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World's oldest louse found The world's oldest louse has been found, in Carlisle. And history, or at least a bit of it, may have to be rewritten. Archaeologists who found the 2,000-year-old fossilised bug, just one millimetre long, believe it is the first evidence that Romans in Britain, despite their relatively sophisticated lifestyles, had a problem with pubic lice, or crab louse, or Pthirus pubis L. "It is a big piece of information," said Dr Harry Kenward, a palaeo-entymologist and senior research fellow at York University who was in the team of scientists who helped to discover the Roman bug. "When we are talking about what it is like to be Roman and trying to make history come alive, we now know it had an itchy-scratchy dimension. We now know they were probably a pretty lousy lot.'' The evolution of Pthirus has long mystified researchers. While the history of the human flea and bed bug are well-documented, ancestors of the crab louse, a slow-moving bug that infects hair on the body rather than the head, has until now kept at least one hop ahead of detection. Indeed, until the Carlisle louse was unearthed, the oldest ones known to man were found in Iceland and dated from a mere 300 years ago. The previous oldest British louse was aged only 200 years or so and was last alive and thriving in 18th-century London. Scientists have been looking for early evidence of the louse for many years. Bodies from bogs and mummies of several kinds have been examined, but without success, and the only other animal to suffer with pubic lice is the gorilla. Dr Kenward, who reports the discovery in the archaeological journal, Antiquity, says the fossil found in a Roman tip also sheds new light on how and when man acquired parasites. It is already known, for instance, that the human flea, which can be traced to Neolithic times, almost certainly came from an animal or a bird before latching on to humans. The big task Dr Kenward faces now is discovering whether the Romans brought the louse with them, or whether it was already here. He is now looking for a pre-Roman, Iron Age site, preferably waterlogged, where he and his team can look for the final missing link.
The Khitans: from Mongolic tribe to rulers of an empire Special To The Japan Times When I visited “The Splendor of the Khitan Dynasty” at the University Art Museum, Tokyo, I got a funny feeling that Japan somehow wanted to preserve good diplomatic relations with this mighty Empire. This makes perfectly good sense given this state’s great military strength and strategic position in North East Asia, but absolutely no sense chronologically as the Khitan Empire (907-1125 ) has long since ceased to be. Despite having nothing to fear from the nonexistent Khitan embassy, the exhibition treads warily and shows too much deference. It also makes scant mention of the Khitans’ once fearsome military reputation. At times the show even comes across like a tourist promotion. The show is divided into four sections: Nomadic Art, Inheriting Tang Traditions, Cities in the Steppes, and A Buddhist Country under Azure Skies. They all sound a warm, friendly, positive note, and they create a narrative of gradually enriching cultural and social progress that sits uneasily with the historical facts of the Empire’s decline and sudden downfall in 1125. A narrative that steered closer to the turbulent currents of history would have painted a far more interesting picture. Most of the stuff worth seeing at the show comes from tombs discovered under the steppes of Inner Mongolia, including that of Princess Chen, an unfortunate young lady who passed away at the age of 18. In the first section of the exhibition, we can see her gold burial mask, her silver threaded burial suit, which looks rather like a fishnet body stocking, a pair of impressive gilt-silver boots with a phoenix motif, and her gilt-silver crown with similar decoration. There is also a great deal of horse-riding equipment and accoutrements. These have been dated to the year 1018, near the midpoint of the empire’s existence, which stretches from its foundation in 907, shortly after the collapse of the powerful Chinese Tang Dynasty, to its demise in 1125. What they reveal is a society in transition. Like many originally nomadic people from the plains of Eurasia, their rise to power was founded on two pillars: a fierce hunter-warrior culture and their ability to fight on horseback. The contents of Princess Chen’s grave reveal a pagan belief in an afterlife. The Khitans believed the dead traveled to the sacred mountain of Tsaghan Khoton, where they lived together with their horses in an afterlife. It was therefore important for them to arrive equipped with the riches of this life as well as with their animals, which were sacrificed in order to accompany them. Although they overran much of Northern China, the Khitans retained their links to their nomadic past. Their “Supreme Capital” was located on the steppes of Mongolia with four auxiliary capitals around it, including their southern capital, which later became Beijing. But despite their efforts to retain their culture and identity as nomadic warriors, they slowly started to fall under the power of Chinese culture. Princess Chen’s gilt-silver crown is not only decorated with the Chinese motif of the phoenix, but also surmounted by a small golden figure of the Buddha. Despite the essentially pagan and shamanistic nature of this grave, the Buddhist influence is unmistakable and over time it became stronger. The exhibition includes many Buddhist pieces including an impressive reclining marble Buddha, dated 1049, from the stunning White Pagoda that still stands on the ruins of the former Supreme Capital. During the reign of the Emperor Shengzong (982-1031), Buddhism seems to have been ascendant, especially among the ruling elite. Along with other refinements of Chinese civilization, this may have made it easier to govern the subject Chinese population, but it seems to have also affected the warrior spirit of the Khitans, on which the empire was founded. In 1005, expansion to the south was abandoned when the Shanyuan Peace Treaty was signed with the Song Empire, which had successfully united the rest of China. This treaty, which also included large annual tributes of silver, tea and other goods from the Song empire, lasted until 1121 when a combined attack by the Song and the fierce Jurchen people of Manchuria destroyed the Khitan Empire and created a new power in the North in the form of the Jin Empire. The period between the early aggressive expansion of the Khitans and the sudden demise of their empire was a time of relative peace that saw far-ranging trade and rising material comfort. The exhibition dwells on this with a number of items such as tea bowls and silver utensils that serve to show just how close the Khitans were to Asian nations today. But while they drank their tea and made obeisance to their buddhas, the cataclysm that was to destroy their empire was brewing. Perhaps this is why they don’t have an embassy in Tokyo. “The Splendor of the Khitan Dynasty” at the University Art Museum, Tokyo runs till Sep 17; open 10 a.m.-5 p.m. ¥1,400. Closed Mon.
reverse direction (1) (general) The direction of a (positive) reverse current. (2) (in an avalanche-junction transient voltage suppressor): The direction of current that results when the n‑type semiconductor region connected to one terminal is at a positive potential relative to the p‑type region connected to the other terminal. NOTE Any capacitance-reduction diodes that may be included shall be ignored in the determination of reverse direction. (3) (in a semiconductor junction, excluding backward and tunnel diodes): The direction of higher resistance to steady direct-current flow through a semiconductor junction. JESD77-B, 2/00 JESD282-B, 4/00 JESD10, 9/81 User login Browse Alphabetically Standards and Documents Assistance Contact Julie Carlson, 703-624-9230 Dictionary RSS Feed
• Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month The Role of Lipids In Living Organisms Extracts from this document... The Role of Lipids in Living Organisms Lipids can be defined as "a group of substances that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, as do carbohydrates, but in lipids the proportion of oxygen is much less."(1) They are also defined as "hydrophobic (insoluble in water) yet are soluble in organic solvents like ethanol, chloroform and ether"(2). Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds and so can be classified as: 1. "Simple lipids, the animal fats, the vegetable oils and the waxes 2. Complex lipids 3. Phospholipids and related compounds 4. Steroids"(2) "Tryglycerols are formed by a condensation reaction that takes place between glycerol (an alcohol) and monocarboxylic acids (fatty acids)" The result of this reaction gives rise to a molecule of triglycerol and is used by living organisms as a source of energy store. When broken down lipids in the form of tryglycerols yield "38 kJg-1 of energy which is twice as much as the amount of energy that carbohydrates yield, 17kJg-1"(3). Another reason for using lipids as an energy store as oppose to carbohydrates is that lipids are more compact and insoluble in water. ...read more. Lipids can be made into phospholipids by replacing one of the fatty acid groups with phosphoric acid. This acid is said to be "hydrophilic (attracts water) and this contrasts with the remainder of the molecule which is hydrophobic"(3). This property of phospholipids is why they make up part of the plasma membrane of cells. They form a phospholipid bilayer with the hydrophilic phosphate group facing outwards and the hydrophobic fatty acids facing inwards. This helps to separate the contents of the cell from the outside of the cell. Another type of lipid is involved with the functions of the plasma membrane. These are steroids. The only feature that steroids have in common with other lipids like tryglycerides is that they are "hydrophobic. All steroids are derivatives of a common structure made up of 4 fused carbon rings. Each different steroid contains different chemical groups attached to these rings."(7). As mentioned above steroids form a significant part of the cell membrane but are also involved in the synthesis of hormones such as, "as testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone, and cortisol."(7) The most common steroid is called cholesterol. Cholesterol limits the "uncontrolled leakage of small molecules (for example water and ions) ...read more. Lipids also exist in the form of waxes. Waxes are similar to other lipids like fats and oils but differ in the fact that waxes are, "esters of higher fatty acids with long chain alcohols (i.e. not with glycerol)."(5). A major property of wax is that it is waterproof and is therefore used by plants on their leaves (the waxy cuticle). This is done to "reduce water loss by evaporation since water cannot pass through the insoluble lipid layer"(6). Wax is used by other organisms like bees to construct their larval chambers. The scents produced by many plants are known to be, "derivatives of fatty acids"(5). This is done to attract insects to aid pollination. In humans there is a sebaceous gland that is found in the skin. "This gland produces and oily fluid known as sebum"(6). The sebum is generally used to, "keep skin soft and supple. It also helps the body to retain heat and prevent excessive evaporation"(6). In birds the "preen gland produces a secretion which performs a secretion that helps to waterproof the feathers."(5) As has been described, this diverse group of organic compounds has many properties and functions in living organisms of all kinds including mammals, birds, fish and plants. ...read more. The above preview is unformatted text Found what you're looking for? • Start learning 29% faster today • 150,000+ documents available • Just £6.99 a month Not the one? Search for your essay title... • Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month See related essaysSee related essays Related AS and A Level Energy, Respiration & the Environment essays our results because if we start data logging several seconds after we have already put in the lipase and bile salts in the milk it could mean that we lose the pH drop at the beginning of the reaction, which means that the pH drop we see is not an accurate representation of the actual pH drop. 2. the role of pathology service This is known as secondary hypothyroidism. Diagnosis In the presence of symptoms such as some or all of those above, the doctor is likely to arrange for a blood test to check on the amount of thyroid hormone (thyroxine) and other tests, looking at other hormones which control or are produced by the thyroid gland. 1. Energy Presentation Notes Define critical mass. _____mass needed to initiate spontaneous fission of nuclei____ 8. When using fission to produce electricity, identify for each of the following the function of the part and the energy conversion that takes place: a. Fuel rods _contain fissionable material like 235U _ _mass --> energy_ b. Reference: Class notes hand out 02 / 04 /08 http://health.howstuffworks.com/high-blood-pressure-in-depth.htm Website viewed on 29 / 04 08 Measuring the Blood Pressure Blood pressure is measured as the heart contracts and relaxes * The systolic pressure is measured when the heart ventricles contracts. Protein Peptides A protease catalyses the hydrolysis of proteins (breaks them down into peptides). It is secreted in an inactive form of trypsinogen. Conversion to enterokinase (secreted by cells in the wall of the duodenum). Can also be activated by trypsin. 2. Discuss the Advantages and Disadvantages of being Ectothermic and Endothermic in the Vertebrates. to the skin so that heat is lost and when they are cold the opposite occurs. Other species pant and sweat to lose heat. Ectotherms are frequently able to temporarily relax homeostasis - allowing physiological variables to fluctuate more widely than usual - so that they can survive in hostile environments. 1. Discuss the Advantages and Disadvantages of being Ectothermic and Endothermic for Vertebrates. Terrestrial ectotherms have to contend with greater temperature fluctuations than those of the aquatic ectotherms, but they have the benefit of living at higher environmental temperatures. This allows them to be more active, and show a variety of complex behavioural patterns based upon prevailing temperature conditions. at low pH: COO- + H+ changes to COOH and at high pH: NH3+ changes to NH2 + H+. This means that the ionic interaction no longer exists and so the tertiary structure breaks and the 3D structure alters and thus the active site changes. • Over 160,000 pieces of student written work • Annotated by experienced teachers • Ideas and feedback to improve your own work
Definición de ratchet en inglés: Compartir esta entrada Pronunciación: /ˈratʃɪt/ 1A device consisting of a bar or wheel with a set of angled teeth in which a pawl, cog, or tooth engages, allowing motion in one direction only: [as modifier]: a ratchet screwdriver Más ejemplos en oraciones 1.1A bar or wheel that forms part of a ratchet. Oraciones de ejemplo • The drive mechanism may comprise a ratchet and pawl. • The device was designed and built by chemists at the Universities of Edinburgh and Bologna, and it is the hydrogen bonds that act as locking teeth on a molecular ratchet, controlling the movements of the wheels. • In the same area is the lever that engages the ratchet to rotate the cylinder. 2A situation or process that is perceived to be changing in a series of irreversible steps: the upward ratchet of property taxes Más ejemplos en oraciones • In three major towns in Antrim, the sectarian ratchet is being turned up. • That would have given each worker a stake of £100,000 or more, based on the equity ratchet, and a real incentive to drive forward shareholder value. • The international and domestic prestige that can be derived from space achievements can best be understood as a series of ratchets on a downward slope. verbo (ratchets, ratcheting, ratcheted) [with object] 1Operate by means of a ratchet: (as adjective ratcheted) a ratcheted quick release system (as adjective ratcheting) a smooth ratcheting action Más ejemplos en oraciones • The researchers aimed to use the brake to ratchet the propeller in only one direction, by executing a series of chemical reactions between blade and brake. • Somewhere a Dumpster is ratcheted open by the claws of a black machine. • Quickly repeating these jaw movements, the threadsnake ratchets the squirmy prey farther and farther down the hatch. 2 (ratchet something up/down) Cause something to rise (or fall) as a step in what is perceived as an irreversible process: the Bank of Japan ratcheted up interest rates again Más ejemplos en oraciones • The last battle, in particular, really ratchets up the tension. • But as the vice president ratchets up his attacks on John Kerry, questions are raised about Cheney himself and his role in a campaign that is coming more into focus. • The tension ratchets upwards a notch in each successive movement. Mid 17th century: from French rochet, originally denoting a blunt lance head, later in the sense 'bobbin, ratchet'; related to the base of archaic rock 'quantity of wool on a distaff for spinning'. Palabras que riman con ratchet hatchet, latchet For editors and proofreaders Saltos de línea: ratchet Compartir esta entrada ¿Qué te llama la atención de esta palabra o frase?
Drought, Fire and Grain in Russia Text Size By Lauren Goodrich The crises threaten the wheat harvest in Russia, which is one of the world's largest wheat exporters. Russia is no stranger to having drought affect its wheat crop, a commodity of critical importance to Moscow's domestic tranquility and foreign policy. Despite the severity of the heat, drought and wildfires, Moscow's wheat output will cover Russia's domestic needs. Russia will also use the situation to merge its neighbors into a grain cartel. A History of Drought and Wildfire The larger challenge Moscow has faced in years of drought and wildfire has been transporting grain across Russia's immense territory. Russia's grain belt lies in the southern European part of the country from the Black Sea across the Northern Caucasus to Western Kazakhstan, capped on the north by the Moscow region. This is Russia's most fertile region, which is supported by the Volga River. (click here to enlarge image) This year's drought and fires do not primarily affect Russia's transportation network, but rather the grain-producing regions in the European part of Russia that make up the bulk of Russia's grain exports. These regions lie on the westward distribution network, with the port of Novorossiysk on the Black Sea handling more than 50 percent of Russian exports. Russia's concentration on food volatility has a long history. Lenin called grain Russia's "currency of currencies," and seizing grain stockpiles was one of the Red Army's first moves during the Russian Revolution. In this tradition, the Kremlin will husband its grain before exporting it for monetary gain. And this falls in line with Russia's overall economic strategy of using its resources as a tool in domestic and foreign policy. Exports and Foreign Policy Russia is a massive producer and exporter of myriad commodities besides grain. It is the second-largest natural gas producer in the world after the United States and one of the largest oil and timber producers. The Russian government and domestic economy are based on the production and export of all these commodities, making Kremlin control — either direct or indirect — of all of these sectors essential to national security. Domestically, Russians enjoy access to the necessities of life. Kremlin ownership over the majority of the country's economy and resources gives the government leverage in controlling the country on every level — socially, politically, economically and financially. Thus, a grain crisis is more than just about feeding the people; it strikes at part of Russia's overall domestic economic security. Russia's request that Belarus and Kazakhstan cease grain shipments does not seem primarily connected to Russia's concern over supplies, but instead looks to be more political. The three countries formed a customs union in January, something that has caused much political and economic turmoil. Kazakhstan sought to lock in its president's desire to remain beholden to Russia even after he steps down, while Belarus reluctantly joined as Russia already controlled more than half of the Belarusian economy. For Moscow, however, the union was a key piece of its geopolitical resurgence. The Russian-Kazakh-Belarusian customs union was not set up like a Western free trade zone, where the goal is to encourage two-way trade by reducing trade barriers, but as a Russian plan to expand Moscow's economic hold over Belarus and Kazakhstan. Thus far, the customs union has undermined Belarus and Kazakhstan's industrial capacity, welding the two states further into the Russian economy. Given current Russian production and storage supplies, Russia doesn't actually need Belarus or Kazakhstan to curb their exports. Instead, it is seeking to use the drought and fires to create a regional grain cartel with its new customs union partners. And this leads to the question of the other former Soviet grain heavyweight, Ukraine. Ukraine, which does not belong to the customs union, is the world's third-largest wheat exporter. In 2009, Ukraine exported 21 million tons of its 46 million-ton production. Also hit by the drought, Ukraine revised its projected production and exports for 2010 down 20 percent, with exports down to 16 million tons. Some fear Ukraine will have to slash its export forecasts even further. Moscow will most likely want to control what its large grain-exporting neighbor does, should it be concerned with supplies or prices. Despite Russia's recent actions with regard to Belarus and Kazakhstan, however, Ukraine has not publicly announced any bans on grain exports. Get our free Intelligence Reports Join over 500,000 readers on our free intel reports list. Editor's Choice
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer I read the following recommendation of our IT department: Don't visit the Internet with Windows XP machines We're a German company. Is this sentence ok? I would have expected Don't browse the Internet with Windows XP machines. Don't use the Internet with Windows XP machines. share\|improve this question Yes, one "uses" or "accesses" the Internet... "visit" suits a page/site/url better. – d'alar'cop Mar 11 '14 at 8:24 @Thomas W - Access is prior to browsing or using (or even visiting, which implies personal presence entering a space, historically for charitable or humanitarian purposes), so I'd suggest avoiding 'visit' and using 'access'. I'd also suggest 'on' rather than 'with'. – Leon Conrad Mar 11 '14 at 9:34 @LeonConrad: thanks for pointing out the on thing. Otherwise it could be interpreted as: Don't use the Internet on Windows 7 machines, because the Internet has dangerous Windows XP machines, which could be harmful. Right? – Thomas Weller Mar 11 '14 at 10:24 @ThomasW. It took me a while to get what you meant, but yes. It's not the most obvious reading, though. Think of writing 'with' a pen 'on ' paper. The computer is like the paper. The software is like the pen. It's not a perfect analogy, but it's the reading I'd go to first before thinking of yours. – Leon Conrad Mar 12 '14 at 6:39 up vote 2 down vote accepted You're right - both of your alternates are better. You can visit a website, but not the Internet as a whole. It definitely doesn't work if you're also trying to tell people not to use any internet functions, such as email, messaging services, Skype, etc. The sentence 'browse the internet' would probably be taken as specific to the web - and not relate to email and other services either. So, if you want to stop people using the internet at all on XP machines, I'd use: Don't use the internet on Windows XP machines. If it's just the web you're talking about, try: Don't browse the web on Windows XP machines. share\|improve this answer I like this answer most, because it makes clear that our IT department should really be more specific as the current sentence leaves room for interpretation. I'm glad I asked this question here :-) – Thomas Weller Mar 11 '14 at 10:28 There's nothing wrong with visit, per se. It's just not convention. – David M Mar 11 '14 at 12:21 Just like d'alar'cop says: I´d say "Don't access the internet...". One visits a page, but you access the internet. When I visit the internet, it sounds more like ring the door bell, enter the building and drink a cup of tea with internet. share\|improve this answer Your Answer
Michael Radu: The End of Bolivia? Roundup: Historians' Take [Michael Radu, Ph.D., is Co-Chairman of FPRI's Center on Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism, and Homeland Security.] If fascism is simply defined as statism plus racism and hatred of democracy, December 18 witnessed its coming to power in Bolivia, Latin America's poorest, as well as its most dysfunctional and unstable, country. Since achieving independence in 1825, Bolivia has had 189 official military coups (one every 11 months, on average), and since 2000 it has had five presidents, two of whom were democratically elected and chased out of office by radical mobs led by Evo Morales, who on December 18 received a slight majority in the presidential election. So much for the Bolivians' thirst for democracy. Judging by its voters' behavior Bolivia, which has a population of 9 million, seems interested in remaining South America's poorest country. The country is both a major producer of coca and a loser in all its wars (most of which it started) against its five neighbors. In many ways it is a black hole in the heart of South America, which is precisely what makes it strategically important and explains Ernesto"Che" Guevara's having chosen it to jumpstart a communist revolution throughout the continent. Other than coca, Bolivia's only major resource is the natural gas in the lowland departments of Santa Cruz, Beni and Tarija. Hence, the December 18 vote pitted individuals at the two poles of Bolivia's demography, political culture, and race. Jorge Quiroga, 45 years old, who served as president between 2000-02 following the resignation of terminally ill Hugo Banzer (whose vice-president he was), was educated as an industrial engineer at Texas' A&M University, worked for IBM, married an American and climbed Mt. Everest. He leads the Democratic and Social Power - Podemos party and advocates free markets, free trade and coca control, as well as cooperation with the United States. Evo Morales, a 46 year-old Aymara Indian, did not finish secondary education. He led the coca planters in the Chapare region, was expelled from Congress in 2002 under accusations of terrorism related to violence against U.S.-funded coca eradication efforts, and was second runner-up in the 2002 presidential elections. He and his Movement toward Socialism (MAS) party are vocal admirers, and benefit from the largesse of, Venezuela's Hugo Chavez. They revere Che Guevara and advocate the legalization of coca and nationalization of the gas fields and companies' assets. They grandly describe themselves as a"nightmare" for Washington. But this is not just a case of a country that was polarized between two opposed ideological approaches and two very different leaders simply letting the people decide. Just like his mentor Chavez, the author of two failed coups against elected governments in Venezuela, Morales' idea of democracy is"If I win, fine; if not, 'the people' will bring me to power anyway" -- as was demonstrated by his direct involvement in the overthrow of two constitutional presidents in the last three years by mob action. Morales election will make what remains of Bolivian democracy a charade. It will also revive a disturbing memory of Chile in 1970, when Salvador Allende was elected with a third of the vote but interpreted that as a mandate for revolution -- which is precisely what Morales does. One problem, which will force a reaction from Bolivia's neighbors, is that the non-Indian, productive, and indeed progressive regions -- mostly Santa Cruz and Tarija -- are not ready to tolerate the destruction of their livelihoods by a racist and socialist Indian regime in La Paz - and thus may well be prepared to secede -- peacefully or not -- if Morales is elected and implements his program. Bolivian neighbors Brazil and Argentina, both have enormous interests in the gas of Tarija, which is largely exploited, extracted, and used by their own state-owned companies and which Morales has threatened to nationalize (in fact, confiscate their assets, in disregard of contracts). So far, Brasilia and Buenos Aires have either kept mum or, as President Lula of Brazil stated, saw a great thing in an Indian's being a Bolivian candidate. Peru, where a local clone of Morales, Ollanta Humala, is running on a similar platform of Indian racism and"socialism" and who has a similar history of violence against the democratic system, is currently second in polls leading up to next year's presidential elections. As to Chile, the mortal enemy of Morales and virtually all Bolivians, Morales is pushing an aggressively revisionist policy, with open encouragement from Hugo Chavez, seeking the"recovery" of sea access lost in 1885. A new military conflict with Chile, which Bolivia will no doubt lose, is therefore highly probable. And then there is Washington. Morales' destruction of democracy in Bolivia has been tolerated by the Bush administration for years. Hence the absence of any serious reaction when mobs led by Morales overthrew constitutional presidents Gonzales de Lozada and Carlos Meza, even though Morales' promised legalization of coca will made a joke of America's decades-old efforts to control and limit coca production in South America. Morales claims a historic right to cultivate coca because the Incas did it -- except that even the Incas controlled production. In Bolivia, it was never cultivated in the Chapare -- that was a 1980s development, far from"traditional," led by the likes of Morales and openly intended to make big money from cocaine, not from Indians chewing the leaves. Interestingly, when a military junta under Garcia Meza in 1980 got rich from drug trafficking, it was labeled"fascist," but now that Morales is openly proclaiming his intention to do basically the same thing, he calls it"progressive" and"traditional." Naturally enough, Morales claims - as does most of Latin America's Left -- that coca is a"traditional" Andean culture - hence a"right" of Indians to produce it. That is totally false -- the overwhelming majority of coca is now produced in areas (Chapare in Bolivia, Alto Huallaga in Peru) where it was never ever produced historically, and the only reason for that is the money from cocaine. Traditional coca cultivation is elsewhere and that, at any rate, is more than enough for local, traditional (and actually useful) use. What Evo Morales and his ilk claim is a right to cocaine trafficking under an"indigenous" mask. In dealing with Bolivia's dysfunctional political culture, Washington has long fallen behind, out of either discretion or a misguided reliance on Bolivia's neighbors to act in their own self-interest. It may not be too late, if the United States takes some very simple and clear decisions. To begin with, no more aid, in any form whatsoever, for an Evo Morales regime; second, insistence on La Paz's respecting international rules regarding property, on behalf of the threatened Brazilian, Argentine, and European companies; third, severe sanctions against Bolivia -- including withdrawal of diplomatic recognition, bans of travel by officials, even indictments in U.S. courts -- if coca growing is legalized; and fourth, diplomatic, economic, political or other support for any of Bolivia's neighbors who are threatened by a Morales regime. If this leads to the end of Bolivia as we know it, so be it. To hide behind respect for"democracy" when faced with the dubious election, under threat of civil war, of an openly anti- democratic individual is an insult to democracy. This piece appears courtesy of the Foreign Policy Research Institute. comments powered by Disqus More Comments: Arnold Shcherban - 12/23/2005 not US-driven, i.e. power of Latino-American oligarchs and brutal anti-populus regimes, Mr.Radu? Better dead (Americans, included) than red, that's the authors' real motto. Better free (from Yankees... of Mr. Radu's type) than dead, responds Latin America.
Extract DNA with stuff you have at home Using simple items you have in your bathroom and kitchen, you can extract DNA from fruits like bananas, kiwi or strawberries. What do I need to get started? • Fruit (banana, strawberry, kiwi, etc.) • Water • Rubbing alcohol (70% or higher) that is ice cold • Table salt • Plastic bag • Coffee filter • Chopstick, toothpick or paperclip • Clear glasses (or test tubes) How to do the extraction Before you begin, make sure you have chilled your alcohol in the freezer. This is a very important first step. Room temperature alcohol will not work nearly as well as cold alcohol. Pop the whole container in the freezer to chill it. The alcohol will not actually freeze! The first thing you will need is a sample. Since DNA is found in all living things I’d suggest an inexpensive fruit like strawberries, kiwi or a banana. You probably already have something like this in your kitchen. The cool thing is you don’t need much material which means you can eat the fruit you don’t use. The DNA is contained inside the nucleus of the cell. To release it, we need to break down the plant matter, then break open the cell and finally break in to the nucleus of the cell. Your first step is to break apart the plant matter. That means squish up the fruit. This can be done in a glass with a spoon, but I think it’s easier and cleaner to do in a zip-top plastic bag. Add about 1/3 cup of fruit to the bag, remove the air, seal and then start squishing it up. That’s about 1/3 a banana, or two big strawberries or one whole kiwi. Once it’s turned into a paste set the bag aside. Now we need something to break open the cell walls. It turns out that cell walls are make up of things called lipids, or fats. If you had greasy or fat coated dishes in the kitchen, you would use a detergent to clean it up. We are going to do the same thing to break open those cell and nuclei walls to release the DNA. Fill a clear glass with 1/2 cup of water. Slowly add in 2 teaspoons of dish soap and 1/2 teaspoon of table salt. Gently mix this solution without making bubbles until the salt dissolves. The salt will latter help the DNA stick together. Add this solution to your ziplock bag of squished up fruit. Don’t add to much liquid. Add enough so that you have a nice mixture that you cannot see through. That’s probably about 1/4 of a cup of soap solution. Flatten out your baggie to remove most of the air and then seal it up. Gently squish the liquid around. If you have the time, let this mixture sit for 10-20 minutes to give the detergent time to release a lot of DNA. Filtering out the plant matter is the next step. Place a coffee filter on top of a glass and carefully pour your fruit mixture into the filter. You can gently squeeze the filter to get more liquid out, just don’t break it! This is the solution that contains the DNA. Since the DNA is soluble in water we need something else to sort of pull it out of the solution. For this we will use rubbing alcohol (ethyl alcohol will work as well). You will want to use at least 70% alcohol for the extraction. The higher the concentration of alcohol the better it will work to make the DNA come out of the water solution. Very carefully pour the alcohol down the side of the glass. You are trying to create a layer of alcohol that floats on the top of the water solution. The DNA will come out of solution at the boundary layer between the water and alcohol. You should see some white string almost cotton like strands begin to appear in the glass. That is the DNA! Let the solution sit for a few minutes and you should see more DNA come out of the solution. You can collect the DNA using a toothpick, chopstick or paperclip. You have extracted DNA at home! If you want to save your DNA you can store it in a small container filled with the rubbing alcohol. About the author 49 Responses to “Extract DNA with stuff you have at home” 1. Chitrank says: What is the use of this DNA extracted from Banana..?? 2. Carl says: In this activity it’s more about process of extracting the DNA than actually “doing” something with the end product. It’s pretty amazing that you can do this with items you have in your home or classroom. 3. Pat says: What is it that we’re actually extracting? I thought all DNA strands are microscopic. 4. Carl says: You are correct, individual DNA strands are microscopic. In this activity you are collecting millions of those tiny strands in one place so then you can see it. Scientists have just recently been able to image individual DNA strands using an electron microscope! Check out this article. http://goo.gl/LQDvL 5. NOMAN says: I seen how to extract DNA from banana that is agood methold 6. Taylor says: why is it important for the alcohol to be ice cold? 7. vitally says: Strawberry cells each have 8 copies of their genome in every cell. Why do strawberries yield higher amounts of DNA than human cells? 8. Carl says: Using both ice-cold water and alcohol will increase the amount of DNA you will collect. Cold water protects the DNA by slowing down enzymes (present in the cytoplasm of the cell) that can break it apart. The cold alcohol helps the DNA precipitate (solidify and appear) more quickly. 9. Carl says: Hi Vitally, You are correct, strawberries have eight of each type of chromosome in each cell. Thus, strawberries are an ideal fruit to use in DNA extraction experiments because of the high yield of DNA. 10. Sara says: It didn’t work for me :( Is there any common mistakes I might have made? 11. lilly says: i did this experiment and found that you can extract more dna from banana than strawberry. WHY?!!!!! i thought strawberry has more chromosomes than banana. can you explain me why you can extract more dna fromm banana than strawberry? 12. Carl says: Hi Lilly, Hummm, good question. A couple things to consider, first, the number of chromosomes doesn’t necessarily correlate with number of nucleotides. I’m not sure if the chromosomes of bananas or strawberries are longer. That could affect the amount of DNA extracted. Second, the ripeness of your fruit could be a factor in the DNA yield. Keep in mind that the amount of extractable DNA in fruit cells decreases as those cells are destroyed in the ripening process. Finally, did you use the same mass of Banana and Strawberry material to start with? 13. فوزية says: What is the use of this DNA extracted from food , i mean ( is there benefits to human health) is there researches in DNA extracted from food and their benefits to human 14. Carl says: This experiment is just all about the process of extracting DNA in a simple way. 15. edi says: is it possible to complete this experiment without salt? 16. Carl says: Yes, you could do the DNA extraction without salt, but the yield of DNA may not be as high. The sodium ions from the salt mask the charge on the DNA which helps it to clump together. 17. May says: Hello. Thank you for this ‘How To’!!! This is wonderful, and great to get kids (as well as a few adults) interested in science!! :) One question for you, though. I have seen a few other DNA extraction how to’s elsewhere and sometimes, it calls for use of a blender, others such as this one do not… Any particular reason to use, or not use a blender, or is it just a matter of convenience? Thanks so much!! 18. Carl says: Hi, the use of a blender in this case just makes it easier to grind up the green peas. If you are using strawberries or bananas you probably don’t have to use a blender. 19. Sophie says: What is the function of water in extracting DNA? 20. Lheariel says: Hi, may I ask, what’s the use of mashing up the banana? thank you. :) 21. Tate says: Hi Carl, I had to investigate the effect different amounts of salt, detergent and methylated spirits would have on the yield of DNA extracted. But I found that when I added no salt and no detergent in one trial more DNA was extracted then when I did add then. Do you know what I did wrong, or what might cause this to happen? 22. asma says: What is the function of water bath in the experiment??? 23. liza says: how are enzymes present in this? 24. Carl says: The water/ice bath was just to keep the alcohol cool. You can just keep it in the freezer until you need it if doing this activity at home. 25. Carl says: Mashing up the banana helps expose more cell walls to the detergent so they can be broken apart. 26. Carl says: Hi Liza, There are enzymes inside your cells and are what make all the chemical reactions in the cell possible. They consist of chains of amino acids that come together in different shapes to do specific jobs, like breaking down sugar and fat molecules. Your cells need the enzymes to live, and each different enzyme has its own work to do. There are also enzymes that break apart DNA molecules, for instance, in the case a virus attempts to enter the cell. Normally the DNA in the cell is protected by the nuclear membrane. However, the detergent added here breaks open the membrane and exposes the DNA to the DNases (the DNA cutting enzyme). You can’t stop this process, but you can slow it down using ice-cold alcohol and ice-cold water. 27. Carl says: Hi Tate, There are a lot of variables to consider when doing this kind of experiment. How well did you control the amount of fruit used in each trial? The temperature of the water and alcohol? Keep in mind that the ripeness of your fruit can be a factor in the DNA yield. The amount of extractable DNA in fruit cells decreases as those cells are destroyed in the ripening process. How many total trials did you perform with each variable? If you saw “one” trial with unusual results, you might want to repeat that a few more times to rule out unknown changes in other variables. 28. Carl says: It provides a solution in which you can perform the experiment. 29. Angie says: Hi, I am doing a science fair project involving this and I was wondering, will this work for meat as well or do I have to go through a different process? Thank you for this by the way! 30. Andrea says: Why do you need to use liquid detergent rather than a powder detergent? 31. Carl says: Hi Andrea, You can use a powdered detergent. The liquid is just more convenient. 32. Andrea says: Is the DNA that we have extracted pure? 33. Carl says: Hi Andrea, Great question. It all depends on what you mean by “pure.” If you where successful in extracting DNA using this very crude process, then yes, what you got was pure DNA. It’s most likely not at the same purity level that say a forensics laboratory would generate. In a forensics laboratory there would be much more attention given to how your sample is prepared, handled as well as many more steps in the process to remove things that are not DNA from the final product. 34. Tshep says: I did a science project on how DNA precipitate the most in fruits. We Used dish detergent, uniodized salt and distilled Water for the DNA extraction solution. Our fruits were apple, Banana, Orange and Kiwi. here’s the results Bananas and Kiwi had the most and the Apple and the Orange had little or no DNA precipitate. Why? 35. rosie says: why was it necessary to mash up the fruit very well before starting the extraction process ? 36. Carl says: Mashing the food helps break open the cell walls to expose the nucleus of the cell where the DNA is present. 37. Womantis says: I would think that DNA and RNA would be extracted by this process. Also, plant cell walls need to be physically broken before the underlying cell membranes can be broken up by the detergent. Smashing or blending accomplishes this. It would not be necessary for extracting DNA from animal cells, although smashing the sample also increases the surface area of tissue available for the detergent and other chemicals to interact with. 38. Julie Jackson says: Roughly how long does the whole process take? I am planning to do this as part of our school forensic science day so timings would help me. 39. Carl says: Once you have all your materials in place, it takes about 4-5 minutes. Carl, Chief Scientist, Imagination Station 40. Olle says: Hey Carl, nice protocol! Certainly one of the simplest and cleanest home DNA extraction labs I’ve seen. :) One correction – what we’re breaking up with the detergent is the cell membranes, not the cell walls. You may already know this, but people confuse cell walls (made of cellulose) and cell membranes (made of lipids) a lot, so I thought I’d point it out. 41. MH White says: Great activity, but please be more careful of your use of the phrase “cell walls.” The cell walls of plants are made largely of cellulose, and that’s what you break open by mashing. The part of the cells you break apart with the detergent is actually membrane. The outer one of each cell is the plasma membrane, and the special double-layer membrane around the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope. Using the phrase “cell walls” instead of membrane will just cause confusion later when students learn the parts of the cells. 42. Carl says: Thanks for the correction! I got a little loose with my words during the segment. Chief Scientist, Imagination Station 43. Carl says: Hi MH White, Thank you for pointing that out, you are correct, I was a little loose with my phrasing during the segment! Carl, Chief Scientist, Imagination Station 44. Pingu says: Hi Carl, I recently did a similar experiment with lentils, do you know why we added both detergent and biological washing powder, as surely they do the same job, breaking the cell membrane? Excellent experiment though 45. Carl says: Hi Pingu, Not sure why both detergent and washing powder were added in your protocol. Check out what others are saying about this post... 1. […] My daughter’s favorite parts were getting her Meowsic Keyboard signed by the Doubleclicks and doing science. She drew with invisible ink, made a Möbius strip, and made a hover craft—but her favorite was extracting DNA from fruit. […] 2. […] can do this experiment too, easily with just items you have at home in your kitchen. This wonderful video not only shows you how to do the experiment, the host explains what is happening. Sooooo […] 3. […] a neat article I found in my Feedly posts today. Click “Imagination Station” for a simple explanation of the DNA extraction process. They’re using strawberries in […] Speak Your Mind
Restless Redoubt offers chance to engage children Science teachers take advantage of situation Posted: Friday, February 06, 2009 When news of the volcano's potential eruption reached the ears of Allan Miller, a seventh-grade science teacher at Kenai Middle School, it became a teachable moment. On Wednesday, Miller's two afternoon science classes spent the period going over the latest real time seismographs while reviewing some of what they'd learned about the volcano in the last week. "We're looking at trying to get students to understand the reality of the situation. They're living in a rumor mill like everyone else," Miller said. "We want them to see what the science behind it is." What the students learn in class is valuable on the home front as well. "We've showed them where they can go to get real information, what to do if we get ashfall, what the health concerns are and how they can prepare their homes and be a resource for their homes," Miller said. Miller's classes were originally focusing on biology, but have taken some time to study earth sciences now that they have a real-life example making the news in their backyard. He's not the only teacher to have shifted gear because of the volcano though. At Kaleidoscope School of Arts and Sciences in Kenai, Laurie Cowgill, the science collaborator, said science classes have changed tack because of the volcano. "We didn't have it built into the curriculum until sometime in the next few months, so now we've added it in until it erupts," she said. For teachers, situations like this can't be overlooked. "It's a teachable moment," she said. "It's why all your best laid plans have to be set aside." Students in Miller's classes have studied every aspect of the volcano, from watching 3D videos on how shifting continental plates influence the volcano's behavior, to why it's important not to inhale ash that may be spewed on the peninsula if the mountain erupts. Miller posted photos from the Alaska Volcano Observatory's Web site showing fumaroles issuing steam near the top of the mountain, volcanic mudflows at the mouth of the Drift River from the 1989-90 eruption and current ashfall trajectories created by the National Weather Service, asking students to come up and speak about what each meant. Students have also learned how they can monitor the volcano's behavior themselves by checking the latest status updates posted by AVO and even studying what's going on below the peak by looking at the earthquake activity put online in real time. Students said that upon first hearing of the possibility of an eruption they were a little nervous - though a few gleefully admitted they were excited about likely school cancellations. Having learned more about the volcano, many students said they're less concerned now, and some are even excited by the proposition. Anessia anne Habler, a seventh-grader at Kenai Middle School, said she first heard about Redoubt's activity while reading a copy of the newspaper after she went to pick it up at the end of her driveway. "I walked the dogs down there and I'm reading it on my way back and I'm like, GASP! Oh no, there's a volcano," she said. She told her parents immediately. "We came back to the house, and I'm like, 'Mom, dad look at this,'" she said. Habler said her family began putting together an emergency kit. "We decided to start preparing by getting water and food together. Also, we started learning about it because we wanted to know so we were prepared," she said. Habler said they also picked up particle masks and plastic sheeting to protect themselves and their electronics from ashfall. Kyle Olson, also a seventh-grader at Kenai Middle School, said he didn't believe the reports of a possible eruption at first. "I thought it was some person being crazy," he said. Reading and watching the news however, he saw that the reports were in fact true, something that made him a bit concerned. "I've never been next to a volcano before so I didn't really know what to do if it explodes," he said. Having spent some time learning more about Redoubt both in class and elsewhere, he's not as frightened by it. "I've found out a lot in science class, in the news and radio," he said. Habler said she was in a similar boat. "My dad said it happened when he was in college, and he said it wasn't that bad, you just have to stay indoors," she said. That won't be a problem for Habler. "I know some kids are freaking out because they won't have their TV, but I'm not that kid, I'm more of a reader," she said. Trending this week:
How The Sandy Hook Gun Vote Became A Turning Point....For The Press Blog ››› ››› ERIC BOEHLERT On April 17, families of Sandy Hook Elementary School victims watched from the Senate gallery as Republicans led a successful effort to filibuster a series of bills designed to address and curb gun violence. Following a months-long intensive lobbying campaign by President Obama, Vice President Biden and First Lady Michelle Obama, all of the initiatives, even the scaled-back effort to expand background checks to all guns sales including those at gun shows, were stymied and failed to clear the 60-vote filibuster hurdle. Now, one year after the shooting rampage which unfolded December 14, the press still points to the failed vote as evidence of President Obama's "rough year"; of his inability to get widely supported legislation passed into law. Often excluded in that narrative is the larger context surrounding the gun bill's provisions. According to polls, more than 90 percent of Americans supported mandatory background checks for all gun buyers. And now, twelve months after Sandy Hook, a recent poll revealed the political downside to the legislation would still be practically nonexistent: "Just 14 percent of all Americans and just 19 percent of Republicans said they would be "very disappointed" if such a law was enacted." More Context? In 1999, 31 Senate Republicans voted in favor of mandating background checks at gun shows. And in 1994, 42 House Republicans voted for President Bill Clinton's crime bill, which went even further and included a ban on assault weapons. But those days of Republican cooperation, especially on guns, represent a distant, faded memory. The gun bill's failure in April didn't spark much anger or indignation in the press. It didn't unleash a wave of commentary taking Republicans to task for their refusal to participate in governance and problem solving. What it did produce was endless commentary about how the gun vote was nearly entirely Obama's fault; how Democrats got "cocky" and tried to do too much, and instead missed "their window" of opportunity and were left "grasping at straws." (How the vote was now "shadowing the president.") The press pushed its preferred storyline that the gun loss confirmed Obama doesn't know how to use the levers of power inside Washington and remains hopelessly incapable of working across the isle with honest brokers in the GOP. In the end, the background check failure was portrayed as a process story, and a process story that featured Obama as the big loser. In other words, nine out of ten Republican senators refused to support a scaled-down gun bill that nine out of ten Americans supported, but it was Obama who got targeted with the failure. And that's why the gun vote became something of a turning point for the news media this year. Because if the press could look at the GOP's obstruction of the gun bill and its refusal to let a working majority in both chambers pass common sense legislation in the wake of a national tragedy, a gun bill that enjoyed overwhelming support among Republicans and gun owners, if media elites could witness that kind of intransigence and come away blaming Obama and giving the GOP a pass, than there was no type of radical Republican behavior the press wouldn't excuse or water down. And in 2013, there wasn't. From the sequestration, to the gun vote, to the government shutdown, to Congress' historically unproductive year, it was Obama who time and time again became a key target. In a unique and illogical premise, the press often graded the Democratic president based on the obstinate actions of the Republican Party. The more radical the Republican behavior became, the lower Obama's grade sank in the media. And guess what? That led to even more obstructionist behavior, most of which the press has gone to great lengths to ignore and downplay. And a lot of that goes back to the bills inspired by Sandy Hook. This week, National Journal's Alex Seitz-Wald argued it was the Sandy Hook massacres, and Obama's legislative response to it, that knocked the president's agenda "off the rails" in 2013. Zeroing on the issue of immigration reform, National Journal claimed that if Obama hadn't spent last winter trying to win support for a background check bill, immigration reform could have been passed; that following Obama's re-election there was a reservoir of "goodwill" and a "willingness to compromise by Republicans." (The GOP's extraordinary attempt in February to block one of Obama's cabinet picks suggested otherwise.) But instead, by "engaging in such an emotional, polarizing issue so early" in his second term, Obama antagonized conservatives and made it impossible for immigration reform to pass into law, according to Seitz-Wald. Why? Because Obama had "fatally, and irrevocably, antagonized the populist libertarian Right." That, plus the fact that "new revelations about Benghazi" emerged this year, meant it was impossible for Obama to effectively court cooperation. Bottom line: Obama missed the window where Republicans were ready to compromise. That argument though, ignores key context, the most obvious being that on the immigration issue Obama and Democrats successfully steered reform through the U.S. Senate where the bill passed with broad bipartisan support by a vote of 68-32, and that there's currently enough Democratic and Republican votes in the House to pass the bill into law. It's just that Speaker of the House John Boehner won't allow the vote of passage to take place. Meaning, counter to the National Journal claim, even after Obama took on the "emotional" issue of gun violence, he was still able to win over Republican support for immigration reform; enough support to break any filibuster attempt in the Senate and to win passage in the House. As for the final, no-vote blockade that Republicans have erected in the House, and the blockade completely ignored by National Journal, does anyone really think that if Obama had ignored the issue of gun violence following the Sandy Hook mass murder, Boehner and Republican leaders today would have already allowed the immigration reform bill to be voted on in the House and then signed into law by Obama? Of course not. Recall what Sen. Pat Toomey (R-PA) said after he briefly defied his party and tried to help get a bipartisan background gun check bill through Congress. He explained the filibuster defeat [emphasis added]: By the way, there's a real irony in National Journal second-guessing Obama's decision to lead the fight for new gun laws. Throughout his presidency, and especially this year, National Journal's Ron Fournier has led the media "leadership" crusade/charade, in which pundits decry Obama's failure to "lead." (And by lead, they mean Obama's failure to convince Republicans to stop acting crazy, like shutting down the government.) But now the claim is that Obama erred politically by trying to lead too forcefully on the deadly issue of gun violence? It's almost like Obama can't win with the press. Posted In We've changed our commenting system to Disqus. Updated rules for commenting are here.
Bird-Friendly Design: Spanking New Guidelines Building a new home? Retrofitting an office? Unless you're inspired by caves, the place has got windows. And though they're a coveted commodity, windows can be devastating to birds: around one billion die annually from colliding with glass. "The amount of glass in a building is the strongest predictor of how dangerous it is to birds," according to the American Bird Conservancy (ABC). The ABC can help you learn to curb the carnage. It just released its "Bird-Friendly Building Design" (available as a pdf here) guidelines, an updated version of recommendations published several years ago by York City Audubon. The document provides a comprehensive set of design remedies, accompanied with clear explanations as to why some work better than others. (Overhangs, for example, have been said to help reduce collisions, but they don't eliminate reflections, and only block glass from eyesight by birds flying above them). The tips don't just apply to new buildings, either. "New construction can incorporate bird-friendly design strategies from the beginning," states the document, but "there are many ways to reduce mortality from existing buildings, with more solutions being developed all the time." In other words, do what can be done now and update later. Surely, birds will be happy with anything they can get.
From Conservapedia Jump to: navigation, search Captain is a rank in branches of the military. The rank varies in importance amongst different branches of service.[1] In the Navy, it de facto implies the right to command a ship, especially in popular culture, as well as implying an elevated grade of other responsibility. However, often lieutenant commanders enjoy the right of command. In general, the rank comes after a lieutenant post, and before a major post. In the British Royal Navy, the rank of "Captain" was a formalistic term, which meant only the honorific of command. An officer may be a "Captain" while still a lieutenant, but was not a formal rank. "Post-Captain" was the actual rank carrying the term. This distinction is obsolete.[2] 2. For artistic illustration, see Patrick O'Brian's novel Post Captain.
In "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," what might the headless horseman symbolize? 1 Answer \| Add Yours pmiranda2857's profile pic Posted on One of the themes of American Literature and American folklore is the differences and comparisons of city people and country people. Ichabod Crane is a city man, educated , intelligent, gentile, but not the outdoor type. Once he falls in love with Katrina Van Tassel, he is in direct competition for her affection with Brom Bones who is a country man, a strong, skilled horseman, with a sense of humor. When the headless horseman is seen by Ichabod Crane, it is done to prove to him that he does not belong in the country. He is weak, frightened and gullible. The story behind the headless horseman about a Hessian soldier who lost his head during the Revolutionary War, and every night he rides his horse looking for his head, has made a distinct impression on Crane, who is interested in spirits and magic. Brom Bones shows Crane that he is less of a man than he is, because he falls for the tale of the headless horseman and is scared out of his mind. He does not have what it takes to live in the country. "Suddenly, he sees a large shadowy figure on the road ahead. It appears to be a headless man riding a horse, and Crane can just make out the shape of a head resting on the pommel of the saddle. Terrified, he races away, chased by the headless horseman. He is unable to escape. The last thing he remembers is the sight of the rider about to throw the head at him; struck by the flying object, he is knocked unconscious to the ground." We’ve answered 324,450 questions. We can answer yours, too. Ask a question
Loading the player... What is a 'Sector' A sector is an area of the economy in which businesses share the same or a related product or service. Economies are comprised of four sectors. The primary sector involves the extraction and harvesting of natural products from the earth (e.g., agriculture, mining and forestry). The secondary sector consists of processing, manufacturing and construction. The tertiary sector provides services, such as retail sales, entertainment and financial services. The quaternary sector is made up of intellectual pursuits, like education. 2. It is common for analysts to specialize in certain sectors. For example, at a large research firm, an analyst may cover only pharmaceutical companies. Investment funds often specialize in a particular economic sector, a practice known as sector investing. 1. Sector Rotation 2. Sector Analysis A review and assessment of the current condition and future prospects ... 3. Sector Breakdown 4. Private Sector The part of the economy that is not state controlled, and is ... 5. Sector ETF 6. Financial Sector A category of stocks containing firms that provide financial ... Related Articles 1. Term What's a Sector? The term sector has several applications in economics and finance. 2. Investing Basics How to Choose the Right Sector Funds 3. Mutual Funds & ETFs An Introduction To Sector Mutual Funds 4. Investing Basics Understanding the Financial Sector 5. Stock Analysis Tech Stocks Vs. Financial Stocks in 2016 6. Mutual Funds & ETFs Financial Funds Provide Diversity ... And Risk 7. Mutual Funds & ETFs ETFs For Sector Rotation Strategies 8. Mutual Funds & ETFs Top-Down Analysis: Finding The Right Stocks And Sectors 9. Stock Analysis 10. Fundamental Analysis Emerging Markets: Analyzing Brazil's GDP 2. How attractive is the internet sector for a growth investor? Learn why the Internet sector is an attractive option for growth investors, as well as what many of them do to reduce the ... Read Answer >> Discover how the risk of investing in the industrial sector compares to the broader market. The industrial sector is highly ... Read Answer >> 5. Why should an investor consider the financial services sector? Learn why every investor should consider putting money into the financial services sector despite a tumultuous history and ... Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Demand Curve 2. Goldilocks Economy 3. White Squire 4. MACD Technical Indicator 5. Over-The-Counter - OTC 6. Quarter - Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 Trading Center
'Girl Groups' in Rock Music Welcome to THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English. I’m Phoebe Zimmermann. In the later years of the twentieth century, female musicians helped define new sounds in popular music. These bands are often called "girl groups." This week, learn about three of the most influential. During the nineteen-seventies, guitar bands filled popular radio. One of the first all-female guitar bands on the radio was the Runaways. They appeared with their first album in nineteen-seventy-six. The music of the Runaways had the sounds of all-male heavy metal bands like Kiss and Aerosmith. But listeners could also hear the influence of punk music. Groups like the Sex Pistols and the Ramones made this kind of music popular. Here, from that first album by the Runaways, is a song called "Cherry Bomb." Like other rock and roll groups, the Runaways sang about teen-age rebellion. But here the girls in the songs did everything that boys did. One song was about breaking out of a jail for teen-age girls. The song is called “Dead End Justice.” Three of the Runaways -- Lita Ford, Cherie [sheh-REE] Currie and Joan Jett -- went on to separate lives as performers. But before the group broke up, they made two more recordings together. Here is the title song from their album "Queens of Noise." In the nineteen-sixties, the Beach Boys defined the California sound ... ... but in the nineteen-eighties, it was the Go-Go's. Like the Runaways, the Go-Go's were influenced by the punk movement. But their music was more fun. In fact, their carefree sound influenced a lot of the "new wave" music of the nineteen-eighties. The Go-Go's had one of their first hits with this song from nineteen-eighty-one, "We Got the Beat”: Most of the songs by the Go-Go's were written or co-written by guitarist Charlotte Caffey. A strong guitar and drums drove the sound, carried along by electronic pianos and led by the strong voice of Belinda Carlisle. This song, “Vacation,” is still played in American dance places. The Go-Go's broke up in nineteen-eighty-five. During the nineteen-nineties, they worked together from time to time. And they released a few collections of older material. Then, in two-thousand-one, the five members reunited and produced the album "God Bless the Go-Go's." The band continues to perform together. “God Bless the Go-Go's” kept with the sound that made them famous. The album includes this love song called “Stuck in My Car.” In the early nineteen-nineties, music produced independently of large record companies became more and more popular. The city of Seattle, in the Pacific Northwest, became known for what people called grunge music. All-male bands like Nirvana and Pearl Jam became famous. In nineteen-ninety-four, two young women, Corin Tucker and Carrie Brownstein, formed a group. They called it Sleater-Kinney. They named it after a road near the city where they met in college: Olympia, Washington, south of Seattle. Their first album was released by an independent record company, Chainsaw Records of Olympia. Here is “Slow Song” from that album. Sleater-Kinney was part of a movement in punk music from the early nineteen-nineties known as "riot grrl" [girl] ... G-R-R-L. This movement was an answer to the mostly male culture of punk music. It started with all-female groups like Bikini Kill and Bratmobile. Sleater-Kinney is not as widely known as other bands in the country. Yet in two-thousand-one, Time magazine declared this three-member group "America's Best Rock Band." The words to their songs are both personal and political. Many of the songs have to do with women’s rights. This one speaks out against sexual violence. The song is called “#1 [number one] Must Have.” Sleater-Kinney has recorded six albums so far. For their third album, “Dig Me Out,” they left Chainsaw Records. Since then, the band has been with another independent record company, called Kill Rock Stars. They recorded their most recent album, “One Beat,” in two-thousand-two. It has been the biggest success to date for Sleater-Kinney. It includes this song, called “Oh.” Many music critics say the Runaways, the Go-Go's, and Sleater-Kinney have had a big effect on an industry where males hold most of the power. In fact, some consider them among the most influential groups ever to record music in America. Our program was written by Robert Brumfield and produced by Caty Weaver. I'm Phoebe Zimmermann. Join us again next week for the VOA Special English program, THIS IS AMERICA. We leave you with a Sleater-Kinney song. It's called “You’re No Rock ‘n Roll Fun.”
How does low-dose aspirin prevent a heart attack or stroke? A Answers (3) • A , Pharmacy, answered Dr. Oz 28-Day Heart Disease Prevention Plan Low-dose aspirin works to prevent heart attack and stroke by acting as a blood thinner, reducing the clumping of platelets in the blood and slowing the blood's ability to clot. By lowering the risk of blood clot formation, low-dose aspirin reduces the risk of heart attack and stroke, as these occur when a blood clot blocks a narrowed artery and cuts off flow of oxygenated blood to the heart or brain. Dr. Oz and Walgreens pharmacist Stacia Woodcock share solutions for keeping your heart healthy. 1 person found this helpful. • A , Cardiology (Cardiovascular Disease), answered Dr. Holly Andersen - How does low-dose aspirin prevent a heart attack or stroke? Low-dose aspirin has been shown to prevent heart attack and stroke because it interferes with blood clotting. In this video, cardiologist Holly Andersen, MD, explains how aspirin inhibits platelet function, which can avert a heart attack or stroke. • Aspirin prevents platelets in your blood from being bound together into a patch that the body uses to form clots. This is the beginning of the process to stop bleeding -- for example, when you cut your skin. However, clots can form in the bloodstream, too, in which case, they are at risk of getting stuck in a blood vessel, including in the heart or brain. Clots there could cause a heart attack or stroke, respectively. However, because of this same effect, taking aspirin daily, even low doses, can increase the risk of bleeding events, especially along the digestive tract. Therefore, the recommendation is that adult men ages 45 to 79 years at increased risk of heart attack, or adult women ages 55 to 79 years at increased risk of stroke, should take a daily aspirin in the absence of other reasons against doing so. You should talk to your doctor about whether he or she thinks this is appropriate for you. Did You See? Close What is aspirin low-dose?
