categories is that each one offers a unique reaction when it is consumed by a diabetic so each one has to be closely monitored. Carbs are the main source of fuel for our bodies. Since 100 percent of carbs consumed in the body is transferred into sugar, this makes carbs the most important of all three categories. Also of relevance is the lapse of time that it takes for a ingested carb to show up in the bloodstream. This means that careful planning has to go into when and how much are consumed. Fat has the distinction of slowing digestion so this is of importance for carb consumption. Delaying the processing of sugar can have an adverse effect on anyone, especially diabetics. Protein fills its own need as healing the body's wounds and cuts. This is of significance to diabetics since they are prone to these. Protein also works to build tissue throughout the body. Related Article Best Diet For Diabetes
When you have finished this page, try the Am Is Are Contractions Quiz. Some contractions are formed by combining the words am, is and are with the pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we and they. The table below shows the changes that take place when the contractions are formed. I am I + am - a I'm You are You + are - a You're He is He + is - i He's She is She + is - i She's It is It + is - i It's We are We + are - a We're They are They + are - a Contractions Main Page Not Contractions Am Is Are Contractions Have has Contractions Had Contractions Final Quiz
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search A thalassocracy (from Greek language θάλασσα (thalassa), meaning "sea", and κρατεῖν (kratein), meaning "to rule", giving θαλασσοκρατία (thalassokratia), "rule of the sea") is a state with primarily maritime realms—an empire at sea (such as the Phoenician network of merchant cities) or a sea-borne empire.[1] Traditional thalassocracies seldom dominate interiors, even in their home territories (for example: Phoenician Tyre, Sidon and Carthage or Srivijaya and Majapahit in Southeast Asia). One can distinguish this traditional sense of thalassocracy from an "empire", where the state's territories, though possibly linked principally or solely by the sea lanes, generally extend into mainland interiors (for example: the Bruneian Empire (1368–1888) in Asia).[2][3] Compare to tellurocracy ( ru ) - land-based hegemony.[4] The term thalassocracy can also simply refer to naval supremacy, in either military or commercial senses of the word supremacy. The Greeks first used the word thalassocracy to describe the government of the Minoan civilization, whose power depended on its navy.[5] Herodotus also spoke of the need to counter the Phoenician thalassocracy by developing a Greek "empire of the sea".[citation needed] The Phoenician trade routes in the Mediterranean. There are many ancient examples besides those mentioned above, such as the Delian League. Aside from this example, which was an empire based primarily on naval power and control of waterways and not on any land possessions, the Middle Ages saw its fair share of thalassocracies, often land-based empires which controlled the sea. Among the most famous is the Republic of Venice, conventionally divided in the fifteenth century into the Dogado of Venice and the Lagoon, the Stato di Terraferma of Venetian holdings in northern Italy, and the Stato da Màr of the Venetian outlands bound by the sea: List of examples[edit] See also[edit] 3. ^ Barbara Watson Andaya; Leonard Y. Andaya (19 February 2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge University Press. pp. 159–. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6. External links[edit]
Question types Start with Question limit of 80 available terms (2 partial duplicates found) Print test 5 Written questions 3 Matching questions 1. The term business ecosystem describes the interplay between the various organizational forces within a firm. 2. The four major types of competitive strategy are A) low-cost leadership; substitute products and services; customers; and suppliers. B) low-cost leadership; product differentiation; focus on market niche; and customer and supplier intimacy. C) new market entrants; substitute products and services; customers; and suppliers. D) low-cost leadership; new market entrants; product differentiation; and focus on market niche. 3. Mintzberg's classification of organizational structure categorizes the knowledge-based organization where goods and services depend on the expertise and knowledge of professionals as a(n) A) entrepreneurial structure. B) divisionalized bureaucracy. C) professional bureaucracy. D) adhocracy. 1. a C 2. b FALSE 3. c B 5 Multiple choice questions 1. A 2. Mass customization 3. A 4. D 5. B 5 True/False questions 1. AutoNation's analytic software that mines customer data with a goal of enabling the building of automobiles that customers actually want can be categorized as using information systems for which competitive strategy? A) low-cost leadership B) product differentiation C) focus on market niche D) customer intimacy 2. A collection of independent firms that use information technology to coordinate their value chains to produce a product or service for a market collectively is called a(n) A) industry value chain. B) business ecosystem. C) value web. D) consortia. 3. A substitute product of most concern for a cable TV distributor is A) satellite TV. B) broadcast TV. C) satellite radio. D) the Internet. 4. From the point of view of economics, information systems technology can be viewed as a factor of production that can be substituted for traditional capital and labor. 5. The value chain model classifies all company activities as either primary or support.
Visitor & Tickets Animals & Exhibits Learning Adventures Capybaras are very social animals, living in groups of about 20 animals. read more > Slender-tailed meerkat Scientific name: Suricata suricatta CLASS: Mammalia ORDER: Carnivora FAMILY: Viveridae STATISTICS: Weight: 1.5-2 lbs; Length: 20 in This member of the mongoose family is about the size of a rabbit, but can drive off predators much larger than itself with aggressive displays. Coloration is a light grizzled gray with black transverse bars on the back, black ears, and a brown tail with a black tip. Their forefeet have long, powerful claws for digging. The body is quite slender. Southern Africa, in the Kalahari Desert south of the Orange River Semiarid plains, commonly with hard or stony ground Meerkats are highly sociable, living in colonies of up to 30 individuals. When threatened, they will attack in groups and dig up the ground to create clouds of dust. If food supplies run low, a colony may establish a new den where food is plentiful, up to a mile away from the original site. Active during the day, meerkats are sensitive to cold and retreat to burrows at night. A meerkat constructs its own underground burrow systems, and has been known to share these tunnels with ground squirrels and other species of mongoose that are not in direct competition with it for food. • Baby sitters will stay close to the den with the young ones and keep them out of trouble while the rest of the colony is out hunting. • Sentries are very picturesque, scanning the skyline for predators while standing up on their hind legs and using their tails for balance. Sentries bark out a warning if they hear, smell, or see any predators. • Teachers go one-on-one with the juveniles to show them how to hunt. Meerkats usually stay in the same colony where they grew up. But if the colony grows too big, a meerkat in its prime may move. The territory of a meerkat colony may cover many miles, and may overlap with the territory of another colony. The two colonies are usually friendly with each other. If the colonies become irritated or food disputes arise, groups could become aggressive. If this happens, an entire colony will group together and start digging furiously to create a dust screen to distract the aggressors. Then, a group of meerkats may advance toward the intruding colony in a series of mock attacks designed to scare off the intruder. During the mock attacks, the meerkats make themselves look as big and intimidating as possible by stretching on their hind legs, using their tails for balance. Once all of the meerkats are in this position and are tightly packed together, they will start jumping in the air, growling and snarling aggressively. If the intruder still tries to go after the colony, some of the braver meerkats will snap and bite at it. If forced on the defensive, the meerkat throws itself on its back, with teeth bared and claws out. Normally there is a single annual litter. Mating occurs in the months of September and October. Females initially resist the male until he seizes her by the neck. Gestation lasts over two months. Two to five young are then born, reaching sexual maturity at one year. Prey to larger predators, such as lions, hyenas and birds of prey Predator to smaller animals. Immune to the venom of snakes and scorpions WILD DIET: Insects, snails, rodents, birds, eggs. Meerkats eat poisonous scorpions by quickly biting off their stingers, and then eating the rest. It is listed as Least Concern with IUCN and is not endangered, but facing loss of habitat. • Meerkats have at least 10 vocalizations, including a threatening growl and an alarm bark. These creatures are often tamed as pets and kept around homes in South Africa to kill mice and rats. Meerkats enjoy basking in the sun, lying in various positions or sitting up on their haunches. Outside activity for the colony is usually diurnal. • When the sun rises, all the meerkats will come out of their burrow to stand up and catch some rays! 1. National Geographic.February 2009 2. Macdonald, D. & Hoffmann, M. 2008. Suricata suricatta. In: IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. March 2009. Published: March 2009 Want to learn more about animals? Check out our Learning Adventures for newborn to 99. Hours of Operation Summer Hours8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. (Beginning March 1) Winter Hours10:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. (Beginning November 1) Open 364 Days a Year!*
Project Canterbury The Story of Commander Allen Gardiner, R.N. With Sketches of Missionary Work in South America By John W. Marsh, M.A. Rector of St. Michael's, Winchester and W.H. Stirling, D.D. Bishop of the Falkland Islands London: James Nisbet, 1883. Chapter IV. The Last Voyage WE must now turn to the final effort which ended Captain Gardiner's exertions for the benefit of the South American Indians. He had returned from Tierra del Fuego ardently desirous to induce his countrymen to send out another mission more efficiently provided than the last, with a brigantine or schooner in which they might keep their provisions, retire in case of difficulty, and maintain communication with the British colony on the East Falkland. He did not regard hia recent attempt as a failure, but as a voyage of observation, showing what further means were required. He found few prepared to take the same view with himself, even among his stanchest supporters; but impressed as he was, with the firm conviction that it was his Master's will that he should exert all his powers to carry on that Master's work in South America, neither disappointment nor remonstrance had any power to withdraw him from it. The question was submitted to the Moravian Church at Herrnhuth in Silesia, whether they would undertake a mission, for which their experience in Greenland seemed to prepare them. Captain Gardiner went to Herrnhuth as the representative of the committee; he was much gratified at meeting there some of the Moravian bishops and clergy from Africa, the West Indies, and other parts of the world, who had come to the synod, which it is their custom to hold once in ten years. The proposal was fully discussed, and excited a deep interest, but the final reply was given a year and a half afterwards declining the undertaking. And now, two applications having been made in vain to the Church Missionary Society to take up the cause of missions to South America, and one to the Moravian Church, a similar application was made to the committee for Foreign Missions of the Church of Scotland; but equally in vain. It was now clear that the committee of the Patagonian Missionary Society must either abandon all hope of a mission to Tierra del Fuego, or adopt the plans of the ardent and disinterested man who pressed them upon their notice. They therefore authorised him to collect the necessary funds as a first step towards such a mission. In the course of his journeys as a lecturer, Captain Gardiner became acquainted with the Rev. George Pakenham Despard, of Redlands, Bristol, a man of courage, energy, and piety, and a warm friendship sprang up between them. When, therefore, difficulties thickened round the infant society--when money for the projected mission came slowly in--when Mr Ritchie, who had been indefatigable in discharging the duties of honorary secretary left London for Liverpool, and no one of the existing members of committee was able or willing to succeed him--Mr Despard was persuaded by Captain Gardiner to come to the rescue. In March 1850 the committee met once more in London, and elected, as members of their body, Mr Despard and those of his friends who had consented to aid them with their counsels. It was resolved, at the same time, that the committee should meet in future at Bristol instead of London, for the purpose of enabling Mr Despard to undertake the laborious office of honorary secretary. As it seemed impossible to raise money enough for the execution of his original scheme, Captain Gardiner endeavoured to modify his plan, so as to combine sufficient security with less expense. He proposed, instead of a brigantine, to take two launches, 26 feet by 8 1/2, in which provisions for six months might be stowed, and two smaller boats to act as tenders to them. Believing that launches of that size would be quite sufficient to navigate the intricate channels of the straits, he spoke confidently to the committee on the subject, and was heard with the deference which his practical experience demanded. They knew that he was sanguine, but they knew also that he was not asking others to undertake toils or dangers which he was unwilling to share with them, or of which he knew nothing. They felt apprehensive when they compared his original plan with the one now presented to them, but he was so clear in his reasoning, and so confident of his facts, that a majority agreed to assist him in carrying it out. Besides, it is apparent to all, that about the stormy coasts of England and Scotland there are hundreds of fishing boats which are safely navigated by bold and skilful seamen. The launches proposed for the mission were to be of the best character, of good size, and provided with decks; while, for a crew, he proposed to obtain experienced Cornish fishermen, accustomed to navigate the Irish sea. Again with patient pertinacity the unwearied man travelled over England and Scotland, but little progress was made in raising the necessary funds, till a lady at Cheltenham, being-assured that the want of money alone hindered the enterprise, generously gave £700 at one time, and afterwards £300 more that it might be immediately prosecuted. The party was soon collected. Mr Richard Williams, a gentleman practising as a surgeon at Burslem in Staffordshire, resigned his professional prospects to share its hardships. Mr John Maidment was pointed out by the secretary of the Young Men's Christian Association in London as the one man of his acquaintance whose piety, trustworthiness, humility, faith, and hardihood, rendered him fit for such a work, if he should be disposed to engage in it. Joseph Erwin the ship carpenter, who was one of the former party, volunteered to go again, saying, that "being with Captain Gardiner was like a heaven on earth, he was such a man of prayer." Three Cornish fishermen, John Pearce, John Badcock, and John Bryant, completed the party. They were men of high character and simple piety, who had worked together as fishermen, and lived together as Christians. This little company sailed from Liverpool in the Ocean Queen, a fine barque, bound for San Francisco, on the 7th of September 1850, and two months after, letters were received from them, one of which gives the following account:--"As for our little mission party, you will be glad to hear that everything goes on most harmoniously,--not a jarring word has been uttered, and, as far as I can judge, but one spirit prevails,--a desire to serve the good Master in whose name we go forth, counting it all joy to endure hardship for His sake. May we have all grace to persevere unto the end. The mission boats, Pioneer and Speedwell, are highly approved, and cared for as if they belonged to the ship." Soon after the arrival of this letter, the committee prepared to send out a second six months' supply of provisions, and every effort was used to find a vessel to take it. But though they had been successful in prevailing on the Ocean Queen to land the missionary party at Picton Island, they were now unable to find a vessel which would take the stores to that island. They therefore fell back upon the other suggestion made by Captain Gardiner, i.e., to send stores to the East Falkland, thence to be forwarded by a vessel which, he hail reason to believe, was sent monthly by Government for wood to Tierra del Fuego. This information was confirmed from what appeared to be authentic sources, and the stores were put on board the brig Pearl, which was advertised to sail for that colony in April. In due course of time letters were received from the voyagers, announcing their arrival at Pieton Island on December 5, 1850, after a long voyage. The incidents of the first few days are thus narrated:-- "Before we anchored, three canoes, with natives, were seen occupied in chasing porpoises; and as we approached Banner Cove, to my no little satisfaction, five goats were observed perched up among the rocks. The crew of this vessel went on shore, and caught two of them, and I have given them to the captain as some little return for his constant kindness. On Friday the 6th we erected our tents, and slept on shore. On the 7th, we constructed a strong fence of trunks of trees, &c., round our position, leaving only one small opening. This night, and during Sunday, the number of natives increased. The party which we found here on our first landing were quiet and peaceable, but not so the people who joined them. Their rudeness, and pertinacious endeavour to force a way into the tents, and to purloin our things, at length became so systematic and resolute, that it was not possible to retain our position without resorting to force, from which, of course, we refrained. For the present we must keep the stores and everything in the boats. As soon as the Ocean Queen leaves us, I purpose going to Button Island, and endeavouring to find out Jemmy, in the hope of persuading either himself or some of his relations to locate here; secondly, should we be unsuccessful in this endeavour, I intend to go still farther to the west, in order to obtain two or three boys from a different tribe, and to retain them for the purpose of learning their language. As a last resort, should we find the difficulties too great, we could easily take three or four lads to Staten Island, or to East Falkland, and after their language had been acquired, resume our position here under more favourable circumstances. "December 18.--The Ocean Queen will probably sail to-morrow morning. . . . Our boats are not too deeply laden, but sadly encumbered, besides which, the leak in the Pioneer is not remedied, as I had expected; nothing remains but to lighten her, and get quite to the keel. We know where the leak is, and only require a proper place to unlade in. Nothing can exceed the cheerful endurance and unanimity of the whole party. I feel that the Lord is with us, and cannot doubt that He will own and bless the work which He has permitted us to begin." Such cheerful communications were calculated to allay the anxiety of friends in England. They knew that the stores which the missionary pioneers had taken with them were sufficient to last till June, and that they had also guns and powder, besides nets for fishing. They knew that Captain Gardiner had written to Mr Lafone of Monte Video, who had extensive property in the Falklands, telling him of the present effort, and requesting him to provide that a vessel should ply periodically between the Falkland Islands and Tierra del Fuego, bringing provisions for the mission, and carrying back a supply of wood. A letter was addressed to Captain B. J. Sulivan, R.N., at that time residing at East Falkland, asking his co-operation, but this unhappily did not reach the islands till he had quitted them. It was also believed that the mission boats made a retreat to the colony possible in case of necessity. But as time passed, and no further intelligence was received, application was made to the Admiralty for assistance, which was promptly rendered. Captain Morshead, of H.M.S. Dido, received directions to touch at Picton Island, on his way to the Pacific, and left England in October 1851. We must now follow the eventful course of the mission party. The Ocean Queen left them on December 19; and, according to the plan stated in the letter which he had just sent to England, Captain Gardiner prepared for a voyage to Button Island. But first it was necessary to disencumber the boats by depositing a part of the stores in some place of security, and to stop the leak of the Pioneer. On the very same day they began their search for a secure harbour on the north shores of the Beagle Channel. The one selected Captain Gardiner called Blomefield Harbour, as a "testimony of respect to his valued friend, Sir T. W. Blomefield." Sad experience too soon showed how imperfectly they were provided for the necessities of their position. The dingeys (which in a brig would have been carried on board) were towed by the Pioneer, and broke adrift the first day. The Speedwell, meantime, was in a still worse plight, and the spare plank which she was towing having got entangled in some kelp, she narrowly escaped getting on shore, and was saved only by the loss of her anchor and the timber. Two attempts were made to get into Blomefield Harbour; the first time, the Pioneer got there; the second time, the Speedwell got safe out to sea. On each occasion the successful boat had to return for her consort, not knowing what evils might have befallen her. The third time of leaving Banner Cove the weather became so stormy, and the wind so contrary, that they were driven for refuge to Lennox Harbour, and beached the boats there on the 6th of January. The repairs were completed, and the boats floated again on the 18th; but as Lennox Harbour was too exposed for the boats to ride safely at anchor, they proceeded eastward to Spaniard Harbour. Here they found a beautiful cove for shelter, which they called Earnest Cove, and a river which they named Cook's River, within a fine harbour. But on the 1st of February a severe gale blew with violence into the harbour, the Pioneer was dashed upon a rock, and her bows driven in by the jagged root of a large tree which lay prostrate upon the beach. One section of the Pioneer was hauled up higher on the beach, and with the help of the tent converted into a sleeping apartment. It might now have been possible, had the weather been mild, to proceed to Woollya in the Speedwell, with seven hands on board, five of whom were men bred to the sea, taking with them part of their provisions; but having in one violent gale lost their landing boats, and the Pioneer itself in another, they felt that it would be useless to make any further attempt with their present means. Not being able to go to Button Island, where there was some hope of finding a friendly, English-speaking native, still less could they remain at Banner Cove, where the natives were liable to come in large force, and were hostile to their movements. They determined, therefore, to wait in Spaniard Harbour till the arrival of the relieving vessel, which they had reason to expect from England or from the Falklands. The possibility of a vessel not arriving did not occur apparently to any of the party. The result of their consultation is thus stated by Mr Williams:-- "Feb. 2, 1851.