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warc | 201704 | home news blogs calendar enewsletters podcasts Not your typical export
LiveRoof, a division of Hortech wholesale nursery in Spring Lake, began exporting its innovative roof-planting systems to Canada in 2007, for sale by distributors in Ontario and British Columbia. In the last year or so, LiveRoof added distributors in New Zealand and Chile.
Now there is a new product coming from LiveRoof — called LiveWalls — so representatives of the company are filing patent disclosures and trademarks “all over the world, from Australia and New Zealand, to South America, Europe, Asia, the Middle East,” according to Amber Poncé, the business development manager at LiveRoof.
Last week, Poncé finished setting up the company’s non-resident importer paperwork for Canada — “something new for us,” she said. “In the past, our customer cleared products through customs and paid the Canadian HST/GST. With LiveWall, we’ll be the importer of record and will collect and pay these taxes to the Canadian Revenue Agency.”
Dave MacKenzie started Hortech in 1983 with a degree in biology and a desire for a career in horticulture. Eventually, Hortech began supplying sedums and other drought-resistant ground cover plants for the small green roofs that began appearing on flat commercial roofs in urban areas in the 1990s. A thick growth of plants on a roof provides excellent insulation in both winter and summer, protects the roof itself from the elements, and captures rain runoff that would otherwise go straight off the roof and into storm drains.
MacKenzie had the expertise in the biological development of green roofs, but then started solving the problems green roof enthusiasts were having with the plastic trays and soil medium the plants were growing in. He now has patents granted or pending on the plastic modules Hortech developed for planting and maintaining a green roof.
LiveRoof ships its plastic growing modules to Canada and overseas to authorized distributors, who then provide the plants to the customer in that country.
Hundreds of LiveRoof systems have been installed across the U.S., including at Haworth corporate headquarters, Van Andel Institute, Muskegon Community College and several at GVSU. Others have been installed in other countries, notably the 36,760-square-foot Toronto City Hall and New Zealand’s largest green roof at the Mt. Difficulty Winery.
The Mt. Difficulty Winery roof was just installed in March, incorporating 4,800 LiveRoof pre-vegetated modules containing a mix of local native grasses, wild thyme and locally sourced stonecrop sedums, according to the winery website. The 6-inch-thick vegetated roof, which is almost 9,700 square feet, took three and a half days to install and will help maintain an even temperature in the wine storage below.
Poncé said exports have accounted for about 10 percent of LiveRoof sales, but that will be going up with the introduction in June of the LiveWall product line. LiveWall is a brand name and a new subsidiary of Hortech.
According to Poncé, “green” walls are increasingly in demand throughout North America. She provided information indicating that planted living walls create a beautiful and relaxing environment and help reduce the “urban heat island” effect in cities. The vegetation helps by cooling the air, slowing air movement and acting as a substrate for air pollution to settle out. The plants and soil also act as acoustic insulators, reducing external noise by as much as 40 decibels. Green walls also create habitats for butterflies and songbirds.
Planted living wall systems may qualify for tax credits associated with green/open space in some municipal zoning ordinances. The plants and the growing medium can help reduce indoor temperatures significantly during warm/hot weather, reducing air conditioning costs.
The potential to grow herbs and vegetables on the side of buildings, fences and mobile screens expands their usefulness further, on either a personal or commercial level, which could make green walls of interest to restaurants, culinary schools and food service areas in institutions.
The LiveWall system, which has been in development for four years, was triggered by customer requests for a planted wall system. Members of the Hortech staff, which now totals about a dozen year-round employees, began testing existing planted wall systems. In each case, they found the systems to be too complicated to install, plant and maintain. They also found them to be inadequate at growing plants.
MacKenzie said most planted wall systems require irrigation that trickles down from compartment to compartment through the soil. They also require plants to grow in more of a horizontal direction, instead of vertically as they would in nature. MacKenzie said each of those situations seems to impose unique stresses upon the plants.
With conventional green wall systems, so much water has to be applied to the top of the module system that the top-level soil becomes waterlogged and oxygen depleted. This can induce root rot via fungal and bacterial organisms, which then can spread to the lower layers of plants.
LiveWall system, which has a patent pending, grows plants vertically and is designed to eliminate the problems of other systems. It also uses a specially designed integrated mist irrigation system for watering each level of plants.
Hortech’s LiveWall LLC will also offer LiveFence and LiveScreen products using variations of the LiveWall technology. | 5,583 | 2,690 | 0.00038 |
warc | 201704 | The European Parliament today gave the thumbs-up to weak EU rules on radioactive waste in its vote on new legislation proposed by the European Commission (1). The Greens have criticised the rules, which fail to address the concerns with radioactive waste. However, the group expressed its relief that MEPs rejected a proposal to allow the export of nuclear waste to third countries and supported a Green amendment to oppose the storage of nuclear waste in seismic areas. After the vote, Greens/EFA co-president
Rebecca Harms said: "While the outcome of today's vote is certainly a lot better than was expected, the proposed rules remain far too weak and fall far short of addressing the very real concerns with nuclear waste. These rules aim to create perception that the problems of nuclear waste are solved but nothing could be further from the truth. Significantly, the rules do not apply to nuclear waste from military use, waste from uranium mining or spent fuel that is to be sent for reprocessing. "It is a huge source of relief that MEPs rejected a proposal to export nuclear waste to third countries however. It is outrageous to suggest that, because we cannot solve the problem of nuclear waste ourselves, it is ok to dump our nuclear waste in other countries. Hopefully this vote will convince those governments that are pushing export as a solution to drop this approach. "Importantly, a Green amendment calling for the storage of nuclear waste in seismic areas to be banned was passed. The ongoing disaster in Fukushima should be a wake-up call on the risks involved with storing nuclear waste and we welcome that MEPs have heeded this call."
(1) Cizelj report on the management of spent fuels and radioactive waste - consultation. | 1,752 | 860 | 0.001168 |
warc | 201704 | Home > News & Information > News Releases
News Releases
Rate Increase on the Horizon
Soaring regulatory, fuel & rail costs drive wholesale power costs higher
For the past several months Grundy Electric has included rate increase articles in the
Rural Missouri publication. The overall cooperative rate increase of approximately 9% is designed to cover the significant increase in wholesale power costs. This rate increase will be reflected on the members’ May electric bill. The exact rate increase to each member will vary based on member usage and current rate classification, however, all rate classifications will receive a rate increase. “We want to be assured that our member-owners, are well aware of the upcoming rate increase and the reason for it,” stated general manager, Scott Wilson.”
Gasoline prices have declined, so how can you state that a rate increase is due in part to increased fuel costs?One of the main reasons for the wholesale power increases being handed down by our power supplier is the cost of fuel. In this case, we’re talking coal and natural gas, not gasoline and diesel. Currently coal is used to generate approximately 80% of the electricity in Missouri. Consider this: At its coal-fired power plants, Associated uses 10 million tons of coal per year. Just a $1 increase in the cost of a ton of coal would trans-late into $10 million. But Associated is seeing increases in coal prices that are much higher than $1 a ton. Projections indicate that costs for this fuel will continue to increase due to several factors, including transportation charges and increasing world competition for U.S. coal supplies.
How do environmental regulations impact my electric bill?In the past 13 years, our power supplier has invested $650 million to reduce emissions at its coal-based power plants. It is estimated that Associated will spend $330 million to meet new environmental regulations issued by the Environmental Protection Agency. Meeting existing and future environmental regulations will have a huge impact on rates for cooperative members. This is why we ask the membership to join us in the Our Energy, Our Future campaign. So we can continue a dialogue with our legislators in Washington and ask them to keep our rates affordable when looking at new climate change legislation.
How is the demand for electricity growing when I don’t see a huge number of new homes being built in our area?Demand for electricity doesn’t necessarily mean new housing construction. Our homes energy consumption continues to grow as we en-joy the latest gadgets and electronics. Multiple items that consume energy 24 hours per day are plugged in all around our homes waiting to be used. All these comfort and entertainment features add up to increased usage. So existing homes are using more energy each year, thus increasing demand.
Are other cooperatives raising their rates?Yes, utilities across Missouri and the nation are being influenced by the same factors as Grundy Electric. Most utilities are witnessing increasing wholesale power costs due to rising expenses to meet environmental requirements, in-creased fuel and transportation charges and mounting construction costs for new power plants.
What is Grundy Electric doing to keep costs down? Grundy Electric’s distribution costs are also experiencing upward pressure due to increased costs, growing demand and capital investment required to maintain the quality and reliability our members expect. Rising costs for steel, copper and other building materials used within the electrical industry continue to skyrocket. Grundy will continue to manage its operating costs in an efficient manner. We are committed to reducing costs within our control.
So, what is next? Members will continue to see a greater emphasis on energy efficiency nationwide as costs and demand continue to rise. Together we will learn to use energy smarter. In 2009 Grundy Electric will again ask our members to assist us in a dialogue with Congress as issues affecting electric rates come to the forefront. We want you to join us in keeping Washington informed to be sure that public policy meets members need for affordable electricity here at home.
Grundy Electric will continue to manage operating costs in an efficient manner while providing our members with safe, reliable, reasonably-priced electric ser-vice. If you should have any questions regarding this rate adjustment, please do not hesitate to contact our office at (660) 359-3941 or 1-800-279-2249.
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warc | 201704 | Metabolic Pathway: A metabolic pathway or biochemical pathway, is an orderly sequence of reactions within a cell that either breaks down large molecules or builds up larger compounds from smaller ones. These pathways can be linear or circular, and each step in a pathway has a specific enzyme acting upon it.
Pathways that build large compounds such as proteins, lipids, and other large molecules are called
biosynthetic pathways and are anabolic. These larger molecules will have a higher energy count. Pathways that break down larger molecules into smaller ones with lower energy are called degradative pathways and are catabolic. All pathways have the following participants: Substrates: Molecules that can enter a reaction and be acted on. Intermediates: Compounds that are formed between the beginning and end of a pathway. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze reactions (and speed them up.) Cofactors: Organic molecules or ions that assist enzymes by carrying atoms or electrons. Without these cofactors the enzymes they assist are inactive. See the explanation of coenzymes for organic molecule cofactors. Energy Carriers: ATP, which donates energy to many reactions. End Products: Compounds present at the end of a pathway.
This page created 01 Oct 2012 17:36
Last updated 01 Mar 2016 18:53 | 1,299 | 668 | 0.001504 |
warc | 201704 | Precious Rufus Ashiedu, Ross M Andrews, Stephen B Lambert, Lisa McHugh, Sallyanne LeGros-Wilson, Judith Zenchyson, Daniel Arnold, Clementine Shevell, Kerry-Ann F O’Grady
Abstract
There are limited community-based data on the burden of influenza and influenza-like illnesses during pregnancy to inform disease surveillance and control. We aimed to determine the incidence of medically-attended respiratory illnesses (MARI) in pregnant women and the proportion of women who are tested for respiratory pathogens at these visits. We conducted a nested retrospective cohort study of a non-random sample of women aged 18 years or over who had a live birth in maternity units in Brisbane, Queensland, from March 2012 to October 2014. The primary outcomes were self-reported doctor visits for MARI and laboratory investigations for respiratory pathogens. Descriptive analyses were performed. Among 1,202 participants, 222 (18.5%, 95%CI 16.3%–20.7%) self-reported MARI during their pregnancy. Of those with a MARI, 20.3% (45/222) self-reported a laboratory test was performed. We were able to confirm with health service providers that 46.7% (21/45) of tests were undertaken, responses from providers were not received for the remainder. Whilst one in 5 women in this population reported a MARI in pregnancy, only 3.7% (45/1,202) reported a clinical specimen had been arranged at the consultation and the ability to validate that self-report was problematic. As the focus on maternal immunisation increases, ascertainment of the aetiological agent causing MARI in this population will be required and efficient and reliable methods for obtaining these data at the community level need to be established.
Commun Dis Intell 2015;39(3):E319–E322.
Keywords: influenza, incidence, pregnancy, laboratory confirmation
Introduction
Influenza is a global public health issue affecting both human life and economies in our ever-increasingly interconnected world.
1 Some groups in society are at higher risk of getting influenza; infants, the elderly, and people with certain chronic medical conditions. 2 Pregnant women are particularly susceptible to serious consequences from influenza infection, 3 particularly during pandemics. 4 Reasons for this are linked to the number of changes that occur to a woman’s body during pregnancy, which may put pregnant women at higher risk of complications from influenza (e.g. changes to lung function, increased cardiac output, increased oxygen consumption, and impairments to the innate and adaptive immune response). 5–7 Consequently, the World Health Organization recommends that pregnant women be given the highest priority for influenza vaccine in countries that are initiating or expanding a seasonal influenza program. 8
While data on hospitalisations for influenza during pregnancy are important, few studies have identified the incidence of medically-attended respiratory illnesses (MARI) during pregnancy at the primary health care level. Fewer still have reported the proportion of these women who have laboratory investigations performed to identify the aetiological agent. This lack of data limits the ability to accurately assess the burden of influenza during pregnancy and the likely effectiveness of interventions, such as influenza vaccination, aimed at preventing disease.
The objective of this study was to investigate the incidence of MARI during pregnancy in women in Brisbane, Queensland. A secondary objective was to identify the proportion of these women who had a laboratory test performed to identify an aetiological agent.
Methods
This study was part of an ongoing broader prospective cohort study (the FluMum Study)
9 investigating the effectiveness of influenza vaccine during pregnancy in preventing laboratory confirmed influenza in infants across 6 Australian capital cities. Women in Brisbane maternity units within 6 participating hospitals (public and/or private) were approached for recruitment by trained research staff, prior to hospital discharge. The selected hospitals included the 2 large tertiary public maternity units in inner Brisbane and 4 units (3 private, 1 public) in suburbs more than 10 km from the city centre.
Women were eligible for inclusion if they were: aged 18 years or over at the time of written informed consent, willing and able to adhere to all protocol requirements, had sufficient verbal English to permit questionnaire completion, and had given birth to a live infant. Women were excluded if they planned to move overseas before the infant reached 6 months of age.
At enrolment, a detailed questionnaire was completed that collected data on self-reported influenza and pertussis vaccination, self-reported maternal medical and obstetric history and socio-demographic indicators. MARIs were determined by asking the participant whether, during her pregnancy, did she ever have a respiratory illness with symptoms like fever, chills, cough, aches and pains, that caused her to see a doctor. If yes, participants were asked whether a test was performed at the visit (nose, throat or blood specimen) but they were not specifically asked if the test was for influenza or other respiratory pathogens. If a test was reported, this was validated by contacting the relevant healthcare provider. Three to five attempts were made by telephone, email and/or facsimile to confirm the test and obtain a diagnosis. Similar attempts were made to confirm self-report of influenza vaccination during and in the 12 months prior to the pregnancy.
We analysed data collected on enrolment from the 1,202 women recruited at the Brisbane site for the years 2012–2014. The primary endpoint was participant-reported attendance at a medical practitioner for a respiratory illness during pregnancy. The secondary endpoints were a) the participant reported clinical specimens collected for laboratory investigations at these visits, and b) the healthcare provider confirmation of those laboratory investigations.
The study was approved by the Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC/12/QRBW/85), the Mater Mothers Human Research Ethics Committee (2012–16), and The University of Queensland Medical Research Ethics Committee (2012000180).
Data analysis
The primary analysis was the proportion of women who reported a MARI during the pregnancy and presented with its 95% confidence interval (CI). Secondary analyses were the proportion of women who reported a test done and of those, the proportion that were confirmed by the health service provider. Descriptive analyses were performed using Stata SE V12 (StataCorp, Texas, USA), including producing proportions and means with 95% CIs, and medians with interquartile ranges.
Results Participant characteristics
Between March 2012 and October 2014, 1,713 women were screened and 1,202 (70.2%) were enrolled into the FluMum study in Brisbane. The mean age was 31.5 years (95% CI 31.3–31.8), 2% (23/1,196) identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander and 698 (58.1%) were recruited through public hospitals. More than half of the women for whom data were available (947/1,194, 79%) were in paid employment during their pregnancy; the majority of these being in full-time employment (568, 60%). Approximately half (515/1,035, 49%) had completed a university degree or higher and approximately 8% of women (93/1,195) had smoked during their pregnancy. Of the 1,196 women for whom data were available, 340 (28.4%) self-reported a pre-existing health condition such as heart disease, respiratory conditions, immunosuppressive conditions, cancer or diabetes, or a history of pneumonia requiring hospitalisation in the past 12 months.
Medically attended respiratory illnesses during pregnancy
Overall, 222 of 1,202 women (18.5%, 95% CI, 16.3%–20.7%) reported a respiratory illness that caused them to visit a health practitioner during their pregnancy. Of these, 39 women reported 2 episodes, eight reported 3 episodes, and two reported 4 episodes. Forty-five (20.3%, 95% CI 15.0%–25.6%) of the 222 women with a MARI reported that a clinical specimen was collected at the time (nose swab n=15, and/or throat swab n=10, and/or a blood test n=35). No tests were reported in episodes subsequent to the initial presentation. Seventy-two (21.2%) of the 340 women with a self-reported pre-existing health condition reported a MARI during their pregnancy and 22 (30.6%) of these women reported they had a test done.
Despite multiple attempts to secure information from providers, confirmation of the test request was obtained in 21 (46.7%) episodes. Of the confirmed episodes in which a blood test was taken (n=13), 7 providers reported the bloods were not tested for respiratory viruses. This information was not provided for the remaining 6 episodes.
Discussion
Influenza is an important cause of morbidity during pregnancy
5 but the lack of systematic surveillance for disease during pregnancy at the community level limits the ability to reliably estimate the burden of disease and the effectiveness of interventions, particularly vaccination. This study had identified that almost one in 5 women will present to a health care provider during their pregnancy for a respiratory illness. Collection of clinical specimens during the visit is reported but is difficult to confirm. This leads to doubts about the reliability of those reports with respect to testing for respiratory pathogens.
There are limited comparable data with which to compare the MARI incidence in our study given differences in study designs, study populations, and the case definitions used for respiratory illness and/or influenza-like illness. In a randomised controlled trial of inactivated influenza vaccine in HIV-negative pregnant women in South Africa that employed active surveillance for respiratory illnesses,
10 17.2% (95% CI 14.9–19.6) of women in the control group reported an influenza-like illness in the period from the time of vaccination to up to 24 weeks post-birth of the infant; 65.2% (95% CI 62.2–68.1) reported having any respiratory illness. 10 The incidence of illness during pregnancy only was not reported. In a cohort study that used administrative datasets, Lindsay et al 11 reported 8% of 8,323 healthy (no underlying chronic conditions) pregnant and post-partum women in Washington, United States of America, experienced an influenza-like episode that resulted in health-care use (total person weeks of observation = 301,778). 11
Blood was the predominant specimen women reported as being collected. This is unusual given there are few clinical indications for serology in acute, uncomplicated respiratory illness at the community level.
12 For those who reported a MARI episode, we asked “thinking now about the 1st episode of respiratory illness during your pregnancy that caused you to see a doctor, can you tell me the tests done?” We then sought further information on who had done the test, the diagnosis, gestational age at the time of the test and the treating doctors contact details. We also sought similar information for each subsequent MARI. Whilst we made reference to episodes of respiratory illness, it is possible that there may have been some misunderstanding or uncertainty for participants such that the information provided may not have directly related to specimens collected at a MARI presentation that were specifically for a respiratory diagnosis. This is partially supported by the number of reports from providers stating bloods were not tested for respiratory viruses.
The difficulties encountered in confirming the test with the health care provider is problematic for influenza surveillance and control in this population and for estimating the effectiveness of maternal influenza and/or pertussis vaccination during pregnancy at the population level, particularly in non-pandemic periods. With the exception of hospitalised cases, there are limited population-based data on both the burden of influenza and the effectiveness of influenza vaccination during pregnancy. This lack of data is recognised as a contributing factor towards determining the real risk of influenza associated with pregnancy.
13,14 Such data would enhance public health policy recommendations and facilitate discussions between health care providers and pregnant women on the risks of influenza and why the vaccine is recommended in pregnancy.
This study has some limitations that necessitate caution in interpreting the findings. The FluMum study
9 population is derived from English speaking women giving birth to a live infant in metropolitan maternity units and may not be representative of non-English speaking women and those with high risk pregnancies and adverse pregnancy outcomes, nor of women in rural and remote areas where access to health care and the viability of specimen collection, transport, and processing for respiratory illnesses may differ. While the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women enrolled in the study was low (1.7%), it does approximate the 2011 estimated resident Indigenous population of the greater Brisbane region (2.0%). 15 Further possible selection and measurement biases that may be affecting our findings are potential differences between vaccinated and unvaccinated women that would influence their decision to participate in the study and their recall of MARI. Finally, as data were collected retrospectively, misclassification due to poor recall may have occurred resulting in an over– or under-estimation of MARI frequency and of testing for MARI.
MARI during pregnancy is not uncommon yet the investigation of these illnesses to determine an aetiological agent is infrequent. While laboratory investigation of all community-based MARI during pregnancy may be unwarranted clinically, sentinel surveillance of these events in sites representative of Australian pregnant women would be a useful contribution to further understanding the risk and outcomes of influenza during pregnancy. Such surveillance would provide more comprehensive estimates of influenza vaccine effectiveness to inform public health policy.
Acknowledgements
We thank the additional FluMum Study Chief Investigators, Professor Terry Nolan, Dr Nicholas Woods, Professor Helen Marshall, Professor Peter Richmond, Dr Mark Chatfield, who all contributed to the design and implementation of the national study from which the data presented here were derived. We also thank the staff of the participating maternity units in Brisbane: Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Mater Mothers (South Brisbane and Redlands), Sunnybank Private Hospital, NorthWest Private Hospital and Redlands Hospital.
The FluMum Study is funded by a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Project Grant (1020035). PRA was supported by a University of Queensland Summer Scholarship. KFO is supported by a NHMRC Career Development Fellowship (1045157) and Queensland Government Smart Futures Fellowship. The funding agencies had no role in the design and conduct of the study nor in the preparation of this manuscript.
Author contributions
PFA analysed the data and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. RMA, SBL and KFO are chief investigators on the overall FluMum study. RMA and KFO devised this current paper & KFO prepared the final draft. LMcH, SLW, JZ, DA & CS all contributed substantially to study implementation and the preparation of data for analysis. All authors had full access to the study data and contributed to and approved the final manuscript.
Author details
Precious Rufus Ashiedu, UQ Summer Scholar
1
Prof Ross M Andrews, Deputy Director
2
A/Prof Stephen B Lambert, Medical Epidemiologist
3
Ms Lisa McHugh MAppEpid Scholar
4
Ms Sallyanne LeGros-Wilson, Research Officer
3
Ms Judith Zenchyson, Research Officer
3
Mr Daniel Arnold, Data Manager
5
Ms Clementine Shevell, Research Officer
5
Kerry-Ann F O’Grady, Senior Research Fellow
3,5 School of Nursing & Midwifery, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Casaurina, Northern Territory Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland National Centre for Epidemiology & Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Queensland Children’s Medical Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, South Brisbane, Queensland
Corresponding author: Ms Kerry-Ann O’Grady, Queensland Children’s Medical Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Level 7, Centre for Children’s Health Research, 62 Graham Street, SOUTH BRISBANE QLD 4010. Telephone: +61 7 439 933 777. Email: kerryann.ogrady@qut.edu.au
References Wong VW, Fong DY, Tarrant M. Brief education to increase uptake of influenza vaccine among pregnant women: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth2014;14:19. Benowitz I, Esposito DB, Gracey KD, Shapiro ED, Vazquez M. Influenza vaccine given to pregnant women reduces hospitalization due to influenza in their infants. Clin Infect Dis2010;51(12):1355–1361. Memoli MJ, Harvey H, Morens DM, Taubenberger JK. Influenza in pregnancy. Influenza Other Respir Viruses2013;7(6):1033–1039. Jamieson DJ, Kissin DM, Bridges CB, Rasmussen SA. Benefits of influenza vaccination during pregnancy for pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol2012;207(3 Suppl):S17–S20. Kourtis AP, Read JS, Jamieson DJ. Pregnancy and infection. N Engl J Med2014;371(11):1077. Gordon CL, Johnson PD, Permezel M, Holmes NE, Gutteridge G, McDonald CF, et al. Association between severe pandemic 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus infection and immunoglobulin G(2) subclass deficiency. Clin Infect Dis2010;50(5):672–678. Forbes RL, Wark PA, Murphy VE, Gibson PG. Pregnant women have attenuated innate interferon responses to 2009 pandemic influenza A virus subtype H1N1. J Infect Dis2012;206(5):646–653. World Health Organization. WHO recommends seasonal influenza vaccination to pregnant women as the highest priority. 2012. Accessed on 1 April 2015. Available from: http://www.who.int/immunization/newsroom/newsstory_seasonal_influenza_vaccination_pregnancy/en/ O’Grady KF, McHugh L, Nolan T, Richmond P, Wood N, Marshall HS, et al. FluMum: a prospective cohort study of mother-infant pairs assessing the effectiveness of maternal influenza vaccination in prevention of influenza in early infancy. BMJ Open2014;4(6):e005676. Madhi SA, Cutland CL, Kuwanda L, Weinberg A, Hugo A, Jones S, et al. Influenza vaccination of pregnant women and protection of their infants. N Engl J Med2014;371(10):918–931. Lindsay L, Jackson LA, Savitz DA, Weber DJ, Koch GG, Kong L, et al. Community influenza activity and risk of acute influenza-like illness episodes among healthy unvaccinated pregnant and postpartum women. Am J Epidemiol2006;163(9):838–848. Eccles S, Pincus C, Higgins B, Woodhead M, Guideline Development Group. Diagnosis and management of community and hospital acquired pneumonia in adults: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ2014;349:g6722. Mertz D, Kim TH, Johnstone J, Lam PP, Science M, Kuster SP, et al. Populations at risk for severe or complicated influenza illness: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ2013;347:f5061. Horby P. For some groups traditionally considered to be ‘high risk’, the evidence of an increased risk of severe influenza-associated illness is poor quality. Evid Based Med2014;19(3):110. | 19,644 | 8,094 | 0.000125 |
warc | 201704 | Brucellosis On this page: What is brucellosis? How do people get brucellosis? Can you get it from other people? Can brucellosis be treated? Can brucellosis be prevented? Why is brucellosis considered a possible terror weapon? What should I do if I think I may have brucellosis?