First of all, if you actually were to embed your password in a script somewhere, it would be visible to the entire world (or at least, anyone who can read files on your system). This would defeat the entire purpose of having a password on your remote account. If all you want is for the user to be prompted for a password by ssh, simply make sure your script is executed in a terminal and that your ssh command is executed in the foreground ("normally"). Either ssh or the program specified in the SSH_ASKPASS environment variable will prompt the user for a password if the remote server requires one for authentication. If you want to bypass the password authentication entirely, then you should use public key authentication instead. Read and understand the man page for ssh-keygen(1), or see SshKeys for a brief overview. This will tell you how to generate a public/private key pair (in either RSA or DSA format), and how to use these keys to authenticate to the remote system without sending a password at all. Here is a brief summary of the procedure: test -f ~/.ssh/id_rsa \|\| ssh-keygen -t rsa ssh-copy-id me@remote ssh me@remote hostname # should not prompt for a passWORD, # but your key may have a passPHRASE If your key has a passphrase on it, and you want to avoid typing it every time, look into ssh-agent(1). It's beyond the scope of this document, though. If your script has to run unattended, then you may need to remove the passphrase from the key. This reduces your security, because then anyone who grabs the key can log in to the remote server as you (it's equivalent to putting a password in a file). However, sometimes this is deemed an acceptable risk. If you're being prompted for a password even with the public key inserted into the remote authorized_keys file, chances are you have a permissions problem on the remote system. See SshKeys for a discussion of such problems. If that's not it, then make sure you didn't spell it authorised_keys. SSH uses the US spelling, authorized_keys. If you really want to store a password in a variable and then pass it to a program, instead of using public keys, first have your head examined. Then, if you still want to use a password, use expect(1) (or the less classic but maybe more bash friendly empty(1)). But don't ask us for help with it. expect also applies to the telnet or FTP variations of this question. However, anyone who's still running telnetd without a damned good reason needs to be fired and replaced. Limit access to procfs It is a slight security improvement to restrict access to files such as /proc/*/cmdline to limit exposure of the worst type of scripts that accept passwords through argv. This can be done under Linux by mounting procfs with hidepid=1 or 2 as an option. See this commit message for details. BashFAQ/069 (last edited 2016-02-11 12:13:56 by ormaaj)
Adhere to First Amendment For all those who say the Ten Commandment monument at Valley High School impinges on their First Amendment rights and want to remove it, let's give you an American political history lesson. The First Amendment is actually Article 1 of the Bill Of Rights. It is written, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.” Looking at this carefully, the first part tells us that the government cannot establish a single religion for the people to follow and abide by that religion. The second part shows us that the government cannot stop the people from exercising their beliefs in the religion they choose. The government is not allowed to interfere with a person's practice of religion. Hence: separation of church and state. If anyone disagrees with the school district's display and wishes to have a change, Article 1 of the Bill Of Rights allows us to “petition” to make that change. Nowhere in Article 1 does it say to contact an attorney to sue to remove said offensive material. If the petition fails, then you are permitted to put it on a ballot for vote, and then majority rules on whether the monument stays or goes. I, and probably quite a few others, would vote to keep the monument right where it has been for the past 50 years. Charles Stonage Lower Burrell Subscribe today! Click here for our subscription offers. Show commenting policy
Ways & How how to make orchid potting mix how to make orchid potting mix Some orchids are home grown, particularly the ones that exist in tropical climates. ItÂs not the temperature that orchids are sensitive to but the potting mix. Their roots need air and moisture, and soil mixes cannot give sufficient amounts of these components Â thatÂs why they normally grow in a good mixture of organic and inorganic materials, preferably in a hanging set-up. HereÂs how to make orchid potting mix: 1. Choose a pot that has a lot of room to hold not just the components of the potting mix but also the selected orchid itself. Remember that orchids have air roots and they will not survive in a too dense potting mix. 2. Load a mixture of one part of fir bark and another equal part of coconut husks. This should fill up to two-third of the pot. When more moisture is needed, finer barks are used Â they hold more moisture than the courser ones. There are also medium grades to be in between the fine and the coarse types. There are orchid varieties that naturally grow on barks, like the Epiphytes. nut husks retain more water, but the breaking down is much slower. 3. Add the mixture of one part vermiculite and three parts charcoal to the remaining space in the pot. Perlite, tree fern, rock wool and wine corks are also used to substitute the major orchid potting mix components. Wine corks are commonly used to drain water faster. Know the characteristics of these materials and find alternatives supplied in your area. Its not practical using imported components. They will cost money and may not be the best choice for your orchid potting mix. 4. Get the right materials for the mixture needed by certain orchid varieties. Terrestrial orchids, like Phalaenopsis and Phragmipedium, will need continuous moisture, so their potting mix must contain materials like the New Zealand Sphagnum Moss, which is noted for its water retention ability. Epiphytes are normally found in mossy rocks, so lithophytes and mossy limbs are good components for their potting mix. 5. Take note of the progress of your orchid plantation and note the potting mix components that work best. Make adjustments by doing research to find out the best potting mix combination for your kind of orchids. Most orchid growers have developed their own recipes that work best for their orchids. You may have to do some trial and error, but its basically part of the process. 6. Do some experimenting in your watering system. Note how often you need to water your orchids for a particular potting mixture. Keeping records for the details of your experiment can help you repeat successful potting set-ups over and over again. There is no short-cut for this, so take time to learn more about your project in actuality. How to make orchid potting mix is not just about following basic instructions. The actual procedure must be observed carefully. Not all orchids have the same needs. They naturally have airy roots, but note that terrestrial orchids need denser potting mix wherein sand and peat moss must also be added. It is much safer to stick with the ones fully grown in your area, especially when you are just starting up. Other environmental factors can also affect the orchids the same as the climate. Follow us tweets whats new Contact Us
Navigation Links Comparing heart disease treatments Researchers in their recent study compare between bypass surgery and stenting for treatment of heart disease. There are two treatment options for blocked coronary arteries. //Bypass surgery involves grafting a new vessel in place of the blocked section. Stenting involves introducing a metal device into the artery to keep it opened up. Researchers in Germany assigned a group of 200 patients to either minimally-invasive bypass surgery or to stenting and compared the outcomes. They found that 30 per cent of the stenting group experienced a major cardiac event - that is, death, heart attack or need for repeat stenting. Only 12 per cent in the bypass group experienced a major cardiac event. The difference was mainly due to the artery being re-blocked more often after stenting. The death and heart attack rates were similar in both groups. Bypass surgery was more likely to achieve freedom from angina than stenting, but adverse events occurred more often in the bypass surgery group. The researchers conclude that both procedures are effective and worthwhile but maybe bypass is more successful in the long-term, as stenting is more likely to need repeating. Page: 1 Related medicine news : 1. Comparing Breast surgery techniques 2. Comparing Psoriasis Treatments 4. Individuals with sleep related breathing disorders more prone to heart disease 7. Award for TTK Chitra heart valve prosthesis 8. Eat greens to have a ever green heart 9. Asthma! A new warning for heart disease 10. Protein in urine foresees heart disease 11. One...just one cigarette can spoil the heart function. Post Your Comments: Breaking Medicine News(10 mins): Breaking Medicine Technology:
Potable Water CSI manufactures Flowtite® fiberglass tanks according to NSF 61 and AWWA standards for potable water storage. Because of their lightweight design, Flowtite tanks are easy to transport and easy to install making them popular in remote areas where a dependable, drinkable water source is critical. Fiberglass tanks can be manufactured to store potable water directly without liners or bladders common in both steel and concrete tanks. According to the World Health Organization, less than 1% of the water on Earth is readily available for human use and consumption. With this finite supply of resource it is clear why conserving potable water is a key focus of green building projects. Share this:
Why is the name of the hero in "Holes" a palindrome? 2 Answers \| Add Yours linda-allen's profile pic Posted on A palindrome is a word or phrase that means the same thing written either right to left or left to right. For instance, the word "racecar" is a palindrome. If you spell it bacwards, it's still "racecar." Three famous palindrome phrases are "Madam I'm Adam," "Able was I ere I saw Elba," and "Name no one man." The hero, or main character, of the book Holes is named Stanley Yelnats. Look closely at his last name: Yelnats is Stanley spelled backwards. Visit the sites in the Sources section for more information. yamaguchit's profile pic Posted on To answer this question, it'll help if you first understand the meaning of a palindrome. Essentially, what a palindrome is a word that has the exact same meaning if it is read left to right, and from right to left. The above answer provides an example with "racecar" as a palindrome. That is a great answer because if you read it either right to left (as normally you would read), or left to right, both ways will read the same way with the exact same meaning. Another good example would be "radar," for either way you read it, it has the same spelling and the exact same meaning. It's just word play! Holes took advantage of palindromes, and thus made the main character, the protagonist, named Stanley Yelnats. Although the meaning in the names are probably different, Yelnats is simply Stanley spelled backwards. It's very clever wordplay by the author Louis Sachar. She even mentions in the book how Stanley's last name is his name spelled backwards. It's really quite interesting and innovative the wat Sachar includes this Palindrome into the book Holes. For more information on this and other various Holes stuff, check the link below. Should give you what you need if you ever need assistance! We’ve answered 324,480 questions. We can answer yours, too. Ask a question
Tune Around! CQ-Calling All Hams! About Hamuniverse Antenna Design Antenna Safety! Ask Elmer About Batteries Code Practice Computer Help FCC Information Ham Hints Ham Radio News! Post Reviews Product Reviews Ham Radio Videos! HF & Shortwave License Study Midi Music Reading Room Repeater Basics Repeater Builders RFI Tips and Tricks Ham Satellites Shortwave Listening Support The Site Vhf and Up Site Map Privacy Policy Legal Stuff Advertising Info Presented by Bill, WJ5O, VE These tips, tricks, hints and techniques for learning and receiving Morse code will get you off to a better CW learning session and help you when copying code on the Ham bands. They are shared here by Bill, WJ5O of Corpus Christi, Tx. Bill's tips are worth their weight in gold. Follow his instructions below and be certain that you will get better results when using Morse code on the air! I followed similar tips and techniques years ago to pass my CW exam when Morse code was a requirement....THEY WORK!!!.......N4UJW Get the code "under Your belt". Learn it just for the fun of it! A little background! It is a relative simple matter for anyone to broadcast a message using voice and the English language. The only requirement is that the individual sending the message should speak into a microphone connected to a transmitter. At the receiving end, the procedure is just as simple, the individual desiring to understand the transmitted message needs only to tune a receiver to the broadcasting station and listen to the spoken words as they are reproduced by the receiver. The transmission of messages by code however, requires a special skill on the part of both the sender and the receiver. 1. Radio communication by code requires less elaborate, less costly and less bulky equipment than does voice radio communication. 2. Code transmission will penetrate radio and atmospheric interference more readily than will phone transmission. Code transmission will usually be intelligently received under conditions that render voice transmission and reception impossible. The spoken word with it's inflections, intonation and a tremendous variety of sounds is infinitely more complex than is the single piercing note of a radio telegraph signal. 3. The radio telegraph code constitutes an invaluable method of sending "secret" messages or security information with a greater amount of safety. 4. A transmitted code signal requires much less frequency space than does a radio telephone signal. Approximately 6 KHZ for an AM signal and 15 KHZ for the wideband FM signal. The typical CW signal is 1.5 KHZ. 5. Amateur radio operators use "Q" signals which have common meaning in languages other than English. This permits the exchange of basic information in CW between operators regardless of their English speaking ability. (Editor note: These five reasons above can be credited to the ARRL from many years ago and passed down over time. I am certain that others can find more reasons to use code.) The Morse code is made up of letters as is most spoken languages. The code letters consist of sounds of short and long duration which are called DOTS & DASHES, (sounded like DITS & DAHS). These sounds are usually high pitched tones of about 500 to 800 Hertz or approximately the sound of a high C on a piano. The long sound (DAH) is three times as long in duration as the short sound (DIT). Each letter of the alphabet, each number and each punctuation mark is composed of a different combination of these long and short sounds. Since Morse code consists of sound combinations it is very similar to music. A person listening to the National Anthem hears only the melody and not the individual notes of the music. Morse code is quickly mastered by listening for the "melody" of the letter sound rather than counting the individual dits and dahs. (Editors note....learn code by sound, do not count the dits and dahs.....sound = character!) REPEAT....LEARN EACH CHARACTER BY SOUND! Editor's Note: The following tips, tricks and information below was originally designed to aid you in preparing for the previous Morse code exam but still remain as extremly valuable methods of learning Morse code! They are based on preparing for the exam as was required by the FCC. These methods can be readily applied to actual on the air conversations between Amateur radio stations using Morse code and will be very valuable to you when using Morse code on the air. NUMBER NUMBERS NUMBERS ... KNOW THE NUMBERS It's difficult to have ten questions about a five minute QSO without four or five of them requiring numbers. (Call Signs, RST, Antenna Height, number of tubes, power, age, years a ham....etc) FCC exams are required to have all 26 letters, zero thru 9 numbers, at least 4 punctuation marks including the slant bar & procedural SK. Learn the common configurations for CALLSIGNS like 1x2, 1x3, 2x1, 2x2 & 2x3 ... That way there will be no surprises if something like WN7OPQ/6 is heard. The exam was a typical QSO that would last for a little over five minutes. Before the exam there would be a one minute warm-up to insure that everyone can hear the message. You would be given a paper to copy both the practice warm-up minute and the QSO . The QSO would start with a series of six "V"s and end with the procedural sign SK. A passing score was achieved by answering 7 out of the ten questions correctly or 25 characters in a row. (Not counting the V's or Warm up)... Numbers and punctuation marks counted 2 and letters counted 1. Typical questions: What is the Call of the receiving station? What is the location of the receiving station? What is the Call of the Transmitting station? What is the location of the transmitting operator? What was the name of the receiving operator? What was the RST report given by the transmitting operator? What was the radio being used by the transmitting operator? What did the transmitting operator say His power output was? What type of antenna did the transmitting operator utilize? What was the height of the antenna? What was the weather described as? How long had the transmitting operator been a Ham? What was the reason given for ending the contact? ADDITIONAL HELP: Learn the names of as many type of radios as possible...especially the more common ones like KENWOOD, ICOM, YAESU, TEN-TEC, SWAN, NATIONAL, HALLICRAFTERS, SBE & HEATHKIT. then the Call of the TRANSMITTING operator. .... Expect short names like JOE, JIM, JACK, BILL rarely a SAMANTHA or CLEMENTINE but often a MARY, JILL, BETH numbers coming next. Most likely the first will be a 5 and the last a 9 can be filled in later.... see below. QTH - look for City & State. Sometimes just the CITY or the STATE is sent. Sometimes followed by "TEMPERATURE IS _ _DEGREES" & HEATHKIT). ... be familiar with names of Rig types. Antenna used. Know the names of several configurations. DIPOLE, DELTA LOOP, WINDOM, ZEP, BAZOOKA, YAGI, BEAM, INVERTED VEE, LONGWIRE & RHOMBIC. Listen for why ?? QRT........ "I MUST QRT FOR WORK".... "QRT FOR BED" Listen closely for Callsigns. They can be confusing at times. Scan your copy - fill in the" holes" of the letters missed. (GROC_R) most likely GROCER (EN_INEER) likely ENGINEER .... GET THE IDEA?.... This filling in of the "holes" helps in getting better copy. A copy of CHICA-O and later adding the G, tells you the station is in Chicago. See if QTH corresponds to the callsigns (KL7XXX should be Alaska--WH6XXX in Hawaii & etc).... KNOW the Call sign area Look at the "doubtful" ones. Are any a "toss-up" between 2 responses? Like is it a four or a six? If it's in a Callsign ..... see if you got Florida for a location ... Florida is in 4 land. match to what you have knowledge of , MARK IT. (DI_O__ is likely DIPOLE.... even if the copy is just D_____ and it's about an antenna it's probably DIPOLE if the copy is just _a___ and it's about a radio it's probably YAESU. Count the numbers You have copied.... says STUDENT don't expect a number over 20 for age. As a last resort----- EDUCATED GUESS......you can always have the station re-send that part you did not understand. All of this is NO substitute for CW skill and lots of practice however, but it's a sure thing to help overcome the on the air apprehension when you are learning and to secure better communication using CW. Good luck! YOU CAN DO IT! I would like to know if this information helped You......... Send Me a message......... wj5o@amsat.org "I believe one of the most rewarding facets of Ham Radio is being able to help others...... and the more widespread the continued use of CW, ... the more Hams can benefit See Bill's 10 Meter Beacon Information page.......loaded! On 19 July 2005 the FCC released Notice of Proposed Rule Making and Order (NPRM), .... It was acted upon February 23, 2007 eliminating the Morse code requirement. The Morse requirement WILL BE NO LONGER REQUIRED IN THE U.S EFFECTIVE February 23, 2007 for any Amateur Radio License! Even with the requirement eliminated by the FCC..... Morse code will NEVER be outdated. It will always be a very reliable method of getting a message delivered when all else fails! It has been around for about 100 years and can be used very effectively...... Hamuniverse.com uses Green Geeks Web Hosting!
Did you know? scrape - definition and synonyms What are red words? Thesaurus diagram verb scrape pronunciation in American English Word Forms present tense present participlescraping past tensescraped past participlescraped • Facebook • Twitter 1. 1 [transitive] to rub a sharp edge or tool against a surface You’ll have to scrape the walls before you paint them. Synonyms and related words 1. a. to remove something by pulling a hard tool across the surface it is on scrape something off/into/onto/out of etc. (something): Scrape the mud off your boots before you come inside. I scraped the bits of meat into the dog’s bowl. The bottle’s label had been scraped away. Synonyms and related words 2. 2 [transitive] to injure a part of your body or damage something by rubbing it against a rough surface I scraped my elbow when I fell. He scraped his van while he was parking it. 3. 3 [intransitive]Sound effect to make a rough unpleasant noise by rubbing against a hard surface Simon’s chair scraped as he pushed it back. 1. a. [transitive] to move something, causing it to make a rough unpleasant noise 4. 4 [intransitive/transitive] if a sharp edge or point scrapes a surface, or if you scrape it across the surface, it moves across the surface scrape against/across/along etc. something: He felt the knife blade scrape against the back of his neck. scrape something against/across/along etc. something: She scraped her nails along the blackboard. 5. 5 [transitive] computing to use a computer program to copy data from a website scrape something from something: We have sophisticated tools that enable you to scrape data from the most complex websites. Open Dictionary a rise in the level of a stream or river add a word global English and language change from our blog Macmillan learn live love play
Rate this paper • Currently rating • 1 • 2 • 3 • 4 • 5 4.00 / 2 Paper Topic: Military Action In my essay I will investigate the phenomenon of war , starting with its theory and definition , and going to its factors and the principles of its justification , and then finishing with its costs . In particular , I will point out the factors of a just war and support each of them with the necessary argumentation . Also , I will describe the factors that must be considered when military action is justified . And finally , I will mention direct and indirect costs of war . On the whole , the purpose of my essay is to explore on the concept of just war , using the terms : just war and the theory of just war and applying the concepts : concepts of sovereignty , state and nation . In to provide a necessary scientific ground for my investigation , I will cite the information from reliable sources : The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Just War Theory " and the War on [T]error by Brian Moresonner , and others First , according to Brian Moresonner , the roots of the term Just War go back to the Ancient times of Greeks and Sumerians and throughout the history of mankind the concept of just war has been developed [3] eventually growing up into a separate theory with its own principles and traditions . Moresonner in his "Just War Theory " and the War on [T]error (2004 ) points out that meaning of "Just War " usually evolves when two or more similarly cultured peoples engage in combat over and over , as they share the same cultural values the two or more peoples set up conventions and perhaps even codes of what is acceptable in combat with each other ' [3] . At the same time , The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005 ) holds that the theory of just war deals with the justification of how and why wars are fought ' [4] . This justification can be of two kinds : historical or theoretical . [4] . Theoretical justification deals with ethics of forms of warfare and war . [4] . On the other hand , the historical aspect justifies rules and agreements applied in different wars across the ages . [4] Second , due to The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005 , every just war is characterized with a list of factors , which generally should contain the following Just cause , which means a cause of aggression can be considered just if it is a response to a physical injury (e .g , a violation of territory , an insult (an aggression against national honor , a trade embargo (an aggression against economic activity , or even to a neighbor 's prosperity (a violation of social justice ' [4] Proclamation of war made by a proper authority . This factor implies the relationship between government and people , and is closely connected with the concepts of sovereignty , state and nation . In simpler and more general terms , government , as an organ of authority in a state , can declare war . [4] The possession of right intention . This factor forbids pursuing self-interests or aggrandizement for the sake of justice in the war [4] A reasonable chance of success . This factor means that just...
By some plans, it should have been long dead. With most of its structure disintegrated by a fiery re-entry through Earth's atmosphere, the remains of the giant spacecraft should be resting on the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. Instead, the Russian Mir space station remains in orbit. Even as astronauts from the space shuttle Atlantis were preparing the nascent International Space Station for future occupancy, a pair of astronauts aboard Mir were busily repairing worn components and readying it for future visits. Previously abandoned, battered and showing all the effects of its sometimes troubled 14 years in space, the Mir just keeps going on and on. Long the subject of premature obituaries, Mir, the pride of the cash-starved Russian space program, is now operating because of last-minute money from Western investors. With the help of more than $20 million in outside money and spacecraft supplied by Russian partners, it appears life of the 130-ton space station may extend past its 15th anniversary in orbit next February. ''I am not surprised that the Russians found a way to keep Mir up,'' said Marcia Smith, a space analyst with the Library of Congress's Congressional Research Service. ''It is a source of great national pride and they are very resourceful.'' While Mir's continued operation delights Russia and some space enthusiasts worldwide, the United States and other partners in the next-generation International Space Station see it as a potential threat to the new project. How can Russia, they ask, with its limited resources, both support Mir and keep its commitments as a major partner in the new station? The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which is leading the international project, notes that Russia is a sovereign nation with the right to do what it wants with Mir and the rest of its space program. But NASA officials express chagrin that the international project is more than two years behind schedule, mainly because of Russian delays in completing critical components because of inadequate financing. NASA's administrator, Daniel S. Goldin, told a Congressional subcommittee last month that he was highly frustrated that Russia would agree to a venture to extend Mir operations after saying that it would abandon the station and concentrate its resources on the new project. ''They always seem to have a little extra money around for Mir but not the International Space Station,'' he said. Mr. Goldin said earlier that Russia must keep its agreement to concentrate its resources on the new project. ''The Russians have got to focus, and the primary focus is meeting their commitment to the International Space Station,'' he said, ''If Mir saps their strength in meeting their commitments, then we have serious problems.'' The first two modules of the $60 billion international station, one American and one Russian, have been in orbit since the fall of 1998 awaiting the arrival of a crucial third component, a Russian-made service module that is to provide initial living quarters and laboratory space for the growing station. Program officials say the Russian segment, which must be in place before more parts are added to the station, is ready and set to be launched in July. Meanwhile, the Russian astronauts Sergei Zalyotin and Aleksandr Kalery continue their 60-day mission of putting Mir back into working order and assessing the orbiting outpost for future renovations and commercial applications. The crew arrived at Mir on April 6 and concentrated on making the station habitable again before starting a program of scientific research. The astronauts found and patched what they believe was the source of a persistent air leak, and used supplies brought up by an unmanned Progress cargo craft to repair and restock the station. On May 12, the astronauts conducted a five-hour spacewalk outside Mir to inspect its outer hull and retrieve experimental packages left out by previous crews. They discovered that a solar power panel that stopped working in March apparently suffered a short circuit that charred external wiring and tested a new glue designed to seal cracks in aging spacecraft. The glue, which its developers said could be used to fill small cracks and leaks in any spacecraft, was applied to a special test panel and left outside Mir to be retrieved later. All of this activity comes just nine months after Mir was supposedly abandoned in preparation for nudging it out of orbit with rockets and letting it burn up in the upper atmosphere. The Russian government pledged to put no more money into the station and let it die, unless private financing was found to keep it in orbit. Several groups proposed schemes to save Mir, but none could come up with the estimated $100 million to $200 million a year needed to operate the station. This situation changed at the beginning of the year when a group of Western investors formed a company called MirCorp and began raising money. MirCorp, chartered in Bermuda and based in Amsterdam, received initial financing of about $20 million from Gold & Appel Transfer S.A., a Caribbean-based venture capital holding company. In February, MirCorp signed an agreement with RSC Energia, the privatized Russian company that built and operates Mir, for commercial use of the station for the remainder of its life. Energia, which is 38 percent owned by the Russian government, became the majority stockholder in MirCorp and retains ownership of Mir.
Related to attention: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, attention deficit disorder, Selective attention, ATTN a. The act of close or careful observing or listening: You'll learn more if you pay attention in class. b. The ability or power to keep the mind on something; the ability to concentrate: We turned our attention to the poem's last stanza. c. Notice or observation: The billboard caught our attention. 2. The act of dealing with something or someone; treatment: This injury requires immediate medical attention. 3. attentions a. Acts of interest or interference: "men who wanted ... freedom from censorship and the attentions of the police" (John Kenneth Galbraith). b. Acts of consideration or courtesy, especially in an effort to win someone's affection or gain sexual favors: "She was almost giddy with disbelief at the unexpected attentions of a handsome, well-spoken, obviously professional man" (Rob Kantner). 4. A military posture, with the body erect, eyes to the front, arms at the sides, and heels together. Used as a command to assume an erect military posture. [Middle English attencioun, from Latin attentiō, attentiōn-, from attentus, past participle of attendere, to heed; see attend.] at·ten′tion·al adj. 2. consideration, notice, or observation: a new matter has come to our attention. 3. detailed care or special treatment: to pay attention to one's appearance. 6. (Psychology) psychol the act of concentrating on any one of a set of objects or thoughts. See also selective attention sentence substitute (Military) the order to be alert or to adopt a position of formal military alertness [C14: from Latin attentiō, from attendere to apply the mind to; see attend] (n. əˈtɛn ʃən; interj. əˌtɛnˈʃʌn) 1. the act or faculty of mentally concentrating on a single object, thought, or event. 2. a state of consciousness characterized by such concentration. 3. observant care or consideration: to give a matter personal attention. 4. civility or courtesy; regard. 5. notice or awareness: to catch someone's attention. 6. attentions, acts of courtesy or devotion indicating affection. 7. a position assumed while standing in military formation, with eyes to the front, arms to the sides, and heels together (often used as a command). [1325–75; Middle English < Latin attentiō] at•ten′tion•al, adj. 1. (When listening he is) as focused and as still as a chipmunk spying something unknown from atop a stone wall —Philip Roth about Primo Levi, New York Times Book Review, October 12, 1986 2. The attention [of listeners] is like a narrow mouthed vessel; pour into it what you have to say cautiously, and, as it were, drop by drop —Joseph Joubert 3. Attention rolled down like a window shade —Sharon Sheehe Stark 4. Attention [of students] sinking … like sluggish iron from the cooling crust —John Updike 5. Attentive and indifferent as a croupier —George Garrett 6. Attracted about as much attention as a flea in a dog pound —Ross Thomas 7. Attracted about as much attention (in the artistic world) as the advent of another fly in a slaughter house —James L. Ford 8. Attracted as little attention as a dirty fingernail in the third grade —Ring Lardner 9. Attracted attention like the principal heads in a picture —Honoré de Balzac 10. Collected attention like twists of silver paper or small white pebbles —Elizabeth Bowen 11. Concentrates … like a cancer victim scanning a medical dictionary in hopes that the standard definitions have been repealed overnight in favor of good news —James Morrow 12. Curiosity, keen and cold as a steel knife —Maxim Gorky 13. Deaf as a door nail —Thomas Wilson This is the best known of many “Deaf as” similes. It’s used in its literal sense as well as to describe inattentiveness. Popular variants include “Deaf as a post,”“Deaf as a door,” and “Deaf as a stone.” See Also:DEATH 14. Deaf as a piecrust —Lawrence Durrell 15. (Had honed her ability to turn) deaf as a snail —Joseph Wambaugh 16. Drinking it [information] like a bomber pilot getting ready for a mission —Harvey Swados 17. (The hoot of laughter that always made Mary) flick him off like television —Sumner Locke Elliott 18. Had taken in her every anecdote as completely as a recording machine —Louis Auchincloss 19. Heads are turning like windmills —Arthur Miller 20. Heedless as the dead —Lord Byron 21. His eyes wandered, like a mind —Penelope Gilliatt 22. His mind keeps slipping away like a fly —John Rechy 23. Inattentive, like the ear of a confessor —Mary McCarthy 24. Intent as a surgeon —Jean Stafford 25. Interest spread like a net —Nadine Gordimer 26. (She could not keep her mind on anything;) it [her mind] kept darting around like a darning needle —Jean Stafford 27. Leaned forward … like hounds just before they get the fox —Stephen Vincent Benét 28. Leapt from theme to theme like a water-bug —Eleanor Clark 29. Listened as intently as a blind woman —Rita Mae Brown 30. Listened, very still, like a child who is being told a fascinating and gruesome fairy tale —Isak Dinesen 31. Listen like an uncle —Herbert Gold 32. Listen … like snakes to a charmer’s flute —Jan de Hartog 33. Mind jumps from one thing to another like drops of water bouncing off a larded pan when you test whether the griddle is hot enough to pour the pancake batter in —John Hagge 34. My mind wanders like smoke —Clifford Odets 35. Pricked up his ears like two railroad signals —Lewis Carroll 36. [Poets] receive the same care as xylophones and equestrian statues —Delmore Schwartz 37. Seems not to listen to her words, but rather watches her forming them … like some fervent anthropologist —William Boyd 38. Snaps to attention like a thumb —Irving Feldman 39. (He tried to apply his mind to the work he was doing but his) thoughts fluttered desperately, like moths in a trap —W. Somerset Maugham 40. The words bounced off Harry, like pebbles skipped on water —Paul Kuttner 41. (So scatter-brained that) words went by him like the wind —Louisa May Alcott If you give someone or something your attention, you look at them, listen to them, or think about them carefully. When he had their attention, he began his lecture. He turned his attention back to his magazine. You can also say that someone pays attention to something. Look, pay attention to what I'm saying. The food industry is beginning to pay attention to young consumers. Be Careful! Don't say that someone 'pays attention at' something. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun1.attention - the process whereby a person concentrates on some features of the environment to the (relative) exclusion of othersattention - the process whereby a person concentrates on some features of the environment to the (relative) exclusion of others basic cognitive process - cognitive processes involved in obtaining and storing knowledge clock-watching - paying excessive attention to the clock (in anticipation of stopping work) ear - attention to what is said; "he tried to get her ear" eye - attention to what is seen; "he tried to catch her eye" notice, observance, observation - the act of noticing or paying attention; "he escaped the notice of the police" inattention - lack of attention 2.attention - the work of providing treatment for or attending to someone or somethingattention - the work of providing treatment for or attending to someone or something; "no medical care was required"; "the old car needs constant attention" maternalism - motherly care; behavior characteristic of a mother; the practice of acting as a mother does toward her children baby sitting, babysitting - the work of a baby sitter; caring for children when their parents are not home pet sitting - the work of a pet sitter; caring for pets in their own home while their owners are away from home dental care - care for the teeth first aid - emergency care given before regular medical aid can be obtained incubation - maintaining something at the most favorable temperature for its development livery - the care (feeding and stabling) of horses for pay manicure - professional care for the hands and fingernails pedicure - professional care for the feet and toenails nourishment - the act of nourishing; "her nourishment of the orphans saved many lives" nursing - the work of caring for the sick or injured or infirm tender loving care, TLC - considerate and solicitous care; "young children need lots of TLC" nurturance - physical and emotional care and nourishment personal care - care for someone who is disabled or is otherwise unable to care for themselves; can including bathing and cooking and managing bodily functions skin care, skincare - care for the skin faith cure, faith healing - care provided through prayer and faith in God tree surgery - treatment of damaged or decaying trees healthcare, health care - the preservation of mental and physical health by preventing or treating illness through services offered by the health profession 3.attention - a general interest that leads people to want to know moreattention - a general interest that leads people to want to know more; "She was the center of attention" attractive feature, magnet, attractor, attracter, attraction - a characteristic that provides pleasure and attracts; "flowers are an attractor for bees" enhancer, foil - anything that serves by contrast to call attention to another thing's good qualities; "pretty girls like plain friends as foils" 4.attention - a courteous act indicating affectionattention - a courteous act indicating affection; "she tried to win his heart with her many attentions" courtesy - a courteous or respectful or considerate act 5.attention - the faculty or power of mental concentrationattention - the faculty or power of mental concentration; "keeping track of all the details requires your complete attention" engrossment, immersion, absorption, concentration - complete attention; intense mental effort mental note - special attention with intent to remember; "he made a mental note to send her flowers" alertness, vigilance, watchfulness, wakefulness - the process of paying close and continuous attention; "wakefulness, watchfulness, and bellicosity make a good hunter"; "vigilance is especially susceptible to fatigue" 6.attention - a motionless erect stance with arms at the sides and feet togetherattention - a motionless erect stance with arms at the sides and feet together; assumed by military personnel during drill or review; "the troops stood at attention" stance - standing posture 1. thinking, thought, mind, notice, consideration, concentration, observation, scrutiny, heed, deliberation, contemplation, thoughtfulness, attentiveness, ATTN (S.M.S.), intentness, heedfulness He turned his attention to the desperate state of housing in the province. 2. care, support, concern, treatment, looking after, succour, ATTN (S.M.S.), ministration a demanding baby who wants attention 24 hours a day plural noun courtesy, compliments, regard, respect, care, consideration, deference, politeness, civility, gallantry, mindfulness, assiduities He was flattered by the attentions of a younger woman. courtesy discourtesy, impoliteness 1. Concentration of the mental powers on something: 2. The act of noting, observing, or taking into account: إنْتِباهاِنْتِبَاهعِنايَهيَكون في وَضع الإنْتِباه pozornostpozorv pozoruošetření gādībakopšanamiera stājauzmanība ošetreniev pozore sự chú ý A. N 1.atención f (your) attention please!¡atención por favor! to attract sb's attentionllamar la atención de algn to call or draw sb's attention to sthhacer notar algo a algn it has come to my attention thatme he enterado de que ... it requires daily attentionhay que atenderlo a diario it will have my earliest attentionlo atenderé lo antes posible for the attention of Mr. Jonesa la atención del Sr. Jones to pay attention (to)prestar atención (a) he paid no attentionno hizo caso (to that de eso) to pay special attention tofijarse de modo especial en, prestar especial atención a to turn one's attention topasar a considerar, pasar a estudiar 2. (Mil) attention!¡firme(s)! to come to attentionponerse firme(s) to stand at or to attentionestar firme(s) 3. attentions [of would-be suitor, media] → atenciones fpl B. CPD attention deficit disorder Ntrastorno m de déficit de atención attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Ntrastorno m hiperactivo de déficit de atención attention span Ncapacidad f de concentración (= consideration) → attention f it has come to my attention that ... → je constate que ... to pay attention to → faire attention à He didn't pay attention to what I was saying → Il ne faisait pas attention à ce que je disais. to hold sb's attention → retenir l'attention de qn to need medical attention → avoir besoin de soins médicaux to draw sb's attention to sth → attirer l'attention de qn sur qch to attract sb's attention → attirer l'attention de qn to catch sb's attention → attirer l'attention de qn for the attention of (in letter, memo)à l'attention de (MILITARY) at attention → au garde-à-vous to stand to attention, to stand at attention → se tenir au garde-à-vous excl (MILITARY)garde-à-vous! attentions npl (= kindness) → attentions fpl, prévenances fplattention deficit disorder ntroubles mpl déficitaires de l'attentionattention deficit hyperactivity disorder ntroubles mpl déficitaires de l'attention avec hyperactivitéattention-grabbing [əˈtenʃənˌgræbɪŋ] adj [campaign, headline] → accrocheur/euse, qui retient l'attentionattention-seeking [əˈtenʃənˌsiːkɪŋ] adjcherchant à attirer l'attentionattention span ncapacité f de concentration His attention span is limited BUT Il n'arrive pas à se concentrer très longtemps. no pl (= consideration, observation, notice)Aufmerksamkeit f; to call attention to somethingauf etw (acc)aufmerksam machen; to call or draw somebody’s attention to something, to call or draw something to somebody’s attentionjds Aufmerksamkeit auf etw (acc)lenken, jdn auf etw (acc)aufmerksam machen; to attract somebody’s attentionjds Aufmerksamkeit erregen, jdn auf sich (acc)aufmerksam machen; to turn one’s attention to somebody/somethingjdm/einer Sache seine Aufmerksamkeit zuwenden, seine Aufmerksamkeit auf jdn/etw richten; to pay attention/no attention to somebody/somethingjdn/etw beachten/nicht beachten; to pay attention to the teacherdem Lehrer zuhören; to hold somebody’s attentionjdn fesseln; can I have your attention for a moment?dürfte ich Sie einen Augenblick um (Ihre) Aufmerksamkeit bitten?; attention!Achtung!; your attention, pleaseich bitte um Aufmerksamkeit; (official announcement) → Achtung, Achtung!; it has come to my attention that …ich bin darauf aufmerksam geworden, dass …; it has been brought to my attention that …es ist mir zu Ohren gekommen, dass … (Comm) attention Miss Smith, for the attention of Miss Smithzu Händen von Frau Smith; your letter will receive our earliest attentionIhr Brief wird baldmöglichst or umgehend bearbeitet; for your attentionzur gefälligen Beachtung (Mil) to stand to or at attention, to come to attentionstillstehen; attention!stillgestanden! pl (= kindnesses)Aufmerksamkeiten pl; to pay one’s attentions to somebody (dated: = court) → jdm den Hof machen [əˈtɛnʃn] n a.attenzione f to call sb's attention to sth → richiamare qc all'attenzione di qn it has come to my attention that ... → sono venuto a conoscenza (del fatto) che... to pay attention (to) → stare attento/a (a), fare attenzione (a) for the attention of (Admin) → all'attenzione di b. (Mil) attention!attenti! to come to/stand at attention → mettersi/stare sull'attenti c. attentions npl (kindnesses) → attenzioni fpl, premure fpl (əˈtenʃən) noun 1. notice. He tried to attract my attention; Pay attention to your teacher! 2. care. That broken leg needs urgent attention. 3. concentration of the mind. His attention wanders. 4. (in the army etc) a position in which one stands very straight with hands by the sides and feet together. He stood to attention. atˈtentive (-tiv) adjective giving attention. The children were very attentive when the teacher was speaking; attentive to her needs. atˈtentively (-tiv-) adverb They listened attentively. atˈtentiveness noun اِنْتِبَاه pozornost opmærksomhed Aufmerksamkeit προσοχή atención huomio attention pažnja attenzione 注意 주의 aandacht oppmerksomhet uwaga atenção внимание uppmärksamhet ความตั้งใจ dikkat sự chú ý 注意 n. atención, cuidado; lack of ___falta de ___; to pay ___atender, prestar atención. n atención f; — span período de atención References in classic literature ? He was now doubly determined to try the characteristic experiment at which he had hinted in his letter to Magdalen, and to concentrate on himself -- in the character of a remarkably well-informed man -- the entire interest and attention of the formidable Mrs.
Green, but not from Mars Dixon drivers may have had to take a second look Saturday at the rather unusual vehicle passing through the downtown area. Dubbed the Xof1, the solar-powered car is making its way across the United States and Canada as part of a project to develop and build a solar car and set a new world record for driving distance. The catalyst for the project, Marcelo da Luz, was inspired to create xof1 after learning about the World Solar Challenge. On Friday and Saturday, the car made the rounds in Sacramento before heading to the Bay Area, passing through Dixon along the way. The otherworldly looking solar car uses photovoltaics cells to convert sunlight into electricity, then stores the electricity in batteries that power an electric motor, which drives the car.
Question types Start with Question limit of 16 available terms Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads Print test 6 Written questions 5 Multiple choice questions 1. to critisize harshly or rejects someone, often by snubbing or ignorring them 2. to study or examine carefully 3. to tear down completely ; to demolish 4. to gather or collect, accumulate, earn 5. to calm down sooth; tranquilize 5 True/False questions 1. marto spoil or damage; injure or blemish 2. nullifyto render; unimportant or without worth; to negate or invalidate; to annul leagly 3. heedto listen to, to pay attention to ; consider; to mind 4. proponentto suppose, propose, suggest to assume 5. obliterateto erase completly ; wiping out all traces
First deadly case of avian flu confirmed in North America AFP Photo / Tengku Bahar Canadian health officials confirmed the first deadly case of H5N1 avian flu in North America, following the death of a person in western Canada after a trip to China in December. Health Minister Rona Ambrose revealed that the individual was a resident of Alberta who had travelled to Beijing, China. During the press-conference the minister added that the case is “isolated” and the risk to the general population remains low. “This case is not part of the seasonal flu,” she said. “Avian influenza is not easily transmitted from person to person. It is not the same virus that is currently present in seasonal influenza in Alberta,” said Dr. James Talbot, Alberta’s Chief Medical Officer of Health. Officials will be contacting everyone who was aboard the same flights with the now deceased individual, but believe that no one is at risk. Alberta has recorded 10 deaths from the H1N1 influenza during the current flu season. But, H5N1 rarely infects humans and usually targets domestic poultry in various parts of Asia and the Middle East. Health officials highlight that the flu does not spread between humans. When people do get infected, their lower respiratory tract is targeted, which can lead to deadly pneumonia. So far, there had been 38 human cases reported in 2013, which led to 24 deaths.
Saturday, March 7, 2009 Defintion Of Education The definition of education in common usage, that education is merely the delivery of knowledge, skills and information from teachers to students, is inadequate to capture what is really important about being and becoming educated. The proper definition of education is the process of becoming an educated person. Being an educated person means you have access to optimal states of mind regardless of the situation you are in. You are able to perceive accurately, think clearly and act effectively to achieve self-selected goals and aspirations. Education is a process of cognitive cartography, mapping your experiences and finding a variety of reliable routes to optimal states when you find yourself in non-optimal states. The idea that the definition of education is the delivery of knowledge, skills and information from teachers to students is misguided. While this definition of education is partly true it is grossly inadequate and is probably the fundamental source of the vast tragedy of “accountability” which treats arbitrarily inadequate results on irrelevant tests as proof that some school communities need to be punished. The logic of “accountability” in this instance is taken to be a literal “accounting” of units of knowledge and information through highly orchestrated student performances of test taking skills. This is that same kind of literalism that causes absurd behavior in religious communities, too. (At least, in education the fundamentalists are only fiscally killing their enemies and not literally.) Two Problems With the Traditional Definition of Education as Delivery There are two problems with this definition of education. First, the definition of education using the delivery metaphor is too often taken to be literally true. Knowledge, skills, and information, as we mean these terms in the field of education, are not literal units. In computer science and telecommunications they deal with literal units of information in the form of electrical pulses that can be observed in a variety of ways. In education we are dealing with entire realms and fields of both worldly phenomena and uniquely human narratives that have no literal, physical existence. We use the term “unit” as a convenient way to organize our thoughts about a complex set of phenomena that is utterly incomprehensible without this metaphor. What we know from the findings of cognitive and neuro-sciences is that even science and mathematics use metaphors to develop ideas about complex and otherwise incomprehensible phenomena. If even our deepest scientific and mathematical understandings of the physical, literal world are based on metaphors, then it is neither surprising nor unusual to use metaphors in our defintion of education. (see Philosophy in the Flesh, Lakoff & Johnson, Basic Books 1999, and Lakoff & Nunez, Where Mathematics Comes From, Basic Books 2000) But it is a problem to take a metaphor literally. What we learn from this insight into how we understand the world is that our understandings of anything complex, especially something as vastly complex as education, are based on metaphors and the challenge is to figure out which of the metaphors are most useful for creating the right outcomes. The second problem with this definition of education is that it is pathetically inadequate for describing what is most important about both the process of becoming, and the results of being, an educated person. Whenever I have pushed people to really delve into what they mean when they talk about a person being educated they quickly abandon the notion that educated people have a greater quantity of information or that they have the traditional evidence of instructional bookkeeping like diplomas, degrees, certificates, etc. Education is Free With This Definition The wonderful irony of real education is that it is essentially free. My definition of education is the mapping of access to optimal states of mind. The result is an educated person, a person who is able to perceive accurately, think clearly, and act effectively on self-selected goals and aspirations. The process of becoming educated requires a practice of persistent disillusionment, a consistent method for having an on-going dialog between the world and your mind to constantly revise your concepts of what is really going on. There are three roles that we all play in our own and other people’s education, the learning agent, the learning catalyst, and the learning context. Our moral responsibility as educators is to align the bio-, psycho-, communo-, socio- and eco-spheres as best we can to assist our students (and ourselves) with this on-going mapping project. Everything about this process has been available to human kind as long as we have been human. Only recently have we become aware that this is true. There is not a single technology high or low that is necessary to accomplish this, but just about every technology both high and low can help us educate ourselves and everyone of our students, if we use them with the right attitude. 1 comment: 1. You forgot to give me credit as the author of this piece. Here's the original source Thanks for spreading the word, next time please note the original author. Don Berg Free E-book
Pronunciation: (rēch), [key] 1. to get to or get as far as in moving, going, traveling, etc.: The boat reached the shore. 2. to come to or arrive at in some course of progress, action, etc.: Your letter never reached me. 3. to succeed in touching or seizing with an outstretched hand, a pole, etc.: to reach a book on a high shelf. 4. to stretch or hold out; extend: reaching out a hand in greeting. 5. to stretch or extend so as to touch or meet: The bookcase reaches the ceiling. 6. to establish communication with: I called but couldn't reach you. 7. to amount to, as in the sum or total: The cost will reach millions. 8. to penetrate to: distant stars the eye cannot reach. 9. to succeed in striking or hitting, as with a weapon or missile: The artillery fire reached the shore. 10. to succeed in making contact with, influencing, impressing, interesting, convincing, etc.: a program that reached a large teenage audience. 1. to make a stretch, as with the hand or arm. 2. to become outstretched, as the hand or arm. 3. to make a movement or effort as if to touch or seize something: to reach for a weapon. 4. to extend in operation or effect: power that reaches throughout the land. 5. to stretch in space; extend in direction, length, distance, etc.: a coat reaching to the knee; a tower reaching to the skies. 6. to extend or continue in time. 7. to get or come to a specified place, person, condition, etc. (often fol. by to). 8. to amount (often fol. by to): sums reaching to a considerable total. 9. to penetrate: Fields of flowers extended as far as the eye could reach. 10. to assert or agree without certainty or sufficient evidence; infer hastily: I'd be reaching if I said I had the answer to your question. 11. Naut. a. to sail on a reach. b. to sail with the wind forward of the beam but so as not to require sailing close-hauled. 1. an act or instance of reaching: to make a reach for a gun. 2. the extent or distance of reaching: within reach of his voice. 3. range of effective action, power, or capacity. 4. a continuous stretch or extent of something: a reach of woodland. 5. Also called pound. a level portion of a canal, between locks. 6. Naut.a point of sailing in which the wind is within a few points of the beam, either forward of the beam (close reach), directly abeam (beam reach), or abaft the beam (broad reach). 7. the pole connecting the rear axle of a wagon to the transverse bar or bolster over the front axle supporting the wagon bed. 8. a straight portion of a river between two bends. reabsorptionreaching jib See also: Related Content
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (commonly shortened to Alice in Wonderland) is an 1865 novel written by English author Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice who falls down a rabbit hole into a fantasy world (the Wonderland of the title) populated by peculiar and anthropomorphic creatures. The tale plays with logic giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as children. It is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre, and its narrative course and structure have been enormously influential, especially in the fantasy genre. Chapter 1 – Down the Rabbit Hole: Alice is bored sitting on the riverbank with her sister, when she notices a talking, clothed White Rabbit with a pocket watch run past. She follows it down a rabbit hole when suddenly she falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a small key to a door too small for her to fit, but through which she sees an attractive garden. She then discovers a bottle labelled "DRINK ME", the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key. A cake with "EAT ME" on it causes her to grow to such a tremendous size her head hits the ceiling. Chapter 2 – The Pool of Tears: Alice is unhappy and cries and her tears flood the hallway. After shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him but all she can think of talking about is her cat, which offends the mouse. Chapter 3 – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale: The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals and birds that have been swept away. Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror. A Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner. Alice eventually frightens all the animals away, unwittingly, by talking about her cat. Chapter 4 – The Rabbit Sends a Little Bill: The White Rabbit appears again in search of the Duchess's gloves and fan. Mistaking her for his maidservant, Mary Ann, he orders Alice to go into the house and retrieve them, but once she gets inside she starts growing. The horrified Rabbit orders his gardener, Bill the Lizard, to climb on the roof and go down the chimney. Outside, Alice hears the voices of animals that have gathered to gawk at her giant arm. The crowd hurls pebbles at her, which turn into little cakes. Alice eats them, and they reduce her again in size. Chapter 5 – Advice from a Caterpillar: Alice comes upon a mushroom and sitting on it is a blue Caterpillar smoking a hookah. The Caterpillar questions Alice and she admits to her current identity crisis, compounded by her inability to remember a poem. Before crawling away, the caterpillar tells Alice that one side of the mushroom will make her taller and the other side will make her shorter. She breaks off two pieces from the mushroom. One side makes her shrink smaller than ever, while another causes her neck to grow high into the trees, where a pigeon mistakes her for a serpent. With some effort, Alice brings herself back to her usual height. She stumbles upon a small estate and uses the mushroom to reach a more appropriate height. Chapter 6 – Pig and Pepper: A Fish-Footman has an invitation for the Duchess of the house, which he delivers to a Frog-Footman. Alice observes this transaction and, after a perplexing conversation with the frog, lets herself into the house. The Duchess's Cook is throwing dishes and making a soup that has too much pepper, which causes Alice, the Duchess and her baby (but not the cook or her grinning Cheshire Cat) to sneeze violently. Alice is given the baby by the Duchess and to her surprise, the baby turns into a pig. The Cheshire Cat appears in a tree, directing her to the March Hare's house. He disappears but his grin remains behind to float on its own in the air prompting Alice to remark that she has often seen a cat without a grin but never a grin without a cat. Chapter 7 – A Mad Tea-Party: Alice becomes a guest at a "mad" tea party along with the March Hare, the Hatter, and a sleeping Dormouse who remains asleep for most of the chapter. The other characters give Alice many riddles and stories, including the famous 'Why is a raven like a writing desk?'. The Hatter reveals that they have tea all day because time has punished him by eternally standing still at 6 pm (tea time). Alice becomes insulted and tired of being bombarded with riddles and she leaves claiming that it was the stupidest tea party that she had ever been to. Chapter 8 – The Queen's Croquet Ground: Alice leaves the tea party and enters the garden where she comes upon three living playing cards painting the white roses on a rose tree red because the Queen of Hearts hates white roses. A procession of more cards, kings and queens and even the White Rabbit enters the garden. Alice then meets the King and Queen. The Queen, a figure difficult to please, introduces her trademark phrase "Off with his head!" which she utters at the slightest dissatisfaction with a subject. Alice is invited (or some might say ordered) to play a game of croquet with the Queen and the rest of her subjects but the game quickly descends into chaos. Live flamingos are used as mallets and hedgehogs as balls and Alice once again meets the Cheshire Cat. The Queen of Hearts then orders the Cat to be beheaded, only to have her executioner complain that this is impossible since the head is all that can be seen of him. Because the cat belongs to the Duchess, the Queen is prompted to release the Duchess from prison to resolve the matter. Chapter 9 – The Mock Turtle's Story: The Duchess is brought to the croquet ground at Alice's request. She ruminates on finding morals in everything around her. The Queen of Hearts dismisses her on the threat of execution and she introduces Alice to the Gryphon, who takes her to the Mock Turtle. The Mock Turtle is very sad, even though he has no sorrow. He tries to tell his story about how he used to be a real turtle in school, which The Gryphon interrupts so they can play a game. Chapter 10 – Lobster Quadrille: The Mock Turtle and the Gryphon dance to the Lobster Quadrille, while Alice recites (rather incorrectly) "'Tis the Voice of the Lobster". The Mock Turtle sings them "Beautiful Soup" during which the Gryphon drags Alice away for an impending trial. Chapter 11 – Who Stole the Tarts?: Alice attends a trial whereby the Knave of Hearts is accused of stealing the Queen's tarts. The jury is composed of various animals, including Bill the Lizard, the White Rabbit is the court's trumpeter, and the judge is the King of Hearts. During the proceedings, Alice finds that she is steadily growing larger. The dormouse scolds Alice and tells her she has no right to grow at such a rapid pace and take up all the air. Alice scoffs and calls the dormouse's accusation ridiculous because everyone grows and she can't help it. Meanwhile, witnesses at the trial include the Hatter, who displeases and frustrates the King through his indirect answers to the questioning, and the Duchess's cook. Chapter 12 – Alice's Evidence: Alice is then called up as a witness. She accidentally knocks over the jury box with the animals inside them and the King orders the animals be placed back into their seats before the trial continues. The King and Queen order Alice to be gone, citing Rule 42 ("All persons more than a mile high to leave the court"), but Alice disputes their judgement and refuses to leave. She argues with the King and Queen of Hearts over the ridiculous proceedings, eventually refusing to hold her tongue. The Queen shouts her familiar "Off with her head!" but Alice is unafraid, calling them out as just a pack of cards; just as they start to swarm over her. Alice's sister wakes her up for tea, brushing what turns out to be some leaves and not a shower of playing cards from Alice's face. Alice leaves her sister on the bank to imagine all the curious happenings for herself. The following is a list of prominent characters in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Character allusions In The Annotated Alice Martin Gardner provides background information for the characters. The members of the boating party that first heard Carroll's tale show up in Chapter 3 ("A Caucus-Race and a Long Tale"). Alice Liddell herself is there, while Carroll is caricatured as the Dodo (because Dodgson stuttered when he spoke, he sometimes pronounced his last name as Dodo-Dodgson. The Duck refers to Canon Duckworth, the Lory to Lorina Liddell, and the Eaglet to Edith Liddell (Alice Liddell's sisters). Bill the Lizard may be a play on the name of Benjamin Disraeli. One of Tenniel's illustrations in Through the Looking-Glass depicts the character referred to as the "Man in White Paper" (whom Alice meets as a fellow passenger riding on the train with her), as a caricature of Disraeli, wearing a paper hat. The illustrations of the Lion and the Unicorn also bear a striking resemblance to Tenniel's Punch illustrations of Gladstone and Disraeli. The Hatter is most likely a reference to Theophilus Carter, a furniture dealer known in Oxford for his unorthodox inventions. Tenniel apparently drew the Hatter to resemble Carter, on a suggestion of Carroll's. The Dormouse tells a story about three little sisters named Elsie, Lacie, and Tillie. These are the Liddell sisters: Elsie is L.C. (Lorina Charlotte), Tillie is Edith (her family nickname is Matilda), and Lacie is an anagram of Alice. The Mock Turtle speaks of a Drawling-master, "an old conger eel", who came once a week to teach "Drawling, Stretching, and Fainting in Coils". This is a reference to the art critic John Ruskin, who came once a week to the Liddell house to teach the children drawing, sketching, and painting in oils. (The children did, in fact, learn well; Alice Liddell, for one, produced a number of skilled watercolours.) The Mock Turtle also sings "Beautiful Soup". This is a parody of a song called "Star of the Evening, Beautiful Star", which was performed as a trio by Lorina, Alice and Edith Liddell for Lewis Carroll in the Liddell home during the same summer in which he first told the story of Alice's Adventures Under Ground. Alice was published in 1865, three years after the Reverend Charles Lutwidge Dodgson and the Reverend Robinson Duckworth rowed in a boat, on 4 July 1862, up the River Thames with the three young daughters of Henry Liddell, (the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University and Dean of Christ Church) : Lorina Charlotte Liddell (aged 13, born 1849) ("Prima" in the book's prefatory verse); Alice Pleasance Liddell (aged 10, born 1852) ("Secunda" in the prefatory verse); Edith Mary Liddell (aged 8, born 1853) ("Tertia" in the prefatory verse). The journey began at Folly Bridge near Oxford and ended five miles away in the village of Godstow. During the trip the Reverend Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her. He began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest. To add the finishing touches he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book, and then had the book examined by other children—particularly the MacDonald children. He added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children. On 26 November 1864 gave Alice the handwritten manuscript of Alice's Adventures Under Ground, with illustrations by Dodgson himself, dedicating it as "as Christmas gift to a dear child in memory of a summer's day". Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate there was an earlier version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he printed a more elaborate copy by hand. But before Alice received her copy, Dodgson was already preparing it for publication and expanding the 15,500-word original to 27,500 words, most notably adding the episodes about the Cheshire Cat and the Mad Tea-Party. Most of the book's adventures may have been based on and influenced by people, situations and buildings in Oxford and at Christ Church, e.g., the "Rabbit Hole," which symbolized the actual stairs in the back of the main hall in Christ Church. A carving of a griffon and rabbit, as seen in Ripon Cathedral, where Carroll's father was a canon, may have provided inspiration for the tale. Since Carroll was a mathematician at Christ Church, it has been suggested that there are many references and mathematical concepts in both this story and also in Through the Looking-Glass; examples include: Mathematician Keith Devlin asserted in the journal of The Mathematical Association of America that Dodgson wrote Alice in Wonderland in its final form as a scathing satire on new modern mathematics that were emerging in the mid-19th century. It has been suggested by several people, including Martin Gardner and Selwyn Goodacre, that Dodgson had an interest in the French language, choosing to make references and puns about it in the story. It is most likely that these are references to French lessons—a common feature of a Victorian middle-class girl's upbringing. For example, in the second chapter Alice posits that the mouse may be French. She therefore chooses to speak the first sentence of her French lesson-book to it: "Où est ma chatte?" ("Where is my cat?"). In Henri Bué's French translation, Alice posits that the mouse may be Italian and speaks Italian to it. Pat's "Digging for apples" could be a cross-language pun, as pomme de terre (literally; "apple of the earth") means potato and pomme means apple, which little English girls studying French would easily guess. In the second chapter, Alice initially addresses the mouse as "O Mouse", based on her memory of the noun declensions "in her brother's Latin Grammar, 'A mouse — of a mouse — to a mouse — a mouse — O mouse!'" These words correspond to the first five of Latin's six cases, in a traditional order established by medieval grammarians: mus (nominative), muris (genitive), muri (dative), murem (accusative), (O) mus (vocative). The absence of the sixth case, mure (ablative) from Alice's recitation, may be due to the wide variety of possible translations, e.g. "with a mouse", "by a mouse", or "from a mouse", or it may reflect that Greek grammar was actually being reflected. In Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There, the White Queen offers to hire Alice as her lady's maid and to pay her "Twopence a week, and jam every other day." Alice says that she doesn't want any jam today, and the Queen tells her: "You couldn't have it if you did want it. The rule is, jam tomorrow and jam yesterday- but never jam to-day." This is a reference to the rule in Latin that the word iam or jam meaning now in the sense of already or at that time cannot be used to describe now in the present, which is nunc in Latin. Jam is therefore never available today. In the eighth chapter, three cards are painting the roses on a rose tree red, because they had accidentally planted a white-rose tree that the Queen of Hearts hates. Red roses symbolized the English House of Lancaster, while white roses were the symbol for their rival House of York. This scene is an allusion to the Wars of the Roses.