--How evident that we were not in a position to commence with such slight means so arduous an undertaking! But all this is well; the mission has been thereby begun, whereas, had we waited for more efficient means, it never probably would have been. We are now all agreed that nothing short of a brigantine or schooner of eighty or a hundred tons burden can answer our ends, and to procure this ultimately the captain has fully determined to use every effort. Our plan of action now is to 'rough it' through all the circumstances which it shall please God to permit to happen to us until the arrival of a vessel, and then to take with us some Fuegians, and go to the Falkland Islands, there to learn their language; and when we have acquired it, and got the necessary vessel, to come out again, and go amongst them. "A short acquaintance with the natives confirmed the unfavourable report which such writers as Fitz Roy, King, and Darwin had given; and in the forefront of all their actions it was visible that when they were the weaker party, they were mild and submissive, but the instant they had the prospect of taking us at unawares, they became presuming and full of mischief." It soon became impossible to alter this decision, for within a few days sickness commenced. Mr Williams was the first who was seized. His disorder began with a severe chill; but early in March symptoms of scurvy showed themselves, the result of the want of animal food, which was occasioned by the loss of their powder. John Badcock was the next who sickened. One more voyage only they made to Banner Cove to fetch away some provisions which they had concealed there, and to put up notices to show where they were gone. Then having taken all the measures needful to insure their being found in Spaniard Harbour by any vessel searching for them in Banner Cove, they returned to their retreat on Saturday the 29th of March; from this time watching for the vessel which never came, with that hope deferred which would have made the heart sick, if it had not been that their faith was made to grow exceedingly, and that they were filled with, comfort in all their tribulations. Project Canterbury
Factory Farming Farm Factory Township Pictures that people often see of animals happily living in large-spaced farms or barns where chickens lord over the barnyard and cows lazily graze fields of lush greens could somehow remain visible as being a subject put to rest nowadays. It is because this image, where animals can roam wherever they need to use the farm where they're staying, has already been not the actual picture in terms of farming. Now animals, especially those raised to become reasons for meat, live their days in cramped and overcrowded farms where these are confined until they may be up for that slaughter. These animals that are great contributors in factory farming have emerged mainly as food sources and absolutely nothing more. Farm Business and Village Factory farming started during the 1920s, soon after vitamins D plus a put together and were added on animal feeds. With all the existence of these vitamin-infused feeds, animals also started living lives where they were not subjected to the daylight or given some amounts of exercise which should have been required for their growth. Starting this time, a large number of animals were already raised in indoor confinement during the entire year. However, while factory farming could have developed a big benefit for the mass production of meat for people to drink, there is and a problem encountered because of it. The largest dilemma that owners of factory farms needed to face in raising an enormous volume of animals inside closed quarters was the short spreading of diseases. A remedy is discovered during the 1940s because of this problem and also this was when antibiotics were developed. So, such a animal-raising for food continued and even flourished with farmers finding that that productivity could possibly be increased by making use of assembly-line and mechanization techniques. The price of operations were also reduced with these techniques at the same time. Factory farming may have done a lot of best for the mass output of meat but, it is also caused a lot of pain and suffering for your animals that are confined in constricting spaces and then slaughtered. The animals available in factory farms are typical pumped with hormones and antibiotics and also other chemicals to ensure high productivity can be called in addition to their genes may also be being manipulated at the same time. So, it is usually declared that animals from the food industry aren't viewed as such, but as just causes of food. Aside from being caged in small spaces with bars metallic, these animals may also be put through such horrifying mutilations much like the ear cutting, beak searing, castration and tail docking, and others. Although there are standards which are being proposed to help make the raising of such animals more humane, these usually simply go to the dumps as a result of souped up that food conglomerates now hold from the meat industry.
Why North America is not a rhythm nation I got music. I got my guy, Who could ask for anything more? George Gershwin/Ira Gershwin North American adults have problems perceiving and reproducing irregular rhythms. That's what past studies have shown, and some new research has addressed the question of whether our seeming inability to dance to a different tune should be chalked up to nature or culture. New findings point to a harmonious blend of both. Music has a communal quality in virtually all cultures, inspiring dancing, clapping, instrument playing, marching, and chanting. Despite what seems to be a universal to coordinate movement, listeners are frequently challenged by the rhythmic patterns of other cultures. North American adults, for example, have difficulty perceiving rhythmic patterns in Balkan music. Erin E. Hannon, Cornell University, and Sandra Trehub, University of Toronto, found that Bulgarian and Macedonian adults process complex musical rhythms better than North American adults, who often struggle with anything other than simple western meter. To gauge the significance of culture influences our ability to process musical patterns, the researchers also conducted experiments with North American infants and found that they too were better than North American adults. It suggests that infants are capable of understanding complex rhythms but might lose that ability in a culture - like ours - that embraces a simple musical structure. The researchers also concluded that infants are more flexible than adults when it comes to categorizing different types of rhythms, but can lose this ability if they are exposed to only one type of rhythm when they are growing up. (Similar conclusions have been made about how people learn languages: Infants are more flexible in processing different word sounds and speech patterns from a variety of speakers, but it isn't long before they settle on those that are most common and meaningful to their culture.) Contact: Erin Hannon Association for Psychological Science Page: 1 2 3 Related medicine news : 1. Northwestern Memorial Hospital honored with one of the nations top awards for quality 2. Northwestern Memorial physicians encourage screenings during colon cancer awareness month 3. Northwestern Memorial Hospital receives $10 million commitment to support preeminent heart program 4. Poverty in Northern Ireland 5. Northwestern Memorial chosen to be featured in first-ever mini-med school TV airing on PBS 6. Countrys first simplified maze using new ultrasound technology is done at Northwestern Memorial 7. Northwestern Memorial Hospital testing new procedure for patients with major depression 8. Northwestern University receives $7.5 million for regenerative medicine 9. Northwestern researchers pinpoint how false memories are formed 10. Northwestern receives $2.1 million grant for Parkinsons disease research 11. Expensive new meds increase drug expenditures in the North Carolina Medicaid program Post Your Comments: Breaking Medicine News(10 mins): Breaking Medicine Technology: Cached News:
Shadow and Act Test \| Final Test - Medium Buy the Shadow and Act Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Multiple Choice Questions 1. Who is LeRoi Jones? (a) Jazz critic, author, poet and editor. (b) Journalist, painter and fencing master. (c) Trumpeter and composer. (d) Drummer, restaurant owner and chef. 2. What is the basic spiritual outlook of the American Negro? (a) Cosmological. (b) Protestant. (c) Ontological. (d) Pentecostal. 3. What two types of music is Ellison torn between as a child? (a) Be-bop and Big Band. (b) Negro folk and Western classical. (c) Country Western and Soul. (d) Sacred and Profane. 4. Why are slaves able to express themselves in art? (a) They were given artistic education by slave owners. (b) They came from African cultures where art was highly functional. (c) Art was seen as harmless by slave owners. (d) Entertainment was enforced by white culture. 5. What is remarkable about the psychiatric staff? (a) Not licensed by the state. (b) Have no experience. (c) Have no psychiatric training. (d) Receive no salary. Short Answer Questions 2. Who is the author of the novel "Intruder in the Dust?" 3. Where is the Lafargue Psychiatric Clinic? 4. What does Ellison read in 1935 that moves and intrigues him? 5. What is the "Shadow" which Hollywood produces? Short Essay Questions 1. How does the early film "Birth of the Nation" portray Negro persons? 2. What does the mural above the bandstand at Minton's depict? 3. What are the two categories Jones places the blues in? 4. What does Ellison tell us about the matriarch, Mrs. Jackson, in "The Way It Is." 5. Who is Mahalia Jackson? 6. Who does the song "They picked poor robin clean" remind Ellison of? 7. What does Ellison believe Jackson's greatest gift is? 8. Where is the Lefargue Psychiatric Clinic located? 9. What is the film "Intruder in the Dust" about? 10. What type of food is served at Minton's? (see the answer keys) This section contains 695 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page) Buy the Shadow and Act Lesson Plans Follow Us on Facebook
NPR logo Kids Learn to 'Red Light' Bad Food • Download • Transcript Kids Learn to 'Red Light' Bad Food Your Health Kids Learn to 'Red Light' Bad Food • Download • Transcript This is MORNING EDITION from NPR News. I'm Renee Montagne. And I'm Steve Inskeep. In Your Health today, obesity and kids. We will examine just how fat a baby can be and still be healthy. First, we'll visit a successful weight-control program in Stanford, California, that helps significantly overweight children. Kids as young as eight understand the difference between healthy and unhealthy foods, and they learn how to change their lifestyles. Here's NPR's Patricia Neighmond. PATRICIA NEIGHMOND: The first step in this program is a promise: both parents and kids literally sign a contract promising to come every week for six months to an hour and a half learning session. Cindy Zedeck is an education specialist, who runs the program at Lucille Packard Children's Hospital in Stanford. Ms. CINDY ZEDECK (Education Specialist, Lucille Packard Children's Hospital in Stanford): A child has to verbally be able to explain that they want to do this, that they're doing it for themselves, that they're not doing it because they felt pressure from their parent. That's a big part of the program, because if they feel any pressure or they're not really clear on why they are personally there, it won't be as successful. NEIGHMOND: With so many choices of high fat, high-calorie foods in so many places - birthday parties, sports events - Zedeck says it's tough for kids to make healthy choices. So the program begins by helping kids understand that not all foods are alike. Ms. HANNAH RILEY: Red's stop. Yellow's caution. Green's go for it. NEIGHMOND: Hannah Riley lost 14 pounds, quite a bit for a 9-year-old. Like everyone in the program, she and her mother, Julie Wheeler, received a traffic light food guide. Ms. RILEY: And red foods are candy, maybe potato chips, soda, a lot of things. Yellow foods is caution. NEIGHMOND: Fruits are yellow, so is meat and fish. And green? That's vegetables. Pediatrician Thomas Robinson directs the Center for Healthy Weight at the Children's Hospital. Recently, he moved certain foods from cautious yellow to stoplight red. Dr. THOMAS ROBINSON (Pediatrician, Center for Healthy Weight at Lucille Packard Children's Hospital in Stanford): There're foods that kids eat a lot of, eat large portions of, and tend to be exposed to a lot and are very popular. So for example, if - even though if a cheese pizza might fit in a yellow category based on just its pure nutritional content in terms of calories or fat per gram or energy density, we would find that kids would say well, that's wonderful that pizza is a yellow because that's our favorite food and we'll eat as much as we want of it. NEIGHMOND: Kids also sign contracts promising to reduce the number of red foods they eat to help them really understand how bad high fat, high-calorie foods can be. There are simple visuals: tubes of sugar, a full 12 ounces, showing how much sugar is in one can of soda - Crisco, to symbolize fat in foods. Ms. ZEDECK: Remember that day that they brought in like the fat? Ms. RILEY: Real fat. Ms. ZEDECK: Real fat. Ms. RILEY: Like, fat in these two glass containers, they pretended to be organs in your blood vessel. Ms. ZEDECK: (Unintelligible) like the straw, and it clogging your arteries? (Soundbite of blender) NEIGHMOND: Everyday after school, Hannah concocts a smoothie, shuffling through the refrigerator to choose from a variety of healthy fruits. Ms. RILEY: Blackberries, berries, strawberries, banana, pears. Apples, peaches, blueberries. Did I already say blueberries? I think I did. NEIGHMOND: It didn't used to be like this. There used to be lots of red lights in Hannah's house - chips, cookies, ice cream. Hannah says she doesn't miss those foods - probably because she likes the weight loss better than the red lights. Ms. RILEY: To me, I just see the human body and my brain and something, and I see fat. And that reminds me to not eat that much red lights, or not even eat some. NEIGHMOND: As Hannah was meeting her goals to decrease red-light foods, she was also meeting new program goals to get active and exercise. Unidentified Child #1: Back up. Unidentified Child #2: Back up, Madeleine. Unidentified Child #1: Back up, back up (unintelligible). Unidentified Child #3: Back, back, back... Ms. RILEY: I think my body likes exercising more. Like, I can't wait till recess or lunch so I can go run or something, go play with my friends. I like the playground, and I like the slider and the monkey bars. Ms. ZEDECK: That's one thing that you weren't able to do. Remember, you couldn't do the monkey bars for the longest time because you couldn't lift your own weight? NEIGHMOND: Toward the end of the program, kids begin to document their sitting habits. How much computer time and TV watching they do. Today, both Julie and Hannah say they've really cut down on TV. And seeing Hannah now, you'd never think she had a weight problem. She's a healthy, active, dancing, soccer-playing kid with an after-school ritual. Ms. WHEELER: Did you get enough to eat? Ms. RILEY: Yeah. Ms. WHEELER: Did you get some protein in there? Ms. RILEY: Yep. Ms. WHEELER: Can you run on the field? Ms. RILEY: What? Ms. WHEELER: Can you run and jump high on the field? Ms. RILEY: Yes. Ms. WHEELER: Can you kick the ball hard? Ms. RILEY: Yes. Ms. WHEELER: Yeah. You're good. Ms. RILEY: Yes. Ms. WHEELER: Got a water bottle? Ms. RILEY: Yes. Ms. WHEELER: Did you put sunscreen on your face this morning? Ms. RILEY: Yes. Ms. WHEELER: Did you make healthy choices? Ms. RILEY: Yes. Ms. WHEELER: Do you love me? Ms. RILEY: Yes. NEIGHMOND: This program at Packard is highly successful. Eighty percent of the kids stick with it for six months and lose weight. In most weigh control programs, only about half of those who start out actually finish. Patricia Neighmond, NPR News.
GISBORNE CITY, New Zealand— The first sunrise of the new millennium will be a cold and lonely moment as the midnight sun dips below the horizon near Dibble Glacier in Antarctica and then, a few minutes later, creeps up again. At the edge of the international date line, the silent Antarctic dawn will take place close to 14 hours before the big ball descends to mark the New Year in Times Square -- and about 21 hours before the sun rises in New York at 7:20 a.m. on Jan. 1, 2000. But no one is likely to be there on that distant glacier to see the century's first dawn. This has touched off a rough-and-tumble competition among the islands of the South Pacific for the claim of being the first inhabited place to witness the first fresh sunbeams of the future. Fiji, Tonga, Kiribati and New Zealand's Pitt Island, near here (the astronomers' favorite), are the main contenders. In another part of the world, Katchall Island in the Indian Ocean is using a different theory of time to claim the first island sunrise. It has its scientific backers too. Like the millennium itself, which purists point out does not begin for another year, the competition is a matter of definitions and technicalities. First midnight or first dawn? First permanently or temporarily inhabited place? Local time or Greenwich Mean Time? And, particularly in the case of the often foggy Pitt Island, is there a sunrise if the weather is bad and nobody sees it? ''It's all just a matter of convention, but of course the whole business of the millennium is a matter of convention,'' said Dennis McCarthy, director of the Directorate of Time at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington. (''We are concerned with keeping the time for the country here,'' he said, explaining his job title. ''So as far as time is concerned, that is what we take care of.'') ''Why is the year 2000 the year 2000? It's just a convention established in the sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus,'' he went on, referring to the Christian theologian who is believed to have introduced the current system of numbering years. ''And I think it's pretty much assumed now that he got it wrong, if he actually was referencing the birth of Jesus.'' Right or wrong, things have gotten heated in this part of the world as New Year's Eve approaches -- a wild shifting of date lines, time zones and daylight saving times that has produced some strange geographical and temporal contortions. Here in this easternmost city of New Zealand, yet another claim dominates: first city to greet the new century. Or to put it another way, first land mass to see the sunrise. Looking more like a small town than a city, this quiet settlement of 30,000 seems a pleasant enough representative for the rest of us to greet the future. It is described repeatedly by residents as ''a nice place to raise children.'' ''Many people in the outside world think we're isolated,'' said Mike Coyle, a member of the Gisborne District Council. ''We're glad. The younger people, they like to move away, have their excitement, then move back and enjoy their retirement. Or like me you can hop in the car any time, drive seven hours to Auckland, have a whale of a time and be back again on Monday.'' But like the designation of Jan. 1, 2000, as the start of the new millennium, all these South Pacific claims, by one key definition, are wrong. They are based on local time rather than on Greenwich Mean Time -- or Coordinated Universal Time, as the scientists, if not the theologians, call it. When the sun rises over the Pacific, it will still be about 3 p.m. on Dec. 31 in Greenwich, England, ground zero for the world's clocks. The new year, and the new century, will not yet have officially arrived. ''The only international standard for time across the world is Universal Time,'' said Robert Massey, an astronomer at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. ''So our argument has always been that the new millennium will begin on Jan. 1 at the stroke of midnight along the Greenwich meridian. ''So the easiest way to measure who is first is to set your clocks to midnight G.M.T. and find out where the sun is rising. That in a sense is the first sunrise.'' At that moment, he said, the sun will be rising along a great arc running from eastern Russia through China, down along the border between Myanmar -- formerly Burma -- and Thailand, out into the Indian Ocean and on down to the Antarctic Circle. Of all the spots on that particular arc, it is Katchall Island, India, part of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago in the Bay of Bengal, that has decided to raise the cry of ''first.'' But by the time that happens, it will already be midday on Jan. 1 in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Why wait? Several places in the Pacific are making their own claims. Pitt Island The strongest claim appears to belong to Pitt Island, home to fewer than 60 farmers and their sheep. It is a part of New Zealand, but it lies in the blustery seas 500 miles off the coast -- and not much farther than that to the north of Antarctica. Pitt, the more easterly of the two Chatham Islands, will greet the sunrise at 4:49 a.m. on Jan. 1, or 4:04 p.m. Greenwich Mean Time on Dec. 31. It will be 11:04 a.m. in New York.