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Brucellosis is a disease, caused by bacteria, which affects many different kinds of animals – including sheep, goats, cattle, deer, elk, pigs, and dogs. However, it can also cause a disease with flu-like symptoms in humans. People with brucellosis may develop fever, sweats, headaches, back pains, and physical weakness. In severe cases, the central nervous system and the lining of the heart may be affected. One form of the illness may also cause long-lasting symptoms, including recurrent fevers, joint pain, and fatigue. Symptoms can appear anywhere from five to 60 days after exposure.
Human cases of brucellosis are uncommon, with only 100 to 200 cases a year reported in the U.S. Although brucellosis can make you very sick, it is rarely fatal.
People can be infected with brucellosis bacteria by
eating or drinking something that’s been contaminated with the bacteria inhaling the bacteria having a wound that gets infected with the bacteria
The most common way that people get the disease is by drinking or eating unpasteurized, contaminated milk or cheese. You can also get it by breathing in the bacteria. That happens less often, but it can be a hazard for people in some kinds of jobs – people who work in labs or slaughterhouses, for example. Infected wounds can be a problem for veterinarians, slaughterhouse workers, or hunters. Hunters can get it by eating food that they have accidentally contaminated with brucellosis bacteria, while cleaning wild game.
It would also be possible to deliberately expose people to brucellosis, by releasing the bacteria into the air or putting it in food.
It’s possible for people to infect each other with brucellosis – but it’s extremely rare. In rare cases, nursing mothers can pass the bacteria to their babies. The bacteria can also be transmitted sexually.
Brucellosis can be treated with antibiotics – but it can take a long time, and treatment can be difficult. Depending on the severity of the illness – and when treatment is begun – it can take anywhere from a few weeks to a few months to recover.
There is no vaccine available for brucellosis. However, you can reduce your risk if you avoid eating or drinking unpasteurized milk, cheese and ice cream when you travel. Hunters should wear rubber gloves when handling the internal organs of animals.
Brucellosis can make people sick – and keep them from normal activity – for a long time. It is easy to release the bacteria in ways that will expose people to the illness. Though rarely fatal, it can make a lot of people sick. Identifying and tracking a brucellosis outbreak would be difficult for public health.
People who believe they have brucellosis should see a doctor. You should also contact your local law enforcement agency if you have any reason to suspect unusual activity in connection with an outbreak of brucellosis – or any other serious illness. | 3,779 | 1,656 | 0.000616 |
warc | 201704 | FYI #64
September 25, 1995
(Archived document, may contain errors)
September 25, 1995
FEHBP CONTROLS COSTS AGAIN: MORE LESSONS FOR MEDICARE REFORMERS
By Robert E. Moffit Deputy Director of Domestic Policy Studies
While Members of Congress wrestle with the problem of how to fix the nearly bankrupt Medi- care program, they will not be worTying about the future of their own health care system. Even those Members planning to retire next year have no cause for concern. The reason: Beginning on November 13 and running through December 11 of this year, these same Members of Congress, along with millions of federal workers, retirees, and their dependents, will have a unique opportu- nity to pick the private insurance plan and combination of health benefits they think best for them for next year. Retiring members will continue to enjoy this privilege. They can do this because they are enrolled in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP), the popular, 35-year-old, consumer-driven system with almost 400 private health plans competing nationwide. W/ Broad Choice. Unlike Medicare beneficiaries, who are locked into an inflexible government- standardized benefits package, these special Americans enjoy a broad range of consumer choice practically denied to all other Americans. For these enrollees in the FEHBP, there is even more good news: Not only can they pick and choose from a wide variety of private plans, with a vari- ety of prices and benefits, but they also can pocket the savings that result from wise choices. Cost Control. While Medicare costs are soaring at 10.5 percent per year, the United States Of- fice of Personnel Management (OPM), the federal agency that runs the FEHBP, recently trum- peted to Members of Congress and congressional retirees the good news that next year they can look forward to insignificant premium increases, and that many will see no premium increases at all. "Employees and retirees shopping for health care coverage in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program for 1996," declares OPM, "will find a total average premium increase of only four tenths of one percent, compared to an average private sector premium increase of more than six percent over a comparable period. For this year, premiums actually declined on average by 3.3 percent, and in 1994 they rose just 3 percent. YY7#64195 V Government Help. Under current law, the government contributes about 72 percent of the cost of the premium of any private plan that Members of Congress and congressional and federal re- tirees choose. If, in any given year, these consumers wish to keep their private plans, they do not have to do anything. If they wish to change their plans and get better value for their dollars, they may do so. Members of Congress and federal workers and retirees may wish to remain in more expensive plans because they think that a richer set of benefits or a more attractive combination of benefits is worth the cost to them. Next year, according to OPM, federal employees and retir- ees will see an average biweekly increase of just 44 cents for self-only coverage and only $2.25 for family health insurance coverage. Over 25 percent of enrollees will not experience any rate increase in 1996.2 V Solid Information. The federal government assists Members of Congress and federal workers and retirees with a financial contribution toward the purchase of their plan and with unbiased in- formation on various plan offerings. This information is supplemented by helpful information from private-sector organizations, unions, and employee associations on the best plans available to workers, retirees, and their families in terms of value, quality, and price. For congressional and federal retirees, the National Association of Retired Federal Employees (NARFE), a major organization representing over 500,000 active and retired personnel, suggests the best plans for those needing specialized medical services. Washington Consumers Checkbook even rates plans according to comprehensive patient surveys to help FEHBP enrollees pick plans. While reforming Medicare, Members of Congress should keep in mind key lessons from their own experience in the FEHBP. LESSON #1: Consumer choice and competition control costs, even in an insurance pool comprised of older workers and a disproportionate number of retirees. Older workers and retirees cost significantly more to cover than younger, more active employees. Surprisingly, the FEHBP is not an ideal insurance pool, with a large number of younger, healthier workers cross- subsidizing a much smaller group of older workers and retired personnel. Instead, the federal workforce is significantly older than the private-sector workforce; the average federal worker is 43.8 years of age, while the average private-sector worker is 37.7 years of age. Moreover, the ra- tio of retirees to active workers has increased steadily over the past several years. And while pri- vate firms are reducing and even eliminating refiree health benefits, approximately 40 percent of all subscribers in the FEHBP are retirees,3 helping to make the total insurance pool itself progres- sively older. Most federal retirees today have access to the Medicare system as a result of changes in the Social Security law in 1983, but approximately 200,000 still rely on FEHBP plans as their primary health insurance. Nonetheless, even retirees with Medicare coverage are more costly to the system than active federal workers. The FEHBP has demonstrated a remarkable success in controlling costs. While average pre- mium increases next year will be only four tenths of one percent, FEBBP enrollees last year ex- perienced an average annual decrease of 3.3 percent. LESSON #2: Federal workers and retirees would have enjoyed even greater personal savings in the FEHI1P if Congress had guaranteed federal workers a defined contribution, in- dexed to inflation, instead of relying on the current government formula. Today, the fed- eral government contributes to the cost of each private plan chosen by Members of Congress, federal workers, and retirees. The maximum dollar amount contributed by the federal govem- ment is set legally by a formula which requires OPM to calculate the government contribution on the basis of the average premium of the six largest plans in the program: the "Big Six" formula. Current law also specifies that the federal government can contribute no more than 75 percent of the premium cost of any given plan. This means that, in any given year, the government's contri- bution will vary, depending upon the OPM staff's negotiating skills and the annual premium per- formance of the six largest plans in the program. One proposal advanced by Heritage scholars to reform the FEHBP, and also incorporated in this year's Congressional Budget Resolution, is to replace the Big Six formula with a clearly defined annual dollar amount for individual and fam- ily coverage.4 This is similar to the voucher proposal for Medicare now being considered by Con- gress. Future increases in that dollar amount would be based on increases in the Consumer Price In- dex (CPI). Private plans competing directly for the dollars of federal workers and retirees thus would have a powerful incentive to offer attractive packages of benefits at a price at or even be- low the fixed dollar amount, thereby reducing the out-of-pocket costs to workers and retirees and increasing their savings even more. Competition among private insurance plans would intensify, and federal workers would get to pocket any difference between the defined contribution and the actual price of a plan. With the elimination of the existing 75 percent cap on the government con- tribution, workers who picked lower cost plans would not be penalized by any reduction in the dollar value of the government's contribution, and those who picked higher cost plans would not be rewarded by the government. Lost Compensation. If the defined contribution rule had been in effect in recent years, federal workers and retirees generally would have done better financially than they do under the current formula. In any case where FEHBP's premium performance dipped below the Consumer Price Index beyond any other savings achieved through careful choice of plan, federal workers and re- tirees would have experienced a gain in overall compensation. For example, under the current formula, the maximum government contribution for 1996 will be $3,432.26 for family coverage and $1,599.26 for single coverage. Under the 1996 Congressional Budget Resolution estab- - lishing a defined contribution, the feder avovernment's contribution would be $3,547 for family coverage and $1,587 for single coverage. Under such a defined contribution arrangement, federal workers and retirees would be able to pocket the difference between the defined contribution and the cost of any plan. Given recent pre- mium performance, they would have fared better under a clearly defined dollar contribution over three of the last five years:
GOVERNMENT CONTRIBUTION TO FEHBP: ACTUAL AND WITH A DEFINED CONTRIBUTION
Current I'llip Six" System CPI-U Adiusted Defined Contribution System biweekly annual biweekly annual single family single fa simile family single family 1992 $60.50 $130.58 $1573.00 $3395.08 $60.95 $131.08 $1584.61 $3408.17 1993 $64.43 $139.60 $1675.18 $3629.60 $62.77 $135.02 $1632.15 $3510.42 1994 $66.20 $141.42 $1721.20 $3676.92 $64.66 $139.07 $1681.11 $3615'73 1995 $61.38 $134.18 $1595.88 $3488.68 $66.34 $142.68 $1724.82 $3709.74 1996 1 $61.51 1 $132.01 1 $1599.26 1 $3432.26 $68.53 $147.39 1 $1781.74 $3832.16 1996 estimates are based on the CBO estimate for CPW of 3.3%.
Such a change in FEHBP financing to establish clear and predictable increases in the government contribution would allow federal workers, retirees, and their families to take full advantage of any positive changes in the competitive market for insurance. Moving from a defined benefits to a defined contribution system would be a good deal for federal workers and retirees. Such a change also makes sense for the Medicare system. The FEHBP shows that giving enrollees the right to choose plans in a comprehensive market forces insurers to improve value for money, not simply to cut costs.
I OPM news release, "1996 Federal Employees Health Benefits Program Open Season Highlights," September 11, 1995.
2 Ibid.
3 Carolyn Pemberton and Deborah Holmes, eds., EBRI Databook on Employee Benefits (Washington, D.C.: Employee Benefit Research Institute, 1995), p. 278.
4 See Scott A. Hodge, ed., Rolling Back Government.- A Budget Plan to Rebuild America (Washington, D.C.: The Heritage Foundation, 1995), pp. 225-226.
5 Summary of Conference Agreement Major Provisions, Congressional Budget Resolution for Fiscal Years 1996-2002, Updated June 26, 1995, p. 2.
6 Calculations for the annual government contribution were based on multiplication of the maximum bi-weekly government contributions by 26, reflecting the 26 annual pay periods for federal employees. Figures for the CP1-U based defined contribution system were calculated by John S. Barry, Economics Research Assistant at The f al"; 3315 9 .08 $3629.60 $3676.92 $3488.68 $3432.26 | 11,263 | 4,885 | 0.000205 |
warc | 201704 | Neighbors gather at the Burien home of Rebecca Dare and Bill Opfermann to watch a video on disaster preparedness.
Burien neighbors prepare for disasters
By Gwen Davis SPECIAL TO THE HIGHLINE TIMES
Rebecca Dare and Bill Opfermann know that being proactive can pay off in life-saving ways. Especially when it comes to preparing for a possible natural disaster.
On Saturday morning, Dec. 8, the Burien couple hosted a neighborhood meeting at their home on disaster preparedness. More than one-dozen neighbors showed up. The last time this disaster preparedness meeting took place was two years ago.
“Our purpose, what we’re trying to do is get the word out [about disaster and also get other neighborhoods interested,” Opfermann said. “When that earthquake comes, when that disaster comes, you can never be prepared enough. So it’s really important we get the word out.”
The two-hour meeting was based largely on an interactive film, Building and Strengthening Disaster Readiness Among Neighbors, courtesy of Washington State’s Emergency Management Public Education program. The film took participants through the nine steps of disaster preparedness:
Take care of loved ones Protect your head, feet and hands Check the natural gas or propane at your home Shut off water at the main house Place the Help or OK sign Put your fire extinguisher on the sidewalk After steps 1-6 are completed, go to the Neighborhood Gathering Site Form teams at the Neighborhood Gathering Site Share what you have done with the rest of your neighbors
“Disasters can strike at any time,” the film began. “When they do, 911 emergency responders such as fire, police and utility personal may be overwhelmed with calls. They may not be able to respond for hours or days. How would you and your family survive a serious event like a disaster? What if the key to your survival isn’t just what you know but what others know and how you might be able to work together?”
While Pacific Northwest cities most likely would not deal with hurricanes, which obviously have been an issue for other parts of the country recently, Seattle is not immune to natural disasters.
Earthquakes could be a leading cause. Seattle has a history of experiencing earthquakes, such as the Nisqually quake of 2001, with a 6.8 magnitude. The damage from that quake was substantial.
Another cause could be a Mt. Rainier eruption, which could significantly alter the face of the Seattle-Tacoma metro area with mud flows.
Seattle might deal with landslides from wet weather or large snowmelts from the Cascades. While snowmelt landslides would not immediately affect the Seattle urban area, utilities and transportation networks could experience significant disruption. Additionally, landslides can accompany earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Furthermore, Seattle can experience the effects of constant flooding of rivers. While difficult to predict, these floods can threaten the foundation of nearby buildings.
Other natural disasters can occur, as well.
However, the film made clear that if people prepare, detrimental effects could be mitigated.
Opfermann said the group chose a neighborhood gathering site and care center and divided into four teams: listen to emergency radio, check vulnerable neighbors and help if necessary and shut off gas if needed. Attendees also put together a neighborhood skills and equipment inventory. | 3,453 | 1,696 | 0.000603 |
warc | 201704 | The rustic architecture is not complete without rustic lighting. In this article, we will discuss the concept of kitchen lighting in general and kitchen’s rustic lighting’s selection in particular.
Selecting Rustic Lighting For Kitchen
Lighting is a constitutional part of the kitchen décor. Without proper lighting, all of the art work and delicate details would go un-noticed. Also, without proper lighting, the functional aspect of the kitchen is also affected. Lighting in the kitchen décor world has slowly become a big thing. When people hire Kitchen decorators, they side by side hire lighting designers as well. The interior designers and lighting designers work hand in hand, to make the project a success. Because, like every other aspect of the kitchen décor, lighting does not only serve as an aspect for beautification of the kitchen but, is also quintessential for the kitchen’s proper functionality. There are mainly three types of lighting in the kitchen décor world; general lighting, task lighting and accent lighting. General lighting is used in lighting the whole of the kitchen area; it makes sure that every functional corner in the kitchen is illuminating. Task lighting is shadow-free lighting with the sole purpose of focusing on a particular functional part of the kitchen. It falls directly on the surface of action in the kitchen. These are generally under the counter lights and over the kitchen island. Accent lighting is to accentuate the detailed work or intricacies of architectural designs in the kitchen. These days, people spend a lot of money and time on getting their kitchens designed exquisitely; there is absolutely no point in that if these details are in the dark or dingy corners. The beauty of the whole décor lies in the right visibility of all the architectural specifics. These accent lights come in the form of pendant lights, colorful lights, spotlights, etc., adding dramatic effect to the kitchen. In addition to these, there are decorative lights as well with the role of purely decorating the kitchen. This can be achieved with chandeliers, pendant lights and other fixture plays. The success of these different lighting techniques depends only on one factor, harmony. The process of harmonizing different lighting techniques is called layering. Layering makes sure that none of these lighting forms are in contrast with each other or glaring sharply and hampering the normal functionality of the kitchen. Right kind of lighting gives a kitchen warm and inviting environment. In today’s times, kitchens are not restricted to preparations and cooking, it is slowly turning into the most social corner of the house. People have started entertaining their guests in the kitchen area now. For this new functionality of the kitchens, as a social gathering place, the role of proper lighting becomes all the more important. There are different types of themes in these lighting types. One of these themes is rustic, primarily belonging to the decorative lighting style. In this article, we will discuss different aspects of rustic kitchen lighting:
Rustic Lighting For Rustic Looking Kitchen
Rustic lighting in the kitchen gives an antique look to the atmosphere in the kitchen. Because of the rustic lighting, exquisite warmth is instilled in the architectural design of the kitchen. It gives a laid-back, relaxed and luxurious character to your kitchen. But, it only makes sense if the basic architecture of the kitchen goes along with it. If the décor of your kitchen is cottage-styled or country house-styled or has farm house look to it, then rustic lighting is perfect for your kitchen.
Most of the décor in the kitchen with rustic lighting should be, to be able to produce harmony, made of natural material, primarily wood. Floral prints in the curtains and tiles would also match perfectly with rustic lighting in the kitchen.
Rustic lighting, whether it is in the kitchen or garden or living room or any other part of the house, gives off a vintage look. It is a best sort of lighting if you want your kitchen to have a mellow look. It has a by-gone feel to it, representing another world, another time. This is the main reason why it is in trend these days. In the midst of modern, contemporary and sleek structures, people are drawn towards the décor of gone by times. Rustic lighting is the most effective way to achieve the nostalgic look architecture wise.
Types Of Rustic Lights
Vintage Pendants: These rustic lights generally have open cage structure, merged with a conservative candelabra base. These are the new trend setting chandeliers in the world of rustic lights. These are typically used over the kitchen tables or kitchen islands.
Rustic chandeliers: These are designed in muted or multi-colored frames, with straps made out of leather. This gives a neo-look to the traditional rustic idea; a cross between traditional idea and new structure. This ends up providing a very charming look to the kitchen.
Lanterns: This type of lighting was until now, quintessentially, used in the outdoor places. But its innovative use and decorative value has been found indoors as well. It gives a rich, old-style look to your kitchen.
Small Sized Pendants: These pendants are readily used in the contemporary kitchens but, these can very well be used in the rustic lighting design. You can choose from the antique look-alike, cooper and bronze hues. | 5,481 | 2,267 | 0.000447 |
warc | 201704 | NEW YORK--Nov. 18, 1997-- Even as total employment in the booming U.S.
hotel industry is on the rise, American hotels are requiring fewer workers
per property to operate successfully, according to the
Lodging
Research Network (www.lodgingresearch.com), the comprehensive Internet-based
resource for lodging industry data and information from Coopers Lybrand
L.L.P.
In 1996, U.S. hotels employed an average of 73.5 workers per 100 occupied
rooms, down from 79.6 workers in
1990, the Lodging Research Network says. At the same time, total U.S. hotel employment grew to 1.7 million people in 1996, up from approximately 1.6 million in 1990, www.lodgingresearch.com reports.
"Two factors have led to hotels' smaller workforces," says Bjorn Hanson,
Ph.D., chairman of the Coopers
Lybrand lodging and gaming group, creators of the Lodging Research Network . Productivity Improvement
"First are the productivity improvements made necessary by the brutal
hotel economics of the early part of this
decade," Hanson explained. "In 1990, the U.S. hotel industry experienced financial losses totaling $5.7 billion. That prompted hotel companies to move aggressively to cut costs and boosts efficiency."
Hotel operators developed new ways to allocate fewer human resources
to necessary tasks, Hanson says. These
include creating in-hotel "rapid response" or "one call" service centers. These centers use tracking software, pagers and small two-way radios to dispatch to sites throughout a hotel workers who are empowered to perform a range of functions, including baggage handling, food tray collection and laundry drop-off. Rapid response centers use computers to track and time all such activities with the goal of boosting worker output -- and cutting guests' waiting time.
"Computers reduced accounting staff and front office staff," explains
Hanson. "Voice mail reduced the need for
telephone staff."
"Further, new technologies such as lobby registration kiosks and in-room
checkout via video monitor cuts staff
levels -- and offer guests options beyond traditional hotel procedures," Hanson adds. The Rise of Limited-Service and Extended-Stay
Hotels
"Also driving leaner hotel staffs is the rising number of 'limited service'
and 'extended-stay' hotels since the early
1990s," Hanson explains.
Limited-service hotels are those that operate with no or limited food
and beverage operations. In the six years
between 1990 and 1996, the ratio of food and beverage revenue to total rooms revenue in U.S. hotels dropped from 34.9 percent to 24.9 percent, according to www.lodgingresearch.com . This is a key statistic, as food and beverage operations are much more labor-intensive -- and much less profitable -- than traditional rooms operations.
"In the U.S. hotel industry's current building boom, in which 127,500
new hotel rooms will start construction this
year, the largest share of new supply is in the limited-service segment," Hanson explained.
The rise of extended-stay hotels is also a major factor in hotels' leaner
staffs. While extended-stay properties offer
facilities, such as kitchens, that are appropriate for guest stays of five or more nights, such properties employ fewer workers than traditional hotels. Extended-stay hotels, for example, often do not have 24-hour front-desk service. Extended stay hotels account for 40 percent of U.S. hotel and motel rooms planned for construction, the Lodging Research Network reports.
Coopers Lybrand's Lodging Research Network makes available via the Internet Coopers Lybrand's renowned econometric forecasts for the lodging industry, breaking lodging industry news, an exclusive database of lodging industry real estate acquisitions, financial data of publicly traded lodging companies (including SEC filings), new hotel construction data from Smith Travel Research as well as an extensive research library that includes U.S. econometric and demographic statistics. For more information about the Lodging Research Network, call 1-888-576-6656.