Neal F Lue Professor of Microbiology and Immunology Chromosome ends, or telomeres, consist of repetitive DNA sequences and a plethora of protective proteins that are crucial for chromosome stability. Aberrations in either the DNA or the protein structures in this complex assembly lead to chromosome re-arrangements. The DNA repeat units are rich in G residues on the 3'-OH-bearing strand, which forms a single stranded overhang referred to as the G-tail. Shortening of telomere DNA occurs in many cells types due to incomplete end replication. This process can be counter-balanced by telomerase and DNA polymerase α, which synthesize the telomere ‘G-‘ and ‘C-strand', respectively. Abnormal telomere loss (due e.g., to telomerase deficiency) has been established as the cause of numerous diseases characterized by defective tissue renewal. Moreover, telomere dysfunction and telomerase up-regulation is known to contribute to the initiation and progression of human cancers. My laboratory studies the mechanisms and regulations of telomere DNA synthesis with the ultimate aim of manipulating the relevant pathways for the treatment of cancers and age-related diseases. We utilize a variety of standard and unorthodox fungal model systems to dissect the mechanisms of key players in telomere DNA synthesis pathways. The main targets of our investigation are telomerase, DNA polymerase α, and the Cdc13-Stn1-Ten1 or CST complex. Telomerase: a special reverse transcriptase that is subject to complex regulation. The extension of telomere G-strand is executed by telomerase, which contains two core components: an RNA that provides the template (TER), and a protein that synthesizes the repeats (TERT). Telomerase binds to the telomere G-tail through both protein-DNA and RNA-DNA interactions, and then catalyzes the extension of G-tail through reverse transcription of the RNA template. Unique among reverse transcriptases, telomerase is able to copy iteratively the template region of the RNA, thus adding multiple telomere repeats onto the G-strand without dissociation. This property (known as repeat addition processivity) requires an "anchor site" in telomerase that interacts with the 5' region of telomeric DNA during the "translocation" reaction. We and others have mapped anchor site to the conserved TERT essential N-terminal (TEN) domain and shown that this unique telomerase domain is regulated by a conserved OB fold protein (named TPP1 in humans and Est3 in budding yeast). A special current focus is to understand how the interaction between Est3 and TEN domain triggers the activation of telomerase. DNA polymerase α and telomere C-strand synthesis: a new trick for a classic DNA polymerase. Because telomerase mediates the extension of only the G-strand, another activity is required to "fill-in" the telomere C-strand. This activity is believed to reside in the DNA Polymerase α-primase complex. Pol α-mediated C-strand synthesis has received far less attention than telomerase-mediated G-strand extension, but is no less important. Indeed, the distance between the 5' end of the C-strand and 3' end of G-strand controls the amount of telomere loss in the ensuing cell cycle. Thus, factors that determine the initiation property of Pol α-primase complex have a strong impact on telomere maintenance. We recently isolated the Pol α-primase complex from C. glabrata, and reconstituted the synthesis of telomere C-strand in vitro using model G-strand templates. Our system offers great opportunities for dissecting the molecular mechanisms of C-strand synthesis and its regulation. The Cdc13-Stn1-Ten1 complex: the G-tail binding complex that regulates both G- and C-strand synthesis. A variety of G-tail binding proteins have been identified in different organisms and shown to mediate critical functions in telomere protection and maintenance. An especially important and well-conserved complex is the Cdc13-Stn1-Ten1 or CST complex. Initially identified in and thought to be confined to budding yeast, this complex is now known to be extremely widespread. Moreover, the CST complex has been shown to regulate both telomerase and Pol α activities in diverse organisms. Mutations in subunits of this complex engender telomere aberrations such as accumulation of long G-tails and abnormal recombination. Indeed, mutations in a human CST subunit (CTC1) was recently shown to be responsible for a complex disease named Coates plus. The investigation of CST mechanisms has been hampered by the inability to express and purify adequate quantities of the complex. By screening multiple CST homologues for ease of expression and reconstitution, we succeeded in reconstituting and purifying the full C. glabrata (Cg) CST complex. We showed that the purified complex binds Cg Pol α and stimulates its activity in vitro, thus establishing a system for a detailed mechanistic and functional investigation. Current efforts are geared toward understanding the molecular basis of CST-Pol α interaction, and pinpointing the steps in the Pol α-primase reaction stimulated by CST. Sort by Selected publications Sort by Grants awarded full name • Dr. Neal F Lue, primary email eRA Commons ID Primary Affiliation • Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University Awards and honors
Follow Us: Sudoku Saves Photographers From Copyright Theft A new watermarking technology based on Sudoku puzzles has been developed by computer scientists in Malaysia to thwart image thieves. \| September 10, 2013 \| In the Lab Asian Scientist (Sep. 10, 2013) - A new watermarking technology based on a system akin to the permutation rules used to solve the numeral puzzles known as Sudoku has been developed by computer scientists in Malaysia. Images, photos and graphics on the web are easy pickings for plagiarists and those who might ignore copyright rules. Photographers and others often add a watermark to their images to reduce the risk of their images being lifted for use on others' sites without permission. However, those intent on leeching an image might simply crop the watermark in some cases. With the proliferation of digital multimedia content on the internet, content owners and service providers commonly use digital watermarking to embed specific information into the media to be protected, such as a company's logo or product serial number. Such information can later be extracted and used to detect forgery and unauthorized usage and to prove authenticity and provenance. Importantly, a digital watermark must not distort or disrupt display of the image when used in its rightful place and so needs to be imperceptible in use. Now, researchers in Malaysia have used a valid 9x9 Sudoku solution - comprising a pixelated second image - to create a watermark so that it is evenly distributed within an image. The system, described in a paper published in the International Journal of Grid and Utility Computing, resists attempts to "crop" the watermark in more than nine times out of ten cases. The approach uses the permutations of rows and columns in Sudoku solutions to create and detect an invisible digital watermark that is overlaid on an image with a random distribution. If the image pirate crops part of the image, then the chances are that enough of the watermark will remain elsewhere in the image that the complete watermark might be retrievable provided that the precise and correct Sudoku solution is given. The team's initial tests showed that with 81 9x9 Sudoku solutions they could defeat more than 94% of attempts at cropping. They are currently implementing 256 16x16 Sudoku, which they suggest will be even stronger. The best "anti-cropping" watermarks used previously achieved only 75% resistance. Moreover, the Sudoku approach does not require investigators or the authorities to have access to the original image. Based on the relationship between full and partially recovered watermarks, the Sudoku approach will be able to discern whether a pirated image has the copyright owner's watermark. The article can be found at: Khalid et al. (2013) Anti-Cropping Digital Image Watermarking Using Sudoku. Source: Inderscience; Photo: Photos by Mavis/Flickr/CC. Subscribe to our newsletter Subscribe to our newsletter
Navigation Links Cochlear Implantation Increases Meningitis Risk A new study has found that the presence of cochlear implants increases the risk of bacterial infections that can cause meningitis in recipients//, thus confirming what physicians have long speculated. The discovery increases the need to educate the public on the need for meningitis vaccinations in potential cochlear implant recipients. The study involved making cochleostomy incisions (opening of the inner ear spaces of the cochlea—the most important moment in the procedure) in the ears of 54 healthy rats, implanting cochlear devices in 36 of them, and then monitoring them for the presence of meningitis, a third of the rats with cochlear implants were stricken with meningitis. The study’s authors found that in these cases, cochlear implantation lowers the threshold needed for pneumococcal baterial infection, the bacterium that causes meningitis. The study’s authors stress that it remains their belief that the benefits of cochlear implants far exceed the risk of meningitis, which can be managed by education and vaccination efforts. Worldwide, 90 of the 60,000 people receiving cochlear implant have been stricken with meningitis, drawing deep concern within the international medical community. Previous research by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention determined that children who receive cochlear implants to counter hearing loss are more likely to develop meningitis. Page: 1 Related medicine news : 1. Early Cochlear Implants Prove To Be Effective 2. Electrosurgery Ensures Integrity Of Cochlear Implant Following Adenoids Removal 3. Earlier the Cochlear Implants Used Better the Speech 4. Cochlear Implants in Both Ears Enables Better Hearing 5. Making Sense of the World Through a Cochlear Implant 6. Pre Implantation Genetic Haplotyping to Identify 6,000 Inherited Diseases 7. Step Aerobics Increases good cholesterol 8. Gene Increases Cancer Risk 9. Obesity Increases Risk of Cervical Cancer 10. Psoriasis Increases Cancer Risk 11. Treatment For Prostate Cancer Found To Increases Fracture Risk Post Your Comments: Breaking Medicine News(10 mins): Breaking Medicine Technology:
The Education of Little Tree Test \| Mid-Book Test - Easy Asa Earl Carter This set of Lesson Plans consists of approximately 239 pages of tests, essay questions, lessons, and other teaching materials. Buy The Education of Little Tree Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Multiple Choice Questions 1. How does Granpa make his living? (a) Making and selling whiskey. (b) Selling fish at the settlement store. (c) Selling crops at the settlement store. (d) Selling meat at the settlement store. 2. What happens in Chapter 8 to suggest that Little Tree has a natural tendency towards some Cherokee ways? (a) He finds himself a special "secret" place and Granma tells him all Cherokees have secret places. (b) He is naturally attracted to the medicinal herbs that Granma collects. (c) He is naturally attracted to the spiders weaving their webs. (d) He is naturally attracted to the songs of the frogs. 3. What is Little Tree learning from the way in which Granma and Granpa deal with any extra money that they get from the whiskey? (a) The importance of saving extra money. (b) The importance of giving extra money to those who are worse off. (c) To make a list of things to buy with extra money. (d) To take the money to the bank. 4. Which books are Granma's favorites to read? (a) Books with poems and songs about children. (b) Bible stories. (c) Books about the Cherokees. (d) Shakespeare's plays. 5. Which of the following best describes the theme of the opening chapter? (a) Growing up. (b) Loss and and a new beginning. (c) Family relationships. (d) Racism. 6. In Chapter 2, who has just died when Little Tree's relatives argue about where he should live? (a) Red Wing. (b) Pa. (c) Willow John. (d) Little Tree's mother. 7. Why does Little Tree set the coal oil can down when the lady in the black car speaks to them? (a) Because Granpa teaches him that when spoken to, he should give full attention out of respect. (b) To avoid the smell. (c) Because it is beginning to spill oil. (d) Because it is getting heavy. 8. Why does Granma describe some people in the world as "dead"? (a) They are only interested in oppressing others. (b) They are only interested in material things. (c) They are cruel to women and abuse nature. (d) They have no spirit-mind so they only see dirty if they look at a woman and they fail to see beauty in nature. 9. What do Little Tree's grandparents reveal about the Cherokee style of passing on information and lessons from one generation to the other? (a) They use the oral tradition in which stories are used to pass on information. (b) They use a special writing system. (c) There is no writing system so valuable information is lost. (d) They use symbols on caves. 10. At the end of Chapter 1, what kind of house is Little Tree taken to by his grandparents? (a) A bungalow. (b) A cabin. (c) A cottage. (d) A tepee. 11. How old is Little Tree when the novel begins? (a) Nine years old. (b) Seven years old. (c) Five years old. (d) Six years old. 12. Why does the author show that important lessons for Little Tree come from Granma and not Granpa? (a) To show that both his grandparents play equally important roles in shaping his development. (b) To show that there is a bond between Granma and Little Tree that does not exist between Little Tree and Granpa. (c) To show that Granma is more knowledgeable about important things. (d) To show that Granpa has no spiritual side so Granma has to do it. 13. What would be the most appropriate alternate title for Chapter 4? (a) Little Tree Takes A Fox. (b) Mountain Hunting. (c) Granpa's Way of Hunting. (d) The Fox outwits the Hounds. 14. How is Granpa's approach to making whiskey different from that of the "city criminals" who just want to make money? (a) Granpa puts nothing in his whiskey to increase volume while others add various substances to increase the volume. (b) Granpa only uses sugar to increase the volume. (c) Granpa only uses lye to increase the volume. (d) Granpa only uses water to increase the volume. 15. According to Granpa's story, why did his father's friend enter the church with a pistol? (a) He believes the preacher's sermon is against him. (b) Because having fought battles all his life and lost everything, he has nothing more to fight about. (c) He has lost his home and family. (d) The people in the church have been saying bad things about him. Short Answer Questions 1. Why does Granpa object to people who age whiskey? 2. What does Little Tree learn about Granpa when he hears him say "I kin ye Bonnie Bee"? 3. Who is Smokehouse and what role does he play in Chapter 7? 4. What is Little Tree especially proud of in Chapter 9? 5. Which character comes to visit the family in Chapter 7? (see the answer keys) This section contains 897 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page) Buy The Education of Little Tree Lesson Plans The Education of Little Tree from BookRags. (c)2016 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved. Follow Us on Facebook
Click here to Skip to main content 12,299,131 members (39,708 online) Click here to Skip to main content Add your own alternative version 577 bookmarked .NET Encryption Simplified , 28 Jan 2007 Rate this: Please Sign up or sign in to vote. A simple, string-oriented class for symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption, and hashing. Microsoft's .NET framework has robust support for encryption in the System.Security.Cryptography namespace. Everything you need to perform encryption is available in that class, but it's difficult to understand unless you have a firm grasp of cryptographic theory. Over the last four months, I've struggled with the concepts and theory behind encrypting and decrypting data. I've wrapped all my derived knowledge into a class I call Encryption. This class is heavily documented, string oriented, and most of all, simple! It's ideal for learning more about encryption. There are three essential cryptographic concepts represented in the Encryption namespace. It's important that every developer understands these concepts before proceeding any further: 1. Hashing Hashes aren't encryption, per se, but they are fundamental to all other encryption operations. A hash is a data fingerprint - a tiny set of bytes that represents the uniqueness of a much larger block of bytes. Like fingerprints, no two should ever be alike, and a matching fingerprint is conclusive proof of identity. A full discussion of hashes is outside the scope of this article, but I highly recommend Steve Friedl's Illustrated Guide to Cryptographic Hashes for more background. 2. Symmetric Encryption In symmetric encryption, a single key is used for encrypting and decrypting the data. This type of encryption is quite fast, but has a severe problem: in order to share a secret with someone, they have to know your key. This implies a very high level of trust between people sharing secrets; if an unscrupulous person has your key-- or if your key is intercepted by a spy-- they can decrypt all the messages you send using that key! 3. Asymmetric Encryption Asymmetric encryption solves the trust problem inherent in symmetric encryption by using two different keys: a public key for encrypting messages, and a private key for decrypting messages. This makes it possible to communicate in secrecy with people you don't fully trust. If an unscrupulous person has your public key, who cares? The public key is only good for encryption; it's useless for decryption. They can't decrypt any of your messages! However, asymmetric encryption is very slow. It's not recommended for use on more than roughly 1 kilobyte of data. These three concepts are heavily intertwined and always seen together in modern cryptography. They have different strengths and weaknesses; combining them offers a much higher level of security than can be achieved using a single method alone. For example, when digitally transmitting a check to your bank, all three of these methods are used: Image reprinted from Entrust's Introduction to Cryptography and Digital Signatures PDF. • A hash of the check is calculated. • The hash is encrypted with our public key using asymmetric encryption. • The encrypted hash is appended to the document. • The document is encrypted using a unique one-time symmetric encryption key. • The one-time symmetric encryption key is encrypted with the recipient's public key using asymmetric encryption. • The encrypted key and encrypted document are transmitted to the recipient. In order to open the check, these steps are simply performed in the reverse order by the recipient. Note that if any of these steps were missing, the transaction would have significant weaknesses that could be exploited! Let's start with the simplest operation-- Hashing the string "Hash Browns": Dim h As New Encryption.Hash(Encryption.Hash.Provider.CRC32) Dim d As New Encryption.Data("Hash Browns") Console.WriteLine(".ToHex = '" & h.Value.ToHex & "'") Console.WriteLine(".ToBase64 = '" & h.Value.ToBase64 & "'") Console.WriteLine(".ToString = '" & h.Value.ToString & "'") The unique data fingerprint of the string "Hash Browns" using the CRC32 algorithm is 32 bits or 4 bytes in length. We have a custom data type, Encryption.Data, to aid us in converting those 4 bytes to and from familiar string representations: .ToHex = 'FDBFBC6D' .ToBase64 = '/b+8bQ==' .ToString = 'y¿¼m' It doesn't make much sense to display an array of raw bytes using the .ToString method; that's shown only for illustrative purposes. You'll want raw byte values displayed either as Hexadecimal or Base64 encoded. If necessary, you can get to the raw byte representation via the Encryption.Data.Bytes array. The CRC32 hash is not a good choice for security work; it's optimized for speed and detection of machine transmission errors. It would be relatively easy for a knowledgeable human hacker to generate a string that produces the same CRC32 hash. Let's take a look at a slower, but more secure hash: SHA1. Dim h As New Encryption.Hash(Encryption.Hash.Provider.SHA1) Dim d As New Encryption.Data("Hash Browns") Dim salt As New Encryption.Data("NaCl") h.Calculate(d, salt) SHA1 produces a much longer and more tamper-resistant 160-bit hash code. .ToHex = '95CF26B3BB0.F377347B6D414951456A16DD0CF5F' .ToBase64 = 'lc8ms7sPN3NHttQUlRRWoW3Qz18=' Notice the salt I added? Hashes are commonly used to avoid plain-text storage of passwords in a database. You calculate the hash of the password and store the hash instead of the actual password. When the user types in their password, hash it, then compare it against the stored hash in the database. It's clever, but there is a vulnerability: you can still mount a dictionary attack by hashing the English dictionary and matching it against the hashes stored in the database. We can prevent this by adding a salt-- a unique string-- to every password before hashing it. You'd typically salt with some arbitrary value from the same record, such as the record ID, user's birthday, or a GUID. It doesn't really matter what your salt is, as long as it makes the values unique. By adding the salt as shown above, we are effectively hashing the string "NaClHash Browns" instead of "Hash Browns". Good luck finding "NaClHash" in a dictionary! Also note that string representations aren't particularly efficient; it takes 40 characters to represent the 160 bit (20 byte) hash in string using Hexadecimal, and 28 characters to represent that same hash using Base64 encoding. If you don't need to display your data in semi-human readable format, stick to binary formats. But the textual representations sure are convenient for use in XML or .config files! We're not limited to Encryption.Data byte arrays of fixed length. We can also calculate the hash of an IO.Stream of any arbitrary size: Dim sr As New IO.StreamReader("c:\test.txt") Dim h As New Encryption.Hash(Encryption.Hash.Provider.MD5) Console.WriteLine(".ToHex = '" & h.Calculate(sr.BaseStream).ToHex & "'") So the file test.txt has an MD5 hash of: .ToHex = '92C7C0F251D98DEA2ACC49B21CF08070' Let's see what happens if we add a single space character to test.txt, and hash it again: .ToHex = 'FADECF02C2ABDC7B65EBF2382E8AC756' One of the defining properties of a hash is that small changes in the source bytes produce big differences in the resulting hash bytes. All hashes have the same purpose: to digitally fingerprint code. However, there are different speed and security tradeoffs for each Hash.Provider: Provider Length (bits) Security Speed Hash.Provider.CRC32 32 low fast Hash.Provider.SHA1 160 moderate medium Hash.Provider.SHA256 256 high slow Hash.Provider.SHA384 384 high slow Hash.Provider.SHA512 512 extreme slow Hash.Provider.MD5 128 moderate medium Symmetric encryption is the most familiar kind of encryption; you have a single secret key which is used to both encrypt and decrypt: Dim sym As New Encryption.Symmetric(Encryption.Symmetric.Provider.Rijndael) Dim key As New Encryption.Data("My Password") Dim encryptedData As Encryption.Data encryptedData = sym.Encrypt(New Encryption.Data("Secret Sauce"), key) Dim base64EncryptedString as String = encryptedData.ToBase64 We now have some Rijndael encrypted bytes, expressed as a Base64 string. Let's decrypt them: Dim sym As New Encryption.Symmetric(Encryption.Symmetric.Provider.Rijndael) Dim key As New Encryption.Data("My Password") Dim encryptedData As New Encryption.Data encryptedData.Base64 = base64EncryptedString Dim decryptedData As Encryption.Data decryptedData = sym.Decrypt(encryptedData, key) Like the Encryption.Hash class, this also works for any arbitrarily-sized IO.Stream as well as the fixed size Encryption.Data: Dim sym As New Encryption.Symmetric(Encryption.Symmetric.Provider.TripleDES) Dim key As New Encryption.Data("My Password") Dim fs As New IO.FileStream("c:\test.txt", IO.FileMode.Open, Dim br As New IO.BinaryReader(fs) Dim encryptedData As Encryption.Data encryptedData = sym.Encrypt(br.BaseStream, key) Dim sym2 As New Encryption.Symmetric(Encryption.Symmetric.Provider.TripleDES) Dim decryptedData As Encryption.Data decryptedData = sym2.Decrypt(encryptedData, key) There are a few things to remember when using the Encryption.Symmetric class: • All symmetric encryption is currently performed in memory. Be careful when encrypting extremely large files! • .NET always chooses the largest available key size by default. If you want to manually specify a smaller key size, use the .KeySizeBytes or .KeySizeBits properties. • The key is optional in the .Encrypt method. If you don't provide a key, a key of appropriate length will be auto generated for you and it can be retrieved via the .Key property. It won't be fun to pronounce, because it'll be a randomly generated array of bytes, but it'll sure be hard to guess! • The .InitializationVector property is completely optional. The symmetric algorithms are block-oriented and seed the next block with the results from the previous block. This means the very first block has no seed, so that's where the IV comes in. It's annoying to have to remember both a password and an initialization vector to decrypt your data, and I don't think this is a serious weakness, so I recommend accepting the default initialization vector. .NET provides four different Symmetric.Provider algorithms; I would avoid the ones with shorter keys and known weaknesses: Provider Length (bits) Known Vulnerabilities Symmetric.Provider.DES 64 yes Symmetric.Provider.RC2 40-128 yes Symmetric.Provider.Rijndael 128, 192, 256 no Symmetric.Provider.TripleDES 128, 192 no Asymmetric encryption requires the use of two keys: one public, one private, together known as a "keyset". Let's generate a new keyset and encrypt some data: Dim asym As New Encryption.Asymmetric Dim pubkey As New Encryption.Asymmetric.PublicKey Dim privkey As New Encryption.Asymmetric.PrivateKey asym.GenerateNewKeyset(pubkey, privkey) Dim secret As String = "ancient chinese" Dim encryptedData As Encryption.Data encryptedData = asym.Encrypt(New Encryption.Data(secret), pubkey) Dim decryptedData As Encryption.Data Dim asym2 As New Encryption.Asymmetric decryptedData = asym2.Decrypt(encryptedData, privkey) Note that we used the public key to encrypt, and the private key to decrypt. Although you can certainly generate as many new public/private keysets as you want, you'll typically load an existing keyset. To facilitate loading and saving of keys, the Encryption.Asymmetric.PublicKey and Encryption.Asymmetric.PrivateKey classes support XML serialization via the .ToXml and .FromXml methods. They also support exporting to config file format via the .ToConfigSection method, which returns a string suitable for cutting and pasting into the <appSettings> section of your *.config file: <add key="PublicKey.Modulus" h1Q90Bz+ZxCp/V8Hcf86p+4LPeb1o9EOa01zd0yUwvkE=" /> <add key="PublicKey.Exponent" value="AQAB" /> <add key="PrivateKey.P" YHVVkRyVoH16PwLW6Tt2gpdYw==" /> <add key="PrivateKey.Q" GGMBg8OT5+EVtWAOdto8KTJCw==" /> <add key="PrivateKey.DP" 5umYGwWmRSL20Ufc+gnZQo6Pw==" /> <add key="PrivateKey.DQ" NVhxVZwsHNM1z2LC5Q+O8BPXQ==" /> <add key="PrivateKey.InverseQ" 7dwgPBIA+uA/LF+C1LXcXe9Aw==" /> <add key="PrivateKey.D" emNKQDeFW81UOELVszUXNjhVex+k67Ma4omR6iTHSE=" /> The private key is a superset of the public key; it can be used for both encryption and decryption, whereas the public key can only be used for encryption. Once a key is placed in the <appSettings> section of your .config file, it will be used automatically; you no longer have to specify a private key in the .Decrypt method: Dim encryptedData As Encryption.Data Dim decryptedData As Encryption.Data Dim asym As New Encryption.Asymmetric Dim asym2 As New Encryption.Asymmetric Dim secret As String = "Michael Bolton" encryptedData = asym.Encrypt(New Encryption.Data(secret)) decryptedData = asym2.Decrypt(encryptedData) Note that we didn't specify any keys here; everything was automatically absorbed from the <appSettings> section of the config file. There are a few caveats when using Encryption.Asymmetric: • Microsoft's implementation of asymmetric encryption offers no choice of providers: you'll get RSA and you'll like it! You do get a choice of key sizes, though-- anywhere from 384 bits to 16,384 bits in steps of 8 bits. If you don't specify a size in the constructor, you'll get 1,024 bits by default. That should be more than enough for most uses. • Asymmetric encryption is designed for small inputs. This is partly because asymmetric encryption is brutally slow, but it's also by design: depending on the key size you choose, you'll get an exception if you try to encrypt something too big! There are workarounds, but I don't recommend them. Follow best practices as defined at the top of this article; use asymmetric encryption to protect short stuff, like symmetric passwords or hashes. The Annoying File Dependency in Encryption.Asymmetric Unfortunately, Microsoft chose to provide some System.Security.Cryptography functionality through the existing COM-based CryptoAPI. Typically this is no big deal; lots of things in .NET are delivered via COM interfaces. However, there is one destructive side effect in this case: asymmetric encryption, which in my opinion should be an entirely in-memory operation, has a filesystem "key container" dependency: Even worse, this weird little "key container" file usually goes to the current user's folder! I have specified a machine folder as documented in this Microsoft knowledge base article. Every time we perform an asymmetric encryption operation, a file is created and then destroyed in the C:\Documents and Settings\All Users\Application Data\Microsoft\Crypto\RSA\MachineKeys folder. It is simply unavoidable, which you can see for yourself by opening this folder and watching what happens to it when you make asymmetric encryption calls. Make sure whatever account .NET is running as (ASP.NET, etc.) has permission to this folder! Encryption is a deep, complicated subject. I hope this article and the accompanying classes made it at least a little more approachable. Please don't hesitate to provide feedback, good or bad! If you enjoyed this article, you may also like my other articles as well. • Tuesday, April 19th, 2005 • Published. • Sunday, May 1st, 2005 • Minor bugfixes to article code. • Corrected issue with byte array nulls and Encoding.GetString in C#. • Monday, January 29th, 2007 • Straight port to .NET 2.0 and Visual Studio 2005. A list of licenses authors might use can be found here About the Author Web Developer United States United States My name is Jeff Atwood. I live in Berkeley, CA with my wife, two cats, and far more computers than I care to mention. My first computer was the Texas Instruments TI-99/4a. I've been a Microsoft Windows developer since 1992; primarily in VB. I am particularly interested in best practices and human factors in software development, as represented in my recommended developer reading list. I also have a coding and human factors related blog at You may also be interested in... Comments and Discussions QuestionMy Vote of 5 Pin Member 120439996-Apr-16 6:46 memberMember 120439996-Apr-16 6:46 QuestionFound a bug RSA key sized capped at 1024. Pin Member 771691716-Jul-15 5:54 memberMember 771691716-Jul-15 5:54 QuestionHoly Crap! Pin Steven Kirkland18-Apr-15 17:32 memberSteven Kirkland18-Apr-15 17:32 GeneralMy vote of 5 Pin Rolando CC5-Feb-15 2:59 professionalRolando CC5-Feb-15 2:59 GeneralMy vote of 5 Pin Assil21-Jan-14 7:29 memberAssil21-Jan-14 7:29 QuestionI give 5 Pin Assil20-Jan-14 14:45 memberAssil20-Jan-14 14:45 QuestionMatching Java encryption Pin Member 852585211-Jun-13 4:08 memberMember 852585211-Jun-13 4:08 QuestionWhy on earth did you do this in VB? Pin msdevtech29-Jan-13 2:21 membermsdevtech29-Jan-13 2:21 AnswerRe: Why on earth did you do this in VB? Pin reeselmiller218-Mar-13 7:13 memberreeselmiller218-Mar-13 7:13 GeneralRe: Why on earth did you do this in VB? Pin msdevtech5-Nov-13 23:20 membermsdevtech5-Nov-13 23:20 reeselmiller26-Nov-13 9:43 memberreeselmiller26-Nov-13 9:43 mwpowellhtx1-Dec-14 2:51 membermwpowellhtx1-Dec-14 2:51 Lambert Antonio24-Mar-13 20:35 memberLambert Antonio24-Mar-13 20:35 Tino Fourie5-Feb-16 8:31 memberTino Fourie5-Feb-16 8:31 QuestionThank you! Pin dfowler19654-Dec-12 12:34 memberdfowler19654-Dec-12 12:34 QuestionDeHash a Hash Pin 3d-codeaholic16-Nov-12 12:20 member3d-codeaholic16-Nov-12 12:20 AnswerRe: DeHash a Hash Pin Member 94592307-May-13 16:32 memberMember 94592307-May-13 16:32 QuestionGreat article ! Pin Dieter Vander Donckt26-Sep-12 4:37 memberDieter Vander Donckt26-Sep-12 4:37 GeneralThis is very good article. Pin Jayesh Sorathia29-Aug-12 22:35 memberJayesh Sorathia29-Aug-12 22:35 QuestionDifferent results when compared to equivalent encryption tools Pin MarkRBaxter20-Aug-12 2:37 memberMarkRBaxter20-Aug-12 2:37 AnswerRe: Different results when compared to equivalent encryption tools Pin Member 46279223-Dec-14 6:26 memberMember 46279223-Dec-14 6:26 GeneralThanks! Pin Paulo Vaz31-Mar-12 4:52 memberPaulo Vaz31-Mar-12 4:52 GeneralMy vote of 5 Pin manoj kumar choubey29-Mar-12 20:09 membermanoj kumar choubey29-Mar-12 20:09 QuestionPlease help me with decryption Pin fsman10219-Feb-12 8:01 memberfsman10219-Feb-12 8:01 GeneralMy vote of 5 Pin sanjon966-Feb-12 3:53 membersanjon966-Feb-12 3:53 SuggestionMisconceptions in this article Pin DEGT2-Feb-12 7:37 memberDEGT2-Feb-12 7:37 The article is not 100% correct, as we know Asymmetric Encryption algorithms such as RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) use both a Public and Private Key whereas Symmetric Encryption algorithms only have a Secret key. The problem with this article is that it leads the reader to believe that you use the Public key to encrypt and the Private key to decrypt. If this was 100% true, the recipient would have (as indicated in the article) to have the "additional" Private Key and basically if the recipient has the private key your whole asymmetric encryption is as good as shouting your sensitive data out loud. With asymmetric algorithms the Sender has both a Private AND Public key. The Private key is PRIVATE (for that reason), it is kept and guarded ONLY by the SENDER. The sender encrypts a message using the PRIVATE key and can optionally SIGN it. The recipient on the other hand only has the sender's PUBLIC key which is shared and a subset of the entire public/private key parameters. When the recipient receives a signed message, the signature is VERIFIED with the SENDER's PUBLIC key, that way he knows it was signed by the sender because the sender is the only one with the PRIVATE key (unless security has been breached). If the message received is encrypted (asymmetric) then the recipient DECRYPTS that message using the SENDER's PUBLIC key (shared). Now what the confusion here is is that the RSA public key can also be used for encryption but this is only a special case that is used for Key Exchange in which two parties use Asymmetric Encryption and exchange a secret (symmetric) key between each other. In this key exchange the Sender encrypts the secret key with the recipient's PUBLIC key and then the recipient is the only one that can decrypt the symmetric key that was exchanged because the recipient has the PRIVATE key that matches the PUBLIC key that was used for the key exchange. (See [Secret Key Exchange]) In other words, the Sender ALWAYS keeps (and never distributes) his/her PRIVATE key which is contrary to what you say in your article. Also, for an example of the above mentioned symmetric key exchange using RSA (and AES as the symmetric algorithm) see[RSA Key Exchange] GeneralMy vote of 5 Pin amitmishra70719-Nov-11 17:58 memberamitmishra70719-Nov-11 17:58 BugThree errors in .NetFx3 fixed Pin Gabriel X27-Jun-11 5:04 memberGabriel X27-Jun-11 5:04 AnswerRe: Three errors in .NetFx3 fixed Pin Dush Abe7-Aug-11 18:01 memberDush Abe7-Aug-11 18:01 GeneralMy vote of 5 Pin Senthil Kumar Selvaraj23-May-11 14:32 memberSenthil Kumar Selvaraj23-May-11 14:32 GeneralMy vote of 5 Pin parthii3-Mar-11 20:39 memberparthii3-Mar-11 20:39 GeneralMy vote of 2 Pin Garry Lowther11-Jun-10 3:50 memberGarry Lowther11-Jun-10 3:50 GeneralRe: My vote of 2 Pin dimethol19-Sep-11 0:20 memberdimethol19-Sep-11 0:20 GeneralEncrypted text same length as plaintext Pin trhalvorson1-Feb-10 6:37 membertrhalvorson1-Feb-10 6:37 GeneralSmooth and Easy to Understand Pin mjordan16-Dec-09 13:58 membermjordan16-Dec-09 13:58 GeneralGreat Article [modified] Pin Richard Osafo15-Nov-09 4:49 memberRichard Osafo15-Nov-09 4:49 GeneralRe: Great Article Pin ShaneMcDonald12-Aug-10 7:08 memberShaneMcDonald12-Aug-10 7:08 QuestionSymmetric encryption - code issue or by design? Pin GalleySlave30-Jun-09 22:09 memberGalleySlave30-Jun-09 22:09 GeneralCode translated to C# Pin felipecsl18-Jun-09 3:54 memberfelipecsl18-Jun-09 3:54 GeneralRe: Code translated to C# Pin Prishalan3-Aug-09 22:45 memberPrishalan3-Aug-09 22:45 GeneralRe: Code translated to C# Pin may_east19-Aug-09 10:01 membermay_east19-Aug-09 10:01 GeneralRe: Code translated to C# Pin bscaer27-Oct-11 8:31 memberbscaer27-Oct-11 8:31 GeneralRe: Code translated to C# Pin namit25077-Aug-14 9:33 membernamit25077-Aug-14 9:33 Question.Clear() method to cleanup Pin mongoose_za7-May-09 2:03 membermongoose_za7-May-09 2:03 GeneralDecrypt using Symmetric key Pin may_east29-Apr-09 6:34 membermay_east29-Apr-09 6:34 GeneralRe: Decrypt using Symmetric key Pin Jason Vetter22-Sep-10 6:41 memberJason Vetter22-Sep-10 6:41 GeneralTroubleshooting Decryption in C# - Please Help Pin Clayton Q.18-Mar-09 9:57 memberClayton Q.18-Mar-09 9:57 AnswerRe: Troubleshooting Decryption in C# - Please Help Pin Patrick Wolf22-Feb-10 0:25 memberPatrick Wolf22-Feb-10 0:25 QuestionError on RSACryptoServiceProvider.ImportParameters in Utils._ImportKey Pin mdepaepe25-Feb-09 0:36 membermdepaepe25-Feb-09 0:36 GeneralProblem with Key Pin jfsanchez2k28-Nov-08 9:49 memberjfsanchez2k28-Nov-08 9:49 \| Advertise \| Privacy \| Terms of Use \| Mobile Web02 \| 2.8.160525.2 \| Last Updated 29 Jan 2007 Article Copyright 2005 by wumpus1 Everything else Copyright © CodeProject, 1999-2016 Layout: fixed \| fluid
›› Convert gigametre to rope ›› More information from the unit converter How many gigametre in 1 rope? The answer is 3.7783E-9. We assume you are converting between gigametre and rope. You can view more details on each measurement unit: gigametre or rope The SI base unit for length is the metre. 1 metre is equal to 1.0E-9 gigametre, or 0.264669295715 rope. Use this page to learn how to convert between gigameters and ropes. ›› Want other units? You can do the reverse unit conversion from rope to gigametre, or enter any two units below: Enter two units to convert I'm feeling lucky, show me some random units. ›› Definition: Gigameter A gigametre (American spelling: gigameter, symbol: Gm) is a unit of length equal to 10^9 metres. Its customary equivalent is 621,371 miles. ›› Metric conversions and more
A telltale sign of haphazardly composited images is selections with fringe — the unattractive kind that consists of background pixels that surround the edges of your selections. Inevitably, when you move or paste a selection, some background pixels are bound to go along for the ride. These pixels are referred to as a fringe or halo. Luckily, the Defringe command replaces the color of the fringe pixels with the colors of neighboring pixels that don’t contain the background color. In the example, the toy boat is plucked out of a white studio background and placed on an image of water. Some of the background pixels were included in the selection and appear as a white fringe. When you apply the Defringe command, those white fringe pixels are changed to colors of nearby pixels, such as blue or red. Follow these steps to defringe your selection: 1. In Full Photo Edit or Quick Photo Edit mode, copy and paste a selection onto a new or existing layer, or drag and drop a selection onto a new document. 2. Choose Enhance→Adjust Color→Defringe Layer. The Defringe dialog box appears. 3. Enter a value for the number of pixels that needs to be converted. Try entering 1 or 2 first to see whether that does the trick. If not, you may need to enter a slightly higher value. 4. Click OK to accept the value and close the dialog box.
How Many Are There? Flowers 3.8 based on 17 ratings Budding botanists will love learning to count with this fun, easy worksheet. Have your preschooler count the number of flowers in each problem, then fill in their answer. Find other "How Many Are There?" worksheets here. Preschool Counting & Numbers Addition Worksheets: How Many Are There? Flowers Download Worksheet
Author: unknown Earliest date: 1939 (OLochlainn) Keywords: Ireland patriotic Found in: Ireland "Poor Old Granuaile," bound in chains, in deep distress, mourns the loss of the old heroes and avengers. Dan O'Connell says "I have got the bill to fulfil your wishes.... Her voice so clear fell on my ear" Two similar but different broadsides: Bodleian, Harding B 19(25), "Granauile" ("One morning fair to take the air and recreate my mind"), J.F. Nugent & Co. (Dublin), 1850-1899 Bodleian, Johnson Ballads 507A, "Granawail" ("[Come] all you Irish hero's that's craving for liberty"), E. Hodges (London), 1855-1861 "Granuaile O'Malley (Or Grace O'Malley, or Gr.inne Ni Mhaille or Gr.inne Uaile) is among the most illustrious of O'Malley ancestors. She was a 'Sea Queen' and pirate in the 16th century." (Source: The Official Web Site of The O'Malley Clan Association) The ballad is recorded on one of the CD's issued around the time of the bicentenial of the 1798 Irish Rebellion. See: Franke Harte and Donal Lunny, "Granuaile" (on Franke Harte and Donal Lunny, "My Name is Napoleon Bonaparte," Hummingbird Records HBCD0027 (2001)) Harte: "The older Gaelic poets when they wished to write on the wrongs that Ireland has suffered at the hands of the English since the invasion of Ireland in 1169, they often adopted the type of poem called 'The Aisling'." He goes on to describe the 'aisling' and shows that Granuaile is typical of the pattern. - BS Patrick C. Power's _A Literary History of Ireland_ associates the aisling in particular with Aodhagan O Rathaille (c. 1670-c. 1730), and notes on p. 97 that "If any form of verse can be described as typically 18th century, then the aisling deserves this title. Essentially, the aisling means vision and the poetry... known as 'aislings' are essentially vision poems. The first poems of this kind appeared during the end of the 16th century." By the eighteenth century, he adds, a formula had been fixed: "The poet goes out walking and meets a beautiful lady. He then describes her dress and appearance and asks her who she is. She is generally the personification of Ireland and she promises early deliverance from the foreign yoke and the return of the Stuarts to the English throne.... Aisling-poetry was always closely connected with the Jacobite movement and is mainly escapist in mode. It often abounds in classical allusions." Power would technically deny this song Aisling-hood, since the "last aislings were written in the early 19th century and even still referred to the Stuart prince." The references to Daniel O'Connell obviously changes the picture, but the form fits -- this might be called a neo-aisling. Especially since it's in English. Granuaile seems to have inspired a whole family of these neo-aislings, in fact -- enough that it might be called a sub-genre at least. See "The Rights of Man" and "Poor Old Granuaile," ; compare also "Erin's Green Shore" [Laws Q27] and "Erin's Lament for her Davitt Asthore." For more on aislings, see Ben Schwartz's note to "Eileen McMahon." The _Oxford Companion to Irish History_ gives Granuaile O'Malley's dates as c. 1530-c. 1603, observes that she was married twice and imprisoned 1577-1579 -- and notes that, on the whole, she strove for peaceful relations with the English. Daniel O'Connell (1775-1847) was an Irish patriot who worked vigorously for Catholic freedom. He did not take part in the 1798 rebellion, but promoted Irish and Catholic rights for many years, and in 1829 saw Britain lift the ban on Catholics in parliament. One of the greatest of the peaceful Irish leaders, his tragedy is that eventually neither side trusted him. For more about his history, see the various songs named for him. - RBW Cross references 1. OLochlainn 3, "Granuaile" (1 text, 1 tune) 2. Healy-OISBv2, pp. 33-34, "A New Song Called Granuaile" (1 text, probably this though printed without stanza divisions) 3. Roud #3034 4. BI, OLoc003
Four Dams Down... Wpdms_shdrlfi020l_klamath_river.jpg A tentative agreement has been reached to begin decommissioning four aging dams on the Klamath River—the largest dam-removal project ever undertaken. The agreement marks a major shift in the battle over Klamath water, reports AAAS. The Klamath flows from southern Oregon through northern California. It's the third most important salmon river in the lower 48 after the Columbia and Sacramento. The dams provide cheap renewable energy and irrigation for farmers but not enough water for salmon. During the 2001 drought, federal officials shut off the irrigation water for the sake of the fish. In 2002, after protests from farmers, they reversed course and shunted flows back to Oregon's potato and alfalfa fields. At least 33,000 salmon died as a result of that decision, in one of the worst salmon kills in US history. In 2007 declining salmon in the Klamath produced a severely curtailed commercial fishing quota. Everyone got burned. Fish worst of all. According to the new agreement, the dams will come down starting in 2020. Before that, scientists and engineers have to figure out what to do with all the silt accumulated behind them. Loosing the silt into the river's flow will likely suffocate everything downstream. Meanwhile Oregon and California will also use the time until 2020 to raise money to pay for the dam removal. Under the agreement, PacifiCorp customers will pay a 2% surcharge on their utility bills to raise up to $200 million for the dam removal. California is expected to issue general obligation bonds to raise an additional $250 million. The salmon wars aren't over yet, though. The agreement is non-binding. Plus it was reached between the US Department of Interior, California, Oregon, and the utility company PacifiCorp without consulting customer advocates, Native Americans with water rights, or environmental groups. The Bush administration has long opposed dam removal. And Interior Secretary Dirk Kempthorne is a vigorous opponent of dam removal in his native Idaho. Now he hails the Klamath agreement as a big victory. Hopefully it will be. But let's also hope the era of the Imperial Anti-Environmental Interior Department will go away forever on January 20th 2009.