Bloomsbury Square From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Bloomsbury Square Bloomsbury Square is a garden square in Holborn, Camden, London, built by James Burton. Charles James Fox Statue, Bloomsbury Square Bloomsbury Square and Bedford House looking north, circa 1725 The square was developed by 4th Earl of Southampton in the late 17th century and was initially known as Southampton Square. It was one of the earliest London squares.[1] The Earl's own house, then known as Southampton House and later as Bedford House after the square and the rest of the Bloomsbury Estate passed by marriage from the Earls of Southampton to the Dukes of Bedford, occupied the whole of the north side of the square, where Bedford Place is now located.[2] The other sides were lined with typical terraced houses of the time, which were initially occupied by members of the aristocracy and gentry. On April 9, 1694, Bloomsbury Square was the setting for an infamous duel. The then 23-year-old Scottish economist and financier John Law fought Edward 'Beau' Wilson, killing him with a single pass and thrust of his sword.[3] Law would be convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but would escape his condemned cell and go on to become the founder of the Mississippi Company and the de facto prime minister of France.[4] Bloomsbury Square In culture[edit] Current Occupants[edit] Former Occupants[edit] See also[edit] Other squares on the Bedford Estate in Bloomsbury included: 1. ^ Summerson, John (2003). Georgian London. New Haven: Yale. p. 24. 2. ^ History, The Bedford Estates, Bloomsbury, London, UK. 5. ^ Musical London, London Vacation Secrets. External links[edit]
You are here Back in the 1980s and early 1990s, boys and girls in sixth grade in Osseo Area Schools, Minn., learned the term masturbation. All fourth-graders learned about anatomy in mixed-gender classes and the definition of sexual intercourse. And junior high students learned methods to avoid the risk of HIV infection. It was a comprehensive family life curriculum, considered a prime model of a comprehensive human sexuality and family life education, according to B.J. Anderson, then the curriculum and instruction specialist for the district. In Okemos, Mich., Paula Pulter's first grade class at the Cornell Elementary School has covered units on American history, the Revolutionary War, U.S. presidents, weather and recycling. At the Thorn Apple Elementary School in Grand Rapids, Nancy Lass had led her second graders through a six-week unit reading and writing about microscopic animals. WITH A PROCLAMATION by President George W. Bush and a series of visits by federal education officials, charter schools enjoyed a week of national attention in May, celebrating their supporters' claim that they can be more effective than other public schools in boosting student achievement. Nothing that involves dispersing money seems to come out fair-and still school systems manage to attract budget directors who gear up for the challenge on an annual basis. Preparing for a Pandemic Unsure if or when the next flu pandemic might strike, public health officials are telling school districts to be prepared should the bird flu virus evolve to the point where it can spread easily from person to person.
Grammar Lesson 1: iltiqaa’ al-saakinayn This entry was posted in Arabic Grammar and tagged . Bookmark the permalink. 8 Responses to Grammar Lesson 1: iltiqaa’ al-saakinayn Sr: try to study more on iltiqaa’ al-saakinayn 2. Maryam says: Assalaamu alaykum wa Rahmatullaahi wa Barakaatuh yaa Fadeelatas Shaykh, hafizakumullaah Jazaakumullaahu khair our dear Shaykh for this very simple and easy to understand lesson. It was a lovely reminder, alhamdulillaah. The attractive colours indicating the changes also help make the point clearer and quicker to grasp. I found the explanation of the mansuub form of malikun quite fascinating and saying ‘malakiyyun‘ is much more natural and easy on the tongue. It is little gems like this that make one admire Arabic even more! Wasalaamu alaykum 3. Obaid Ibn Owais says: I just want to know that if I can get the Dvds of all the five courses of Shaykh inshaALLAH in India?and how is it possible for me to do it here inshaALLAH? 4. Aqlama says: What does Mansoob mean? Also, please explanation its application to maliki. JKhair. 5. hasana says: asalamu alaikum, i am finding these videos very beneficial.jazakakallahu khairan.i want to know whether the verb handouts which the Br. asif meherali is talking about is available for download anywhere. 6. Umm salama says: is there also a rule when iltiqaa as-saakinain becomes marfoo3 instead of mansoob or maksoor? • dr.vaniya says: From Admin وعليكم السلام Sister Yes, the rules are explained in detail on: Suurat al-Hujuraat with Lexical and Grammatical notes: on DVD 1 Part A. Our Shaykh explains all the cases of iltiqaa al-saakinayn and the methods used to solve them. The rule of taking a Dammah, is also explained in: 1) Madinah Book 2 lesson 7, # 7 in the Key. 2) Kitaab al-Mu”allim, Notes for dars 7. This change is phonetical, not grammatical. So a word is not described as marfuu” when this happens. 7. Mohamad Fatchmahamad says: I am impress with lesson 1.I will like to learn the language. Leave a Reply
A community for students. Here's the question you clicked on: 55 members online • 0 replying • 0 viewing • 3 years ago Choose the equation of the line passing through the point (2, 6) and parallel to y = -3x - 4. y = 3x - 12 y = -3x y = -3x + 12 y = 3x • This Question is Closed 1. anonymous • 3 years ago Best Response You've already chosen the best response. Medals 0 If you have an equation of the line in the form y=ax+b then your slope will be a. Now, the line on the hipotesis is y=-3x-4, then your slope is (-3) If two lines are parallel, then their slopes are the same. Ergo, the line you're searching has slope (-3) Finally, you can find the equation of a line if you have the slope and a point. slope is "m", the point is (x1,x2) y-y1=m(x-x1) Then, you'll have y-6=-3(x-2) y=-3x+12 2. Not the answer you are looking for? Search for more explanations. • Attachments: Ask your own question Sign Up Find more explanations on OpenStudy Privacy Policy spraguer (Moderator) 5 → View Detailed Profile • Teamwork 19 Teammate • Problem Solving 19 Hero • You have blocked this person. • ✔ You're a fan Checking fan status... This is the testimonial you wrote. You haven't written a testimonial for Owlfred.
• Music Rhythmical Resistance: Musicians from the Apartheid Era Apartheid influenced every aspect of life in South Africa; culturally, music functioned as a popular initiative and response to the political repression of that era. Hugh Masekela, Ladysmith Black Mambazo and Miriam Makeba were artists who utilized their music to campaign against the profound injustice of Apartheid. Ladysmith Black Mambazo will now be performing at London’s Sadler’s Wells Theatre in September of 2014 in a unique collaboration with Mark Baldwin and world-class dancers from the Royal Ballet and Rambert. As revealed in Anne Schumann’s essay about the role of music in the resistance of apartheid, music initially started as a mirror reflecting the popular experience, however as time went on and resistance movements started to emerge, music and creative expression started to become a hammer with which to ‘shape reality’. In this sense, music in South Africa went from ‘reflecting common experiences and concerns in the early years of apartheid’ to ‘eventually functioning as a force to confront the state and as a means to actively construct an alternative political and social reality.’ During the apartheid era, it was difficult for musicians ‘of colour’ in South Africa to perform, especially as formal employment. These musicians were not seen as equals and were denied opportunities and rights. However their talent and music was indeed still heard; many of these ‘coloured’ musicians fought hard to oppose the politically imposed limitations upon them, and their resistance is a vital part of the story of South Africa’s resistance and recovery during and after the Apartheid years. Hugh Masekela: The Man With The Horn Born in Witbank, South Africa in 1939, Hugh Masekela is a South African flugelhorn, trumpet and cornet player who, to this day, has played in numerous jazz ensembles around the world. Masekela was inspired after watching the film Young Man with a Horn, where Kirk Douglas plays an American jazz trumpeter. He was first given a trumpet at the age of fourteen, from Trevor Huddleston, a British anti-apartheid archbishop working at his township school. He quickly mastered the instrument, and along with others at his school, formed South Africa’s first youth orchestra. From then, his solos have been incorporated in the framework of pop, R&B, disco, Afro-pop and jazz music and he has also toured with many renowned musicians such as Bob Marley, Jimi Hendrix and the Byrds. His interest in his African roots instigated a collaboration with other African musicians during Paul Simon’s controversial tour Graceland. Masekela’s music was also featured in the Broadway play, Sarafina! And he appeared in the documentary, Amandla!. He has won two Grammy Awards, with his albums Grazing in the Grass and Sarafina, and wrote, recorded and performed several international hits. His 1987 hit Bring Him Back Home, was written as an anthem accompanying the movement to release Nelson Mandela from prison. Interestingly, Masekela didn’t start out to make a statement, but rather his music became linked to apartheid because of where he came from and the fact that he would inevitably find inspiration from his people and his country. In respect to Schumann’s essay, Masekela’s music takes the role of the ‘mirror’. In 1961 he was exiled from South Africa to the United States, returning only after apartheid had ended in 1990, with a musical style that is now best described as African jazz. Capable of ‘outstanding ballad and bebop work’ Masekela is not only a charismatic musician, but also an important icon in relation to apartheid times. Ladysmith Black Mambazo: Zulu Chorus The voices of the male choral group, Ladysmith Black Mambazo, have come to represent another example of traditional South African culture, specifically through their fusion of Christian gospel music with unique African rhythms and harmonies. They are considered something of a national treasure at home. Formed in Durban in the 1960’s by their leader Joseph Shabalala, they are now one of South Africa’s most exciting groups. Regardless of the listeners’ choice of faith, Mambazo’s music instigates enthusiasm through the sheer power and quality of their combined vocals. They first found fame in 1970, and their discography currently contains more than fifty albums. Even though they are popularly referred to as entertainers, staying true to their musical heritage is an important aspect of their performances; they do this by drawing from traditional South African mine music called ‘isicathamiya’ and South African acapella called ‘mbube’. They were rediscovered by Paul Simon in the 1980’s, the two soon collaborating in 1986 for Simon’s album Graceland, which received a Grammy Award for Album of the year. This album was considered a landmark in terms of introducing world music to mainstream audiences, and connecting the diverse mix of musical styles that it featured. Mambazo’s first US release, Shaka Zulu, won a Grammy Award, and since then, has had fifteen Grammy Award nominations. In 1993, when apartheid was abolished and Nelson Mandela was released, they came out with the album Liph Iqiniso, which celebrated the end of apartheid, especially through the album’s last track Isikifil Inkululeko (Freedom Has Arrived). Mambazo then accompanied Mandela to the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony in Oslo, Norway and sang at his inauguration in 1994. After continuing to release a multitude of albums reflecting their experiences, they released Long Walk to Freedom, which celebrated the 45 years of their musical career. Accompanying this album was a night, where musicians such as Sarah McLachlan and Natalie Merchant were guest performers. Now, leader Shabalala has set up the Ladysmith Black Mambazo Foundation, so that Zulu youth have a chance to learn about their traditional culture and music. Miriam Makeba: Mama Africa Miriam Makeba, the legendary South African singer and civil rights activist, is an example of what Schumann deems the ‘hammer’ in the way she actively spoke out against the realities of apartheid; The Guardian called her ‘one of the most visible and outspoken opponents’ of the regime. Starting in a township, her music very quickly launched her into celebrity status. This started in 1954 when she featured as a vocalist for the Manhattan Brothers which led to her winning the role of the female lead in the show King Kong in 1959. In 1966, she became the first African artist to receive a Grammy Award for her album An Evening With Harry Belafonte and Miriam Makeba. However her popularity cost her her citizenship, forcing her to take asylum in Guinea where she became extremely active in the United Nations General Assembly’s activity in relation to South Africa. Makeba appeared in the 1960 anti-apartheid documentary Come Back Africa. In 1967 she gained even more recognition with Pata Pata, and soon after published her autobiography Makeba: My Story, where she revealed tragedies and injustices she faced throughout her life. Her experiences led her to be extremely involved with the black consciousness movement. While she was in Guinea, she met and married Stokely Carmichael, the leader of the Black Panthers. Similarly to Hugh Masekela and LadySmith Black Mambazo, Makeba also performed with Paul Simon on his Graceland album and tour. By Sarah Mitchell
The Day They Came to Arrest the Book Test \| Final Test - Hard Buy The Day They Came to Arrest the Book Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Short Answer Questions 1. What do Barney, Luke, Gordon and Kate do during lunchtime? 2. What does Mr. Dennis claim Jim and Huck's nudity in the novel suggests? 3. Where is the review hearing being held? 4. Luke's comment that they should just take Huck out and shoot him is seen as proof of what by Carl McLean? 5. What does Luke imagine happening to the library? Short Essay Questions 1. What would Matthew Griswold like to see happen to "Huckleberry Finn", and does he consider his preference censorship? 2. Why do Barney's parents get so angry after Barney remarks on television that he is unsure whether they would allow him to read the Bible now that it is under scrutiny? 3. For what reason does Deirdre suggest Pride and Prejudice might be offensive? 4. What repercussions does Maggie Crowley suggest could result from Barney publishing his article? 5. Describe the setting of the school board meeting. 6. What results from Barney's article being published? 7. What are Nora's evaluations of the members of the review committee? 8. As they await the release of the names of the review committee members, what do Barney and Luke discuss in reference to the previous year's censorship issues? 9. What reasons were given for the decision to ban "Huckleberry Finn" at the school? 10. What is Carl McLean's official complaint against "Huckleberry Finn"? Essay Topics Write an essay for ONE of the following topics: Essay Topic 1 The author uses symbolism to convey some of the core themes of the novel. Write an essay explaining the meaning behind the author's use of symbolism. Essay Topic 2 Freedom of individual thought is a major theme of the novel. Nora lobbies for it against the Principal, the students learn about it, and the debaters touch on it during the debate in Chapter 7 and 8. Discuss how freedom of individual thought is explored in the novel and how it plays a part in stopping the censorship of "Huckleberry Finn". Essay Topic 3 Racism is one of the main themes of the novel. Discuss the dangers of racism, whether real or perceived. (see the answer keys) This section contains 1,039 words (approx. 4 pages at 300 words per page) Buy The Day They Came to Arrest the Book Lesson Plans The Day They Came to Arrest the Book from BookRags. (c)2016 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved. Follow Us on Facebook
The Old Gringo Quiz \| Eight Week Quiz C Buy The Old Gringo Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Multiple Choice Questions 1. What relationship did Harriet and Tomás have in Mexico? (a) They were acquaintances. (b) They were coworkers. (c) They were lovers. (d) They were neighbors. 2. How many people accompany Harriet as she makes her way over the Mexican border? (a) One. (b) Three. (c) Four. (d) Two. 3. Which meal do the old man and woman in the tiny hut invite the old gringo to eat with them? (a) Siesta. (b) Lunch. (c) Breakfast. (d) Dinner. 4. What does the old gringo have marking his grave? (a) A granite stone. (b) A bouquet of flowers. (c) A wooden cross. (d) Nothing. 5. Which military character does the old gringo think will test him more than any other character in the novel? (a) Inocencio Mansalvo. (b) The Colonel. (c) Pedro. (d) General Arroyo. Short Answer Questions 1. Where did Harriet complete school? 2. What type of food is served to the old gringo on the night he arrives at the guerrilla camp? 3. What does the old gringo fear will happen to Harriet while in Mexico? 4. When Harriet dreams of Tomás, what thought takes over her mind? 5. What creature is present in the bottom of every mescal bottle? (see the answer key) This section contains 243 words (approx. 1 page at 300 words per page) Buy The Old Gringo Lesson Plans The Old Gringo from BookRags. (c)2016 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved. Follow Us on Facebook
At this year’s Olympic Games, military tech helped Britain take home 65 medals -- more for the country than it has won in a century. Drone research assisted the Royal Yachting Association at the 2012 Olympics. Techniques used to develop tanks and fighter jets gave the Tae Kwon Do team a leg up. Will it also help at the 2012 Paralympics, which opened Wednesday night in London? Defense giant BAE Systems invested more than $2.25 million in a tech partnership, lending the expertise of their best engineers to give more than 20 British teams and 140 athletes and coaches access to innovations originally meant for defense and security. Simulation, mathematical modeling, aerodynamics, structural and mechanical engineering and hydrodynamic and materials science all combined to give the athletes an extra edge. Drone technology hits high seas Research into unmanned air vehicles (UAVs, more commonly called drones) undertaken by the company was applied to assist the Royal Yachting Association (RYA). More On This... The predictive modeling software typically used in the robot planes was instead used to improve the accuracy of weather forecasts at the Olympic sailing locations Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbor. Tanks and Tae Kwon Do The same techniques BAE used to develop tanks and fighter jets were used to give the Tae Kwon Do team an advantage. BAE Systems analyzed the special socks and scoring vests the team’s martial artists use for electronic scoring. The material in them? The same equipment designed to test impact resistance in composite materials that might go into the company’s military vehicles. The socks are electronic: When they strike sensors in the vest they provide a coded signal. With this system, British athletes modified their training to maximize scores. And access to the best in defense engineering seems to have worked: Jade Jones took home Britain’s first gold medal in Tae Kwon Do on Aug. 9. Fighter jet wind tunnel for wheelchair racers The enormous wind tunnel at BAE’s Military Air and Information site near Bristol is ordinarily used for testing the aerodynamics of combat planes like the Eurofighter Typhoon at speeds exceeding Mach 2. But cycling and wheelchair racing are sports that depend on technology. In preparation for this year’s Paralympics -- which physicist Stephen Hawking helped kick off at Olympic Stadium in London Wednesday evening for 4,200 athletes from more than 160 nations -- in tests simulating racing speeds of more than 30 mph, British wheelchair racers used the tunnel to study how air interacts with them as they move around the track. The computational fluid dynamics data from these tests were used to explain to the athletes how their body position affected their aerodynamics and therefore speed. Athletes could then take the feedback and alter seating positions and chair posture tactics to improve their overall performance. Battlefield identification Battlefield identification technology, which is used to distinguish friend from foe on the front lines, was utilized to help the country’s paracyclists improve their speed as well. The system was tested in the Manchester Velodrome in advance of the Olympic British Cycling event to be held there. Bikes were equipped with retro-reflective tags and BAE installed a very sophisticated laser timing system in the Velodrome. Taken together, this system let coaches track the performance of up to 30 riders simultaneously -- down to the millisecond. Lasers for pentatheletes The Modern Pentathalon rules changed in the beginning of the 2011 season, and traditional air pistols were replaced with high-tech laser pistols that don’t leave any physical marks on their target. Scoring became entirely electronic and pinpointing malfunctions in the guns became more difficult. To solve this new challenge, BAE Systems adapted laser systems originally used to protect aircraft from hostile attack. They created ULTeMo laser pistols for Britain’s athletes to take to their competitions; it can measure the strength of a laser pulse and ensure it’s up to requirements. To use it, an Olympian puts her pistol in ULTeMo and fires a single shot. New wheelchair for track and long distance events A new wheelchair for the Great Britian team was developed in secrecy and was launched in time for the Paralympics. Developed in partnership with aerodynamic specialists TotalSim and wheelchair manufacturer DRAFT, the team will use it in track and long distance events. To increase the speed of athletes, the new wheelchair is more aerodynamic, lighter, has improved rolling resistance in wheel alignment and tire pressure and has a stronger frame. Secret projects? BAE engineers and scientists also worked on a number of projects for teams including canoeing, badminton, short-track speed skating, swimming and athletics. The British paralympic team aims to hold onto second place in medals, which would require winning 102 medals. Exploiting some of the very best of British defense, security and aerospace expertise could provide a critical edge.