One of the world's leading professional services firms, Coopers Lybrand
L.L.P. provides services for enterprises
in a wide range of industries. The firm offers its clients the expertise of more than 16,000 professionals and staff in offices located in 100 U.S. cities, and, through the global network of Coopers Lybrand International, more than 74,000 people in 142 countries worldwide. | 4,441 | 2,101 | 0.000483 |
warc | 201704 | Tax Effective Strategies and Structures
By:Delta Financial Group Pty Ltd 19-Apr-2012
Keywords:Financial, Finance, Financial Planner
Everyone’s situation is different and there are no one-size-fits-all solutions, especially when it comes to tax. At Delta Financial, we use powerful financial models to determine which strategy will create the best after-tax outcome for you and your family, taking into account risks of each strategic option.Here are some of the ways we can help you manage your finances more tax effectively:■Tax-effective strategies. We’ll help you explore a range of options, including pre-tax super contributions, geared investments in growth assets, and salary packaging.■Personal insurance. The ownership of an insurance policy can have a significant impact on the after-tax cost of the premiums. We can help you identity the right ownership structure for each policy in your family and business insurance portfolio.■Negative gearing into property. We have developed a range of advanced property strategies to help you invest more effectively, either working with your preferred property adviser or with our own property specialist.■Small business ownership. The ownership structure of a small business can have a significant impact on your tax liability while your business is in operation and — just as importantly —when you ultimately sell your interest. We can work with your preferred taxation adviser or introduce you to a business taxation expert adviser to ensure that your business structure is the right one for you today and in the future.■Transition to retirement. As you approach retirement, a transition to retirement strategy could help you to legitimately reduce tax and boost your super savings without impacting your current lifestyle.■Wills and estate planning. The way you structure your Will can have a significant impact on the tax that your estate and beneficiaries need to pay. Using structures like jointly owned investments, discretionary trusts and testamentary trusts, we can help ensure you leave behind a valuable legacy, not a hefty tax bill.Keywords:Finance
, Financial
, Financial Planner
, Financial Strategies
, Wealth Advisers | 2,243 | 1,057 | 0.000972 |
warc | 201704 | The cost of home ownership is hardly just the cost of the house itself. Life in even in a cheap place can add up to be quite the pretty penny when you take things like utilities and commuting costs into account. The experts at Trulia know this, and they analyzeds data on those two factors in conjunction with the average mortgage costs in Metro areas across the country.
In some areas life is quite steep (sorry San Francisco) — take a look at a list of priciest locales here. But there are certainly many options for homebuyers with a more limited budget. Specifically, Ohio.
According to Trulia, Ohio is the most affordable place to be. Five out of 10 of the cheapest cities (what Trulia calls "the bargain belt"), were in the Buckeye State.
Take a look for yourself:
Intrigued by the data? Trulia has lots more where that came from. Take a look at their full report to get an economist's viewpoint on how much it really costs to live near you.
[
via The Huffington Post] | 989 | 600 | 0.001692 |
warc | 201704 | The White House is kicking off its Jobs Summit today, bringing together business executives, finance experts, economists, small business owners and labor leaders to discuss ways to spark job creation. President Obama announced the summit last month, after the latest jobs report showed that unemployment shot up to 10.2 percent in October.
Even more daunting are the Depression-proportioned unemployment rates for African-Americans, particularly for young black men between the ages of 16 and 24 who are facing joblessness at 34.5 percent. It's an emergency state of affairs that has triggered groups such as the NAACP, National Council of La Raza and the Congressional Black Caucus to push for the White House to take more action. Health care reform for the future is well and good, but with so many people out of work
today, something's got to be done.
I asked White House Press Secretary Robert Gibbs, at the briefing yesterday, whether any sessions at today's Jobs Summit would specifically address the higher unemployment rate among minorities. The question seemed to catch him off guard, given his vague answer.
"Well, I think that obviously that will be part of -- I believe that will be part of the discussion. There are going to be folks representing a lot of different groups. There will be mayors be here that obviously have a keen interest and awareness in this, and I anticipate that that will be something that's discussed."
It didn't strike me that the issue ranks particularly high on the White House radar. Minnesota Representative Keith Ellison, a member of the Congressional Black Caucus, had a similar impression about Gibbs' response to my question, when asked about it today on the Sirius XM radio show,
The Morning Briefing, hosted by Tim Farley.
"His response leaves me feeling that he does not understand what we're talking about, or doesn't care or appreciate what we're saying," said Ellison. "With an answer like, 'Oh, we're doing something for everybody and they're in there too and that's just fine,' it just strikes me as slightly dismissive and not focused. And I think he needs to get focused because when you're talking about 34 percent unemployment among minority youth, while the rest of the country is facing 10.2 percent unemployment--it's bad for everybody, but it's not the same for everybody, and we've got to have the press secretary for the President get that. He needs to say, 'We're doing specific things for this group of Americans who are specifically damaged in this economic recession. Extra help for extra hurt."
I'll be interested to see what kind of ideas -- and more importantly, what kind of follow-up -- come out of the summit. Here's hoping that it's more than just talk.
How will Donald Trump’s first 100 days impact YOU? Subscribe, choose the community that you most identify with or want to learn more about and we’ll send you the news that matters most once a week throughout Trump’s first 100 days in office. Learn more | 3,012 | 1,530 | 0.000661 |
warc | 201704 | On October 7 Venezuelans will go to vote in the 12th national-level election in as many years. This time they will be choosing whether or not to extend President Hugo Chavez's time in office to 19 years (assuming he makes it that far and does not die of cancer, which is another topic altogether).
For this reason, and considering the seriousness of the choice confronting the Venezuelan people, a quick analysis of the ongoing campaign is important.
Electoral experts often talk about "free and fair" elections as if they were one and the same. In point of fact, these are two different components that together make up a legitimate election. Free elections usually refer to Election Day. Are the people able to vote for the candidate of their choosing, and have their voted counted and respected? It covers issues such as ballot stuffing, poll violence and the like. Fair elections are far more complicated. They involve the playing field set in place by the government. It seeks to answer the question; "is the government picking a side?"
This is an important point that is often missed. People in the United States on both sides of the aisle complain about unfair elections. On the one side they may point out that President Obama has a majority of coverage from the private mainstream media. However, on the other side it looks like Governor Romney will outraise the president and is set to have a better ground game. These are all fine because they represent the free expressions of private Americans. Elections, just like everything else in society, must be unregulated for true competition to occur.
In Venezuela, however, the government itself chooses a side. While the elections may be free, they are far from fair.
Venezuela's Democratic Unity Roundable itself, on a recent trip to the United States, pointed out five ways in which the Venezuelan government stacks the deck in favor of President Chavez. The first is a lack of transparency, represented through the refusal of an audit to the electoral registry (complaints about ghost voters are legion), lack of independent electoral observers to verify the process (even the Carter Center has said it will not accept Venezuela's dumbed-down "accompanying" process), and the closure of the consulate in Miami to disenfranchise Miami's large opposition voting bloc.
The second is media regulation; the National Electoral Council regulates the candidates to three minutes of ads on TV and radio, but allows President Chavez to continue to take over the airwaves to make "public interest announcements," which are almost all used for partisan campaigning. This has accounted for more than 50 minutes a day since the start of the campaign. The third is the use of public funds. By eliminating the important, legal line between party and state, Chavez has access to virtually unlimited oil revenues with which to campaign and give the handouts for which he has become famous; meanwhile the de-capitalized opposition must fund yet another nationwide campaign out of their ever-shallower pockets. The fourth and fifth ways of making the vote unfair are voter intimidation. This involves threatening public employees that their votes are not secret and, should they vote against Chavez, they will be fired. And it involves the appeal to fear, with President Chavez stating he is the only one who stands between Venezuela and anarchy; and with the military putting in doubt their willingness to accept an opposition win.
Due to these sophisticated mechanisms of electioneering, the upcoming election is already unfair. Despite this fact, it is free and the opposition can win. However, in order to do so, they must beat President Chavez by multiple percentages. To do this, they must have voter turnout of above 60 percent (and the higher the better) and opposition candidate Governor Henrique Capriles Radonski must motivate his base while winning over the all-important independents. Current polls show Chavez and Capriles in a dead heat; making this the most significant campaign since the '90s.
To be sure, it remains unclear if President Chavez would accept a defeat. However, the first step for the opposition is to actually beat him in an election. This would radically change the game for the Venezuelan strongman and would dent the one thing he is most careful to protect, his perceived legitimacy. | 4,378 | 2,113 | 0.000475 |
warc | 201704 | In mid-march, 26 leaders in the areas of research, policy and practice from Australia, Canada, the European Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States assembled to create an International Alliance to End Homelessness.
Addressing homelessness is now a key policy priority across much of the developed world. All levels of government, individual communities, and nongovernmental organizations across many countries have mobilized themselves around a common motivation to end homelessness.
Never before has the issue been more resonant. As nations, states, and localities make cuts to balance their budgets, social safety nets are bearing much of the blow -- at just the time when more individuals and families are relying on these services for their most basic needs. As services diminish, the likelihood that financially vulnerable people experience homelessness rises and an already persistent social problem continues to escalate during this economically precarious time. With this in mind, participants set about to establish a framework in which to move forward toward the common goal of preventing and ending homelessness.
While the public assistance systems of these countries differ considerably, the assembled leaders realized that they shared many of the same pressing concerns about homelessness in their communities.
The most significant commonality, though, was the knowledge that homelessness was a problem with a clear and concrete solution -- a solution that could be implemented with the right strategies, policies, and commitment. Representatives of the United States had the opportunity to showcase the Obama Administration's first ever national strategic plan to end homelessness, Opening Doors. Those from other nations also presented national commitments to end homelessness, such as Australia's The Road Home.
As an international partnership, this group aims to examine this complex problem with a global lens, sharing emerging research, best practices, and effective public policies that ensure that all people can find stable, permanent housing. With an eye toward evidence-based solutions and data-based practices, this international partnership will work to eliminate homelessness.
This post was co-authored by Barbara Poppe, the Executive Director of the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness.
How will Donald Trump’s first 100 days impact YOU? Subscribe, choose the community that you most identify with or want to learn more about and we’ll send you the news that matters most once a week throughout Trump’s first 100 days in office. Learn more | 2,605 | 1,309 | 0.000771 |
warc | 201704 | There's a place for Lycra. Spin class perhaps, or maybe running through the park in winter. At the gym though, no one wants or needs to see the outline of your junk. Cover yourself up. The same goes for board shorts -- they belong at the beach. And sandals: seriously?
In this blog post I want to highlight five common fitness failures. They're failings I've made, my clients make, and I'm sure you've dropped the ball on a couple yourself -- but they are failings we can control, even if it might prove challenging.
Protein, fat and carbohydrate are the cornerstones of nutrition. If you're an athlete, you need them all in good measure. Be aware of what you're eating, think about your goals, and feed your body accordingly.
I can usually tell how well my clients have slept the night before within about five minutes of starting our session. We all know how important sleep is, and we all know that without adequate sleep, things can go awry fairly quickly.
Over Thanksgiving, I was invited to dinner at the home of a friend. At least two of my fellow guests were vegetarians, so could I "bring some vegetarian sides?" I turned to the Internet for help and purchased a copy of Veggies for Carnivores by Lora Krulak.
Balancing your diet with your health, career, social life and fitness regimen is challenging enough without making dining out a misery for you and your dinner companions. Choose wisely, remember less is more, and enjoy your meal!
Perhaps you're starting a new fitness regimen, or maybe you've hit a training plateau. Here are 12 easy-to-follow tips to upgrade your workouts. Try them one at a time or all at once and upgrade your training to the next level.
With the New York City Marathon just around the corner (we hope), many athletes, workout enthusiasts and fitness newbies are looking to the streets or the treadmill for a spot of cardio. There's no doubt that when done properly, running can be great for heart, body and mind.
When it comes to health and fitness, we all have to start somewhere. Hopefully you've already started, but if you haven't it can be a real battle getting into the habit of exercising and even harder taking the first step.
Try and apply the same commitment to recovery that you apply to your workouts. Give your body the time it needs to rebound and repair and you'll find yourself with more energy, enhanced performance and a better disposition. Less is sometimes more. | 2,435 | 1,292 | 0.000778 |
warc | 201704 | Philip Alston, one of the most respected legal minds in the United Nations system, just issued his annual report. In it, he talks about his travels to war zones and notes an emerging practice: warring parties' "making amends" to civilians harmed in war.
Here's the interesting thing:
Warring parties have
no obligation to do anything to help the civilians they lawfully harm. It's a gap in international law and it means that the people we consider "collateral damage" have little or no recourse when their homes are bombed or when their loved ones are killed.
Alston's point - one that I and my organization CIVIC have gone to great lengths to define and document - is that this glaring gap is starting to be filled. Some warring parties are bucking the long-standing tradition of walking away from the civilian suffering they unintentionally cause. Alston notes, in particular, that the U.S. has made compensation to civilians in Afghanistan as do many of its allies. African troops in Somalia paid traders for camels killed by its shelling; in Uganda, one lawmaker just today asked Parliament to enact a law for making amends to civilians harmed in the North.
This is the first mention of the concept of "making amends" in a UN document. True, that's not going to help a war victim immediately, but this is how big change begins. If you listen carefully, you can hear the momentum building for even more warring parties to help where they've harmed, to not walk away.
The reasons for doing so are many. Take Afghanistan: making amends to war victims is a practical, pragmatic way to win over a population and bolster their dignity. Take Sri Lanka: making amends to survivors along with real options for justice can help heal wounds that so often impede lasting peace.
Humanitarians have for decades picked up the pieces of what's been broken in war. What if the warring parties themselves started taking some responsibility?
No offense, United Nations, but you're often stuck a hamster-wheel spinning out old ideas. When Alston called for more research into this emerging practice of "making amends", he was giving those global thinkers something new and exciting to chew on. I, for one, am looking forward to what they come up with...
It's a quiet revolution, but one desperately needed for war victims. | 2,326 | 1,194 | 0.000844 |
warc | 201704 | For roughly the past year, I've been trying to find simple ways to enter the mainstream conversation on education reform. Working on academic papers, teaching in classrooms, and presenting at conferences were not cutting it. Perhaps as a new faculty member, I should just relax a bit and give it time. Yet, the more I follow the conversation on the news and online, I realize that my time to ride this recent reform wave is running out. Don't get me wrong: I don't spend all my time blogging or whatever. There are many things I still do to earn my keep as an academic and one strategy over the last year has been podcasting and blogging about educational issues. This is a space that I thought education faculty should be participating in regularly. For some reason, few were actually taking advantage of these tiny little bully pulpits, bully tumblrs, bully blogs, or whatever the terminology.
There are already numerous education bloggers, but I wanted to add podcasting to the mix because it might be beneficial to actually hear the voice of these words on education. Even more recently, I wanted to add my face to the audio with video of the conversation that I have with my computer every so often. The one I've embedded below is Episode 15 of the podcast, which issues a challenge to many education reformers. If you can stand to make it to the end of part two, you'll discover my challenge. Please get in touch with me if you'd like to take me up on it.
Part One:
Part Two:
The Morning Email helps you start your workday with everything you need to know: breaking news, entertainment and a dash of fun. Learn more | 1,627 | 862 | 0.001164 |
warc | 201704 | Sharing Our Common Wealth: Cultural Institutions
18-19 November, University of Adelaide
Convened by Professor Tim Murray FAHA
Cultural institutions play a vital role in building understanding and dialogue. They both enable and draw from the rich research by Australia's humanities researchers into our own history and culture, and that of other nations and peoples.
Key themes of the 2010 Symposium included issues surrounding the collection and representation of indigenous culture; access to culture of the Asia-Pacific region; festivals as cultural institutions; new developments in accessing culture and heritage in the digital age; scientific institutions and the humanities and access to culture through traditional and new forms of media.
A programme is available [.pdf 72KB
] | 791 | 478 | 0.002113 |
warc | 201704 | ISTANBUL – Hürriyet Daily News
The world is entering a new era with a different, green economic development model, according to the head of an environmental think tank. If Turkey is not to miss out on the new green revolution era, it urgently needs to formulate a sustainable development strategy, according to Professor Volkan Ediger from Kadir Has University
Some in Turkey believe sustainability is about 'continuation,' while others believe it is just about the environment, but Professor Volkan Ediger says both interpretations are inadequate. DAILY NEWS photo, Emrah GÜREL
Turkey urgently needs to formulate a sustainable development strategy, according to Professor Volkan Ediger, the head of the Energy and Climate Foundation (ENİVA) think tank.
The first step in formulating this strategy is to have scientific research on the effects of climate change in Turkey, as the existing scientific data on the issue is very limited in Turkey, Ediger said.
Sustainability is the key concept in the new economic development model that the world is endorsing, yet this concept is misunderstood in Turkey, according to the ENİVA head, who is one of the authors of a recent report on climate change and sustainable development in Turkey published by Istanbul’s Kadir Has University.
What is the essential picture when we talk about the effects of climate change in Turkey?
The picture is rather grim. Together with the United States, we were the only two countries not to have signed the Kyoto protocol, which brought about a commitment to decrease the carbon monoxide emissions of OECD countries. We became a member of the OECD not because of our economic performance, but due to geostrategic reasons. So we therefore kept objecting to that requirement, arguing that our energy intensity, which is the total energy consumption per dollar of GDP, is low in Turkey compare to other developed countries. We asked for exemptions, saying our individual energy consumption is a quarter of Europe’s and one seventh of the United States’. This was only accepted after long negotiations, and actually the Kyoto protocol is no longer valid. That has made us lose a lot of time. Which means that we were unable to gain experience and we could not get institutionalized. Actually our share of total greenhouse gas emissions is currently very low, at 0.9 percent.
So we are one the countries that is polluting the world less, despite the fact that we have been registering high growth levels like China.
Yes, but our growth level is not comparable to China
in terms of the size of the economy. China’s share of C02 emissions) is 28 percent, while the U.S.’s share is 17 percent. Ours is very low, which makes us think that this is not so important. But the pace for (increased CO2 emissions) is very fast.
This means our potential for polluting the world is growing very fast.
That’s right, because we are one of the countries with the fastest growth of energy consumption. So we urgently need to institutionalize. An integrated unit with the energy, environment and foreign ministries should be established, not on climate change but rather on sustainability. But first and foremost we need our science people to work on climate change, to produce our own scientific data. Climate change won’t have the same effects on each country, it’s important to have results from our own researches in order for policy makers to work on it.
Do you claim that we lack scientific data in Turkey about climate change?
It is very limited. One of the first reports was issued by a parliamentary commission in April 2008. It ends with general conclusions, such as stating that Turkey is among the risky group. The 2010 national climate change strategy document makes a reference to the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) assessment, which put Turkey in the Mediterranean region that would be among the most affected by climate change. This shows we don’t even have our proper assessment. The IPPC’s first working group will soon issue its report. There are 68 scientists from the U.S., 28 from the U.K., and 18 from China. Of the 44 countries represented in the group, there is only one person from Turkey.
The state urgently needs to tackle this issue. The world is on the verge of a new economic revolution, there is a new economic development model and Turkey should not miss out on it. Some call it green development, some call it green growth. I think “sustainability” is the best word to describe it. Sustainability is about meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In this concept there are two main things: one of them is that not private but public interest should be important, and that not the present but the future is important. But this is misunderstood in Turkey. When you look to the translation, I think the wrong word is used.
The Turkish word puts the emphasis on “continuity.”
Definitely. Some people in Turkey take this as longevity. My company was established in 1865 has been there for three generations. For others it means the environment; if it is an environmentally friendly company they think it is sustainable. Both are wrong.
So let’s talk about sustainable energy development.
One component should be energy efficiency. We could have an additional 30 percent of energy generation if we were to put the emphasis on efficiency. Another component is to use domestic resources. This is very important for Turkey because we are importing 75 percent of what we consume every year. We are paying more than $60 billion-per-year. We are producing only one quarter of what we consume every year and this is too low, and is the most important obstacle in front of Turkey’s development. We need to put the emphasis on renewable energy. On fossil fuels, 93 percent of imports depend on oil and 98 percent of imports depend on gas. The biggest energy resource we have is lignite, but there are tremendous problems with that. Despite its disadvantages, this is the only energy source we have, so we have to use it and try to solve the problems by using clean coal technology.
If we look to the Energy Ministry’s organization chart we see that they opened a new renewable energy directorate in 2011, with four sub departments: Renewable energy, energy efficiency, new technologies, and climate change. This is a step in the right direction, though I wished they had called it the sustainable energy directorate.
How do you see the direction of these sub categories?
When we look at renewable energy; we see that the government encourages the generation of electricity from renewable energy sources. The government promises to buy electricity from higher prices if it is generated by renewables, and the price increases if domestic technology is used. If we buy the technology from other countries then it does not make any sense. Are we successful on that? When we look at the data from 2008 to 2012 there is not a single company that used domestic technology.
What does this tell us?
We are not successful in developing technology for renewable energy. We don’t have an innovative, entrepreneurial domestic industry. We have this problem in all the sectors. Renewable energy is definitely not the only solution, but what should be the right mix needs a lot more scientific study. Unfortunately, the ties between policymakers in Turkey and the science world are almost nonexistent.
WHO IS VOLKAN EDİGER?
Volkan Ş. Ediger graduated from the Geological Engineering Department of Middle East Technical University (ODTÜ) in Ankara in 1976. He subsequently received an MS degree from the same university and a PhD degree from Pennsylvania State University (PSU) with summa cum laude.
Ediger’s industrial experience was gained from participating, directing and advising several domestic and international R&D projects from 1977 to 1998 at the Research Center of the Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO).
Between 1998 and 2010, he was the first person to hold the newly created position of the energy adviser to the Turkish president, providing him the opportunity to work with three successive presidents.
He is currently the head of the Energy Systems Engineering Department at Kadir Has University.
November/18/2013
PHOTO GALLERY | 8,463 | 3,676 | 0.000278 |
warc | 201704 | Four types of advanced batteries could reportedly be nearing readiness for electrified vehicle and energy storage markets. While lithium-ion (Li-ion), advanced lead-acid, flow, and molten salt batteries have become the most commercially available advanced batteries, there are better battery technologies waiting in the wings, according to a study by Navigant Research. Lithium sulfur (Li-S), lithium […]+ Read More
Soon after bringing the first Powerwall energy storage products to U.S. homes, Tesla Energy will be releasing its second version. The battery storage business has become quite competitive since starting up in recent years. That’s driven Tesla to make its system better and more affordable. Tesla says the second generation Powerwall will be on the […]+ Read More
LG Chem’s drive to become the world’s largest supplier of batteries for plug-in electrified vehicles may be supported by a new factory in Poland. The South Korea-based company is looking into opening a lithium battery plant in Poland to meet rising demand from European automakers, according a person familiar with the matter. If it gets […]+ Read More
Although electric and hybrid vehicles are gaining market share, one significant question remains: how can the used lithium-ion batteries be processed after their lifespan in a vehicle? A peer-reviewed Mineta National Transit Research Consortium report, titled Remanufacturing, Repurposing, and Recycling of Post-Vehicle-Application Lithium-Ion Batteries, offers three possible alternatives. Remanufacturing for intended reuse in vehicles by […]+ Read More
The industry is now one step closer to being able to manufacture lithium-ion batteries from North American-sourced battery grade lithium carbonate. RB Energy Inc. confirmed June 5 it has achieved continuous production of battery grade lithium carbonate (99.9 percent Li2CO3) at its Quebec Lithium operation located at La Corne, Quebec, Canada. RB Energy Inc. stated […]+ Read More
Alcoa and Phinergy will unveil their jointly developed aluminum-air battery that they say powers electric cars to greater distances. An Alcoa-Phinergy electric car will take laps around the Circuit Gilles-Villeneuve to demonstrate the technology, ahead of the Formula 1 Grand Prix Du Canada in Montreal. Why go with aluminum-air technology for batteries? Phinergy explained aluminum […]+ Read More
Lithium ion batteries are here to stay as the main choice for future hybrids and EVs, according to Navigant Research’s Electric Vehicle Batteries report. The steady increase in sales of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to advances in EV batteries, particularly those using lithium ion (Li-ion) technology. While early hybrid vehicles featured nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) […]+ Read More
Tesla’s gigafactory has echoes in the political spheres, but is also creating waves in the battery manufacturing and the mining industries. American Manganese Inc., a company mining in Arizona raw materials needed for EV batteries, added its views by stating where they would like to see raw materials sourced. According to the mining company, Tesla’s […]+ Read More | 3,197 | 1,540 | 0.000666 |
warc | 201704 | 1. Focus on your breathing
Sit in a chair that you find comfortable and have your feet flat on the floor. Now spend one or two minutes simply breathing slowly, in and out. Focus on your breathing, nothing else. Let the air travel in through your mouth, down your windpipe and then into your lungs. Now feel your body move as you exhale. Some thoughts may try to distract you from your breathing – just let them pass. You can then shift your attention back to your breathing. After some practise, you can do this without any interruptions – immersing yourself in the act of breathing.
2. Go outside for a walk
Mediation can happen while walking. All you need to do is simply focus on each step you take. Feel your legs when they move and hit the ground. Try to focus on walking and your surroundings (the warm sun, cool breeze or the birds chirping in the trees). When your other thoughts start popping into your head, regain your focus on walking. Focusing on something that’s typically done on autopilot is really refreshing. This is because you can turn off the many other thoughts that dominate your attention. You can use the same technique on other tasks like eating, brushing your teeth or even combing your hair.