PH and Sleep Apnea What is the connection between sleep apnea and PH? Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been identified as a significant cause of and/or contributor to cardiovascular disease. OSA has been shown to increase the risk for hypertension, pulmonary vascular disease, ischemic heart disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, and arrhythmias. The true relationship remains controversial despite the growing body of evidence that links OSA to the development of cardiovascular disease. Many risk factors for OSA are also known risk factors for cardiovascular disease, such as age, male gender, obesity, diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Therefore, it is difficult to prove whether OSA independently causes cardiovascular disease. How does sleep-disordered breathing affect the body? Episodes of sleep-disordered breathing cause blood vessel changes that can cause and contribute to cardiovascular disease. The adverse effects that OSA imposes on cardiovascular function are thought to arise from recurrent cycles of not breathing, intermittent hypoxia and the resulting arousals. This cycle of nocturnal desaturation results in an increase in sympathetic tone, impaired nitric oxide synthesis, endothelial dysfunction and ultimately leads to vascular and cardiac dysfunction, atherosclerosis and hypertension. What is the relationship between sleep apnea and pulmonary hypertension? The 2004 American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) consensus panel found that pulmonary hypertension occurred in 17 percent to 53 percent of individuals with OSA, whereas a review from Johns Hopkins found that 82 percent of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension had underlying sleep-disordered breathing. The nocturnal drop in oxygen impairs nitric oxide synthesis and causes vascular remodeling which can lead to the development of pulmonary vascular disease. However, whether OSA independently causes clinically significant pulmonary hypertension remains controversial. Thus, the current ACCP guidelines do not recommend evaluating patients with OSA for pulmonary hypertension unless it is clinically suspected. However, patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension should be evaluated for OSA. What treatments are available? CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) has been shown to be effective in patients with heart failure. Controlled trials have shown that treatment of OSA with CPAP is associated with significant improvements in cardiac function, sympathetic activity and quality of life. In the Canadian Positive Airway Pressure study, CPAP improved nocturnal oxygenation, increased left ventricular function, lowered norepinephrine levels and improved functional capacity among patients with sleep apnea and heart failure. Several recent studies have shown reductions in pulmonary artery pressure in patients with OSA after nocturnal CPAP treatment. Answer provided by David Pham, MD, FCCP, Pulmonary Hypertension Specialist, Pulmonary & Critical Care, Lung Care Center, Fountain Valley, Calif. Additional Resources Sleeping Better Check out tips to help you get a good night's sleep. FacebookTwitterInstagram iconLinkedInYouTube Privacy Policy Provide Feedback & Report Bugs
The Rights of Living Persons excerpted from the book The Post-Corporate World Life After Capitalism by David Korten Kumarian Press, 1999, paper Thurman Arnold The idea that a corporation is endowed with the rights and prerogatives of a free individual is as essential to the acceptance of corporate rule in temporal affairs as was the ideal of the divine right of kings in an earlier day. Human rights secure our freedom to live fully and responsibly within life's community. We are finding, however, that as corporations have become increasingly successful in claiming these same rights for themselves, they have become increasingly assertive in denying them to living people. For example ... they use property rights as an instrument to deny the economically weak the most fundamental of all human rights-the right to live-by denying them the right of access to a means of living. The conflict between the person's right to a means of living and the presumed right of the corporation to the security of its property and profit is perhaps the ultimate confrontation between the natural rights of living people and the rights that the institutions of capitalism have presumed for themselves, but it is only one of many. Supported by legions of corporate lawyers and sympathetic judges, corporations have worked through the courts to acquire ever more of the rights and freedoms that living persons gained only through long and difficult political struggle. They have in turn used the rights so acquired to extend their control over the institutions of democracy and the material, communications, and knowledge resources on which people depend to secure their living. Now, in a further move to consolidate their power, the institutions of money are well on their way to declaring themselves owners of the whole of life through the systematic effort to expand the private patenting of genetic materials. There seems to be an ironclad relationship. The stronger the rights of corporations, the weaker the rights of persons to live fully and well with freedom, responsibility, and dignity. Thus, to restore human rights and dignity we must establish clearly the principle that human rights reside solely in living persons. From Property Rights to the Rights of Property In the American colonies the vote was reserved for the owners of real property-a mechanism widely favored by the landed aristocracy in the early days of democracy to confine political control to the presumably more diligent landed classes. In effect, that law connected political rights to property rather than to the person, an idea that to this day carries the seed of democracy's undoing. When a person's rights are recognized only in proportion to his or her property, it is as though rights reside in the property rather than in the person. We have since vested the vote in personhood rather than propertyhood and assumed that all is right with democracy. Meantime, in other spheres of political and economic life, the rights of property and the propertied have steadily expanded at the expense of the rights of the person. Of special significance was a decision by the U.S. Supreme Court to name the corporation, which is created by government and claimed by its shareholders as property, an honorary person entitled to the rights thereof. In the United States the natural rights of persons are enshrined in the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, known as the Bill of Rights. Indeed, the individual states approved the Constitution only once assurances were given that a Bill of Rights would be added through amendment. Each provision was thoroughly contested, publicly debated, and subject to ratification by all of the state legislatures. Since the time of ratification all other U.S. laws have been subject to the test of consistency with these constitutionally guaranteed human rights. The U.S. Constitution, however, does not use the term "human" rights. It speaks rather of the rights of persons, which most people would take to be the same thing. In 1886, however, in the case of Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad, the U.S. Supreme Court decided that a private corporation is a person and entitled to the legal rights and protections the Constitution affords to any person. Because the Constitution makes no mention of corporations, it is a fairly clear case of the Court's taking it upon itself to rewrite the Constitution. Far more remarkable, however, is that the doctrine of corporate personhood, which subsequently became a cornerstone of corporate law, was introduced in this 1886 decision without argument. According to the official case record, Supreme Court Justice Morrison Remick Waite simply pronounced before the beginning of argument in the case of Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad that The court does not wish to hear argument on the question of whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of opinion that it does. The court reporter duly entered into the summary record of the Court's findings that: The defendant Corporations are persons within the intent of the clause in section 1 of the Fourteen [sic] Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Thus it was that a two-sentence assertion by a single judge elevated corporations to the status of persons under the law, prepared the way for the rise of global corporate rule, and thereby changed the course of history. The doctrine of corporate personhood creates an interesting legal contradiction. The corporation is owned by its shareholders and is therefore their property. If it is also a legal person, then it is a person owned by others and thus exists in a condition of slavery-a status explicitly forbidden by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. So is a corporation a person illegally held in servitude by its shareholders? Or is it a person who enjoys rights of personhood that take precedence over the presumed ownership rights of its shareholders? So far as I have been able to determine, this contradiction has not been directly addressed by the courts. Without addressing this question directly, the courts have moved persistently, however, in the direction of expanding corporate rights and increasing the autonomy of corporate management, even from intervention by the corporation's titular owners. Corporations now enjoy unlimited life; virtual freedom of movement anywhere on the globe; control of the mass media; the ability to amass legions of lawyers and public relations specialists in support of their cause; and freedom from liability for the misdeeds of wholly owned subsidiaries. They also enjoy the presumed right to amass property and financial resources without limit; engage in any legal activity; bring liability suits against private citizens or civic organizations that challenge them; make contributions to individual candidates, political parties, and political action committees and deduct those contributions from taxable income as business expenses; withhold potentially damaging information from customers; and avoid restrictions on the advertising of harmful but legal products in the name of commercial free speech. Although their owners hold the ultimate decision-making power and the corporation is obliged to manage its affairs for the sole benefit of its owners, these owners bear no accountability for corporate misdeeds or liability beyond the loss of value of their shares. Step-by-step, largely through judge-made law, corporations have become far more powerful than ever intended by the people and governments that created them. To Restore the Rights of the Living Those concerned with curbing the excesses of the corporation have generally focused on one of two losing strategies. The first is to appeal to the conscience of the corporation to act more responsibly. As Robert Monks reminds us, however, in The Emperor's Nightingale, Corporations are not people; they have no conscience. Although corporate acts are carried out by individuals, even individuals with high moral standards often find themselves caught up in a corporate action that is beyond their control-or even, in some cases, their knowledge. The corporation is a legal instrument and the people of conscience who work for it are legally obligated to set aside their own values in favor of the financial interests of the institution and its shareholders. A further barrier to corporate responsibility resides in the extent to which the existence and profitability of many corporations depend on successfully promoting harmful products and encouraging behaviors damaging to one's self and society. Could the R. J. Reynolds corporation, for example, really commit itself to discouraging anyone under twenty-one years of age from smoking, knowing this would virtually eliminate its future market for tobacco products? Could the Coca-Cola corporation decide to stop encouraging children to consume large amounts of flavored sugar water and encourage them to substitute clean tap water and fresh fruit juices? Could the General Motors corporation become a serious advocate of urban growth boundaries and improved public transportation to limit dependence on the automobile? When the Monsanto corporation announced it was divesting itself of most of its industrial chemicals production to concentrate on genetic engineering, its stock price doubled in anticipation of major increases in earnings. Can the management of the Monsanto corporation now afford to hold a new genetically engineered product off the market until it is certain there is no serious possibility of harmful environmental or health consequences? In each instance, making the socially responsible choice would be equivalent to corporate suicide and surely cost the CEO his job. The second losing strategy is to oppose corporate misdeeds corporation by corporation and deed by deed. The victories are costly, few, and generally only temporary because they do nothing to change the nature of the corporation or reduce its staying power. A major case in point is the legendary citizen boycott of the Nestle corporation demanding that it stop encouraging poor mothers in Third World countries to favor bottle feeding over breast feeding-a practice responsible for untold numbers of infant deaths. To end the boycott, Nestle agreed to change its practices. Meanwhile, other infant formula producers continued similar promotions, and Nestle itself was soon back to doing the same. On the other hand, the losses are often permanent, as when children die, or when citizens lose the battle to keep a Wal-Mart out of their town or to stop the clear-cut of an ancient forest by a timber corporation. Any initiative that raises public consciousness of corporate misdeeds makes a useful contribution and we must surely oppose corporate abuses with all the means at our disposal. However, although we may win some battles, we will continue to lose the war so long as capitalism's dysfunctional structures remain in place. To restore the rights and powers of the living we must eliminate the autonomous rights and powers of money and its institutions through a six-fold agenda aimed at restoring political democracy; ending the legal fiction of corporate personhood; establishing an international agreement regulating international corporations and finance; eliminating corporate welfare; restoring money's role as a medium of exchange; and advancing economic democracy. Each of these six agenda items defines an important goal for citizen action. Although the agenda has universal relevance and is already being advanced by citizen initiatives in a number of countries, most of the examples I will use center on the United States. Our government and our corporations have been the major architects of the global capitalist system and hold the major levers of power. We therefore bear greater responsibility than any other country for the global crisis and for taking steps to dismantle the system that has created it. Each agenda item defines an important initiative in its own right requiring the development of specific legislative proposals, programs of direct action, and political mobilization strategies. The purpose here is only to identify the critical focal points for citizen action aimed at transforming the existing system of economic power. To raise the money required to wage successful campaigns, politicians must spend a large portion of their time courting favor with and tending to the interests of the biggest corporations and wealthiest investors. It has become a vicious cycle. The more the politicians bend the rules to channel an ever greater share of society's real wealth to the already rich, the more money the rich can channel to politicians to gain further advantage. There are few issues in America on which public consensus is so clear and unanimous. Eighty-six percent of Americans believe campaign contributions influence the policies supported by public officials moderately or a great deal. Seventy-nine percent favor "putting a limit on the amount of money candidates for the U.S. House and Senate can raise and spend on their political campaigns." Eighty-one percent favor "limiting the total amount of money which business and industry can contribute to U.S. House and Senate campaigns each election." Sixty-four percent believe it would be a good idea for the federal government to provide a fixed amount of money for the election campaigns of candidates for Congress and prohibit all private contributions. And 48 percent think they are more likely to see Elvis Presley in person than to see the U.S. Congress pass real campaign finance reform. Increasingly of the opinion that political bodies have become too corrupt to reform themselves, citizens in the United States are turning to state ballot measures. In November 1996, voters in the state of Maine passed a clean-money campaign-reform initiative by a 56 to 44 percent vote after the state legislature had rejected more than forty reform proposals during the previous decade. Eleven-hundred grassroots volunteers collected more than sixty-five thousand signatures on Election Day 1995 to place the measure on the ballot. The initiative, passed in 1996, did what no state or federal legislative body had ever done-offered full public financing to candidates for state office who reject special-interest contributions and agree to campaign-spending limits. Spurred to action by the Maine initiative, Vermont's state legislature passed a similar measure by a wide majority. By mid-1998, diverse grassroots coalitions and reform-minded legislators were pursuing similar measures in fourteen other states. Although state-level measures change the election rules only for state-level offices, the spreading and strengthening of these efforts sends a powerful signal to national-level politicians that the voters care. No issue is more central to restoring the rights of living people than serious campaign finance reform. If a democracy of people based on one person, one vote is to be restored, then we must have strict limits on political giving and spending and get corporations out of the political process. Meaningful reform will necessarily include a combination of public financing of political campaigns and provision of free television and radio time to qualified candidates as a public service obligation of those licensed to use the public airwaves, and a prohibition on any effort by a corporation to influence the outcome of an election, legislation, or referendum, or the negotiation of an international agreement or treaty. The matter of excluding corporations from political participation merits elaboration. The authority by which a government issues a corporate charter is derived from the sovereign authority of its people. It is appropriate that those who have created the corporation determine the rules under which it will exist and function and that the corporation accept those rules or relinquish its charter and operate as an unincorporated entity. Barring the corporation from politics affirms the principle that political rights and freedoms reside in the person, not in properties or artificial legal entities. The legal fiction that the corporation is a natural person is a major lever by which corporations have acquired the rights they now use to deny the right of living people to a means of living. Similarly, this legal fiction is used by corporations to claim free speech rights for themselves in promoting their products without public oversight and in seeking to influence public policy, while they use a combination of speech and property rights to prohibit the exercise of the right to free speech by real people. Thus union members are barred from engaging in organizing activities on company property. Citizen activists are barred from exercising their speech rights in shopping malls. The corporations that control the mass media reserve the right to decide whose voices will and will not be heard on the public airwaves. Step-by-step, a small number of corporations are privatizing ever more of our public spaces and reserving them solely for the exercise of their own speech rights to the exclusion of the speech rights of real persons. In these and other ways the doctrine of corporate personhood actively endangers the rights of people and presents a barrier to citizen efforts to hold corporations accountable to a larger public interest. The time has come to launch a serious challenge against the legal fiction of corporate personhood on the principle that the natural rights of persons belong only to living persons. Although the longer-term goal is to eliminate the for-profit, publicly traded corporation as we know it, the interim objective is to restore the doctrine that a corporation enjoys only those privileges specified in its charter to facilitate the conduct of a business in the public interest and that these privileges are subject to periodic public review and withdrawal. Furthermore, the privileges extended are exclusive to the jurisdiction of the governmental entity that issued the charter and do not extend to any other jurisdiction except by the explicit action of the appropriate governmental authorities in that jurisdiction. This doctrine would place strict limits on corporate privileges, without in any way restraining or limiting the recognition and exercise of the universal rights of living persons. There are few actions we might contemplate with comparably far-reaching positive consequences than the elimination of corporate personhood. Progress on this issue in any country would be a positive step, but it is especially important that we engage the cause in the United States, for it is here that the doctrine originated. International trade and investment agreements such as GATT, NAFTA, APEC, and the others have become the favored venues for further extending corporate rights at the expense of democracy and the right of people to govern their own economic affairs. Created largely outside any democratic process, these agreements override democratically enacted laws protecting human and environmental interests. So deeply have our governments aligned with the interests of global capitalism that, following the Uruguay Round of the GATT negotiations that established the World Trade Organization, there was a flurry of initiatives led by the United States to put in place agreements on international investment and finance, including a Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) that would preclude virtually any governmental regulation of the free international flow of speculative money and require governments to guarantee foreign investors against any losses they might incur from the subsequent introduction of environmental or health and safety regulations. A number of trade disputes between the United States and Europe brought to or resolved by the World Trade Organization (WTO) show how these agreements and institutions are used to thwart the ability of democratic governments to respond to the wishes of their citizens for responsible laws on social goals, food security, and food safety. Consider two cases in which the WTO ruled in favor of the United States and against the European Union. One was a U.S. complaint against Europeans for giving preference to bananas produced in the Caribbean over those grown in Latin America. The bananas from the Caribbean were being produced largely on small family farms and were one of the only foreign exchange earners of several small Caribbean island economies. The bananas from Latin America were being grown by U.S. agribusiness corporations-Chiquita, Dole, and Del Monte, which together control almost two-thirds of the world's banana market-on large plantations that have displaced hundreds of small farmers from their lands. The United States thus used the WTO to force Europe to end its preference for the small producers and open its markets to unrestricted access by global megacorporations. Government and company representatives maintain that political donations of $1.1 million to the Democratic Party and $1.4 million to the Republican Party by the Chiquita corporation and its chairman had no influence on the U.S. government's interest in the case. The second case involved a U.S. complaint against a European ban on the import of beef from cows treated with hormones. As the use of hormone supplements is routine in U.S. beef production, the United States complained that the ban discriminated against U.S. producers. The WTO agreed with the United States, ignoring the widespread concern in Europe that the hormones may involve health risks and a strong consumer preference to avoid eating meat from hormone-treated cows. " The U.S. corporations involved in the production and use of the hormones argue that such concerns are groundless and unsupported by scientific data and therefore should be disregarded-claims similar to those long made by cigarette companies regarding concerns about the dangers of tobacco smoke. On a third issue, Europe yielded voluntarily to U.S. pressure to relax restrictions on the import of furs from the United States obtained by use of leg-hold traps, restrictions many feel were fully justified on humanitarian grounds. Unresolved was a U.S. threat to bring a WTO action against France for blocking imports of genetically engineered corn on the grounds that it was simply a measure to protect French corn farmers. Here again many European consumers are concerned about the implications of genetically altered food in relation to health, ethics, and the environment, but such concerns are likely to carry little weight with the WTO unless backed by conclusive scientific findings. Even if there were no health issue, from a human interest perspective there is a strong case to be made that national governments have an obligation to both their own and the world's people to maintain food production capacity and national food security in a world likely to be threatened by severe food shortages in the near future. But there is no sympathy for such concerns in the WTO if they lead to the restriction of trade. Managed borders are essential to the very existence of life - a principle that applies to economies as well as to cells and organisms. To create mindful markets people must be able to protect the coherence and integrity of their domestic and local economies, which is virtually impossible if their borders are wide open to foreign corporations and financial institutions they are forbidden to control. If we are to take economic democracy seriously, decisions regarding economic policies and choices must be firmly in the hands of a country's citizens. Citizen groups have become increasingly active in opposing trade agreements that undermine the democratic rights of people. It is important that these resistance efforts continue. We must block further efforts to use trade agreements to circumvent democracy. The time has come, however, for a citizen-led initiative to demand that our governments put in place an entirely different kind of international agreement aimed at holding global corporations and finance accountable to the human interest. This may logically begin with an international alliance of citizen groups joining to draft a prototype international agreement affirming the rights of people to set their own health, safety, employment, and environmental standards and to establish standards and mechanisms for regulating international corporations and financial flows. The document should establish mechanisms to discourage financial speculation, break up international concentrations of corporate power, and phase out the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and other international agencies whose primary mission is to advance the interests of transnational capital. It should also recognize and secure the right of each individual country to set its own economic priorities and standards and determine the terms under which it will trade with others and invite others to invest in its economy. The process of drafting such an agreement should be designed to engage the broadest citizen participation and build a significant citizen political constituency demanding that our governments sign and enact the agreement as a replacement for existing corporate-sponsored trade and investment agreements. Corporate welfare is not limited to direct public subsidies and tax breaks. It includes a much wider range of externalized costs relating to such things as substandard wages and working conditions, worker health and safety, environmental damage, and dangerous and defective products. Chapter 2 noted the estimate by Ralph Estes that in the United States alone corporations annually externalize more than $2.6 trillion in costs per year, roughly five times the amount of corporate profits. The global figure may be on the order of $10.7 trillion. There is a strong case to be made that corporations provide handsome returns to their top managers and shareholders only at an extraordinary cost to the rest of society. Many would surely go out of business if required to pay their own way as market principles dictate. An obvious starting point toward the elimination of corporate welfare is to eliminate direct public subsidies and tax breaks for corporations, because these are direct financial transfers from taxpayers to corporate managers and shareholders. The next step is to charge environmental use fees for the full public costs of natural-resource extraction and the release of pollutants into the environment. Such action would align with current tax-shift proposals that call for reducing or eliminating taxes on employment, basic incomes, and essential consumption and making up the lost income through fees for resource extraction and pollution. Such a shift from employment and consumption taxes to environmental fees would encourage employment, eliminate the most regressive sales taxes, reduce pollution and resource extraction, and encourage recycling-all highly beneficial outcomes. If the environmental fees reflect actual costs to society, it would also be a significant step toward eliminating market-distorting public subsidies. A third step would be to establish procedures for estimating the amount of other indirect subsidies enjoyed by individual corporations and assessing a public facilities fee in that amount. The fee would recover idle costs to society of corporations that fail to provide a living wage adequate to support a family, health insurance, pension contributions, and safe working conditions for their workers on the grounds that these costs are thus borne by the larger society. Similarly, it would recover the public costs of harmful and defective products such as cigarettes and unsafe automobiles. For example, cost-recovery fees would be assessed on the basis of actuarial experience with the health costs of smoking-related diseases in the case of cigarettes and accident rates and consequences in the case of automobiles. Ideally, all countries would choose to move toward the elimination of corporate subsidies in unison. Given, however, that there is almost no prospect of this happening, it is important to establish the principle that each nation has the right to protect its own producers from predatory competition from subsidized producers by imposing compensating tariffs. Money serves a useful social function as a medium of exchange. In the hands of speculators, however, it becomes an anti-democratic, anti-market instrument of instability and unjust extraction. A central goal of economic policy should be to eliminate financial speculation and restore money's primary role as a medium of exchange. Nearly $2 trillion now changes hands in the world's currency exchange markets each day. Perhaps 2 percent of that money is related to trade in real goods and services. The rest, which is largely pursuing speculative profits, creates massive international financial instability while serving little if any public purpose. The following are reforms that merit consideration. Prohibit banks from financing speculators. ... the financial speculation that destabilized the Asian economies in 1997 was fueled by reckless bank lending that financed the creation of large stock and real estate bubbles. The 1998 collapse in the United States of a single highly leveraged hedge fund, Long-Term Capital Management, that made bad bets on the Russian ruble posed such a threat to the U.S. banking system that the Federal Reserve stepped in to arrange a private bailout. LongTerm Capital's gambling habit was financed with $25 in bank loans for every dollar of equity. There are an estimated 4,000 hedge funds in the world. Some have as much as $100 in loan financing for every dollar in equity. Bear in mind these bank loans represent money that banks created out of nothing and you begin to see how the enormous speculative overhang in the global money system is being created. This lending is a key source of speculative bubbles and the related financial instability that has been rocking the world. Gambling with borrowed money is a bad idea under any circumstances. When it is done on a scale that threatens the integrity of national financial systems, there is a compelling rationale for strong public measures to eliminate it. Appropriate measures include prohibiting banks from accepting financial assets as loan collateral and from lending to hedge funds and other financial institutions for the purpose of leveraging the purchase or sale of financial securities or derivatives. Buying stocks on margin should be similarly prohibited. Tax short-term capital gains at rates substantially higher than earned income. Giving a tax advantage to those who live from speculative gains over those who do productive work for a living is unjust and bad policy. It is appropriate to tax away virtually all gains from capital assets held less than a month as they are almost certainly speculative in nature. It is appropriate that gains from assets held for longer periods of time enjoy more favorable treatment, but in general gains from an asset held less than five years should not enjoy a tax advantage over earned income. This should be true for corporations as well as for individuals. Encourage the use of local currencies. Money's value is based solely on a social contract-an agreement among a group of people that they will accept a particular tender in the payment of debts. A common currency not only facilitates exchange but also defines a community with a mutual interest in productive exchange among its members. The community thereby affirms its own existence and creates a natural preference for its own products. Bernard Lietaer estimates that fifteen hundred communities around the world have issued their own local currencies to facilitate local commerce. The idea is not to eliminate national currencies but rather to supplement them with local currencies that necessarily stay in the community that issues them so that local workers and assets need never stand idle for a simple lack of the money to facilitate exchange. Make the creation of national currencies a public function. A nation's money supply is created by either government's spending new money into existence or a bank's loaning it into existence. The former approach allows a government to pay for public services beyond the amount of its tax revenues. The latter generates large profits for private bankers. Though it's not generally recognized by the public, virtually all money is now loaned into existence by private banks, which means a nation's money supply and the stability of its money system depend on continuously expanding debt to create enough money to repay the old debts and avoid bankruptcy-a primary reason why capitalist economies are prone to collapse if they do not grow exponentially. Placing a 100 percent reserve requirement on demand deposits in the banking system and returning the function of creating national currencies to government would largely eliminate the federal government's need to borrow, reduce the power of the banking system, and eliminate an important source of the money world's growth imperative. Place a demurrage charge on money. Holding virtually any real asset involves a cost to the holder. Forests, factories, farmland, and buildings must be protected and maintained. Personal skills and technologies must be updated. Even holding gold involves costs for secure storage. Only those who hold money as a future claim against the wealth that others are creating and maintaining expect a secure, cost-free interest return with no effort on their part. This feature of money encourages the conversion of real wealth to money to be held in inflating financial assets, though the interests of society are best served by encouraging the creation, stewardship, and augmentation of real wealth. Money expert Bernard Lietaer suggests that the resulting distortions be corrected by charging a small demurrage fee for holding financial assets-say a quarter of a percent a month or 3 percent a year. This might, for example, make it more profitable to invest in growing trees than to hold money in a bank account. Banks would continue to pay interest on savings accounts and charge interest on loans as they do now. The government, however, would levy the demurrage fee against any outstanding financial balances. Restore the concept of community banking. At one time the United States had what is known as a unitary banking system, which means that each bank was individually owned and functioned as a community institution. Local savings were deposited and the money was loaned back to the community for local housing and business investment. It is appropriate to restore this concept by using antitrust rules to break up banking conglomerates and limiting federal deposit insurance to funds deposited with community banks that lend locally. Restrict the conversion of national and local currencies for purposes other than tourism and trade in real goods and services. Beneficial foreign investment necessarily involves the importation of real capital goods, skills, and technologies that increase a country's future productive potential. Purely speculative foreign investment involves no such transfer. It simply creates financial instability, transfers ownership of productive assets to absentee owners, and increases foreign claims against the country's future foreign exchange earnings. As speculative investment flows create public hardship without increasing public welfare, governments have both the right and the obligations to regulate, and even to prohibit, them in the public interest. The previous elements of the agenda focus on constraining the power of global corporations and finance in order to open economic spaces within which people can create the institutions of economic democracy and a true market economy. In addition to such defensive measures, there is room for public policy to be proactive in promoting human-scale, stakeholder-owned enterprises to displace the subsidized megacorporations whose hold the earlier measures are intended to weaken. Many such enterprises already exist in the form of family businesses, cooperatives, community-owned businesses, worker-owned enterprises, and others. New ones are being formed each day. Here the need is to acknowledge the central role of these enterprises as the foundation of the new economy and expand the spaces in which they can flourish as the corporate superstructure is cleared away. We can also salvage much from existing corporate structures by breaking down megacorporations into human-scale, stakeholder-owned firms. The measures already suggested, such as getting corporations out of politics, restoring the integrity of national economic borders, and eliminating corporate welfare, will likely make most megacorporations unprofitable and thereby increase the receptivity of their managers and shareholders to selling off their component businesses to stakeholders at appropriately depreciated prices. Measures to support stakeholder ownership might include requiring that before a major corporation is allowed to close a plant or undertake a sale or merger of significant assets, the affected workers and community must be given first option to buy out the assets on preferential terms. There might be preferential tax treatment for shareholders who sell their shares to stakeholders under an organized stakeholder buyout program. Similarly, relief on estate taxes might be used to encourage the conversion of larger family-owned corporations to stakeholder ownership on the death of their founders. Procedures could be established for converting worker pension funds into meaningful worker ownership programs. Banks might be given incentives to provide loans on preferential terms to finance stakeholder buyouts. Financing might also be mobilized by what Jeff Gates calls a user fee on personal financial accumulations in excess of $10 million "for the privilege of utilizing the nation's private property tradition as a vehicle for accumulating assets totally disproportionate to any conceivable notion of need." This would be a wealth redistribution initiative addressed directly to the need to redistribute asset ownership. Efforts to move toward stakeholder ownership must take into account the history of worker ownership schemes that have not led to meaningful worker participation and empowerment. As noted in Chapter 9, many employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) in the United States place the control of employee shares in the hands of management. The result is a perversion of the concept of stakeholder ownership that gives the titular stakeholder owner less power and say in management than an ordinary absentee owner. Our goal should be exactly the opposite-a much larger and more meaningful role in management by stakeholder owners than by absentee owners. There is need to reform the legal framework and mechanisms of ESOPs to enable and encourage ESOP owners to engage in real ownership participation. Consideration might also be given to expanding existing employee ownership plans to facilitate broader participation by other nonfinancial stakeholders. Significant investment will be needed in educational programs designed to prepare workers and other stakeholders for meaningful and responsible participation. An imaginative and reinvigorated labor union movement could take the lead in advancing stakeholder ownership and providing educational support as part of an agenda to secure the rights of working people and create people-friendly working environments. It will be appropriate to supplement these initiatives in support of stakeholder ownership with the rigorous application of antitrust legislation revamped to establish the presumption that smaller is better until proven otherwise. Thus, mergers and acquisitions would be approved only in those rare instances in which their proponents make a compelling case that the combination would significantly advance the public interest. Any firm with more than a 10 percent share in a major market might be required every five years to make a compelling case in a public regulatory hearing as to why it would not be in the public interest to break it up into more human-scale stakeholder-owned firms. The proposed six-fold agenda attacks the foundation of unaccountable financial and corporate power and opens the way to a radical redistribution of economic wealth and power by returning human rights to living persons. Although the agenda is based on solid, conservative principles of individual responsibility and local control, it does require a frontal assault on the institutional and intellectual underpinnings of our present system of elite privilege. One might for that reason expect a massive backlash against such ideas from within the establishment. But although such a backlash must be expected, the unanimity of the present power holders should not be assumed. There is evidence of deep and growing concern among thoughtful corporate leaders, bankers, and even economists, that they may be sitting atop an increasingly unstable system on the brink of collapse. Seeds of a New Citizen-Led Politics As we look to the formidable task ahead, we should remember that slavery was once legal in the United States, as was discrimination based on race. There was once a Roman Empire, later a Soviet Empire, a Berlin Wall, and until recently, apartheid in South Africa. Corrupt and unjust regimes have a way of falling once ordinary people decide their time has come. In Silent Coup: Confronting the Big Business Takeover of Canada, Tony Clarke, a leader of Canada's growing citizen movement against corporate rule, points to the need to build a political movement that sets the end of corporate rule as one of its top priorities. Corporate rule is the megaton gorilla in the middle of the room that most discussions of political and economic failure have too long avoided mentioning. Acknowledging the gorilla is an essential step toward action. The depth and seriousness of the massive dysfunctions of global corporations and the contemporary capitalist economy have only recently gained prominence in the public mind. Already, new initiatives are emerging that draw attention to the need for serious structural mechanisms to hold corporations accountable to the public interest. Indeed, the seeds of a new popular movement toward serious reform are emerging from across the political spectrum. A few of those centered in the United States are mentioned in the following paragraphs. They merit broad and enthusiastic public support from those who are seeking ways to participate in the creation of a post-corporate world. The New Party, a grassroots citizen-led political party working under the banner of "A Fair Economy. A Real Democracy. A New Party," is systematically building a citizen-led politics around an agenda that centers on strengthening the rights and capacities of people to self-organize democratically in both political and economic affairs. It is racially diverse; works m alliance with labor, community, environmental, feminist student, gay, and lesbian groups; and is built around values rather than personalities. Its strategy is to build political strength by winning local elections while concentrating on problems that can be addressed at the local level. It is taking a serious and systematic approach to building what ~t hopes may one day become a new majority party. As of 1997, 152 of the 231 candidates it had supported in election contests had won their races Roughly half of New Party candidates are women and more than a third are people of color. A former corporate executive and staunch Republican who held a number of high-level appointments in the Reagan and Bush administrations, Robert Monks has for some years been organizing retirement and other investment funds to exercise their shareholder voting rights to oust and replace complacent managers who take more interest in increasing their personal compensation and entitlements than producing returns for shareholders. Now he is taking on the larger issue of the corporation's social performance. Monks believes that pension funds are the key to increasing corporate responsibility, because they serve a broad clientele with a long-term interest in the health of society as well as the health of the corporations in which their money is invested. He is thus organizing pension funds to take the lead in advancing shareholder resolutions holding corporate executives accountable to shareholders for (1) obeying the law; (2) fully disclosing in their financial reporting what they know or strongly suspect regarding the costs imposed by their firms on the function of society; and (3) minimizing their involvement in political processes. These ideas are radical only in the extent to which they depart from current practice. Ideally, his proposals will become a centerpiece of the socially-responsible-investing movement. The Politics of Meaning is a grassroots nonparty political movement with chapters in ten major U.S. cities promoting a value-oriented politics based on ideas articulated by Michael Lerner, editor and publisher of Tikkun magazine, and lawyer and educator Peter Gabel. It has announced two major initiatives to increase the integrity of economic life. The first is a model resolution for adoption by city, county, and state governments committing them to take into account the history of social responsibility of corporations, as measured by an "Ethical Impact Report," in awarding public contracts. Its second initiative is a proposed "Social Responsibility Amendment" to the U.S. Constitution. It would require every corporation with annual revenues of $20 million or more to apply for renewal of its charter every twenty years. To secure its charter renewal, the corporation would be required to "prove that it serves the common good, gives its workers substantial power to shape their own conditions of work, and has a history of social responsibility to the communities in which it operates, sells goods, and/or advertises." Each five years the corporation would have to prepare and make public an Ethical Impact Report with one section prepared by management, another by its employees, and another representing community stakeholders. The Alliance for Democracy is a progressive populist movement with forty-nine local chapters around the United States. Following in the footsteps of the populist movement of the late 1800s, it aims to provide a vehicle for citizen action to end government-corporate collusion against the public interest and expose the antidemocratic nature of rule by global capital. The Alliance is carrying out long-term citizen education on issues of corporate governance and campaigning for legislative action to increase corporate accountability. It is considering a campaign in support of an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to establish that corporations are not persons and not entitled to the rights thereof. Related efforts center on redefining the processes and requirements for corporate chartering and charter revocation. The Alliance is also drafting a model international treaty on the responsibilities of international investors as an alternative to corporate-sponsored agreements aimed at freeing global investors from regulatory restraint. The international NGO Taskforce on Business and Industry, under the leadership of Jeff Barber of the Integrative Strategies Forum, is a citizens' alliance that functions within the framework of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. It is working to counter initiatives from the corporate sector aimed at keeping issues of corporate accountability off the U.N. agenda. The Taskforce is also helping make visible within the U.N. system the consistent failure of voluntary codes of corporate conduct. The Program on Corporations, Law, and Democracy (POCLAD), a national alliance of individuals concerned with corporate rights co-directed by Richard Grossman and Ward Morehouse, is spearheading a campaign to restore the concept that corporate charters are limited and revocable and to pursue a wide range of legal initiatives intended to restrict corporate rights and increase corporate accountability. These and related initiatives too numerous to list are still new and small. Each, however, is growing in size and momentum, carried forward by the concern and commitment of citizens who are fed up with political corruption and the abuse of corporate power. The most prominent barrier to turning the widespread disgust into a powerful political movement is the lack of credible and well-articulated alternatives and of an awakening to the belief that change is possible. Those to whom a living-world politics offers potential appeal come from all classes and segments of society: working people concerned with job security, respect, and honest pay for honest work; religious groups seeking to bring moral values back into everyday life; members of the women's movement concerned with equity and the balancing of work with family and community life; minority group members who advocate a political and economic agenda that meets the needs of all; members of environmental groups working to restore and protect the health of living systems; peace and human rights groups concerned with equity and the possibility of replacing global competition with global cooperation. Other constituents for change include small business owners and managers struggling to survive as the backbone of community economies; the growing ranks of ecological economists who are providing intellectual leadership in challenging the hegemony of neoliberal economists; heads of business seeking to make business more responsible and humane; socially responsible investors, community bankers, community development foundation leaders; and the members of groups such as the Social Ventures Network, Business for Social Responsibility, and the World Business Academy. Then there are the downsized whom capitalism has discarded and the disaffected who remain within the corporate establishment while longing for alternatives. There are the retired executives who know the system from the inside and are deeply concerned for the future they leave their children. There are the youth who are rightly concerned about their own futures. There are the journalists concerned that the integrity of their profession suffers from concentrated corporate control of the media. There are the teachers concerned about the integrity of the educational process as corporate advertising and propaganda infiltrate the classroom. There are the farming households that are committed to stewardship of the earth and the production of healthful foods. The goals of stakeholder ownership and individual responsibility affirm the values of conservatives. The emphasis on one person, one vote democracy and the recognition of government's dear and necessary role affirm the values of political liberals. It all adds up to a substantial and potentially unstoppable constituency behind the politics of a post-corporate world. There is no more powerful expression of a society's values than its economic institutions. In our case, we have created an economy that values money over all else, embraces inequality as if it were a virtue, and is ruthlessly destructive of life. The tragedy is that for most of us the values o global capitalism are not our values. The Post-Corporate World Index of Website Home Page
Question types Start with Question limit of 139 available terms Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads Print test 5 Written questions 5 Matching questions 1. oblique 2. projection 3. justice 4. OSHA 5. axial skeleton 1. a the part of the skeleton that includes the skull and spinal column and sternum and ribs 2. b the quality of being just or fair 3. c term refers to the path of the central ray 4. d a diagonally arranged abdominal muscle on either side of the torso 5. e Occupational Safety & Health Administration: a government agency in the Department of Labor to maintain a safe and healthy work environment 5 Multiple choice questions 1. A list of individuals holding certification in a particular profession 2. measure of electrical pressure forcing current through the tube 3. What are the 3 types of image receptor systems? 4. refers to the front of the body 5. put into a certain place or abstract location 5 True/False questions 1. normThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, a federal law protecting the privacy of patient-specific health care information and providing the patient with control over how this information is used and distributed. 2. November 8, 1895In what year were x-rays developed? 3. inferiorrefers to parts away from the head of the body 4. prone positionlying on the abdomen with the head turned to one side 5. cognitive domainHierarchy of objectives ranging from simplistic thinking skills to the more complex ones. Ex: A student who does not have a firm understanding of what qualifies a mammal will have dificulty classifying a platypus.
Petition Closed For over 20 years the tranquil waters of Grand Turk, one of the many islands that make up the Turks and Caicos Islands, has been a safe refuge for wild dolphins with strong laws forbidding the captivity of marine mammals. However, this all changed when the government of the small Caribbean nation recently reversed these laws. Succumbing to the pressures of the tourist industry, Turks and Caicos has shamelessly allowed the importation and captivity of dolphins to make way for the construction of a “swim with the dolphins” facility or dolphinarium proposed by the Jamaican-based company Dolphin Cove Ltd. The vast majority of tourists that go to Grand Turk are cruise line customers. Please join us in asking Carnival Cruise Lines, the main cruise line serving the Turks and Caicos Islands, to not operate tours which involve interaction with captive dolphins. Unfortunately, the story of The Turks and Caicos Islands is all too familiar. Every year thousands of dolphins are caught under the most horrifying circumstances and taken away from their ocean home only to be placed in a cramped, enclosed cove. Here the dolphins are then sorted through with some being taken away from their pod or family (dolphins are extremely social animals that form deep emotional life-long bonds with each other) and sent to aquatic centers (such as the proposed one in TCI) all over the world, while the rest are brutally slaughtered for their meat. Unfortunately, there is an overall lack of training, regulation and care for the welfare of these animals in the slaughter process with countless dolphins suffering for 10 or more minutes before they finally bleed to death. Life does not get much better for those selected to be shipped off for our entertainment. Dolphins face a six-fold increase in risk of mortality immediately after capture from the wild and immediately after they are transferred from one facility to another. But swimming freely in the wilds of the ocean, dolphins can enjoy an average 45-year lifespan. The main cause of death for the captured animals is bacterial infections such as pneumonia made worse by their limited diet, frozen fish loose much of their nutritional value, increased contact with humans and stress. Captive dolphins also suffer from a myriad of health issues including ulcers, blindness, and skin problems due to excessive UV rays. In addition, many experts, including the famous activist Ric O’Barry, believe that some dolphins will ram their heads against their tank or consciously stop breathing, opting for suicide rather than face life in their underwater prison. Even if they do survive captivity the dolphins are conscripted to a life of stress and boredom. Wild dolphins can swim over 40 miles a day. In facilities like those managed by Dolphin Cove Ltd., these magnificent mammals are confined to small tanks of chemical-laced water where they are forced—out of boredom—to swim listlessly in circles all day. Dolphins born into captivity do not fare much better. They suffer from the same high mortality rate and health problems as wild caught dolphins. According to the US Marine Mammal Inventory Report, between 1960 and 1993, more than 50-percent of captive-bred dolphins died within the first four months of their lives. Some die from a lack of maternal nurturing, others from birth defects due to insufficient diets, while others have succumbed to aggression from other captive dolphins. These factors, in addition to low fertility rates among captive dolphins, make it impossible for dolphinariums around the world to sustain themselves solely through captive-bred dolphins. This means that the hunting and capturing of dolphins and all the evils associated with it will continue as long as these institutions exist. While living freely in the wild, humans and dolphins have long enjoyed a peaceful relationship with countless reports of dolphins saving peoples lives by warding off sharks or carrying them safely to shore. However, the stress of captivity can lead to an increase in aggressive behavior towards humans among captive dolphins. This has resulted in numerous broken bones, bruised and ruptured internal organs, bites and even a few mortalities. Another major concern is that diseases can be transmitted from dolphins to humans and vice versa.On average, dolphins produce five times more waste than humans. With several dolphins swimming around a confined tank all day imagine the amount of waste that is floating around in there. Most dolphinariums fail to inform their customers of these potential health risks. With children, the elderly, and others with fragile immune systems at greatest risk, tourists and their families should think carefully before participating in “swim with the dolphins” programs. Numerous cruise lines have already elected not to support captive dolphin facilities. Carnival Cruise Lines is the largest cruise line serving Grand Turk. Without their continued support, the proposed dolphinarium will not have a large enough customer base and surely crumble. Sign this petition and become a part of the movement to eradicate this evil from the world. Join us by letting the president and CEO of Carnival Cruise Lines, Gerry Cahill, know that the international community will not support an organization that supports captive dolphin facilities. Below is a letter and Mr. Cahill’s contact information. Please take a few minutes to show your support by sending Mr. Cahill this letter. Also, feel free to craft one of your own. You can adress your letter and send it through your regular mail service to: Gerry Cahill Carnival Cruise Lines 3655 NW 87th Avenue Miami, FL 33178 United States A few people can’t do this alone. Send this petition to your friends and loved ones and tell them to speak out against dolphin captivity. If we work together we can end this horrendous practice! This petition was delivered to: • Chief Executive Officer of Carnival Cruise Lines and President of Carnival Cruise Lines Gerry Cahill • Vice President Investor Relations Beth Roberts Our Children's Earth Foundation started this petition with a single signature, and now has 3,117 supporters. Start a petition today to change something you care about.
How Computers Know What We Want — Before We Do Recommendation engines are the software that suggests what we should watch or read or listen to next. They help us deal with the millions of choices the Web offers. But can a computer really have good taste? • Share • Read Later Photo-Illustration by C.J. Burton for TIME Here's an experiment: try thinking of a song not as a song but as a collection of distinct musical attributes. Maybe the song has political lyrics. That would be an attribute. Maybe it has a police siren in it, or a prominent banjo part, or paired vocal harmony, or punk roots. Any one of those would be an attribute. A song can have as many as 400 attributes — those are just a few of the ones filed under p. This curious idea originated with Tim Westergren, one of the founders of an Internet radio service based in Oakland, Calif., called Pandora. Every time a new song comes out, someone on Pandora's staff — a specially trained musician or musicologist — goes through a list of possible attributes and assigns the song a numerical rating for each one. Analyzing a song takes about 20 minutes. The people at Pandora — no relation to the alien planet — analyze 10,000 songs a month. They've been doing it for 10 years now, and so far they've amassed a database containing detailed profiles of 740,000 different songs. Westergren calls this database the Music Genome Project. There is a point to all this, apart from settling bar bets about which song has the most prominent banjo part ever. The purpose of the Music Genome Project is to make predictions about what kind of music you're going to like next. Pandora uses the Music Genome Project to power what's known in the business as a recommendation engine: one of those pieces of software that gives you advice about what you might enjoy listening to or watching or reading next, based on what you just listened to or watched or read. Tell Pandora you like Spoon and it'll play you Modest Mouse. Tell it you like Cajun accordion virtuoso Alphonse "Bois Sec" Ardoin and it'll try you out on some Iry LeJeune. Enough people like telling Pandora what they like that the service adds 2.5 million new users a month. Over the past decade, recommendation engines have become quietly ubiquitous. At the appropriate moment — generally when you're about to consummate a retail purchase — they appear at your shoulder, whispering suggestively in your ear. Amazon was the pioneer of automated recommendations, but Netflix, Apple, YouTube and TiVo have them too. In the music space alone, Pandora has dozens of competitors. A good recommendation engine is worth a lot of money. According to a report by industry analyst Forrester, one-third of customers who notice recommendations on an e-commerce site wind up buying something based on them. The trouble with recommendation engines is that they're really hard to build. They look simple on the outside — if you liked X, you'll love Y! — but they're actually doing something fiendishly complex. They're processing astounding quantities of data and doing so with seriously high-level math. That's because they're attempting to second-guess a mysterious, perverse and profoundly human form of behavior: the personal response to a work of art. They're trying to reverse-engineer the soul. They're also changing the way our culture works. We used to learn about new works of art from friends and critics and video-store clerks — from people, in other words. Now we learn about them from software. There's a new class of tastemakers, and they're not human. Learning to Love Dolph Lundgren Pandora makes recommendations the same way people do, more or less: by knowing something about the music it's recommending and something about your musical taste. But that's actually pretty unusual. It's a very labor-intensive approach. Most recommendation engines work backward instead, using information that comes not from the art but from its audience. It's a technique called collaborative filtering, and it works on the principle that the behavior of a lot of people can be used to make educated guesses about the behavior of a single individual. Here's the idea: if, statistically speaking, most people who liked the first Sex and the City movie also like Mamma Mia!, then if we know that a particular individual liked Sex and the City, we can make an educated guess that that individual will also like Mamma Mia! It sounds simple enough, but the closer you look, the weirder and more complicated it gets. Take Netflix's recommendation engine, which it has dubbed Cinematch. The algorithmic guts of a recommendation engine are usually a fiercely guarded trade secret, but in 2006 Netflix decided it wasn't completely happy with Cinematch, and it took an unusual approach to solving the problem. The company made public a portion of its database of movie ratings — around 100 million of them — and offered a prize of $1 million to anybody who could improve its engine by 10%. 1. Previous Page 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
[Third chapter continued from previous file.] It must, however, be admitted that the energy displayed in framing natural explanations of miraculous phenomena bears no proportion to that which has been exhibited in a criticism that is purely disintegrating and destructive. Spinoza, whose profound knowledge not only of the Hebrew language but also of Rabbinical traditions and of Jewish modes of thought and expression made him peculiarly competent for the task, set the example in his 'Tractatus Theologico-Politicus,' [1:305] and Germany soon after plunged into the bottomless abyss from which she has not emerged. But the fact which must, I think, especially strike the impartial observer, is that these criticisms, in at least the great majority of cases, are carried on with a scarcely disguised purpose of wresting the Bible into conformity with notions that have been independently formed. The two writers who have done most to supply the principles of the movement are Lessing and Kant. The first emphatically asserts that no doctrine should be accepted as part of Scripture which is not in accordance with 'reason,' an expression which in the writings of modern German critics may be not unfairly regarded as equivalent to the general scope and tendency of modern thought. [2:305] The doctrine of Kant is still more explicit. According to him [3:305] every dogmatic system, or, as he expresses it, every 'ecclesiastical belief,' should be regarded as the vehicle or envelope of 'pure religion,' or in other words of those modes of feeling which constitute natural religion. The ecclesiastical belief is necessary, because most men are unable to accept a purely moral belief unless it is as it were materialised and embodied by grosser conceptions. But the ecclesiastical belief being entirely subordinate to pure religion, it followed that it should be interpreted simply with a view to the latter -- that is to say, all doctrines and all passages of Scripture should be regarded as intended to convey some moral lesson, and no interpretation, however natural, should be accepted as correct which collides with our sense of right. The statement of this doctrine of Kant may remind the reader that in tracing the laws of the religious development of societies I have hitherto dwelt only on one aspect of the subject. I have examined several important intellectual agencies which have effected intellectual changes, but have as yet altogether omitted the laws of moral development. In endeavouring to supply this omission, we are at first met by a school which admits, indeed, that the true essence of all religion is moral, but at the same time denies that there can be in this respect any principle of progress. Nothing, it is said, is so immutable as morals. The difference between right and wrong was always known, and on this subject our conceptions can never be enlarged. But if by the term moral be included not simply the broad difference between acts which are positively virtuous and those which are positively vicious, but also the prevailing ideal or standard of excellence, it is quite certain that morals exhibit as constant a development as intellect, and it is probable that this development has exercised as important an influence upon society. It is one of the most familiar facts that there are certain virtues that are higher than others, and that many of these belong exclusively to a highly developed civilisation. [1:307] Thus, that the love of truth is a virtue is a proposition which, stated simply, would have been probably accepted with equal alacrity in any age; but if we examine the extent to which it is realised, we find a profound difference. We find that in an early period, while all the virtues of an uncompromising partisan are cordially recognised, the higher virtue, which binds men through a love of conscientious enquiry to endeavour to pursue an eclectic course when party and sectarian passions rage fiercely around them, is not only entirely unappreciated, but is almost impossible; that it is even now only recognised by a very few who occupy the eminences of thought; and that it must therefore be recognised by the multitude in proportion as they approach the condition of those few. Thus, the pursuit of virtue for its own sake is undoubtedly a higher excellence than the pursuit of virtue for the sake of attaining reward or avoiding punishment; yet the notion of disinterested virtue belongs almost exclusively to the higher ranks of the most civilised ages, and exactly in proportion as we descend the intellectual scale is it necessary to elaborate the system of rewards and punishments. Humanity again, in theory, appears to be an unchangeable virtue; but if we examine its applications, we find it constantly changing. Bull-baiting, and bear-baiting, and cock-fighting, and countless amusements of a similar kind, were once the favourite pastimes of Europe, were pursued by all classes, even the most refined and the most humane, and were universally regarded as perfectly legitimate. [2:307] Men of the most distinguished excellence are known to have delighted in them. Had anyone challenged them as barbarous, his sentiments would have been regarded not simply as absurd but as incomprehensible. There was, no doubt, no controversy upon the subject. [1:308] Gradually, however, by the silent pressure of civilisation, a profound change passed over public opinion. It was effected, not by any increase of knowledge, or by any process of definite reasoning, but simply by the gradual elevation of the moral standard. Amusements that were once universal passed from the women to the men, from the upper to the lower classes, from the virtuous to the vicious, till at last the Legislature interposed to suppress them, and a thrill of indignation is felt whenever it is discovered that any of them have been practised. The history of the abolition of torture, the history of punishments, the history of the treatment of the conquered in war, the history of slavery -- all present us with examples of practices which in one age were accepted as perfectly right and natural, and which in another age were repudiated as palpably and atrociously inhuman. In each case the change was effected much less by any intellectual process than by a certain quickening of the emotions, and consequently of the moral judgments; and if in any country we find practices at all resembling those which existed in England a century ago, we infer with certainty that that country has not received the full amount of civilisation. The code of honour which first represents and afterwards reacts upon the moral standard of each age is profoundly different. The whole type of virtue in a rude warlike people is distinct from that of a refined and peaceful people, and the character which the latter would admire the former would despise. So true is this, that each successive stratum of civilisation brings with it a distinctive variation of the moral type. In the words of one of the very greatest historians of the nineteenth century, 'If the archæologist can determine the date of a monument by the form of its capital, with much greater certainty can the psychological historian assign to a specific period a moral fact, a predominating passion, or a mode of thought, and can pronounce it to have been impossible in the ages that preceded or that followed. In the chronology of art the same forms have sometimes been reproduced, but in the moral life such a recurrence is impossible: its conceptions are fixed in their eternal place in the fatality of time. [1:310] There is, however, one striking exception to this law in the occasional appearance of a phenomenon which may be termed moral genius. There arise from time to time men who bear to the moral condition of their age much the same relations as men of genius bear to its intellectual condition. They anticipate the moral standard of a later age, cast abroad conceptions of disinterested virtue, of philanthropy, or of self-denial that seem to have no relation to the spirit of their time, inculcate duties and suggest motives of action that appear to most men altogether chimerical. Yet the magnetism of their perfections tells powerfully upon their contemporaries. An enthusiasm is kindled, a group of adherents is formed, and many are emancipated from the moral condition of their age. Yet the full effects of such a movement are but transient. The first enthusiasm dies away, surrounding circumstances resume their ascendency, the pure faith is materialised, encrusted with conceptions that are alien to its nature, dislocated, and distorted, till its first features have almost disappeared. The moral teaching, being unsuited to the time, becomes inoperative until its appropriate civilisation has dawned; or at most it faintly and imperfectly filters through an accumulation of dogmas, and thus accelerates in some measure the arrival of the condition it requires. From the foregoing considerations it is not difficult to infer the relations of dogmatic systems to moral principles. In a semi-barbarous period, when the moral faculty or the sense of right is far too weak to be a guide of conduct, dogmatic systems interpose and supply men with motives of action that are suited to their condition, and are sufficient to sustain among them a rectitude of conduct that would otherwise be unknown. But the formation of a moral philosophy is usually the first step of the decadence of religions. Theology, then ceasing to be the groundwork of morals, sinks into a secondary position, and the main source of its power is destroyed. In the religions of Greece and Rome this separation between the two parts of religious systems was carried so far, that the inculcation of morality at last devolved avowedly and exclusively upon the philosophers, while the priests were wholly occupied with soothsaying and expiations. In the next place, any historical faith, as it is interpreted by fallible men, will contain some legends or doctrines that are contrary to our sense of right. For our highest conception of the Deity is moral excellence, and consequently men always embody their standard of perfection in their religious doctrines; and as that standard is at first extremely imperfect and confused, the early doctrines will exhibit a corresponding imperfection. These doctrines being stereotyped in received formularies for a time seriously obstruct the moral development of society, but at last the opposition to them becomes so strong that they must give way: they are then either violently subverted or permitted to become gradually obsolete. There is but one example of a religion which is not naturally weakened by civilisation, and that example is Christianity. In all other cases the decay of dogmatic conceptions is tantamount to a complete annihilation of religion; for although there may be imperishable elements of moral truth mingled with those conceptions, they have nothing distinctive or peculiar. The moral truths coalesce with new systems, the men who uttered them take their place with many others in the great pantheon of history, and the religion having discharged its functions is spent and withered. But the great characteristic of Christianity, and the great moral proof of its divinity, is that it has been the main source of the moral development of Europe, and that it has discharged this office not so much by the inculcation of a system of ethics, however pure, as by the assimilating and attractive influence of a perfect ideal. The moral progress of mankind can never cease to be distinctively and intensely Christian as long as it consists of a gradual approximation to the character of the Christian Founder. There is, indeed, nothing more wonderful in the history of the human race than the way in which that ideal has traversed the lapse of ages, acquiring a new strength and beauty with each advance of civilisation, and infusing its beneficent influence into every sphere of thought and action. At first men sought to grasp by minute dogmatic definitions the divinity they felt. The controversies of the Homoousians or Monophysites or Nestorians or Patripassians, and many others whose very names now sound strange and remote, then filled the Church. Then came the period of visible representations. The handkerchief of Veronica, the portrait of Edessa, the crucifix of Nicodemus, the paintings of St. Luke, [1:312] the image traced by an angel's hand which its still venerated at the Lateran, the countless visions narrated by the saints, show the eagerness with which men sought to realise as a palpable and living image their ideal. This age was followed by that of historical evidences, the age of Sebonde and his followers. Yet more and more with advancing years the moral idea stood out from all dogmatic conceptions; its divinity was recognised by its perfection; and it is no exaggeration to say, that at no former period was it so powerful or so universally acknowledged as at present. This is a phenomenon altogether unique in history; and to those who recognise in the highest type of excellence the highest revelation of the Deity, its importance is too manifest to be overlooked. I trust the reader will pardon the tedious length to which this examination, which I would gladly have abridged, has extended. For the history of rationalism is quite as much a history of moral as of intellectual development, and any conception of it that ignores the former must necessarily be mutilated and false. Nothing, too, can, as I conceive, be more erroneous or superficial than the reasonings of those who maintain that the moral element of Christianity has in it nothing distinctive or peculiar. The method of this school, of which Bolingbroke may be regarded as the type, is to collect from the writings of different heathen writers certain isolated passages embodying precepts that are inculcated by Christianity; and when the collection had become very large, the task was supposed to be accomplished. But the true originality of a system of moral teaching depends not so much upon the elements of which it is composed, as upon the manner in which they are fused into a symmetrical whole, upon the proportionate value that is attached to different qualities, or, to state the same thing by a single word, upon the type of character that is formed. Now it is quite certain that the Christian type differs not only in degree, but in kind, from the Pagan one. In applying the foregoing principles to the history of Christian transformations, we should naturally expect three distinct classes of change. The first is the gradual evanescence of doctrines that collide with our moral sense. The second is the decline of the influence of those ceremonies, or purely speculative doctrines, which, without being opposed to conscience, are at least wholly beyond its sphere. The third is the substitution of the sense of right for the fear of