What Are Tax Brackets? Vote 1 Vote Favorites In 2009 California is going to have to confront and settle a number of budget issues that we have been putting off for decades. We have been putting off so many necessary decisions -- deferring maintenance of our infrastructure, pushing pain into the future by borrowing, setting aside the needs of our people by cutting school, police, fire and other budgets, and practicing almost every form of avoidance of reality that we could find. Well, the karma is coming back on us, all the chickens have come home to roost, we are getting what we gave and we are going to pay for our sins. (Please leave more cliches in the comments.) The number one budget issues that has to be confronted is taxation. So, let's talk taxes, beginning with the basics. I have found that many people don't really understand how taxes work so I want to write a bit about that here. One reason for the lack of understanding of taxes is that there has been quite a bit of deliberate misinformation. By confusing people, the very wealthy and corporate interests have been able to trick people into letting them avoid paying their fair share. Instead we either take on ourselves the bulk of the burden of paying for democracy, or just borrow and put that burden on our children. One thing that I have found many people do not quite understand is the concept of tax brackets. Tax brackets A "progressive" tax is one where the tax rate increases as income increases. A progressive tax structure consists of brackets. You pay a certain tax rate on income up to the next bracket. After that bracket is reached, a higher tax rate applies to income that is earned that is above that amount. Let's say that you pay 5% on income below $10,000 and 7% on income above $10,000. So if you make exactly $10,000 of income the tax is $500. At $10,100 the tax is still that $500 on the amount below $10,000 and $7 on the additional $100, for a total of $507. The key point is that only the amount in the new bracket is taxed at the higher rate. Many people believe that once you reach a higher bracket you pay the higher tax rate on all the income that falls below that bracket amount as well. I have actually talked to people who think they need to "get their income into a lower bracket" to avoid paying a higher tax rate, because they think that a higher tax rate would apply to all of the income they earned. Using the example of the earlier paragraph, many people believe that you would pay $707, not $507, on income of $10,100, assuming that the entire $10,100 is taxed at a 7% rate because the total income is above $10,000. This incorrect belief is one result of anti-tax arguments. It is also the basis of many tax-avoidance schemes. So, to repeat: If you enter a higher tax bracket, you only pay the higher tax rate on the amount of income you earn that is in the new tax bracket, not on all of your income. Leave a comment OpenID accepted here Learn more about OpenID Join Our Mailing List About this Entry This page contains a single entry by Dave Johnson published on January 6, 2009 9:22 AM. Comments was the previous entry in this blog. Error Found in Prop 8 Wording is the next entry in this blog.
Sir Frederick John Dealtry Lugard GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES Spanish Simplified Chinese French German Russian Hindi Arabic Portuguese SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY LUGARD (1858-),. British soldier, African explorer and administrator, son of the Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on the 22nd of January 1858. He entered the army in 1878, joining the Norfolk regiment. He served in the Afghan War of 1879-80, in the Sudan campaign of 1884-85, and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on temporary half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders on Lake Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland in April 1889, and in the same year was engaged by the Imperial British East Africa Company. In their service he explored the Sabaki river and the neighbouring region, and elaborated a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves held by the Arabs in the Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the company to Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting, chiefly notable for an unprovoked attack by the "French" on the "British" faction. While administering Uganda he journeyed round Ruwenzori to Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping a large area of the country. He also visited Albert Nyanza, and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who had been left there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandonment of Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated by the fourth Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was despatched by the Royal Niger Company to Borgu, where, distancing his French and German rivals in a country up to then unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties with the kings and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British company. In1896-1897he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami on behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From Ngami he was recalled by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he was commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the hinterland of Lagos and Nigeria against French aggression. In August 1897 he raised the West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until the end of December 1899. The differences with France were then composed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its charter, Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern Nigeria. The part of Northern Nigeria under effective control was small, and Lugard's task in organizing this vast territory was rendered more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of Sokoto and many other Fula princes to fulfil their treaty obligations. In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir of Kano and the sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British control over the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906 he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being peacefully administered under the supervision of British residents (see Nigeria). In April 1907 he was appointed governor of Hong-Kong. Lugard was created a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G. in 1 9 01. He became a colonel in 1905, and held the local rank of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora Louise Shaw (daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects for The Times. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published in 1893 The Rise of our East African Empire (partly auto-biographical), and was the author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office. Throughout his African administrations Lugard sought strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native races, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery. Copyright © 1995-2011 ITA all rights reserved. Encyclopedia Alphabetically
Dialect Survey Results by State Dialect Survey Results: ILLINOIS Below are the terms and pronunciations most commonly used in ILLINOIS. 1. aunt a. [] as in "ah" (3.65%) b. [] as in "ant" (89.20%) c. [] as in "caught" (1.39%) d. I have the same vowel in "ah", "caught", and "aunt" (1.31%) e. I pronounce it the same as "ain't" (0.07%) h. other (0.36%) 2. been a. [] as in "sit" (58.12%) c. [] as in "set" (35.12%) d. other (3.45%) 3. the first vowel in "Bowie knife" a. [o:] as in "Bo" (75.71%) b. [u:] as in "boo" (16.09%) c. I have seen this word in print, but have no idea how to pronounce it (3.80%) d. I have never seen or heard this word (3.80%) e. other (0.59%) 4. caramel a. with 2 syllables ("car-ml") (59.55%) b. with 3 syllables ("carra-mel") (18.95%) c. I use both interchangeably (16.17%) d. I have both forms, but the two have different meanings (please state how in the comments box) (3.88%) e. other (1.46%) 5. the vowel in the second syllable of "cauliflower" a. [i:] as in "see" (26.75%) b. [] as in "sit" (67.72%) c. other (5.53%) 6. the last vowel in "centaur" a. [] as in "car" ("sen-tar") (47.91%) b. [] as in "caught" (13.04%) c. I use the same vowel in "car", "caught", and "centaur" (4.92%) d. rhymes with "sore" and "more" ("sen-tore") (28.61%) e. other (5.51%) 7. coupon a. with [u:] as in "coop" ("coopon") (64.66%) b. with [ju:] as in "cute" ("cyoopon") (33.43%) c. other (1.91%) 8. Craig (the name) a. [] as in "set" (30.36%) b. [e:] as in "say" (42.00%) e. other (1.18%) 9. crayon a. [] as in "man" (1 syllable, "cran") (25.33%) b. [ej] (2 syllables, "cray-ahn") (53.68%) d. [aw] (I pronounce this the same as "crown") (0.44%) e. other (0.96%) 10. creek (a small body of running water) a. [i:] as in "see" (88.88%) b. [] as in "sit" (3.31%) c. I use both interchangeably (5.23%) d. I don't know how to pronounce this word (0.07%) e. I use both, but they mean two different things (please state how they differ in the comments box) (2.36%) f. other (0.15%) 11. the first vowel in "Florida" a. [o:] as in "flow" ("flow-ri-da") (6.72%) b. [] as in "ah" ("flah-ri-da") (1.77%) c. [] as in "saw" ("flaw-ri-da") (4.36%) d. [] as in "sore" ("flore-i-da") (85.67%) e. other (1.48%) 12. flourish a. [] as in "bird" ("flurr-ish") (67.95%) b. [] as in "sore" ("flore-ish") (23.32%) c. [] as in "sun" ("fluh-rish") (4.74%) d. other (including if you use one pronunciation for the verb and a different pronunciation for the noun) (4.00%) 13. the last vowel in "handkerchief" a. [i:] as in "see" (24.09%) b. [] as in "sit" (73.98%) c. other (1.93%) 14. lawyer a. with [j] as in "boy" ("loyer") (82.31%) b. with [] as in "saw" ("law-yer") (14.33%) c. I use both interchangeably (3.13%) d. other (0.22%) 15. How do you pronounce Mary/merry/marry? a. all 3 are the same (80.07%) b. all 3 are different (2.68%) c. Mary and merry are the same; marry is different (3.72%) d. merry and marry are the same; Mary is different (0.89%) e. Mary and marry are the same; merry is different (12.64%) 16. mayonnaise a. with [] as in "man" (2 syllables--"man-aze") (40.43%) b. with [ej] (3 syllables--"may-uh-naze") (49.29%) c. I use both interchangeably (7.59%) d. other (2.68%) 17. the first vowel in "miracle" a. [i:] as in "near" (70.95%) b. [] as in "knit" (19.67%) c. [] as in "net" (0.75%) d. I say something in between [] and [] (6.68%) e. other (1.95%) 18. mischievous vs. mischievious a. mischievous (3 syllables) (42.79%) b. mischievious (4 syllables) (31.83%) c. I write "mischievous" but say "mischievious" (5.11%) d. I use both (19.97%) e. other (0.30%) a. [e:] as in "say" (92.04%) b. [i:] as in "see" (2.85%) 20. the second vowel in "pajamas" a. [] as in "jam" (77.83%) b. [] as in "father" (20.06%) c. other (2.11%) 21. pecan a. [pi:kn] with stress on the first syllable ("PEE-can") (7.92%) b. [pi:kn] with stress on the second syllable ("pee-CAN") (7.02%) c. [pi:kn] with stress on the first syllable ("PEE-Kahn") (17.28%) d. [pi:kn] with stress on the second syllable ("pee-KAHN") (35.02%) e. [pkn] ("pick Ann") (0.91%) f. [pkn] ("pick Ahn") (23.40%) h. other (2.79%) 22. poem a. one syllable (34.24%) b. two syllables (65.76%) 23. really a. [i:] as in "see" ("reely") (53.93%) b. [] as in "sit" ("rilly") (25.68%) c. [i] ("ree-l-y") (8.69%) d. other (including if you use two or more of these interchangeably) (11.71%) 24. realtor (a real estate agent) a. 2 syllables ("reel-ter") (38.23%) b. 3 syllables (real[]tor, in other words "reel-uh-ter") (39.15%) c. 3 syllables (ree-l-ter) (19.73%) e. other (1.75%) 25. roof, room, broom, root a. [u:] as in "food" (60.91%) b. [] as in "foot" (8.68%) a. rhymes with "hoot" (15.91%) b. rhymes with "out" (34.86%) c. I can pronounce it either way interchangeably (33.41%) d. I say it like "hoot" for the noun and like "out" for the verb. (10.43%) e. I say it like "out" for the noun and like "hoot" for the verb. (3.81%) f. other (1.60%) 27. the first vowel in "syrup" a. [i] "sear-up" (38.32%) b. [] "sih-rup" (18.32%) c. [] as in "sir" (42.60%) d. other (0.76%) a. different (83.78%) b. same (16.22%) 29. almond a. all-mond (first syllable sounds like "all") (73.26%) b. ah-mond (no l) (10.19%) c. aw-mond (if different from "ah-mond") (2.76%) d. I say something in between l and nothing (9.73%) e. other (4.06%) 30. the "s" in "anniversary" a. [s] as in "sock" (95.98%) b. [] as in "shock" (4.02%) 31. asterisk a. asteri[ks] (7.60%) b. asteri[sk] (60.94%) c. asteri[k] (with no s in the final cluster) (30.31%) d. other (1.15%) 32. candidate a. I pronounce the first d (45.73%) b. I don't pronounce the first d (28.90%) c. I vary freely between pronouncing the first d and not doing so (7.76%) d. I only pronounce the first d when I'm speaking slowly/carefully (16.60%) f. other (0.69%) 33. the "s" in "chromosome" a. [s] (33.44%) b. [z] (49.08%) c. both are acceptable to me (17.33%) d. other (0.15%) 34. et cetera a. pronounced e[ts]etera (4 syllables) (64.08%) b. pronounced e[ts]etra (3 syllables) (9.90%) c. pronounced eksetera (4 syllables) (17.11%) d. pronounced eksetra (3 syllables) (5.99%) e. other (2.92%) 35. the final consonant in "garage" a. [] as in the middle consonant of "measure" (49.30%) b. [] as in "edge" (40.17%) c. I use both interchangeably (9.21%) d. other (1.32%) 36. the "c" in "grocery" a. [s] as in "sock" (49.81%) b. [] as in "shock" (47.95%) c. other (2.24%) 37. huge, humor, humongous, human... a. I pronounce the h (96.22%) b. I don't pronounce the h (1.77%) c. I can pronounce the h or not (1.77%) d. other (0.23%) 38. the "s" in "nursery" a. [s] as in "sock" (92.88%) b. [] as in "shock" (6.27%) c. other (0.85%) a. [s] (66.67%) b. [z] (33.33%) 40. quarter a. with [kw] (70.52%) b. with [k] ("cor-ter") (23.23%) c. I use both interchangeably (5.94%) d. other (0.31%) a. spicket (10.80%) b. spigot (59.72%) c. I use both interchangeably (2.70%) d. I say "spicket" but spell it "spigot" (5.79%) e. I use both with different meanings (please explain how in the comments box) (0.62%) f. I don't use either version of this word (19.37%) g. other (1.00%) 42. strength a. the "g" is pronounced as [g] (35.00%) b. the "g" is pronounced as [k] (46.92%) c. the "g" is silent (18.08%) 43. the final consonant in "Texas" a. [s] (93.41%) b. [z] (4.50%) c. either one (1.86%) d. other (0.23%) 44. cream cheese a. CREAM cheese (stress on the first syllable) (56.79%) b. cream CHEESE (stress on the second syllable) (23.20%) c. it sounds right either way (16.99%) d. other (3.03%) 45. insurance a. INsurance (stress on the first syllable) (11.14%) b. inSURance (stress on the second syllable) (80.28%) c. I can stress either the first or the second syllable (8.28%) d. other (0.31%) a. NEW Haven (42.18%) b. New HAVEN (46.23%) c. I use both interchangeably (9.49%) d. other (2.10%) 47. Thanksgiving a. THANKSgiving (24.55%) b. ThanksGIVing (69.15%) c. I use both interchangeably (5.44%) d. other (0.85%) 48. umbrella a. UMbrella (20.73%) b. umBRELLa (79.27%) 49. I ____ her lifeless body from the pool a. dragged (80.90%) b. drug (12.76%) c. I use both interchangeably (5.57%) d. other (0.77%) a. you all (12.02%) b. yous, youse (0.85%) c. you lot (0.39%) d. you guys (50.74%) e. you 'uns (0.16%) g. you (27.15%) h. other (2.64%) i. y'all (6.05%) a. yes (60.16%) b. no (36.89%) c. other (2.96%) a. yes (40.56%) b. no (34.21%) a. yes (please consider adding which combinations of modals you use in the comments box) (7.15%) b. no (92.30%) c. other (0.54%) a. this use of "anymore" is acceptable (5.91%) b. this use of "anymore" is unacceptable (91.52%) c. not sure (2.57%) 55. I do exclusively figurative paintings anymore a. acceptable (5.85%) b. unacceptable (90.72%) c. not sure (3.43%) a. acceptable (36.82%) b. unacceptable (59.30%) c. not sure (3.88%) a. acceptable (24.18%) b. unacceptable (69.44%) c. not sure (6.38%) a. tag sale (0.62%) m. other (3.50%) b. yard sale (20.68%) c. garage sale (70.37%) d. rummage sale (4.43%) e. thrift sale (0.08%) h. sidewalk sale (0.31%) a. mumblety-peg (7.19%) k. peggy (0.08%) l. baseball jackknife (0.23%) m. stick-knife (1.09%) n. stick-frog (0.16%) o. stretch (1.17%) p. chicken (2.74%) q. knifey (0.08%) r. splits (0.31%) s. Russian roulette (2.35%) b. mumbledy-peg (8.84%) t. I have never heard of this "game" and have no idea what it's called (48.48%) u. other (state here if you have heard one or more of these terms but never knew what they meant) (9.07%) c. mumbly peg (13.92%) d. mumbly pegs (0.63%) e. mumblely peg (with 2 l's) (2.81%) f. mumble peg (0.55%) g. mummety-peg (0.23%) h. mumble-the-peg (0.08%) a. berm (3.12%) b. parking (1.60%) c. tree lawn (0.80%) d. terrace (1.44%) e. curb strip (7.85%) f. beltway (0.48%) g. verge (1.52%) h. I have no word for this (60.77%) i. other (22.42%) a. boulevard (18.46%) b. midway (3.26%) c. traffic island (4.46%) d. island (37.47%) e. neutral ground (0.32%) f. I have no word for this (19.57%) g. other (16.47%) a. median strip (15.40%) j. other (0.70%) b. median (79.70%) c. boulevard (0.23%) d. mall (0.08%) e. traffic island (0.78%) g. island (0.78%) i. I have no word for this (2.33%) a. milkshake/shake (98.99%) b. frappe (0.47%) c. cabinet (0.08%) e. thick shake (0.31%) f. other (0.16%) a. sub (90.13%) j. I have no word for this (1.18%) k. other (3.13%) b. grinder (0.55%) c. hoagie (1.72%) d. hero (1.49%) e. poor boy (1.25%) g. Italian sandwich (0.55%) a. lightning bug (50.62%) b. firefly (8.27%) c. I use lightning bug and firefly interchangeably (40.64%) e. I have no word for this (0.16%) f. other (0.31%) a. crawfish (44.76%) b. crayfish (26.53%) c. craw (0.16%) d. crowfish (0.23%) e. crawdad (19.17%) f. mudbug (0.08%) g. I have no word for this critter (6.34%) h. other (2.74%) a. daddy long leg(s) (96.17%) j. pointer (0.08%) l. other (2.19%) b. daddy big legs (1.02%) c. daddy (bug) (0.16%) e. granddaddy (0.23%) h. harvestman (0.08%) i. moskeet spider (0.08%) a. grandmother (3.57%) b. granny (1.83%) c. grandma (59.09%) d. nana (3.89%) e. mimi (0.64%) f. grammy/grammie/grammi (1.83%) g. other (29.15%) a. grandmother (4.22%) b. granny (1.62%) c. grandma (54.14%) d. gramma (18.43%) e. nana (2.44%) f. other (19.16%) 70. What do/did you call your maternal grandfather? a. gramps (1.13%) b. grandpa (25.61%) c. grampa (16.56%) d. grandad, granddad (2.50%) e. pap (0.48%) f. I spell it "grandpa" but pronounce it as "grampa" (32.55%) 71. paternal grandfather? a. gramps (0.50%) b. grandpa (36.00%) c. grampa (38.35%) d. pap (0.34%) e. other (24.81%) a. dust bunnies (72.10%) b. dust kittens (0.31%) c. dust mice (0.24%) d. kitties (0.24%) e. dust balls (22.73%) f. other (4.39%) a. sneakers (19.84%) j. I have no general word