3. Repeat positive affirmations
One of the main aims of mindfulness is to calm your thoughts. A great way to achieve this is to think of something positive to say about yourself and repeat it over and over. Something simple like “I can do this” is a great place to start. These thoughts can keep you grounded while building up your confidence a little, which can’t hurt!
4. Interrupt the cycle of stress
Whenever you are feeling overwhelmed, stuck or stressed out, it can be the perfect time to practise mindfulness. This can be done nearly anywhere. Just stop what you’re doing and practise your favourite technique (for example, deep breathing, walking or positive affirmations). Even doing this for a few minutes can make a massive difference to your stress levels. | 2,032 | 1,018 | 0.001004 |
warc | 201704 | Sweeping changes taking place in China
Great news ahead of the Olympic Games, a ban on smoking in most public buildings has come into force in the Chinese capital, Beijing. It is a fantastic move in an attempt to discourage some of China’s 350 million smokers, and also part of wider efforts to clean up the city in the run up to the Olympics. Amazingly, for every three cigarettes lit worldwide, one is smoked in China.
The big dragon is developing in more ways than one. While trade and entrepreneurship is rising in China, smoking is also contributing to another rapid rise – of cancer and heart disease in the world’s most populous country. An enforcement team of 100,000 existing employees will be making sure the new ban is adhered to. Restaurants and bars must also provide non-smoking areas or rooms, and rightly so.
“If measures are not taken, with so many smokers in China, in 10, 20, 30 years, the health system will have even higher burden to manage patients with cardio-vascular diseases, with cancer and so on,” says Dr Hans Troedsson, the China representative for the World Health Organization.
Well done indeed, China wants to promote Beijing as a progressive, modern and clean city. While there is still a general lack of awareness about the impact on health smoking can have, China is leaping forward in ensuring the middle country has a prosperous and glorious future. Go go go Beijing! | 1,436 | 814 | 0.001256 |
warc | 201704 | Tullow Oil, the independent oil and gas company, expects significant progress in Ghana and Uganda for the FY 2012 and is scheduled to report its full year 2011 results on Wednesday.
The group's significant cash flow from Jubilee production is expected to contribute to record full year financial results for 2011. Its exploration strategy has opened up a new basin in South America and it has a number of high-impact basin-opening wells across its portfolio to drill before year-end.
While there has been further delays in Uganda, it remains ready to proceed towards field development following government approval. With development plans across the group gathering pace and production continuing to grow, the outlook for the full year and for 2012 remains quite positive.
Tullow's financial strategy continues to maintain flexibility to support the group's significant appraisal and development programmes in Ghana and Uganda and effectively allocate capital across the remainder of its business. The outlook for the coming years is positive for Tullow.
Production ramp-up from the Ghana Jubilee field will continue, together with further appraisal and development activities. The Ugandan farm-down is expected to be completed in the near future which will pave the way for the basin-wide appraisal and development with CNOOC and Total.
According to the latest trading update, the group expects 2011 sales revenue to be at $2.3 billion, doubling 2010 revenues. It expects record 2011 financial results with full year capital expenditure of $1.4 billion and forecast capital expenditure for 2012 at $2.0 billion. Net debt at 31 December 2011 was approximately $2.8 billion.
While commenting on the results, Chief Executive Aidan Heavey said: "Record revenues and cash flows from increased production and strong commodity prices combined with industry-leading exploration success underpin another very good year for Tullow in 2011. In 2012 we expect significant progress in Ghana and Uganda as we move forward with Jubilee well remediation and Phase 1A, TEN and the Lake Albert developments. We have an exciting exploration programme to open new basins, both onshore and offshore, and we hope to extend our reach in Africa and elsewhere along the Atlantic Margins with major new partnerships. There is much to look forward to in the year ahead."
The group announced in February that it completed the farm-down of 66.6666 per cent of its Ugandan licences to CNOOC Limited for a total consideration of $2.9 billion. The farm-down follows the recent signing of production sharing agreements and the Kingfisher production licence with the Government of Uganda. Both the parties have been working closely since March 2011 on development options for the Lake Albert Basin and are looking forward to discussing them with the Government of Uganda later this year.
It is currently expected that small-scale oil and gas production for the local power market will commence in 2013 from the Kaiso-Tonya area. Major production from the Lake Albert Basin is expected to commence approximately 36 months after a basin-wide plan of development is approved by the Government of Uganda. Based on this timetable, ramp-up to major production would commence in 2016.
Sanford C. Bernstein raised its oil price forecast for 2012 citing supply concerns around Iran. Tullow Oil is their top pick among exploration and production companies.
Brokers' Views:
- Societe Generale assigns 'Hold' rating on the stock
- Liberum Capital recommends 'Hold' rating on the stock
- Nomura starts with reduce rating with price target of 1650 pence
- Macquarie Research assigns 'Under Perform' rating on the stock
- Charles Stanley recommends 'Out Perform' rating on the stock
Earnings Outlook:
- Societe Generale estimates the company to report revenues of $2,276 million and $2,540 million for the FY 2011 and FY 2012 respectively with pre-tax profits (pre-except) of $1,031 million and $1,572 million. Earnings per share are projected at 59 cents for FY 2011 and 67 cents for FY 2012.
- Macquarie Research projects the company to record revenues of $2,255.28 million and $2,402.56 million for the FY 2011 and FY 2012 respectively with pre-tax profits (pre-except) of $1,016.72 million and $1,148.40 million. Profit per share is estimated at 66 cents and 67 cents for the same periods.
- Nomura Securities expects Tullow Oil to earn revenues of $2,335 million for the FY 2011 and $2,466 million for the FY 2012 respectively with pre-tax profits of $1,157 million and $1,246 million. EPS is projected at 74 cents for FY 2011 and 78 cents for FY 2012.
Below is a summary of sector comparisons in terms of price earnings, earnings per share, dividend per share, dividend yields, return on equity and price-to-book ratio. The table explains how the company is performing against its peers/competitors in the sector. The table below represents ten companies based on market capitalisation. | 4,968 | 2,189 | 0.000459 |
warc | 201704 | In China, people are told the only way to get out of poverty is through education.
But it is a message that has been abused for many years, with the poorest people in the country taken advantage of by big business.
The BBC4 documentary, China's Ant People, looks at how private companies are exploiting the desire of millions to work their way out of the poverty trap.
China has the largest education system in the world, with more than 29 million students enrolled in higher education. With education costing £1,500 a year to study on a four-year college course, a family living on the poverty line must save for over 60 years.
Selling the dream of education and wealth is Wang Zhenxiang, a tutor for Hongbo Education, which offers worthless diplomas to uneducated people, says the programme.
Wang visits countryside villages to recruit young people, persuading them with fake pictures of teaching staff and lavish college facilities.
"The simpler they are, the more likely they would be fooled by us. The clever ones don't fall for it so easily," he said.
"We are a private enterprise and not really a college. Strictly speaking, it is a company. We attract the students and get their fees and send them on their way. We don't teach them anything and the college doesn't really care.
"The pressure on these kids is huge. Families would sell their cows and pigs, even their houses. That's the price of education. The city kids won't fall for this. They are more informed and know what's going on.
"Some of the rural kids don't even know what a computer looks like. You think they could learn software programming and desktop publishing? The teachers aren't interested and the college doesn't care about them."
China's Ant People is the last in the Why Poverty? series, a global debate about why, in the 21
st century, people still live on the breadline.
Every year, nine million high school students sit the college entrance exam in China. If they do not do well, students cannot get into the state university, meaning their only option is to enrol in a private unregulated college, such as the one Wang advertises.
Wang Pan, one of the students featured, did not do well in her exams. Despite the high cost, her disabled mother, who has only one hand, tells her in the broadcast: "Just because this time you have a lower starting point doesn't mean you don't try."
Her mother is determined that Wang Pan continues with her education and throws a party to raise money for her tuition. She says: "Look at us, labouring without any skills or a certificate, there is no way we can find a good job."
The documentary, by filmmaker Weijun Chen, looks at what is described as the "ant tribe" - millions of students trawling the job market for few positions.
He said: "Since the Sui dynasty (AD 581-616), excelling in the imperial - now national - examination, has been the only way those at bottom of Chinese society can change their destiny.
"But since 1995, the industrialisation of education has taken that opportunity away, freezing social mobility and leaving most Chinese people with no way of changing their lives. If a society freezes, the people become hopeless and so the society becomes hopeless."
Why Poverty?: China's Ant People is on BBC4 at 10.30 tonight (Wednesday) | 3,315 | 1,683 | 0.000601 |
warc | 201704 | An article with the disgusting headline "5 Reasons To Date A Girl With An Eating Disorder" ignited a bitter online controversy Monday, as shocked readers took to social media to express their outrage over the premise of the piece.
Last Wednesday's post on the previously low-profile website ReturnofKings.com -- which appears to have suddenly generated enough traffic to knock the entire site down for at least an hour as the uproar grew to fever pitch Monday evening -- consists of exactly what the title suggests: namely, a compendium of supposed reasons why "a girl with an eating disorder" should be seen by men everywhere as a particularly vulnerable, and therefore attainable, potential mate, sexual conquest or girlfriend.
(ReturnofKings describes itself in its "About" section as "a blog for heterosexual, masculine men. It’s meant for a small but vocal collection of men in America today who believe men should be masculine and women should be feminine." If the post in question is eventually permanently removed from the Internet, you can scroll to the end of this article to read it in its entirety.)
The article, by an anonymous author who goes by the Web handle Tuthmosis on ReturnofKings.com and Twitter, is undeniably horrific, cynical and terribly cruel. It contends, among other things, that "girls with eating disorders" (a verbal construct which appears to be narrowly defined by the author as women suffering from anorexia) "cost less money" because they eat less; are "crazy," and therefore "exceptional in the sack"; and that "her obsession over her body will improve her overall looks."
These statements have generated hundreds of understandable and expected angry responses, including from a Web user named Torie, who posted in the comments section, "This is f***ing disgusting. You all realize that eating disorders aren't glamorous or fun or trendy, right? They are MENTAL DISORDERS that lead to depression, anxiety, suicidal tendencies, not to mention heart conditions, sometimes death."
And another commenter, Brian Cuban, added, "One of the most appalling pieces of crap I have ever read in my life and that includes so many of the commenters. You are all pathetic and hopefully will never have someone in your family who suffers from an eating disorder. You should all be ashamed of yourselves."
These are the expected reactions to a piece that seeks to make light of eating disorders, and they are extremely valid, as articles such as "5 Reasons To Date A Girl With An Eating Disorder" often reach impressionable people who will take them at face value and potentially even follow their advice, to the detriment of women everywhere.
And it seems that it has hit that depressing mark for some readers, as one who goes by the username Archangel commented, "Good God, I love skinny chicks ... I will bust my arse for a sweet adoring waif, but I will not lift a finger for a hatefrothing you-go-grrl."
But another side of the discourse surrounding the piece has also emerged, as a number of readers have suggested it is an epic attempt at trolling, either for the purpose of generating controversy or to generate attention and, by extension, Web traffic and money. And it wouldn't be the first such attempt by Tuthmosis, who has also written misogynistic posts with titles like "24 Signs She's A Slut" and "10 Tell-Tale Signs She's An Internet Fatty."
As Web user Armchair General commented in perhaps the most succinct summation of the sentiment that the article is an offensive attempt at trolling the Web, "Publicity skyrockets." As a commenter under the username Glanton wrote, "A precision engineered nerve strike. You have to love it."
Under this interpretation, the piece may or not be based on genuine feelings about "girls with eating disorders," but whatever Tuthmosis' actual thoughts on the topic, the article is actually just aimed at raising ReturnofKings.com's profile, and yes, making money off of controversy.
It appears that if the intention is in fact to generate a wild controversy, the author has succeeded, as Twitter was afire with comments and rebukes of the story as it made the rounds Monday evening.
No matter what the author's intention was, the publication of "5 Reasons To Date A Girl With An Eating Disorder" has shown that anyone willing to spew highly offensive content on the Internet will likely generate enough response for their musings to go viral.
The world will likely never know whether the author really thinks it's a great idea to seek out "girls with eating disorders" for romantic relationships or dalliances or if the story was just an example of highly inflammatory trolling, but it has certainly shown something about the predictable nature of Internet controversy.
Here's the entirety of the original "5 Reasons To Date A Girl With An Eating Disorder," included here in case it is later taken down by ReturnofKings.com:
"Nothing screams white-girl problems louder than a good old-fashioned eating disorder.* But they’re more than that. Eating disorders have been—quite appropriately—declared a luxury reserved for only the most privileged members of the female race. In other words, the presence of one of the classic eating disorders is a reliable predictor of various socio-economic, cultural, and personality traits in a young woman–features that, in the end, are desirable to today’s American man. In a world where the “retail price” on the typical Western woman continues to skyrocket—while their
quality continues its precipitous decline—there are some real gems to be found in the bargain bin. I’ve dated several girls with eating disorders—in various intensities—and all of these traits have applied to each of them. * While obesity is, in most cases, also an 'eating disorder,' this list doesn’t apply to emotional eaters, food addicts, and fatties with no self-control. 1. Her obsession over her body will improve her overall looks.
A girl who spends inordinate mental and physical energy on her looks is rarely fat. If you were to get into a long-term relationship with one of these girls, she’s also less likely to become complacent about her physique over time. Girls like this are usually deft at properly dressing their body type, which translates into a more stylish girl overall. And, because cheap clothing lines—like H&M—are shaped with straight cuts that are less labor-intensive and therefore more inexpensive, they look good in even the cheapest of shit. While they may have a 'distorted body image' on the
inside, that usually means staying trim and fit on the outside. Let’s not forget that fatties, too, in the majority of cases, have a 'distorted body image,' but in the unattractive direction. 2. She costs less money.
You can go out to nice restaurants and order take-out with the confidence that your expense on her will be minimal. In most cases, she’ll get a small dish–like a side salad–or just eat a little bit of whatever communal dishes you order. If you’re a hungry bastard, you can even finish off her plate. '
Are you going to finish that?' 3. She’s fragile and vulnerable.
The case has repeatedly and persuasively been made that an inflated ego and an unearned high self-esteem are among the most unattractive traits in a girl. You-go-girlist 'confidence'—grounded in little more than years of being told she’s a unique and special snowflake for no other reason than she was born female—renders a woman into an insufferable turd who thinks the world revolves around her. An eating disorder often translates into the direct opposite: a girl who’s modest, fragile, and vulnerable. Instead of having to constantly wrestle with a difficult and obnoxious girl, you’ll be dealing with a tastefully insecure girl, who’s eager to please, and wants nothing more than your approval. She’s quick to apologize for transgressions, and will make the extra effort to see you–instead of flaking on you constantly. This level of vulnerability often brings out the best in men, whose protector instinct can’t help but get activated.
4. Probably has money of her own.
They aren’t too many poor girls with eating disorders. These girls come from money, and often continue to wield that spending power right into their adulthoods. Her instinct to please you will translate into her picking up tabs, coming to your door
not empty-handed, or buying you little gifts. 5. She’s better in bed.
It’s a well-known fact that crazy girls are exceptional in the sack. A girl with an eating disorder has
just the right cocktail of pent-up insecurity, neuroses, and daddy issues to ensure that your whole building knows every time you’re beating it up. Say what you will, a girl with a mild-to-moderate eating disorder—that hasn’t excessively marred her appearance—is today’s best-buy in the West’s rapidly plummeting dating market." | 9,092 | 4,247 | 0.000243 |
warc | 201704 | The markets are fairly range-bound as we wait for today's main event the ECB rate decision and then ECB President Trichet's press conference at 1330 GMT (0830 ET). The single currency is also drifting, but remains at its highest level since November and continues to look comfortable above 1.3800.
Economic data this morning has been a fairly mixed bag. German retail sales were stronger, growing by 1.4 per cent in January relative to the end of 2010. The final reading of February's Eurozone PMI for the services sector was revised slightly lower to 56.8, down from the initial reading of 57.2, this followed downward revisions for both the German and French services PMI's earlier this morning. Service sector activity is still expanding at a healthy clip in Europe, although growth lost a bit of its shine last month.
In the UK the services sector slowdown was more severe. It fell to 52.6 from 54.5, which suggests only a moderate expansion in the largest section of the UK economy. The manufacturing sector in the UK is firing on all cylinders, however it is less than 10 per cent of GDP, whereas the services sector is nearly 70 per cent. If we see a protracted slowdown in the service sector then growth will be at risk and the economy could slow sharply as we move into the middle of the year. The pound has lost some of its lustre especially against the dollar and it is now below 1.6300 after reaching an 8-month high yesterday. EURGBP is also above0.8500 and is testing the 100-day moving average, a key resistance level, at 0.8515.
The ECB press conference will be key for the markets today and will set the tone for the euro. The ECB is the first major central bank to hold a policy-setting meeting since the oil price spike and it will be interesting to hear how ECB President Trichet will react to the step-up in commodity prices. While we expect Trichet to talk tough on inflation and reiterate that the ECB is vigilant on inflation - which typically precedes a rate hike - we think he will stop short of laying out a path for policy normalization. Growth is still massively imbalanced in the currency bloc, with Germany powering ahead, while peripheral nations are still struggling. Overall growth was a meagre 0.3 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2010 it was reported today, that equates to a fairly average 2 per cent annualised rate.
The ECB has to balance growth fears alongside the inflation risk. It also has to consider the suffering peripheral nations struggling under sovereign debt burdens. Until the EU authorities make a decision on how a monetary union copes with members' problems of a fiscal nature then the onus is on the ECB to keep policy loose. We will learn more at the upcoming EU meetings (this Friday and 11
th March). In our view, only if a credible solution to the fiscal crisis is found will the ECB be able to tighten policy in the coming months.
Ben Bernanke finished his testimony to Congress yesterday. He reiterated that rising oil prices were problematic if they feed into other price pressures, but he continued to add that the economy required stimulus, suggesting that QE2 will not be curtailed early. His fairly dovish talk is adding to dollar weakness, and the dollar index is close to its November low.
Elsewhere, the oil price came off after hopes of an end to the Libyan crisis appeared to be premature - Venezuela's Hugo Chavez was rumoured to be brokering the deal. Brent is back at $115 per barrel, with WTI above $101. Some speakers have caused a few waves in the FX markets this morning. Swiss National Bank chairman Jordan said that the risk of deflation had diminished and there was no need to intervene to try and weaken the franc. This supports further Swissie strength and USDCHF remains at record lows below 0.9300.
In Australia, Prime Minister Gillard said that she was worried about the economic effects of a strong Aussie. However, if she was trying to talk down the currency she failed, it remains fairly static after she also added that she was optimistic about the growth outlook and demand from China for Australian natural resources.
Stocks are up slightly again today after small gains were made yesterday. The markets remain jittery and are likely to react to events in the Middle East as they unfold, especially if events in Bahrain heat up. Saudi protests scheduled for next week also threaten to dampen sentiment. However, for now the focus is back on the underlying strength of the developed world economies. The ECB today and non-farm payrolls tomorrow will dominate.
Ahead today, watch out for the Bank of England's Charles Bean who is talking to see if he is likely to be persuaded to join the three hawks on the MPC.
Data watch: EU Mersch & Rehn speaking EU ECB Governing Council meeting 12.45 EU ECB Interest rate announcement Last 1.0 Exp 1.0 13.00 UK BOE Deputy Governor Bean Speaking 13.30 US Non - Farm Productivity Last 2.6 Exp 2.3 13.30 US Non - Farm Unit Costs Last -0.6 Exp -0.5 13.30 US Initial Jobless Claims Last 391K Exp 395K 13.30 EU ECB Press conference - Trichet speaking 15.00 US ISM Non - Manufacturing Last 59.4 Exp 59.3 16.00 US Kocherlakota Speaking on Labour markets and monetary policy 17.15 US Lockhart speaking on the Economy and labour Don't forget that you can now follow Forex.com's research team on Twitter: http://twitter.com/forexresearch
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Kathleen Brooks| Research Director UK EMEA | FOREX.com d: f: M: e: kbrooks@forex.com| w: www.forex.com/uk
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warc | 201704 | U.S. commercial banks reported a drop in trading revenues for the second quarter as earnings from interest products plunged, though revenues were boosted by improving credit markets, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency said on Friday.
Banks reported $5.2 billion in cash and derivatives trading revenues for the second quarter, their sixth highest revenue generating quarter, though down from the record $9.8 billion earned in the first quarter of the year, the OCC said.
Revenues were boosted as banks wrote down fewer losses from bad loans and benefited from wide, though declining, bid/offer spreads, the OCC said. A rally in credit spreads in the quarter was also positive for banks' trading books, it said.
Revenues from interest rate products dropped dramatically to $1.1 billion in the second quarter, after earning banks a record $9 billion in the previous quarter, the OCC said.
Interest rate products make up the bulk of overall derivatives exposures, accounting for 85 percent of total volumes in the contracts, the OCC said.
Earnings from credit products, meanwhile, swung to $1.9 billion, after posting a loss of $3.2 billion in the first quarter.
Foreign exchange revenue, meanwhile, fell to $2.1 billion from $2.4 billion in the first quarter, while equity trading posted a loss of $279 million, compared to a $1.05 billion gain in the first quarter, the OCC said.
The OCC also reported that net current credit exposure, which is the amount banks risk losing upon the possible collapse of counterparties on their derivatives trades, decreased 20 percent during the quarter to $555 billion.
CONCENTRATED EXPOSURES
Derivative exposures remained highly concentrated, with the largest five banks accounting for 97 percent of exposures, the OCC said.
JPMorgan
As of June 30, their notional derivative exposures stood at $79.94 trillion, $40.48 trillion, $39.06 trillion, $31.94 trillion and $5.11 trillion, respectively.
Of these banks Goldman got the largest overall boost from its trading revenue, which represented 63 percent of the bank's gross revenue in the quarter, the OCC said.
Trading revenue for JPMorgan represented 9 percent of its gross revenue and caused a loss of 1 percent and 2 percent, respectively, to Bank of America and Citibank's gross revenues. Wells Fargo's gross revenue gained 2 percent from trading.
JPMorgan, Bank of America, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley
The OCC said that bank supervisors continue to encourage banks to increase the volume of derivative contracts cleared by central counterparties because of the high exposures.
(Reporting by Karen Brettell in New York and Karey Wutkowski in Washington; Editing by Theodore d'Afflisio) | 2,705 | 1,223 | 0.000823 |
warc | 201704 | Using Patio Heaters for Your Restaurant Improves Customer Appreciation and Loyalty.
One of the features that makes restaurants with patios unique and enjoyable for all is the allure of visitors being able to dine among the stars at night or under the summer sun. While many would agree that having a nice pleasant breeze blowing across them while enjoying a meal is especially delightful; the idea of that breeze being briskly felt through the month of January might turn most patrons back to an indoor corner booth. Although some might find it a bit too cool for their taste at times, using patio heaters for your restaurant will greatly appeal to most all patrons who enjoy dining outside.
In fact, you would be surprised at the number of customers who would appreciate this simple, yet extremely thoughtful approach to allowing them a much more enjoyable dining experience. Not only would your using an outdoor patio heater for your restaurant improve the comfort of your customers, due to the various styles and decorative touches of most restaurant patio heaters, they can also create a much more romantic feel and look. All of which could essentially draw more customers wanting to experience the delightful ambience your restaurant has to offer.
With all the wonderful benefits of using a patio heater for your customers provides, there is one major reason to consider patio heaters for your restaurant; the additional seating and revenue your restaurant will have throughout the cooler nights!
Just imagine not having to juggle patron’s reservations or look on helplessly at disgruntled – and hungry! – customers and families standing impatiently in lines and wonder how much longer they might wait. Nor understandably having to ask waitresses and waiters to do what they can to rush families and speed up clearing tables while you have an entire patio sitting empty!
Using patio heaters for your restaurant can create an entirely new style of dining which before might not have been available to your customers. Patio heaters for restaurants are also very affordable and you can have them in place and ready for the upcoming fall and early spring nights! What are you waiting for? It is a fabulous idea, a low initial investment with a quick return and most importantly, your customers will love it! | 2,330 | 1,144 | 0.000882 |
warc | 201704 | February 2, 2006
2006 SPORTS FISH CONSUMPTION ADVISORY ANNOUNCED
SPRINGFIELD, Ill – The Illinois Department of Public Health today announced its 2006 consumption advisories for sport fish caught in Illinois waters. The following lakes are new to the advisory this year: Herrin Lake #1, Lake DePue, Lake of Egypt, Marion City Reservoir, Raccoon Lake, and Waukegan North Harbor of Lake Michigan. The following rivers and creeks are also new to the advisory this year: the east branch of the DuPage River, Kankakee River, Little Wabash River, and Cedar, Nippersink and Spring Creeks. These additions are the result of expanded and directed sampling by the Fish Contaminant Monitoring Program and do not suggest that Illinois fish are becoming more contaminated.