punishment as the main motive to virtue. I reserve the consideration of the first of these three changes for the ensuing chapter, in which I shall examine the causes of religious persecution, and shall endeavour to trace the history of a long series of moral anomalies in speculation which prepared the way for that great moral anomaly in practice. The second change is so evident, that it is not necessary to dwell upon it. No candid person who is acquainted with history can fail to perceive the difference between the amount of reverence bestowed in the present day, by the great majority of men, upon mere speculative doctrines or ritualistic observances, and that which was once general. If we examine the Church in the fourth and fifth centuries, we find it almost exclusively occupied with minute questions concerning the manner of the co-existence of the two natures in Christ. If we examine it in the middle ages, we find it absorbed in ritualism and pilgrimages. If we examine it at the Reformation, we find it just emerging beneath the pressure of civilisation from this condition; yet still the main speculative test was the doctrine concerning the Sacrament, which had no relation to morals; and the mare practical test on the Continent, at least, was the eating of meat on Fridays. [1:315] In the present day, with the great body of laymen at least, such matters appear simply puerile, because they have no relation to morals. The third change is one which requires more attention, for it involves the history of religious terrorism -- a history of the deepest but most painful interest to all who study the intellectual and moral development of Europe. It would be difficult, and perhaps not altogether desirable, to attain in the present day to any realised conception of the doctrine of future punishment as it was taught by the early Fathers, and elaborated and developed by the mediæval priests. That doctrine has now been thrown so much into the background, it has been so modified and softened and explained away, that it scarcely retains a shadow of its ancient repulsiveness. It is sufficient to say, that it was generally maintained that eternal damnation was the lot which the Almighty had reserved for an immense proportion of his creatures; and that that damnation consisted not simply of the privation of certain extraordinary blessings, but also of the endurance of the most excruciating agonies. Perhaps the most acute pain the human body can undergo is that of fire; and this, the early Fathers assure us, is the eternal destiny of the mass of mankind. The doctrine was stated with the utmost literalism and precision. In the two first apologies for the Christian faith it was distinctly asserted. Philosophy, it was said, had sometimes enabled men to look with contempt upon torments, as upon a transient evil; but Christianity presented a prospect before which the stoutest heart must quail, for its punishments were as eternal as they were excruciating. [1:316] Origen, it is true, and his disciple Gregory of Nyssa, in a somewhat hesitating manner, diverged from the prevailing opinion, and strongly inclined to a figurative interpretation, and to the belief in the ultimate salvation of all; [2:316] but they were alone in their opinion. With these two exceptions, all the Fathers proclaimed the eternity of torments, and all defined those torments as the action of a literal fire upon a sensitive body. [3:316] When the pagans argued that a body could not remain for ever unconsumed in a material flame, they were answered by the analogies of the salamander, the asbestus, and the volcano; and by appeals to the Divine Omnipotence, which was supposed to be continually exerted to prolong the tortures of the dead. [1:317] We may be quite sure that neither in the early Church, nor in any other period, was this doctrine universally realised. There must have been thousands who, believing, or at least professing, that there was no salvation except in the Church, and that to be excluded from salvation meant to be precipitated into an abyss of flames, looked back nevertheless to the memory of a pagan mother, who had passed away, if not with a feeling of vague hopes at least without the poignancy of despair. There must have been thousands who, though they would perhaps have admitted with a Father that the noblest actions of the heathen were but 'splendid vices,' read nevertheless the pages of the great historians of their country with emotions that were very little in conformity with such a theory. Nor, it may be added, were these persons those whose moral perceptions had been least developed by contemplating the gentle and tolerant character of the Christian Founder. Yet still the doctrine was stamped upon the theology of the age, and though it had not yet been introduced into art, it was realised to a degree which we at least can never reproduce; for it was taught in the midst of persecution and conflict, and it flashed upon the mind with all the vividness of novelty. Judaism had had nothing like it. It seems now to be generally admitted that the doctrine of a future life, which is often spoken of as a central conception of religion, was not included in the Levitical revelation, or at least was so faintly intimated that the people were unable to perceive it. [1:318] During the captivity, indeed, the Jews obtained from their masters some notions on the subject, but even these were very vague; and the Sadducees, who rejected the new doctrine as an innovation, were entirely uncondemned. Indeed, it is probable that the chosen people had less clear and correct knowledge of a future world than any other tolerably civilised nation of antiquity. Among the early popular traditions of the pagans, there were, it is true, some faint traces of a doctrine of hell, which are said to have been elaborated by Pythagoras, [2:318] and especially by Plato, who did more then any other ancient philosopher to develop the notion of expiation; [3:318] but these, at the period of the rise of Christianity, had little or no influence upon the minds of men; nor had they ever presented the same characteristics as the doctrine of the Church. For among the pagans future torture was supposed to be reserved exclusively for guilt, and for guilt of the most extreme and exceptional character. It was such culprits as Tantalus, or Sisyphus, or Ixion, that were selected as examples, and, excepting in the mysteries, [1:319] the subject never seems to have been brought very prominently forward. It was the distinctive doctrine of the Christian theologians, that sufferings more excruciating than any the imagination could conceive were reserved for millions, and might be the lot of the most benevolent and heroic of mankind. That religious error was itself the worst of crimes, was before the Reformation the universal teaching of the Christian Church. Can we wonder that there were some who refused to regard it as an Evangel? If we pursue this painful subject into the middle ages, we find the conception of punishment by literal fire elaborated with more detail. The doctrine, too, of a purgatory even for the saved had grown up. Without examining at length the origin of this last tenet, it may be sufficient to say that it was a natural continuation of the doctrine of penance; that the pagan poets had had a somewhat similar conception, which Virgil introduced into his famous description of the regions of the dead; that the Manichæans looked forward to a strange process of purification after death; [2:319] and that some of the Fathers appear to have held that at the day of judgment all men must pass through a fire, though apparently rather for trial than for purification, as the virtuous and orthodox were to pass unscathed, while bad people and people with erroneous theological opinions were to be burnt. [1:320] Besides this, the doctrine perhaps softened a little the terrorism of eternal punishment, by diminishing the number of those who were to endure it; though, on the other hand, it represented extreme suffering as reserved for almost all men after death. It may be added, that its financial advantages are obvious and undeniable. There was in the tenth century one striking example of a theologian following in the traces of Origen, and, as far as I know, alone in the middle ages, maintaining the figurative interpretation of the fire of hell. This was John Scotus Erigena, a very remarkable man, who, as his name imports, [2:320] and as his contemporaries inform us, was an Irishman, and who appears to have led, for the most part, that life of a wandering scholar for which his countrymen have always been famous. His keen wit, his great and varied genres, and his knowledge of Greek, soon gained him an immense reputation. This last acquirement was then extremely rare, but it had been kept up in the Irish monasteries some time after it had disappeared from the other seminaries of Europe. Scotus threw himself with such ardour into both of the great systems of Greek philosophy, that some have regarded him principally as the last representative of Neoplatonism, and others as the founder of Scholasticism. [1:321] He displayed on all questions a singular disdain for authority, and a spirit of the boldest free thought, which, like Origen, with whose works he was probably much imbued, he defended by a lavish employment of allegories. Among the doctrines he disbelieved, and therefore treated as allegorical, was that of the fire of hell. [2:321] Scotus, however, was not of his age. The material conceptions of mediævalism harmonised admirably with the material doctrine; and after the religious terrorism that followed the twelfth century, that doctrine attained its full elaboration. The agonies of hell seemed then the central fact of religion, and the perpetual subject of the thoughts of men. The whole intellect of Europe was employed in illustrating them. All literature, all painting, all eloquence, was concentrated upon the same dreadful theme. By the pen of Dante and by the pencil of Orcagna, by the pictures that crowded every church, and the sermons that rang from every pulpit, the maddening terror was sustained. The saint was often permitted in visions to behold the agonies of the lost, and to recount the spectacle he had witnessed. He loved to tell how by the lurid glare of the eternal flames he had seen millions writhing in every form of ghastly suffering, their eyeballs rolling with unspeakable anguish, their limbs gashed and mutilated and quivering with pain, tortured by pangs that seemed ever keener by the recurrence, and shrieking in vain for mercy to an unpitying heaven. Hideous beings of dreadful aspect and of fantastic forms hovered around, mocking them amid their torments, casting them into cauldrons of boiling brimstone, or inventing new tortures more subtle and more refined. Amid all this a sulphur stream was ever seething, feeding and intensifying the waves of fire. There was no respite, no alleviation, no hope. The tortures were ever varied in their character, and they never palled for a moment upon the sense. Sometimes, it was said, the flames while retaining their intensity withheld their light. A shroud of darkness covered the scene, but a ceaseless shriek of anguish attested the agonies that were below. [1:322] It is useless to follow the subject into detail. We may reproduce the ghastly imagery that is accumulated in the sermons and in the legends of the age. We may estimate the untiring assiduity with which the Catholic priests sought in the worst acts of human tyranny, and in the dark recesses of their own imaginations, new forms of torture, to ascribe them to the Creator. We can never conceive the intense vividness with which these conceptions were realised, or the madness and the misery they produced. For those were ages of implicit and unfaltering credulity; they were ages when none of the distractions of the present day divided the intellect, and when theology was the single focus upon which the imagination was concentrated. They were ages, too, when the modern tendency to soften or avoid repulsive images was altogether unknown, and when, in the general paralysis of the reason, every influence was exerted to stimulate the imagination. Wherever the worshipper turned, he was met by new forms of torture, elaborated with such minute detail, and enforced with such a vigour and distinctness, that they must have clung for ever to the mind, and chilled every natural impulse towards the Creator. How, indeed, could it be otherwise? Men were told that the Almighty, by the fiat of his uncontrolled power, had called into being countless millions whom He knew to be destined to eternal, excruciating, unspeakable agony; that He had placed millions in such a position that such agony was inevitable; that He had prepared their place of torment, and had kindled its undying flame; and that, prolonging their lives for ever, in order that they might be for ever wretched, He would make the contemplation of those sufferings an essential element of the happiness of the redeemed. [1:323] No other religious teachers had ever proclaimed such tenets, and as long as they were realised intensely, the benevolent precepts and the mild and gentle ideal of the New Testament could not possibly be influential. The two things were hopelessly incongruous. The sense of the Divine goodness being destroyed, the whole fabric of natural religion crumbled in the dust. From that time religion was necessarily diverted from the moral to the dogmatic, and became an artificial thing of relics and ceremonies, of credulity and persecution, of asceticism and terrorism. It centred entirely upon the priests, who supported it mainly by intimidation. I have already, when examining the phenomena of witchcraft, noticed the influence of this doctrine upon the imagination, which it has probably done more to disease than almost all other moral and intellectual agencies combined. I shall hereafter touch upon its effects upon the intellectual history of Europe upon the timidity and disingenuousness of enquiry, the distrust and even hatred of intellectual honesty, it encouraged. There is, however, a still more painful effect to be noticed. That the constant contemplation of suffering, especially when that contemplation is devoid of passion, has a tendency to blunt the affections, and thus destroy the emotional part of humanity, is one of the most familiar facts of common observation. The law holds good even in men, like surgical operators, who contemplate pain solely for the benefit of others. The first repulsion is soon exchanged for indifference, the indifference speedily becomes interest, and the interest is occasionally heightened to positive enjoyment. Hence the anecdotes related of surgeons who have derived the most exquisite pleasure from the operations of their profession, and of persons who, being unable to suppress a morbid delight in the contemplation of suffering, have determined to utilise their defect, and have become the most unflinching operators in the hospitals. Now it is sufficiently manifest that upon this emotional part of humanity depends by far the greater number of kind acts that are done in the world, and especially the prevailing ideal and standard of humanity. There are, no doubt, persons who are exceedingly benevolent through a sense of duty, while their temperament remains entirely callous. There are even cases in which the callousness of temperament increases in proportion to the active benevolence, for it is acquired in contemplating suffering for the purpose of relieving it, and, as Bishop Butler reminds us, 'active habits are strengthened, while passive impressions are weakened, by repetition.' But the overwhelming majority are in these matters governed by their emotions. Their standard and their acts depend upon the liveliness of their feelings. If this be so, it is easy to conceive what must have been the result of the contemplations of mediævalism. There is a fresco in the great monastery of Pavia which might be regarded as the emblem of the age. It represents a monk with clasped hands, and an expression of agonising terror upon his countenance, straining over the valley of vision where the sufferings of the lost were displayed, while the inscription above reveals his one harrowing thought, 'Quis sustinebit ne descendam moriens?' In such a state of thought, we should naturally expect that the direct and powerful tendency of this doctrine would be to produce a general indifference to human sufferings, or even a bias towards acts of barbarity. Yet this only gives an inadequate conception of its effects. For not only were men constantly expatiating on these ghastly pictures, they were also constantly associating them with gratitude and with joy. They believed that the truth of Christianity implied the eternal torture of a vast proportion of their fellow-creatures, and they believed that it would be a gross impiety to wish that Christianity was untrue. They had collected with such assiduity, and had interpreted with such a revolting literalism, every rhetorical passage in the Bible that could be associated with their doctrine, that they had firmly persuaded themselves that a material and eternal fire formed a central truth of their faith, and that, in the words of an Anglican clergyman, 'the hell described in the Gospel is not with the same particularity to be met with in any other religion that is or hath been in the whole world.' [1:325] Habitually treating the language of parable as if it was the language of history, they came to regard it as very truly their ideal of happiness, to rest for ever on Abraham's bosom, and to contemplate for ever the torments of their brother in hell. They felt with St. Augustine that 'the end of religion is to become like the object of worship,' and they represented the Deity as confining his affection to a small section of his creatures, and inflicting on all others the most horrible and eternal suffering. Now it is undoubtedly true, that when doctrines of this kind are intensely realised, they will prove most efficacious in dispelling the apathy on religious subjects which is the common condition of mankind. They will produce great earnestness, great self-sacrifice, great singleness of purpose. Loyola, who had studied with profound sagacity the springs of enthusiasm, assigned in his spiritual exercises an entire day to be spent in meditating upon eternal damnation, and in most great religious revivals the doctrine has occupied a prominent place. It is also undoubtedly true, that in a few splendid instances the effect of this realisation has been to raise up missionary teachers of such heroic and disinterested zeal, that their lives are among the grandest pages in the whole range of biography. But although this may be its effect upon some singularly noble natures, there can be little question that in the vast majority of cases its tendency will be to indurate the character, to diffuse abroad a callousness and insensibility to the suffering of others that will profoundly debase humanity. If you make the detailed and exquisite torments of multitudes the habitual object of the thoughts and imaginations of men, you will necessarily produce in most of them a gradual indifference to human suffering, and in some of them a disposition to regard it with positive delight. If you further assure men that these sufferings form an integral part of a revelation which they are bound to regard as a message of good tidings, you will induce them to stifle every feeling of pity, and almost to encourage their insensibility as a virtue. If you end your teaching by telling them that the Being who is the ideal of their lives confines His affection to the members of a single Church, that He will torture for ever all who are not found within its pale, and that His children will for ever contemplate those tortures in a state of unalloyed felicity, you will prepare the way for every form of persecution that can be directed against those who are without. He who most fully realised these doctrines, would be the most unhappy or the most unfeeling of mankind. No possible prospect of individual bliss could reconcile a truly humane man, who followed the impulse of his humanity, to the thought that those who were external to his faith were destined to eternal fire. No truly humane man could avoid wishing, that rather than this should be the case, he and all others should sleep the sleep of annihilation. When the doctrine was intensely realised and implicitly believed, it must, therefore, have had one or other of two effects. It must have produced an intensity of compassion that would involve an extreme unhappiness and would stimulate to extreme heroism, or it must have produced an absolute callousness and a positive inclination to inflict suffering upon the heretic. It does not require much knowledge of human nature to perceive that the spirit of Torquemada must be more common than that of Xavier. That this was actually the case must be evident to any one who is not wilfully blind to the history of Christendom. I have mentioned that writer who in the second century dilated most emphatically on the doctrine of eternal punishment by fire as a means of intimidation. In another of his works he showed very clearly the influence it exercised upon his own character. He had written a treatise dissuading the Christians of his day from frequenting the public spectacles. He had collected on the subject many arguments, some of them very powerful, and others extremely grotesque; but he perceived that to make his exhortations forcible to the majority of his readers, he must point them to some counter-attraction. He accordingly proceeded -- and his style assumed a richer glow and a more impetuous eloquence as he rose to the congenial theme -- to tell them that a spectacle was reserved for them, so fascinating and so attractive that the most joyous festivals of earth faded into insignificance by the comparison. That spectacle was the agonies of their fellow-countrymen, as they writhe amid the torments of hell. 'What,' he exclaimed, 'shall be the magnitude of that scene! How shall I wonder! How shall I laugh! How shall I rejoice! How shall I triumph when I behold so many and such illustrious kings, who were said to have mounted into heaven, groaning with Jupiter their god in the lowest darkness of hell! Then shall the soldiers who had persecuted the name of Christ burn in more cruel fire than any they had kindled for the saints.... Then shall the tragedians pour forth in their own misfortune more piteous cries than those with which they had made the theatre to resound, while the comedian's powers shall be better seen as he becomes more flexible by the heat. Then shall the driver of the circus stand forth to view all blushing in his flaming chariot, and the gladiators pierced, not by spears, but by darts of fire.... Compared with such spectacles, with such subjects of triumph as these, what can prætor or consul, quætor or pontiff, afford? And even now faith can bring them near imagination can depict them as present.' [1:329] I have quoted this very painful passage not so much as an instance of the excesses of a morbid disposition embittered by persecution, as because it furnishes a striking illustration of the influence of a certain class of realisations on the affections. For in tracing what may be called the psychological history of Europe, we are constantly met by a great contradiction, which can only be explained by such considerations. By the confession of all parties, the Christian religion was designed to be a religion of philanthropy, and love was represented as the distinctive test or characteristic of its true members. As a matter of fact, it has probably done more to quicken the affections of mankind, to promote pity, to create a pure and merciful ideal, than any other influence that has ever acted on the world. But while the marvellous influence of Christianity in this respect has been acknowledged by all who have mastered the teachings of history, while the religious minds of every land and of every opinion have recognised in its Founder the highest conceivable ideal and embodiment of compassion as of purity, it is a no less incontestable truth that for many centuries the Christian priesthood pursued a policy, at least towards those who differed from their opinions, implying a callousness and absence of the emotional part of humanity which has seldom been paralleled, and perhaps never surpassed. From Julian, who observed that no wild beasts were so ferocious as angry theologians, to Montesquieu, who discussed as a psychological phenomenon the inhumanity of monks, the fact has been constantly recognised. The monks, the Inquisitors, and in general the mediæval clergy, present a type that is singularly well defined, and is in many respects exceedingly noble, but which is continually marked by a total absence of mere natural affection. In zeal, in courage, in perseverance, in self-sacrifice, they towered far above the average of mankind; but they were always as ready to inflict as to endure suffering. These were the men who chanted their Te Deums over the massacre of the Albigenses or of St. Bartholomew, who fanned and stimulated the Crusades and the religious wars, who exulted over the carnage, and strained every nerve to prolong the struggle, -- and, when the zeal of the warrior had begun to flag, mourned over the languor of faith, and contemplated the sufferings they had caused with a satisfaction that was as pitiless as it was unselfish. These were the men who were at once the instigators and the agents of that horrible detailed persecution that stained almost every province of Europe with the blood of Jews and heretics, and which exhibits an amount of cold, passionless, studied, and deliberate barbarity unrivalled in the history of mankind. [1:331] Now, when a tendency of this kind is habitually exhibited among men who are unquestionably actuated by the strongest sense of duty, it may be assumed that it is connected with some principle they have adopted, or with the moral atmosphere they breathe. It must have an intellectual or logical antecedent, and it must have what may be termed an emotional antecedent. By the first I understand certain principles or trains of reasoning which induce men to believe that it is their duty to persecute. By the second I understand a tendency or disposition of feeling that harmonises with persecution, removes the natural reluctance on the subject, and predisposes men to accept any reasoning of which persecution is the conclusion. The logical antecedents of persecution I shall examine in the next chapter. The most important emotional antecedent is, I believe, to be found in the teaching concerning the future world. It was the natural result of that teaching, that men whose lives present in many respects examples of the noblest virtue, were nevertheless conspicuous for ages as prodigies of barbarity, and proved absolutely indifferent to the sufferings of all who dissented from their doctrines. Nor was it only towards the heretic that this inhumanity was displayed; it was reflected more or less in the whole penal system of the time. We have a striking example of this in the history of torture. In ancient Greece, torture was never employed except in cases of treason. In the best days of ancient Rome, notwithstanding the notorious inhumanity of the people, it was exclusively confined to the slaves. In mediæval Christendom it was made use of to an extent that was probably unexampled in any earlier period, and in cases that fell under the cognisance of the clergy it was applied to every class of the community. [1:332] And what strikes us most in considering the mediæval tortures, is not so much their diabolical barbarity, which it is indeed impossible to exaggerate, as the extraordinary variety, and what may be termed the artistic skill, they displayed. They represent a condition of thought in which men had pondered long and carefully on all the forms of suffering, had compared and combined the different kinds of torture, till they had become the most consummate masters of their art, had expended on the subject all the resources of the utmost ingenuity, and had pursued it with the ardour of a passion. The system was matured under the mediæval habit of thought, it was adopted by the inquisitors, and it received its finishing touches from their ingenuity. [2:332] In every prison the crucifix and the rack stood side by side, and in almost every country the abolition of torture was at last effected by a movement which the Church opposed, and by men whom she had cursed. In England, it is true, torture had always been illegal, though it had often been employed, especially in ecclesiastical cases; [1:333] but almost every other country illustrates the position I have stated. In France, probably the first illustrious opponent of torture was Montaigne, the first of the French sceptics; the cause was soon afterwards taken up by Charron and by Bayle; it was then adopted by Voltaire, Montesquieu, and the Encyclopædists; and it finally triumphed when the Church had been shattered by the Revolution. [2:333] In Spain, torture began to fall into disuse under Charles III., on one of the few occasions when the Government was in direct opposition to the Church. [1:334] In Italy the great opponent of torture was Beccaria, the friend of Helvetius and of Holbach, and the avowed exponent of the principles of Rousseau. [2:334] Translated by Morellet, commented on by Voltaire and Diderot, and supported by the whole weight of the French philosophers, the work of Beccaria flew triumphantly over Europe, and vastly accelerated the movement that produced it. Under the influence of that movement, the Empress of Russia abolished torture in her dominions, and accompanied the abolition by an edict of toleration. Under the same influence Frederick of Prussia, whose adherence to the philosophical principles was notorious, took the same step, and his example was speedily followed by Duke Leopold of Tuscany. Nor is there, upon reflection, anything surprising in this. The movement that destroyed torture was much less an intellectual than an emotional movement. It represented much less a discovery of the reason than an increased intensity of sympathy. If we asked what positive arguments can be adduced on the subjects it would be difficult to cite any that was not perfectly familiar to all classes at every period of the middle ages. [1:335] That brave criminals sometimes escaped, and that timid persons sometimes falsely declared themselves guilty; that the guiltless frequently underwent a horrible punishment, and that the moral influence of legal decisions was seriously weakened; [2:335] -- these arguments, and such as these, were as much truisms in the eleventh and twelfth centuries as they are at present. Nor was it by such means that the change was effected. Torture was abolished because in the progress of civilisation the sympathies of men became more expansive, their perceptions of the sufferings of others more acute, their judgments more indulgent, their actions more gentle. To subject even a guilty man to the horrors of the rack seemed atrocious and barbarous, and therefore the rack was destroyed. It was part of the great movement which abolished barbarous amusements, mitigated the asperities and refined the manners of all classes. Now it is quite certain that those who seriously regarded eternal suffering as the just punishment of the fretfulness of a child, could not possibly look upon torture with the same degree and kind of repulsion as their less orthodox neighbours. It is also certain, that a period in which religion, by dwelling incessantly on the legends of the martyrs, or on the agonies of the lost, made the combination of new and horrible forms of suffering the habitual employment of the imagination, was of all others that in which the system of torture was likely to be most atrocious. It may be added, that the very frame of mind that made men assail the practice of torture, made them also assail the mediæval doctrine of future punishment. The two things grew out of the same condition of society. They flourished together, and they declined together. The truth is, that in every age the penal code will in a great degree vary with the popular estimate of guilt. Philosophers have written much on the purely preventive character of legal punishments; but it requires but little knowledge of history, or even of human nature, to show that a code constructed altogether on such a principle is impossible. It is indeed true, that all acts morality condemns do not fall within the province of the legislator, and that this fact is more fully appreciated as civilisation advances. [1:336] It is true, too, that in an early stage, the severity of punishment results in a great measure from the prevailing indifference to the infliction of suffering. It is even true that the especial prominence or danger of some crime will cause men to visit it for a time with penalties that seem to bear no proportion to its moral enormity. Yet it is, I think, impossible to examine penal systems without perceiving that they can only be efficient during a long period of time, when they accord substantially with the popular estimate of the enormity of guilt. Every system, by admitting extenuating circumstances and graduated punishments, implies this, and every judgment that is passed by the public is virtually an appeal to an ideal standard. When a punishment is pronounced excessive, it is meant that it is greater than was deserved. When it is pronounced inadequate, it is meant that it is less than was deserved. Even regarding the law simply as a preventive measure, it is necessary that it should thus reflect the prevailing estimate of guilt, for otherwise it would come into collision with that public opinion which is essential to its operation. Thus, towards the close of the last century, both murder and horse-stealing were punished by death. In the first case, juries readily brought in verdicts, the public sanctioned those verdicts, and the law was efficacious. In the second cases the criminals were almost usually acquitted; and when they were executed, public opinion was shocked and scandalised. The reason of this was, that men looked upon death as a punishment not incommensurate with the guilt of murder, but exceedingly disproportionate to that of theft. In the advance of civilisation, there is a constant tendency to mitigate the severity of penal codes, for men learn to realise more intensely the suffering they are inflicting; and they at the same time become more sensible of the palliations of guilt. When, however, such a doctrine concerning the just reward of crime as I have noticed is believed and realised, it must inevitably have the effect of retarding the progress. Such, then, were the natural effects of the popular teaching on the subject of future punishment which was universal during the middle ages, and during the sixteenth and the greater part of the seventeenth century. How completely that teaching has passed away must be evident to any one who will take the pains of comparing old theological literature with modern teaching. The hideous pictures of material fire and of endless torture which were once so carefully elaborated and so constantly enforced, have been replaced by a few vague sentences on the subject of 'perdition,' or by the general assertion of a future adjustment of the inequalities of life; and a doctrine which grows out of the moral faculty, and is an element in every truly moral religion, has been thus silently substituted for a doctrine which was the greatest of all moral difficulties. The eternity of punishment is, indeed, still strenuously defended by many; but the nature of that punishment, which had been one of the most prominent points in every previous discussion on the subject, has now completely disappeared from controversy. The ablest theologians once regarded their doctrine as one that might be defended, but could not possibly be so stated as not at first sight to shock the feelings. Liebnitz argued that offences against an infinite Being acquired an infinite guilt, and therefore deserved an infinite punishment. Butler argued that the analogy of nature gave much reason to suspect that the punishment of crimes may be out of all proportion with our conceptions of their guilt. Both, by their very defences, implied that the doctrine was a grievous difficulty. As, however, it is commonly stated at present, the doctrine is so far from being a difficulty, that any system that was without it would be manifestly imperfect, and it has accordingly long since taken its place as one of the moral evidences of Christianity. This gradual and silent transformation of the popular conceptions is doubtless chiefly due to the habit of educing moral and intellectual truths from our own sense of right, rather than from traditional teaching, which has accompanied the decline of dogmatic theology, and which first became conspicuous in the seventeenth century. Descartes, who was the chief reviver of moral philosophy, may be regarded as its leading originator; for the method which he applied to metaphysical enquiries was soon applied (consciously or unconsciously) to moral subjects. Men, when seeking for just ideas of right and wrong, began to interrogate their moral sense much more than the books of theologians, and they soon proceeded to make that sense or faculty a supreme arbiter, and to mould all theology into conformity with its dictates. At the same time the great increase of similar influences, and the rapid succession of renovations, made theologians yield with comparative facility to the pressure of their age. But besides this general rationalistic movement, there was another tendency which exercised, I think, a real though minor influence on the movement, and which is also associated with the name of Descartes. I mean the development of a purely spiritual conception of the soul. The different effects which a spiritual or a material philosophy has exercised on all departments of speculation, form one of the most interesting pages in history. The ancients -- at least the most spiritual schools -- seem to have generally regarded the essence of the soul as an extremely subtle fluid, or substance quite distinct from the body; and, according to their view, and according to the views that were long afterwards prevalent, this excessive subtlety of essence constituted immateriality. For the soul was supposed to be of a nature totally different from surrounding objects, simple, incapable of disintegration, and emancipated from the conditions of matter. Some of the Platonists verged very closely upon, and perhaps attained, the modern idea of a soul whose essence is purely intellectual; but the general opinion was, I think, that which I have described. The distinct and, as it was called, immaterial nature of the soul was insisted on by the ancients with great emphasis as the chief proof of its immortality. If mind be but a function of matter, if thought be but 'a material product of the brains,' it seems natural that the dissolution of the body should be the annihilation of the individual. There is, indeed, an instinct in man pointing to a future spheres where the injustices of life shall be rectified, and where the chain of love that death has severed shall be linked anew, which is so closely connected with our moral nature that it would perhaps survive the rudest shocks of a material philosophy; but to minds in which the logical element is most prominent, the psychological argument will always appear the most satisfactory. That there exists in man an indivisible being connected with, but essentially distinct from the body, was the position which Socrates dwelt upon as one of the chief foundations of his hopes in the last hours of his life, and Cicero in the shadow of age, and the whole moral system of the school of Plato was based upon the distinction. Man, in their noble imagery, is the horizon line where the world of spirit and the world of matter touch. It is in his power to rise by the wings of the soul to communion with the gods, or to sink by the gravitation of the body to the level of the brute. It is the destiny of the soul to pass from state to state; all its knowledge is but remembrance, and its future condition must be determined by its present tendency. The soul of that man who aspires only to virtue, and who despises the luxury and the passions of earth, will be emancipated at last from the thraldom of matter, and, invisible and unshackled, will drink in perfect bliss in the full fruition of wisdom. The soul of that man who seeks his chief gratification in the body, will after death be imprisoned in a new body, will be punished by physical suffering, or, visible to the human eye, will appear upon earth in the form of a ghost to scare the survivors amid their pleasure. [1:341] Such were the opinions that were held by the school of Plato, the most spiritual of all the philosophers of antiquity. When Christianity appeared in the world, its first tendency was very favourable to these conceptions, for it is the effect of every great moral enthusiasm to raise men above the appetites of the body, to present to the mind a supersensual ideal, and to accentuate strongly the antagonism by which human nature is convulsed. We accordingly find that in its earlier and better days the Church assimilated especially with the philosophy of Plato, while in the middle ages Aristotle was supreme; and we also find that the revival of Platonism accompanied the spiritualising movement that preceded the Reformation. Yet there were two doctrines that produced an opposite tendency. The pagans asserted the immateriality of the soul, because they believed that the body must perish for ever; and some of the Christians, in denying this latter position, were inclined to reject the distinction that was based upon it. But above all, the firm belief in punishment by fire, and the great prominence the doctrine soon obtained, became the foundation of the material view. The Fathers were early divided upon the subject. [2:341] One section, comprising the ablest and the best, maintained that there existed in man an immaterial soul, but that that soul was invariably associated with a thin, flexible, but sensitive body, visible to the eye. Origen added that the Deity alone could exist as a pure spirit unallied with matter. [1:342] The other school, of which Tertullian may be regarded as the chief, utterly denied the existence in man of any incorporeal element, maintained that the soul was simply a second body, and based this doctrine chiefly on the conception of future punishment. [2:342] Apparitions were at that time regarded as frequent. Tertullian mentions a woman who had seen a soul, which she described as 'a transparent and lucid figure in the perfect form of a man.' [3:342] St. Antony saw the soul of Ammon carried up to heaven. The soul of a Libyan hermit named Marc was borne to heaven in a napkin. Angels also were not unfrequently seen, and were universally believed to have cohabited with the daughters of the antediluvians. Under the influence of mediaeval habits of thought, every spiritual conception was materialised; and what at an earlier and a later period was generally deemed the language of metaphor, was universally regarded as the language of fact. The realisations of the people were all derived from painting, sculpture, or ceremonies that appealed to the senses, and all subjects were therefore reduced to palpable images. [1:343] The angel in the Last Judgment was constantly represented weighing the souls in a literal balance, while devils clinging to the scales endeavoured to disturb the equilibrium. Sometimes the soul was portrayed as a sexless child, rising out of the mouth of the corpse. [2:343] But above all, the doctrine of purgatory arrested and enchained the imagination. Every church was crowded with pictures representing the souls of those who had just died as literal bodies writhing with horrible contortions in a literal fire. The two doctrines were strictly congruous, and each supported the other. Men who believed in a 'physical soul,' readily believed in a physical punishment. Men who materialised their view of the punishment, materialised their view of the sufferers. We find, however, some time before the Reformation, evident signs of a desire on the part of a few writers to rise to a purer conception of the soul. The pantheistic writings that flowed from the school of Averroes, reviving the old Stoical notion of a soul of nature, directed attention to the great problem of the connection between the worlds of matter and of mind. The conception of an all-pervading spirit, which 'sleeps in the stone, dreams in the animal, and wakes in the man;' [1:344] the belief that the hidden vital principle which produces the varied forms of organisation, is but the thrill of the Divine essence that is present in them all -- this belief, which had occupied so noble a place among the speculations of antiquity, reappeared, and was, perhaps, strengthened by the rapid progress of mysticisms which may be regarded as the Christian form of pantheism. Coalescing at first with some lingering traditions of Gnosticism, mysticism appeared in the thirteenth century in the sect of the Bégards, and especially in the teachings of David de Dianant, Ortlieb, and Amaury de Bène; and in the following century, under the guidance of Eckart, Tauler, Suso, and Ruysbroek, it acquired in Germany an extraordinary popularity, to which the strong religious feeling elicited by the black death, and the reaction that had begun against the excessive aridity oF scholasticism, both contributed, [2:344] The writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, which have always been the Bible of mysticism, and which had been in part translated by Scotus Erigena, and also some of the works of Scotus himself, rose to sudden favour, and a new tone was given to almost all classes of theological reasoners. As the philosophical aspect of this tone of thought, an order of investigation was produced, which was shown in curious enquiries about how life is first generated in matter. The theory of spontaneous generation, which Lucretius had made the basis of a great portion of his system, and on which the philosophers of the eighteenth century laid so great stress, was strongly asserted, [3:344] and all the mysteries of generation treated with a confidence that elicits a smile, [1:345] not unmixed with melancholy when we think how completely these great questions of the nature and origin of life, which may be almost said to form the basis of all real knowledge, have eluded our investigations, and how absolutely the fair promise of the last century has in this respect been unfulfilled. From enquiries about the genesis of the soul, it was natural to proceed to examine its nature. Such enquiries were accordingly earnestly pursued, with the assistance of the pagan writers; and the conclusions arrived at on this point by different schools exercised, as is always the case, a very wide influence upon their theological conceptions. I cannot doubt, that when at last Descartes maintained that thought is the essence of the soul, and that the thinking substance is therefore so wholly and generically different from the body, that none of the forms or properties of matter can afford the faintest image of its nature, he contributed much to that frame of mind which made men naturally turn with contempt from ghosts, visible demons, and purgatorial fires. [1:346] It is true that the Cartesian doctrine was soon in a measure eclipsed, but it at least destroyed for ever the old notion of an inner body. [2:346] From the time of Descartes, the doctrine of a material fire may indeed be said to have steadily declined. [3:346] The sceptics of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries treated it with great contempt, and in England, at least, the last great controversy on the subject in the Church seems to have taken place during the first half of the eighteenth century. Swinden, Whiston, Horberry, Dodwell, and in America Jonathan Edwards, discussed it from different points of view, [4:346] and attested the rapid progress of the scepticism. Towards the close of the century the doctrine had passed away, for though there was no formal recantation or change of dogmas, it was virtually excluded from the popular teaching, though it even now lingers among the least educated Dissenters, and in the Roman Catholic manuals for the poor. I have dwelt at length upon this very revolting doctrine, because it exercised, I believe, an extremely important influence on the modes of thought and types of character of the past. I have endeavoured to show how its necessary effect was to chill and deaden the sympathies, to predispose men to inflict suffering, and seriously to retard the march of civilisation. It has now virtually passed away, and with it the type of character that it did so much to form. Instead of the old stern Inquisitor, so unflinching in his asceticism, so heroic in his enterprises, so remorseless in his persecution -- instead of the men who multiplied and elaborated the most hideous tortures, who wrote long cold treatises on their application, who stimulated and embittered the most ferocious wars, and who watered every land with the blood of the innocent -- instead of this ecclesiastical type of character, we meet with an almost feminine sensibility, and an almost morbid indisposition to inflict punishment. The preëminent characteristic of modern Christianity is the boundless philanthropy it displays. Philanthropy is to our age what asceticism was to the middle ages, and what polemical discussion was to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The emotional part of humanity, the humanity of impulse, was never so developed, and its development, in Protestantism at least, where the movement has been most strikingly evinced, has always been guided and represented by the clergy. Indeed, this fact is recognised quite as much by their opponents as by their admirers. A certain weak and effeminate sentimentality, both intellectual and moral, is the quality which every satirist of the clergy dwells upon as the most prominent feature of their character. Whether this quality, when duly analysed, is as despicable as is sometimes supposed, may be questioned; at all events, no one would think of ascribing it to the ecclesiastics of the school of Torquemada, of Calvin, or of Knox. The changes that take place from age to age in the types of character in different professions, though they are often very evident, and though they form one of the most suggestive branches of history, are of course not susceptible of direct logical proof. A writer can only lay the general impressions he has derived from the study of the two periods before the judgments of those whose studies have resembled his own. It is more, therefore, as an illustration than as a proof, that I may notice in conclusion the striking contrast which the history of punishments exhibits in the two periods of theological development. We have seen that the popular estimate of the adequacy of the penalties that are affixed to different crimes must in a great measure vary with the popular realisations of guilt. We have seen, too, that the abolition of torture was a movement almost entirely due to the opponents of the Church, and that it was effected much less by any process of reasoning than by the influence of certain modes of feeling which civilisation produced. Soon, however, we find that the impulse which was communicated by Voltaire, Beccaria, and the Revolution, passed on to the orthodox, and it was only then it acquired its full intensity. The doctrine of a literal fire having almost ceased to be a realised conception, a growing sense of the undue severity of punishments was everywhere manifested; and in most countries, but more especially in England, there was no single subject on which more earnestness was shown. The first step was taken by Howard. Nowhere perhaps in the annals of philanthropy do we meet a picture of more unsullied and fruitful beneficence than is presented by the life of that great dissenter, who, having travelled over more than 40,000 miles in works of mercy, at last died on a foreign soil a martyr to his cause. Not only in England, but over the whole of Europe, his exertions directed public opinion to the condition of prisons, and effected a revolution the results of which can never be estimated. Soon after followed the mitigation of the penal code. In England the severity of that code had long been unexampled; and as crimes of violence were especially numerous, the number of executions was probably quite unparalleled in Europe. Indeed, Fortescue, who was chief justice under Henry VI., notices the fact with curious complacency, as a plain proof of the superiority of his countrymen. 'More men,' he tells us, 'are hanged in Englonde in one year than in Fraunce in seven, because the English have better hartes. The Scotchmenne, likewise, never dare rob, but only commit larcenies.' [1:349] In the reign of Henry VIII. when an attempt was made to convert the greater part of England into pasture land, [2:349] and when the suppression of the monasteries had destroyed the main source of charity and had cast multitudes helplessly upon the world, Holinshed estimates the executions at the amazing number of 72,000, or 2,000 a year. [1:350] The poor law of Elizabeth to a certain extent mitigated the evil, yet at the end of her reign the annual executions were still about 400. [2:350] In the middle of the eighteenth century, however, though the population had greatly increased, they had fallen to less than one hundred. [3:350] A little before this time Bishop Berkeley, following in the steps that had been traced by More in his 'Utopia,' and by Cromwell in one of his speeches, raised his voice in favour of substituting other punishments for death. [4:350] But all through the reign of George III. the code was aggravated, and its severity was carried to such a point, that when Romilly began his career, the number of capital offences was no less than 230. [5:350] It was only at the close of the last and in the beginning of the present century, that this state of things was changed. The reform in England, as over the rest of Europe, may be ultimately traced to that Voltairian school of which Beccaria was the representative, for the impulse created by the treatise 'On Crimes and Punishments' was universal and it was the first great effort to infuse a spirit of philanthropy into the penal code, making it a main object of legislation to inflict the smallest possible amount of suffering. Beccaria is especially identified with that great cause of the abolition of capital punishment, which is slowly but steadily advancing towards its inevitable triumph. In England the philosophical element of the movement was nobly represented by Bentham, who in genius was certainly superior to Beccaria, and whose influence, though perhaps not so great, was also European. But while conceding the fullest merit to these great thinkers, there can be little doubt that the enthusiasm and the support that enabled Romilly, Mackintosh, Wilberforce, and Brougham to carry their long series of reforms through Parliament, was in a very great degree owing to the untiring exertions of the Evangelicals, who, with a benevolence that no disappointment could damp, and with an indulgence towards crime that sometimes amounted even to a fault, cast their whole weight into the cause of philanthropy. The contrast between the position of these religionists in the destruction of the worst features of the ancient codes, and the precisely opposite position of the mediæval clergy, is very remarkable. Sectarians will only see in it the difference between rival churches, but the candid historian will, I think, be able to detect the changed types of character that civilisation has produced; while in the difference that does undoubtedly in this respect exist between Protestantism and Catholicism, he will find one of the results of the very different degrees of intensity with which those religions direct the mind to the debasing and indurating conceptions I have reviewed. It has been said that the tendency of religious thought in the present day 'is all in one direction -- towards the identification of the Bible and conscience.' It is a movement that may be deplored, but can scarcely be overlooked or denied. Generation after generation the power of the moral faculty becomes more absolute, the doctrines that oppose it wane and vanish, and the various elements of theology are absorbed and recast by its influence. The indifference of most men to dogmatic theology is now so marked, and the fear of tampering with formularies that are no longer based on general conviction is with some men so intense, that general revisions of creeds have become extremely rare; but the change of belief is not the less profound. The old words are indeed retained, but they no longer present the old images to the mind, or exercise the old influence upon the life. The modes of thought, and the types of character which those modes produce, are essentially and universally transformed. The whole intellectual atmosphere, the whole tenor of life, the prevailing enthusiasms, the conceptions of the imagination, are all changed. The intellect of man moves onward under the influence of regular laws in a given direction; and the opinions that in any age are realised and operative, are those which harmonise with its intellectual condition. I have endeavoured in the present chapter to exhibit the nature of some of these laws, the direction in which some of these successive modifications are tending. If the prospect of constant change such an enquiry exhibits should appear to some minds to remove all the landmarks of the past, there is one consideration that may serve in a measure to reassure them. That Christianity was designed to produce benevolence, affection, and sympathy, being a fact of universal admission, is indefinitely more certain than that any particular dogma is essential to it; and in the increase of these moral qualities we have therefore the strongest evidence of the triumph of the conceptions of its Founder. [End of Third Chapter]
It looks like you're using an Ad Blocker. Thank you. Help ATS via PayPal: learn more What causes Red Lightning in the sky? page: 1 log in posted on Jul, 5 2008 @ 08:24 AM to further elaborate the situation, lets say about 95-99% of the time, the place where you live, when there is a thunderstorm, lightnings usually are white in color. and all of a sudden, on one fine thunderstorm day, lightning strikes in red color. so i was wondering, what causes it? i know there are some places where red lightning are common and often. but is there any meaning or difference if it will to occur in some place that it doesn't usually happen? hope to receive your opinions on this. posted on Jul, 5 2008 @ 08:34 AM Never seen or heard of this before. A quick google search didn't bring up anything either..... Could you post some info please? [edit on 5-7-2008 by Chonx] posted on Jul, 5 2008 @ 08:49 AM Most likely it has to do with the atmospheric makeup at the time. Or the amount of energy in the lightning bolt. posted on Jul, 5 2008 @ 09:04 AM i once saw pink ligthning in the himalaya's, it was very beautiful and yet quite eerie. As to what causes it? I can only speculate... posted on Jul, 5 2008 @ 11:25 AM Lightning traveling through open air emits white light, but can appear in different colors depending on local atmospheric conditions. Distant lightning can appear red or orange the same way the setting sun does, due to moisture, haze, dust, etc in the lower levels of the atmosphere. Light emitted by lightning has a similar visible spectrum as sunlight (white light), so the atmosphere should shift the colors of both the same way - given there is enough distance between the lightning and the observer. When lightning strikes an object or the ground, the lightning channel is often a deep red or orange color for its last ten feet or so above the ground or the target object. Lightning striking a tree will appear a bright, fiery orange/red color for the length of the channel traveling down the tree. Now these color differences due to natural conditions are minor and only apply to lightning striking things, or lightning in the distant horizon during a sunset. I assume you mean actual red lightning bolts, like the ones in the below photograph: In that case, it's just because the wrong white balance was used on the camera/film. When you are a photographer, it's hard to get the white balance right when it's pitch black out and no light. Here you have purple lightning, again, it's not the color of the lightning, the white balance is just set wrong on the camera/film. [edit on 5-7-2008 by OrangeAlarmClock] posted on Jul, 5 2008 @ 12:04 PM Yeah that's exactly what I was thinking, but the sky itself was a dark blue and the lightning was pink, although this again could be put down to contrast and perception. Nice pics though. posted on Aug, 17 2008 @ 05:39 PM I took an evening flight from Toronto to Vancouver in July 2008. There was much lightning activity in distant clouds for several hours. All lightning appeared white except for one occurence. Here the bolt was white except for a red tip at its outermost point (i.e., the opposite end of its starting point). posted on Apr, 27 2009 @ 03:58 PM Sprites are large scale electrical discharges that occur high above thunderstorm clouds, or cumulonimbus, giving rise to a quite varied range of visual shapes. They are triggered by the discharges of positive lightning between an underlying thundercloud and the ground. They are colored reddish-orange in the upper regions, with bluish hanging tendrils below, and can be preceded by a reddish halo. They often occur in clusters, lying 80 kilometers (50 mi) to 150 kilometers (93 mi) above the Earth's surface and up to 50 kilometers (31 mi) horizontally from the thunderstorm which produced the sprites. Observed randomly since at least 1886, sprites were first photographed on July 6, 1989 by scientists from the University of Minnesota and have been captured in video recordings thousands of times since then. Sprites have erroneously been held responsible for otherwise unexplained accidents involving high altitude vehicular operations above thunderstorms. Sprites are sometimes inaccurately called upper-atmospheric lightning. However, they are cold plasma phenomena that lack the hot channel temperatures of tropospheric lightning, so they are more akin to fluorescent tubes than to lightning discharges. posted on Apr, 5 2015 @ 02:11 PM a reply to: Chonx I saw red lightening in March 2015 near the IN / MI state line... looked about 5mi west of I69 at the 348 mm... dunno why, but I had never seen red before new topics top topics log in
Loading the player... What is 'Ex-Ante' Ex-ante is a term that refers to future events, such as future returns or prospects of a company. Using ex-ante analysis helps to give an idea of future movements in price or the future impact of a newly implemented policy. An example of ex-ante analysis is when an investment company values a stock ex-ante and then compares the predicted results to the actual movement of the stock's price. In Latin it means "before the event". 1. Futures Contract 2. Futures 3. Forwardation A term used in pricing futures contracts. Forwardation is a ... 4. Trend Analysis An aspect of technical analysis that tries to predict the future ... 5. Wide Basis A condition found in futures markets in which the spot price ... 6. Limit Move The largest amount of change that the price of a commodity futures ... Related Articles 1. Insurance Futures Fundamentals 2. Options & Futures Using Index Futures To Predict The Future 3. Insurance Futures Fundamentals: Conclusion Buying and selling in the futures market can seem risky and complicated. As we've already said, futures trading is not for everyone, but it works for a wide range of people. This tutorial has ... 4. Markets Crude Oil Prices: Comparing Future Price Vs. Current Market Price Discover the differences between oil futures market prices and oil spot market prices and what leads to the differences between the two. 5. Insurance Futures Fundamentals: Introduction 6. Options & Futures Futures, Derivatives and Liquidity: More or Less Risky? 7. Options & Futures Beginner's Guide To Trading Futures: Conclusion This Beginner's Guide to Trading Futures has provided an overview of how to begin evaluating and trading futures. Because the futures market tracks so many different indexes and commodities, ... 8. Options & Futures Contango Vs. Normal Backwardation Learn about the futures curve and what its shape means for hedgers and speculators. 9. Options & Futures Introduction To Trading In Oil Futures An introduction to oil futures, how the market arrives at oil futures prices, what futures prices mean, and how investors can exploit them. 10. Technical Indicators Understanding Trend Analysis 1. How are futures used to hedge a position? Futures contracts are one of the most common derivatives used to hedge risk. A futures contract is as an arrangement between ... Read Answer >> 2. How do I set a strike price for a future? Find out why futures contracts don't have set strike prices like options or other derivatives, even though price change limits ... Read Answer >> 3. How risky are futures? Understand how futures contracts are trading and learn what aspect of futures trading poses potentially greater risk than ... Read Answer >> 4. How can I calculate the notional value of a futures contract? Learn how the notional value of a futures contract is calculated, and how futures are different from stock since they have ... Read Answer >> 5. Why is the time value of money (TVM) an important concept to investors? Understand why the time value of money is an important concept for investors. Learn when present value and future value calculations ... Read Answer >> 6. How is fair value calculated in the futures market? Learn how the fair value for futures stock index contracts is calculated, and understand how differences between those numbers ... Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Demand Curve 2. Goldilocks Economy 3. White Squire 4. MACD Technical Indicator 5. Over-The-Counter - OTC 6. Quarter - Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 Trading Center
Linked by Hadrien Grasland on Sat 5th Feb 2011 10:59 UTC OSNews, Generic OSes So you have taken the test and you think you are ready to get started with OS development? At this point, many OS-deving hobbyists are tempted to go looking for a simple step-by-step tutorial which would guide them into making a binary boot, do some text I/O, and other "simple" stuff. The implicit plan is more or less as follow: any time they'll think about something which in their opinion would be cool to implement, they'll implement it. Gradually, feature after feature, their OS would supposedly build up, slowly getting superior to anything out there. This is, in my opinion, not the best way to get somewhere (if getting somewhere is your goal). In this article, I'll try to explain why, and what you should be doing at this stage instead in my opinion. Permalink for comment 461184 RE[4]: Not always rational by Morin on Mon 7th Feb 2011 08:58 UTC in reply to "RE[3]: Not always rational" Member since: 1. Code could be written in a type safe language under a VM such as Java or Mono. The calls for IPC could be implemented by exchanging data pointers between VMs sharing a common heap or memory space without changing CPU rings. I used to consider this a plausible approach, too. However, any shared-memory approach will make the RAM a bottleneck. It would also enforce a single shared RAM by definition. This made me consider isolated processes and message passing again, with shared RAM to boost performance but avoiding excessive IPC whenever possible. One of the concepts I think is useful for that is uploading (bytecode) scripts into server processes. This avoids needless IPC round-trips and even allows server processes to handle events like keypresses in client-supplied scripts instead of IPC-ing to the client, avoiding round-trips and thus be more responsive. The idea isn't new, though. SQL does this with complex expressions and stored procedures. X11 and OpenGL do this with display lists. Web sites do this with Javascript. Windows 7 does it to a certain extent with retained-mode draing in WPF. There just doesn't seem to be an OS that does it everywhere, presumably using some kind of configurable bytecode interopreter to enable client script support in server processes in a generalized way. Example: a GUI server process would know about the widget tree of a process and has client scripts installed like "on key press: ignore if the key is (...). for TAB, cycle the GUI focus. On ESC, close window (window reference). On ENTER, run input validation (validation constraints), and send the client process an IPC message is successful. (...)" There you have a lot of highly responsive application-specific code, running in the server process and sending the client an IPC message only if absolutely needed, while still being "safe" due to being interpreted and any action checked. 2. Segmentation has been declared a legacy feature in favor of flat memory models, but hypothetically memory segmentation could provide isolation among microkernel modules while eliminating the need for expensive IPC. That would be a more elegant way to do the same as could be done with paging. On 64-bit CPUs the discussion becomes moot anyway. Those can emulate segments by using subranges of the address space; virtual address space is so abundant that you can afford it. The only thing you don't get with that is implicit bounds checking, but you still can't access memory locations which the process cannot access anyway. 3. User mode CPU protections may not be necessary if the compiler can generate binary modules which are inherently isolated even though running in the same memory space. If used for "real" programs, this argument is the same as using a JVM or .NET runtime. On the other hand, if you allow interpreted as well as compiled programs, and run them in the context of a server process, you get my scripting approach. Reply Parent Score: 2
Wildlife experts advise caution with skunks By Clarence Plank: PNT staff writer A skunk can be a very brazen animal and make someone have a bad day. Aside from the nuisance should one get sprayed, skunks are notorious carriers of rabies. Eastern New Mexico University experts — Wildlife Biologists Zach Jones and Tony Gennaro — offer these insights into skunks, rabies and ways to keep these pesky pests away: “The striped skunk is the only species here,” Gennaro said. “The striped skunk is a native animal of the American southwest.” Skunks are nocturnal animals. They eat, small rodents, bugs, eggs, lizards, snakes, leaves, grass, nuts, birds and moles. Recently, a skunk was diagnosed with rabies in Curry County. It was the first case of rabies in the area this year. Rabies can be spread by contact with the saliva from an infected animal. Usually through a bite or a scratch. But it can also be spread even by an infected animal licking the skin of a person. Rabies is a virus. It affects the neurological system of an animal, according to Chris Minnick, public relations officer with New Mexico Department of Health. “There is a prevention for rabies,” Minnick said. “There is a shot to prevent rabies. If someone is infected by an animal there is a vaccination to prevent the disease from happening in the body.” But, Minnick cautions, “Once someone has been diagnosed, it is almost always fatal” Skunks do not often hide when they encounter humans. “They don’t want to hide,” Gennaro said. “That is part of their protection and that’s when you encounter rabies.” Skunks are very bold animals, they want to be seen, said Gennaro. Just because someone sees a skunk during the day doesn’t mean it is rabid, said Jones. When a skunk is going to spray, it will raise its tail as a first warning. Sometimes they stomp their feet as a warning. “When I was growing up,” Jones said. “We had stacks and stacks of six inch irrigation pipes…(skunks) would go into there and make a nest. You (would) be carrying a pipe, next thing you know a skunk comes squirting out of there and sprays you.” Skunks are rabies carriers but are not the most frequent to have the virus. “A lot of people think dogs are the most common domestic animal to have rabies,” Gennaro said. “That’s not true. It’s cats. The reason is there are more stray cats, than there are dogs.” Jones said cats usually aren’t immunized against rabies. “If your animal has been in contact with wild animals,” Minnick said. “Then you need to take that animal to the vet immediately.” Jones said a rabid skunk would not spray someone. It would attack them. “An immunization series is not the old days of a three inch long needle,” Gennaro said. “They don’t do that. It is a shot in the arm, much like a tetanus shot. The reason I know this is because I had to be immunized when I was working with bats.” One way Jones found to keep skunks away from his house was sealing moth balls in a small plastic container. A skunk would come along and bite the plastic container thinking it might have food in it and get blasted by the smell of moth balls. “My house is an old house that has a lot of openings,” Jones said. “I throw them underneath (the house) and the container keeps the moth balls from drying out overtime. Skunks are curious, so they will bite the plastic. I’ve found that usually works.”