for this (0.86%) k. other (3.59%) b. shoes (2.34%) c. gymshoes (37.50%) e. jumpers (0.08%) f. tennis shoes (34.38%) g. running shoes (0.94%) h. runners (0.23%) i. trainers (0.23%) a. pill bug (14.82%) j. millipede (1.33%) k. centipede (3.12%) l. I know what this creature is, but have no word for it (10.45%) m. I have no idea what this creature is (10.22%) n. other (3.04%) b. doodle bug (2.50%) c. potato bug (6.86%) d. roly poly (41.34%) e. sow bug (5.46%) f. basketball bug (0.08%) g. twiddle bug (0.16%) h. roll-up bug (0.39%) i. wood louse (0.23%) a. shopping cart (79.63%) b. shopping wagon (0.16%) c. grocery cart (16.25%) e. carriage (0.08%) f. buggy (0.39%) g. supermarket trolley (0.16%) h. other (3.34%) a. kitty-corner (70.80%) b. kitacorner (0.08%) c. catercorner (1.09%) d. catty-corner (18.66%) g. I can only use "diagonal" for this (5.15%) h. I have no term for this (2.03%) i. other (2.19%) a. doing donuts (86.30%) b. doing cookies (0.75%) c. whipping shitties (0.92%) d. other (12.03%) a. scratch paper (46.61%) b. scrap paper (13.15%) d. other (1.32%) a. highway (57.62%) j. other (5.37%) b. freeway (5.44%) c. parkway (0.23%) d. turnpike (0.08%) e. expressway (18.12%) g. a freeway is bigger than a highway (2.72%) h. a freeway is free (i.e., doesn't charge tolls); a highway isn't (1.87%) a. sunshower (34.32%) b. the wolf is giving birth (0.16%) c. the devil is beating his wife (1.79%) d. monkey's wedding (0.16%) e. fox's wedding (0.08%) f. pineapple rain (0.08%) g. liquid sun (0.55%) h. I have no term or expression for this (60.45%) i. other (2.42%) a. goose bumps (89.65%) b. goose flesh (0.54%) c. goose pimples (7.70%) d. chill bumps (0.70%) e. chill bugs (0.08%) f. chilly bumps (0.08%) g. cold-chill bumps (0.23%) h. other (1.01%) j. eye crunchie (0.16%) k. eye crusties (3.60%) l. sand (9.47%) n. gunk (7.67%) o. matter (1.88%) p. I have no word for this (7.90%) q. other (7.82%) b. sleep (37.17%) c. sleeper (4.93%) d. sleepy (1.56%) e. sleepies (3.91%) f. sleepy seed (0.78%) g. sleepy bugs (0.47%) h. eye booger (12.05%) i. eye shit (0.63%) 83. What do you call an easy course? a. gut (7.39%) b. crypt course (0.35%) c. crip course (1.76%) d. bird (0.44%) e. blow-off (59.01%) f. meat (0.44%) g. other (30.61%) a. rotary (6.48%) b. roundabout (26.33%) c. circle (9.22%) d. traffic circle (34.77%) e. traffic circus (0.39%) f. I have no word for this (19.69%) g. other (3.12%) a. (hair) elastic (6.65%) b. rubber band (40.88%) c. horsetail (0.16%) d. hair thing (14.68%) e. hair tie (16.79%) f. other (20.84%) 86. Do you use the word cruller? a. yes (23.19%) b. no, but I know what it means (46.15%) c. I have no idea what this means (30.66%) a. yes (55.86%) b. no, but I know what it means (36.02%) c. I have no idea what this means (8.12%) a. duck-footed (29.37%) b. slue-footed (2.27%) c. splay-footed (4.70%) d. bow-legged (23.57%) e. toed out (4.23%) f. other (2.43%) g. I have no word for this (33.44%) 89. Can you call coleslaw "slaw"? a. yes (43.16%) b. yes, but I can also use it in other forms such as apple slaw or broccoli slaw (10.96%) c. no (42.30%) d. I have never heard that usage before (3.03%) e. other (0.54%) a. coffin (56.70%) b. casket (22.71%) c. a coffin and a casket are not the same, and I know the difference (13.70%) d. other (6.89%) a. vinegar and oil (20.54%) b. oil and vinegar (63.18%) c. both sound equally good to me (14.73%) d. neither (1.16%) e. other (0.39%) a. Chinese lane change (6.71%) b. Chinese fire drill (9.23%) c. other (84.06%) a. on line (1.17%) b. in line (97.43%) c. both sound equally good (0.86%) d. neither (0.16%) e. other (0.39%) a. frosting (41.63%) b. icing (11.13%) c. icing is thinner than frosting, white, and/or made of powdered sugar and milk or lemon juice (19.77%) d. both (27.24%) f. other (0.23%) 95. What is "the City"? a. New York City (14.19%) b. Boston (0.41%) c. DC (0.49%) d. LA (0.33%) e. Chicago (61.85%) f. other (22.72%) 96. What is the distinction between dinner and supper? a. supper is an evening meal while dinner is eaten earlier (lunch, for example) (9.04%) b. supper is an evening meal, dinner is the main meal (8.65%) c. dinner takes place in a more formal setting than supper (14.58%) d. there is no distinction; they both have the same meaning (31.02%) e. I do not use the term supper (32.66%) f. I don't use the term dinner (0.94%) g. other (3.12%) 97. Which of these terms do you prefer? a. trash can (22.23%) b. garbage can (43.99%) c. rubbish bin (0.23%) d. waste(paper) basket (1.40%) e. These words refer to different things (29.72%) f. other (2.42%) 98. Which of these terms do you prefer? a. By accident (70.96%) b. On accident (14.05%) c. both (11.40%) d. neither (1.72%) e. other (1.87%) a. frontage road (64.17%) b. service road (10.38%) c. access road (8.74%) d. feeder road (1.33%) e. gateway (0.08%) f. we have them but I have no word for them (9.52%) g. I've never heard of this concept (2.42%) h. other (3.36%) 100. Do you cut or mow the lawn or grass? a. cut the grass (25.93%) b. cut the lawn (0.79%) c. mow the grass (6.86%) d. mow the lawn (58.08%) e. other (8.35%) 101. Do you pass in homework or hand in homework? a. pass in (1.72%) b. hand in (81.51%) c. both (9.75%) d. neither (0.55%) e. other (6.47%) a. waterbug (46.88%) j. I have no word for this (24.53%) k. other (1.71%) b. Jesus bug (0.78%) c. waterstrider (12.31%) d. strider (0.23%) e. water-spider (7.55%) f. watercrawler (0.62%) g. water beetle (3.12%) i. skimmer (2.26%) a. bubbler (0.55%) b. water bubbler (0.31%) c. drinking fountain (42.72%) d. water fountain (53.68%) e. other (2.74%) a. the subway (54.25%) b. the L, or the El (34.83%) c. the T (0.79%) d. the metro (2.20%) e. BART (0.39%) f. other (7.55%) a. soda (34.48%) j. other (3.43%) b. pop (51.17%) c. coke (6.40%) d. tonic (0.16%) e. soft drink (4.21%) f. lemonade (0.08%) h. fizzy drink (0.08%) a. tp'ing (85.23%) b. rolling (1.17%) c. toilet papering (6.80%) d. wrapping (0.55%) e. papering (1.88%) g. I have no word for this (3.12%) h. other (1.25%) a. rubberneck (1.49%) j. other (3.29%) b. rubbernecking (8.85%) d. gapers' block (28.11%) e. gapers' delay (13.16%) f. Lookie Lou (0.94%) g. curiosity delay (0.31%) h. gawk block (0.39%) i. I have no word for this (13.78%) 108. What vowel do you use in bag? a. [] as in "sat" (90.59%) b. [] as in "set" (0.47%) c. [e:] as in "say" (7.29%) d. other (1.65%) a. bag (89.01%) b. sack (9.66%) c. poke (0.31%) d. other (1.01%) 110. What do you call the night before Halloween? a. gate night (0.16%) b. trick night (0.47%) c. mischief night (1.88%) d. cabbage night (0.39%) e. goosy night (0.23%) f. devil's night (4.53%) g. devil's eve (1.09%) h. I have no word for this (86.40%) i. other (4.85%) a. end (13.95%) b. heel (62.28%) c. crust (15.43%) d. nose (0.08%) e. butt (4.60%) f. shpitzel (0.23%) g. I have no word for this (1.95%) h. other (1.48%) a. barbituate (78.06%) b. barbiturate (12.02%) c. I don't use either of these (8.67%) d. other (1.25%) 113. amphitheater a. f (40.59%) b. p (57.38%) c. other (2.03%) 114. citizen a. [s] (28.32%) b. [z] (70.51%) c. other (1.17%) a. a moot point (85.59%) b. a mute point (4.67%) c. either one of the above (1.64%) d. I have no idea (7.17%) e. other (0.93%) a. [sp] (as in "desperate") (77.73%) b. [zb] (rhymes with "lesbian") (21.48%) c. other (0.79%) a. basement (74.53%) b. cellar (0.55%) c. I use both, and they mean the same thing (4.21%) e. A cellar has an outside entrance (some call this a "bulkhead"), whereas a basement does not (9.11%) f. other (1.25%) a. brew thru (1.59%) b. party barn (0.71%) c. bootlegger (0.32%) d. beer barn (1.27%) e. beverage barn (0.48%) f. we have these in my area, but we have no special term for them (35.69%) g. I have never heard of such a thing (47.98%) h. other (11.97%) a. take-out (45.56%) b. carry-out (17.52%) c. either take-out or carry-out (35.05%) d. other (1.87%) a. dibs (28.33%) b. shotgun (63.97%) c. hosey (0.23%) d. high hosey (0.16%) e. I have no term for this (4.75%) f. other (2.57%) a. ogle (43.63%) b. oogle (18.37%) c. oggle (pronounced to rhyme with "boggle", but may still be spelled "ogle") (20.72%) d. I use both oogle and ogle interchangeably (3.05%) e. I use both ogle and "oggle" (3.75%) f. I have no word for this activity (8.21%) g. other (2.27%) a. expecially (or "ecspecially" or "ekspecially") (1.86%) b. especially (94.88%) c. I use both interchangeably (2.33%) d. neither (0.39%) e. other (0.54%)
Become a fan of Slashdot on Facebook Forgot your password? Compare cell phone plans using Wirefly's innovative plan comparison tool × Submission + - White House petition for an initiative to transform nuclear power to Thorium ( JavaBear writes: Thorium is gaining interest, with research happening around the world, but it pales compared to the research and funding going into conventional nuclear power, and into updating outdated power stations. The interest is just not shared by the US government, as there are too much money at stake continuing the current dead end. The main problem is that of regulation, the US could be self sufficient in rare earths, and even export it, if not for regulation designating thorium found with these as nuclear waste. A small rare earth mine would get about 5000 tons of thorium a year as a byproduct, enough to generate power equal to the estimates total annual power consumption of the planet. From the petition: "Of the 104 nuclear reactors currently active in the US, 69 are pressurized water reactors and 35 are boiling water reactors. Both of these designs for nuclear reactors are sixty years old and as such are outdated, not to mention past their projected lifetime of 40 years. The Fukushima plant in Japan used boiling water reactors and the ensuing tragedy was a wake-up call for nuclear power." White House petition for an initiative to transform nuclear power to Thorium Comments Filter:
FNMATCH(3) Library Functions Manual FNMATCH(3) fnmatch - match filename or pathname using shell glob rules Standard C Library (libc, -lc) #include <fnmatch.h> fnmatch(const char pattern, const char string, int flags); The fnmatch() function matches patterns according to the globbing rules used by the shell. It checks the string specified by the string argument to see if it matches the pattern specified by the pattern argument. The flags argument modifies the interpretation of pattern and string. The value of flags is the bitwise inclusive OR of any of the following constants, which are defined in the include file fnmatch.h. FNM_NOESCAPE Normally, every occurrence of a backslash (`\') followed by a character in pattern is replaced by that character. This is done to negate any special meaning for the character. If the FNM_NOESCAPE flag is set, a backslash character is treated as an ordinary FNM_PATHNAME Slash characters in string must be explicitly matched by slashes in pattern. If this flag is not set, then slashes are treated as regular characters. FNM_PERIOD Leading periods in strings match periods in patterns. The definition of ``leading'' is related to the specification of FNM_PATHNAME. A period is always ``leading'' if it is the first character in string. Additionally, if FNM_PATHNAME is set, a period is ``leading'' if it immediately follows a slash. FNM_LEADING_DIR Ignore ``/'' rest after successful pattern matching. FNM_CASEFOLD The pattern is matched in a case-insensitive fashion. The fnmatch() function returns zero if string matches the pattern specified by pattern, otherwise, it returns the value FNM_NOMATCH. sh(1), glob(3), regex(3), glob(7) The fnmatch() function conforms to IEEE Std 1003.2-1992 (``POSIX.2''). The FNM_CASEFOLD flag is a NetBSD extension. The fnmatch() function first appeared in 4.4BSD. The pattern `' matches the empty string, even if FNM_PATHNAME is NetBSD 7.99 November 30, 2010 NetBSD 7.99
Challenge: Festival 1 Boosting Capacity of Civic and Community Leaders to Advance Racial Equity in Place What would happen if 200 communities throughout the U.S. successfully improved outcomes for a population around 6 developmental milestones? That’s exactly what My Brother’s Keeper is attempting to do. However, advancing equity at this scale will require more than tackling these milestones; to be successful, we have to shift cultural perceptions. Submitted by 56 votes Idea No. 114
Syndicate content Breaking the Spiral of Silence About Corruption Anne-Katrin Arnold's picture Noelle-Neumann is the author of the Spiral of Silence, a theory of public opinion as social control. The essence of the Spiral of Silence is the assumption that people are afraid of being isolated and therefore adjust their opinions to what they perceive as the opinion of the majority. In her words: "... different patterns of behavior are bound for their part to influence the quasi-statistical picture of the distribution of opinions which the individual gains from his social environment. The one opinion confronts him ever more frequently and confidently; the other is heard less and less. The more individuals perceive these tendencies and adapt their views accordingly, the more the one faction appears to dominate and the other to be on the downgrade. Thus the tendency of the one to speak up and the other to be silent starts off a spiraling process which increasingly establishes one opinion as the prevailing one."* It's worth thinking about what the Spiral of Silence means in our fight against corruption. In earlier posts we have noted the problem of petty corruption - everyday small-scale instances of bribery. Petty corruption is furthered by the people's perception that it is absolutely normal to pay an official for some service that should be provided by the state for free. If people assume that everyone pays bribes and that most people just put up with it, then petty corruption will become part of everyday culture. The fewer people protest, the fewer people will actually be against it, or say out loud that they are against it. But if people rally together and speak up against corruption, they create a climate of opinon against it. And if they speak up loud enough, more and more people will join them because they don't want to be isolated as outsiders that support bribery. Eventually, the climate of opinon will become the dominant stance. Climates of opinon are very important for politicians. Since even in autocratic states leaders have to have some legitimacy from the public, they must be attuned to the climate of opinon. The business of opinion polling lives off that necessity. To stay in power, authorities need to heed public opinion to some degree - a strong climate of opinon against corruption could therefore actually result in institutional reform and in a change in culture. * Noelle-Neumann, Elisabeth. (1974). The spiral of silence: A theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication. 24 (2), 43-51. Photo credit: Flickr user Pictr 30D Submitted by Karen Johnson-Cartee on Add new comment
[Country map of Zambia] Location: Southern Africa, east of Angola Map references: Africa total area: 752,610 sq km land area: 740,720 sq km comparative area: slightly larger than Texas Land boundaries: total 5,664 km, Angola 1,110 km, Malawi 837 km, Mozambique 419 km, Namibia 233 km, Tanzania 338 km, Zaire 1,930 km, Zimbabwe 797 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none; landlocked International disputes: quadripoint with Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe is in disagreement; Tanzania-Zaire-Zambia tripoint in Lake Tanganyika may no longer be indefinite since it is reported that the indefinite section of the Zaire-Zambia boundary has been settled Terrain: mostly high plateau with some hills and mountains Land use: arable land: 7% permanent crops: 0% meadows and pastures: 47% forest and woodland: 27% other: 19% Irrigated land: 320 sq km (1989 est.) natural hazards: tropical storms (November to April) Note: landlocked Population: 9,445,723 (July 1995 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 50% (female 2,331,820; male 2,363,319) 15-64 years: 48% (female 2,332,798; male 2,193,363) 65 years and over: 2% (female 112,484; male 111,939) (July 1995 est.) Population growth rate: 2.7% (1995 est.) Birth rate: 45.47 births/1,000 population (1995 est.) Death rate: 18.42 deaths/1,000 population (1995 est.) Net migration rate: -0.04 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1995 est.) Infant mortality rate: 86 deaths/1,000 live births (1995 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 42.88 years male: 42.74 years female: 43.03 years (1995 est.) Total fertility rate: 6.62 children born/woman (1995 est.) noun: Zambian(s) adjective: Zambian Ethnic divisions: African 98.7%, European 1.1%, other 0.2% Languages: English (official) note: about 70 indigenous languages Literacy: age 15 and over can read and write (1990 est.) total population: 73% male: 81% female: 65% Labor force: 3.4 million by occupation: agriculture 85%, mining, manufacturing, and construction 6%, transport and services 9% conventional long form: Republic of Zambia conventional short form: Zambia former: Northern Rhodesia Digraph: ZA Type: republic Capital: Lusaka Independence: 24 October 1964 (from UK) National holiday: Independence Day, 24 October (1964) Constitution: 2 August 1991 Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal Executive branch: chief of state and head of government: President Frederick CHILUBA (since 31 October 1991); Vice President General Godfrey MIYANDA (since NA August 1994; he replaced Levy MWANAWASA who was elected 31 October 1991 and resigned in NA August 1994) election last held 31 October 1991 (next to be held NA 1996); results - Frederick CHILUBA 84%, Kenneth KAUNDA 16% cabinet: Cabinet; appointed by the president from members of the National Assembly Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly: elections last held 31 October 1991 (next to be held NA 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (150 total) MMD 125, UNIP 25; note - the MMD's majority was weakened by the defection of 13 of its parliamentary members during 1993 and the defeat of its candidates in 4 of the resulting by-elections Judicial branch: Supreme Court Political parties and leaders: Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), Frederick CHILUBA; United National Independence Party (UNIP), Kebby MUSOKATWANE; National Party (NP), Inonge MBIKUSITA-LEWANIKA; Diplomatic representation in US: chief of mission: Ambassador Dunstan Weston KAMANA chancery: 2419 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 FAX: [1] (202) 332-0826 US diplomatic representation: chief of mission: Ambassador Roland K. KUCHEL embassy: corner of Independence Avenue and United Nations Avenue, Lusaka mailing address: P. O. Box 31617, Lusaka