“The advisories are not meant to discourage people from eating fish, but should be used as a guideline to help anglers and their families decide where to fish, the types of fish to eat, and how to prepare fish for cooking to reduce possible contaminants,” said Dr. Eric E. Whitaker, state public health director. “Fish can be an important part of a balanced diet. It is a good source of high quality protein and other nutrients and is low in fat. But the public needs to be aware of the fact that contaminants in fish in some of our bodies of water may make some fish unsafe except in limited quantities, particularly for women of childbearing age and young children.”
While there is no known immediate health threat from eating contaminated fish from any body of water in Illinois, there are concerns about the effects of long-term, low-level exposure to pesticides and chemicals, such as chlordane, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), and methylmercury, found in fish listed on the advisories. Methylmercury, which results from mercury emitted primarily by coal-burning power plants, has been found to cause reproductive damage and have adverse effects on the central nervous system, including developmental delays.
The advisories are based primarily on protecting sensitive populations, including women of childbearing age, pregnant women, fetuses, nursing mothers and children younger than 15 years of age. They may be overprotective for women beyond childbearing age and men older than 15.
This year’s changes to the advisories include:
The remainder of the consumption advisories are unchanged from last year, including the statewide advisory for methylmercury. The statewide mercury advisory cautions sensitive populations to eat no more than one meal per week of predator fish, which pose a greater risk because they feed on other fish and accumulate higher amounts of methylmercury. Predator fish include all species of black bass, (largemouth, smallmouth and spotted), striped bass, white bass, hybrid striped bass, flathead catfish, muskellunge, northern pike, saugeye, sauger, and walleye.
Women beyond childbearing age and males older than 15 years of age can eat as many meals of predator fish as they please with the exception of fish caught from the 15 bodies of water that are on the special mercury advisory and have more restrictive meal advice because of high levels of methylmercury. These include Arrowhead Lake, Campus Lake at Southern Illinois University, Cedar Lake, Devil's Kitchen Lake, Kinkaid Lake, Lake Bracken, Lake in the Hills, Little Grassy Lake, Little Wabash River and Tributaries, Marquette Park Lagoon, Midlothian Reservoir, Monee Reservoir, Ohio River, Rock River (from Rockford to Milan Steel Dam), and Wabash River.
Mercury occurs naturally in the environment and it can be released into the air through industrial pollution. When it falls into surface water, bacteria in the water cause chemical changes that transform the mercury into methylmercury, which is then taken up by fish as they feed on aquatic organisms.
Because eating fish with high mercury levels can pose serious health risks, Governor Rod R. Blagojevich recently announced a proposal to cut mercury emissions from Illinois power plants. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) issued the Clean Air Mercury Rule on March 10, 2005, that required coal-fired power plants to reduce mercury emissions by 47 percent by 2010, and 79 percent by 2018. Gov. Blagojevich’s proposed Illinois rules are significantly stronger, requiring a 90 percent emissions reduction by June 30, 2009, and prohibiting power plants from purchasing allowances, or trading emissions credits with other companies or states – practices that can lead to toxic “hot-spots” in areas where individual plants are able to get around emissions standards.
For fish that may contain PCBs and chlordane, the advisory provides eating advice in five categories – unlimited consumption, no more than one meal per week, no more than one meal per month, no more than six meals per year and do not eat.
Anglers who vary the type and source of sport fish consumed – opting for the younger, smaller fish, and consuming leaner species such as walleye and panfish over fatty species such as carp and catfish, and who prepare and cook fish in ways that reduce the amount of contaminants - can limit their exposure to harmful substances that may be found in fish.
There are several ways to reduce any PCBs and chlordane present in edible portions of fish:
These precautions will not reduce the amount of methylmercury in fish. Mercury is found throughout a fish's muscle tissue (the edible part of the fish) rather than in the fat and skin. Therefore, the only way to reduce mercury intake is to reduce the amount of contaminated fish eaten.
The Illinois Fish Contaminant Monitoring Program screens fish samples from about 40 bodies of water per year for contamination from 13 banned pesticides and industrial chemicals. The program is a joint effort of the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA) and the departments of Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Public Health.The fish are collected by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) and tested by IEPA. The Illinois Department of Public Health bases its consumption advisories on the IEPA test results. This year's advisories are included in the Illinois 2006 Fishing Information Guide, which is available from IDNR and from businesses that sell state fishing licenses.
Illinois Department
of Public Health
535 West Jefferson Street
Springfield, Illinois 62761
Phone 217-782-4977
Fax 217-782-3987
TTY 800-547-0466
Questions or Comments | 6,516 | 2,996 | 0.000338 |
warc | 201704 | Plastic bushings have already replaced sintered bronze bearings in thousands of applications from a wide range of different industries, including agricultural machinery, lawn mowers, medical equipment, food processing machinery, fitness equipment, pumps and valves, and many more.
Bearing construction
Oil-impregnated sintered bronze bearings rely on a capillary action to create a lubricating oil film. Critically, however, high speed and rotational motion are both required to draw the oil out and maintain a full film of lubricant. Shaft oscillation, slow speed and intermittent use can all inhibit this process.
If movement stops, the oil on the surface of the bearing dries up. This can lead to squeaking and an increase in the coefficient of friction. High temperatures can also break down the oil.
Further disadvantages with this type of bearing include low chemical resistance and sensitivity to dirt, edge pressure, and impacts. | 943 | 547 | 0.00184 |
warc | 201704 | Book Writing Series Part Three – When And How To Write Posted by
Mitch Mitchell on Nov 23, 2008
As we move into stage three, I first want to look back at my post titled How Do You Write from a couple of weeks ago. First, at that time I was asking about how people wrote their blogs, as far as it pertained to speed, length of posts, and frequency. I wanted it to be clear that this particular step is going to talk about something quite different, but if you want to go back and read that post, I won’t be mad at you.
First, let’s look at when you’ll write. Pretty much, you can write whenever you feel like writing, obviously. When I first started writing my book, I decided that I was going to write from Friday through Sunday as much as possible, because I needed time during the week to work on marketing my business. Sometimes I wrote in the evenings when the mood hit me, but mainly I wrote on the weekends. I felt that if I was going to progress that I had to schedule myself the time to write.
For some people, they like scheduling their time to write. Big time novelists write in different ways themselves. Some treat it just like a job, spending 8 hours a day writing or researching to write their books. Some writers will decide to write only two hours a day. Some people like waking very early in the morning and putting their time in before going about their day; some people like to have their days to themselves, then work at night.
When you decide to write isn’t as important as having a schedule for when you hope to write. You don’t have to stick to the schedule, of course, but it works out much better if you can. However, always be prepared for life to get in the way of things.
As a for instance, I started my book in late July of 2001. I pretty much kept to my schedule, and things were coming along pretty well. Then, out of the blue, we all know what happened on September 11, 2001. Living in the state of New York, I felt the pain of the day pretty much like most New Yorkers did, being about 5 hours from the event. For three days I did nothing but watch TV until I was able to finally pull myself away from it all. However, it pretty much took me two months after that before I would even come close to consider getting back to the book. I just couldn’t concentrate on it at that point, or anything else, which wasn’t good, but we all deal with shock in our own way.
What brought me back to my senses was learning that my dad had cancer. Earlier in the year he had gone on dialysis, and I had started my own business, and after 9/11 now I’m learning that my dad had cancer. I knew for the first time just how sick my dad was, and I wasn’t sure how long he would be with us. I decided then and there that I was going to finish my book as quickly as I could so that I could tell Dad that I’d written it, and hopefully he’d have the opportunity to read it, if possible.
So I redoubled my efforts, but I found that I was having some difficulties. Here is where I’m going to move into part two of this lesson, that being the how one writes. I’m a typing guy; lucky for me, when I feel like it, I can type close to 100 words a minute. Some people love typing on the computer, which is me. Some people still use old time typewriters. Some folks like hand writing everything. All of these are good, but there’s something you could think of doing that might help you get over the hump.
I found myself starting to get into some kind of rut, and that was driving me nuts. What I decided to do was head to the computer store and buy some voice recognition software. At the time, I purchased IBM’s Via Voice recognition software, which worked pretty well, although now I use Nuance Dragon NaturallySpeaking software, which is much better. You go through a training process where you read scripted writings and the program learns your voice, and then you’re good to go. No software is perfect because none of us speaks perfectly, but it’s pretty good, and all it leaves for you to do is go back and do some serious editing. There will never be any spelling mistakes, but that could make editing slightly difficult.
However, this allowed me to really push the rest of my book through. It obviously works better with nonfiction than fiction because it will never spell weird names properly, although you can train it to recognize some names, but it makes things go really nicely, no matter how fast you can type, because you can just talk and talk and have all these words down in your word processing program, and since you’d have to edit your book anyway, it’s easier to go back and only have to remove and retype what you need to. Anyway, I had many points that I wanted to get to as it regarded my book, and I hadn’t written a single thing for any of them other than what was on my outline. So, what I did was go to each point, speak a few paragraphs, just to get something down, then later on while I was editing, if I wanted to add more then I did, and I always wanted to write more. The voice recognition program was just what I needed to push through.
Of course, the final thing about how you’ll write is what conditions you want to surround yourself with. When I was deep into my writing I needed some type of sound in the background, so I’d put on music. It didn’t matter what type of music it was, because I pretty much blanked it out while I was writing anyway. This is opposed to what I do when I’m working from home and writing articles; in that case, I usually have the television on, with the sound down, because it makes me feel as though I’m in an environment where there’s other people around, and sometimes I need that for my sanity. Having a laptop makes life pretty good because sometimes I grab it and go to the library, or to Barnes and Noble if I want a cookie; I love their cookies! I know some people need absolute quiet, and that’s okay also; whatever makes you comfortable, that’s where you want to be.
And that’s the end of step three. At this point, all the upfront preparation topics have been covered, and now it’s time for you to write, figuratively speaking. Next time I’m going to talk about the editing process for your book; come back for more. | 6,368 | 2,890 | 0.000356 |
warc | 201704 | Seminar on the Prospects and Challenges in the Development of Islamic Finance for Bangladesh
Organised by: Hosted by:
The Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB) will be organising a seminar on the ‘Prospects and Challenges in the Development of Islamic Finance for Bangladesh’ next month.
INCEIF’s President and CEO, Mr Daud Vicary Abdullah, will be sharing his insights at the event on the following topics:
Session 1: Global Overview, Issues, Challenges and Opportunities (23 September 2013)
Session 5: Panel Discussion on the Way Forward for the Development of Islamic Finance for Bangladesh (24 September 2013)
Synopsis of the seminar: 23 – 24 September 2013 Dhaka, Bangladesh
The rapid growth and geographic expansion of Islamic finance has introduced a new and vibrant segment to the global financial system, one that is contributing to the deepening and widening of the financial sector through the use of innovative financial instruments that offer new ways of mobilising resources for both public and corporate sectors. While some countries have sought to establish a full-fledged Islamic finance industry spanning banking, Takāful and capital market sectors, others have found value from developing specific niches aligned with national goals and comparative advantage. Islamic finance has also been recognised as a powerful mechanism for promoting financial inclusion.
A noteworthy feature is the increasing use of Islamic financial instruments to finance public infrastructure as well as corporate investments. These investments, and the use of instruments such as Sukūk to finance them, now span a wide range of social and physical infrastructure and are becoming increasingly important to driving growth in both Asia and the Middle East. In particular, the use of cross-border financing and investment through Islamic finance is contributing to widening the investor base and lowering the cost of financing for wellstructured investments.
This Seminar is part of the IFSB Seminar on Islamic Finance series which are held in jurisdictions wishing to explore the possibilities, opportunities and challenges of Islamic finance. It aims to create greater awareness on the specificities of the Islamic financial services industry, and discuss the issues in developing Islamic finance in Bangladesh. The collaboration of the IFSB and Bangladesh Bank will bring prominent speakers from among the international Islamic financial community, market players, regulators as well as thought leaders of the industry to share experiences with the key policy makers, regulators, industry players and stakeholders in Bangladesh.
The Seminar will examine the regulatory and other pre-conditions needed to sustain an orderly development of Islamic finance, while seeking to identify the benefits Islamic finance can bring to Bangladesh. The sessions and discussions will draw upon the perspectives of (a) market opportunities and challenges which will include discussions on the opportunities in Islamic asset management and Sukūk, (b) the global and national regulatory requirements, as well as (c) facilitation of cross-border investment flows.
Click here to view agenda | 3,216 | 1,446 | 0.000702 |
warc | 201704 | Phishing as an attack vector is nearly old as the Internet, spearphishing (targeting individuals via individually crafted emails meant to fool them into revealing information or downloading spyware) has been a favored attack technique for a good decade, and targeting senior executives (who have the most valuable information and access, after all) in what is called whaling has been an established technique for years.
Despite the long history of phishing attacks, employees -- even top executives -- keep getting fooled. There’s no real technology solution to this issue -- maybe you’ll catch a spyware attachment, but it’s nearly impossible to detect from an email link sites that inject spyware. Once a person has been fooled, the criminal is in. In the case of whaling, the attacks are few and targeted, so they typically don’t get flagged by tools like OpenDNS and filtering that rely on seeing a swarm of suspect emails or entry attempts to identify a possible phishing attack.
Worse, criminals are good at mining social networks like LinkedIn and a vast array of both open source and private intelligence tools and databases. Thus, they get the right information to craft convincing but spoofed emails from people an employee is likely to know and trust.
Even in 2015, it’s essential to train executives about the risks of using social media sites like Facebook, Linkedin, Twitter, and Instagram. Although they might not change their usage pattern and degree of sharing about their personal lives, such training might convince them that better use of social networks’ security and privacy settings can help ensure only people with a real relationship with them can view the content.
I recommend you supplement such training with red-team testing, where you create fake phishing emails and send them to your employees to see who gets fooled. That’ll tell you who needs extra attention and may pose a greater security risk. Services that can help include KnowBe4, Phishme, and Wombat (although Phishme and Wombat are pricey).
Another deterrent to these kinds of attacks is the use of email stationery. There are tools, such as Mimecast and Exclaimer, that can flag emails coming from outside the organization and put them in a different stationery (or skin) than in-house emails use. That way, the recipient knows to be extra-cautious.
Of course, people will make mistakes or get fooled, even if trained. It’s essential to have technology that can intervene when users click a dangerous link they believe to be legit with time-of-click protection or real-time protection at the core.
You might also consider subscribing to a domain-name alerting service, such as DomainHole or Safenames, so you get an alert should someone try to register a domain name similar to your own
With targeted threats remaining a significant problem, it’s essential that IT admins take every precaution to protect their environment from top to bottom. Protect your company by providing employees who deal with sensitive information and systems -- especially your execs -- proactive training, then supplement it with vulnerability testing and aggressively protective technology. | 3,215 | 1,590 | 0.00064 |
warc | 201704 | INSTITUTE FOR TRANSPORTATION & DEVELOPMENT POLICY Introduction
The BRT Standard is an evaluation tool for world-class bus rapid transit (BRT) based on international best practices. It is also the centerpiece of a global effort by leaders in bus rapid transit design to establish a common definition of BRT and ensure that BRT systems more uniformly deliver world-class passenger experiences, significant economic benefits, and positive environmental impacts.
Despite the increasing prevalence, prominence, and success of BRT, many remain unaware of the characteristics of the best BRT corridors and their ability to provide levels of service more typically associated with metro and subway systems. This lack of awareness frequently results in a preference for rail when BRT is in fact a comparable, more cost-effective, and equally elegant solution. This false impression stems partly from the lack of a common definition for BRT. Without a definition, modest improvements to standard bus service are often inaccurately labeled as BRT.
The BRT Standard functions as a means of achieving a common definition, as a scoring system, and as a planning tool. By defining the essential elements of BRT, it provides a framework for system designers, decision-makers, and the sustainable-transport community to identify and implement top-quality BRT corridors. The BRT Standard celebrates cities that are leading the way in BRT excellence and offers best practice-based guidance to those planning a system.
Certifying a BRT corridor as basic BRT, bronze, silver, or gold places it within the hierarchy of international best practice; however, all standard levels represent excellence in BRT. Cities with certified BRT corridors are beacons of progress that have adopted a cutting-edge form of mass transit, elevating urban transport to a new level of excellence while making communities more livable, competitive, and sustainable. From Guadalajara, Mexico, to Guangzhou, China, cities that have built gold-standard BRT have seen significant benefits to commuters, increased revitalization of city centers, and better air quality.
As we continue to clarify and elevate the standards to which all BRT systems are built, more people will experience the convenience and comfort of this cutting-edge mode of transport, and more cities will experience the benefits of an efficient and cost-effective mass-transit system. We hope that helping to define and recognize good-quality BRT will bring about the fundamental change needed to shift people out of their cars through modern and sustainable BRT. The 2014 Standard reinforces the basic elements for bus rapid transit and makes some improvements to the earlier versions to strengthen the BRT brand.
Why Was The BRT Standard Created?
The BRT Standard was developed to create a common definition of bus rapid transit and recognize high-quality BRT systems around the world. It also functions as a technical tool to guide and encourage municipalities to consider the key features of the best BRT systems as they move through the design process.
Historically, there had been no common understanding of what constitutes BRT, and the lack of a shared definition has caused confusion about the concept. The absence of an agreement among planners and engineers meant that for every new BRT corridor that is world-class, dozens of bus corridors opened that were incorrectly labeled BRT. The lack of any sort of quality control made it possible for modest bus system improvements to be branded as BRT, leading to some backlash against BRT. Modest incremental improvements, while beneficial, are often not the most cost-effective solution, and they certainly do not add up to the fundamental change needed to shift the travel paradigm from a dispersed pattern of private automobile travel to bus-based mass transit.
BRT also plays an important role in the global effort to reduce transport-sector emissions. As emissions from private motor vehicle use grow, shifting these trips onto public transit by improving the quality and reach of BRT becomes critical. Establishing a quality standard for BRT ensures not only that better projects are built but that transport sector emissions are reduced.
Certifying a BRT corridor as gold, silver, bronze, or basic sets an internationally recognized standard for what BRT is and what is best practice in BRT. The elements that receive points in The BRT Standard have been evaluated in a wide variety of contexts. When present, they result in consistently improved system performance and have a positive impact on ridership.
About the Institute for Transportation & Development Policygo.itdp.org
ITDP promotes transport solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, while improving urban livability and economic opportunity. Our projects inspire cities towards more environmentally and people-friendly transportation. Please click on one of our program areas to learn more. | 4,974 | 2,284 | 0.000439 |
warc | 201704 | 2thinknow collects case studies and positive examples of innovation, as well as the occasional cautionary tale. Predominately the good stories, and a little of the bad, are published in the Innovation Cities™ Analysis Report, October Edition.
Executive Director, Christopher Hire, commented:
“If I had one question that I get asked most it is:
So, which cities are most innovative? Or, the comment I think City X is more innovative than City Y. Any answer is always more complex than a single score can explain – particularly when examined on a by-industry basis. The Analyst Report explains how to benchmark, analyse and ultimately rank, cities.”
For people seeking to know if their city is discussed or listed as an example within the report, 2thinknow have created a city index of which of the 256 cities are listed in the report, and where.
ORDER NOW: The Innovation Cities Analysis Report can be ordered easily from:
Please contact 2thinknow analysts, with any questions. | 1,004 | 587 | 0.001752 |
warc | 201704 | An international research team led by cell biologists at the University of California, Riverside has uncovered a new insight into colon cancer, the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States. The research provides potential new avenues for diagnosing and treating the disease.
Led by Frances Sladek at UC Riverside and Graham Robertson at the University of Sydney, Australia, the team analyzed about 450 human colon cancer specimens and found that in nearly 80 percent of them the variants of a gene, HNF4A, are out of balance.
Human beings express several variants of the HNF4A gene, classified as P1 and P2 variants. Some tissues, like liver, have just one type of variant but the colon has both P1 and P2 variants. The P1 variant is found in the nuclei of cells in the normal colon but in the human colon cancer samples this variant is frequently either absent or located outside of the nucleus and, presumably, no longer functional.
Using human colon cancer cell lines and in vitro assays, the researchers found that the imbalance observed in the human tumor tissues seemed to be the result of a complex, multi-step process by an enzyme, Src kinase. Src kinase has been known to be activated in colon cancer but, until now, it was not known to act on the HNF4a protein (HNF4A is the gene, a stretch of DNA; HNF4a is the protein encoded by HNF4A). The UCR group found that activated Src modifies the P1 but not the P2 variant. The net result is loss of the P1 variant in the nuclei of cells in the colon.
Study results appeared online last week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
"Loss of nuclear P1 HNF4a protein in the colon may be an early sign of colon cancer," explained Sladek, a professor of cell biology and toxicologist. "A healthy colon has a good but delicate balance of the two HNF4a variants. If you could prevent the loss of the P1 variant via drugs, you might be able to maintain a normal colon and prevent colon cancer."
The researchers found another factor that increases a person's susceptibility to the disease: certain "single nucleotide polymorphisms" or SNPs located in the HNF4A gene. An SNP is a DNA sequence variation — a minor change in the genomic sequence that accounts for the variations we see between individuals. SNPs are the most common type of genetic variation among people.
"Individuals with certain SNPs may be more susceptible to colon cancer," said Karthikeyani Chellappa, a postdoctoral researcher in Sladek's lab and the first author of the research paper. "That's because these SNPs result in a greater amount of modification and a faster degradation of HNF4a by Src, at least in cell-based assays. It still needs to be investigated, though, whether individuals carrying these SNPs are indeed more susceptible to colon cancer."
Sladek noted that drugs are already available for inhibiting the activity of Src kinase.
"Some of these drugs are in clinical trials for colon cancer," she said. "It would be exciting to determine whether these drugs can maintain the P1 HNF4a protein levels, as well as inhibit the Src kinase activity."
A multifactorial disease influenced by genetics and the environment, colon cancer starts as a small polyp in the large intestine (colon) or the rectum (end of the colon). While most of the polyps are benign, some do turn cancerous. With proper screening, the disease can be detected early, when it is most curable.
Sladek, Chellappa and Robertson were joined in the research by Songqin Pan and Jake M. Schnabl at UCR; Lucy Jankova, Caroline L-S. Fung, Charles Chan, Owen F. Dent and Stephen J. Clarke at the University of Sydney, Australia; and Yann Brelivet of the Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France. Robertson and the Australian members of the team performed all the analysis of the human tumor samples.
The research was supported in part by a National Institutes of Health grant to Sladek.
The University of California, Riverside (http://www.ucr.edu) is a doctoral research university, a living laboratory for groundbreaking exploration of issues critical to Inland Southern California, the state and communities around the world. Reflecting California's diverse culture, UCR's enrollment has exceeded 20,500 students. The campus will open a medical school in 2013 and has reached the heart of the Coachella Valley by way of the UCR Palm Desert Center. The campus has an annual statewide economic impact of more than $1 billion. A broadcast studio with fiber cable to the AT&T Hollywood hub is available for live or taped interviews. UCR also has ISDN for radio interviews. To learn more, call 951-UCR-NEWS.
Iqbal Pittalwala | EurekAlert!
Further information: http://www.ucr.edu
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Among the general public, solar thermal energy is currently associated with dark blue, rectangular collectors on building roofs. Technologies are needed for aesthetically high quality architecture which offer the architect more room for manoeuvre when it comes to low- and plus-energy buildings. With the “ArKol” project, researchers at Fraunhofer ISE together with partners are currently developing two façade collectors for solar thermal energy generation, which permit a high degree of design flexibility: a strip collector for opaque façade sections and a solar thermal blind for transparent sections. The current state of the two developments will be presented at the BAU 2017 trade fair.