St. Patrick Catholic Church Saint of the Day Feast of Saint Thomas, Apostle July 3 Anatolius of Constantinople B (AC) Died 458. Saint Anatolius, patriarch of Constantinople from 449 to 458, is greatly venerated by the Byzantine Church. Zealous, austere, and charitable, his claim to sanctity has been supported by the Bollandists. Anatolius upheld the doctrinal authority of Pope Saint Leo (Benedictines, Encyclopedia). Anatolius of Alexandria B (RM) Born in Alexandria, Egypt; died c. 283. Anatolius, one of the greatest scholars of his age, headed the Aristotelian school at Alexandria. Fragments of the 10 volumes on mathematics that he wrote have come down to us, and he was also a master of geometry, physics, rhetoric, dialectic, astronomy, and philosophy. Hypercritical Saint Jerome commends his work, which should be considered high praise indeed. Constantly seeking to improve his knowledge and understanding, he turned his inquiring mind to every subject that came to hand, and not least to the mysteries of God, without whom his studies and life would have been meaningless. He viewed learning as a spiritual as well as an intellectual discipline, for it taught honesty and respect for the truth, gave the student a sense of the infinite magnitude of God's work, and filled the soul with humility. Despite his reputation as the leading scholar of a town famed for its scholarship, Anatolius was never conceited or arrogant. If he sometimes considered ignorance, particularly among Christians, as almost a sin, he nevertheless showed a sincere friendship for poor and uneducated people. Instead of snubbing them, he humbly set himself to learn from them, for there was always something new to be learned, some truth about man or nature. As a scholar, and more importantly as a Christian, he knew that no piece of God's handiwork should be passed by with indifference. Though his reason and intellect were the principal instruments he used in his search for truth, he also understood their limitations when confronted with the wider mystery of God. His intelligence and his willingness to serve his fellow man led him to accept several important posts in the administration of his city, which at the time was part of the Roman Empire. It was thanks to him that in 263 a large number of its inhabitants was saved from starvation. A few years earlier Emilian had seized power in Alexandria and had himself proclaimed emperor, but a Roman army under Theodosius was quickly dispatched against him. Theodosius laid siege to the town, which was not expected to be able to hold out for long. Making use of his friendship with Eusebius, a deacon who later became bishop of Laodicea, and who had accompanied the Roman army, Anatolius obtained permission for all the women, children, old men and sick people to leave Alexandria. This proved to be a tactical victory as well as an act of mercy. The besieged forces, relieved of the burden of feeding useless mouths and of caring for those who could not bear arms, were able to prolong their resistance. Perhaps because he had dangerously compromised himself in this affair, Anatolius then left Alexandria and went to Caesarea in Palestine, where his fame had already preceded him. Theoctenes, the bishop of Caesarea, esteemed him so highly that he consecrated him as his successor and at once passed on to him a large part of his responsibilities. In 268, they were both summoned to the Council of Antioch, but as they were passing through Laodicea they were politely but firmly stopped by the clergy and people. Eusebius, their bishop, had just died and they saw Anatolius's sudden arrival as a gift from God. Anatolius had no choice but to accept, and it was as bishop of Laedicea that he died (Benedictines, Encyclopedia). In art, Saint Anatolius is portrayed as a bishop with globes and mathematical books (Roeder). Bernardino Realino, SJ (RM) Born at Carpi (near Modena), Italy, in 1530; died at Lecce, Italy, 1616; beatified by Leo XIII; canonized in 1947 by Pope Pius XII. Bernardino led a lively early life, but after practicing law for some years, he entered the Society of Jesus at age 34. He was admitted at Naples by Father Alphonso Salmeron, one of the first companions of Saint Ignatius. He worked for 10 years in Naples, doing pastoral work, preaching, catechizing, and helping the poor, the sick, and prison inmates. His holiness and fiery speaking caused him to be recognized as a saint in his lifetime and a spontaneous cultus sprang up, which helped to provide evidence for some of the remarkable occurrences that were testified to under oath in the process of his beatification. After pastoring a flock, he went to the college at Lecce to teach and eventually was appointed rector of the college, where he remained for the rest of his life. Six years before his death, he fell and suffered two wounds that would not heal. During his last illness, blood from a leg wound was collected in vials on account of the great veneration in which Bernardino was held. This blood behaved in various extraordinary ways. In some vessels it retained its liquidity over a century; in others it even foamed and seemed to increase in volume; in one, an observer said it "boiled" and frothed on the anniversary of his death and when brought near a reliquary containing his tongue. In 1634, Bernardino's tomb was opened by an ecclesiastical authority. A good deal of tissue was left, and it was separated from the bones and put into two glass containers, which were reburied with the skeleton in the coffin. In 1711, the contents of the coffin were examined by the bishop of Lecce, in the presence of witnesses, to verify the relics. One of the glass vessels was broken, but in the other the tissues were in an apparently unaltered state but floating in a dark red liquid. The liquid was said by doctors to be blood,and they attested that its preservation and sweet smell were miraculous. Two years later a commission of three bishops, appointed by the Congregation of Sacred Rites to examine the blood, found it to be liquid, crimson, and foaming. Don Gaetano Solazzo, who had charge of a vial (probably the vial of 1616) in the Cathedral of Lecce in 1804, left a statement saying it was liquid and had twice foamed and bubbled. Nuns saw it do the same, and a Jesuit father stated in a sworn deposition that he'd witnessed it do the same twice in 1852. These circumstances are notable because they are such a well- authenticated example of such phenomena. In 1895, a biographer could find no relic of blood still in a liquid state (Attwater, Benedictines, Delaney, White). Bladus of the Isle of Man B (AC) Date unknown. According to tradition, Saint Bladus was one of the early bishops of the Isle of Man (Benedictines). Byblig of Wales (AC) (also known as Biblig, Peblig, Piblig, Publicius) 5th century (?). Although Saint Byblig was obviously a holy man connected with Carnarvon and honored with a cultus in Wales, nothing is known about his life (Benedictines). Cillene of Iona, Abbot (AC) Died c. 752. The Irish Saint Cillene migrated to Iona, where he was elected abbot in 726 (Benedictines). Dathus (Datus) of Ravenna B (RM) Died 190. Bishop Dathus was elected to the see of Ravenna because of a miraculous appearance of a dove hovering over his head. He governed his diocese during the reign of Emperor Commodus (Benedictines). Eulogius and Companions MM (RM) Died 364-370. This was a group of Catholics martyred at Constantinople under the Arian Emperor Valens (Benedictines). Germanus of the Isle of Man B (AC) Died c. 474. Tradition tells us that Saint Germanus was a nephew of Saint Patrick. He was a missionary monk in Ireland, Wales, and Brittany, who eventually became the bishop of the Isle of Man. His memory is preserved there in place names, such as Jarman and Gremain (Benedictines). Gunthiern of Brittany (AC) Died c. 500. Gunthiern, a Welsh prince, left his homeland in his youth to become a hermit in Brittany (Armorica). On the Isle of Groie near the mouth of the Blavet, he was given land for a monastery by the local lord, Grallon, who was impressed by Gunthiern's holiness. The abbey is known as Kemperle, which indicates its location between the Isol and Wile Rivers. Once a swarm of insects threatened to devour the crops. Count Guerech I of Vannes, dreading a famine, sent three dignitaries to request the saint's intercession to turn away the scourge. Gunthiern blessed some water and told them to sprinkle it over the fields. When they followed Gunthiern's instructions the insects were destroyed. During the Norman invasions, Gunthiern's body was concealed in the isle of Groie. When it was discovered in the eleventh century, it was translated to the monastery of Kemperle, which now belongs to the Benedictine Order. Saint Gunthiern is patron of this abbey as well as of many other churches and chapels in Brittany (Benedictines, Husenbeth). Guthagon, Hermit (AC) 8th century. Like so many other Irish saints, Guthagon is said to have been born of royal blood. Forsaking the world, he crossed over into Belgium, where he became a recluse at Oostkerk near Bruges in Flanders. His sanctity was confirmed by numerous miracles worked by God following the saints death. Guthagon's shrine and chapel are venerated. On July 3, 1059, Bishop Gerard of Tournai translated Guthagon's relics; and, on October 1, 1444, Bishop Nicholas of Tournai is said to have visited them (Benedictines, Husenbeth). Heliodorus of Altinum B (RM) Born in Dalmatia; died c. 390. Heliodorus was an intimate friend of Saint Jerome from early in life. He followed Jerome to Palestine, supported him financially, and helped in the preparation of the Vulgate. Later he settled in Aquileia and became bishop of Altinum, a small town near Venice. He proved to be an outstanding bishop and a brave opponent of Arianism (Benedictines, Encyclopedia). Hyacinth of Cappadocia M (RM) Died c. 120. Saint Hyacinth, chamberlain to Emperor Trajan at Caesarea in Cappadocia, was imprisoned for his faith. He died of starvation because his captors would allow him only meat that had been offered to idols, which he could not eat in good conscience (Benedictines). Ireneaus (Ireneo) and Mustiola MM (RM) Died 273. Ireneaus, a deacon, and Mustiola, a noble lady, were martyred at Chiusi in Tuscany under Aurelian for having ministered to other martyrs and burying their bodies (Benedictines). In art, Saint Ireneaus is depicted as a deacon holding a palm and either with Mustiola alone or also with Saint Secundus. Patron of Chiusi (Roeder). (Not to be confused with the better known Irenaeus of Lyons, Doctor.) Blessed Joseph Peter Vyen, OP Tert. M (AC) Born in East Tonkin (Vietnam), in 1773; died there in 1838; beatified in 1910. Joseph Vyen was a native catechist, who died in prison for the faith (Benedictines). Julius, Aaron, and Companions MM (RM) Date unknown; feast day formerly July 1. Julius and Aaron were Roman-Britons who are said to have been put to death at Caerleon- upon-Usk in Monmouthshire, perhaps in the middle of the 3rd century. Nothing else is recorded about them. The date c. 304, during the persecution of Diocletian, commonly given to these martyrs is only a conjecture (though a very old one). It is now believed that Diocletian's decree against Christians was not enforced in Britain (Benedictines, Attwater). Leo II, Pope (RM) Born in Sicily; died June 28, 683. Leo was elected pope to succeed Pope Saint Agatho on January 10, 681, though he was not consecrated until August 17, 682. He was an eloquent preacher, who was interested in music and was known for his concern for the poor. He confirmed the acts of the sixth general council of Constantinople, 680-681, which condemned Monothelitism and censured Pope Honorius I for not formally condemning that heresy (Attwater, Benedictines, Delaney). Maelmuire (Marianus) O'Gorman (AC) Died after 1167. Saint Maelmuire was abbot of Knock (Louth). He composed an Irish menology in Irish verse (Benedictines). Mark, Mucian, an Unnamed Boy, & Paul MM (RM) Date unknown. The entry in the Roman Martyrology reads as follows: "The holy martyrs Mark and Mucian who were slain with the sword for Christ's sake. When a little boy called upon them with a loud voice that they should not sacrifice to idols, he was ordered to be whipped, and as he then confessed Christ more loudly, he was slain, too, together with one Paul who was exhorting the martyrs" (Benedictines). Blessed Philip Minh M (AC) Born at Caimong, West Cochin-China, in 1815; died at Cong-ho in 1853; beatified in 1900. Philip joined the Society for Foreign Missions and was ordained a priest of Mac-Bac in East Cochin-China. He wa beheaded for the faith (Benedictines). Rumold(us), OSB BM (RM) (also known as Rombauld, Rumbold, Rombaut) Died c. 775; feast day formerly June 24. Rumold, an Anglo-Saxon monk, became a regionary bishop and worked under Saint Willibrord in Holland and Brabant. He was martyred near Malines, where he is now the titular of the cathedral and his relics rest in an elaborate golden shrine over the high altar. His feast is still a major event. The Roman martyrology and later legends say that he was of Irish descent and bishop of Dublin (Benedictines, Montague). In art, Saint Rumbold is a bishop with a missioner's cross, a bearded man with a hoe lying under his feet. He may also be shown murdered near a coffer of money (Roeder). Thomas Didymus, Apostle (RM) 1st century; declared apostle of India by Pope Paul VI in 1972; feast day formerly on December 21. Thomas was probably born in Galilee to a humble family, but there is no indication that he was a fisherman. He was a Jew, but there is no account of how he became an apostle to Christ. His name is Syriac and means "the twin"; he was also called Didymus, which is the Greek equivalent. In France he is referred to as Jumeau, which also means "twin." Thomas is remembered for his doubt that Christ had actually risen from the dead, and he said to the apostles, "Unless I see the mark of the nails in His hands and put my finger into the nailmarks, and put my hand into His side, I will not believe" (Luke 20:25). Eight days later, Christ appeared to him and said, "Put your finger here, and see my hands; and bring your hand and put it into my side. And be not faithless, but believing." Thomas fell at His feet, saying, "My Lord and my God!" and Jesus replied, "Because you have seen me, Thomas, you believed. Blessed are they that have not seen, and yet believe" (Luke 20:27-29). This incident gave rise to the expression "a doubting Thomas." Lest we condemn poor Thomas for his lack of belief, consider that he was a man who relentlessly sought the Truth. Like an inquisitive child, he constantly asked questions. Earlier, when Jesus told his disciples, "I go to prepare a place for you. And I will come again and will take you to myself, that where I am you may also be. And you know the way where I'm going." At this Thomas, puzzled, but bold enough to ask his Lord to explain, said, "Lord, we do not know where you are going; how can we know the way?" Jesus replied, "I am the way, the truth, and the life; no one comes to the Father, except through me. If you had known me, you would have known my Father also. Henceforth, you know him and have seen him" (John 14:3-7). When the worried disciples wanted to keep Jesus from going to raise Lazarus from the dead because "the Jews want to stone you and you leave yourself open to them!" Thomas responded, "Let us go also, that we may die with him!" (John 11:16). Accounts of Thomas's missionary activities are unreliable, but the most widely accepted account holds that he preached in India. The Acta Thomae say that when the apostles divided up the world for their missionary labors, India fell to Thomas. He said he was not healthy enough and that a Hebrew could not teach Indians; even a vision of Christ could not change his mind. Christ then appeared to the merchant Abban and sold Thomas to him as a slave for his master, a king who ruled over part of India. When Thomas discovered this he said, "As you will, Lord, so be it." At the court in India, Thomas, having admitted that he was a carpenter and builder, was ordered to build a palace. While the king was absent, however, Thomas did no building, and he used the 20 pieces of silver given to him by the king for charitable purposes. When the king returned, he imprisoned him, intending to flay him alive. At that point, the king's brother died, and when the brother was shown the place in heaven that Thomas's good works had prepared for the king, he was allowed to return to earth and offer to buy the spot from the king for himself. The king refused, released Thomas, and was converted by him. There exists a population of Christians along the Malabar Coast who were supposedly originally converted by Thomas, and their tradition holds that he built seven churches, was martyred by spearing on the "Big Hill" near Madras, and was buried in Mylapore. One account holds that Thomas was killed for successfully persuading a woman, Mygdonia, to cease marriage relations with her husband, Charisius. It is certainly possible that Thomas reached India as a missionary. Indian Christians, especially in Kerala, often call themselves 'Christians of Saint Thomas,' and an ancient 6th-century cross that speaks of him in an inscription lies in the church of Mylapore. In 1522, the Portuguese found the alleged tomb, and some relics now lie in the Cathedral of Saint Thomas at Mylapore. The larger part of his relics appear to have been in Edessa in the 4th century, and the Acta Thomae say that they were taken from India to Mesopotamia. They were translated to several places and were finally taken to Ortona in the Abruzzi, where they are still honored. According to Eusebius, Thomas evangelized Parthia. The theme of the long, 3rd or 4th century Acta Thomae is the missionary efforts of Saint Thomas. This is one of the most readable and intrinsically interesting of early Christian apocryphal writings; but it is no more than a popular romance, written in the interest of false gnostic teachings (e.g., the virtual necessity of celibacy for Christians). Nevertheless, the doubting Thomas managed to quiet the doubts of many others during his missionary journeys. He answered the questions of others with the childlike, loving heart trained by Christ. The Indians celebrate Thomas's dies natale on July 1 (Attwater, Benedictines, Bentley, Brown, Delaney, Encyclopedia (December), White). There are several other apocryphal works concerning or attributed to Saint Thomas: • The Gospel of Thomas • Consummation of Thomas the Apostle In art, Saint Thomas is generally a young or middle-aged man with a carpenter's rule. He may also be shown (1) with a lance or, occasionally a sword or dagger; (2) touching Christ's wounded side; (3) catching the girdle dropped by the Virgin at her Assumption; or (4) casting out the devil from an Indian king's daughter (Roeder). White says that Thomas is portrayed as an elderly man, holding a lance or pierced by one; or kneeling before Jesus; or with a T- square (White). Saint Thomas is venerated as the Apostle of India. He is the patron of architects, builders, carpenters, masons, geometricians, theologians (Roeder), other building craftsmen, blind people (due to his occasional spiritual blindness), India and Pakistan (White). Tryphon and Companions MM (RM) Date unknown. A group of 13 martyrs who suffered at Alexandria, Egypt (Benedictines). About Saints of the Day
Cover Image The Biography of Ancient Israel National Narratives in the Bible Ilana Pardes (Author) Available worldwide Paperback, 224 pages ISBN: 9780520236868 September 2002 $29.95, £22.95 Other Formats Available: The nation--particularly in Exodus and Numbers--is not an abstract concept but rather a grand character whose history is fleshed out with remarkable literary power. In her innovative exploration of national imagination in the Bible, Pardes highlights the textual manifestations of the metaphor, the many anthropomorphisms by which a collective character named "Israel" springs to life. She explores the representation of communal motives, hidden desires, collective anxieties, the drama and suspense embedded in each phase of the nation's life: from birth in exile, to suckling in the wilderness, to a long process of maturation that has no definite end. In the Bible, Pardes suggests, history and literature go hand in hand more explicitly than in modern historiography, which is why the Bible serves as a paradigmatic case for examining the narrative base of national constructions. Pardes calls for a consideration of the Bible's penetrating renditions of national ambivalence. She reads the rebellious conduct of the nation against the grain, probing the murmurings of the people, foregrounding their critique of the official line. The Bible does not provide a homogeneous account of nation formation, according to Pardes, but rather reveals points of tension between different perceptions of the nation's history and destiny. This fresh and beautifully rendered portrayal of the history of ancient Israel will be of vital interest to anyone interested in the Bible, in the interrelations of literature and history, in nationhood, in feminist thought, and in psychoanalysis. 1. Introduction: Split Conception 2. Imagining the Birth of a Nation 3. Suckling in the Wilderness: The Absent Mother 4. At the Foot of Mount Sinai: National Rites of Initiation 5. The Spies in the Land of the Giants: Restless Youth 6. Crossing the Threshold: In the Plains of Moab 7. Epilogue: Mount Nebo Ilana Pardes is an Professor of Comparative Literature at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. She is the author of Countertraditions in the Bible: A Feminist Approach (1992). “Pardes successfully demonstrates the Bible may be read in the manner she proposes.”—Alexander H. Joffe Journal Of Near Eastern Stds /Jnes "Pardes has a remarkable gift for asking new questions about familiar texts and providing fresh insights into old problems. By looking closely at the key metaphors and the narrative details of the biblical story of the formation of the Israelite nation, she has teased out of the text a compelling biography."—Robert Alter, Professor of Hebrew and Comparative Literature, University of California, Berkeley "Ilana Pardes elegantly recasts the mythic story of Israel's emergence as the story of the birth, individuation, initiation, and maturity of an emergent subject. Ambivalences, deferrals, power struggles, and multiple memories all characterize Israel's development and the stories told about it. Through a set of close and graceful readings, Pardes persuasively argues that the first five books of the Bible constitute, not the history, but the biography of a nation." —Elizabeth A. Castelli, Barnard College, author of Imitating Paul: A Discourse of Power "The book of books has generated many other works, but Ilana Pardes's The Biography of Ancient Israel is in a class by itself. In beautiful, spare prose, she reconstructs the way the biblical authors imagined the history of ancient Israel. Artfully weaving literary and psychological insights, she has given us an entirely fresh view of the Bible as original as it is brilliant. This is a book for every reader of the Bible who wishes 'to wrest tradition away from a conformism that is about to overpower it.'"—David Biale, author of Eros and the Jews "This is a wonderful book and a delight to read. The idea of treating the exodus story as a collective biography is quite original, and makes possible a genuinely illuminating reading of the story."—Michael Walzer, author of Exodus and Revolution Imagining the Birth of a Nation The metaphor of national birth is probably the most resonant anthropomorphic image in national biographies from antiquity to modern times. In fact, it is so resonant one tends to forget that nations are not born literally but rather are imagined in these terms. Every nation, however, has its own birth story, or birth stories. The Book of Exodus provides an intriguingly complex representation of Israel's birth in keeping with the preliminary imaginings of the nation in Genesis. The opening verses of Exodus 1 make clear that God's reiterated promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the grand national annunciation scenes of Genesis—are ﬁnally realized. The descendants of Jacob, whose names are listed solemnly, multiply at an uncanny pace and turn into a "mighty" nation: the nation of the "children of Israel."1 "Israel" for the ﬁrst time is not merely Jacob's second, elevated, name but rather a collective designation of a burgeoning community that "ﬁlls" the land. But then we discover that God's darker prophecy, in the covenant of the parts, is equally fulﬁlled: Israel is born in a prolonged exile against Pharaonic bondage. Representing the birth of a nation is not a simple task. Let me suggest that the imagining of this dramatic event in Exodus is facilitated by the interweaving of two biographies: the story of the birth of Moses and that of the nation. The fashioning of Israel as character, here as elsewhere, is inseparable from a complementary narrative strategy: the marking of individuals whose histories are paradigmatic. The nation's life story, in other words, is modeled in relation to the biographies of select characters. We have already noticed the national dimension inscribed in Abraham's story: the fashioning of his departure from Ur as preﬁguration of the nation's exodus. Abraham, however, is only the ﬁrst exemplary ﬁgure. The heterogeneity of national imagination in the Bible depends on a variety of representatives. Fragments of the biographies of Isaac, of Jacob, the eponymous father, and even of Hagar, the Egyptian handmaid, whose afﬂiction foreshadows the nation's enslavement in Egypt, are also linked in different ways to the nation's biography and take part in its construction. On the question of birth, Moses' biography is of special importance. The analogy between the one and the multitude in this case is more immediate. Unlike the patriarchal biographies that pertain to a distant past and ﬂicker over the chasm of time, Moses' story is fashioned within the same historical setting. Moses is a national leader whose history blends with the history of the nation. He is one of many Hebrew babies persecuted by Pharaoh. His story, however, is marked as the exemplary account that sheds light on the collective birth story as it preﬁgures the deliverance of the nation as a whole from bondage. Moses' birth story, as Otto Rank aptly suggests in The Myth of the Birth of the Hero, shares much in common with mythical birth stories. What characterizes the birth of a hero? Rank offers a list of recurrent motifs, relying on a variety of myths—from the birth legend of Saragon, the third-millennium b.c.e. king of Akkad, to the renowned story of Oedipus's exposure and the tale of Remus and Romulus, the legendary founders of Rome. The conception of the hero, he claims, is usually impeded by difﬁculties such as abstinence or prolonged barrenness. During or before pregnancy there is a prophecy, or an oracle cautioning the father against the hero's birth; the father tries to shape a different future and gives orders to kill his newborn son; the babe is then placed in a basket or a box and delivered to the waves. Against all odds, however, the hero is saved by animals or by lowly people and is suckled by a female animal or by a humble woman. When full-grown, he discovers his royal parents, takes revenge on his father, and, recognized by his people, ﬁnally achieves rank and honors. Following Freud, Rank reads the myth as an expression of Oedipal struggles between fathers and sons. The hero is he who is capable of standing against his father and overcoming him. The myth traces this struggle "back to the very dawn of the hero's life, by having him born against his father's will and saved in spite of his father's evil intentions."8 What we have here in Freudian terms is a "family romance," the kind of story a child fabricates when feeling deserted. Resentful of his parents' neglect (opportunities arise only too often), the child thinks of himself as a foundling, an adopted child, whose true parents—royal, needless to say—will eventually be revealed. Moses' story is indeed compatible in many ways with Rank's model: a threatened child, the exposure in the basket, the miraculous deliverance of the foundling, the two sets of parents, and the ﬁnal acknowledgment of the hero's power. But then there is a signiﬁcant difference that Rank smooths over by claiming that the original story had been distorted by the biblical scribes: Moses' true parents are not the royal ones but rather the poor Hebrew slaves. What Rank overlooks—as does Freud in the opening section of Moses and Monotheism—is that at a moment of national birth the inversion of the two sets of parents is purposeful. Moses' "true" parents are higher in rank despite their lowly position precisely because they are members of the chosen nation to be. This lapse in their readings of Moses' story derives in part from their failure to see the relevance of the myth to the representation of the nation as a whole. The juxtaposition of Moses' story and that of the nation entails an adaptation of the myth of the birth of the hero on a national plane. Put differently, it enables the construction of a myth of the birth of the nation. Israel's birth, much like that of Moses, takes place against Pharaoh's will. And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundantly, and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty; and the land was ﬁlled with them. Now there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph. And he said unto his people, Behold, the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier than we. (Exod. 1:8-9) Interestingly, the expression 'am beney yisrael, "the nation of the children of Israel," is ﬁrst used by none other than Pharaoh. Pharaoh's anxieties over the safety of his rule enable him to perceive the rise of Israel long before the Hebrews themselves can. Intimidated by the uncanny growth of the Hebrews, Pharaoh orders that every son who is born shall be cast into the Nile "and every daughter ye shall save alive" (Exod. 1:22). Much has been written about his curious choice to get rid of the male babies alone but with no consideration of the mythical background. What is at stake here is an application of the exposure motif (a male motif to begin with) to a community of sons. Pharaoh, the ruler of the parent-nation, fears the power of a budding nation of rivals growing within Egypt. Parental anxieties—what will emerge from the teeming womb?—thus conﬂate with racist anxieties—will the others overbear? Shiphrah and Puah, the two midwives whose names are associated with "beauty" (the former) and "birth sighs" (the latter), are the national correlate of Moses' female deliverers in Exodus 2. Here too a curious detail in the text—the fact that two midwives are considered sufﬁcient for a national massacre—can be explained in terms of the mythical context and the interrelations of the two biographies. The midwives, much like humble rescuers of heroes, choose to violate the king's decree and save the threatened newborns. They trick Pharaoh by telling him midwives' tales: "And the king of Egypt called for the midwives, and said unto them, Why have ye done this thing, and have saved the men children alive? And the midwives said unto Pharaoh, Because the Hebrew women are not as the Egyptian women; for they are lively, and are delivered ere the midwives come in unto them" (1:18-19). Shiphrah and Puah outwit Pharaoh by conﬁrming his racist anxieties concerning the proliferation of the Hebrew slaves. Relying on a common racist notion, according to which the other is closer to Nature, they claim that the Hebrew women need no midwives, for unlike Egyptian women, they are animal-like (ki chayot hena) and can give birth without professional help. There is an outburst of vitality out there, they seem to suggest, that cannot be yoked to the legal apparatus of the Pharaonic court. The recurrence of the term "midwife" in this brief episode—it appears seven times—highlights the admirable power and courage of the two women. The Politics of Birth So far I have underlined the mythical qualities of the representation of the nation's birth, but one needs to bear in mind the ways in which myth here is set against the historical setting of slavery, or rather against slave narratives whose purpose is to document the concrete horrors of bondage and commemorate modes of resistance. Michael Walzer offers a cogent reading of the Egyptian oppression in his meditation on the political meanings of the Exodus. He deﬁnes the enslavement in Egypt as a form of cruel tyranny, exercised from the seat of political power, that insisted not only on making a proﬁt through forced labor but also on crushing the slaves' spirits, on embittering their lives with humiliating work. Indeed, the Hebrews could not at ﬁrst listen to Moses' revolutionary ideas "for anguish of spirit, and for cruel bondage" (Exod. 6:9). The Hebrew is kotser ruach, literally, "shortness of spirit," an idiom for impatience, but in this context it acquires, Walzer claims, the additional meaning of "dispiritedness."13 What needs to be added to Walzer's analysis is a consideration of the ways in which bondage distorts and undermines the process of reproduction. The phenomenon is all too well known from testimonies regarding other instances of slavery. Bartolomé de Las Casas's depiction of New World slavery is relevant in this connection: Thus husbands and wives were together once every eight or ten months, and when they met they were so exhausted and depressed on both sides that they had no mind for marital intercourse, and in this way they ceased to procreate. As for the newly born, they died early because their mothers overworked and famished, had no milk to nurse them with, and for this reason, while I was in Cuba, 7000 children died in three months. Some mothers even drowned their babies from sheer desperation. The great spokesman against North American slavery, Frederick Douglass, captures the dehumanization involved from the moment of birth even when a newborn slave does manage to survive. He begins his renowned Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, with a comment on his birth. I was born in Tuckahoe, near Hillsborough, and about twelve miles from Easton, in Talbot county, Maryland. I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it. By far the larger part of the slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs, and it is the wish of most masters within my knowledge to keep their slaves thus ignorant. I do not remember to have ever met a slave who could tell of his birthday. To reclaim birth is thus a revolutionary act in the context of slavery. It discloses hope for the newborn and the power to imagine a different future, one without bondage and tyranny; it means to reclaim subjecthood, to turn the birth of the oppressed into a meaningful event that needs to be recorded and narrated. The story of the birth of ancient Israel is a story of trauma and recovery. The founding trauma in the nation's biography is bondage, the repression of growth. But then a process of recovery begins that entails the inversion of exposure from an antinatal act to a means of rescue. Yocheved casts her son into the Nile, but Moses' exposure is not meant to comply with Pharaoh's decree but rather to undo it. Similarly, the nation as a whole multiplies despite Pharaoh's tortuous measures and tireless attempts to restrict its growth: "But the more they afﬂicted them, the more they multiplied and grew" (Exod. 1:12). The relation between afﬂiction and growth is provocatively inverted. While Pharaoh expected a reduction in the birthrate, his harsh treatment of the Hebrews led to the opposite, to a mysterious increase. In Thy Blood Live In his explicit and rather graphic use of the metaphor of birth vis-à-vis the nation, Ezekiel sheds much light on the representation of national formation in Exodus. In a famous passage in Ezekiel 16, which relates the story of national birth, Jerusalem stands for the nation: And as for thy nativity, in the day thou wast born thy navel was not cut, neither wast thou washed in water to supple thee; thou wast not salted at all, nor swaddled at all. None eye pitied thee, to do any of these unto thee, to have compassion upon thee, but thou wast cast out in the open ﬁeld, to the lothing of thy person, in the day that thou wast born. And when I passed by thee, and saw thee polluted in thine own blood, I said unto thee when thou wast in thy blood, Live; yea, I said unto thee when thou wast in thy blood, Live. I have caused thee to multiply as the bud of the ﬁeld, and thou hast increased and waxen great, and thou art come to excellent ornaments: thy breasts are fashioned, and thine hair is grown, whereas thou wast naked and bare. Now when I passed by thee, and looked upon thee, behold, thy time was the time of love; and I spread my skirt over thee, and covered thy nakedness. (4-8) Israel was ruthlessly deserted by its parents at birth, soaking in blood helplessly without even receiving elementary postpartum care. The horrifying aspects of parental neglect are depicted in vivid detail. The newborn was not washed in water, her umbilical cord was not cut, her body was not salted (a practice that was apparently perceived as essential for the newborn's skin), nor was she swaddled. But then God passed by and adopted the neglected nation, adjuring Israel to live in her blood, to regard the marks of blood on her body as a source of life. What is more, He raised the nation and enabled her multiplication and growth. He provided her with the much-needed care and compassion that she lacked, washing the blood off her skin and furnishing her with excellent ornaments. Being a foundling nation is a traumatic experience, but it ultimately turns out to be beneﬁcial: it leads (as is the case in the myth of the birth of the hero) to the discovery of / by more distinguished parents and ensures the transition from rags to riches, or rather from nakedness to royal garments. The story of the Exodus is indeed the story of Israel's rescue and adoption by a more distinguished Father who is not merely royal but divine as well. It is a Father who has the force to wash off the signs of a collective trauma, to turn a helpless late-born nation into a powerful chosen one. In Ezekiel the adoption is construed as a marital bond between God and the nation, whereas in Exodus it entails a bond between the Father and His ﬁrstborn son. In both cases the chosenness of Israel is deﬁned in familial terms. The change in the representation of the nation's gender allows for a multifaceted treatment of the complex relation of Israel and God. Sufﬁce it to say within the limited scope of this discussion that whereas the representation of the nation as female accentuates the erotic aspect in the relationship of God and the nation, the father-son dyad is far more concerned with questions of pedagogy and heroism. Birth and revenge—or rather revenge fantasies—go hand in hand in Rank's analysis of birth myths. The hero's triumph over the "evil" father who tried to prevent his birth is a sign of utmost valor. A similar triumph may be traced in Exodus. Pharaoh, the antinatal force with respect to both Moses and the nation, is defeated, at ﬁrst by the ongoing multiplication of the Hebrews and then in a direct confrontation: the ten plagues. Early commentators noted the gradual escalation of severity in the plagues beginning with nuisances and pests, continuing with destruction of livestock and crops, and ending with the gravest of all—the death of human beings. This ﬁnal plague seems to represent the ﬁnal push in Israel's delivery. It is the night of Passover. Pharaoh, who has refused to set the Israelites free, suffers from a symmetrical punishment. The Egyptian ﬁrstborn die while God's ﬁrstborn, Israel, is saved. The differentiation between the Egyptians and the Hebrews is now enhanced by means of blood. God demands that the children of Israel take of the blood of the Paschal sacriﬁce and "strike it on the two side posts and on the upper door posts of the houses" so that it serve as "a token upon the houses where ye are: and when I see the blood, I will pass over you, and the plague shall not be upon you to destroy you, when I smite the land of Egypt" (Exod. 12:7-13). The blood that marks the Israelites is not only apotropaic. Its location on the two side posts of the door evokes natal imagery. The Israelites are delivered collectively out of the womb of Egypt. National birth, much like individual births (and all the more so in ancient times), takes place on a delicate border between life and death. It involves the transformation of blood from a signiﬁer of death to a signiﬁer of life. It also involves the successful opening of the womb, the prevention of the womb's turning into a tomb. The term "opener of the womb" (peter rechem) is introduced in Exodus 13:2 as a synonym for "ﬁrstborn." It appears in the depiction of the law regarding the ﬁrstborn, a law that is construed as a commemoration of the last plague: "And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Sanctify unto me all the ﬁrstborn, whatsoever openeth the womb among the children of Israel, both of man and of beast: it is mine." Although the term is not used explicitly with respect to the nation as a whole, this is precisely what is at stake in the context of the Exodus. The ﬁrst opening of the womb (an act that is reminiscent of deﬂowering) is a unique and dangerous occurrence that requires divine vigilance. Those who do not deserve divine protection—namely, the Egyptians—ﬁnd their death in the process, but Israel, God's ﬁrstborn, is consecrated as it opens the matrix. Then comes the climactic moment of the delivery that includes the ultimate revenge: the scene by the Red Sea. Moses parts the waters at God's command. The Israelites walk on land in the midst of the sea, and the Egyptian soldiers, who are pursuing them, drown as the waters return. The downfall of the parent-nation seems total. Pharaoh, who wished to cast the Hebrew babies into the Nile, now ﬁnds his soldiers and fancy chariots sinking "like a stone" in the waters of the Red Sea. "Did not old Pharaoh get lost, get lost, get lost in the Red Sea," marvels a famous African-American slave song. Lawrence Levine argues that the song promises that "power relations [are] not immutable" and conveys conﬁdence in "the possibilities of instantaneous change."18 Even if the scene by the Red Sea is something of a slave fantasy—there is no evidence in Egyptian sources of such a defeat, nor did the great Egypt disappear from the map at this time—the importance of the moment lies in its carnivalesque spirit, in the reversal of hierarchies. The master falls and the oppressed spring to life. From now on, time will be perceived differently. Everything will be measured in relation to the moment in which God delivered Israel from Egypt. "This month shall be unto you the beginning of months: it shall be the ﬁrst month of the year to you" (Exod. 12:2). A new calendar is established with the birth of the nation as its point of departure. It is a revolutionary moment that marks a wondrous new beginning. Slavery is left behind, and the intoxicating smell of freedom is in the air. God performs a variety of wonders in Egypt (the ten plagues in fact are perceived as such), but the parting of the Red Sea seems to surpass them all. It marks the nation's ﬁrst breath—out in the open air—and serves as a distinct reminder of the miraculous character of birth. Where there was nothing, a living creature emerges all of a sudden. If the myth of the birth of the hero accentuates the wonder of birth on an individual level, here the miracle is collective. Much like Moses, the nation is drawn out of the water against all odds. It is an intensiﬁed miracle: a wonder on a great scale. The two enormous walls of water, the ultimate breaking of the waters, and the exciting appearance of dry land all seem to represent a gigantic birth, a birth that is analogous to the creation of the world. The parting of the waters evokes Genesis 1, and the "blast" of God's "nostrils" on the waters (Exod. 15:8) calls to mind the creation of Adam in Genesis 2:7. "And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life." Accordingly, God is deﬁned as the "maker" of the nation ('am zu kanita), a term that otherwise is used only in the context of the creation (Exod. 15:16). On witnessing this great wonder, the people as a whole burst out singing. The Song of the Sea, with its fast tempo, celebrates the singularity of the nation's miraculous delivery. "Who is like unto thee, O Lord, among the gods? Who is like thee, glorious in holiness, fearful in praises, doing wonders?...For the horse of Pharaoh went in with his chariots and with his horsemen into the sea, and the Lord brought again the waters of the sea upon them; but the children of Israel went on dry land in the midst of the sea" (15:11-19). It is at once a breathtaking and breath-giving moment. All doubts and fears dissolve. Everything seems possible. Crossing the Red Sea is a leap of faith, a leap into life. Martin Buber offers an insightful description of "The Wonder on the Sea" in Moses. He deﬁnes it as a moment of "abiding astonishment" that "no knowledge, no cognition, can weaken." The great turning-points in religious history are based on the fact that again and ever again an individual and a group...wonder and keep on wondering; at a natural phenomenon, a historical event, or at both together....Miracle is not something "supernatural" or "superhistorical," but an incident, an event which can be fully included in the objective, scientiﬁc nexus of nature and history; the vital meaning of which, however, for the person to whom it occurs, destroys the security of the whole nexus of knowledge for him, and explodes the ﬁxity of the ﬁelds of experience named "Nature" and "History."20 The birth of the nation involves a bewildering blurring of the boundaries between nature and history. Nature participates in the shaping of this grand historical event, which is why the Song of the Sea is the Song of the Birth of the Nation. The sudden break in the rhythm of natural phenomena is used here to express the intense excitement of a nascent people. Divine Midwives Much has been written on the image of God as Warrior in the Song of the Sea. Umberto Cassuto emphasizes the mythical dimension of God's victory over Pharaoh's host, pointing to other divine wars that hover in the background, above all, the crushing of the revolt of the sea by the Creator in the cosmic beginning. He relies on Prophetic renditions of the parting of the Red Sea (e.g., Isa. 51:9-10) as well as on Mesopotamian texts such as the Babylonian creation myth, where Marduk overpowers Tiamat and then cuts her aquatic body into pieces. The image of the Warrior is indeed a central image, but not the only one. God has feminine facets as well, though partially hidden. Behind and against the "right hand" of the Warrior one can detect, I believe, a feminine hand: the strong magical hand of a grand Midwife drawing the newborn nation out of the depths of the sea, "the heart of the sea" (Exod. 15:8), into the world of the living, beyond the engulﬁng Flood. God, as it were, follows in the footsteps of the two midwives who loom so large in the opening chapter of Exodus, only here the Israelites need to be rescued from the "mighty waters" of the Red Sea rather than the Nile. Ezekiel's depiction of the postpartum care that God bestows on the foundling nation reinforces the impression that the Father is something of a Midwife. The washing of the baby and the cutting of the umbilical cord were tasks usually performed by the midwife. More important, they were at times, at least in Egyptian mythology, performed by divine midwives. A Middle Kingdom story records the miraculous birth of the ﬁrst three kings of the Fifth Dynasty. The mother Rudjedet is attended at birth by the four goddesses Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, and Hekat. Each birth is represented in a similar manner: Isis placed herself before her [Rudjedet], Nephthys behind her, Hekat hastened the birth. Isis said: "Don't be so mighty in her womb, you whose name is 'Mighty.'" The child slid into her arms...They washed him, having cut his navel cord, and laid him on a pillow of cloth. Then Meskhenet approached him and said: "A king who will assume the kingship in this whole land."26 In the Bible, however, the mythical delivery is not merely that of a king but of an entire nation that is treated as if it were royal. That the Song of the Sea is sung by the women alone in the concluding lines of the scene adds yet another feminine touch to this miraculous birth. "And Miriam the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and dances. And Miriam answered them, Sing ye to the Lord" (Exod. 15:20-21). Miriam, who stood between the reeds by the Nile watching over Moses' ark, orchestrating his deliverance, now dances by a Sea of Reeds (yam suf), with a timbrel in her hand, celebrating the redemption of the nation with an entire community of women. The Question of National Identity The ﬁguration of Israel's birth is a forceful unifying strategy, but the metaphor does not provide what Benedict Anderson calls "unisonance." Nations may try to fashion a coherent conception of identity, or origin, to seek unity at points of clear disjunction, but they are bound to fail. The intertwined biographies of Moses and Israel poignantly disclose the problematic of deﬁning national identity both for the individual and for the community. Moses' birth story differs from that of his heroic counterparts at another point as well. He is transferred back and forth between his Hebrew and Egyptian mothers. Yocheved places him in a basket at the Nile; he is found by Pharaoh's daughter who then hands him back to Yocheved (believing her to be a wet nurse). Later Moses is brought back to the palace, where the princess adopts him and endows him with a name. He is raised in the palace but ultimately returns to his family and people. The very fact that there are two sets of parents in the myth of the birth of the hero already intimates the difﬁculties involved in fashioning an identity. The myth addresses primary questions: Who am I? Who are my parents? Where do I come from? But the questions of origin become all the more complex when the two sets of parents pertain to two different nations. Moses' split national identity at birth will follow him for the rest of his life. When his ﬁrst son is born in Midian he chooses to name him Gershom, saying, "I have been a stranger in a strange land" (Exod. 2:22). His naming speech relies on a pun that links the name "Gershom" with the word stranger (ger). But in what sense is Moses a stranger at this point—in relation to Midian (Jethro's daughters regard him as an Egyptian), or Egypt (his words echo the oracular announcement of Israel's troubling future as "a stranger [ger] in a land that is not theirs" in Gen. 15:13)?28 Moses will devote most of his life to constructing the concept of Canaan as homeland and will lead his people persistently toward the land of "milk and honey," but ultimately he will die in the wilderness, between Egypt and the Promised Land. And the nation? Israel's lineage is far more complicated than Moses' family tree, but here too the multiple parental ﬁgures point to diverse national origins. The conﬂict between God and Pharaoh is but one expression of the issue. The nebulous national identity of the two midwives is another case in point. Are the two midwives who deliver the Hebrew babies Egyptian or Hebrew? The problem stems from the indeﬁnite use of "Hebrew" ('ivriyot) in Exodus 1:16. If it is to be read as an adjective, then Shiphrah and Puah are Hebrew midwives. But then there is another possibility. The verse may mean that these are Egyptian midwives who specialize in delivering Hebrew women. Numerous commentators have tried to solve the problem. Thus Josephus suggests that the king chose Egyptian midwives, assuming that they "were not likely to transgress his will." Similarly, Abarbanel claims that "they were not Hebrews but Egyptians, for how could he trust Hebrew women to put their own children to death." The midrash, however, perceived them as Hebrews and identiﬁed the two midwives with Yocheved and Miriam. What these commentaries neglect to take into account is the signiﬁcance of the indeterminate origin of the midwives, the extent to which the nation's story repeats the confusion about identity embedded in Moses' biography. The children of Israel are torn between the two lands, between their deep ties to Egypt and their desire to seek another land. They were not raised in the Egyptian court, as Moses was, but nonetheless Egypt is not only the site of traumas for them: it served, however partially, as a nurturing motherland of sorts, especially the luscious land of Goshen. The birth of Israel entails a painful process of individuation from Egypt that is never fully resolved. Just before the parting of the Red Sea, God promises the children of Israel that they shall see the Egyptians no more (Exod. 14:13). But the drowning of the Egyptians does not lead to the effacement of Israel's strong longings for the land of Egypt. National identity is thus poised on the brink of a "loss of identity."31 The Emergence of the National Voice: Internal Antinatal Forces The nation's ﬁrst words are delivered on the way out of Egypt, marking the rise of what Homi K. Bhabha calls "counter-narratives of the nation."32 On seeing the Egyptian chariots pursuing them, the children of Israel cry out unto the Lord: National birth means gaining consciousness and the power of verbal expression. During their bondage in Egypt, the Israelites could only moan and groan. They were in a preverbal and preconscious state, unaware of God's providence. Or else their discourse was silenced (as they now claim), not deemed worthy of attention. Something changes with the Exodus. They acquire the capacity to verbalize their needs and cry out to the Lord through Moses. And yet the emergence of the voice of the nation is accompanied by antinatal cravings. They use their new power of expression to convey their discontent, their desire to return to Egypt, to undo the birth of the nation. In a fascinating way they question the ofﬁcial biography. God here turns out to be not the Deliverer of the nation but rather the bearer of death, an abusive Father who seeks to kill His children in the wilderness. God now seems to be just as bad as, or even worse than, Pharaoh. The children of Israel are masters of complaint. This is just their ﬁrst complaint, but it initiates a long series of murmurings in the desert. It has the characteristic rhetorical questions, much anguish, and anger. Nehama Leibowitz points to the obsessive evocation of the land they left behind in their grumbling. "'Egypt' is an eternal refrain in their mouths, recurring ﬁve times. They yearned for 'Egypt' as a babe for its mother's breasts."33 Egypt seems to have far more to offer than the desert—even its graves (and Egypt does indeed excel in its death culture) are more attractive than those available in the wilderness. The primary national biography is far from linear. Birth does not necessarily move the children of Israel unambiguously forward. Pharaoh, then, is not alone in wishing to stop the birth of the nation. Antinatal forces erupt from within as well. "The problem," as Bhabha claims, " is not simply the 'selfhood' of the nation as opposed to the otherness of other nations. We are confronted with the national split within itself, articulating the heterogeneity of the population."34 Bhabha attributes such fractures to the disruptive power of minorities. The story of Israel is somewhat different. In this case, it is the majority—the vox populi—that questions the national presuppositions of the leading minority: Moses, his limited supporters—and God. The split is thus even more radical than in Bhabha's account of the modern nation, given its centrality. It stems from the conﬂicting desires of the bulk of the nation. In a famous passage in "What Is a Nation?" Ernest Renan claims that "a nation's existence is, if you will pardon the metaphor, a daily plebiscite, just as an individual's existence is a perpetual afﬁrmation of life."35 For Renan, the nation is a spiritual principle, represented in the will to nationhood. It is this will that uniﬁes a people, endowing them with a past, a future, and the lust for life. Renan, much like the biblical writers, cannot but rely on a personiﬁcation of the nation in his exploration of nationhood. What the Bible adds to the picture, however, is an understanding of the complexity of national imagination; it reveals the extent to which the national afﬁrmation of life may be accompanied by counterforces that do not see the formation of the nation as an urgent or essential project. A "daily plebiscite" in ancient Israel would have been a disaster. The children of Israel oscillate between a euphoric celebration of their deliverance—as is the case after the parting of the Red Sea—and a continual questioning of the ofﬁcial consecration of national birth. Before the Israelites actually leave Egypt, Moses already turns the Exodus into a ritual to be cherished now and in days to come. He demands that they commemorate the event and pass the story on from one generation to another. And Moses said unto the people, Remember this day, in which ye came out from Egypt, out of the house of bondage; for by strength of hand the Lord brought you out from this place: there shall no leavened bread be eaten. . . . And thou shalt shew thy son in that day saying, This is done because of that which the Lord did unto me when I came forth out of Egypt. (Exod. 13:3–8) Yerushalmi offers a fascinating analysis of the biblical injunction to remember the Exodus and the consequent ritualization of the event. What Yerushalmi overlooks is the extent to which the children of Israel cherish other memories as well. Against the recurrent command to remember the Exodus, they set up a countermemory: Egypt. Relentless, they persist in recalling life by the Nile, where they took pleasure in ﬂeshpots and other Egyptian delights. Individuation from Egypt does not seem to be the only route. Memory can be shaped in a variety of ways. Such counternarratives would seem to deﬂate national pride. Israel's heroism does not follow traditional perceptions of male courage. There is a good deal of fear of life in the nation's nascent voice and an acute horror of what lies ahead. God Himself often regrets having delivered the nation. The children of Israel do not succeed in fulﬁlling His expectations, and He never hesitates to express His disappointment in them. "You neglected the Rock that begot you, Forgot the God who brought you forth" (Deut. 32:18), claims Moses in God's name.36 The people are blamed for being ungrateful, for forgetting even the unforgettable—the God who miraculously begot them. Of the numerous unﬂattering national designations God provides, the most resonant one is His deﬁnition of Israel as "a stiffnecked people" (Exod. 32:9). The nation withholds its body from God and in doing so reveals a sinful lack of faith and an unwillingness to open up to the divine Word. But then Israel's challenge to the national plans of Moses and God is not merely a sign of weakness. There is something about the stiff neck of the nation and the refusal to take national imaginings for granted that reveals an unmistakable force. The nation's very name "Israel" means to struggle with God, and in a sense this is the nation's raison d'être. In this respect the biography of the eponymous father is also relevant to the understanding of national birth. Already in the womb Jacob struggles forcefully, trying to gain priority over his elder brother, Esau. Rebekah, who asks the Lord to explain the signiﬁcance of the turmoil in her womb, is told, "Two nations are in thy womb, and two manners of people shall be separated from thy bowels; and the one people shall be stronger than the other people; and the elder shall serve the younger" (Gen. 25:23). We have seen the signiﬁcance of the reversal of the primogeniture law on the national level, but what this primal scene equally emphasizes is the importance of the struggle for national formation. Not only the struggle with the other (Esau or Edom in this case) but also a struggle from within, a struggle with the Ultimate Precursor: God.37 The uterine struggle between Jacob and Esau preﬁgures the momentous struggle with the angel. It is through wrestling in the night with a divine being that Jacob acquires the nation's name. "Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel," says the divine opponent, "for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast prevailed" (Gen. 32:28). Jacob does not become angelic as a result of this nocturnal encounter, but the struggle reveals a certain kind of intimacy with God that is unparalleled. The nation, not unlike the eponymous father, is both the chosen son and the rebel son, and accordingly its relationship with the Father is at once intimate and strained. From the moment of Israel's birth, mutual adoration and disappointment mark the bond of the nation and God, and this is true of later stages in the nation's life as well. The tension between Israel and God only increases as the nation becomes a restless adolescent in the wilderness. In its rendition of the ambivalence that characterizes the father-son relationship, the primary biography of ancient Israel offers a penetrating representation of national ambivalence, making clear from the outset that the story of the nation is not a story without ﬁssures and lapses. The national biography of Israel surely relies on certain heroic motifs, but it does not omit unﬂattering moments in the nation's history. The representation of national birth in Exodus is not an idealized narrative about a ﬂawless birth but rather a text that takes into account the darker aspects of national formation as it explores the bafﬂing emergence of a new people. What makes nations come into being is one of the greatest enigmas that national biographies attempt to tackle. Exodus, I believe, can contribute much to our understanding of the imagining of such formative moments in its examination of how one nation jumped into the water despite itself and wondered why. Join UC Press
What is meant by “a strong government” in an American context? November 9, 2006 at 8:07 pm (Military, The Right, The United States, US Government) A comment was left by a foreigner which I wanted to address for the sake of others who may not be familiar with what Americans mean and want by “a strong government.” In many states, “a strong government” usually refers to some component of the state’s military or armed capability. A strong government is usually one that is not only able to maintain its monopoly on the use of force but also uses this monopoly – by using the force at its disposal – to bring about stability in the state and loyalty to the regime. As The United States are not martial nor do they seek to impose any loyalty by the use of force, “a strong government” means something quite different in an American context. When Americans speak of “a strong government,” they mean a government that has a plan or that has objectives and that implements them. The reason this is seen as a strong government is because for the most part the government plays political games to satisfy everyone, because of which a variety of plans and objectives have to be drastically modified if not thrown out. A strong government is one that would implement measures to ensure the fulfillment of its plans and objectives, regardless of who may disagree or be discontent. In other words, rather than pleasing everyone, the government does what it sees to be best and right. One may see this issue of a weak government or a strong government through the issue of will, colloquially expressed as having a spine or not. Thus, when it is said that Republicans, for example, want a strong government, what one means is that Republicans want politicians who will secure what they say they will secure, no matter what obstacles or discontent may lay in their way. It means that they, the politicians, will make decisions and implement them even if they are unpopular or uncomfortable. 1. kimberly said, i agre with everything!!!!! 2. Anonymous said, no idea still… 3. iris said, i still don’t understand.. 4. Khayla Smallwood said, i dnt understand… Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s Get every new post delivered to your Inbox. %d bloggers like this:
AP Human Geography Ethnicity: Terms from Rubenstein and others sequent occupance The notion that successive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape. This is an important concept in geography because it symbolizes how humans interact with their surroundings. The genetic makeup, as distinguished from the physical appearance of an organism or a group of organisms The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences. triangular slave trade an efficient triangular trading pattern a portion of a country geographically seperated from the main part by surrounding alien territory multi-ethnic state state that contains more one ethnicity. multinational state state that contains two or more ethnic groups with traditions of self determination that agree to coexist peacefully by reconizing each other as distinct nationalities A small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into one or more stable states because it was inhabited by many ethnicities with complex, long-standing antagonisms toward each other. A process by which real estate agents convince white property owners to sell their houses at low prices because of fear that black families will soon move into the neighborhood. ethnic islands A small rural area settled by a single, distinctive ethnic group that placed its imprint on the landscape The science of heredity, dealing with resemblances and differences of related organisms resulting from the interaction of their genes and the environment. dowry deaths The death of young women who are murdered or driven to suicide by continuous harrassment and torture by husband or in-laws. concept that ethnicities have right to govern themselves works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops plural society a society in which several ethnic groupings coexist, each living in communities or regions variously separate from the others The "dramatic" increase in Hispanic population in a given neighborhood A person with a prejudiced belief that one race is superior to others. a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality people who are believed to belong to the same genetic stock Translated: separateness. Originally: A rigid policy of segregation of the population in South Africa along racial lines . Now: A system or practice that separates people according to race, caste, etc. to divide (a country, territory, or other geographic area) into small, quarrelsome, and ineffectual states. Loyalty and devotion to a nation, or nationality identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country centrifugal force The apparent force that seems to draw away from unity of a group. Centrifugal forces are those characteristics & issues that divide a people, or state. ethnic cleansing The systematic elimination of an ethnic group, or groups from a region or society through deportation, forced emigration, or genocide (mass murder). Group identification based on shared ethnic traits, background, allegiance, or association residential segregation segregation of where groups of people inside a specific community, area, or country live distinction between two things, words, or actions based on perceived sex (i.e., masculine or feminine, male or female) A country surrounded by a foreign country; a group living within a larger group* The modification of one's culture with a prolonged interaction involving another culture centripetal force An attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state. Grading of neighborhoods based on ethnicity of those living there; neighborhoods where African-Americans lived were considered ineligible for FHA backed- loans (the FHA insured private mortgages)so were marked with red ink on maps. white flight The abandonment of cities by affluent or middle-class white residents; problematic in mid 20th century, as resulted in less tax revenues in cities, thus inner-city decay. Sort of reversed itself in last 20 years with Urban Renewal. Please allow access to your computer’s microphone to use Voice Recording. Having trouble? Click here for help. We can’t access your microphone! Reload the page to try again! Press Cmd-0 to reset your zoom Press Ctrl-0 to reset your zoom Please upgrade Flash or install Chrome to use Voice Recording. For more help, see our troubleshooting page. Your microphone is muted For help fixing this issue, see this FAQ. Star this term You can study starred terms together Voice Recording
Language thought to have been spoken by Jesus Aramaic is a language with a history of approximately 3000 years. It is found in several passages of the Old Testament, and is thought to have been the primary language of Jews in Judea in the first century. history \| excerpt history
Monday, May 30, 2011 Focusing on the Arab contribution of Muslim advancements, Raphael Patai, in The Arab Mind, puts this contribution into its proper perspective, pointing out the Muslim world's own golden age in which a few educated individuals reached unsurpassed heights in the midst of an almost totally illiterate the past the knowledge of reading and writing was a specialized skill in the Arab world much like being a swordsmith or a brassworker (p.307) That fact lays the groundwork for a more accurate perspective of Muslim contributions, as pointed out by Bernard Lewis in his book, The Arabs in History: The use of the adjective Arab to describe facets of this civilization has often been challenged on the grounds that the contribution to "Arab medicine", Arab philosophy", etc. of those who were of Arab descent was relatively small. Even the use of the word Muslim is criticised, since so many of the architects of this culture were Christians and Jews. (p.14) As the Arab kingdom was transformed into a cosmopolitan Islamic Empire, it came to denote--in external rather than in internal usage--the variegated culture of that Empire, produced by men of many races and religions, but in the Arabic language and conditioned by Arab taste and tradition. (p.17) During the periods of greatness of the Arab and Islamic Empires in the Dear and Middle East a flourishing civilisation grew up that is usually known as Arabic. It was not brought ready-made by the Arab invaders from the desert, but was created after the conquests by the collaboration of many peoples, Arabs, Persians, Egyptians and others. Nor was it even purely Muslim, for many Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians were among its creators. (p.131) This background supports Robert Spencer in his book The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (and The Crusades), where he gives more specifics: The astrolabe was developed, if not perfected, long before Muhammad was born. Avicenna (980-1037), Averroes (1128-1198), and other Muslim philosophers built on the work of the pagan Greek Aristotle. And Christians preserved Aristotle's work from the ravages of the Dark Ages such as the fifth-century priest Probus of Antioch, who introduced Aristotle to the Arabic-speaking world. The Christian Huneyn ibn Ishaq (809-873) translated many works by Aristotle, Galen, Plato, and Hippocrates into Syriac, which his son then translated into Arabic. The Jacobite (Syrian) Christian Yahya ibn 'Adi (892-974) also translated works of philosophy into Arabic and wrote his own; his treatise The Reformation of Morals has occasionally been erroneously attributed to several of his Muslim contemporaries. His student, a Christian named Abu 'Ali 'Isa ibn Zur'a (943-1008), also made Arabic translations of Aristotle and other Greek writers from Syriac. The first Arabic-language medical treatise was written by a Christian priest and translated into Arabic by a Jewish doctor in 683. The first hospital in Baghdad during the heyday of the Abbasid caliphate was built by a Nestorian Christian, Jabrail ibn Bakhtishu. Assyrian Christians founded a pioneering medical school at Gundeshapur in Persia. The world's first university may not have been the Muslims' Al-Azhar in Cairo, as is often claimed but the Assyrian School of Nisibis. Spencer is quick to point out: There is no shame in any of this., No culture exists in a vacuum Every culture builds on the achievements of other cultures and borrows from those with which it is in contact. But the historical record simply doesn't support the idea that Islam inspired a culture that outstripped others. There was a time when Islamic culture was more advanced than that of Europenas, but that superiority corresponds exactly to the period when Muslims were able to draw on and advance the achievements of Byzantine and other civilizations. Goitein, in Jews and Arabs, is more blunt: The hundred years' war of Muhammadan conquests were a great catastrophe for the countries affected. Millions of people were reduced to slavery and dragged from one part of the world to another. However, this great mixing of classes and races had also the beneficial effect that fresh minds wre prepared for the new Arabic-speaking civilization of the Middle East. Thus, of the two leading figures of early Iraqian asceticism mentioned above, the first Hasan Basri, was the son of a captive, who followed his master to Medina from Maisan in southern Bablyonia, while Malik ibn Dinar's father was made a slave in Kabul in far-away Afghanistan. (p. 151) Bottom line, we should thank Clinton, for this outreach to the Muslim world, since by honoring Muslim contributions, she is actually honoring the various cultures and peoples around the world--subjugated by Muslim conquests and occupations--without which Muslim contributions would never have been possible. Note: I like this line by Clinton-- "Hatch plans" indeed--like plans for a '3rd Intifada' to destroy Israel? And Wael Ghonim--the man most responsible for the use of that technology of social networking that made the protests in Egypt possible, was snubbed by the Muslim Brotherhood and prevented from speaking. And that much vaunted social networking has been used by Iran to help Syria crack down on protesters: The influx of Iranian manpower is adding to a steady stream of aid from Tehran that includes not only weapons and riot gear but also sophisticated surveillance equipment helping Syrian authorities track down opponents through their Facebook and Twitter accounts, the sources said. Iranian-assisted computer surveillance is believed to have led to the arrests of hundreds of Syrians in recent weeks. Amazing the uses the Muslim world has found for social networking, isn't it? Technorati Tag: and . Post a Comment
Talbot - what does Talbot surname mean? This distinguished surname is recorded in many forms including the popular Talbot, and the more unusual Talboy, Tallboy and Tallboys, is both English and French, but of Old French origins, pre 7th century origins. It is claimed to have two distinct possible origins, each with its own history and derivation. Firstly it may derive from the French male given name `Talebod`, itself from the Old German `Talabod`, and a compound of the elements `tal`, meaning to destroy, with `bod`, the meaning of `tidings`, and hence the `messenger of destruction`, a suitably war-like name for the ever-warring Dark Ages. As a personal name, this was introduced into England by the Normans after the Conquest of 1066, and a Talebod de Neweham is noted in the 1146 Book of Seals for Essex. The second possibility is that Talbot derives from the Old French `talebot`, a nickname for bandits who blackened their faces to avoid recognition, `talebot` meaning `lampblack` in the dialect of Normandy. The surname has the distinction of being first recorded in the Domesday Book (see below), whilst an Irish family of the name who have held the earldoms of Shrewsbury and Waterford since the 15th Century, trace their descent from Richard Talbott, mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 for Bedfordshire. Batholome Talboys was christened at the church of St Mary Woolnoth in the city of London, on June 24th 1549, whilst Anne Tallboys the daughter of William Tallboys was christened at the church known as St Sepulchre, also in the city of London, on November 21st 1793. The first recorded spelling of the family name is shown to be that of Geoffrey Talebot. This was dated 1086, in the Domesday Book of Essex, during the reign of King William 1st of England, 1066 - 1087. Throughout the centuries, surnames in every country have continued to `develop` often leading to astonishing variants of the original spelling. Surnames List All Surnames Get the Talbot surname meaning widget for your website! Select and copy the text below in your website's code.
Sacred Texts Hinduism Index Previous Next 13. By light, food not being (mentioned in the text) of some. In the text of some, viz. the Kânvas, where food is not mentioned, the five-people are recognised to be the five senses, owing to the phrase 'of lights' which is met with in another complementary passage. In the mantra, 'him the gods worship as the light of lights,' which precedes the mantra about the 'five-people,' Brahman is spoken of as the light of lights, and this suggests the idea of certain lights the activity of which depends on Brahman. The mantra leaves it undetermined what these lights are; but from what follows about the 'five-people,' &c., we learn that what is meant are the senses which light up as it were their respective objects. In 'the breath of breath' the second 'breath' (in the genitive case) denotes the sense-organ of touch, as that organ is connected with air, and as the vital breath (which would otherwise suggest itself as the most obvious explanation of prâna) does not harmonise with the metaphorical term 'light.' 'Of the eye' refers to the organ of sight; 'of the ear' to the organ of hearing. 'Of food' comprises the senses of smell and taste together: it denotes the sense of smell on the ground that that sense is connected with earth, which may be 'food,' p. 374 and the sense of taste in so far as 'anna' may be also explained as that by means of which eating goes on (adyate). 'Of mind' denotes mind, i. e. the so-called internal organ. Taste and smell thus being taken in combination, we have the required number of five, and we thus explain the 'five-people' as the sense-organs which throw light on their objects, together with the internal organ, i.e. mind. The meaning of the clause about the 'five-people' therefore is that the senses--called 'five-people'--and the elements, represented by the Ether, have their basis in Brahman; and as thus all beings are declared to abide in Brahman, the five 'five-people' can in no way be the twenty-five categories assumed by the Sânkhyas.--The general Conclusion is that the Vedânta-texts, whether referring to numbers or not, nowhere set forth the categories established in Kapila's system. Next: 14. And on account of Brahman as described being declared to be the cause with regard to Ether, and so on
10 Remarkable Exoplanets GJ 1214b Liquid water would be perhaps the strongest sign that a planet could support life, and super-Earth GJ 1214b might have it in spades. In fact, astronomers think the planet might be one giant, deep ocean. Though in this case, the ocean might be too warm for it to support life. Besides potentially having a watery surface, the planet is interesting for another reason. GJ 1214b is located a relatively close 41 light-years from Earth and orbits its star in a way that affords us a better view [source: Keim]. Why is this important? Both of these conditions make GJ 1214b ideal for observation. As the precision of our instruments improve, we should be able to learn some incredible information about the planet's atmosphere and composition, and, by extension, the nature of other solar systems.
How long does it take for HIV to cause AIDS? Currently, the average time between HIV infection and the appearance of signs that could lead to an AIDS diagnosis is 8-11 years. This time varies greatly from person to person and can depend on many factors including a person’s health status and behaviors. Today there are medical treatments that can slow down the rate at which HIV weakens the immune system. There are other treatments that can prevent or cure some of the illnesses associated with AIDS. As with other diseases, early detection offers more options for treatment and preventative health care.
The Yearling Test \| Final Test - Medium Buy The Yearling Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which character says, "It grieves me..." to see that Jody is growing up so fast? (a) Buck Forester. (b) Penny Baxter. (c) Lem Forrester. (d) Ma Baxter. 2. Who is Nellie Ginright? (a) The town's school teacher. (b) A female scientist studying the behaviors of bears. (c) Ma Baxter's best friend. (d) Penny's old girlfriend. 3. Which of the following characters does NOT enter the woods to search for damages from the storm? (a) Mill Wheel Forrester. (b) Lem Forrester. (c) Penny Baxter. (d) Buck Forrester. 4. What animal movement signals to Penny that bad weather might be coming? (a) Bears migrating to the south. (b) Squirrels nesting with more moss. (c) Sea birds flying overhead. (d) Snails trailing longer trails of slime. 5. Why don't Penny and Jody follow Old Slewfoot when they see him crossing the river? (a) Because Penny can't swim. (b) Because the water is too cold for them to survive the crossing. (c) Because Jody can't swim. (d) Because their dog won't go in the water. Short Answer Questions 1. What color is Twink's hair? 2. What name does Ma use to refer to Twink? 3. In September, why must Jody always keep the fawn near? 4. What is the name of the Baxter family's horse? 5. In early October, what smell has begun to permeate the Baxter farm? Short Essay Questions 1. How can Jody tell that Flag is beginning to mature into a buck? 2. What happens to make the Baxter family realize that Old Slewfoot has returned? 3. While hunting for the wolves, why do Penny and Lem get into a fight over a buck? 4. What happens to the Baxter family's crops during the seven-day storm? 5. How does Penny propose that they get the fabric Ma requested for her Christmas dress? 6. Why does Jody view stormy weather as a particularly nostalgic time of his life? 7. What do Jody and Penny witness the maimed wolf doing on their land, and what is their response? 8. Why are the Baxter and Forrester men glad that Fodder Wing is not alive to prowl the woods with them? 9. Why doesn't Penny want to hunt the wolves with the Forrester family? 10. What plan does Jody concoct to try to save Flag from being shot? (see the answer keys) This section contains 882 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page) Buy The Yearling Lesson Plans The Yearling from BookRags. (c)2016 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved.
A massless spring of constant k = 78.4 N/m is fixed on he leftside of a level track. A block of mass m = 0.50 Kg ispressed against the spring and compresses it a distance d. Theblock is then released and travels toward a circularloop-the-loop of radius r = 1.5 m. The entire track and theloop-the-loop are frictionless except for the section of the trackbetween points A and B (AB is between the spring and theloop-the-loop). Given that the coefficient of kinetic frictionbetween the block and the track along AB is μk =0.30, and that the lenght of AB is 2.5 m, determine the minimumcompression d of the spring that enables the block to justmake it through the loop-the-loop. Get this answer with Chegg Study
Polar bears seen killing and eating dolphins that have been forced north by global warming Image shows apparently very hungry bears eating dolphins for the first time, before freezing the leftovers in the snow Bears have been seen catching and eating dolphins for the first time ever, after the marine mammals were left stuck in the Arctic Ocean because of global warming. It marks the first time that bears have been seen killing and eating dolphins. Usually, the dolphins only go up north during the warmer summer — but this year they have arrived in spring. The bears catch the dolphins in a similar way to the seals that they usually eat. Both animals keep holes in the ice which they use to come up and breathe from — at which point, if the bear is lucky, it will snatch them up and eat them. The researchers observed the behaviour for the first time last year. At least six different bears have been seen eating the dolphins since then, scientists write in a new report, ‘White-beaked dolphins trapped in the ice and eaten by polar bears’. After eating the dolphin, the bear seemed to cover it with ice so that it could be kept for later. Such behaviour is rare in polar bears, and could be a result of the animals not having enough to eat. The authors of the study describe the bear as having “clearly visible ribs” and being “very skinny”. The habitat of polar bears is shrinking drastically as the Arctic warms. As such, scientists expect to be able to observe them much less in the coming years. The same global warming appears to be trapping the dolphins, leaving them stuck and so able to be caught by the bears. “We suggest [the dolphins] were trapped in the ice after strong northerly winds the days before, and possibly killed when forced to surface for air at a small opening in the ice,” the authors of the study write. White-beaked dolphins tend to travel north to Svalbard during the warmer summer, but haven’t been reported so far north in the early Spring. Usually, the Svalbard fjords and coast is covered by ice. But in the winter of 2013 and 2014, when the dolphins and bears were first seen together, they were ice free.
Accessor REST rest list => tail (setf (rest list) new-tail) Arguments and Values: list---a list, which might be a dotted list or a circular list. tail---an object. rest performs the same operation as cdr, but mnemonically complements first. Specifically, (rest list) == (cdr list) (setf (rest list) new-tail) == (setf (cdr list) new-tail) (rest '(1 2)) => (2) (rest '(1 . 2)) => 2 (rest '(1)) => NIL (setq cons '(1 . 2)) => (1 . 2) (setf (rest cons) "two") => "two" cons => (1 . "two") Side Effects: None. Affected By: None. Exceptional Situations: None. See Also: cdr, nthcdr rest is often preferred stylistically over cdr when the argument is to being subjectively viewed as a list rather than as a cons. Copyright 1996-2005, LispWorks Ltd. All rights reserved.
20091007 ostpaket 18 "Ostpaket" means care package from East Germany, a reference to when West German families used to send care packages to their East German relatives known as Westpaket. - Kai Ryssdal: There will be no parades to mark the occasion today. Germans prefer to celebrate the day East Germany disappeared, not the day it was created. This is the 60th anniversary of the founding of the communist German Democratic Republic. The GDR collapsed in 1990. Reunification with the West was a painful experience -- politically and economically. Companies in the East were closed and privatized. But some survived. From Berlin, Brett Neely reports on how they're doing now. BRETT NEELY: Zeha Shoes was East Germany's only sneaker company. The Adidas of the East. Sports teams across the Eastern bloc wore Zehas. A few years ago, Zeha fanatic Torsten Heine was able to buy the trademarks of the East German sports empire fallen on hard times. TORSTEN Heine: All the people out there were keen to wear Western brands, and they lost their sport market as well, and so all of a sudden they lost everything they had and needed to close down. Over 14,000 companies in East Germany closed. Many of them had been household names. Some even made stuff worth buying, says retail expert Nils Busch-Petersen. But that made little difference. NILS Busch-Petersen: The good items from quality East German brands sat on the shelves and didn't sell. People's consumer preferences changed literally overnight. But those preferences have shifted back again. This store in the center of what was East Berlin only sells products made in the former East Germany. But this is no nostalgic trip back to a time when the shelves were empty and the goods were clunky. Store owner Bianca Schaeler is proud of the range of goods she offers. BIANCA Schaeler: Here's our coffee, some of the well-known and well-loved makes. This is Rondo brand coffee, the classic Rondo Melange or also the Mocha Fix Gold. All these East German brands have succeeded in wooing back their customers. Retail expert Busch-Petersen says East Germans rediscovered their loyalty to local products when they realized there was a hidden cost to buying the Western goods. Busch-Petersen: They'd go buy a different detergent and suddenly the detergent factory around the corner would be threatened with closure because no one was buying the old East German stuff anymore. Some East German brands have even managed to cross the old Iron Curtain and build a following in what was West Germany. For example, Rotkaeppchen -- Little Red Riding Hood -- Germany's most popular sparkling wine. Founded in the 19th century, the winery was nationalized by the Communists. After the wall fell, the new owners started to market the cheap bubbly to Westerners. Rotkaeppchen now sells a billion dollars a year worth of fizz and dominates the German market. A few years ago, it even bought out its biggest rival, a West German firm. Now it's moving upscale, just like Zeha Shoes. Along with a partner, Zeha's owner Torsten Heine has reinvented the brand and opened several stores in trendy Berlin neighborhoods. Heine: On this side on the left hand side you can see our sneaker collection. This is our premium sneaker collection based on soccer shoes from the 50s and 60s. Starting price: about a $150 bucks a pair. These days, Zeha's target market is well-heeled hipsters, rather than proletarians. Heine says business is booming. The company has even opened a new store. It's on West Berlin's most famous shopping street, the Ku'damm. And it's not far from the flagship stores of Nike and Adidas, the brands that nearly wiped out the Zeha name just 20 years ago. In Berlin, I'm Brett Neely for Marketplace.