telephone: [260] (1) 228595, 228601, 228602, 228603 FAX: [260] (1) 261538 Overview: Prior to 1993 the economy had been in decline for more than a decade with falling imports and growing foreign debt. Economic difficulties stemmed largely from a chronically depressed level of copper production and weak copper prices, generally ineffective economic policies, and high inflation. An annual population growth of 3% brought a decline in per capita GDP of 50% over the decade. However, economic reforms enacted since 1992 have helped reduce inflation, have begun to strengthen the social safety net, and have been accompanied by GDP growth at an estimated 6.8% in 1993 and 4% in 1994. The huge external debt remains a key problem. National product: GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.9 billion (1994 est.) National product real growth rate: 4% (1994 est.) National product per capita: $860 (1994 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 89% (1994 est.) Unemployment rate: NA% revenues: $665 million expenditures: $767 million, including capital expenditures of $300 million (1991 est.) Exports: $1.01 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.) commodities: copper, zinc, cobalt, lead, tobacco partners: EC countries, Japan, South Africa, US, India Imports: $1.13 billion (c.i.f., 1993 est.) commodities: machinery, transportation equipment, foodstuffs, fuels, manufactures partners: EC countries, Japan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, US External debt: $7.3 billion (1993) Industrial production: growth rate -1% (1992); accounts for 42% of GDP capacity: 2,440,000 kW production: 7.8 billion kWh consumption per capita: 650 kWh (1993) Agriculture: accounts for 12% of GDP and 85% of labor force; crops - corn (food staple), sorghum, rice, peanuts, sunflower, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, cassava; cattle, goats, beef, eggs Illicit drugs: increasingly a regional transshipment center for methaqualone and heroin Economic aid: recipient: US commitments, including Ex-Im (1970-89), $4.8 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $4.8 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $60 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $533 million Currency: 1 Zambian kwacha (ZK) = 100 ngwee Exchange rates: Zambian kwacha (ZK) per US$1 - 672.8 (September 1994), 434.78 (1993), 156.25 (1992), 61.7284 (1991), 28.9855 (1990) Fiscal year: calendar year total: 1,273 km narrow gauge: 1,273 km 1.067-m gauge (13 km double track) note: not a part of Zambia Railways is the Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority (TAZARA), which operates 1,860 km of 1.067-m narrow gauge track between Dar es Salaam and New Kapiri M'poshi where it connects to the Zambia Railways system; 891 km of the TAZARA line transit Zambia total: 36,370 km paved: 6,500 km unpaved: crushed stone, gravel, stabilized earth 7,000 km; improved, unimproved earth 22,870 km Inland waterways: 2,250 km, including Zambezi and Luapula Rivers, Lake Tanganyika Pipelines: crude oil 1,724 km Ports: Mpulungu total: 113 with paved runways over 3,047 m: 1 with paved runways 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 with paved runways 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 with paved runways 914 to 1,523 m: 4 with paved runways under 914 m: 39 with unpaved runways 1,524 to 2,438 m: 4 with unpaved runways 914 to 1,523 m: 57 Telephone system: NA telephones; facilities are among the best in Sub-Saharan Africa local: NA intercity: high capacity micrwave radio relay connects most larger towns and cities international: 2 INTELSAT earth stations (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean) broadcast stations: AM 11, FM 5, shortwave 0 radios: NA broadcast stations: 9 televisions: NA Defense Forces Branches: Army, Air Force, Police Manpower availability: males age 15-49 1,953,967; males fit for military service 1,028,113 (1995 est.) Defense expenditures: exchange rate conversion - $45 million, 1.4% of GDP (1994)
BackBright Hub EducationBrowse Tips for Memorizing Spanish Country Names By Bright Hub Education Writer Try these quick tips for memorizing some of the less intuitive Spanish country names; memorable or absurd images can fix the names in your mind. The Easy Ones There’s an obvious, intuitive connection between many Spanish country names and their English counterparts. Countries like Taiwan, Tibet, Somalia, Mali (Malí) and Estonia correspond directly, with differences only in pronunciation and syllable stress. Other country names are not identical, but still easily identified. Since word order frequently differs between English and Spanish, it should be little surprise that Faroe Islands translates to Islas Feroe. Ivory Coast translates quite literally to Costa de Marfil. However, one can’t afford to assume that all country names translate directly. The country Turkey, for example, translates to Turquía. Yes, it sounds very much like the American country name, and that is in fact the best way to remember it. Say them both aloud a few times, one after the other, and the similarity should be clear. But if you assumed that Turkey the country is the same word in Spanish as turkey the bird, pavo, you’ll have just asked that nice man you met if he’s traveling to a bird, not to another country. Trying a new way to remember Spanish countries can help you avoid this embarrassment, as well as the inconvenience of trying to describe a country you can't name. The Challenges Visit Nations Online and you’ll find an alphabetical listing of English and Spanish country names. Scan quickly through the list and you’ll see that the vast majority of country names fall into the “easy to remember" pile, either corresponding directly, translating directly, or sounding very much alike. Once you have the image of a Turkish man that’s very unhappy about living inside a turkey firmly in your head, you’ll never make the mistake of asking him if he’s from pavo again. Picture him standing, smiling, on top of a country outlined in the shape of Turkey, with big letters across it spelling out Turquía, and you'll remember that he likes living in Turquía a whole lot better than he likes living in that bird. What, then, can you do about the other country names that aren’t so intuitive or easy to remember? Tying them to absurd images is one of the best ways to remember the Spanish country names. Here are a few examples to help you get the knack of it: Cyprus / Chipre Imagine a songbird in a pile of cyprus woodchips; it might make the sound chipre, chipre, chipre. Falkland Islands / Islas Malvinas Picture the Falkland Islands on the map. Now picture them covered with angry, vicious, wicked--just generally bad--vines. Perhaps they’re covered with thorns or have angry cartoon faces on them. The point is that linking the Falklands to malas vinas--literally, bad vines--makes a handy bridge for remembering their real name in Spanish, Islas Malvinas. Norway / Noruega Picture a Norwegian man on his knees, pleading earnestly for something. Now tell him, in Spanish, not to beg: No ruega. Noruega. That’s the Spanish name for Norway. Building Bridges Now that you understand how to create a link between English and Spanish country names by using pictures--and the more absurd they are, the easier they will be to remember--you can create your own connections. Images that have personal significance or emotion for you, whether it be humor, sadness, anger or joy, will be easier to remember than those that don’t carry any weight at all. That personalized, internal connection is part of what makes vocabulary picture cards one of the best ways to remember Spanish countries and other vocabulary. If you’re an extremely visual person or a kinesthetic learner, you may even want to draw the pictures out instead of just imagining them; both learning types will benefit from the act of drawing the pictures, then seeing them complete. Once you've created vocabulary picture cards--see here for an example--you can put them to regular use. Useful Vocabulary for this exercise Teaching Spanish: Vocabulary Practice with European Countries Vocabulary with Spanish names for many countries. Teaching Spanish: Vocabulary Practice with Country Names Vocabulary with Spanish names for countries in Latin America and South America
Saturday, January 4, 2014 Researchers Use Social Media to Try and Find Time Travelers No Doubt Funded with Grant Money from Your Pocket PC Mag In a bit of news from the "we really studied this?" department, researchers from Michigan Technological University have taken a gander at various social media postings in an effort to determine whether any were made by people who would have otherwise had no knowledge of the future events they described in their posts. If that sounds about as confusing as a flux capacitor, consider the logic: If person A posted some absurdly precise information on Facebook, for example, and that data turned out to be exactly true, then it's reasoned that said person either got extremely lucky, had advance knowledge of the event, or is presumably from a future time period (Great Scott!) We'll let authors Robert J. Nemiroff and Teresa Wilson explain their three big methods for using social media in an attempt to prove time travel:
Friday, April 29, 2011 'Les Miserables' Victor Hugo I have never said l 'Art pour l ' Art; but always l 'Art pour le Progress. It is for Progress that I suffer now, and for Progress that I am ready to die. Victor Hugo to Baudelaire, October 1858 Progress is the mode of man. The general life of the human race is called Progress; the collective advance of the human race is called Progress. Progress marches; it makes the great human and terrestrial journey towards the celestial and the divine... Les Miserables 5.1.20 Hugo’s gigantic novel is the great bugbear of French literature, lying like a Massif Central across the cultural landscape of 19th century France. Hugo himself is the central peak of French literature, at least in his own estimation. Napoleon is supposed to have said, echoing Louis XIV: La France, c’est moi, and if he didn’t, Hugo certainly would have, and he might have added: La literature, c ‘est moi. Hugo’s egoism and certitude of his own greatness is legendary. At the heart of his 1866 epic, The Toilers of the Sea, for example, is a huge monogram of Hugo’s initial: the wrecked ship wedged between the two vertical pillars of rock, stranded high and dry by the receding sea: The huge capital H formed by the two Douvres linked by the crossbar of the Durande stood out against the horizon in a kind of crepuscular majesty. Hugo associated himself with majesty, with size. Les Miserables, huge, sprawling, prolix, is Hugo at his most majestic. In the debates about the purpose of art which were such a feature of 19th century culture, Hugo was on the side of those who believed that art should have a purpose beyond itself. Art for Hugo should subordinate itself to political necessity, which he saw as moral enlightenment, the betterment of humanity, Progress. Art should morally uplift. Art should teach. This view of art is everywhere evident in Les Miserables, with its book length rants on the evils of capital punishment and religious incarceration, the moral depravity of the ancient regime, the evils of poverty, the role of women, the injustices of the penal system, the nature of history, the sociological study of argot, the legitimacy or otherwise of insurrection. Part of the reason for Shakespeare’s greatness, for Dostoevsky’s also, is that nowhere in their work can you point to a view and say: “This is what the author believes, this is what he wants us to believe.” Shakespeare the man is entirely absent from his plays; Dostoevsky took care to keep his own views out of his novels and never to privilege one view over another. With Shakespeare and Dostoevsky, the reader is always given the role of interpreter and final arbiter between the great dialogues of the plays and novels. Hugo’s strategy is the opposite. In other writers, it is necessary to always hold in mind the gap between the narrator and the author, who, theoretically, are quite different. In Hugo, the opposite is true. The narrator is always Hugo, and we always know exactly what he intends, what he thinks, and what he means, because he tells us, unambiguously, at length. In the narrative voice, in the same way that Hugo the man positioned himself in the society of his time, Hugo the narrator positions himself as the Great Teacher, the Great Reformer, the Seer of Society, the High Priest of Progress, the Almighty Father. The reader is given the role of student, of disciple, of child, and any movement on the part of the reader towards independent thought, towards personal interpretation, is strictly prohibited by the narrative voice. This takes place on the level of content and on the level of language, as we can see if we look in more detail at his style. Le Style Hugo: rhetorical devices: In order to achieve this didactic voice and mission, Hugo employs a number of characteristic rhetorical devices, presented below in no particular order. Synonym strings From thence visions, suppositions, conjectures, romances sketched out, longings for adventures, fantastic constructions... A common complaint of the 21st century is that 19th century writers prefer to use 50 words where one will do. While this is usually nothing more than a linguistically sterile age bemoaning the tastes of a more fecund one, in Hugo's case, the observation is usually true. Hugo loves to create strings of synonyms, single words or even synonymous phrases. Here he is writing on how the government uses fear to bolster its position: This then is the great art, to give a success something of the sound of a catastrophe, in order that those who profit by it may tremble also... so far so good, but then he piles on subsidiary, largely synonymous phrases: moderate a step in advance with fear, to enlarge the curve of transition to the extent of retarding progress, to tame down this work, to denounce and restrain the ardencies of enthusiasm, to cut off the corners and the claws, to clog triumph, to swaddle the right, to wrap up the people-giant in flannel and hurry him to bed, to impose a diet upon this excess of health, to put Hercules under convalescent treatment, to hold back the event with the expedient, to offer to minds thirsting for the idea this nectar extended form barley-water, to take precautions against too much success, to furnish the revolution with a skylight This has the effect of a bludgeon. While the first part of the sentence works on its own to cause a pause for reflection in the mind of the reader, the string of synonym phrases which follows crowds the mind with noise, a procession of images and metaphors which is ultimately too cloying, too loud, which dulls the power of the original image, and causes the mind of the reader to tire under repeated blows, to give up its independence, to submit. The Revolution of July is the triumph of the Right prostrating the Fact. The guillotine is the concretion of the law; it is called the Avenger... Waterloo is the hinge of the nineteenth century. He who says convent says marsh. To place, by process of thought, the infinite below in contact with the infinite above is called ‘prayer’. X is Y, X is called Y, he who says X says Y, to X is to Y. This is a very characteristic device, employed with great frequency both in the narrative and expository passages. Here, Hugo declaims. By defining, like a dictionary, he creates, he preserves, but he also (de)limits. Hugo's definitions brook no dissent, they forestall all argument, invite no discussion. They carry the odour of a dogma. Parallel definitions The relative, which is the monarchy, resists the absolute, which is the republic. The insurrection is often a volcano, the emeute is often a fire of straw. Similar to the previous device, here Hugo creates parallels in which there are four terms in the definition, not merely two, and then sustains them for paragraphs. Questions and answers What are the qualities of a dynasty? It should be national… Who stops revolutions half way? The bourgeoisie? Why? Because the bourgeoisie is the interest which has attained to satisfaction. This wind meets talking tongues...and sweeps them away. Whither? At hazard. The rhetorical question and its answer is one of the most insidious devices of rhetoric, in that it gives the illusion of interaction, of freedom, but is actually a way of delimiting the scope of the enquiry. The answer is determined by the scope of the question, and this scope is decided in advance by the speaker with some aim in mind. It is also a standard didactic device, employed by professors and teachers. Expository discourse markers Let us complete this exposition. This said, we proceed. Savage. We must explain this word. Let us proceed. We specify. The discourse marker, used in lectures, helps the teacher to convey the structure of the ideas, their method of organisation. The listener/reader/student is lead by the hand through the thicket of ideas. Moral Maxims The moral world has no greater spectacle than this: a troubled and restless conscience on the verge of committing an evil deed, contemplating the sleep of a good man. No tongue could tell all that there was in that word, woman, thus uttered by this child. It is the peculiarity of sublime spectacles that they take possession of every soul and make of every witness a spectator. The sea is the inexorable night into which the penal law casts its victims. The sea is the measureless misery. The moral maxim is appended to a narrative incident to make the symbolism clear, to remove any ambiguity from it, and to remove all independence of interpretation. In the early part of the novel, Jean Valjean's despair at his fate in the galleys is described in a chapter that employs the extended metaphor of a man cast overboard from the ship of society into the wild sea of misery. The chapter ends with the last moral maxim quoted above, an entirely superfluous explanation (fixing) of the symbolism employed. Likewise, when Jean Valjean is standing over the sleeping priest contemplating whether he should steal the silver, Hugo interrupts the scene to fix its meaning with the first maxim quoted above. From the highly specific narrative, Hugo always moves to a generalisation couched in the form of a maxim. This movement from specific to general, and back again is the chief characteristic of Hugo's didactic style and method. In this he is influenced by the moralising of Aesop's (and to a lesser extent La Fontaine's) fables, which also have this movement from specific narrative