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warc | 201704 | Learning and Intelligent OptimizatioN LION 2007
12-18 February 2007, Andalo (Trento), Italy
Scope of the conference
The current explosion in the number and variety of heuristic algorithms for hard optimization problems raises numerous interesting and challenging issues. Practitioners are confronted with the burden of selecting the most appropriate method, in many cases through an expensive algorithm configuration and parameter tuning process, and subject to a steep learning curve. Scientists seek theoretical insights and demand a sound experimental methodology for evaluating algorithms and assessing strengths and weaknesses. A necessary prerequisite for this effort is a clear separation between the algorithm and the experimenter, who, in too many cases, is "in the loop" as a crucial intelligent learning component. Both issues are related to designing and engineering ways of "learning" about the performance of different techniques, and ways of using memory about algorithm behavior in the past to improve performance in the future. Intelligent learning schemes for mining the knowledge obtained from different runs or during a single run can improve the algorithm development and design process and simplify the applications of high-performance optimization methods. Combinations of algorithms can further improve the robustness and performance of the individual components provided that sufficient knowledge of the relationship between problem instance characteristics and algorithm performance is obtained.
This meeting is aimed at exploring the boundaries and uncharted territories between machine learning, artificial intelligence, mathematical programming and algorithms for hard optimization problems. The main purpose of the event is to bring together experts from these areas to discuss new ideas and methods, challenges and opportunities in various application areas, general trends and specific developments. To that end, a substantial part of the program will consist of invited presentations, discussion sessions and advanced tutorials.
VenueThe conference takes place at Hotel Adler, Andalo (Trento) Organization Steering Committee Chair: Roberto Battiti, University of Trento (Italy) Conference Chair and Local Chair: Mauro Brunato, University of Trento (Italy) Technical Program Committee Chair: Holger Hoos, University of British Columbia - Vancouver (Canada) Technical Program Committee:
Immanuel Bomze, University of Vienna (Austria)
Jehoshua (Shuki) Bruck, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA (USA)
Valentin Cristea, Politehnica University of Bucharest (Romania)
Cem Ersoy, Bogazici University, Istanbul (Turkey)
Michel Gendreau, Université de Montréal (Canada)
Richard E Korf, UCLA (USA)
Vittorio Maniezzo, Università di Bologna (Italy)
Andrea Massa, Università di Trento (Italy)
Zbigniew Michalewicz, School of Computer Science, University of Adelaide (Australia)
Pablo Moscato, The University of Newcastle (Australia)
Raimund Moser, Università di Bozen/Bolzano (Italy)
Marcello Pelillo, Università "Ca' Foscari" di Venezia (Italy)
Franz Rendl, Institut für Mathematik, Universität Klagenfurt (Austria)
Vwani Roychowdhury, UCLA (USA)
Andrea Schaerf, University of Udine (Italy)
Marc Schoenauer, INRIA, France
Yaroslav D. Sergeyev, Università della Calabria (Italy)
Ali Shokoufandeh, Department of Computer Science, Drexel University (USA)
Patrick Siarry, Université Paris XII Val De Marne, Paris, (France)
Marc A. Smith, Microsoft Research, Seattle (USA)
Thomas Stuetzle, Universite Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium)
Éric Taillard, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland (Switzerland)
Stefan Voss, Institute of Information Systems, University of Hamburg (Germany)
Jean-Paul Watson, Sandia National Laboratories (USA)
David Woodruff, University of California, Davis (USA)
Xin Yao, School of Computer Science, University of Birmingham (UK)
Local Organization: Marco Biazzini, Roberto Cascella, Elisa Cilia, Paolo Campigotto, Ambedkar Dukkipati, Anurag Garg, Srinivas Pasupuleti, University of Trento Support to the Organization:
Stefano Poletti
Sponsorship chairs: Giulia Boato and Davide Franceschini, University of Trento Chair of satellite workshop: learning and optimization for autonomic systems:
Antonio Manzalini - Telecom Italia Lab, Torino (CASCADAS Coordinator)
Web Chair: Franco Mascia Special thanks to:Maurizio Cont (poster graphics), Thomas Martini, Tomas Franchini and Parco Naturale Adamello Brenta (poster photos)
Sponsors
ESTECO, Explore new
Frontiers of Innovation
ARS LOGICA, IT Laboratories EU CASCADAS Project
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warc | 201704 | Finally, you received your brand new iPhone 7 Plus. You are so much fascinated with its surprisingly beauty and style that you are eager to protect it with a good phone cover.
Then you hurriedly search for a case at Apple Store, Amazon, eBay, or any gadgets stores nearby your home or wherever. You will stop at a case that written "military grade protection" or "MIL-STD", being told that how great this case is. That sounds incredibly cool! You cannot wait to buy it because you know your phone needs protection right now.
But wait. What's that? What's MIL-STD protection? What's military protection grade phone case? Do you really need that?
1.What’s Military Grade Protection and Its Test Method?
So I search at Wikipedia and here is what I found. Military grade protection, referring to United States Military Standard, is usually called a military standard, "MIL-STD", "MIL-SPEC" for short, which is the standardization objectives by United States Department of Defense. Particularly in phone case industries, military grade currently refers to MIL-STD-810G, which was issued on Oct 31st, 2008. It is a series of tests on equipment with its "tailoring environmental design and test limits to the conditions that it will experience throughout its service life”, addressing a range of 29 methods including pressure, temperature, humidity, vibration, shock, gunfire shock, etc.
So which methods should be applied to a certain product? According to Wiki, these methods are not mandatory, but rather the appropriate method is selected and tailored to generate the most relevant test data possible. It points out:
"
MIL-STD is not a fixed but flexible standard that enables users to tailor test methods to match the application, that's to say, a vendor's claim of being in compliance to MIL-STD-810G can be misleading. Suppliers are able to, or some are, take significant latitude with how to test their products and how to report the test results. When queried whether they take real tests, those commercial vendors just replied that their product is designed in accordance with the military standard, though no testing has actually been done because most of the test methods in MIL-STD-810G bear expensive costs or need special facilities."
Interesting, right? That means, whenever you buy a "rugged" product with a nicely designed "MIL-STD" logo, the ruggedness can be vary. It means an "MIL-STD certified" product may not be as durable as you expected. And this is why when applying to "military standard ruggedized" consuming products, Wiki suggests consumers verify which test methods that compliance is commanded and which parameter limits were chosen for testing. If some testing was actually implemented, the commercial vendors should clarify three points:
Which test methods of the standard the compliance is claimed against Which specific parameter limits the items were really tested to Whether the testing was done internally or externally by an independent testing facility."
Then let's go further on the phone cases with "MIL-Grade" protection. What tests methods do those brands apply on their cases?
2."We Make Military Grade Protection Phone Case"
The answer is MIL-STD-810G 516.6, or nothing.
To avoid confusing, let's find out what is MIL-STD-810G 516.6 first. According to the official documents of MIL-STD-810G(click here and download), it is one of the 29 testing methods for MIL-STD-810G, including eight procedures:
Procedure I-Functional Shock,
Procedure II-Materiel to be packaged, Procedure III-Fragility, Procedure IV-Transit Drop, Procedure V-Crash Hazard Shock Test, Procedure VI-Bench Handling, Procedure VI-Pendulum Impact Procedure VIII-Catapult Launch/ Arrested Landing,
In addition, of all procedures above, manufacturers could select a single test procedure, a combination, or a sequence of procedures. In most cases, one or more procedures will be applied. When talking about the "drop tests" for phone cases, it means the Procedure IV-Transit Drop, which is taken to measure how well an equipment or a device can endure the impacts after being dropped from a certain height (usually 112cm or 4ft. for phone covers) with different hard-surface for 26 times.
Yes, it is 26 drops from 112cm or 4ft.! Now you get something that sounds wired from your expectation? The tests are not that "challenging" as they sound like, right?
Just Google "MIL-STD phone cases", and you would be returned with a list of the military grade protection phone cases, such as OtterBox, Spigen, SpeckProducts, Zazzle, Urban Armor Gear and more. Let's see how they advertise their "MIL-STD" certifications:
"The case is rigorously tested to meet MIL STD 810G-516.6, a third-party test that drops the case on all faces, edges and corners from four feet", says OtterBox. "Spigen Cases Now Certified MIL-STD 810G-516.6 Military-Level Protection", yells Spigen. "The MIL-STD-810G U.S. Military Standard used to test the Speck protective Candy Shell cases involves a series of 26 hard-surface drops from multiple heights", falters Speck. See? Even though it is not that "challenging", when talking about the tests for MIL-STD, it is just a short descriptions less than 50 words. None clarifies the key points of tests (methods¶meter limits&tests lab) as a complete test report does, which could be critical for the clients looking for rugged products.
OtterBox says it's tested to meet MIL STD 810G-516.6, it never states how many drops they have done; Spigen yells it certified MIL-STD-810G 516.6, it tells you nothing; Speck falters it used The MIL-STD-810G U.S. Military Standard, the height of their "26 hard-surface drops" is unknown.
The only exemption we got here is UAG:
"Urban Armor Gear Cases are approved by Met Laboratories, Inc., a NEBS Certified testing laboratory. This testing confirms devices protected by UAG cases are compliant with MIL-STD-810G 516.6. To achieve this certification, a device must be dropped from a height of 48 inches, on each face, corner, and back. The device has dropped a total of 26 times and must function properly after the test, while not sustaining any damage to the touch screen."
It is the only brand I found, who tells their clients what tests they have done and who did those tests. Even though, a product survives from 26 drops from 48inches may be not as rugged as you imagined.
3. The conclusion
Yep, you need a case for your phone. You need it to protect your phone from drops, scratches, scrapes, etc. Definitely, for the sellers, it is the easiest way to build awareness by boasting of "super protective". However, when you are attracted by "MIL-STD protection", be careful. It is probably a misleading delusion. A "military grade" phone case is probably not as protective as you imagined, or, for some of them, even means nothing if they have never done any tests accordingly. Remember any producers could put that logo legally on the package without any reliable tests. And this is why most of the "MIL-STD" protection cases are carrying with a nicely designed "MIL-STD" logo without explaining what does it mean. It makes consumers excited without questioning what it is.
Now back to the situation at the beginning of this article: you have a new phone, and you find a case with an "MIL-STD" logo on the package, where says tests of 26 drops from 4 feet height were applied. Then, is that protection that you really need? Or what is the protection you actually need? We will talk about it in the coming weeks. | 7,574 | 3,450 | 0.000294 |
warc | 201704 | About Iran
GeographyBy Christine Foy for the Iran Project
Iran is over twice the size of Texas: an area of 1,629,807 sq. km. (634,293 sq. mi.). Armenia and Azerbaijan border Iran on the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan on the east, and Iraq and Turkey on the west. The Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman lie south of Iran, and the Caspian Seathe largest inland body of water in the worldlies to the north, providing Iran with most of the water needed for farming.
According to the 1996 census, the population is 61.3 million, approximately 60 percent of which live in cities. Over half of Iranians are under age 25.
Two-thirds of Iran is either desert or mountains. Overall, rain is scarce and seasonal. The climates can be extreme and vary in different regions of the country. The area between the Elburz Mountains and the Caspian Sea in the north contains the most fertile land, which makes the temperature more moderate than in the southern regions. This area also supports the last enduring thickly forested area in the Middle East. Important trees that grow in this region are the walnutwhose bark is exported for furnitureoak, lemon, date, and pistachio, to name a few. These may be found in the valleys of the Elburz Mountains.
The Plateau of Iran, lying within the center of the country and extending eastward into central Asia, contains two salt deserts which comprise 25 percent of Iran's land area. This area is hemmed in by mountains, from which three of Iran's largest rivers flow: the Atrek, Safid, and Karun. The capital of Iran is Tehranthe largest city in the country (population over 6 million)and the most important industrial and cultural center.
GovernmentBy Christine Foy for the Iran Project
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi came to power in 1953 in a coup engineered by the CIA. He was praised in the West for his land reform and efforts to modernize Iran's industry and culture. But within Iran, he was seen as an increasingly brutal dictator. He instituted the SAVAK secret police in 1957 to oversee political activity and the work of the press, and in 1975 he decreed a one-party system. Mass demonstrations erupted in 1978, escalating until the Shah fled Tehran in January 1979.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shia Muslim spiritual leader, led the opposition to the Shah. He represented those conservatives who were uncomfortable with the Western type of modernization enforced by the Shah and those Iranians who felt the Shah had gone against Islam.
Iran was declared an Islamic Republic after the 1979 revolution. Iranians voted overwhelmingly in a referendum to establish an Islamic constitution. Under that constitution, the legislation of the country is guided by the code of Islamic law. Although a president and parliament are elected, supreme authority belongs to religious leaders. Tensions still exist today over how much Western influence should be allowed. Iranians also disagree on how much power should reside with popularly elected politicians or with religious leaders.
EconomyBy Christine Foy for the Iran Project
Iran has a GDP per capita of 5,817with a real growth of 2.5 percent in 1998, down .7 percent from 1997. Iran's unit of currency is the rial, whose value has also dropped significantly from 70/US$1 in 1979 to 8000/US$1 in 2000.
The estimated total revenue and expenditure for 1999-2000 was 276,215 rials. Iran's economy was growing until the 1979 Revolution and ensuing wars with Iraq. The government now is committed to partial privatization of industry; although in 1991, 70 percent of industry was state owned. The country was scheduled to end its second five-year development plan (SFYDP) this year, having begun it in March of 1995.
Iran's economy is closely tied to its natural resources since 80 percent of the country's export revenues are derived from oil and gas. Iran contains 8.9 percent of proven global oil reserves, and its reserves contain 20 percent of the world's total amount of natural gas. Other important exports are carpets, pistachios, leather, and caviar. Important imports include motor vehicles, machinery, steel, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and food.
Iron ore, coal, zinc, and lead follow petroleum as important resources. Agriculture also comprised 25 percent of Iran's GDP in 1997. Important crops include wheat, barley, rice, sugar beets, tobacco, and wool.
Industry became an important focus in 1963 when the Shah modernized methods of production. Large factories supported the mass production of goods. Although industry was affected by the revolution and the unrest Iran experienced afterward, industry is still relied upon to provide goods and jobs. Some main products include cement, foodstuffs, textiles, carpets, vegetables, oil, soap, furniture, and machine tools.
Iran's foreign debt in 1997 was US$11,816M.
The PeopleBy Christine Foy for the Iran Project
The people of Iran, their history, diversity, and strong traditions dazzle anyone who takes the time to peer into this country's legacy. There are many different ethnicities of people living in Iran. The largest ethnic group is Persian. Although this term is used loosely, it describes Iranians who mostly live in the central plateau and speak Indo-Iranian dialects.
Millions of Azeris live in northern Iran near the border with Azerbaijan. Kurds comprise 8 percent of Iran's population, and they live mostly in northwestern Iran in the Zagros Mountains. Their ethnicity is tied to the Medes, an Aryan people whose migration to the area from central Asia dates back to the Iron Age.
The Lur, however, are considered the closest of any of the Iranian ethnic groups to the original Asian settlers. About half the Lur population are villagers and half are traveling herders.
The Bakhtiaris live near the Iraqi border, and the Baluchi live in the southeast and are a religious minoritybeing Sunni, rather than Shiite Muslims.
The family unit is perhaps the most important social institution of Iranwith the father of the family taking the head position, affecting all major decisions, including inheritance and marriage partners.
Women's role in society has turned to a more traditional one since the revolution brought the establishment of a government obedient to Islamic code. They are encouraged to wear chadors, a body covering from head to foot, and are prevented from using facilities that would bring them into contact with men. Women face widespread discrimination in employment and other areas. However, they retain the right to vote, established in 1963, and women make up over 50 percent of university students.
The Muslim religion runs deep in Iran, and has ever since its founding by Muhammad in the seventh and eighth centuries. There are two main sects of Islam: the Shiites and Sunnis. Ninety-eight percent of Iranians are Shiite. The two sects disagree over the role of the imam, or spiritual leader.
Farsi, an Indo-European language, is the official language of Iran. However, other languages that are spoken include Kurdish, Turkish dialects, and Arabic.
Iranians are artisans who excel at hand weaving. Their carpets are a major export, second only to oil. Another art form is the miniaturea small extremely detailed painting. Chess is popular in Iran as well as sports, such as wrestling, weight lifting, horsemanship, boxing, tennis, and track. Interestingly, ancient Persians claim to have invented polo and backgammon. There is also a sport unique to Iran. It is called zurkhaneh, a mix of gymnastics and wrestling. | 7,510 | 3,586 | 0.00028 |
warc | 201704 | Mortgage rates moved lower again today, hitting their best levels since July 23rd. That achievement is mostly a factor of what has been an extremely flat rate environment for the past two weeks followed by a moderate improvements over the past 2 days. The day was generally drama-free with the Jobless Claims report in the morning arriving in line with expectations and an average Treasury bond auction in the afternoon. In general, the markets that underlie mortgage rates are relatively detached from the day to day minutiae at the moment and prepared for bigger movement in the weeks to come. Conventional 30yr Fixed best-execution remains at 4.5% and buydowns to 4.25% may make sense for some scenarios.
Tomorrow is more of a wildcard than the first four days of the week in terms of volatility. While it continues to be the case that we're not expecting much movement higher or lower, tomorrow's session is light on data and events. It won't draw in as much necessary participation from traders and such days can be a bit more volatile than others (because with fewer traders on either side of the fence, it takes less conviction to push rates in one direction or the other. Bigger-ticket events arrive on Tuesday and between now and then, any big potential movements in rates are more likely to come from unexpected, unscheduled news.
Loan Originator Perspectives
"As hoped, MBS prices still running a bit in the right direction this PM. No significant data tomorrow to pose an immediate concern. Still advising buyers and rate sensitive clients that there's limited potential for further improvement; question is whether to hope for more when we're at our best levels since July 22." -Ted Rood, Senior Originator, Wintrust Mortgage
"Mortgage rates have improved a little over the last few days, but there is still lack of any motivation to drive rates lower. The bond market continues to stay in wait and see mode waiting on the inevitable tapering. For mortgage rates to substantially improve, the market needs to be convinced that tapering is not coming this year. For the moment, there is not much to gain by floating." -Victor Burek, Open Mortgage
"Although the consensus would be to lock on any improvement from the previous day, we feel firmly that the 10 year US Treasury has hit certain resistance thresholds around 2.74-2.75. Additionally, the charts indicate a double top at that level, further concluding that the market is range bound as far as finding resistance. High 2.5's low 2.6's have provided that resistance for now, but we believe the market will make a move towards the high 2.4's before the next attempt to test and break 2.75%. Technicals tell us to float, as we have been for the previous few weeks. Fundamentals are a mixed bag. Tough call to make, but we are testing the market with loans closing with 3 weeks or more time." -Constantine Floropoulos, Quontic Bank
Today's Best-Execution Rates30YR FIXED - 4.5%
FHA/VA - 4.25%
15 YEAR FIXED - 3.625%-3.75%
5 YEAR ARMS - 3.0-3.25% depending on the lender
After rising consistently from all-time lows in September and October 2012, rates challenged the long term trend higher, but failed to sustain a breakoutUncertainty over the Fed's bond-buying plans is causing immense volatility in rates markets and generally leading rates quickly higher
Ongoing Lock/Float Considerations
Fears about the Fed's bond-buying intentions were proven well-founded on May 22nd when rates rose to 1yr highs after the Fed indicated their intention to taper bond buying programs sooner vs later The June 19th FOMC Statement and Press Conference confirmed the suspicions. Although tapering wasn't announced, the Fed made no move to counter the notion that they will decrease bond buying soon if the economic trajectory continues Rates Markets "broke down" following that, as traders realized just how much buy-in there was to the ongoing presence of QE. These convulsions led to one of the fastest moves higher in the history of mortgage rates and market participants have not been eager to be the among the first explorers to head back into lower rate territory until they're sure they'll have some company. (As always, please keep in mind that our Best-Execution rate always pertains to a completely ideal scenario. There are many reasons a quoted rate may differ from our average rates, and in those cases, assuming you're following along on a day to day basis, simply use the Best-Ex levels we quote as a baseline to track potential movement in your quoted rate). | 4,548 | 2,298 | 0.000437 |
warc | 201704 | Yesterday I talked about the container garden I created in my front yard, using many of the "left over" plants that have been cluttering up the driveway. I actually did that project in two parts: I spent Saturday potting everything up, then Sunday morning (before it got too hot) I moved the pots into their final positions.
So the pots sat on the driveway overnight Saturday. That's important. It's also important to remember that I was working literally all day outside Saturday, so was exhausted by the time evening came around. Tired body, tired mind. Tired mind forgets important details. Raccoons do not forget so easily though.
You see, I always add some organic fertilizer to my pots when I add plants. I will use Miracle-Gro solution on all of my potted plants throughout the growing season, but I like to have some organics in there too because they're slow-release, and not too strong.
At least not too strong as fertilizers. They are a bit strong in the olfactory area, depending on what you use. I used Milorganite, which is made from processed, um, "bio-waste". It has an interesting smell that I usually find to be pretty nice, but the raccoons just
loveit. They really do.
So whenever I use it I need to remember to either use a strong-smelling mulch to help mask the odor, or use some sort of repellent to keep them from digging in the pots.
Except in my exhausted state I forgot this time, and awoke to this mess Sunday morning.
In their digging frenzy, they also cleaned out my freshly-weeded driveway cracks:
Good thing I spent the time sweeping the driveway clean when I was finished on Saturday. Grrrr.
This digging activity usually lessens each night until it stops completely, probably because the scent of the fertilizer fades. Still, it's not fun having to repot partially unearthed plants even once.
They really dug a lot of soil out of this large pot!
I should say that since I've never seen the digging as it happened, I'm not entirely sure that it is raccoons -- but they're the most likely suspects in my yard. Whatever the excavators are they sure love that Milorganite! I suspect they think it smells like something almost edible, and they're curious and maybe frustrated about why they can't quite find the source of the scent.
I once left a bag of it outside overnight, and they tore it open, scattering it all around. I'm pretty sure they eat it too, since I once left a small pile of it out there as a test and it was gone in the morning. That's an excessive amount of curiosity, isn't it? It doesn't appear that the animals are in danger though:
Eating too much Milorganite can induce vomiting, which can lead to dehydration, incontinence (stiffness in the hind legs), atrophy, depression and black stools.
That's from the Milorganite FAQ page. Although I did find a dead raccoon on my deck one morning, all four legs stiff in the air like a cartoon corpse, that was years before I started using Milorganite. I'm glad I don't see evidence of the other symptoms though. (
Perhaps it's a delayed response and some of my neighbors have been cleaning up raccoon vomit these last few mornings?)
I wish I didn't see any evidence of the digging either, but I suppose this sort of thing is to be expected when living with wildlife.
. | 3,286 | 1,642 | 0.000613 |
warc | 201704 | BEIJING – Beijing artist Liang Kegang returned from a business trip in southern France with well-rested lungs and a small item of protest against his home city’s choking pollution: a glass jar of clean Provence air.
He put it up for auction before a group of about 100 Chinese artists and collectors late last month, and fetched 5,250 yuan ($860).
“Air should be the most valueless commodity, free to breathe for any vagrant or beggar,” Liang said. “This is my way to question China’s foul air and express my dissatisfaction.”
Liang’s work is part of a gust of recent artistic protest — and entrepreneurial gimmickry — reflecting widespread dissatisfaction over air quality in China, where cities are often immersed for days on end in harmful pollutants at levels many times what is considered safe by the World Health Organization. The chronic problem has spurred brisk markets for dust masks and home air purifiers.
China’s senior leaders have pledged to clean the country’s air, partly in response to a citizenry increasingly vocal about environmental issues. But it is a daunting task that must be balanced with demands for economic development and employment crucial to maintaining stability.
In February, a group of 20 Beijing artists wearing dust masks lay on the ground and played dead in front of an altar at the city’s Temple of Heaven park in a performance art protest. In March, independent artists in Changsha held a mock funeral for what they imagined would be the death of the southern city’s last citizen due to smog.
“If smog cannot be effectively cleaned up, what it will leave us is death and cities of death,” artist Shao Jiajun said.
Liang’s contribution is a short, ordinary glass preserves jar with a rubber seal and a flip top. It has three small, handwritten paper labels: one with the name and coordinates of the French village, Forcalquier, where he closed the jar; one saying in French, “Air in Provence, France”; and one with his signature in Chinese and the date — March 29.
The auction closed on the night of March 30, and Chengdu-based artist and entrepreneur Li Yongzheng was the highest bidder. “I have always been appreciative of Kegang’s conceptual art, and this piece was very timely,” Li said. “This past year, whether it was Beijing, Chengdu or most Chinese cities, air pollution has been a serious problem. This piece of work really suits the occasion.”
Liang is not the only one to make money from China’s air pollution angst. Entrepreneurs also see the potential, as do tourism officials in parts of the country where skies are clear.