Next Article in Journal NMDA Receptor Modulators in the Treatment of Drug Addiction Next Article in Special Issue RNAi Therapeutics in Autoimmune Disease Previous Article in Journal Elucidating the Function of Penetratin and a Static Magnetic Field in Cellular Uptake of Magnetic Nanoparticles Previous Article in Special Issue siRNA Genome Screening Approaches to Therapeutic Drug Repositioning Pharmaceuticals 2013, 6(2), 223-250; doi:10.3390/ph6020223 RNAi Therapeutic Platforms for Lung Diseases Yu Fujita 1,2, Fumitaka Takeshita 1, Kazuyoshi Kuwano 2 and Takahiro Ochiya 1,* Division of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo, 104-0045, Japan Division of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 105-8461, Japan Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; Tel.: +81-3-3542-2511; Fax: +81-3-5565-0727. Received: 19 December 2012; in revised form: 19 January 2013 / Accepted: 1 February 2013 / Published: 6 February 2013 : RNA interference (RNAi) is rapidly becoming an important method for analyzing gene functions in many eukaryotes and holds promise for the development of therapeutic gene silencing. The induction of RNAi relies on small silencing RNAs, which affect specific messenger RNA (mRNA) degradation. Two types of small RNA molecules, i.e. small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), are central to RNAi. Drug discovery studies and novel treatments of siRNAs are currently targeting a wide range of diseases, including various viral infections and cancers. Lung diseases in general are attractive targets for siRNA therapeutics because of their lethality and prevalence. In addition, the lung is anatomically accessible to therapeutic agents via the intrapulmonary route. Recently, increasing evidence indicates that miRNAs play an important role in lung abnormalities, such as inflammation and oncogenesis. Therefore, miRNAs are being targeted for therapeutic purposes. In this review, we present strategies for RNAi delivery and discuss the current state-of-the-art RNAi-based therapeutics for various lung diseases. RNAi; siRNA; miRNA; drug delivery system; lung diseases; lung cancer 1. Introduction RNA interference (RNAi) is a natural endogenous mechanism for silencing gene expression that, recently, has been the focus of considerable attention for its potential use in new drugs [1]. The expression of a specific gene can be regulated using different mediators, such as short hairpin RNA (shRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and small interfering RNA (siRNA). Gene silencing can be induced by siRNAs through a sequence-specific cleavage of perfectly complementary messenger RNA (mRNA); in contrast, miRNAs mediate translational repression and transcript degradation for imperfectly complementary targets. RNAi-based therapy may provide several advantages over conventional therapeutic approaches using small molecules, proteins, and monoclonal antibodies. Unlike traditional drugs, RNAi-based therapeutics can inhibit all classes of gene targets with high selectivity and potency, can provide personalized therapy, can be easily synthesized, and can be conducted through rapid steps of lead identification and optimization [2]. Synthetic oligonucleotides have other potential advantages, such as drug-like properties, that can often be improved through the introduction of chemical modifications, and manufacturing processes are usually amenable to scaled-up production. Several in vivo studies in animal models have demonstrated that RNAi-based therapeutics are effective for the treatment of various diseases, such as viral hepatitis [3], Huntington's disease [4], and some cancers [5]. Furthermore, there are several RNAi therapeutic agents in clinical development. Nevertheless, previous investigations have shown that there are several obstacles that need to be overcome before routine clinical applications are made. RNAi-based therapeutics are promptly degraded by nucleases when they are administered systemically, and chemical modifications at specific positions or formulation with delivery vectors have been shown to improve stability, but they may attenuate the suppressive activity of oligonucleotides [6]. Their systemic administration may induce undesirable off-target effects by activating the innate immune system via toll-like receptor (TLR)-dependent or independent mechanisms, leading to an increased number of inflammatory cytokines [7]. Success of the delivery of RNAi-based therapeutics necessitates efficiency, convenience, and patient compliance of the delivery route. For this reason, direct administration of RNAi-based therapeutics into the target organs is a promising approach for overcoming the problems of systemic administration. So far, an approach for drug treatment has been developed that includes transdermal, rectal, vaginal, and pulmonary drug delivery systems. The lung is susceptible to many diseases because of its location and physiological function. It is usually exposed to many environmental pollutants, including smoke and volatile organic compounds, which lead to diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and lung cancer. Furthermore, many of the lethal infectious diseases are airborne and use the lungs as their main entrance to the body. Therefore, lung diseases have received particular attention as targets of direct administration of RNAi-based therapeutics. As a direct route to the lung, pulmonary delivery has offered a new method for the treatment of various lung diseases, such as cancer [8,9,10,11,12], respiratory infectious diseases [13,14,15,16,17], asthma [18,19], and pulmonary fibrosis [20,21]. The approach could potentially enhance the retention of RNAi-based therapeutics in the lungs and reduce systemic toxic effects. However, the development of pulmonary delivery for clinical applications remains a challenge for research of drug delivery systems and development. This review focuses on the latest development of pulmonary delivery and future plans for the RNAi-based treatment of various lung diseases. 2. Delivery of RNAi-Based Therapeutics to the Lungs The lung is emerging as an attractive target for the treatment of various pathogenic disorders using RNAi-based therapeutics because of the increasing incidence of lung diseases with high mortality and morbidity. The primary obstacle to translating RNAi-based therapy from the laboratories into the clinics is delivery. Delivery of siRNAs to the lungs is often studied and described using different routes and delivery strategies [22]; therefore, the focus of this chapter is on the characteristics of siRNA delivery to the lung. In general, lung targeting can be achieved by intravenous as well as intrapulmonary administration. Although multiple routes of administration using siRNAs have been used, ranging from direct injection into target tissues to systemic administration, the use of siRNAs for the treatment of respiratory diseases has tended to focus on direct intratracheal or intranasal delivery of siRNAs to the lungs. The direct route offers several important benefits over systemic delivery, including the requirement for lower doses of siRNAs, the reduction of undesirable systemic side effects, and improved siRNA stability due to lower nuclease activity in the airways than in the serum. Lastly, and most importantly, in the context of treating respiratory disease, local administration of siRNAs allows direct access to lung epithelial cells, which are important cell types in a variety of pulmonary disorders [23]. Since the lung is accessible to therapeutic agents via multiple intrapulmonary routes, it has been a convenient model for in vivo validation of siRNA-mediated therapeutic gene silencing. 2.1. Pulmonary Delivery Approaches Pulmonary delivery of therapeutic molecules, such as proteins and peptides, has been investigated for more than 30 years [23]. Pulmonary delivery can be achieved using intratracheal, intranasal, and inhalation routes. In most of the pulmonary siRNA therapy studies in vivo, siRNAs were delivered intratracheally or intranasally. In particular, intranasal delivery of siRNAs is widely used for administration due to its simplicity and adaptability to the delivery of various siRNA formulations, such as nasal spray and droplets. Although administration by inhalation is clinically the most common and non-invasive method to deliver therapeutic agents into the lung, only a few animal studies have been conducted on the formulation of inhalation of siRNAs [24,25]. 2.1.1. Intratracheal and Intranasal Delivery Intratracheal administration is one common method of pulmonary drug application. The pulmonary application method can be useful for the study of drug and vaccine delivery to the airway and lungs. Many animal studies have relied on intratracheal delivery of siRNAs to the lungs [15,26,27,28,29,30,31]. Moreover, some of them have also reported successful delivery of unmodified siRNAs without delivery vectors. The advantages of the intratracheal route are that it ensures high delivery efficiency with minimal loss of the drug and the application itself is quick and relatively inexpensive. The disadvantage is that, because it requires a surgical procedure, such as a tracheotomy, it is not a comfortable delivery method from the patient's viewpoint. With this method, the trachea is exposed during the procedure, and an endotracheal tube or microsyringe is inserted through an incision between the tracheal rings [Figure 1(a)]. This method is not routinely used for drug administration in humans [32]. On the other hand, Bivas-Benita et al. reported a relatively non-invasive pulmonary delivery via the endotracheal route [33]. In this method, the formulation is sprayed under anesthesia from the mouth to the trachea of mice using a microsyringe (Figure 1b). The main benefit of the endotracheal application is the visualization of the trachea, which is important for reliable lung administration. Compared with traditional surgery, Bivas-Benita et al. reported that no mortality occurred as a result of the use of the endotracheal technique. Endotracheal applications are currently being used by many practitioners in the pulmonary field [22,34]; this is useful for studying pulmonary drug delivery in mice. However, the approach is more complex in humans because an artificial path for the delivery of drugs into the lungs is used. Therefore, the method is being used in animal models to test and evaluate its reliability for possible clinical applications. Figure 1. Intratracheal route of siRNA administration into the lungs in vivo studies. (a) Intratracheal route: under anesthesia, the trachea is exposed surgically, and a tube or needle is inserted through an incision made between the tracheal rings. Complications, such as vascular injury and air leakage, are possible due to the tracheotomy. (b) Endotracheal route: siRNAs are sprayed directly from the mouth into the lungs using a MicroSprayer® aerolizer (Penn-Century, Philadelphia, PA, USA) and a laryngoscope. It is important to maintain a clear view of the trachea during the procedure. Pharmaceuticals 06 00223 g001 1024 Intranasal delivery is another common method of pulmonary drug application in animal studies. In many studies, in vivo success has been demonstrated in delivering siRNAs to the lungs intranasally [22,35,36]. An experimental setup of intranasal delivery by spray or droplet is simple and painless for the animal. Although the success in delivering siRNAs intranasally in rodents cannot be completely extrapolated to human use because of the significant differences in lung anatomy [37], this approach has potential for the clinical application of siRNAs. Phase II clinical trials have been initiated for the treatment of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection, making use of intranasal application of naked chemically modified siRNA molecules that target viral gene products [17,38] (see Section 3.1.1. for details). Intranasal entry has long been used to administer small molecules, such as proteins, for systemic delivery. Because the nasal mucosa is highly vascularized, delivery of a thin epithelium of medication across the surface area can result in rapid absorption of the medication into the blood. Therefore, siRNAs administered intranasally might be deposited in the nose, and some of them may be unable to reach the lower respiratory tract. In fact, it has been reported that intranasal application of unformulated siRNAs resulted in lower delivery efficiency and homogeneous pulmonary distribution than that achieved with intratracheal application [31]. The intranasal method is suitable for some lung diseases, such as upper respiratory infection by RSV, and it also has potential for systemic delivery rather than pulmonary delivery of siRNAs. Therefore, it is important to consider the route of administration in animal studies when assessing the delivery and therapeutic efficacy of a formulation for pulmonary delivery. Careful choice of efficient delivery in response to the condition of lung diseases is necessary. 2.1.2. Inhalation Delivery The use of aerosols to deliver medication to the lungs has a long history. Administration by inhalation is a popular and non-invasive method of delivering agents into the lungs. There are several inhalation devices available for the delivery of drugs into the lungs. Metered dose inhalers (MDIs) and dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are the most common modes of inhaled delivery. MDIs are the most commonly used inhalers for several lung diseases, such as asthma, bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and a spacer is an external device that is attached to an MDI to allow for better drug delivery by enhanced actuation and inhalation coordination. For most MDIs, the propellant is one or more gases called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Although CFCs in drugs are safe for patients to inhale, they are harmful to the environment. Therefore, further development of inhalable siRNAs may not be the best way forward. DPIs are devices that deliver medication to the lungs in the form of dry powder. The use of DPIs has already shown promise for the in vivo delivery of therapeutic macromolecules such as insulin [39] and low-molecular-weight heparin [40]; thus, it could be a better device for delivering siRNAs to the lungs. The advantages of DPIs are improved stability and sterility of biomolecules over liquid aerosols and propellant-free formation. Although drugs are commonly delivered to the lungs by inhalation, most in vivo studies using siRNAs have relied on intratracheal or intranasal delivery. The reason could be the difficulty in formulating inhalable siRNAs and maintaining the stability during the delivery process. A suitable carrier is also needed to protect nucleic acids from degradation due to shear force and increased temperature during the drying process. The use of spray-drying as a technique for engineering dry powder formulations of siRNA nanoparticles, which might enable the local delivery of biologically active siRNA directly to the lung tissue, has been demonstrated [24,25]. In the future, the technique is desirable to estimate the in vivo study on siRNA therapy for inhalation. In the long term, we anticipate that there will be more sophisticated devices for clinical use and that those currently being developed will be more suitable. 2.2. Extracellular and Intracellular Barriers to siRNA Delivery There are two main barriers to efficient pulmonary siRNA delivery to the cells of the lung. The first is the complex, branched anatomy of the lungs and biomechanical barriers, such as the mucus layer covering the airway cells [41,42] (Figure 2). A remarkable feature of the respiratory tract is its high degree of branching. Airway consists of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs. All of these structures bear alveoli, the tiny air sacs in which the gas exchange takes place. It is generally acknowledged that the critical factor for efficient siRNA delivery depends on the properties of RNAi drug particles in terms of size, charge, shape, velocity and density. For efficient pulmonary siRNA delivery, the particles must be deposited in the lower respiratory tract. Deposition in the airway is affected by the particle size and patient's pulmonary function. A particle size between 1–5 μm is found to be the most appropriate for deposition at the lower respiratory tract [23]. In addition, the presence of mucus and surfactant proteins, the mucociliary clearance actions, and phagocytosis by macrophages present major barriers to targeted pulmonary delivery. Therefore, delivery systems usually require delivery vectors, and these vectors need to be designed in order to maximize the siRNA deposition to the diseased area of the respiratory tract. Besides, the extracellular barriers to siRNA delivery also depend on physiological features of the respiratory tract, which may change with the disease stage and characteristics of the patient. At the active stage of lung disease, the physiological conditions of the airways might change and have significant impact on the efficiency of the pulmonary delivery system. During infection, inflammation, and allergic reaction, there is an increase in mucus secretion along with the impaired mucociliary clearance [43]. Moreover, asthma and COPD are both chronic inflammatory conditions of the lung associated with structural “remodeling” that is inappropriate to the maintenance of normal lung function [44]. The airway wall thickness, the high viscosity, and the composition of the mucus layer might be altered in patients who have inflammatory lung diseases. Figure 2. Extracellular barriers to pulmonary siRNA delivery. The anatomical feature of the respiratory tract is its high degree of branching. The mucus lines the respiratory epithelium from the nasal cavity to the terminal bronchioles. The deposited particles on the ciliated epithelial cells are rapidly cleared by the mucociliary clearance actions. Mucus and mucociliary clearance of mucus-trapped particles is a pulmonary defense mechanism as a physiological barrier. In the alveolar, clara cells and type II alveolar cells secrete on the surface of the alveolar epithelium, forming a thin layer of pulmonary surfactants. The surfactants act as the main barrier for siRNA delivery because they reduce the transfection efficiency. In addition, the macrophages located in the alveoli rapidly engulf the foreign particles by phagocytosis. The particles taken up into the macrophages are subsequently degraded inside the cells. These factors present major barriers to targeted pulmonary delivery. Pharmaceuticals 06 00223 g002 1024 The second is the airway cell membrance and its intracellular barriers (Figure 3). For efficient gene silencing in the lungs, siRNAs must be delivered to their site of action, be stable, enter the target cells, and be present in the cytoplasm at sufficient concentration. Once the siRNAs reach the target cells, they must be trafficked into the cytoplasm and taken up by Argonaute (Ago)2/RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which degrades mRNAs and, subsequently, suppresses the sequence-specific gene expression. For efficient endocytosis to occur, particles should be under 150 nm in size. Particles within this size range could also avoid macrophage uptake and delayed lung clearance [45]. The physicochemical properties of siRNAs also play a significant role in crossing the biological membrane. Despite their small size, the negative charge and chemical degradability of siRNA molecules prevent them from readily crossing biological membranes. Therefore, efficient siRNA delivery approaches need to overcome this limitation by facilitating cellular uptake. One of the main functions of a delivery vector is to facilitate the cellular uptake of siRNAs [46]. The electrostatic complexation of siRNA molecules with cationic lipids and polymers helps to mask their net negative charge. The positively charged siRNA carrier complex interacts with anionic proteoglycans on the cell membrance, forms an endocytic vesicle, and enters the cells by endocytosis [47]. After cellular internalization, the siRNA carrier complex in endocytic vesicles is transported along microtubules to lysosomes that are co-localized with the microtubule-organizing center. To avoid lysosomal degradation, siRNAs must escape from the endosome into the cytoplasm, where they can associate with the RNAi machinery. Endosomal escape is a major barrier for efficient siRNA delivery [48,49]. The endosomal entrapment and lysosomal degradation of siRNA and carriers contribute to the low transfection efficiency and is a major difficulty for delivery vectors. An ideal delivery agent should protect siRNAs from enzymatic degradation, facilitate cellular uptake, and promote endosomal escape inside the cells with negligible toxicity. 2.3. Delivery Method of siRNA to the Lungs Multiple approaches for the delivery of siRNAs have been reported, ranging from the relatively simple direct administration of saline-formulated siRNAs to lipid-based and polymer-based nanoparticle approaches and siRNA conjugation and complexation approaches [50]. The negative charge and chemical degradability of siRNAs under physiologically relevant conditions make its delivery a major challenge. Accordingly, the delivery of siRNAs usually requires a vector or carriers for their transfection into the target cells. In general, both viral and non-viral vectors are being assessed for siRNA delivery to lung cells. Some viral vectors, such as retroviruses and adenoviruses, have been demonstrated to mediate gene silencing in an in vitro lung model [51] and to induce RNAi in a range of animal tissues [52]. Recently, Guo et al. showed that lentivirus-mediated siRNA was used to specifically knock down the expression of nuclear protein 1 (NUPR1) in vivo, which resulted in inhibited tumor growth [53]. However, viral-based delivery has several disadvantages. The immune response to viruses not only impedes gene delivery but also has the potential to cause severe complications [54]. Recent well-documented cases, such as the death of Jesse Gelsinger due to complications related with an adenoviral delivery vector, highlight this problem [55]. In addition, some viral vectors may insert their genome at random positions in the host chromosome, which eventually restrict the gene function [56]. Figure 3. Intracellular barriers to pulmonary siRNA delivery. Barriers to cellular internalization are dependent on the surface properties of siRNA and carriers (e.g., charge and size). After siRNAs are successfully taken into the target cells by endocytosis, the main barriers for delivering siRNAs to its site of action are the endosomal entrapment and lysosomal degradation of siRNA and carriers. To direct target-gene silencing, the siRNAs need to escape from the endosome into the cytoplasm, where they associate with the Ago2/RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) to direct the cleavage of mRNAs bearing complementary binding sites. Pharmaceuticals 06 00223 g003 1024 As an alternative to viral vectors, non-viral vectors, including lipid and polymer-based vectors, have been generally used for the delivery of siRNAs to the lungs due to their reduced toxicity [57]. Ongoing research into the transfection of primary cells and whole organisms with siRNA using non-viral transfection agents has produced some promising results. Lipid-based delivery vectors are successfully used to deliver siRNA in vitro and in vivo [58]. Cationic lipids are composed of positively charged head, a linker and hydrophobic. In general, lipid-based complexes are easy to formulate and good transfection efficacy is achieved due to interaction with negative charged cell membrance. Many commercial siRNA transfection agents are lipid-based delivery system, some of which are also employed for pulmonary delivery—DharmFECT [30], Oligofectamine [59], Lipofectamine [60] and TransIT-TKO [35]. Similarly, cationic polymers have also been assessed for siRNA delivery to lung cells. Cationic polymer polyethylenimine (PEI) is widely used for siRNA delivery [13,61]. PEI is considered as the gold standard for in vitro gene delivery and its transfection efficiency depends on the molecular weight and degree of branching. On the other hand, lipid-based vectors can also induce toxicity and non-specific activation of inflammatory cytokine and interferon responses [62,63]. Although polymer-based vectors elicit a relatively less strong immune response than lipid-based vectors, effective siRNA delivery to a local area in lung diseases requires more attention to the development of non-toxic delivery vectors. An important point for siRNA-mediated inhibition of gene expression is whether the observed effects are specific rather than due to off-target effects and free from potential interferon responses [64,65]. Interestingly, some studies have shown that it was possible to administer “naked siRNAs” to mice and down-regulate an endogenous or exogenous target without inducing an interferon response [66]. The term “naked siRNAs” refers to the delivery of siRNAs without any delivery vectors. Naked siRNAs are degraded by serum endonucleases and are usually removed by glomerular filtration, resulting in a short plasma half-life of < 10 min. Thus, some studies of systemic delivery of naked siRNAs have failed to achieve the downregulation of the targeted gene [67,68]. In contrast, there have also been some successes of locally delivering naked siRNAs to the lungs [15,16,20,31]. A few of them reported that the use of delivery vectors showed no significant difference in gene silencing efficiency compared to that of naked siRNAs [16,35]. Indeed, in one clinical trial, the delivery of naked siRNAs for the treatment of RSV has been used [17,38]. This successful evidence can be because that naked siRNAs for clinical applications are highly chemically modified to prevent nuclease-induced degradation and presumably minimize immune stimulatory effects. Although it is unclear how the naked siRNAs cross the cell membrane, gain access to the cytoplasm, and remain intact to perform their biological action, both animal and human trials have been conducted successfully, showing the efficacy of naked siRNAs (ALN-RSV01) that were administered intranasally. This explanation has not been confirmed, but the physiological damage of respiratory epithelial cells caused by viral infection may have possibly influenced the mystery. The active change in airway epithelial cell membrance caused by infectious disease might affect cellular internalization. Naked siRNA delivery has some advantages, such as simple formation and the absence of toxicity or inflammatory responses that are usually associated with delivery vectors. Nevertheless, the advantage of naked siRNAs over delivery vectors in the treatment of lung diseases is controversial [69,70]. Further in vivo investigations about both naked siRNAs and non-viral vectors are required. 3. RNAi Medicine in Lung Diseases Lung disease is a major cause of death, and diminished quality of life is responsible for the suffering of many patients. Various lung diseases make life extremely difficult for the patients, and severe cases of these lung diseases can result in death. The high death rates associated with lung cancer are partially due to the fact that it is unfortunately difficult to cure. Above all, COPD is the fourth-leading cause of death in most industrialized countries and is predicted to become third by 2020 [71]. Therefore, decisive action is needed to stem the rising health and economic burden this represents. Chronic lung diseases, such as COPD and asthma, are disorders of the airways largely related to the presence of persistent inflammation. The approval of inhaled corticosteroids pioneered a new generation of therapy in treating chronic inflammatory diseases. This was the first time that an anti-inflammatory product was available to reduce the characteristic lung inflammation in airways and the associated obstruction. Corticosteroids are still an important therapeutic intervention. However, they are used with limitations in COPD and moderate to severe asthma. Likewise, the treatment of various refractory lung diseases also depends on systemic corticosteroid therapy. Many of these patients also suffered various side effects from systemic corticosteroid use, such as weight gain and uncontrolled hyperglycemia. Treatment of lung disease using cell-specific targeting as well as RNAi techniques represents a novel strategy and could possibly provide new opportunities in nanomedicine. Pulmonary applications of siRNA in in vivo conditions are frequently studied and often result in clinical trials [57,72]. The findings of recent clinical studies of pulmonary RNAi therapeutics are discussed. 3.1. Therapeutic siRNAs for Lung Diseases Since the discovery of RNAi, the therapeutic potential of siRNAs has been rapidly recognized. In 2004, the first human clinical trial of RNAi-based therapy was initiated for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration with a siRNA targeting VEGF-receptor 1 delivered intravitreally [73]. Many studies have been conducted over the past few years that involve the delivery of siRNAs to the lungs for the treatment of various lung diseases. Delivery to the lungs will be most important to moving siRNA technology into the clinic. A number of siRNA-based therapies are being evaluated in clinical trials for the treatment of different conditions, including lung diseases such as asthma and RSV infection. Table 1 is a summary of clinical trials of siRNA-based therapeutics [74]. Table 1. Summary of siRNA-based therapeutics in clinical trials. DrugRoute of AdministrationDelivery AgentDiseaseTargetStage of Clinical Trial ExcellairTMInhalationUnknownAsthmaSyk kinaseII ALN-RSV01Intranasal sprayNaked siRNARSV infectionRSV nucleocapsidIIb Atu027IVLipid nanoparticlesAdvanced solid cancer (Metastatic lung cancer)PKN3I TKM-ApoBIVLipid nanoparticlesHypercholesterolemiaApoBI TKM-PLK1IVLipid nanoparticlesCancerPolo-like-kinase1I ALN-VSP02IVLipid nanoparticlesSolid cancers with liver involvementKSP and VEGFI ALN-TTR01IVLipid nanoparticlesTransthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (ATTR)Transthyretin (TTR)I CALAA-01IVCyclodextrin nanoparticlesSolid tumorRRM2I siG12D LODEREUS biopsy needleMiniature biodegradable polymer matrixPancreatic ductal adenocarcinomaKRASI I5NPIVNaked siRNAAcute kidney injuryp53I/II QPI-1007IVTNaked siRNAGlaucoma and acute eye injuryCaspase-2I TD101Intradermal injectionNaked siRNAPachyonychia congenitaKeratin 6a N171Kmutant mRNAIb SYL040012Ophthalmic dropsNaked siRNAOcular hypertension and glaucomaAdrenergic receptor beta-2I/II AGN-745IVTNaked siRNAAMDVEGF-receptor1II PF-655IVTNaked siRNAAMD and diabetic macular edemaRTP801 (pro-angiogenic factor)II IV: Intravenous injection; IVT: Intravitreal injection; RSV: Respiratory syncytical virus; AMD: Age-related macular degeneration; Syk: spleen tyrosine kinase; PKN3: protein kinase N3; KSP: kinesin spindle protein; RRM2: M2 submit of ribonucleotidereductase; KRAS: V-ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor. 3.1.1. Pulmonary Viral Infections SiRNA shows potential for the treatment of various pulmonary viral infections, and it has been reported that siRNA-based therapeutics can also be used in the treatment of influenza [13], parainfluenza virus [35], severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) [14], and RSV [35]. Above all, RSV is the most promising therapeutic target of siRNAs. RSV is a common cause of serious respiratory infections in infants and children. It also produces significant morbidity and mortality in adult immunocompromised or elderly populations [75]. An RSV vaccine is not available, and the only approved antiviral therapy for RSV is undesirable for pediatric patients due to its potential teratogenicity and limited effectiveness. Thus, a safe and efficacious RSV therapy has long been awaited for both pediatric and adult patients. RNAi-based therapy has shown promising effects in murine models of RSV infection [35]. The siRNA, ALN-RSV01, is directed against the mRNA encoding the N-protein of RSV that exhibits specific in vitro and in vivo anti-RSV activity. It is delivered without a delivery vector as a nasal spray and targets the upper respiratory tract instead of the lower lung area. ALN-RSV01 has undergone complete phase I intranasal and inhalation studies in healthy adults and has been found to be generally well tolerated [38]. Additionally, ALN-RSV01 has been evaluated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase II trial in lung transplant patients with RSV respiratory tract infection [76]. The administration of ALN-RSV01 to RSV infected lung transplant patients was safe and well tolerated and associated with a statistically significant improvement in symptoms. Based on these results, a larger multinational, randomized, double-blind Phase IIb trial of ALN-RSV01 has been initiated in lung transplant patients to confirm and extend these findings. 3.1.2. Lung Cancer Cancer is a major target of RNAi-based therapy, as oncogenes, mutated tumor suppressor genes, and several other genes contributing to tumor progression are potentially important targets for gene silencing by RNAi. Lung cancer is one of the most frequent tumors worldwide with regard to incidence rates and mortality. Patients with lung cancer are commonly diagnosed at an advanced stage of the disease and have limited therapeutic options. Although the knowledge regarding the genetic and molecular basis of lung cancer has regularly increased, the median survival rates of individuals with advanced lung cancer are still poor. RNAi-based therapy is an attractive strategy for the development of more effective anticancer therapies with reduced treatment-related toxicity. The major advantage of RNAi therapeutics in cancer might be the simultaneous targeting of multiple genes belonging to different cellular pathways that are involved in tumor progression. The simultaneously inhibition of several genes would also minimize the risk of drug resistance normally encountered with small molecule-based therapies, involving siRNAs and miRNAs. There have already been significant improvements in siRNAs for primary or metastatic lung cancer treatment by targeting oncogenes such as Akt1 [9], Wilms tumor 1 (WT1) [12], overexpressed genes such as the insulin-like growth factor receptor 1 (IGF-1R) [77] , NUPR1 [53] and EZH2 [78]. Some of these studies have successfully shown the efficacy of RNAi-based therapy through intrapulmonary administration of siRNAs with non-viral vectors. Although strategies to minimize off-target and nonspecific immune stimulatory effects must be devised, these data suggest that the silencing of the target gene with siRNAs is an attractive strategy for the prevention and treatment of primary and metastatic lung cancer. There are currently some clinical trials in progress estimating the safety and efficacy of siRNA-based drugs for cancer treatment. Atu027, a siRNA-lipoplex targeted against protein kinase N3 (PKN3), prevented lung metastasis in a phase I trial of various cancer models [79]. PKN3 is a downstream effector of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway [80], which regulates diverse cellular responses, including development, growth, and survival [81]. Recently, PKN3 has also been considered as a suitable therapeutic target for modulating tumor angiogenesis because loss of function analysis with Atu027 in cultured primary endothelial cells showed an essential role of PKN3 for endothelial tube formation and migration [79]. Atu027 can be considered as a potential siRNA for preventing lung metastasis and might be suitable for preventing hematogenous metastasis combined with conventional cancer therapy. 3.1.3. Inflammatory Lung Diseases Inflammatory lung disease, also called COPD, includes a wide range of lung ailments. These related diseases include asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, and chronic bronchitis. They are influenced by a combination of environmental, genetic, and epigenetic components [82]. COPD is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. This disease is hallmarked by airflow that is not fully reversible. Systemic and local airway inflammation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of COPD [83]. COPD is mainly associated with tobacco smoking, and recent studies investigating the pathophysiology of emphysema have demonstrated that cigarette smoke can cause cells to enter cellular senescence. Smoking might cause cells to senesce due to DNA damage through increased cell turnover, which in turn leads to accelerated telomere shortening [84]. Lately, a lot of studies have investigated the role of cellular senescence in the development and progression of COPD [85]. Although several medication classes, including inhaled corticosteroids, are used for COPD treatment, none of these medications have been shown to significantly improve long-term lung function during the progression of the disease. Current interventions that have been shown to improve mortality in COPD are cessation of smoking and delivery of supplemental oxygen when hypoxemia is present. Many people are developing COPD, and the cause of this condition is complicated and not thoroughly understood. One key factor is genetic susceptibility. Some studies have shown a large genetic contribution to the variability in pulmonary function and COPD [86,87]. Polymorphisms in multiple genes have been reported to be associated with COPD [87], such as transcription factor [e.g. nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB)] [88], extracellular matrix (e.g., matrix metalloproteinase-12 (MMP-12)) [89,90], cytokines [e.g. tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α] [91], chemokines [e.g. interleukins (IL)-8, IL-8 receptor and chemokine receptor (CCR)1] [92,93], and apoptosis (e.g., caspase-3 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)) [94,95]. Many of these have been identified as possible targets for therapeutic intervention using molecule inhibitors or antagonists. Although several new treatments that target the inflammatory process are now in clinical development, such as TNF-α inhibitors and I-kappaB kinase complex 2 (IKK2) inhibitors [96,97], clinical trials with siRNAs have never been performed in COPD. The delay of drug development for COPD might be due to the relatively recent emergence of research addressing the molecular basis of COPD. Furthermore, more research is needed to understand the essential molecular mechanisms about the pathogenesis of COPD and to develop monitoring techniques to support the development of RNAi therapies. Currently, no available treatments reduce the progression of COPD or suppress the inflammation in small airways and lung parenchyma. The RNAi-based approach for the key molecules also has potential implications for the treatment of COPD. Asthma is also a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms and reversible airflow obstruction. The World Health Organization estimates that 300 million people are currently affected and that, by the year 2025, another 100 million will be affected by the disease [98]. Inhaled corticosteroids are very effective in mild asthma because they improve symptoms and decrease exacerbations. However, in moderate and severe asthma, inhaled corticosteroids have important therapeutic limitations. Although corticosteroids remain an important therapeutic intervention for inflammatory lung diseases, their use is not always completely effective and is associated with side effects. Due to such limitations, it is clear that there is a need for new types of medications that can treat and improve the prognosis of moderate to severe asthma. Many target genes have been identified that participate in the pathogenesis of asthma. The most promising targets include genes coding for cytokines (IL-4, IL5, and IL-13), cytokine and chemokine receptors (IL-4 receptor and CCR3), and tyrosine kinases [spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) and LCK/YES-related novel tyrosine kinase (Lyn)], as well as for transcription factors [signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1), STAT6, GATA3, and NFκB] that are involved in asthma [19,99,100]. The genes that have been assessed as siRNA targets for the treatment of asthma in preclinical models are reported [101]. Currently, in a clinical trial for asthma, ExcellairTM (ZaBeCor, Bala Cynwyd, PA, USA), a siRNA that targets Syk, is being used. The kinase is involved in signaling from a B cell receptor and is a key regulator of downstream signaling cascades that ultimately lead to the activation of several pro-inflammatory transcription factors. It has been reported that antisense oligonucleotides administered by aerosol were potent to decrease Syk expression, mediator release from alveolar macrophages, and Syk-dependent pulmonary inflammation [102]. Moreover, inhibition of inflammatory mediators was shown in a study using siRNA targeting Syk in airway epithelial cells [103]. Following the successful results of the company's Phase I clinical trial, a Phase II trial for its asthma drug candidate ExcellairTM has already been initiated. Some of the current treatments for asthma and other inflammatory conditions, such as TNF-α inhibitors or leukotriene inhibitors, inhibit only one of the mediators of inflammation. In contrast, siRNA targeting Syk seeks to inhibit an initial signaling step of inflammation and, thereby, prevent the release of multiple inflammatory mediators. Overall, recent progress of siRNAs to the lungs has also improved the therapeutic feasibility of RNAi for inflammatory lung diseases. The rapid progress will put siRNA-based therapeutics on a fast track to the clinic. 3.2. Therapeutic microRNA/Anti-microRNA for Lung Diseases MiRNAs are small endogenous noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression by repressing translation or promoting the degradation of their target mRNA. MiRNAs regulate gene expression by binding to the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of their target mRNAs and mediating mRNA degradation or translational inhibition. In the human genome, transcripts of approximately 60% of all mRNAs are estimated to be targeted by miRNAs [104]. According to their function, miRNAs play an important role in cellular processes as development, proliferation, and apoptosis of pulmonary pathologies [105]. A growing number of miRNAs have been shown to be involved in different lung diseases. This evidence makes miRNAs a promising technology for current and future therapeutic development. We discuss the role of some miRNAs in various lung diseases as well as the possible future of these discoveries in clinical applications. Table 2 shows the summary of miRNAs in therapeutic development. At this point, a miRNA-based therapy has already entered a phase II clinical trial. Table 2. miRNAs in therapeutic development. Table 2. miRNAs in therapeutic development. miRNADiseaseStage of clinical trialReference miRNA replacement let-7Lung cancerPreclinical[106] miR-34Lung cancer, Prostate cancerPreclinical[107,108] miR-29Cardiac fibrosisPreclinical[109] miRNA antagonists miR-122Hepatitis C virusII[110] miR-208/499Chronic heart failurePreclinical[111] miR-15/195Post-myocardial infarction remodelingPreclinical[112,113] miR-206Amyotrophic lateral sclerosisPreclinical[114] miR-451Myeloproliferative diseasesPreclinical[115] 3.2.1. Role of microRNA in Inflammatory Lung Diseases There is evidence that upregulation or downregulation of miRNAs is critical for lung homeostasis and, thus, may contribute to the development of pathological pulmonary conditions. Many studies have focused on the role of miRNAs in inflammatory lung diseases, such as COPD [116,117], pulmonary fibrosis [118,119,120,121], and asthma [122,123,124,125] (Table 3). Table 3. miRNAs in inflammatory lung diseases. Table 3. miRNAs in inflammatory lung diseases. Lung diseasesExpression of specific miRNAReference Pulmonary fibrosismiR-21[118] Smoking-related miRNAlet-7[129] The pathogenesis of COPD is attributed to not only chronic inflammation in the airways but also systemic inflammation [131]. Cigarette smoking is the main risk factor for the development of COPD. Smoking has been shown to cause biological change in the gene expression of the lungs [132], and there are some reports about smoking-related miRNAs [117,129,130]. However, there are few reports that focus on the miRNAs related to the pathogenesis of this disease with systemic inflammatory components. Recent study on pulmonary fibroblasts of COPD patients presents less expression of miR-146a after stimulation with proinflammatory cytokines when compared with non-COPD subjects with similar smoking histories [127]. The downregulation of miR-146a resulted in a prolonged mRNA half-life of cyclooxygenase-2, thus increasing prostaglandin E2 in fibroblasts from COPD subjects. Moreover, Ezzie et al. researched the difference of miRNA profiles expressed in the lungs of smokers with and without COPD. They concluded that miR-223 and miR-1274a were the most affected miRNAs in subjects with COPD [126]. Yet, COPD is a complex, multi-component, and heterogeneous disorder with a number of different pathological processes and subgroups with their own characteristics and natural history [133]. A better understanding of the complexity of the disease and potential clinical relevance of the identified miRNAs is needed. Pulmonary fibrosis can be caused by an identifiable irritation to the lungs, but, in many cases, the cause is unknown, and the therapeutic possibilities are limited. Cigarette smoking is one of the most recognized risk factors for the development of pulmonary fibrosis. This disorder is mainly accompanied by increased expression of the key fibrotic mediator transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) and other cytokines produced at the lesion of active fibrosis [128]. Recently, it was reported that miRNAs may play an important regulatory role in the pulmonary fibrotic change in the lungs. The downregulation of let-7d in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) resulted in increased collagen deposition and alveolar septal thickening [119]. In addition, Liu et al. reported that the oncogenic miR-21 was found to be upregulated in IPF patients and in the murine lungs with bleomycin-induced fibrosis [118]. Although these miRNAs may be potential therapeutic targets because their expression is related to the regulation of TGF-β, the factor is necessary but not sufficient for pathologic fibrosis of the lungs. Pulmonary fibrosis is also a complicated illness that can have many different causes. Focus on the role of miRNAs in asthma has recently increased. Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the airway that is characterized by an abnormal response of T helper-2 (Th2)-type CD4+T lymphocytes against inhaled allergens [134]. In a different asthmatic mouse model, there was an observed increase in the expression of miR-21 in the lungs [123]. This report might contribute to the understanding of the inflammatory mechanism in the airway through the inhibition of IL-12, favoring the Th2 lymphocyte response. A toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-induced Th2 lymphocyte induces high expression of miR-126, and selective blockade of miR-126 suppressed the asthmatic phenotype [124]. In addition, airway remodeling is a characteristic feature of asthma and has important functional implications. Rodriguez et al. have shown that miR-155 is related to the development of inflammatory infiltration into the lung and airway remodeling [122]. Thus, some studies present a functional connection between miRNA expression and asthma pathogenesis and suggest that targeting miRNAs in the airways may lead to anti-inflammatory treatments for allergic asthma. Despite the evidence from experimental models, the expression profiling of miRNAs in airway biopsies from patients with mild asthma before and after treatment with inhaled corticosteroids and in healthy volunteers revealed no differences in miRNA expression [135]. Further investigations about the role of miRNAs related to asthma pathogenesis are required. Although the basic evidence of miRNA biology is still providing new insights, applications of miRNA-based therapy for inflammatory lung diseases are less advanced than those for lung cancer [136]. One reason for this could be that the disease heterogeneity is caused by the effects of many environmental air pollutants, including smoke and volatile organic compounds. The presence of several risk factors makes the understanding of the pathogenesis of inflammatory lung diseases complicated. Understanding the role that miRNAs play in the modulation of gene expression, leading to sustain the pathogenesis of lung diseases, is important for the development of new therapies that focus on the prevention of disease progression and symptom relief. 3.2.2. microRNA/Anti-microRNA Delivery for Lung Cancer Therapy Given the significant roles that miRNAs play in multiple pathways of lung carcinogenesis, increasing efforts are dedicated to the research and development of miRNA-based therapies, including restoring functions of tumor suppressive miRNAs or inhibiting oncogenic miRNAs. The development of miRNA-based therapies for lung cancer is growing prosperously with the help of new RNAi technologies. Compared to siRNA-based therapies, which are already in clinical trials, miRNAs are less toxic and have the potential to target multiple genes. The difficulty associated with miRNA delivery is mainly equal to that of siRNAs. The critical problems for the development of this therapy are effective delivery into target sites, potency of the therapy, and elimination of off-target effects [137]. There are two strategies as the therapeutic applications of miRNAs for lung cancer [138]. One strategy is miRNA replacement therapy, which involves the re-introduction of a tumor suppressor miRNA mimic to restore a loss of the function. MiRNA mimics are synthetic RNA duplexes designed to mimic the endogenous functions of miRNAs with chemical modifications for stability and cellular uptake. The concept of miRNA replacement therapy is most exemplified by the let-7 miRNA. let-7 is a tumor-suppressor miRNA in non-small-cell lung cancer that inversely correlates with the expression of the RAS oncoprotein, a key cancer gene [139]. Intranasal administration of let-7 mimic into mouse models of lung cancer significantly reduced tumor growth, suggesting that miRNA replacement therapy is indeed promising [106,140,141]. Another miRNA that shows the value of miRNA replacement is provided by miR-34a [107,142]. Local and/or systemic delivery of a synthetic miR-34a mimic led to accumulation of miR-34a in the tumor tissue and inhibition of lung tumor growth. Lately, Ling et al. also showed that tumor suppressor miR-22 exhibited anti-lung cancer activity through post-transcriptional regulation of ErbB3 [143]. Thus, therapeutic miRNA mimics have a powerful potential by attacking multiple genes relevant to several diseases. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the potential toxicity in normal tissues under conditions in which the therapeutic delivery of miRNA mimics will lead to an accumulation of exogenous miRNAs in normal cells [138]. Although the assumptions are well founded, there is still insufficient evidence for toxicity caused by miRNA mimics. Indeed, several in vivo studies failed to reveal side effects caused by the miRNA mimics and suggested that delivery of miRNA mimics to normal tissues was well tolerated [107,141]. It will be important to research miRNA mimic-induced effects in normal cells and to carefully assess toxicity before using them in clinical practice. The second strategy is directed toward a gain of function and aims to inhibit oncomiRs by using anti-miRNAs. Chemical modifications, such as 2'-O-methyl-group and locked nucleic acid (LNA), would increase oligo stability against nucleases [144]. Antisense oligonucleotides contained in these modifications are termed antagomirs or “LNA-antimiRs” [144,145]. They are oligonucleotides with sequences complementary to the endogenous miRNA and inhibit the specific miRNA function. An LNA-antimiR against miR-122 has been shown to effectively silence miR-122 in non-human primates [145], and the findings support the potential of these compounds as a new class of therapeutics. Moreover, it has also been reported that anti-miR-150 delivered into lung tumor xenografts in mice led to inhibited tumor growth [146]. Relative to studies on miRNA mimics, studies with antisense oligonucleotides have shown effective evidence with naked oligonucleotides. This illustrates the potential of chemical modifications of oligonucleotides to improve their stability, resistance to RNase, and pharmacologic properties. Therefore, inhibition of miRNA function by chemically modified antimiR oligonucleotides has become an important and widely used approach. Recent data from the first phase II study in patients with chronic HCV infection treated with the LNA-modified antimiR-122 showed that this compound was well tolerated and provided continuing viral suppression. An increasing number of studies have examined the therapeutic potential of miRNAs. Recently, the evidence of roles for miRNAs in determining drug resistance has emerged [147]. Cytotoxic and molecular target drugs have been widely used in the treatment of advanced lung cancer; unfortunately, many cases are still refractory to chemotherapy. In this situation, combining miRNA mimics or antimiR with chemotherapy may potentiate the efficacy of the cancer treatment in the future. In addition, miRNAs related with cancer stem cells may significantly broaden the field of miRNA-based therapy and suggest that miRNAs can be potential tools to kill cancer cells associated with therapy resistance, recurrence, and metastasis [108,148]. Hence, the main challenge is the successful delivery and chemical modifications of the therapeutic miRNAs to the target tissue without harming normal tissues. 4. Conclusions and Prospects RNAi-based approaches provide a promising therapeutic modality for the treatment of various lung diseases. One of the greatest challenges in RNAi-based therapy continues to be the delivery method of the therapeutic siRNAs and miRNAs to the target cells. Pulmonary delivery applications are very attractive, since they tend to be non-invasive, are locally restricted, and can be administered by the patient. A realistic therapeutic intervention, such as aerosolization, can enhance drug delivery to the site of action and decrease systemic exposure of the patient to the therapy, thereby reducing off-target effects. The advancement of pulmonary siRNA delivery to the clinic illustrates that RNAi-based therapy holds a central place in the future treatment of lung diseases. On the other hand, miRNAs have the opportunity to target multiple genes in a fine-tuned manner, and the miRNA-based therapy will provide an attractive anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory approach for various lung diseases. In particular, anti-miRNA therapy by chemically modified antimiR oligonucleotides has become a potential therapy for lung diseases because the oligonucleotides can be successfully delivered without delivery vectors. Increased evidence has indicated that miRNAs fulfill causative roles in a variety of lung diseases and have prompted investigations into their potential as therapeutic targets. Further understanding of the detailed mechanisms of RNAi-based therapy and investigations of more effective delivery methods are required for future development. These novel approaches could open new avenues for various lung diseases and improve the clinical outcome of the patients. 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Wednesday, 15 August 2012 Porcelain Crab Image: Nick Hobgood Some Porcelain Crabs look good enough to be made into porcelain collectables. They still wouldn't be proper crabs though! Porcelain Crabs are almost 300 species in the family Porcellanidae, found in all the world's oceans except the Arctic and Antarctic. They are most closely related to Squat Lobsters, who aren't really lobsters. Image: WoRMS for SMEBD Porcelain Crabs tend to be small... Image: WoRMS for SMEBD or tiny, and are often found under rocks in tide pools. Image: tom.demeyer via Flickr Others are polite enough to hang out on corals and sea anemones so we can get a close look at them and their feeding habits. Video: liquidguru Now we can see how their mouthparts are modified into feathery fans for filter feeding. Image: tom.demeyer via Flickr It all looks incredibly enthusiastic, so much waving and finger-licking! Image: Nick Hobgood I could never get so excited over plankton. Chocolate covered plankton, however... Image: opencage Porcelains look just like true crabs because they have their tails tucked between their legs, also known as a reduced abdomen carried beneath the thorax. However, keep your wits about you and you'll see two clearly visible differences! Image: Elias Levy via Flickr Looks like a fun place to be! One, Porcelain Crabs have long antennae, in contrast to the true crab's scarcely visible stubs. Image: Bill Bouton via Flickr 2 big claws, 2 long antennae and 6 apparent legs Two, the Porcelain's last pair of legs are tiny, scarcely visible and often completely hidden. They end up looking like they have 6 walking legs and 2 claws, while almost all true crabs clearly have 8 legs. It's a situation much like their relative, the Coconut Crab. Also not really a crab. Sometimes they have even less legs, but that's because they fall apart at the first sign of trouble. In other words, they're keen to lose their limbs when predators come calling. They'll grow back later though, which is more than can be said for actual porcelain. Image: Nuytsia@Tas via Flickr The claws can look truly formidable, but their use seems to be devoted primarily to maintaining territory against other Porcelain Crabs. Image: Nuytsia@Tas via Flickr Small world... TexWisGirl said... they're adorable! i kinda have a soft spot for anything mini, though. :) Comment1 said... They are! And those claws look significantly less terrifying for their tiny size. Chloë Langley said... So what are they related to - if they are not really crabs? Prawns? Comment1 said... Squat Lobsters! Which aren't actually lobsters. Together they're most closely related to King Crabs (not really crabs), Coconut Crabs (not really crabs), Hermit Crabs (not really crabs) and Mole Crabs (not really crabs). All those are then related to lobsters, true crabs, shrimps and a few others, who form a massive group which is related to prawns. These are the Decapods. Related Posts with Thumbnails
Gram Stain of Gram-negative Bacteria E. coli @1000xTM Gram Negative Bacteria Gram- Bacterial Cell Wall Structure Nearly all types of bacteria have a cell wall containing peptidoglycan, a chemical unique to bacteria. The rigid structure of the bacterial cell wall is due to securely linked peptidoglycan molecules that surround the plasma membrane, giving these prokaryotes shape and protection. Gram- Cell Wall Peptidoglycan: From the peptidoglycan inwards bacterial cells are very similar. Going further out, the bacterial world divides into two major groups: Gram positive (G+) & Gram negative (G-). Article Summary: Most bacteria have one of two possible types of cell walls. Here are the features of the Gram- bacterial cell wall that distinguish it from Gram+. Gram-negative Bacterial Cell Wall The cell walls of Gram- bacteria are more chemically complex, thinner and less compact, with peptidoglycan comprising only 5 – 20% of the structure. LPS Membrane: In gram-negative bacteria, peptidoglycan is not the outermost layer of the cell wall. Gram- cells have an additional, external membrane, similar to the plasma membrane, but less permeable and composed of lipopolysaccharides (LPS); a harmful substance classified as an endotoxin. Gram Negative Bacteria, E. coli @ 1000xTM Gram-negative Escherichia coli @ 1000xTM The Gram Stain Once scientists understood that infectious disease was caused by microorganisms (Germ Theory), it was imperative to find a way to view bacteria and other microbes; because in addition to being microscopic, most bacteria colorless. In the 1800’s, Christian Gram, a Danish bacteriologist, developed a technique for staining bacteria that is still widely used today. The Gram stain protocol involves the application of a series of dyes that leaves some bacteria purple (Gram+) and others pink (Gram-). Instructor's Corner Continued ... How Does the Gram Stain Work? Go to PAGE 2 > Page last updated: 11/2015 from the free STEM education site Science Prof Online Virtual Microbiology Prokaryotic Cell, Mariana Ruiz Has Christian Gram H. C. Gram
You already know how to retrieve, insert and update data in SQL database table. In this chapter we'll learn how to delete data from a table using the SQL DELETE command. Using our Users table we will illustrate the SQL DELETE usage. One of the users in the Users table (Stephen Grant) has just left the company, and your boss has asked you to delete his record. How do you do that? Consider the SQL statement below: DELETE FROM Users WHERE LastName = 'Grant' The first line in the SQL DELETE statement above specifies the table that we are deleting the record(s) from. The second line (the WHERE clause) specifies which rows exactly do we delete (in our case all rows which has LastName of 'Grant'). As you can see the DELETE SQL queries have very simple syntax and in fact are very close to the natural language. But wait, there is something wrong with the statement above! The problem is that we have more than one user having last name of 'Grant', and all users with this last name will be deleted. Because we don't want to do that, we need to find a table field or combination of fields that uniquely identifies the user Stephen Grant. Looking at the Users table an obvious candidate for such a unique field is the Email column (it's not likely that different users use one and the same email). Our improved SQL query which deletes only the record of Stephen Grant's record will look like this: DELETE FROM Users WHERE Email = 'sgrant@sgrantemail.com' What happens if you don't specify a WHERE clause in your DELETE query? The answer is that all records in the Users table will be deleted. The SQL TRUNCATE statement below will have the exact same effect as the last DELETE statement: The TRUNCATE statement will delete all rows in the Users table, without deleting the table itself. Be very careful when using DELETE and TRUNCATE, because you cannot undo these statements, and once row(s) are deleted fro your table they are gone forever if you don't have a backup.