to general maxim, and which also have a didactic purpose. (To be fair, this movement from specific to general is perhaps more pronounced in English translations of Hugo than it is in French. French definite articles carry more ambiguity with them about whether the following noun is to be understood in the general sense or the specific, whereas in English this is made very clear by the total absence of an article denoting generality, or the definite article denoting specificity. Compare La Revolution with Revolution and the revolution.) Ejaculated fragments Bitter wretchedness! Bos cretatus. Admirable efforts! Sacred attempts! Limpid purities! These contribute not so much to the didacticism of Hugo's style, but to its resonance, its majesty. What is the ideal? It is God. Ideal, absolute, perfection, the infinite - these are identical words. What love begins can only be finished by God. Finally, there is often the disconcerting suggestion, not only that Hugo alone knows what God's plan is, but that he actually is God. These rhetorical devices are not restricted to the narrative voice but also infect the characters, who, most of them, are mere mouthpieces for Hugo's views. When Jean Valjean foils Montparnasse's attack on him, he subjects the thief to a long tirade on the vices of idleness and the virtues of labour. This long speech contains Hugo's views, and also his rhetorical devices. Likewise, the long speeches given by Grantaire (and his earlier incarnation, Tholomyes - these two are actually the same character only with different names) contain also the same rhetorical devices listed above. The long love letter which Cosette receives from Marius is really only a string of more moral maxims from Hugo to the reader. It's tempting to think that Hugo is sometimes satirising his own style, but the irony necessary for satire is incompatible with his strategy of didactic disambiguation, and that kind of (post-modern) textual game is in any case alien to his spirit. The cumulative effect of these rhetorical devices is to blur the line between grandeur and grandiosity, between portentousness and pomposity, between high moral seriousness and mere sonority. Too often Hugo achieves the latter while aiming for the former. Moreover, Hugo’s style ultimately infantilises the reader by the paternalistic removal of all ambiguity. This is what Flaubert meant when he said the novel was infantile, and what Baudelaire called the 'heresy of didacticism'. The novel couples an epic imagination with a didactic mission. Les Miserables exists as series of narratives wedged between long expository passages where the great man, the great writer unambiguously teaches. They contain various different kinds of writing: historical narrative, philosophical reflections on the meaning of history, sociological and linguistic theses, huge slices of social, urban history, natural history, political economy, political philosophy and so on. These expository passages are often called digressions, but they are not strictly digressive, according to Hugo's own definition: When the subject is not lost sight of, there is no digression. Rather, they are part of the movement from specific to general which we have seen operating on the level of the language operating also on the level of the structure; an expression of Hugo's insistence that art should be useful, and that its main use is to teach. Of what good is a story unless we also learn something from it? Not trusting his readers to draw their own, correct, conclusions from the narrative, he packs his novels with information and uses them to educate us and to transmit his wisdom directly. This is a fatal artistic weakness from which all Hugo's novels suffer. And yet. The novel is a stupendous achievement, with moments of utter magnificence and compelling power. Hugo's monumental self-certainty is matched only by his colossal gifts as a story teller, both in his invented narrative, and in the historical sections. The minor characters - in other words, those who are not encumbered with the burden of conveying Hugo's views- are very well drawn, especially the Thenardiers, Eponine, and Gavroche, and the book is packed with unforgettable images and situations. When Victor Hugo can forget that he is Victor Hugo, and just focus on telling the story, he is unassailable. If only Hugo had trusted his story-telling gifts more, if only he had trusted in the power of ironic ambiguity to convey the lessons we need to learn. But then if he had, he wouldn't be Victor Hugo. It is a lesson at the same time. Les Miserables 5.2.2 No comments:
Animating Kids #6: Flag Waving What You Will Learn This lesson is a basic formula to create a flapping motion a flag would make during high winds. With just three different shapes, you can create a wavy illusion. This is also the first time we have introduced a "loop". A loop is a repeating pattern that cycles through the same motion over and over. That is it. Plain and simple, but a great little piece of animation business that looks good in long shots of schools or arenas. Why This Is Important Learning how to loop a motion saves a lot of time in animation. The flag waving exercise is an ideal example of this. Once one cycle of the flag is animated, the cycle can be copied an pasted as many times as desired. Bird wings flapping, running, dribbling, swimming, are examples of animations that can be looped! So keep waving that flag! Thank you for watching our Animating Kids. You can also follow us on Youtube or Facebook. Stay tuned on Friday, we have another Shark Vs Rabbit coming! Until then, Bon Animate! Animation Chefs P.S. To learn the basics of stop motion animation, go to our Animation Starter Kit for the essential secret recipes.
Catalina Island Conservancy working to protect bat population The Donald Slavik Foundation provided the funding for the conservancy to buy state-of-the-art acoustic monitoring equipment allowing biologists to detect and identify additional bat species and assess their overall distribution and habitat. This funding also was used to install bat-friendly gates at the entrances of three abandoned mines where Townsend’s big-eared bats were documented or are expected to occur once human disturbances are eliminated. The bat gates are specifically designed to allow bats to enter and exit the mines freely while restricting access to humans. Because abandoned mines are prone to collapse, the gates also will protect island residents and visitors who might expose themselves to danger by exploring the abandoned mines. Share This:
A “layer” (a chicken that lays eggs) eats about 110 g of chicken feed per day. Assuming that chicken feed has a metabolizable energy content of 3.3 kWh per kg, that’s a power consumption of 0.4 kWh per day per chicken. Layers yield on average 290 eggs per year. So eating two eggs a day requires a power of 1 kWh per day. Each egg itself contains 80 kcal, which is about 0.1 kWh. So from an energy point of view, egg production is 20% efficient. The energy cost of eating meat Let’s say an enthusiastic meat-eater eats about half a pound a day (227 g). (This is the average meat consumption of Americans.) To work out the wait for the chop, we need to know for how long the animals are around, consuming energy. Chicken, pork, or beef? Chicken, sir? Every chicken you eat was clucking around being a chicken for roughly 50 days. So the steady consumption of half a pound a Pork, madam? Pigs are around for longer – maybe 400 days from birth to bacon – so the steady consumption of half a pound a day of pork re- quires about 200 pounds of pork to be alive, preparing to be eaten. Cow? Beef production involves the longest lead times. It takes about 1000 days of cow-time to create a steak. So the steady consumption of preparing to be eaten. To condense all these ideas down to a single number, let’s assume you chicken, pork, and beef. This meat habit requires the perpetual sustenance of 8 pounds of chicken meat, 70 pounds of pork meat, and 170 pounds 170kg × 3 kWh/d 8 kWh/d 65 kg I’ve again taken the physiological liberty of assuming “animals are like humans;” a more accurate estimate of the energy to make chicken is in this chapter’s endnotes. No matter, I only want a ballpark estimate, and here it is. The power required to make the food for a typical consumer of (The daily calorific balance of this rough diet is 1.5 kWh from vegetables; Figure 13.4. Two eggs per day. Figure 13.5. Eating meat requires extra power because we have to feed the queue of animals lining up to be eaten by the human.
School of Paris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Raoul Dufy, Regatta at Cowes, (1934), Washington D.C. National Gallery of Art. School of Paris (French: École de Paris) refers to a group of French and non-French artists who worked in Paris before World War I, and also to a group of French and non-French artists who lived in Paris between the two world wars and beyond. Sonia Delaunay, Rythme, 1938 The School of Paris was not a single art movement or institution, but it demonstrated the importance of Paris as a center of Western art in the early decades of the 20th century. Between 1900 and 1940 the city was a magnet for artists from all over the world and a centre for artistic activity. School of Paris was used to describe this broad affiliation, particularly of non-French artists.[1] Early Artists[edit] Before World War I, a group of expatriates in Paris created in the styles of Post-Impressionism, Cubism and Fauvism. It included artists like Pablo Picasso, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani and Piet Mondrian. Associated French artists included Pierre Bonnard, Henri Matisse, Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes. Picasso and Matisse have been described as the twin leaders (chefs d’école) of the school.[2] Many of these artists, as well as Jean Arp, Robert Delaunay, Sonia Delaunay, Joan Miró, Constantin Brâncuși, Raoul Dufy, Tsuguharu Foujita and Emmanuel Mané-Katz, the artists from Belarus, including Chaim Soutine, Michel Kikoine, Pinchus Kremegne, Ossip Zadkine, Jacques Lipchitz, Alexis Arapoff, Polish artist Marek Szwarc and others including Russian prince born in Saint Petersburg worked in Paris between World War I and World War II, in various styles including Surrealism and Dada. A significant group of Jewish artists working together came to be known as the Jewish School of Paris. This group included Emmanuel Mané-Katz, Chaïm Soutine, Adolphe Féder, Chagall, Moïse Kisling, Shimshon Holzman and Jules Pascin.[3] The Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaisme has works from artists such as Pascin, Michel Kikoine, Soutine, and Jacques Lipschitz. In the same period, the School of Paris name was also extended to an informal association of classical composers centered on musicians who had emigrated from Central and Eastern Europe to Paris. Composers often cited as members include Alexander Tansman, Alexander Tcherepnin, Bohuslav Martinů and Tibor Harsányi. Their preferred meeting place was the Café Du Dôme in Montparnasse. Unlike Les Six, this loosely-knit group did not adhere to any particular stylistic orientation.[4] After the Second World War the term "School of Paris" often referred to Tachisme, and Lyrical Abstraction, the European parallel to American abstract expressionism. These artists are also related to CoBRa.[citation needed] Important proponents were Jean Dubuffet, Zoran Music, Pierre Soulages, Nicolas de Staël, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, Bram van Velde, Georges Mathieu, Jean Messagier, among others. Many of their exhibitions took place at the Galerie de France in Paris, and then at the Salon de Mai. See also[edit] 2. ^ "Glossary of art terms: School of Paris". Tate Gallery. Retrieved July 16, 2014. 3. ^ Schechter, Ronald; Zirkin, Shoshanna (2009). "Jews in France". In M. Avrum Ehrlich (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. 3. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 820–831; here: 829. ISBN 9781851098736. Retrieved December 22, 2016. Further reading[edit] External links[edit]
How can we help? You can also find more resources in our Help Center. 147 terms patho-endocrinology exam 2 when are hormones released? In response to an alteration in the cellular environment, To maintain a regulated level of certain substances or other hormones what regulates hormones? (3) chemical, hormonal, or neural factors negative feedback what is Feedback that results in amplification or growth of the output signal? positive feedback what are some possible causes of elevated or depressed hormone levels? (4) Failure of feedback systems, Dysfunction of an endocrine gland, Increased hormone degradation or inactivation, Ectopic hormone release Secretory cells are unable to produce, obtain, or convert hormone precursors, or synthesizes or releases excessive amounts of hormone is what? dysfunction of the endocrine gland Decrease in number of receptors, Impaired receptor function, Presence of antibodies against specific receptors, Antibodies that mimic hormone action, Unusual expression of receptor function can cause what? receptor-associated disorders what is A cell releases a substance that stimulates the original cell and other cells of the same type in the surrounding tissue. For example, interleukin-6 (IL-6) is released from macrophages and IL-6 in turn stimulates macrophages to become more aggressive? autocrine interactions what is A cell releases a substance that affects the activity of different types of cells in the same tissue. For example in the pituitary, IL-6 is produced by one type of cell (folliculo-stellate cell) and IL-6 stimulates the release of growth hormone from GH-secreting cells, prolactin from prolactin-secreting cells, ACTH from ACTH-secreting cells, etc.? paracrine interactions what is A gland releases a hormone into the blood. The hormone is carried by the blood to other tissues (target tissue or organ), interacts with specific receptors on the cells of that tissue, and exerts a specific effect on the tissue or organ? classical endocrine interaction does one specific tissue secrete a certain hormone or do several tissues secrete several hormones? a specific tissue produces the hormone in large amounts (the gland), and other tissues secrete the hormone in much smaller quantities (In these secondary sites of synthesis, the hormone generally plays a paracrine or autocrine role in the regulation of the function of the tissue) most hypothalamic and pituitary hormones are what? pancreatic hormones are what? GI hormones are what? parathyroid hormones and calcitonin are what? thyroid hormones are what? modified amino acids Norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine (catecholamines) are what? modified amino acids adrenal hormones (cortisol, aldosterone, DHEA) are what? sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone) are what? vitamin D derivatives are what? do water-soluble or lipid soluble hormones transfer through Signal transduction? first messenger molecules and second messenger molecules like Calcium and Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) are lipid-soluble or water-soluble? Steroid hormones like Androgens, estrogens, progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, thyroid are lipid-soluble or water-soluble? do water soluble or lipid soluble hormones Diffuse across the plasma membrane and Bind to cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors? lipid soluble what do lipid soluble hormones activate? RNA polymerase, DNA transcription and translation how do water soluble hormones generally circulate in the blood? free hormones how are lipid soluble (water insoluble) hormones generally circulate in the blood? bound to plasma proteins (at low concentrations travel as free hormones) For what type of hormones is an equilibrium reached between the protein bound hormone and the free hormone. The protein-bound hormone cannot bind to receptors and therefore serves as a circulating reserve for the hormones? lipid soluble (water insoluble) Changing the concentration of hormone binding proteins in the plasma which can be caused by Liver damage, Malnutrition, Hormones such as estrogen does what to the ratio between free and protein-bound hormones? Many drugs compete with what hormone for binding sites on the plasma proteins. Therefore, these drugs can increase the free amount of this hormone without modifying total amount of hormone? what is an example of a hormone that is protein bound? thyroid hormone Total T3 concentration is what? 1.8 nM free t3 concentration is ? 5.0 nM protein bound t3 concentration is? what two things increase the T3 binding protein concentration in the blood. Therefore, the amount of total T3 increases, but the free T3 remains relatively constant. This can be misdiagnosed as having too much T3 (total T3) when in fact there is a normal (free T3). Pregnancy and oral contraceptives in pregnancy, the total T3 is ____, but the free T3 (the active hormone) is _____. elevated, normal When is cortisol at its highest? in the morning what 5 hormones does the hypothalamus secrete? what 6 hormones does the anterior pituitary release? LH, FSH, TSH, ACTH, Prolactin, GH what does PIF stand for? what is another name for it? prolactin-inhibiting factor or dopamine when PIF increases, what happens to prolactin levels? when PIF decreases, what happens to prolactin levels? what hormones does the posterior pituitary release directly into the blood? oxytocin, ADH (vasopressin) which hormone Causes an increase in the permeability of the renal collecting duct to water and at high concentrations causes constriction of arterial smooth muscle? what disease of the posterior pituitary has a hypersecretion of ADH. For diagnosis, normal adrenal and thyroid function must exist. Clinical manifestations are related to enhanced renal water retention, hyponatremia, and hypoosmolarity. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) what are some causes of the disease SIADH (hypersecretion of ADH)? (5) Ectopic production of ADH by cancer cells, Surgery (Probably related to surgery related stress), Some psychological diseases, Some drugs (anesthetic agents, morphine and other opiates, and barbiturates), Cranial abnormalities (head trauma, brain tumor, etc.) what are the clinical manifestations of hypersecretion of ADH or SIADH? (4) Increase in total body water, Decrease is serum osmolarity, Increase in sodium loss due to an increase in blood volume (increased ANH and decreased angiotensin II and aldosterone), Highly concentrated urine how do you treat SIADH? (3) water restriction, remove the tumor, Blockers of ADH receptors hyposecretion (insufficiency) of ADH causes what? diabetes insipidus Polyuria (peeing a lot) and polydipsia (drinking lots of water), very dilute urine are clinical manifestations of what disease? diabetes insipidus what two types of problems can cause diabetes insipidus? neurogenic, nephrogenic what type of problem which causes diabetes insipidus is Insufficient amounts of ADH being produced? what type of problem which causes diabetes insipidus is Inadequate response to ADH? damage to the brain or posterior pituitary. Generally caused by trauma of the head, cranial surgery, cranial tumor, or idiopathic is what type of diabetes insipidus? lack of ADH receptors in the kidney or the failure of the receptors to modify the permeability of the collecting duct. This is generally a genetic disease. However, temporary DI may result from some drugs, pregnancy, electrolyte imbalances, or kidney trauma. Kidney failure may also cause permanent DI is what type of diabetes insipidus? drinking too much water. Often results from an attempt to purge the body of toxins, demons, etc is what type of diabetes insipidus? what do you do to test for the type of diabetes insipidus? restrict water intake. if urine osmolarity increases problem is psychogenic. if urine osmolarity only slightly increases or doesn't at all the problem is either nephrogenic or neurogenic. Give patient ADH. if urine flow decreases and urine osmolarity increases problem is neurogenic. if urine flow or osmolarity change little to none, problem is nephrogenic (kidney doesn't respond) how do you treat psychogenic diabetes insipidus? water restriction how do you treat nephrogenic diabetes insipidus? drink large amounts of water and have a diet moderately rich in sodium chloride how do you treat neurogenic diabetes insipidus? ADH replacement (generally nasally) A twenty-four-year-old female patient comes to your reproductive clinic with complaints of frequent urination. Test reveal that her urine osmolarity is very low. The woman is admitted to the hospital and she is restricted of water. After about 12 hours her urine flow remains high and her urine osmolarity remains low. The woman was then administered synthetic ADH through a nasal spray. Within 60 minutes her urine flow decreased and urine osmolarity increased. What is the diagnosis of this woman's condition? neurogenic diabetes insipidus what controls oxytocin release? (5) stretch of cervix during birth, tactile stimulation (nursing), mother hearing baby cry, stress, mother thinking about baby is there a pathophysiology of oxytocin? anterior pituitary hormones are considered what? how do you determine if an endocrine problem is at the hypothalamus or the pituitary? take iv blood sample from patient, inject one or more hypothalamus releasing factors, draw new blood sample and measure various amounts of pituitary hormones before and after injection what makes the pituitary very vulnerable to ischemia and infarction? highly vascularized blood loss from severe hemorrhage during delivery (can damage mother's pituitary) is known as what? Sheehan syndrome what three things can cause a pituitary infarction leading to hypopituitarism? sheehan syndrome, hemorrhage, shock what things can cause hypopituitarism? (4) head trauma, infections, tumors, infarction Nonspecific damage to the anterior pituitary will cause? panhypopituitarism (ACTH, TSH, FSH and LH, GH deficiency) what is Commonly due to a benign, slow-growing pituitary adenoma? Headache and fatigue, Visual changes, Hyposecretion of neighboring anterior pituitary hormones are manifestations of what? what is manifested by an inability to properly dilate or constrict the pupil in one or more eyes, Inability to properly follow objects with the eyes, or Inability to open eyelid properly? oculomotor palsies what 4 things can signal a pituitary tumor? headache, visual defect, tumor on anterior pituitary (CT scan or MRI), oculomotor palsies as a pituitary tumor gets bigger, what happens to the blind spot in the visual field? gets bigger hypersecretion of GH in children and adolescents causes what? Hypersecretion of GH during adulthood causes what? hypersecretion of GH is caused by what? why does hypersecretion of GH cause acromegaly and not gigantism in adults? epiphesial plate is sealed what hormone Stimulates IGF production by liver and other tissues, this and IGF stimulate growth of long bones at the epiphyseal plate, this and IGF increase amino acid incorporation into proteins, this and IGF inhibit protein breakdown, this and IGF increases lipolysis, Inhibits hepatic glucose uptake / promotes gluconeogenesis, Stimulates the immune system? Elongation of the Head and Face and Increased Tongue Size occur with what disease? Large tongue, lips, fingers, toes, jaw bone, ears, and skull bones, Marked increase in blood glucose (the resulting overproduction of insulin can destroy the endocrine pancreas), Headaches if the tumor is large, Visual disturbance if the tumor is large, Joint pain, Barrel chest, Cardiovascular diseases including hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, etc. which cause early death., Malignancies may become more aggressive because GH and IGF are growth factors. These are clinical manifestations of what disease? what are three treatments for growth hormone excess? Somatostatin analog (octreotide), Surgery if drug therapy fails, Radiation if drug therapy and surgery fail to treat tumor hyposecretion of GH causes what? dwarfism (growth failure) growth failure, Increased percentage of body composition that is fat and a decrease in the percentage of the body composition that is muscle, Poor strength and development of bones (bones are thin and fragile), Poor immune function are clinical manifestations of what? hyposecretion of GH Poor lactation, Poor immune system function, Low blood glucose, Depression, Decreased mass of bones in young adults shows onset of what? hyposecretion of GH Proliferation of glandular tissue of the mammary glands (requires estrogen and progesterone and other hormones including insulin and GH), Synthesis of milk proteins by the mammary glands, Increased calcium mobilization from bone and secretion of calcium into milk, Inhibits the release of LH and FSH from pituitary and blocks the effects of LH and FSH on the gonads, Stimulates the immune system are the actions of what hormone? what negatively regulates prolactin? (in the hypothalamus) In females, increased levels of what hormone causes amenorrhea, galactorrhea (milk production), hirsutism, and osteopenia (pre-osteoporosis)? In males, increased levels of what hormone causes hypogonadism, impaired libido, galactorrhea (rarely), and infertility? what is the hypersecretion of prolactin called? what is used for treatment of prolactinomas? (4) dopamine agonists, somatostatin analogs, surgery, destroy pituitary with radiation if all else fails Poor milk production and Poor function of immune system are the manifestations of what? hyposecretion of prolactin how do you diagnose (test for) hyposecretion of prolactin? check blood levels of prolactin, inject TRH to see if problem is at pituitary (low prolactin after injection) or hypothalamus (normal levels after injection) A female patient has a prolactin-secreting tumor of the pituitary gland. What can you expect dopamine levels to be like? increased secretion what is the normal regulatory pathway for any hormone? hypothalamus, releasing hormone, pituitary, stimulating hormone, tissue/gland, hormone SRIH, dopamine and stress inhibit what hormone? cold and TRH increase what hormone? TSH increases the release of what hormones from the thyroid gland? T3 and T4 T3 and T4 (after being converted to T3 in the gland) inhibit the secretion of what hormone directly at the pituitary and inhibit the same hormone secretion indirectly by decreasing TRH and increasing SRIH release from the hypothalamus? what produces over 2/3 of T3 tissues of body what hormone Regulates the basal activity of most cells? the function of most cells requires what hormone? thyroid hormones what cause decreased cell growth, poor protein synthesis, poor conduction of nerve impulses? hyposecretion of thyroid hormones a large thyroid gland is called? at what thyroid hormone levels does a goiter occur? any level (The presence of a goiter provides evidence that there is some problem with the thyroid axis. However, the presence of a goiter provides no information of where this problem may occur) what disease is caused by hyperthyroidism? graves disease what is another name for hyperthyroidism? what is an Autoimmune disease in which antibodies (thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin or TSI) are produced that activates the TSH receptor, a diffuse goiter that takes up large amounts of radioactive iodine is produced, results in high thyroid hormones and low TSH? graves disease what is a Benign growth of the thyroid gland that produces thyroid hormones, Therefore, radioactive iodine is taken up in high quantities by the areas of the thyroid that have the growth, This results in high thyroid hormones and low TSH. Toxic Adenoma or Toxic Nodular Goiter what is another cause of hyperthyroidism that is similar to toxic adenoma except the thyroid has many benign nodules. Thyroid scan reveals many modules with normal thyroid tissue between nodules? Toxic multinodular goiter what is another cause of hyperthyroidism in which during the acute phase, thyroid hormones are released from injured or dead thyroid cells? thyroiditis (acute phase) what disease is caused by ingestion of excess thyroid hormones either through Taking excess thyroid hormone for weight loss, more energy, or psychological disease or Hamburger (or hotdog) thyrotoxicosis: too much thyroid in prepared meats. This also causes hyperthyroidism? Thyrotoxicosis factitia what are some treatments for hyperthroidism? (3) Drugs that inhibits the thyroid from utilizing iodine, Radioactive iodine, Surgery (rarely necessary because of effectiveness of drug and radioactive treatments) what is a bacterial infection of the thyroid? Acute infectious thyroiditis what is is generally a viral infection of the thyroid? Subacute thyroiditis what is an autoimmune disease in which the Thyroid is progressively destroyed? Hashimoto disease (Autoimmune thyroiditis) thyroiditis, Genetic, Iodine deficiency (causes a large diffuse goiter), Pituitary failure, Hypothalamic failure, Chronic stress or chronic disease can all cause what? what 3 types of thyroiditis cause hypothyroidism? acute infectious thyroiditis, subacute thyroiditis, hashimoto disease (autoimmune thyroiditis) what is the treatment for hypothyroidism? give thyroid hormones Decreased body temperature, Decreased heart rate, blood pressure, Poor wound healing, Muscle weakness, Weight gain, Fatigue, Excessive sleep, Poor mental function (slow problem solving), Coarsening and loss of scalp hair, Sudden loss of pigment in scalp and other body hair, Myxedema may develop (nonpiting edema caused by excess mucopolysaccharide in the tissue-- Often present around the eyes and in the hands and feet), Myxedema of voice box and tongue causes slurred speech and hoarseness, Poor synthesis of protein, All body functions decreased, Poor myelination of nerves are clinical manifestations of what disease? The tendon reflex is slow in what disease because of the decreased myelination of the nerves and decreased speed of the muscle contraction? in pregnancy, a low amount of what hormone in the mother causes various problems in the fetus. These problems include: Lower birth weight, Poorer development of the CNS, Permanent decrease in the predicted IQ by 10 to 20 points. Now every woman considering pregnancy must be screened for this hormone? thyroid hormone hyposecretion of thyroid hormones following birth causes what? Short stature, disproportional growth, and high body fat, Poor development of the nervous system due to decreased nerve myelination, poor reflexes, poor coordination of muscle movement, and a very low IQ are clinical manifestations for what disease? what are the small glands located behind the upper and lower poles of the thyroid gland? what does the parathyroid gland produce? parathyroid hormones (antagonist to calcitonin, increases blood calcium levels) what stimulates PTH secretion? low blood calcium levels what stops PTH secretion? increase in blood calcium levels Excess secretion of PTH from one or more parathyroid glands is called what? Primary hyperparathyroidism Increase in PTH secondary to a chronic disease that causes hypocalcemia (i.e., renal failure) is called what? secondary hyperparathyroidism Abnormally low PTH levels, Usually caused by parathyroid damage in thyroid surgery is called? What would be the most likely side-effect of hypoparathyroidism? muscle spasms the adrenal medulla produces what 2 hormones? Epinephrine, Norepinephrine what produces Mineralcorticoids: Aldosterone, and Glucocorticoids: Cortisol adrenal cortex what 2 sex hormones does the adrenal gland produce? Androgens and Estrogens Excessive anterior pituitary secretion of ACTH results in what disease? cushing disease Excessive level of cortisol, regardless of cause results in what disease? cushing syndrome hypersecretion of aldosterone usually from an adenoma is called? Primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn disease) hypersecretion of aldosterone usually from overactive RAAS pathway is called? Secondary hyperaldosteronism Hypersecretion of adrenal androgens causes what? hypersecretion of adrenal estrogens cause what? what is Caused by tumors derived from the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla (Pheochromocytomas) and Secrete catecholamines on a continuous or episodic basis? Adrenal medulla hyperfunction what type of addisons is Destruction of the adrenal gland? Adrenal Insufficiency or Hypocortisolism causes what disease? addison's disease what type of addison's is Lack of ACTH due to destruction of the pituitary? what type of addisons is Decreased CRH due to hypothalamic damage (head injury) or exposure to high concentrations of glucocorticoids?
Web Dev Tools 101: Linters A linter is a syntax checker. You need to use one. Options are available. Questions? Use the ESLint tool and integrate it into your build process with grunt or gulp. Use it often. Why do I care? Most programming languages have some sort of lint either built in to the language (like Python), an IDE (think Visual Studio and the Code Analysis feature) or as an external program. Given the loose nature of Javascript in the past, you need to be able to pre-process your files so that you can ensure they are not only syntactically correct but also not falling into the common pitfalls of programming in Javascript. The short version – use lint and use it often. Now, what are the candidates? JSLint is the grand-daddy of the javascript linters, written by Douglas Crockford, who also happened to write one of my favorite Javascript books. If we were purely talking about ECMAScript 5, then this is the gold-standard in this category. It contains a huge collection of rules that define a “professional subset of Javascript” – this sort of advice is invaluable for the beginner programmer and a great resource even for an experienced developer. It has support for both grunt and gulp so you can easily integrate it into your workflow. It does fall down on the ECMAScript 6 resources though. JSLint supports only a very small subset of the ECMAScript 6 standard. The other place it falls down is in the set of rules to include. It implements “one mans opinion” and that opinion is not shared by everyone. If you are using Visual Studio then you are likely to be familiar with JSCS as this tool is integrated with Web Essentials (and you should definitely be using Web Essentials). I actually find the implementation in Web Essentials annoying with conflicting rules enabled, so I can’t really recommend it. In fact, I recommend turning it off. If you are using ECMAScript 6 then this is the linter for you. ESLint is a good option in general, but I love that it supports the complete ECMAScript 6 standard. It has support for grunt and gulp so that it is easily integrated into your build process. Downside is that it isn’t supported in Web Essentials (go vote for the feature!), but thats relatively minor given that Visual Studio is going over to grunt and gulp. The Verdict It’s rare that there is an absolute winner in the tools category, but there is one here. Your choice should be ESLint.
ORNL Licenses Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Process rare earth metal magnets An ORNL process can help recover magnets from used computer hard drives. CREDIT Oak Ridge National Laboratory The patent-pending process developed as part of DOE’s Critical Materials Institute is designed to economically recover large amounts of magnets made using neodymium–a rare earth element that is mined outside the United States. The permanent magnets are the most powerful on earth, and used in everything from computer hard drives and cell phones to clean energy technologies such as electric vehicles and wind turbines. rare earth magnet ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory Momentum holds a separate license for ORNL’s membrane extraction technology, which uses a combination of hollow fiber membranes, organic solvents and neutral extractants to selectively recover rare earth elements such as neodymium, dysprosium and praseodymium. “Working collectively with the nation’s brightest scientific minds we can now provide a solution to some of the most complex problems in the rare earth element supply chain,” said Preston Bryant, Momentum’s CEO. “Bringing together these CMI technologies allows us to create a sustainable business model, something that many rare earth companies struggle to achieve.” “Hard disk drives are the second-biggest use of neodymium magnets, and they are the most readily available source for recycling,” said CMI Director Alex King. “This technology overcomes one of the biggest challenges to cost-effective recovery of magnets from them, and we are delighted to be working with Momentum Technologies to commercialize it.” About the Critical Materials Institute: The Critical Materials Institute is a Department of Energy Innovation Hub led by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Ames Laboratory and supported by DOE’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy’s Advanced Manufacturing Office. CMI seeks ways to eliminate and reduce reliance on rare earth metals and other materials critical to the success of clean energy technologies. U.S. DOE About U.S. DOE

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.