Chinese President Xi Jinping joked to delegates from Guizhou during last month’s National People’s Congress that their scenic southwestern province could put its air up for sale. Days later, the province’s tourism bureau announced plans to sell canned air as souvenirs for tourists.
“Canned air will force us to stay committed to environmental protection,” provincial tourism director Fu Yingchun said recently.
In Henan province, tourism authorities promoting a resort scooped up mountain air and gave away bags of it in downtown Zhengzhou, the provincial capital. City dwellers greedily inhaled the air, and some said they planned to visit the mountain resort to get more than just a lungful.
And recycling tycoon Chen Guangbiao has been selling fresh air in cans under his Good Person brand. They currently retail for $3 apiece on China’s Taobao online bazaar. | 3,615 | 1,867 | 0.000563 |
warc | 201704 | There is no legal recognition of, or protection under the law for, freedom of religion, and it is severely restricted in practice. The country is a monarchy and the King is both head of state and government. The legal system is based on the government's official interpretation of Shari'a (Islamic law). Sunni Islam is the official religion.
The Government confirmed that, as a matter of public policy, it guarantees and protects the right to private worship for all, including non-Muslims who gather in homes for religious services. However, this right was not always respected in practice and is not defined in law. Moreover, the public practice of non-Muslim religions is prohibited, and mutawwa'in (religious police) continued to conduct raids of private non-Muslim religious gatherings. Although the Government also confirmed its policy to protect the right to possess and use personal religious materials, it did not provide for this right in law, and the mutawwa'in sometimes confiscated the personal religious material of non-Muslims.
While overall government policies continued to place severe restrictions on religious freedom, there were incremental improvements in specific areas during the period covered by this report, such as better protection of the right to possess and use personal religious materials; sporadic efforts to curb and investigate harassment by the mutawwa'in; increased media reporting on, and criticism of, the mutawwa'in; somewhat greater authority and capacity for official human rights entities to operate; and limited education reform. In addition, there were larger public and private celebrations of Shi'a holidays in the Qatif oasis of the Eastern Province.
There were also several positive developments in government policy that, if fully implemented, could lead to important improvements in the future. The Government reiterated its policy to halt the dissemination of intolerance and combat extremism, both within Islam and toward non-Muslim religious groups, in the country and abroad. For example, officials advised that they were monitoring sermons at government-supported mosques and would dismiss or retrain imams whose preaching promoted religious extremism. The Government continued to state its goal of "balanced development," by promising greater infrastructure development in predominantly Shi'a and Isma'ili areas of the Eastern and Najran Provinces. Most significantly, this year saw the beginning of an interfaith dialogue process, led by King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud. The King, along with the support of the Muslim World League, sponsored an intrafaith dialogue in Mecca between June 4-6, 2008, bringing Sunnis and Shi'a together, and at the end of the reporting period, was planning to hold a similar conference in Madrid, Spain, in July, bringing together Christians, Jews, Muslims, and adherents of other faiths.
The King's official title is "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques." As such, upholding Islam within the country is regarded as one of his and his government's paramount functions. In addition, the conservative religious establishmentexerts significant pressure on the state and society to adhere to the official interpretation of Islam and conservative societal norms. Moreover, there is intense pressure within the society to conform accordingly. However, while the majority of citizens support a government and society based on Shari'a, there are varying views among the citizenry on how it should be interpreted and implemented.
Despite this diversity of views, the Government continued to enforce its official interpretation of Sunni Islam. Non-Muslims and Muslims who do not adhere to this interpretation faced significant political, economic, legal, social, and religious discrimination, including limited employment and educational opportunities, underrepresentation in official institutions, and restrictions on the practice of their faith and on the building of places of worship and community centers. There were also charges of harassment, abuse, and killings at the hands of the mutawwa'in, or religious police, who work for the Commission to Promote Virtue and Prevent Vice (CPVPV). These incidents caused many non-Muslims to worship in fear of, and in such a manner as to avoid discovery by, the police and mutawwa'in. There were also concerns about Saudi textbooks that continued to contain overtly intolerant statements against Jews and Christians and subtly intolerant statements against Shi'a, Isma'ilis, and other religious groups, notwithstanding government claims that it was reviewing educational materials to remove or revise such statements. Furthermore, while government officials stated prospective and current teachers who espoused extremist religious views would be screened out or dismissed, and some screenings reportedly did take place, there were multiple incidents where teachers, in defiance of Saudi government policy, promoted intolerant views in the classroom without being disciplined. Discriminatory and intolerant statements were also made by public officials and government-paid imams.
Senior U.S. officials discussed a number of key policies concerning religious practice and tolerance with the Government, as well as specific cases involving the infringement of the right of religious freedom. In November 2006, the U.S. Secretary of State re-designated Saudi Arabia as a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) for violations of religious freedom, and the Government was issued a waiver of sanctions "to further the purposes of the Act."
Section I. Religious Demography
The country has an area of 1,225,000 square miles and a population of more than 28.5 million, including an estimated foreign population of more than 8 million. The foreign population reportedly includes 1.6 million Indians, 1.5 million Bangladeshis, 1.2 million Filipinos, 1 million Pakistanis, 1 million Egyptians, 600,000 Indonesians, 400,000 Sri Lankans, 350,000 Nepalese, 250,000 Palestinians, 150,000 Lebanese, 100,000 Eritreans, and 30,000 Americans.
While accurate religious demographics are difficult to obtain, approximately 90 percent of citizens are Sunni Muslims, who predominantly subscribe to the Government-sanctioned interpretation of Islam. In the western Hejaz region, there are sizeable communities following other Sunni interpretations.
Ten percent of citizens are Shi'a Muslims. The reportedly 1.5 to 2 million Shi'a are primarily located in the Eastern Province, southern Najran Province, and western Medina area. An estimated 150,000 Shi'a also reside in the Medina area of the western Hejaz region, including the Ashraf (descendants of the Prophet Muhammad) and approximately 50,000 Nakhawala. In addition, there are reportedly 250,000 – 450,000 Sulaimaniya Isma'ili Shi'a in the southern Najran Province and the Eastern Province. The majority of the country's Shi'a are "Twelvers" (i.e., they are followers of Muhammad ibn Hasan, whom they recognize as the Twelfth Imam) and are primarily located in the Eastern Province and the Medina area of the western Hejaz region. The Sulaimaniya Isma'ili, are known as "Seveners" (i.e., they are followers of Isma'il ibn Jafar, whom they recognize as the Seventh Imam).
Comprehensive statistics for the religious denominations of foreigners are not available; however, they include Muslims from the various branches and schools of Islam, Christians (including Eastern Orthodox, Protestants, and over one million Roman Catholics), Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, and others. In addition to European and North American Christians, there are Christian East Africans, Indians, Pakistanis, Lebanese, Syrians, Palestinians, and large numbers of other South Asians residing in the country. Ninety percent of the Filipino community is Christian. Private Christian religious gatherings reportedly take place throughout the country.
The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowment, Call, and Guidance (MOIA) is responsible for 72,000 Sunni mosques and over 50,000 Sunni imams. The Grand Muftis of the two holiest mosques in Mecca and Medina report directly to the King.
In December 2007 the country hosted almost three million Muslim pilgrims from around the world and all branches of Islam for the annual Hajj to Mecca.
Section II. Status of Religious Freedom
Legal/Policy Framework
According to the Basic Law, the Qur'an and the Sunna (traditions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) constitute the constitution, and Islam is the official religion. It is the Government's policy that non-Muslims are permitted to privately practice their religion freely within their homes without interference. However, under the Government's interpretation of Islam, there is no legal recognition or protection of religious freedom, which is severely restricted in practice.
The Government considers its legitimacy to rest in part on its interpretation and enforcement of Islam, which are derived from the writings and teachings of 18th-century Sunni religious scholar Muhammad ibn Abd Al-Wahhab. The Basic Law establishes the system of government, rights of citizens and residents, and powers and duties of the Government. Neither the Government, nor society in general, accepts the concept of separation of religion and state in terms of governance.
Although no law specifically requires citizens to be Muslim, Article 12.4 of the Naturalization Law requires that applicants attest to their religious affiliation, and Article 14.1 requires applicants to get a certificate endorsed by their local imam. Most non-Muslims and Muslims whose beliefs do not adhere to the Government-approved interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and if a noncitizen, deportation. Blasphemy carries the death penalty. Conversion by Muslims to another religion (apostasy) and proselytizing by non-Muslims are both punishable by death, but there have been no confirmed reports of executions for either crime in recent years.
The judicial system is based on Shari'a, the traditional system of interpreting laws derived from the Qur'an, the Sunna, and other religious sources. The Government recognizes all four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence and the Shi'a Ja'afari school of jurisprudence. However, while government universities provide training on the other Sunni schools, they focus on the Hanbali school. Consequently, most judges adhere to the Hanbali school.
The Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Council) is responsible for approving laws and regulations that are compatible with Shari'a. The 150 male members are supported by 6 female advisors. There are three Shi'a members.
The Council of Senior Ulema (religious scholars) is an advisory body of reportedly 20 Sunni religious jurists, including the Minister of Justice, who reports to the King. Established in 1971, the Council is headed by the Grand Mufti of Mecca. Itmeets periodically to interpret Shari'a and establish the legal principles that guide lower court judges. Three Ulema members belong to non-Hanbali schools of Shari'a, but none of them are Shi'a.
The Government permits Shi'a judges presiding over courts in the Eastern Province to use the Ja'afari school of jurisprudence to adjudicate cases limited to family law, inheritance, and endowment management. There are only seven Shi'a judges, all of whom were located in the Eastern Province cities of Qatif and al-Ahsa, where the majority of the country's Shi'a live. Shi'a living in other parts of the Eastern Province, Najran Province, and the western Hejaz region, among other places, have no access to local, regional, or national Shi'a courts. Two of the Shi'a judges serve on the Qatif Court and two of the Shi'a judges serve on the al-Ahsa Court. The remaining three judges serve on the Qatif-based Court of Appeals, which oversees the Qatif and al-Ahsa Courts.
In accordance with the country's official interpretation of Islam, it is considered acceptable to discriminate against religions held to be polytheistic. Christians and Jews, who are classified as "People of the Book," are also discriminated against, but to a lesser extent. This discrimination is manifested, for example, in calculating accidental death or injury compensation. In the event a court renders a judgment in favor of a plaintiff who is a Jewish or Christian male, the plaintiff is only entitled to receive 50 percent of the compensation a Muslim male would receive, and all others (including Hindus, Buddhists, and Sikhs) are only entitled to receive 1/16 the amount a male Muslim would receive. Furthermore, judges may discount the testimony of non-practicing Muslims or individuals who do not adhere to the official interpretation of Islam. For example, testimony by Shi'a can be deemed to carry less weight than testimony by Sunnis or be ignored in courts of law altogether, despite official Government statements that judges do not discriminate based on religion when hearing testimonies. Moreover, a woman's testimony is worth only half that of a man's, and a non-Muslim's testimony is worth less than that of a Muslim's. Legally, children inherit their mother's religious affiliation unless the father is a citizen, in which case the law deems such children to be Muslims.
In addition to the secular National Day on September 23, the Islamic religious feasts of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are the only recognized national holidays.
The Commission to Promote Virtue and Prevent Vice (CPVPV) is a semiautonomous agency with the authority to monitor social behavior and enforce morality consistent with the Government's interpretation of Islam, primarily, but not exclusively, within the public realm. Founded by King Abdul Aziz in 1926, the CPVPV reports to the King through the Council of Ministers. The Ministry of Interior (MOI) coordinates with, but does not have authority over the CPVPV, and its full-time or volunteer field officers are known as mutawwa'in. The mutawwa'in do not wear uniforms, but they are now required to wear identification badges and can only act in their official capacity when accompanied by a regular policeman. The 1980 law that formally established the CPVPV defines the body's mission as "guiding and advising people to observe the religious duties prescribed by Islamic Shari'a, and . . . to preclude committing [acts] proscribed and prohibited [by Shari'a], or adopting bad habits and traditions or taboo [sic] heresies."
While the 1980 law does not clearly define the CPVPV's jurisdiction, that law's Executive Regulations state that the mutawwa'in are authorized to monitor various practices including: mixing of the two sexes; men's advances toward women; practicing or displaying non-Muslim faiths or disrespecting Islam; displaying or selling media contrary to Islam, including pornography; producing, distributing, or consuming alcohol; venerating places or celebrating events inconsistent with Islamic practices; practicing magic for profit; and committing or facilitating of lewdness, including adultery, homosexuality, and gambling.
In 2006 the Government declared that religious police could no longer detain or interrogate suspects or violate the sanctity of private homes. However, on July 1, 2007, Interior Minister Prince Nayif bin Abulaziz Al Saud rolled back the previous year's prohibition on entering private homes but reaffirmed the need for mutawwa'in to hand over any suspects to the regular police for detention. Additionally, the mutawwa'in can only act in their official capacity when accompanied by a police officer, and they are not allowed to administer any kind of punishment. Nevertheless, the Government conducted investigations into several incidents that occurred during the reporting period where the mutawwa'in were accused of violating these restrictions. In addition, the government-controlled press frequently criticized mutawwa'in activity.
The Government's stated policy is to permit private worship for all, including non-Muslims who gather in homes for religious practice, and to address violations of this policy by government officials. However, the mutawwa'in sometimes did not respect this policy. Individuals whose ability to worship privately had been infringed could address their grievances through the MOI, the official government Human Rights Commission (HRC), the National Society for Human Rights (NSHR-- a quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organization (NGO)), and when appropriate, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The HRC and NSHR reported that they received and acted on complaints against the mutawwa'in. No information was made available on the number of complaints filed during the reporting period or the Government's response to these complaints.
The Government-stated policy is that religious materials for private personal use are allowed in the country, and customs officials and the mutawwa'in do not have the authority to confiscate personal religious materials. However, the mutawwa'in did not always respect this policy. It is also the Government's stated policy to inform foreign workers at its missions abroad that they have the right to worship privately and possess personal religious materials, and to provide the name of the appropriate offices where grievances can be filed. However, during the reporting period there was no evidence the Government carried out this policy, either orally or in writing, and there were no reports of any grievances filed by such workers.
In a February 16, 2008, interview with the English language daily
The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Call, Guidance, and Endowments (MOIA) was established in 1993 as a bridge between the Government and religious leadership. The MOIA supervises and finances the construction and maintenance of most Sunni mosques; however, approximately 30 percent of Sunni mosques were built and endowed by private persons, either as acts of charity or at private residences. Shi'a mosques do not receive MOIA support and instead rely on private contributions, which can vary widely, depending on the number and generosity of the congregants they serve. The process for obtaining a Government-required license for a Shi'a mosque is reportedly unclear and arbitrary.
The MOIA employs approximately 78,000 persons, including 50,000 Sunni imams, who are chosen by their communities and approved by the Government. Based on the size of their communities, the imams receive monthly MOIA stipends ranging between $500 and $800 (1875 and 3000 riyals), which is considered low, compared to other full-time civil servant salaries. Preachers who deliver the Friday prayers receive an additional monthly stipend of $425. The majority of Sunni imams are full-time MOIA employees, with some private mosques employing non-Saudi imams. However, the government salaries paid to imams is supplemental, rather than their primary source of personal income, as most imams have separate businesses. As with Shi'a mosques, Shi'a imams are not funded by the MOIA and instead rely on community contributions, which can vary widely, depending on the number of congregants they serve.
An MOIA committee defines the qualifications of Sunni imams, and the MOI is responsible for investigating complaints against imams for promoting intolerance, violence, or hatred. While not always followed, the Government's policy is to counsel imams who issue intolerant fatwas or who make religious statements that promote intolerance, violence, or hatred, especially of non-Sunnis, though this policy is not always followed. In 2003 the MOIA created a program to monitor imams. Provincial committees of senior religious scholars supervise mutawwa'in who monitor all mosques and imams within their respective provinces. Based on the mutawwa'in reports, the committees summon the imams accused of preaching intolerance to meet with them. If they are not able to dissuade the imams of their thinking, then the committees refer the imams to a central committee in Riyadh. The first phase of this program ran from 2003 to 2006. MOIA officials claim that 1,300 imams were dismissed during this first phase. The second 3-year phase will end in 2009.
The official government HRC was created to address human rights abuses and promote human rights within the country. The 24-member HRC board, which does not include women, was established in December 2006. Two HRC board members appointed in 2007 are Shi'a and Sulaimaniya Isma'ili Shi'a, respectively. The HRC reported that it received a variety of human rights complaints, including infractions by mutawwa'in. The HRC was also given the mandate to improve human rights awareness in the country, including the promotion of tolerance. In this endeavor, the HRC worked with the Ministry of Education and provided materials and training to the police, security forces, and mutawwa'in on protecting human rights. The King also issued a decree that ministries had 3 weeks to respond to complaints filed by the HRC.
The Ministry of Education (MOE) is responsible for primary and secondary public education, while the Ministry of Higher Education is responsible for tertiary public education. Both ministries also monitor private education. In 2006 the Government formed the High Commission for Education (HCE) to oversee the ongoing reform of the primary and secondary educational system. The HCE reports to the King and is chaired by the Crown Prince. Its members include the Ministers of Justice, Islamic Affairs, Education, Higher Education, and Labor; two members of the Shura Council; the Secretary General of the Islamic League; and a representative of the Council of Senior Ulema. The HCE's mandate is to oversee the effort to improve textbooks (including the removal of intolerant language), educational curricula (including the promotion of human rights), and teacher training. The Minister of Education is in charge of the joint MOE-MOIA anti-extremism campaign.
Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Public religious practice is generally limited to that which conforms to the officially approved version of Islam. Practices contrary to this interpretation, such as the celebration of Maulid al-Nabi (birthday of the Prophet Muhammad) and visits to the tombs of renowned Muslims are forbidden, although in some places enforcement was more relaxed than in others. Similarly, the Government also prohibits the public propagation of Islamic teachings that differ from the officially accepted interpretation of Islam.
Although there was an increasing degree of public discussion questioning the official interpretation of religious traditions and criticism of their enforcement during the reporting period, including in the media, discussion of many sensitive religious issues, including sectarian differences, remained limited, and criticism of Islam was forbidden. Individuals who publicly criticized the official interpretation of Islam risked harassment, intimidation, detention, and if a foreigner, deportation. Journalists and activists who wrote critically about the religious leadership or who questioned theological dogma risked detention, travel bans, and government shutdowns of their publications.
The Government restricted the establishment of places of worship and public training of non-Sunni clergy. The Government officially did not permit non-Sunni clergy to enter the country to conduct religious services, although some did so under other auspices, and the Government generally allowed them to perform discreet religious functions. Such restrictions made it difficult for most non-Muslims to maintain contact with clergy, particularly Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, whose faiths require a priest on a regular basis to receive sacraments. However, many non-Muslims continued to gather for private worship.
The Government required noncitizens to carry a legal resident identity card, which contained a religious designation for "Muslim" or "non-Muslim." There were unconfirmed reports that some mutawwa'in pressured sponsors and employers not to renew the residency card of non-Muslims they had sponsored for employment if it was discovered or suspected that those individuals had led, sponsored, or participated in private non-Muslim worship services. Similarly, there were reports that mutawwa'in pressured employers and sponsors to reach verbal agreements with non-Muslim employees that they would not participate in private non-Muslim worship services.
During the reporting period Shi'a continued to face systemic discrimination and intolerance tied to a variety of factors, including historical perceptions and ongoing suspicions of foreign influences on their actions. Nevertheless, most Shi'a are loyal to the Government and actively try to contribute to Saudi society. While they coexist with their Sunni neighbors in relative peace, most Shi'a share general concerns of discrimination in education, employment, political representation, the judiciary, religious practice, and media.
In higher education, the Government discriminated against Shi'a in the selection process for students, professors, and administrators at public universities. For example, it was estimated that Shi'a constituted 2 percent of professors at a leading university in al-Ahsa, an area that is at least 50 percent Shi'a. At the primary and secondary levels of education in al-Ahsa, there continued to be severe underrepresentation of Shi'a among principals, with approximately 1 percent of area principals being Shi'a. There were no Shi'a principals in female schools. Shi'a were also underrepresented among principals in Qatif, where they comprise approximately 90 percent of the population. In addition, Shi'a teachers were not permitted to teach certain courses, including religious studies at the intermediate and secondary levels, even in predominantly Shi'a areas.
There were reports that some Shi'a students experienced discrimination within the primary and secondary school systems. Some religious education teachers told their students that Shi'a practices were un-Islamic and that Shi'a students must follow Sunni traditions to be true Muslims. Some teachers told their students that Shi'a were not Muslims, but rather kufaar (unbelievers), rafidah (rejectionists), infidels, or polytheists. In January 2008 a Qatif student was reportedly accused of witchcraft, when a turbah (small piece of soil or clay used for Shi'a prayer) was found among her personal belongings. That same month, the story of a former Qatif-area school teacher who was recorded making harsh anti-Shi'a comments to a private gathering and claiming to have converted nine students to Sunni Islam during a trip to Mecca was widely reported. Despite stated government policy to the contrary, these teachers went without reprimand, although in some cases they were transferred to other schools. In addition, there were reports that many public schools routinely punished Shi'a students academically for their absence during holidays unrecognized by the Government and there continued to be reports of prejudicial questions on exams.
Regardless of their personal religious traditions, public school students at all levels receive mandatory religious instruction based on the Government's interpretation of Sunni Islam. Non-Muslim students in private international schools, which citizens can attend only with special permission, were not required to study Islam. Private religious schools not based on the official interpretation of Islam were not permitted. Despite governmental claims that elementary and secondary education textbooks had been revised, they still retained language that was intolerant of other religious traditions, especially Jewish, Christian, and Shi'a beliefs.
Shi'a faced considerable employment discrimination in the public and private sector. While a very small number of Shi'a occupied high-level positions in Government-owned companies and government agencies, many Shi'a believed that openly identifying themselves as Shi'a would have a negative impact on career advancement. While there was no formal policy concerning the hiring and promotion of Shi'a, anecdotal evidence suggested that in some companies, including in the oil and petrochemical industries, a "glass ceiling" existed and well-qualified Shi'a were passed over for less-qualified Sunni colleagues. In the public sector, Shi'a were significantly underrepresented in national security related positions, including a clear dearth of Shi'a officers in the Ministry of Defense and Aviation, Saudi Arabian National Guard, and the MOI. Qatif community leaders describe allegedly prejudiced zoning laws, which prevent the construction of buildings of a certain height in various Shi'a neighborhoods. The leaders claim that these laws prevent investment and development in these predominantly Shi'a areas.
Members of the Shi'a minority were also subjected to political discrimination tacitly approved by the Government. For example, although Shi'a comprise approximately 10 percent of the citizen population and approximately one-third to one-half of the Eastern Province population, they were underrepresented in senior Government positions. There were no Shi'a ministers, deputy-ministers, governors, deputy-governors, or ministry branch directors in the Eastern Province, and only 3 of the 59 Government-appointed municipal council members were Shi'a. However, the Shi'a were well-represented among the elected members of the municipal councils, as they held 11 of 12 seats on the Qatif and al-Ahsa councils. In addition, the Qatif municipal council was headed by an elected Shi'a. At the national level, there were three Shi'a members in the Majlis Al-Shura, due to the natural death of a fourth Shi'a member during the reporting year.
Judicial discrimination against Shi'a was evident during the reporting period. The Ja'afari courts' powers are limited by the fact that any litigant who disagrees with a ruling can seek a decision from a non-Ja'afari (Sunni) court. Sunni court rulings can void Ja'afari court rulings and Government departments can choose not to implement judgments rendered by Shi'a judges. Shi'a leaders argue that the one Court of Appeals on which Shi'a judges sit has no real authority and only verifies documents. Jurisdictionally, these courts are only allowed to rule on cases in the Qatif and al-Ahsa areas; Shi'a from other regions, such as Dammam, Khobar, Najran, or Medina, cannot use such courts. Due to the Shi'a courts' lack of authority, six of the seven judges threatened to resign in September 2007, but no action was taken by the Government or Shi'a judges. The Government unexpectedly replaced Sheikh Mohammad al-Obaidan, the more senior of the two Qatif Court judges, on April 13, 2008. The perceived arbitrary nature of this action caused an outcry in the Shi'a community.