Otto Weidt Otto WeidtOtto Weidt Otto WeidtOtto Weidt Otto Weidt with his workersOtto Weidt with his workers Workshop employees. 22 January 1942Workshop employees. 22 January 1942 Weidt with the people in his workshopWeidt with the people in his workshop Otto Weidt (b. 1883), of working-class origins, was compelled by his growing blindness to abandon his work as a wallpaper hanger. He thereupon set up a workshop for the blind in Berlin Mitte, which manufactured brushes and brooms. Practically all of his employees were blind, deaf, and mute Jews. They were assigned to him from the Jewish Home for the Blind in Berlin-Stegliz. When the deportations began, Weidt, utterly fearless, fought with Gestapo officials over the fate of every single Jewish worker. As means of persuasion he would use both bribery and the argument that his employees were essential for fulfilling orders commissioned by the army. Once, when the Gestapo had arrested several of his workers, the self-appointed guardian of the Jewish blind went in person to the assembly camp at the Grosse Hamburger Strasse, where the Jews were incarcerated pending deportation, and succeeded in securing their release at the last minute. Aside from the blind, Weidt also employed healthy Jewish workers in his office. This was strictly forbidden, as all Jewish workers had to be mediated through the labor employment office, which would ordinarily post them to forced-labor assignments. However, Weidt, through a mixture of bribery and subterfuge, succeeded in overriding the objections of the Nazi director of the official employment office. The Jewish Inge Deutschkron was among the eight healthy Jews employed at the workshop. As she and her mother began to live illegally in order to escape deportation, Weidt arranged an Aryan work permit for Deutschkron that he had acquired from a prostitute, who had no use for it. Unfortunately, the ticket had to be discarded three months later when the police arrested the prostitute. One of Weidt’s most spectacular exploits involved the rescue of a Jewish girl who had been deported to the camps in Poland. Alice Licht and her parents were accommodated at a “secondary site” of the workshop, ensconced behind a front of brushes and brooms. When the Gestapo, tipped off by a Jewish informer, discovered the hiding place, Licht was deported first to Theresienstadt and from there to Auschwitz and to Christianstadt (a sub-camp of Gross Rosen). According to her testimony, Otto Weidt traveled to the camp to search for her. Licht told Yad Vashem that Weidt made plans for her escape, but they did not materialize. When the inmates of Christianstadt were taken on a death march, Licht managed to make her escape and return to Berlin. By that time Weidt's apartment had been destroyed by a bombing, but he sheltered her until the end of the war. Alice Licht's parents never returned. On September 7, 1971, Yad Vashem recognized Otto Weidt as Righteous Among the Nations. This online story was made possible with the support of: Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany
Tutorial - part 1/2 This tutorial will guide you through a process of creating a simple service that will be integrated with 3 external applications over HTTP and Zero MQ using JSON or XML as a data exchange format. But what is a service? To paraphrase the programming guide, a service is a piece of functionality that does something useful and interesting to any party that would like to use it. It’s like a function or a method but running on a massively higher level - instead of exposing functions to other parts of code in a single application, a service is exposed as an API to other systems. Such an atomic and reusable building block as a service can be used to create any online middleware and backend application for any purpose. Services can can invoke or accept connections through many protocols and transports - plain HTTP REST, SOAP, JSON, REST publish/subscribe, AMQP, JMS WebSphere MQ, ZeroMQ, SQL, FTP(S) Cassandra CQL, Amazon S3, OpenStack Swift, Odoo/OpenERP SMTP or IMAP Integration patterns - fan-out/fan-in, parallel execution invoke/retry, and invoke with callbacks let one form complex workflows running asynchronously. There’s also Redis key/value database and a built-in scheduler which is used for executing recurring tasks. Services can also make use of HTTP Basic Auth, WS-Security technical accounts, API keys, AWS, NTLM, OAuth, SSL/TLS, XPath-based, or RBAC (Role-Based Access Control) security definitions. And there are CLI, API and a fabulous web admin console for admins to use. If you haven’t done it yet, take a look at Zato’s architecture to get an understanding of how all the various pieces play together. Also note that Zato is a middleware and backend server as explained in the ESB/SOA introduction and in other chapters. This means you should use Django or another project of your liking to create frontend applications with and Zato will be very happy to integrate your application with any other. But, while technically it is possible (it’s all HTTP and other protocols Zato supports, after all), you won’t typically write HTML, JS or CSS with Zato. Zato should be used for creating systems of systems and microservices, not for frontend programming. What will the tutorial achieve, exactly? The service we’ll create will be: • Accepting input in JSON or XML through HTTP • Invoking HTTP JSON services of 2 systems • Optionally notifying a 3rd system using JSON over Zero MQ • Fetching business rules from Redis After finishing the tutorial you’ll also have a good understanding of key Zato features, such as CLI, web admin, hot-deployment, statistics and several more. This all will be only a tip of the iceberg but still should give you a thorough introduction to Zato. The message flow We’ll be building part of what could be a beginning of a bank application. • A client applications wishes to learn a couple of things about a customer given their CUST_ID. The data it expects is: • Customer’s first and last name • Last time the client made a payment • The payment amount • Customer data is stored in a CRM • Payments are stored in a different application • For certain customer types, there’s a business requirement that a fraud detection system be notified of any operations regarding such customers, so our service needs to comply with it even though it’s merely reading customer-related data, it doesn’t really transfer money between accounts. Note that in the diagram above both the service and Redis are of the same color, this is because they both are part of the same Zato cluster while the other parties don’t be belong to Zato. The Client App is something we won’t cover - this is where Django, RoR, .NET forms, Groovy, PHP and many other frontend technologies come into play - a Client App can be simply anything that can invoke a Zato service and in this tutorial the Client App will be simulated by curl. Installing Zato and creating a quickstart cluster As a prerequisite - you need access to Redis 2.8.4+ - this is an external component which is not shipped with Zato and needs to be installed separately. So first, install Redis and start it. Now you can install Zato itself - there are package repositories prepared for: Windows and OS X users are recommended to install Ubuntu 12.04 LTS under VirtualBox and proceed to installation instructions for Ubuntu. You can install Zato under Docker this will install everything including a sample quickstart cluster. Done yet? OK, so if you are not using Docker, let’s create a quickstart cluster, which is a sort of a cluster created by running the CLI commands, appropriately called zato quickstart create. You need to prepare: • An empty directory ($path) • Host, port and a password for connecting to Redis ($kvdb_host, $kvdb_port and $kvdb_password) Now run the following command, substituting placeholders with the information you’ve prepared. You’ll be asked for passwords and they won’t be echoed. Note that the Redis password can be empty - indeed, if you’ve just installed Redis without configuring anything, it must be empty because by default Redis doesn’t require it. $ zato quickstart create $path sqlite $kvdb_host $kvdb_port \ --kvdb_password $kvdb_password --verbose For instance: $ zato quickstart create ~/env/qs-1 sqlite localhost 6379 \ --kvdb_password '' --verbose [1/8] Certificate authority created [2/8] ODB schema created [3/8] ODB initial data created [4/8] server1 created [5/8] server2 created [6/8] Load-balancer created Superuser created successfully. [7/8] Web admin created [8/8] Management scripts created Quickstart cluster quickstart-962637 created Web admin user:[admin], password:[gunn-equi-moni-onio] Start the cluster by issuing the /opt/zato/env/qs-1/zato-qs-start.sh command Visit https://zato.io/support for more information and support options Note the highlighted line - these are credentials you'll need to log into a web admin's instance just created. In case you feel the randomly generated password, even a human-readable one, should still be changed, you can do it using the zato update password command. What was created by invoking zato quickstart create: • A development CA • 2 servers • An HA load-balancer in front of the two • A web-admin panel instance and an admin user • ODB structure in SQLite and Redis • Scripts to (re-)start the environment and stop it The whole of it uses randomly generated crypto material (keys and certificates), and is automatically configured so that all the parts are aware of each other, e.g. the load balancer knows what servers to route the traffic to, the web admin understands where all the components to manage are and so on. In short, the command has just created a complete environment. Important TCP ports that will be used are: Port Notes 11223 Load-balancer's HTTP port (this is what external applications use to invoke services you develop) 17010 server1's HTTP port 17011 server2's HTTP port 8183 Web admin's HTTP port (this is where you point your browser to and log in as an admin user) The load-balancer and servers can all run on different hosts, but to keep focused on basic things first, the tutorial uses a quickstart cluster which installs everything on localhost. And although this is a tutorial only, this can be a good approach to easily create any serious Zato environment later on. Just create a quickstart cluster, rename it to 'dev1' or similarly and start adding and configuring as many servers as you need. Invoking services with cURL At this point, you need to make sure that Redis is up, running and it allows for Zato connections, i.e. the credentials you provided earlier, if any, are valid. You can check it by running these commands: $ zato check-config /path/to/server1 SQL ODB connection OK Redis connection OK $ zato check-config /path/to/server2 SQL ODB connection OK Redis connection OK If there's no output as shown above, the ./zato-qs-start.sh command below will not succeed and if you continue you'll hit upon issues in later steps so you'll be scratching your head trying to figure out what went wrong. Again, please make sure Redis will allow Zato to establish connections. First off, let's start the thing we've just brought to this world: $ ./zato-qs-start.sh Starting the Zato quickstart environment Running sanity checks [1/6] Redis connection OK [2/6] SQL ODB connection OK [3/6] Load-balancer started [4/6] server1 started [5/6] server2 started [6/6] Web admin started Zato quickstart environment started Zato comes with several goodies meant to ease with development and one of them is the zato.ping service which is automatically mounted on /zato/ping so it can be invoked through the load-balancer using curl (output below is slightly reformatted for clarity). $ curl localhost:11223/zato/ping ; echo "zato_env": {"details": "", "result": "ZATO_OK", "cid": "K06KKS03EESNYYPHBWE74ZEJ4X56"}, "zato_ping_response": {"pong": "zato"} The response produced by zato.ping happens to be a JSON document. • We can see there were no errors encountered (ZATO_OK) • The correlation ID (cid) serves as an identifier which can be used to reconcile information regarding the fate of a service's invocation across multiple systems Now that you've learned how to invoke a load-balancer you might be tempted to start benchmarking the ping service, but before you start doing it - stop for a while and read how to configure a server, in particular, have a look at gunicorn_workers and play with it for a while. Also note, Zato is not meant to take part in HelloWorld contests - it's much more than a plain HTTP daemon and it doesn't make much sense to compare it against raw-WSGI servers. Hot-deploying your first service Fire up your favorite programming editor and let's finally create our own Zato service. Save the following code as my_service.py from zato.server.service import Service class GetClientDetails(Service): def handle(self): • Each service always subclasses zato.server.service.Service • handle(self) is the only method that a service must implement, this is where the actual action takes place, this is the heart of a service • log_input is one of the helper methods a service has access to. As you can imagine, this one dumps all the input data into server logs. Code saved? Good, now we can hot-deploy it. The story is, there are several ways to make code available to Zato and hot-deployment is one of them. Either through command line or using the web admin, you can push services to one of the servers in a cluster and it will be picked up automatically by all the nodes without any restarts. This includes updates to services that already exist. To hot-deploy a service from command line you need to copy the Python module it's in into a pick-up dir. In the tutorial you can use either $path/server1/pickup-dir or $path/server2/pickup-dir, it doesn't matter which one you'll choose as the other server will instantly synchronize its state with the one that will receive the service. So, choosing $path/server1/pickup-dir, copy the module: $ cp my_service.py $path/server1/pickup-dir Now, in each server log - ./logs/server.log - there will be as many confirmations of a successful deployment as there are worker processes running in your cluster. INFO - zato.hot-deploy.create:33 - Uploaded package id:[1], payload_name:[my_service.py] Our service is there but we can't reach it from the client application yet because it's not exposed through any channels - a single service can be used over many independent channels, each using different security configuration, transport protocols, data format etc. You need to explicitly tell Zato how to make a given service available to all and each of external systems interested in invoking it. You do it in the web admin so let's visit http://localhost:8183/ with a browser now. Log in using the credentials you surely noted down a couple of steps above or update the admin's password if you can't access it anymore. From the main menu pick Services, choose your cluster, type get-client in the search box and click Show services. This confirms that the service indeed exists on the cluster even though it's still not possible to access it from the outside. A question may arise, how come the service is called my-service.get-client-details? It's because Zato uncamelifies strings such as MyFancyName or PrepareCustomerDocuments into my-fancy-name or prepare-customer-documents to make them more Pythonic. Naturally, this can be overridden. Exposing a service over HTTP and invoking it OK, the service is deployed so why don't we make it possible for others to invoke it. Still in the web admin, navigate to Connections -> Channels -> Plain HTTP ../_images/web-admin-channels.png ../_images/web-admin-channels-new.png Some of the fields may not be self-explanatory so there is, of course, a chapter in the web admin guide where it's all detailed. Note that in order to emphasize the point that a service's name is decoupled from names of any channels that may be using it or from an HTTP path it's mounted under, those values are all different in the tutorial. And that's it. The channel has been created, all servers have been notified of its having been formed so they automatically hot-updated their HTTP configuration and we can now use curl again to invoke our creation. $ curl localhost:11223/tutorial/first-service This doesn't produce any output because the service returns none, it's only logging its input data to server logs so this is where we need to look for a palpable proof that a service was indeed invoked. Note that the request went through a load-balancer and because we use local files instead of logging to syslog, we can't be sure which server's logs to check hence you need to grep in both of them and look for an entry similar to the one below (reformatted a bit for clarity) INFO - 5428:Dummy-178 - my-service.get-client-details:703 - {u'impl_name': u'my_service.GetClientDetails', u'name': u'my-service.get-client-details', u'cid': u'K05A9DMYMJ023SB2E4B57BS6N3FW', u'invocation_time': datetime.datetime(2014, 12, 3, 21, 17, 16, 480128), u'job_type': None, u'data_format': u'json', u'slow_threshold': 99999, u'request.payload': u'', u'wsgi_environ': {u'zato.http.POST': <QueryDict: {}>, u'zato.http.remote_addr': '', u'zato.request_timestamp_utc': <Arrow [2014-12-03T21:17:16.427072+00:00]>, 'SERVER_SOFTWARE': 'Zato', u'zato.http.channel_item': Bunch(audit_enabled=False, audit_max_payload=0, audit_repl_patt_type=None, connection=u'channel', data_format=u'json', has_rbac=False, host=None, id=536L, impl_name=u'my_service.GetClientDetails', is_active=True, is_internal=False, match_target_compiled=<Parser u':::/tutorial/firs...'>, merge_url_params_req=True, method=u'', name=u'Get Client Details', params_pri=u'channel-params-over-msg', ping_method=None, pool_size=None, replace_patterns_json_pointer=[], replace_patterns_xpath=[], service_id=386L, soap_action=u'', soap_version=None, transport=u'plain_http', url_params_pri=u'qs-over-path', 'SCRIPT_NAME': '', 'wsgi.input': <gunicorn.http.body.Body object at 0x7f3d399f3690>, 'REQUEST_METHOD': 'GET', 'HTTP_HOST': 'localhost:11223', 'PATH_INFO': '/tutorial/first-service', 'wsgi.multithread': False, 'QUERY_STRING': '', 'HTTP_CONNECTION': 'close', u'zato.oauth.post_data': {}, 'HTTP_ACCEPT': '/', u'zato.local_tz': <DstTzInfo 'Europe/Berlin' PMT+0:58:00 STD>, 'HTTP_USER_AGENT': 'curl/7.35.0', 'wsgi.version': (1, 0), 'REMOTE_PORT': '80', 'RAW_URI': '/tutorial/first-service', 'REMOTE_ADDR': '', 'wsgi.run_once': False, 'wsgi.errors': <open file '<stderr>', mode 'w' at 0x7f3d5c6631e0>, 'wsgi.multiprocess': True, u'zato.request_timestamp': datetime.datetime( 2014, 12, 3, 22, 17, 16, 427072, tzinfo=<DstTzInfo 'Europe/Berlin' CET+1:00:00 STD>), u'zato.http.GET': {}, 'wsgi.url_scheme': 'http', 'gunicorn.socket': <socket at 0x7f3d397e3050 fileno=46 sock= peer=>, 'SERVER_NAME': 'localhost', 'SERVER_PORT': '11223', u'zato.http.response.headers': {u'X-Zato-CID': u'K05A9DMYMJ023SB2E4B57BS6N3FW'}, 'wsgi.file_wrapper': <class gunicorn.http.wsgi.FileWrapper at 0x7f3d4de107a0>}, u'environ': {}, u'usage': 1, u'channel': u'http-soap'} And that concludes the first part! You've created a cluster, a service, hot-deployed it and then invoked it successfully. The next part will focus much more on the business functionality now that the general framework to work within has been laid down. Continue on to part 2/2
Skip Navigation National Cancer Institute National Cancer Institute U.S. National Institutes of Health National Cancer Institute OverviewProgramsAccomplishmentsEvent ListingNews and HighlightsPublished Research Nanotech News January 23, 2006 Controlling Cell and Molecule Movement Using Light-Responsive Nanoparticles Using gold, crescent-shaped nanoparticles as a molecular tugboat, researchers at the University of California at Berkeley have developed a method for moving cells and biomolecules through microfluidics channels without the need for valves, pumps or other control elements. Instead, this novel technique uses the interaction between light and the nanoparticles to create a fluid force that drags liquid and the molecules in it along a trail that follows a moving light beam. Writing in the journal Nature Materials, a research team headed by Luke Lee, Ph.D., describes the physical process that moves fluid using light-activated nanoparticles. The process starts when the gold nano-crescents absorb light energy and become warm. The heat from the nanoparticles causes a small amount of liquid surrounding them to vaporize, but the vapor quickly condenses into microscopic droplets just ahead of a moving front of the liquid, which almost as quickly coalesces with the droplets, which has the effect of moving the nanoparticle-containing fluid forward. As the beam of activating light moves along the path of the microfluidics channel, the fluid follows as this process repeats itself over and over again. Because the investigators use a low-powered light source, the bulk liquid remains at the ambient temperature, an important consideration when the goal is to transport cells and biomolecules through a microfluidics device. The researchers demonstrated their new technique in a microfluidics device fashioned from the biocompatible polymer polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a material finding wide use among microfluidics researchers. Using this technique, the investigators were able to move fluid through the straight channel, pick a direction of flow at the junction of multiple channels, and negotiate right angles within the microfluidics device. The researchers demonstrated the technique with both biomolecules and live cells. This work is detailed in a paper titled, “Optofluidic control using photothermal nanoparticles.” An abstract is available through PubMed. View abstract.
Our digestive system is very long, in fact it is several feet long as it contains both small and long intestine. This increases the chance of gastro-intestinal disorders and diseases like diarrhea, indigestion, constipation and many more. An unhealthy colon can also lead to cancerous growth and similar life threatening situations. An easy way to avoid this is by maintaining a clean colon. Regular colon cleanse and by following a few habits routinely will help you stay healthy and make most of your time. Here are a few directions towards a healthy colon: 1. Exercise: Regular exercise will help you eliminating most of the harmful toxins from your body. Toxins from our body is released from sweat and urine.When we exercise, we drink a lot of water. This water is used to eliminate toxins in form of sweat and urine. Exercise helps us reduce fat from our body. Fat is known to help accumulate toxins in our body and our digestive system has to work hard in order to eliminate this fat. This results in an endless circle of unhealthy colon disorders. 2. Diet: Diet is very important in regards to a clean colon. Fast food and junk food often contain more fat than nutrients which are essential to our body. This fat gets accumulated in our intestines causing various gastro-intestinal disorders. Hence, it is highly advised to avoid frequent consumption of junk food. Frequent consumption of foods high in fiber are encouraged as they help in proper bowel movements and cleaning colon. You can include fruits like banana, avocado and apples in your daily diet for a clean colon. Apple cider vinegar is also helpful in cleaning your colon. And don’t forget green, leafy vegetable. They work wonders. 3. Regular Colon cleanse: Always remember to follow a colon cleanse schedule to enjoy a healthy digestive system. Natural colon cleanser products are available and be sure you take their advantage. Pure Colon Detox is a natural colon cleanse product which will help in maintaining colon health. It is available as Risk free trial as you only have to pay for shipping and handling fees.
Join them; it only takes a minute: Sign up Join the Stack Overflow community to: 1. Ask programming questions 2. Answer and help your peers 3. Get recognized for your expertise Many classes in Cocoa/Cocoa Touch have the NS prefix. What does it mean? Thanks share\|improve this question up vote 296 down vote accepted It's from the NeXTSTEP heritage. share\|improve this answer It probably wouldn't of hurt to briefly explain what the NextStep heritage is. -1. – The Muffin Man Apr 24 '12 at 23:26 ...or perhaps the NeXT/Sun heritage (Sun was a participant in the OpenStep consortium) – Barry Wark Aug 8 '12 at 15:33 Yes, of course. It's all beautifully laid out in the other answers, that's why I didn't bother copying that information into mine. Sorry if that offends someone - I don't mind if the accepted answer changes to one of the others (if that's possible - never checked that). – Olaf Kock Aug 8 '12 at 20:21 I would like to see more but the link to NeXTSTEP – Bagrat Kirakosian Oct 22 '15 at 21:16 The original code for the Cocoa frameworks came from the NeXTSTEP libraries Foundation and AppKit (those names are still used by Apple's Cocoa frameworks), and the NextStep engineers chose to prefix their symbols with NS. Because Objective-C is an extension of C and thus doesn't have namespaces like in C++, symbols must be prefixed with a unique prefix so that they don't collide. This is particularly important for symbols defined in a framework. If you are writing an application, such that your code is only likely ever to use your symbols, you don't have to worry about this. But if you're writing a framework or library for others' use, you should also prefix your symbols with a unique prefix. CocoaDev has a page where many developers in the Cocoa community have listed their "chosen" prefixes. You may also find this SO discussion helpful. share\|improve this answer NeXTSTEP or NeXTSTEP/Sun depending on who you are asking. Sun had a fairly large investment in OpenStep for a while. Before Sun entered the picture most things in the foundation, even though it wasn't known as the foundation back then, was prefixed NX, for NeXT, and sometime just before Sun entered the picture everything was renamed to NS. The S most likely did not stand for Sun then but after Sun stepped in the general consensus was that it stood for Sun to honor their involvement. I actually had a reference for this but I can't find it right now. I will update the post if/when I find it again. share\|improve this answer I've heard the same story from a very reliable source; I'm pretty sure this is the most accurate answer here. – Tyler Aug 26 '11 at 15:18 It is the NextStep (= NS) heritage. NeXT was the computer company that Steve Jobs formed after he quit Apple in 1985, and NextStep was it's operating system (UNIX based) together with the Obj-C language and runtime. Together with it's libraries and tools, NextStep was later renamed OpenStep (which was also the name on an API that NeXT developed together with Sun), which in turn later became Cocoa. These different names are actually quite confusing (especially since some of the names differs only in which characters are upper or lower case..), try this for an explanation: TheMerger OpenstepConfusion share\|improve this answer From Apple's developer docs: Historical Note: If you’re wondering why so many of the classes you encounter have an NS prefix, it’s because of the past history of Cocoa and Cocoa Touch. Cocoa began life as the collected frameworks used to build apps for the NeXTStep operating system. When Apple purchased NeXT back in 1996, much of NeXTStep was incorporated into OS X, including the existing class names. Cocoa Touch was introduced as the iOS equivalent of Cocoa; some classes are available in both Cocoa and Cocoa Touch, though there are also a large number of classes unique to each platform. Two-letter prefixes like NS and UI (for User Interface elements on iOS) are reserved for use by Apple. Source: Programming with Objective-C share\|improve this answer From Cocoa_(API) Wikipedia: (emphasis added) Cocoa classes begin with the acronym "NS" (standing either for the NeXT-Sun creation of OpenStep, or for the original proprietary term for the OpenStep framework, NeXTSTEP): NSString, NSArray, etc. Foundation Kit, or more commonly simply Foundation, first appeared in OpenStep. On Mac OS X, it is based on Core Foundation. Foundation is a generic object-oriented library providing string and value manipulation, containers and iteration, distributed computing, run loops, and other functions that are not directly tied to the graphical user interface. The "NS" prefix, used for all classes and constants in the framework, comes from Cocoa's OPENSTEP heritage, which was jointly developed by NeXT and Sun. share\|improve this answer Wikipedia is wrong here. Foundation Kit first appeared in Enterprise Objects Framework, which predates OpenStep. Incidentally the NeXT version of Foundation was supposedly based on a CoreFoundation-like C API, but that wasn't exposed as public interface until Mac OS X. – user23743 May 3 '13 at 10:55 Ah WTH I just edited wikipedia too :-). – user23743 May 3 '13 at 11:01 @user23743, I don't think you're correct. EOF predates the OPENSTEP operating system, but not the OpenStep API. The EOF documentation you linked to directly (references OpenStep)[…, and they were both released in 1994. – AriX Apr 25 '14 at 21:43 When NeXT were defining the NextStep API (as opposed to the NEXTSTEP operating system), they used the prefix NX, as in NXConstantString. When they were writing the OpenStep specification with Sun (not to be confused with the OPENSTEP operating system) they used the NS prefix, as in NSObject. share\|improve this answer Bill Bumgarner aka @bbum, who should know, posted on the CocoaBuilder mailing list in 2005: Sun entered the picture a bit after the NS prefix had come into play. The NS prefix came about in public APIs during the move from NeXTSTEP 3.0 to NeXTSTEP 4.0 (also known as OpenStep). Prior to 4.0, a handful of symbols used the NX prefix, but most classes provided by the system libraries were not prefixed at all -- List, Hashtable, View, etc... It seems that everyone agrees that the prefix NX (for NeXT) was used until 1993/1994, and Apple's docs say: share\|improve this answer protected by Robert Harvey Nov 21 '13 at 22:49 Would you like to answer one of these unanswered questions instead?
Despair Event Horizon "It wasn't just the baby that died that day; something inside Sick Boy was lost and never returned." Renton, Trainspotting The line that, once crossed, destroys any last remaining sense of hope. It could be for a cause, a person, a situation, or simple survival. A character has given up on it, and there is no going back. It can lead soldiers to despair — or even suicide, if they don't simply lose the will to live. It can turn an Ideal Hero into an Anti-Hero or an outright villain, or even, in some cases, vice versa. It is a vital element of Tragedy. Coming near this line is quite common in fiction; frequently, at the end of the second act or the 45 minute mark of a drama or the first hour of a film, the protagonist comes dangerously close to the edge before a Rousing Speech or Deus ex Machina or the like comes along. It makes for a Downer Ending if the protagonist does fall over the edge. Frequently, this is when the What You Are in the Dark test hits him. Alternatively, many stories have a hero "Fighting the Good Fight" and meeting someone who'd been at it longer and lost all hope. This is often a goal of some wars. You break the enemy's morale, and you can achieve victory even without military success. Related to Heroic BSOD and Heroic Safe Mode, except the hero usually comes back from those. A Woobie, Destroyer of Worlds is often a character who crossed this line long ago. It can result in the character entering an Angst Coma, being Dumb Struck or suffering Death by Despair (and subsequently crossing the Moral Event Horizon or Jumping Off the Slippery Slope). Often a result of We Used to Be Friends. This is often the final stage of the Break the Cutie process. In a video game, often happens during a Bleak Level, and it may be relevant if the game has a Morale Mechanic. May be preceded with a Hope Spot, just to really twist the knife. And a Downer Ending might follow in really dark stories. Often a factor in Pater Familicide. Compare Safety in Indifference, Hope Is Scary (the reason nobody ever crosses the horizon back again), Hope Crusher (someone who delights seeing characters crossing this horizon, or even worse, pushing other people to cross the horizon). Contrast Heroic Spirit. IMPORTANT: This is about a character losing all hope, not merely getting depressed, upset, or bored. Alternative Title(s): Morale Event Horizon, Emotional Nadir, Lose Your Will To Live
Web Results Bogardus social distance scale The Bogardus social distance scale is a psychological testing scale created by Emory S. Bogardus to empirically measure people's willingness to participate in social ... In addition, differing l... Describe Other Measurements Sociologists Use To Calculate ... The Bogardus Scale, although an old measurement tool, is still used for prejudice measurement against a certain group of people. Another, tool is the Harvard's ... What are some tools used by Sociologist's to measure prejudice ... Aug 4, 2006 ... The other scales were used to try to pinpoint correlates, like the E-C Scale ... Sociologists use a number of ways to measure prejudice . Prejudice and Racism: Challenges and Progress in Measurement Jan 1, 2001 ... prejudice measurement issues are the final focus, specifically addressing theoretical ..... structure using confirmatory factor analyses with other samples. The stud- ..... point scale anchored from 1 (describes very poorly) to 10 (describes very well). .... Sociology and Social Research, 17,265-271 . Crosby, F. Definition of Indexes and Scales for Social Sciences - Sociology Other scales used in social science research include the Thurstone scale, ... Let's say, for example, that we are interested in measuring prejudice against women ... An Introduction to Sociology - American Sociological Association Describe various career trajectories for sociologists at different degree levels; where .... Prejudice, discrimination and institutional racism 4. .... So, for example, a sociologist might measure social class or status with the ... it is also possible to calculate the strength of an association through the use of a correlation coeffic... Prejudice as Stress: Conceptual and Measurement Problems - NCBI Clearly, conceptualizing prejudice and discrimination as stress fits well with the sociological notion of stress, which describes this concept as ... and other scientists, we would still face serious conceptual and measurement challenges. ... Such observations indicate that healthier individuals may use strategies that lead them .... Defining and Measuring Concepts - GitHub Pages Describe Kaplan's three categories of the things that social scientists measure. ... Of course, measurement in social science isn't quite as simple as using some ... Think about some of the concepts you've learned about in other sociology ..... degree of support for policy initiatives, television program rankings, and prejud... Experiments - 2012 Book Archive Describe the difference between an experimental group and a control group. ... method, experiments are used more often by psychologists than sociologists, but ... she must measure participants on the dependent variable before and after the ... to read an article suggesting that prejudice against a racial group other than ... The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in ... - NCBI Jan 1, 2008 ... Keywords: race, inequality, measurement, mechanisms, African Americans, racial minorities. Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and other social domains ... Discrimination may be motivated by prejudice, stereotypes, ..... and property background variables that lenders use to calculate the ... More Info What Are The Measurements Sociologists Use To Calculate ... - Blurtit Answer (1 of 4): Sociologists use different measurements to calculate prejudices. One of ... Why rather than howSociologists now believe that the why of prejudice is more ... What Units Of Measurement Are Used To Describe Cell Organelles? what are some methods sociologists use to measure prejudice In your opinion, is it difficult to accurately measure prejudice? Why or Why not? Describe other measurements sociologists use to calculate prejudice. August 31 ... Types of Scales - Sociology - About.com Types Of Scales Used In Social Science Research And How To Construct Them ... For example, let's say that we are interested in measuring prejudice against ... the willingness of people to participate in social relations with other kinds of ...
A star network with a hub, and 3 nodes: Transmission rate R=10Mbps, Frame length L=1000 bits, Cabledistances from the hub to the nodes are d1=d2=100 meters,d3=200meters. Propagation speed is the speed of light. (a) Derive E in terms of bit-time. (b) What is E when R=100Mbps? 10Gbps? How does Evary with R? (c) When the network has an equivalent bustopology, what is E? Want an answer? No answer yet. Submit this question to the community.
• Rachel Rachel January 09, 2009 What's the difference between calories and calories from fat? Rachel Rachel January 09, 2009 What is the difference between calories and calories from fat? Why are they different numbers? Which should I follow to maintain and/or lose weight? • Lisa Nelson, RD, LN Health Pro January 12, 2009 Lisa Nelson, RD, LN Health Pro January 12, 2009 On food labels, the “calories” stands for the total calories in one serving from all sources—fat, carbohydrates, and protein. The “calories from fat” stands for just the calories you’re receiving from fat. When it comes to weight loss, conventional wisdom suggests that you should consume fewer calories than you expend each day. So if you take in 2,000 calories per day you can maintain your weight by expending 2,000 calories, and lose weight if you expend more than 2,000 calories. More recent evidence suggests that not all calories are the same, however. The idea of “good calories” and “bad calories” seems to indicate that calories from fats and carbohydrates may affect the body in ways that can impact weight gain and weight loss. If you haven't read it yet, I'd recommend that you read some of the articles on carbs, fats, and calories on the diabetes page. It may help clear up some of the confusion. That being said, fat intake is important to monitor. It affects your overall health and heart disease risk. Total fat intake should be 30% of your total daily calories. So, if you consume 2000 calories each day, no more than 600 calories should come from fat. That is where the "calories from fat" on food labels can come in handy. Here are a few other articles you may find interesting: Can’t We Just Swap Out Bad Fats for Good Eats? You Do Need Fat in Your Diet – Here’s Why Most Popular High Cholesterol Prevention and Treatment How to Schedule Time to Exercise
MNN Galleries 8 images of galaxies far, far away Spiral galaxy M106 4 of 10 Anomalous arms: Spiral galaxy M106 This image of Spiral Galaxy M106, which has its own Facebook page, is a composite of the works of several instruments, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, Chandra, and the Very Large Array. NASA suggests that spiral galaxies get their shapes when “a close gravitational interaction with a neighboring galaxy created waves of high mass and condensed gas which continue to orbit the galaxy center.” When a galaxy is extra large, its gravity can distort nearby galaxies. Some spiral galaxies are believed to have a bar across their center, as in the case of our own Milky Way.
Intro To Business Chapter 3 Intro To Business Chapter 3 Business Chapter 3 Changes are done, please view the flashcard. Preview Flashcards international business all business activities that involve exchange across national boundaries absolute advantage comparative advantage selling and shipping raw materials or products to other nations purchasing raw materials or products in other nations and bringing them into one's own country balance of trade trade deficit a negative balance of trade balance of payments the total flow of money into a country minus the total flow of money out of that country over some period of time import duty (tariff) a tax levied on a particular foreign product entering a country nontariff barrier import quota foreign-exchange control currency devaluation the reduction of value of a nation's currency relative to the currencies of other countries World Trade Organization (WTO) economic community letter of credit issued by a bank on request of an importer stating that the bank will pay an amount of money to a stated beneficiary bill of lading document issued by a transport carrier to an exporter to prove that merchandise has been shipped strategic alliance a partnership formed to create competitive advantage on a worldwide basis trading company provides a link between buyers and sellers in different countries an international barter transaction multinational enterprise Export-Import Bank of the United States an independent agency of the US government whose function it is to assist in financing the exports of American firms multilateral development bank (MDB) International Monetary Fund (IMF) an international bank with 184 member nations that makes shortterm loans to developing countries experiencing balance-of-payment deficits Upgrade and get a lot more done!
75210 Good Growing Helping a Child Who Struggles with Anxiety Anxiety GG All children have fears and worries sometimes. Many fear the dark, being apart from their parents, and what's expected from them at school. Their worries can usually be eased by a caring adult's friendly ear and warm words of support. But for some children and teens, their anxiety is severe. Their fears and worries can't be soothed away. Stubborn thoughts disrupt their enjoyment of life and their ability to function. This condition is known as an anxiety disorder - and as many as 20% of kids will struggle with it at some point. With anxiety disorders, anxiety is both severe and frequent. It's also persistent, sticking with a child over months and years. Some common symptoms include: fears of social or performance situations; fears of losing a parent or something bad happening to them; and refusing to go places and do things due to anxiety's physical effects. Anxiety may center on specific objects such as dogs or bugs, or on a certain situation like getting a shot at the doctor's office. Anxiety can cause headaches and tummy aches, feeling restless and tense, and sleep problems. Anxiety disorders don't go away on their own. Telling a child to "toughen up" or "get over it" won't help - and may make things worse. The most effective treatment for anxiety disorders is cognitive behavioral therapy, which connects thoughts, feelings and actions. It helps kids build new skills to cope with the situations that cause them anxiety. It also teaches them how to relax and thus prevent the physical problems anxiety brings. In some cases, medicine may be prescribed along with therapy. There are many helpful books on anxiety in children. For parents, Seattle Children's recommends Helping Your Anxious Child: A Step-by-Step Guide for Parents by Ronald Rapee et al. And for kids, What to Do When You Worry Too Much: A Kid's Guide to Overcoming Anxiety by Dawn Heubner and Bonnie Matthews. Dr. Robert Hilt, a child psychiatrist at Seattle Children's, offers this advice to parents who suspect their child may have an anxiety disorder: "If your child has worries that are repeatedly keeping them from being happy and successful, please talk to your child's primary care provider or to a mental health professional, such as a child psychologist, about how to intervene now." Bedwetting Is a Common, Solvable Problem Preparing for Weather Emergencies and Disasters Disaster preparation flashlight What's one of the most important things you can do for your family's safety? Create a supply kit and an emergency communications plan, so you're prepared for weather emergencies and other disasters. A big event could happen at any time. So if this task has been stuck on your to-do list, enlist your child's help and take action! An emergency communications plan is as important as a supply kit. The goal is to know exactly how you'll contact one another and where you'll reunite after an emergency. To learn more, watch Dr. Wendy Sue Swanson explain how to make an emergency communications plan and see her own family's 3-day emergency kit. Protect Your Baby from RSV How to Treat Minor Burns How to treat minor burns GG DO immediately put the burned part in cold tap water - or run cold water over it - for 10 minutes. Then cover the burn with a sterile gauze bandage to keep it clean and protect it from the air. If the burn is still painful, give your child the proper dosage of a pain reliever like children's Tylenol or Advil. Safety on the Slopes Safety on the Slopes • Sits level, no more than 1 inch above your child's eyebrows. The back of the helmet should not touch the nape of their neck. • Has pads that are flush against your child's cheeks and forehead.
Ford Developing Laser Ignition System Ford is teaming up with the University of Liverpool to throw out the old-school spark plugs and design a laser ignition system for internal-combustion engines. According to The Telegraph, a fiber-optic cable--powered by the car's battery--shoots the laser beam to a focusing lens that would consume a much smaller space than current spark plugs. The lenses focus the beams into an intense pinprick of light, and when the fuel is injected into the engine, the laser is fired and produces enough heat to ignite the fuel. The University researchers claim that the new technology--using lasers to ignite the fuel--is more reliable and efficient than current spark plug technology. Although the laser will need to fire more than 50 times per second to produce 3000 RPM, it will require less power than current spark plugs. The lasers can also reflect back from inside the cylinders to relay information based on fuel type used and the level of ignition, enabling cars to readjust the quantities of air and fuel for optimum performance. "Lasers can be focused and split into multiple beams to give multiple ignition points, which means it can give a far better chance of ignition," said Dr. Tom Shenton, leader of the project. "This can really improve the performance of the engine when it is cold, as this is the time when around 80 per cent of the exhaust emissions are produced and the engine is at is least efficient. The laser also produces more stable combustion so you need to put less fuel into the cylinder." Ford said that it plans to implement the new technology into its top of the range vehicles within the next few years, and then make the laser ignition system available for its remaining models sometime thereafter. This thread is closed for comments Your comment Top Comments • Quote: On a four-stroke engine, the spark plug fires once every two rotations, not once every rotation. • Other Comments • This was never what I imagined when I thought of driving a car with lasers in it . . . It sounds cool, but also sounds like one of those science experiments that will inevitably fail. • if this were viable, we'd already see a mercedes or a bmw using it. • This is why US auto makers continue to fail. Instead of looking toward the future and spending money on R&D of alternative energy sources, we're reinventing ways to burn dinosaur juice. Let's take that money and...I dont know....invest it in battery or fuel cell technology research. It's like a company inventing a new and improved way to deliver a better picture on CRT monitors or something....
Sorry, no definitions found. Sorry, no etymologies found. Sorry, no example sentences found. In the story, an encyclopedia article about a mysterious country called Uqbar is the first indication of Orbis Tertius, a massive conspiracy of intellectuals to imagine (and thereby create) a world: Tlön. Relatively long for Borges (approximately 5,600 words), the story is a work of speculative fiction. One of the major themes of "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius" is that ideas ultimately manifest themselves in the physical world and the story is generally viewed as a parabolic discussion of Berkeleian idealism — and to some degree as a protest against totalitarianism. "Tlön, Uqbar..." has the structure of a detective fiction set in a world going mad. Although the story is quite short, it makes allusions to many leading intellectual figures both in Argentina and in the world at large, and takes up a number of themes more typical of a novel of ideas. Most of the ideas engaged are in the areas of language, epistemology, and literary criticism. (Wikipedia) January 18, 2009
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer When you subdivide a cube into 9 smaller cubes, how to separate them so that between each smaller cubes is a gap ? But, the mesh is whole so that each smaller cube is not represented by individual smaller cube meshes. share\|improve this question Could you explain how you intend to subdivide a cube into smaller cubes? Here's a related question Subdivide and separate face into different meshes – Carlo Mar 13 at 12:57 In edit mode or using sub. modifier. – vejn Mar 13 at 21:33 If you want individual smaller cubes it would be easier to generate them with an array rather than subdividing a large cube. This is because when you subdivide, Blender doesn't generate internal faces. 1. Create a cube. 2. Add an array modifier with a count of 3 and an X relative offset of 1.1. 3. Add a second array modifier with a count of 3 and a Y relative offset of 1.1. 4. Add a third array modifier with a count of 3 and a Z relative offset of 1.1. At this point you should have something that looks like a subdivided cube. enter image description here To convert to a single mesh object, select the object then press Alt+C to bring up the Convert To menu then select Mesh from Curve/Meta/Surf/Text. enter image description here share\|improve this answer Hi, thank you, but I need the other way around. I already made a mesh which needs to be separated in the way I described. – vejn Mar 13 at 13:26 If you want small cubes not to be as individual meshes but still to have a gap between them then I think you want to inset faces of original cube and extrude insetted parts. 1. Start with subdivided cube (3 times). 2. Select all, press I to activate Inset tool and then press I once more to inset individual faces. 3. To make extruded parts (which have gaps between them) not rounded but rectangular their base should be beveled. In order to do that select all small edges in between large ones by selecting several of them and then using Shift+G > Direction. 4. Press Ctrl+B and then C to bevel selection with Clamp overlap option turned on. 5. Select any large face (Ngon), press Shift+G > Area to select all these large faces by their areas. Set Pivot Point to Individual Origins for further actions. Extrude selection with E 3 times (or less, but it may lower quality of finished result). 6. Bevel Ngon once more with Clamp Overlap to make it more rounded. It would be a bit hard to get rid of this Ngons, however as long as they are inside of flat surface they shouldn't be a problem. 7. Add Subsurf modifier and inspect the result. share\|improve this answer Your Answer
Toucher refers to the physical act of touching and reflects upon the possibilities of developing haptic sensation in a digital environment. While the first physical act of reading a book is to touch it and turn the page, here the physical act of reading requires a mouse, microphone, helmet, and camera. In this sense, reading becomes truly multi-sensorial, since the reader is invited to caress, blow, and brush the work in order to make reading possible. Additionally, there is a section hidden within the menu that has to be found by "touching" the screen. Instructions: Adobe Flash player or plug-in required. This work requires headphones, a microphone (for "blow") and a webcam (for "brush"). Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.5 License.
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer I am constructing a MFCC and come to a section which is kind of confusing me. It is: Step 4: Fast Fourier Transform and has this equation: enter image description here Now I understand that FFT needs to be carried out, I just don't understand where the values are meant for: Up to now, I have: • Inputted the raw signal (vector) • Pre-emphasis filtering on the signal • Carried out "Framing" (vector of vectors) • Computed Hamming Window It's just this step I am unsure of. Hope someone can help :) share\|improve this question up vote 1 down vote accepted By convention they mean the following: $x(t)$ = Input in the time domain $h(t)$ = Filter impulse response (time domain) $H(w)$ = Filter frequency response $X(w)$ = Input in the frequency domain In the equation that you wrote the two "*" symbols mean different things. In the time domain it is convolution, in the frequency domain it is multiplication. The equation is just saying that convolution in the time domain (which is how you do time domain filtering) is equivalent to multiplication in the frequency domain. share\|improve this answer So basically, I have a 2D vector containing values (up to the hamming window) so are these values x(t)? If so, then hat is h(t) because I only have 1 set of values, not 2? So this equation is basically telling me to get the FFT results of x(t) ...? – Phorce Dec 2 '12 at 2:07 So basically y(w) = FFT[x(t)]? – Phorce Dec 2 '12 at 2:13 Please describe what exactly you are trying to do. – Jim Clay Dec 2 '12 at 2:20 Hey, basically, I'm trying to implement an MFCC and I am reading this paper: and in "Step 4" it describes the Fourier Transform.. I have followed the steps up until this point but am getting confused at this stage. Thank you for your help, it means a lot – Phorce Dec 2 '12 at 2:26 $x(t)$, in this case, is each frame of data that has already had the Hamming window applied to it. Step 4 is simply telling you to calculate the FFT of each frame of data in step 5. In step 5 you filter the frames with the Mel filters. Presumably you calculate the frequency domain response of the filters as well, and then you just multiply $X(w)$ (your transformed frames), by $H(w)$ (the Mel filters' frequency response). – Jim Clay Dec 2 '12 at 2:33 Your Answer
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer Possible Duplicate: What word means “to speak something into existence”? This is probably something that economists would quickly recognize. It often happens that people would wrongly speculate something; for example, a sudden rise in gold prices, and as a result of that speculation, the buyers will rush to buy gold in a bid to escape the anticipated rise in price whereas the sellers will hold it back looking forward to the price rise. The sudden demand for gold, on one hand, and the shortage of supply on the other, will eventually bring about the rise in its price. I was recently reading about this phenomenon on some website and the author, stating that the trend applies to a variety of economic activities including foreign exchange, had called it something using a term which I now wish I had made note of. Economics apart, I believe this is something that can happen anywhere where anticipation and speculation are involved. I request you to please share if you know what this phenomenon is called. share\|improve this question marked as duplicate by coleopterist, Matt E. Эллен, RegDwigнt Jan 29 '13 at 12:41 up vote 14 down vote accepted You could talk of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Not a single word, but the expression is very common. share\|improve this answer You nailed it. This term was exactly what I was trying to recall. The article had said, '...economics is full of such self-fulfilling prophecies.' Thanks. – user32480 Jan 29 '13 at 11:52 This is sometimes also referred to as the observer effect where the very "act of observing will influence the phenomenon being observed". share\|improve this answer
My Blog List Our mission Monday, May 18, 2009 Your first look at Australia's new solar power plant In total, Australia's proposed new solar plant may need to look something like this... Kevin Rudd has announced that by 2015, Australia is to have the world's biggest solar power plant, with the capacity of a coal-fired power station, namely around 1000 Megawatts. The current world's largest solar power plant, California's Solar Energy Generating System has a capacity of 354 Megawatts, however it actually produces an average of 103 Megawatts of electricity around the clock. So, the capacity of Australia's solar project may be about the same as a coal fired power station, but the actual output will be about one third of it, because of the noted tendency of the sun to go down in the evenings. Australia's new solar plant will need to be three times bigger than the Californian one. A photograph of the Kramer Junction solar power plant, which has a capacity of 150 Megawatts, has been reproduced six times (above) to give you an idea of how large the Australian solar power plant will need to be - but note, it will still be 100 megawatts short of the capacity required to fulfil Kevin's announcement. If we take statistics from the Californian plant and multiply by three, the Australian project will need: * about 2,500,000 large curved mirrors * to replace about 10,000 mirrors each year due to wind damage * to wash each of the 2.5 million mirrors about 25 times per year to maintain efficiency * millions of litres of chemicals that are used in the process of transferring heat to turn water into steam * to be very careful with these chemicals. In 1999, a tank of 900,000 gallons of therminol set fire at the SEGS plant in California, causing the release of toxic fumes into the environment and evacuation of the area. Therminol is known to cause long term environmental impacts. By my calculations, the project has the potential to produce approximately 0.6 per cent of Australia's current electricity needs, however this percentage is likely to diminish, as Australia's annual population growth rate is currently 1.2 per cent. Boy on a bike said... He wants a plant with lots of mirrors so he can preen in front of them. You can drive a lot of hair dryers with a plant that size. blogstrop said... MM, the important thing is not the numbers, it's the opportunity to put on the hard hats once again for the cameras. After all, it worked for Anna Bligh, now so much the poster girl that her photo graced the cover of the SMH Good Weekend colour supplement, with tone-matched lettering keyed to her tastefully stylish outfit. Nice picture, so much easier on the eye than fluoro pink, orange and luminous yellow which is de rigeur for the daily news cycle. WV - mufflo: it's where it's at.
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer The question was asked by a student, and I did not have a ready answer. I can think of the German word ``Einheit'', but since in German that is not how the identity element of a group is called, I doubt that is the origin. Any ideas? share\|cite\|improve this question "but since in German that is not how the identity element of a group is called" ... Sometimes it is indeed called like this. Also the identity matrix is frequently or at least not rarely called 'Einheitsmatrix'. Another thought: Sometimes the identity element in a multiplicative group is called (perhaps sloppily) Einselement (where 'eins' means 'one'). – user9072 Feb 7 '12 at 14:09 up vote 21 down vote accepted Heinrich Weber uses Einheit and e in his Lehrbuch der Algebra (1896). share\|cite\|improve this answer That is almost certainly the origin, though it should be noted that one in Russian is "edinica". – Igor Rivin Feb 7 '12 at 14:58 @Igor: The influential early textbooks on algebra tended to be written in German, unfair though that may be to those of us who grew up with English (or Russian). Quite a bit of common terminology and notation in mathematics seems to have originated in German work during the 19th century, such as the symbols $K,k$ for fields. – Jim Humphreys Feb 7 '12 at 20:55 Well, Weber surely popularized the term. But his friend Dedekind used "einheit" before him to mean either a unit in a field, or a unit measure in geometry, and I'll bet if you look in his work you'll find it for groups. Probably if you dig into the 19th century you can find a series of earlier and earlier, vaguer and vaguer, uses of the term for a group identity. – Colin McLarty Dec 29 '12 at 17:35 In todays German literature, it seems that Einselement (or even neutrales Element) is preferred over Einheit (which is used for units, i.e. invertible elements of a ring). – Hagen von Eitzen Feb 8 '14 at 21:49 The Encyklopädie article of Heinrich Burkhardt, Endliche discrete Gruppen (1899), p. 218 ascribes the origin thus: 15. Allgemeiner Gruppenbegriff. (...) die Gruppe enthält ein Element $e$, die Einheit $^{73)}$, das mit jedem andern $a$ $ae = a$ und $ea = a$ ergiebt; (...) 73) (...) G. Frobenius u. E. Stickelberger, J. f. Math. 86, 1879[78], p. 219. The paper in question, Ueber Gruppen von vertauschbaren Elementen (1879), reads: §.1. Definitionen. Die Elemente unserer Untersuchung sind die $\varphi(\mathbf M)$ Klassen von (reellen) ganzen Zahlen, welche in Bezug auf einen Modul $\mathbf M$ incongruent und relativ prim zu demselben sind. (...) Das Element $\mathbf E$ (so bezeichnen wir im folgenden die Zahlenklasse, deren Repräsentant 1 ist) heisst das Hauptelement. share\|cite\|improve this answer I'm confused. So, the conclusion is that the choice of E by Frobenius and Stickelberger is unmotivated (as their term for the unit is Hauptelement), and its identification with Einheit by later researchers (such as Burkhardt) is a false etymology? – Emil Jeřábek Apr 28 '15 at 11:04 @EmilJeřábek I agree that without further evidence of the transition, it's hard to tell how influential F & S's (pervasively used) E was in the eventual choice of e. They do tie it with eins insofar as their term for the unit is also Klasse von 1 (in quote above). – Francois Ziegler Apr 28 '15 at 23:23 For German speakers: am I missing something, or does Burkhardt's Encyklopädie really define a "group" as a cancellative semigroup, and then claim that the existence of the unit and inverses follow? – Tobias Fritz Jul 10 '15 at 17:30 @Tobias Fritz: No. First they define group as a group of permutations: "Hat eine Gesamtheit von Substitutionen die Eigenschaft, dass jedes Produkt von irgend zweien derselben selbst in ihr enthalten ist, so heisst sie eine Gruppe." (p. 211: Has a set of substitutions the property that every product of any two of them is again in this set, then this set is called a group). Then on p. 217, they define a general group by giving the axioms for a cancelative semigroup, and then state that if in addition the group is finite, inverses and an identity exist. – Jan-Christoph Schlage-Puchta Jul 10 '15 at 18:13 The identity element for a complex number is (1,0)=1. The german word for "one" is "eins" so we write e. share\|cite\|improve this answer this seems speculative, compared with the sources quoted by Francois Ziegler – Yemon Choi Apr 26 '15 at 17:53 Your Answer
Memory Alpha 40,561pages on this wiki Mccoy using a triangle McCoy using a triangle A triangle was a type of musical instrument from Earth. Doctor Leonard McCoy took a triangle on a 2287 camping trip to Yosemite National Park, and used it to announce that dinner was ready to be served. (Star Trek V: The Final Frontier) In the film script, McCoy did not use a triangle but simply banged a pan with a spoon. External link Edit Around Wikia's network Random Wiki
PlanetStar Wiki 180pages on this wiki Constellations (8) Caelum, Columba, Dorado, Horologium, Hydrus, Pictor, Reticulum, Volans Abbreviation Sel Genitive Selachimorphi Pronunciation Name: /'sel•a•chē•mōr•fis/ Genitive: /'sel•a•chē•mōr•fī/ Symbolism the shark Midpoint right ascension 04h 35.25m Midpoint declination −54° 32.68' Northernmost border −27° 01.49' Southernmost border −82° 03.87' Westernmost border 00h 06.13m Easternmost border 09h 04.38m Quadrant SQ1 Crossed by Summer meridian Bordering caelregios Araneus (N) Hippocampus (NW) Malus (E) Simianus (SE) Solarium (S/W) Segments 46 Area 1568.171 sq. deg. (11th) Proportion of the sky 38.014‰ Average constellation area 261.362 sq. deg. (11th) Named stars 3 Stars in the figure 3 Naked eye stars (m < 6.50) BF stars 180 Bright stars (m < 3.00) Brightest star Alpha Columbae (2.60m) Nearby stars (D < 10.00 pc, 32.62 ly) Nearest star GJ 1061 (3.66 pc, 11.99 ly) Messier objects 0 Full visibility range 7°N–90°S Partial visibility range 62°N–7°N Midnight culmination date November 30 Selachimorphus is a caelregio located in the first quadrant of the southern hemisphere at its midpoint, but it extends into the second quadrant. Selachimorphus is the smallest caelregio with an area of 1568 square degrees, covering about 38‰ of the sky. Selachimorphus is divided into eight constellations (listed in the infobox). Selachimorphus doesn't contain many bright stars and interesting features. But this caelregio does contain two famous deep sky objects: the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and its embedded nebula: the Tarantula Nebula (NGC 2070). This caelregio also contains R136a1, the most massive star known. Name and symbolism Edit Selachimorphus is named after the Latin word for shark, which is a type of fish like a component constellation Dorado (swordfish), and unrelated water snake (Hydrus). It is also imagined that shark, swordfish, water snake, dove (Columba), and flying fish (Volans) are drawn on an easel (Pictor) within the time limit using the clock (Horologium). If the drawing is completed before time runs out, a reticle (Reticulum) is awarded, but if time runs out, an easel would be broken apart using a chisel (Caelum). Notable stars Edit Bright stars Edit A B-type subgiant Phact is the Selachimorphus' brightest star at a magnitude of 2.60, located in Columba. Selachimorphus contains just two other bright stars with magnitudes less than 3.00: a G-type main sequence Beta Hydri (2.82m), and an F-type subgiant Head of Hydrus (2.91m). Nearby stars Edit A red dwarf GJ 1061 is the Selachimorphus' nearest star at a distance of 11.99 light-years (3.66 parsecs), located in Horologium. Another interesting nearby star is Kapteyn's Star in Pictor, which is also a red dwarf but variable of BY Draconis type, given the variable star designation VZ Pictoris. With the proper motion about 8 arcseconds per year, it is the second highest proper motion star known, after Barnard's Star located in Tarandus. Elemental abundances indicate that this star was part of the Omega Centauri globular cluster that is remnant of a dwarf galaxy that collided into the Milky Way. It is the nearest halo star known at a distance of 12.77 ly (3.92 pc). This star was discovered by a Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn in 1898. R136a1 Edit The most massive star known is R136a1, massing 265 solar masses. This blue hypergiant star is located in the super star cluster R136 in the LMC to be mentioned below, located in Dorado. It is also the most luminous star known at 8.7 million times more luminous than our sun. Variable stars Edit Gamma Doradus is a prototype variable star that varies in brightness by less than tenth of a magnitude caused by pulsations owing to nonradial gravity wave oscillations. The variability period is about 18 hours. Another prototype variable star is S Doradus. This star is located in the LMC. The variability exhibits long, slow changes in brightness, punctuated by occasional outburst. S Dor variable can be considered as a class of Luminous Blue Variable (LBV). R Doradus, which is a Mira-type variable, varies from 4.8 to 6.6 in magnitude. The visual magnitude is 5.73, but in infrared light, it is one of the brightest stars in the night sky. With an angular diameter of 57.5 mas, it is apparently the largest star seen from Earth other than the Sun. Binary stars Edit Zeta Reticuli is a binary system comprising of two solar analogs. The two stars are separated by 5.2 arcminutes or 3750 AU at a distance of 12.1 parsecs, which is wide enough to be resolved with the unaided eye under a dark sky. Component A is speculated to have six planets while component B has five. Planetary systems Edit As of 2015, there are nearly half a hundred exoplanets known around approximately 25 stars in Selachimorphus. HD 40307 (P8 Sel) in Pictor has six super-Earths, all within the orbit of Venus, five within the orbit of Mercury. Beta Pictoris in Pictor has a massive planet named Midas (Beta Pictoris b, P301) which was detected by direct imaging. Located in Hydrus, HD 10180 (P11 Sel) has seven confirmed planets, two unconfirmed planets, and three hypothetical planets. The innermost planet, Moneta (HD 10180 b, P455), was the first mid-Earth exoplanet known. It masses 1.75 M and sizing at 1.19 R. Moneta takes just 28 hours to orbit the star at a distance of about 148 the Earth–Sun distance. Also there are speculatively three super-Earths, six midplanets and two sub-Jupiters in the HD 10180 system. Located in Dorado, Gliese 163 (P22 Sel) contains three planets, the innermost planet is a midplanet (13.11 M), the middle planet is a super-Earth (8.67 M) in the habitable zone, and the outermost planet is a sub-Jupiter (0.15 MJ). The two inner planets have densities of a shade over 5 g/cm3 while the outer has a density of 1½ g/cm3. Notable deep sky objects Edit Selachimorphus contains the famous Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), which is a Milky Way's satellite galaxy located in Dorado with some of it stretching into Mensa, which is in Solarium. The LMC is an irregular galaxy with great deal of star formation. The LMC in Dorado contains the spectacular Tarantula Nebula (NGC 2070, C103), which is the largest known emission nebula in the universe. Within that nebula, there is R136, which is a super star cluster containing the most massive star known mentioned above. Also in the LMC, the supernova took place in 1987, which was observed by modern astronomers and spectators, even with their naked eyes. It was the first supernova visible to the naked eye since 1604 when the supernova last took place in the Milky Way. The supernova remnant is now designated SN 1987A. In Carina, there is NGC 3532 (also known as the Wishing Well Cluster), which is an open cluster. In Reticulum, there is the Topsy Turvy Galaxy (NGC 1313), which is a barred spiral galaxy. This galaxy had a recent collision with another galaxy as evidenced from scattered patches of stars in its arms. In Dorado, there is the Southern Seagull Nebula, which comprises of several objects including NGC 2035, NGC 2029, and NGC 2032. NGC 2020 is the small oblong "hole" toward the right in the image. The bulbous structure to the right of NGC 2020, whose tendrils appear like a supernova remnant, is not designated yet. Gallery Edit The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) Tarantula Nebula The Tarantula Nebula (NGC 2070, C103), located in the LMC The super star cluster R136, located in the Tarantula Nebula Topsy Turvy Galaxy The Topsy Turvy Galaxy (NGC 1313) Southern Seagull Nebula The Southern Seagull Nebula Visibility Edit In the northern hemisphere, Selachimorphus can be visible throughout spring into summer. A significant portion of this caelregio can easily be visible from the north tropics and in the southern hemisphere, however at least a small portion can be visible up to 62°N. But north of 50°N such as in London and Moscow, only two northernmost constellations of this caelregio are visible –– Caelum and Columba. In Antarctica, the entire caelregio can be seen rotating around the south pole in counterclockwise direction, completing a revolution in one sidereal year at a given time. Selachimorphus is the faintest caelregio as it contains only three stars of less than 3.00m, meaning that from the urban areas, Selachimorphus would only been seen as the triangle of faint stars and a smudge of the Large Magellanic Cloud. Zodiac Edit Since the Sun never crosses Selachimorphus, this is not a zodiacal caelregio. Around Wikia's network Random Wiki
Origin of the Earth's Magnetic Field Helmut Harder, Stephan Stellmach, Ulrich Hansen, Gauss Centre for Supercomputing This page from the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing describes numerical modeling of the geodynamo which gives rise to the Earth's magnetic field. A still image from their model runs is on the page along with an explanation of what is shown in the image. Subject: Geoscience:Geology:Geophysics:Magnetism/Paleomag Special Interest: Visualization
Join them; it only takes a minute: Sign up Join the Stack Overflow community to: 1. Ask programming questions 2. Answer and help your peers 3. Get recognized for your expertise In Scala, if I define a method called apply in a class or a top-level object, that method will be called whenever I append a pair a parentheses to an instance of that class, and put the appropriate arguments for apply() in between them. For example: class Foo(x: Int) { def apply(y: Int) = { xx + yy val f = new Foo(3) f(4) // returns 25 So basically, object(args) is just syntactic sugar for object.apply(args). How does Scala do this conversion? Is there a globally defined implicit conversion going on here, similar to the implicit type conversions in the Predef object (but different in kind)? Or is it some deeper magic? I ask because it seems like Scala strongly favors consistent application of a smaller set of rules, rather than many rules with many exceptions. This initially seems like an exception to me. share\|improve this question Very great explanation, – Muhammad Hewedy Feb 8 '13 at 10:24 up vote 60 down vote accepted I don't think there's anything deeper going on than what you have originally said: it's just syntactic sugar whereby the compiler converts f(a) into f.apply(a) as a special syntax case. This might seem like a specific rule, but only a few of these (for example, with update) allows for DSL-like constructs and libraries. share\|improve this answer If you swap f(a) and f.apply(a) it is correct ;) – sebasgo Aug 3 '09 at 18:37 I think I was right the first time ;-P – oxbow_lakes Aug 3 '09 at 19:47 I'd add "when f is an object (including functions)". When f is a method, there is obviously no such translation. – Alexey Romanov Aug 3 '09 at 21:07 @AlexeyRomanov: Well, if f is a method that is defined without a parameter list, then f(a) is indeed interpreted as something like val _tmp = f; _tmp.apply(a). But that's really getting firmly into the splitting-of-hairs territory. – Jörg W Mittag Dec 5 '14 at 17:37 It is actually the other way around, an object or class with an apply method is the normal case and a function is way to construct implicitly an object of the same name with an apply method. Actually every function you define is an subobject of the Functionn trait (n is the number of arguments). Refer to section 6.6:Function Applications on page 77 of the Scala Language Specification for more information of the topic. share\|improve this answer +1 for changing the Scala Language Specification. I added the right location since your page number is outdated. – Alexandre Martins Sep 21 '11 at 18:12 Yes. And this rule belongs to this smaller set. share\|improve this answer Your Answer
Medal of Honor John Basilone beats off Japanese on Guadalcanal FIELD TELEPHONE, still in working order after being hit by a shell fragment when a Japanese “knee-mortar” shell landed six feet away. In the absence of reliable radio communications, wire communications were heavily relied upon. The EE–8 field telephone and the sound-powered telephone were used for long and short distances, respectively. Japanese surprised at Battle of Cape Esperance USS Duncan underway in the south Pacific on 7 October 1942, five days before she was sunk in the Battle of Cape Esperance. Photographed from USS Copahee (ACV-12), which was then engaged in delivering aircraft to Guadalcanal. Official U.S. Navy Photograph. We sent out rescue craft the next morning to pick up survivors. Many of both sides were found, but few japanese were brought in. Some of the Naval personnel had gaping shrapnel wounds, severed limbs, or they were burned, with oil covering their bodies. They were all in various stages of shock. I counted over fifty American bodies lying on the beach in neat rows. These were the guys who had been recovered by our rescue teams and were either dead when found or died on the way to the beach. Japanese cruiser Mikuma sunk, USS Yorktown torpedoed U.S. forces resist constant assault on Bataan A Japanese image of their troops advancing in the Philippines ‘Conspicious gallantry’ in desperate battles on Bataan The Philippine Scouts passing an M3 light tank on Bataan. Enemy snipers in trees and foxholes had stopped a counterattack to regain part of position. In hand-to-hand fighting which followed, 2d Lt. Nininger repeatedly forced his way to and into the hostile position. Though exposed to heavy enemy fire, he continued to attack with rifle and hand grenades and succeeded in destroying several enemy groups in foxholes and enemy snipers.
Two lightbulbs, one rated 30W and 120V another rated 40W and120V are arranged in two different circuits. a) the two bulbs are first connected in parallel to a 120 Vsource Determine resistance of bulb rated 30W and the current in itwhen connected in this circuit. b) The bulbs are now connected in series with each other and a120V source Determine the resistance of the bulb rated 30W and the currentin it when it is connected in this circuit. Get this answer with Chegg Study
Create a new account It's simple, and free. Emotional Women in the Victorian Era In the Victorian era, a woman was to be seen and not heard. They were emotional rather than logical, and weak. This presented the perfect victim for a Victorian gentleman to rescue. As "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes” and "The Hound of the Baskervilles” were written in this era, and were written to make money rather than a statement, it is not surprising that the female characters invented by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle were generally victims. Mary Sutherland of "A Case of Identity” is a good example of a typical Victorian woman; she is weak and emotional. She also doesn't hide her emotions very well as Holmes points out that "Oscillation upon the pavement always means an affaire de cœur” (192) upon seeing Miss Sutherland across the street. In this case, she is represented as naive and innocent, she has been duped by her own mother and stepfather. She is also very loyal saying "I shall be true to Hosmer. He shall find me ready when he comes back”. (196) Holmes figures out that the true identity of Hosmer is that of her stepfather posing as a suitor, and leaving on the wedding day so as to keep Miss Sutherland in his house, and thereby controlling her inheritance. He chooses however not to tell his client what he has discovered saying "If I tell her she will not believe me. . . 'There is danger for him who taketh the tiger cub, and danger also for whoso snatches a delusion from a woman'”(201). This reinforces the Victorian belief that women are emotional rather than logical. A logical person such as Watson or Holmes can see how Miss Sutherland has been taken advantage of, but with her being emotional, all she believes is that some tragic occurrence pulled her true love from her on their wedding day, and that he will return to claim her as promised. Hatty Doran of "The Adventure of the Noble Bachelor” is quite the opposite of Miss Sutherland. Though she is female, she does show some strength in controlli... Related Essays: APA MLA Chicago Emotional Women in the Victorian Era. (2000, January 01). In Retrieved 21:54, May 28, 2016, from

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