Many Shi'a were also subjected to systemic religious discrimination. For example, in addition to the fact that the Government does not finance construction or maintenance of Shi'a mosques, Shi'a who wished to build a new mosque were required to obtain the permission of the MOIA, the local Municipality, and the Governorate, which is functionally part of the MOI. No approval from the Governorate was necessary for the construction of Sunni mosques. While the Government approved construction of new Shi'a mosques in Qatif and some areas of al-Ahsa, sometimes after lengthy delays, it did not approve construction of Shi'a mosques in Dammam, home to a significant number of Shi'a. In addition, on May 22, 2008,
Shi'a mosques in mixed neighborhoods were reportedly required to recite the Sunni call to prayer, which is distinct from their own, during prayer times. Moreover, although Shi'a combine two of the five daily Sunni prayers, Shi'a businessmen were often forced to close their shops during all five prayer times, in accordance with Sunni practices.
Furthermore, the Government does not officially recognize several
The Government refused to approve construction or registration of husseiniyat, which serve as Shi'a community centers. Shi'a were forced to build areas in private homes to serve as husseiniyat, which did not enjoy legal recognition. These husseiniyatsometimes did not meet safety codes, and the lack of legal recognition made their long-term financing and continuity considerably more difficult. Despite the absence of a licensing process, there were reports of a husseiniyat being closed on the grounds of operating without a license.
While the authorities allowed Shi'a in the Eastern Province city of Qatif greater freedom in their religious practices, in other areas with large Shi'a populations, such as al-Ahsa and Dammam, the authorities continued to restrict Shi'a religious practices. The Government imposed restrictions on public observances of Ashura (commemoration of the martyrdom of Hussayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad) in al-Ahsa, Dammam, and other mixed areas where Shi'a and Sunni live, banning public marches, loudspeaker broadcasts of clerics' lectures from husseiniyat, and, in some instances, gatherings within husseiniyat. There were reports that these measures were strong in al-Ahsa, where the local governor allegedly gathered an estimated 30 Shi'a community leaders 2 weeks before the annual Ashura celebration, which took place on January 19, 2008, to warn them against any public celebrations. In addition, security forces actively patrolled the streets of al-Ahsa to ensure that there were no banners or flags, which are commonly associated with the religious holiday. It was reported that the Government prohibited the public celebration of the Arbaeen religious holiday, which took place on February 28, 2008, in all areas except the majority Shi'a area in Qatif.
Moreover, the Government continued to exclude Shi'a perspectives from the state's extensive religious media and broadcast programming. Government-imposed bans on the importation and sale of Shi'a books and audiovisual products remained sporadic. The Government also blocked access to some Web sites with religious material that the Government considered offensive or sensitive, including the Shi'a Web site
The Medina Shi'a are a small, deeply-rooted community of diverse believers, including the Ashraf descendants of the Prophet Muhammad and Nakhawala, who are laborers by tradition. Nakhawala community leaders claim that they face more issues than Twelvers in the Eastern Province, because they are not allowed to construct mosques
The Sulaimaniya Isma'ili community continued to face obstacles in Najran Province. Community leaders asserted that the Government discriminated against them by prohibiting them from having their own religious books, allowing Sunni religious leaders to declare them unbelievers; denying them Government employment, restricting them to lower-level jobs; and relocating them from the southwest to other parts of the country, or encouraging them to emigrate. On December 28, 2007, the privately run
Since the government-approved interpretation of Islam holds that veneration of humans, including the Prophet Muhammad, is idolatrous, public celebration of
On March 18, 2008,
In January 2008 the Grand Mufti reportedly called for qunoot prayers for the people of the Gaza Strip during the Gaza siege. (Qunoot prayers are special prayers added during regular prayers to ask for God's salvation from a specific disaster, and they normally require governmental consent.) However, there were reports of imams in the Eastern Province who included calls for divine punishment of the Jews as part of their qunoot prayers.
On October 7, 2007,
In August 2007 the Government prohibited the public celebration of the birthday of the Imam al-Mahdi (the Twelfth Imam who is currently in occultation or "hidden" according to Shi'a beliefs). On August 28, 2007, video footage of an al-Ahsa crackdown showed a group of approximately 20 young men lined up facing a wall, as officials attempted to control the festivities. Security officials confiscated candy and decorations used for celebrations. On August 29, 2007, authorities reportedly forced the al-Maazi, al-Zahra, and Um al Banin husseiniyat in the Sanabis area of Qatif to cancel celebrations scheduled to take place later that evening.
Abuses of Freedom of Religion
The Government continued to commit abuses of religious freedom. There were a few high-profile death penalty cases involving alleged witchcraft and blasphemy. Non-Muslim groups in different parts of the country were detained and harassed for private worship. Harassment of Shi'a during religious worship and communal gatherings continued. Religious leaders and activists continued to face obstacles for expressing their views against the religious establishment. In addition, senior clerics continued to use their pulpits to disseminate extremist ideology.
Although the Government's stated policy is that people are free to practice their faith in private, the Government continued to prohibit public, non-Muslim religious activities. Many reported abuses were difficult to corroborate, however, because of fear that disclosing such information might harm persons under government investigation. Moreover, information regarding government practices was generally incomplete because judicial proceedings usually were closed to the public, despite provisions in the 2002 Criminal Procedure Law that require court proceedings to be open. Many non-Sunnis worshiped in secret because of continuing fear of harassment, intimidation, detention, or deportation by the police or mutawwa'in. There were reports that the increased number of raids during the reporting period were due to expatriate informers working hand-in-hand with the mutawwa'in.
While mutawwa'in have the authority to confront individuals violating social standards, the Government also requires them to follow established procedures and to offer instruction in a polite manner. However, the mutawwa'in often failed to comply with these requirements. Women, and especially foreign women, were harassed by the mutawwa'in for failure to observe strict dress codes, particularly failure to wear headscarves. Moreover, some provincial authorities in the provinces of Mecca and Jof took a more active role in encouraging the mutawwa'in to enforce traditional standards of appearance on younger generations of citizens.
During the reporting period, public discussion of the nature of khulwa, or seclusion with unrelated members of the opposite gender, versus ikhtilat, or public mixing of men and women, increased, due to many high-profile CPVPV cases. While khulwa is prohibited by Shari'a, ikhtilat is not illegal but is nevertheless frowned upon by Saudi social standards. It appeared that some mutawwa'in conflated the two concepts and incorrectly accused couples interacting in public of khulwa, often leading to harassment and more serious problems. On December 6, 2007, the privately owned newspaper
The CPVPV continued to monitor Valentine's Day, New Year's, and even the Janadriya Heritage Festival. The media reported that, as in years past, the mutawwa'in warned shopkeepers not to sell Valentine's Day or New Year's items. The
An unknown number of detainees were held in prison on charges of "sorcery," "black magic," or "witchcraft." Anti-sorcery departments exist within the CPVPV branches across the country and report incidents of "sorcery" to the local police.
On February 13, 2008, Human Rights Watch (HRW) issued a public letter to King Abdullah, requesting that he halt the execution of Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali for witchcraft. Arrested by mutawwa'in in May 2005, she was sentenced to death in April 2006 for allegedly bewitching a man in Quraiyat to make him impotent. There was reportedly weak evidence and the procedures followed by the court were highly irregular. In September 2006 an appeals court reversed the trial court's ruling due to insufficient evidence and remanded the case back to the trial court. According to HRW, the trial court reinstituted the death sentence against her on a "discretionary" basis in the "public interest" to "protect the creed, souls, and property of this country." Her case was transferred to the Royal Court in January 2008. At the end of the reporting period, she remained imprisoned and in weak mental health.
On November 2, 2007, Mustafa Ibrahim, an Egyptian pharmacist, was executed in the northern town of Ar'ar on charges of "sorcery," desecrating the Qur'an, and adultery. Another expatriate apparently accused Ibrahim of practicing magic to separate this other expatriate from his wife, and cited as evidence books on black magic, a candle with an incantation "to summon devils," and "foul-smelling herbs" that he claimed he saw and smelled in Ibrahim's home.
On July 27, 2007,
Although there was an increasing degree of public discussion of conservative religious traditions and their enforcement during the reporting period, including in the press, discussion of many sensitive religious issues, including sectarian differences, remained limited, and criticism of Islam was forbidden. Writers and other individuals who publicly criticized the official interpretation of Islam risked mutawwa'in harassment, intimidation, detention, and if a foreigner, deportation. Several journalists who wrote critically about the religious leadership or who questioned theological dogma were banned from writing or traveling abroad.
There continued to be instances in which Sunni imams, who are paid Government stipends, used anti-Jewish, anti-Christian, and anti-Shi'a language in their sermons. Although this language declined in frequency after the Government began encouraging moderation following the 2003 terror attacks, there continued to be instances in which mosque speakers prayed for the death of Jews and Christians, including from the Grand Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. There were reports the MOIA dismissed some imams for espousing intolerant ideas, but other imams who said such things were allowed to continue.
On June 22, 2008, a prominent Shi'a Sheikh in al-Ahsa was arrested by authorities after calling a previous anti-Shi'a statement by 22 Salafi clerics an incitement that invited violence, and demanding greater rights and political representation for the Shi'a of al-Ahsa. The Sheikh was held for 1 week before being released.
On June 5, 2008, government authorities in the city of Khobar closed three "unofficial" Shi'a mosques operating out of private residences, detaining each mosque's imam and other attendees until the accused parties signed agreements pledging not to engage in holding such unlicensed prayer service in the future. Despite being unlicensed, these mosques are reported to have been in operation for approximately 30 years.
On May 23, 2008, Government officials arrested 15 Indian Christians in Qassim Province for private religious worship. During the raid, a CPVPV member reportedly slapped the community's pastor twice on his face. Christian songbooks and Bibles were allegedly confiscated. After questioning, the police transported the Indians to the local jail. They were all released that same night to their sponsors.
On May 13, 2008, Ahmad Turki al-Saab was detained in Riyadh, after he was summoned to the capital from Najran Province. Al-Saab is a leading Sulaimaniya Isma'ili activist who organized a petition campaign demanding the removal from office of Najran's Governor for his alleged discrimination against the minority community and presented the petition personally to the King on May 2, 2008. His family met with Government officials and with him. He was still detained at the end of the reporting period.
On May 5, 2008, the Government charged Ra'if Bedawi al-Shammary, a lawyer and businessman, with "setting up an electronic site that insults Islam." The prosecution referred his case to a Jeddah court, and asked for a 5-year prison sentence and a $800,000 (3 million riyals) fine. His Web site and online writings detailed the abuses of the CPVPV and questioned the Government's interpretation of Islam. Due to the charges and several physical threats, al-Shammary and his family fled the country in May 2008. From September 2007 to May 2008, al-Shammary represented the family of Salman al-Huraisi in a suit it brought against the CPVPV for the death of Salman al-Huraisi, who died during a CPVPV raid in May 2007.
On May 2, 2008, prominent Isma'ili activists presented a petition to King Abdullah, calling for local authorities to stop the ongoing resettlement of Yemeni tribesmen on land owned by Isma'ilis. In September 2006, 300 Sulaimaniya Isma'ili Shi'a in Najran reportedly made similar complaints as part of a protest in which they also decried their "repression" and demanded the release of Isma'ilis held in jail since 2000and an apology from a cleric and judge who labeled them "infidels."
On May 1, 2008,
In April 2008, Government officials arrested 16 Asian Christians, including 3 women, a 3-year old child, and a 1-year old child, for conducting a worship service in the Western Province. Police raided the worship location, questioned the group, and then transported them to jail. The men were detained for 3 days in the police substation jail. The women and children were detained for 3 days in the central prison, which has a women's section. Due to intervention by senior government officials, the Christians were released.
At least 17 Sulaimaniya Isma'ili Shi'a who were jailed after riots in the Najran Province in 2000 remained imprisoned at the end of the reporting period. The Government asserted the men were arrested and imprisoned ostensibly for disturbing public order and threatening the safety of the Najran governor, and not for religious reasons
On April 19, 2008, there was a well-publicized
In April 2008 an Indian Christian residing in the Western Province reported that his sponsor began receiving daily phone calls from local authorities demanding the Christian's immediate deportation on the basis of a previous MOI order. The Christian had been one of 28 Indians arrested in a December 2003 CPVPV raid on a private religious gathering. Due to sponsor intervention, the subject and his family remained in the country, while the other 27 Indian Christians were deported. Responding to the local authorities' pressure, the sponsor obtained an exit visa with a departure date of May 31, 2008, for the Christian. Intervention by senior government officials led local authorities to contact the sponsor on May 16, 2008, and inform him that the exit visa was cancelled pending a review. At the end of the reporting period, the Christian and his sponsor were still attempting to extend the Christian's legal residency status.
On March 31, 2008, Sabri Bogday, a Turkish barber, was sentenced to death after two men reported to the authorities that he blasphemed God and the Prophet Muhammad in his barbershop. On May 1, 2008, an appellate court upheld his conviction of blasphemy. At the end of the reporting period, however, the sentence had not been carried out.
On February 25, 2008,
On February 21, 2008, CPVPV members arrested, and later released, a Saudi-American woman and a Syrian-American man at a Jeddah mall for being in a state of seclusion with an unrelated member of the opposite gender and for his not having a residency card.
On February 9, 2008, Human Rights First, Saudi Arabia's only independent NGO, published a petition with 115 signatures asking King Abdullah to free a Sulaimaniya Isma'ili Shi'a named Hadi Al-Mutif
On February 4, 2008, several dailies reported that a 40-year old Saudi-American businesswoman and her male Syrian colleague were arrested by a mutawwa'in in a Riyadh coffee shop on charges of seclusion with an unrelated member of the opposite gender. She was forced to enter a taxi with the mutawwa, made to sign two confessions, strip-searched in prison, and then released on the same day. Her male colleague was released two days later. On February 19, 2008, several papers published the CPVPV official response, which maintained that its members were following regulations, and that the CPVPV intended to file a defamation lawsuit against two Saudi columnists that accused the CPVPV of kidnapping the woman and depriving her of her rights. On February 23, 2008,
On January 27, 2008, CPVPV members arrested four Sulaimaniya Isma'ili activists in a Najran hotel on charges of consuming alcohol. The Isma'ilis claimed that the arrest was politically motivated and aimed at stopping their activism on behalf of Isma'ilis. A court in Najran sentenced the four men to 80 lashes and up to 2 months' imprisonment. They were sentenced under haad
On November 22, 2007,
In November 2007 a Sunni man filed a case requesting compensation from the Government for imprisoning him from December 2006 to April 2007. He claimed he was jailed on the basis of his internet articles advocating for human rights, including religious freedom for Shi'a, and his meeting with a prominent Shi'a leader. He also claimed government officials harassed him and his family members before and after his imprisonment. At the end of the reporting period, the case was still under review by the Board of Grievances branch in Dammam.
On October 27, 2007, a young al-Ahsa man was detained on charges of having attended gatherings at a husseiniya and later released.
On October 21, 2007, two al-Ahsa men were detained. One was accused of holding a private religious gathering on his farm, and the other, a Shi'a teacher, was detained without a specific reason. The teacher was released after 1 day in custody and the farmer was released several days later.
In September 2007 a Uighur Muslim from China was detained in a Mecca Prison awaiting deportation to China. He was allegedly involved in underground religious activities, including teaching the Qur'an, in his native China. Therefore, there were concerns that his forcible return could result in immediate arrest and imprisonment upon his arrival home. Senior U.S. Embassy and U.S. Consulate Jeddah officers met with government officials and requested government intervention to prevent his deportation.
In July 2007 officials detained another Chinese Uighur Muslim named Habibula Ali and sent him back to China. An NGO reported that the Chinese Government requested that the Saudi Government forcibly return Mr. Ali because the Chinese Government was displeased by the assistance he provided to Uighur religious pilgrims and his participation in discussions about an agreement the Chinese Government reached with the Saudi Government to restrict Chinese citizens from applying for Hajj visas in a third country.
Early in this reporting period, Saudi Arabian Airlines had posted on its English-language Web site a notice that the country bans "Bibles, crucifixes, statues, carvings, [and] items with religious symbols such as the Star of David." These items appeared under the list of forbidden articles within the "Customs Regulations" portion of the site, although the Government's stated policy was that such items were allowed for private religious purposes. As of August 31, 2007, after foreign media outlets called attention to it, the posting was removed.
On August 29, 2007, the newspaper
On August 18, 2007,
On August 15, 2007, an Egyptian Coptic Christian returned to his home in Cairo using a fake exit visa. He claimed Egyptian Muslim co-workers in Saudi Arabia harassed him from 2004 to 2006, tried unsuccessfully to convert him to Islam, and then accused him of immoral behavior. He was detained by the CPVPV and police in 2005 and 2006. His sponsor was helpful at first and then ignored his requests for his passport and exit visa.
On August 5, 2007, seven British and one American Shi'a performing
On July 3, 2007, for the first time in the history of the CPVPV, a CPVPV representative appeared before the court to defend the CPVPV's actions in the 2003 case of a woman known as Umm Faisal who requested compensation for damages after mutawwa'in allegedly drove her car into an electrical post and left her and her daughter, both in the backseat, at the scene of the accident. However, the September 2007 hearing was postponed when the CPVPV representatives failed to appear. On February 3, 2008,
On June 27, 2007, an employee of a Shi'a mosque and husseiniya in al-Ahsa was reportedly detained for holding prohibited religious gatherings. Shortly afterwards, local government officials asked the husseiniya and mosque leaders to build internal walls in the structures and convert them into residential buildings.
On June 23, 2007, Senior Council of Ulema member Sheikh Saleh Al-Fawzan issued a fatwa that appeared to define "liberals" as non-Muslims, which many viewed as grounds for violence against non-Muslims. He later clarified his statement saying that it was not intended to advocate violence.
On June 1, 2007, Ahmad Al-Bulawi, a 50-year-old retired border patrol guard, died at a CPVPV center in the northern town of Tabuk, allegedly of a heart attack. Al-Bulawi's family demanded an autopsy to determine the cause of his death. The mutawwa'in arrested Al-Bulawi and brought him to their center because he had a Saudi woman who was not his relative in his car. Both Al-Bulawi's family and the family of the woman in the car stated that he was working as a driver for the woman and her family. On August 1, 2007,
On May 23, 2007, 28-year-old Salman Al-Huraisi, a security guard, died in a CPVPV office in Riyadh. According to his father and brother, at least 18 mutawwa'in raided their home in Riyadh on suspicion of alcohol production, and then arrested 10 family members. Al-Huraisi died as a result of an alleged beating by mutawwa'in. Two mutawwa'in were charged and acquitted at trial. On March 18, 2008,
In 2006 there were also reports of several raids on Filipino Christian services in Riyadh. Mutawwa'in raided services and confiscated religious materials such as Bibles and Christian symbols but typically did not detain non-Muslims.
On December 29, 2006, the mutawwa'in raided a private gathering of the Ahmadiyya religious group
In October 2006 police arrested a Filipino Christian man in Jeddah and falsely charged him with drug possession. The police later dropped those charges and formally charged him with proselytizing. He was detained for 8 months, received 60 lashes, and deported in May 2007.
On October15, 2006
On June 9, 2006, police arrested two Ethiopian and two Eritrean church leaders at a private Christian worship service in Jeddah. They were deported in July 2006.
In April 2006 the Government arrested an Indian Roman Catholic priest. He was released and left the country.
In April 2006 the mutawwa'in arrested a female Shi'a student in Riyadh, allegedly for proselytizing to other students. She was released several days later.
In March 2006 Ala' Amin Al-Sadeh claimed a Sunni judge refused his testimony because he is Shi'a. At the recommendation of the Dammam branch of the NSHR, Al-Sadeh filed a complaint with the Ministry of Justice and the NSHR. There was no additional information about this case at the end of the reporting period.
Forced Religious Conversion
On May 11, 2008, the
There were no other reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United States, nor were there any reports of such minors not being allowed to return to the United States.
While the law ascribing Islam to the children of Muslim males discriminates against non-Muslim, non-Saudi citizen mothers and denies their children the freedom to choose their religion, in practice some children of mixed marriages were raised in other religions.
Improvements and Positive Developments in Respect for Religious Freedom
During the reporting period, the Government implemented certain policies that made some improvements in the status of religious freedom. In addition, it announced additional policies that, if carried out, would continue progress in this area. Moreover, the King and other government and religious leaders called for interfaith dialogue, tolerance, and moderation.
Improvements included limited education reform, better protection of the right to possess and use personal religious materials, augmented efforts to curb and investigate harassment by the mutawwa'in, increased media coverage and criticism of the mutawwa'in, somewhat greater authority and capacity for official Saudi Arabian human rights entities to operate, and select measures to combat extremist ideology.
On June 4-6, 2008, the Government, along with the Muslim World League, organized an intrafaith conference, in Mecca. The goal of the conference was to promote unity amongst various Islamic sects. Former Iranian President Rafsanjani as well as Saudi Grand Mufti Abdulaziz Al al-Sheik attended. As a follow up, at the end of the reporting period, King Abdullah, along with King Juan Carlos I of Spain, were planning to host an interfaith conference in Madrid that would include prominent religious figures from Islam, Christianity, Judaism and other world religions.
There were fewer reports of Government officials confiscating religious materials and no reports that customs officials confiscated religious materials from travelers, whether Muslims or non-Muslims. Individuals were able to bring personal Bibles, crosses, DVDs of sermons, and other religious materials into the country without difficulty. In addition, Saudi Arabian Airlines updated its Web site in August 2007 to remove outdated references to Government customs prohibitions against the importation of non-Islamic religious items for personal use.
In response to continuing concerns about the mutawwa'in, the Government allowed unprecedented media coverage of the trials of the mutawwa'in allegedly involved in the harassment and deaths of citizens. Furthermore, there was greater freedom to criticize openly the religious establishment, including in the press, such that many writers denounced abuses committed by the mutawwa'in, and some called for a nation-wide examination of the CPVPV's role or even its disbandment. In the past such criticism often resulted in harassment by the mutawwa'in and generated death threats from religious extremists, but there were no similar reports during the reporting period.
While some negative references to non-Muslims remained in government educational materials, a more moderate curriculum was test-piloted in grades 1, 4, and 7 at 40 schools throughout the Kingdom during the 2007-08 academic year. The new curriculum is expected to be implemented in the remaining elementary and middle school grades in future reporting periods.
Three new university initiatives were also announced. On November 13, 2007, the newspaper
According to the May 10, 2008, editions of
On May 4, 2008, the Saudi Gazette reported that the CPVPV Deputy-President said the CPVPV would implement a new strategy to "restructure its departments, mechanism of work, and train its staff." The $267,000 (one million riyal) plan will precisely define all administrative and field staff positions and help the 3,500 field officers (mutawwa'in) implement the new legal procedures. He added that they will also "attend intensive training courses on the art of speaking to non-Muslims in the English language."
According to the May 4, 2008, edition of
On April 28, 2008,
On April 10, 2008, the
In addition to the supervisor of the Eastern Province HRC branch being a Shi'a from Qatif, there were reports that the HRC made greater efforts to connect with the Shi'a communities through public outreach in the Eastern Province, including a series of visits in the spring of 2008.
In February and again in March 2008 the HRC hosted HRW for in-depth discussions on a variety of human rights issues including equal rights for religious minorities.
The NSHR continued to receive complaints concerning transgressions by CPVPV members. During the reporting period, the NSHR took a more vocal, public stance calling for CPVPV accountability in the July 2007 case of an Australian woman harassed by "volunteer" mutawwa'in, and a similar February 2008 case that occurred in a Riyadh coffee shop. On April 7, 2008, the pan-Arab English language daily
April 2, 2008, edition of the
An April 2, 2008,
On April 2, 2008, the Grand Mufti said the principles of Islam are moderation and tolerance and that there is no room for extremism in Islam.
On March 28, 2008, the MOIA Undersecretary wrote a letter to
On March 25, 2008,
On March 17, 2008,
To prevent extremist ideologies from being taught to school children, the MOIA continued monitoring education materials used at religious summer camps known for spreading intolerant ideas to school children. On July 5, 2007, the Deputy Minister for Islamic Affairs told the newspaper
On March 10, 2008,
On March 8, 2008,
On February 22, 2008,
In contrast to the situation in al-Ahsa, local authorities continued to permit an incrementally greater degree of freedom to the Shi'a in Qatif during the reporting period, allowing religious practices and gatherings that were restricted or prevented in the past. The January 2008 Ashura holiday in Qatif was marked by a greater number of commemorations and participants. The only overt security presence assisted with crowd control. In addition, there was also wider practice of ritual self-flagellation, a practice that the Government sought to discourage previously. The number and size of Karbala plays, reenacting the martyrdom of Imam Hussain, grew. Pictures of revered imams were displayed openly in shop windows. Large groups of Shi'a gathered throughout the Qatif area to hear Shi'a clerics speak at husseiniyat, purchase books and other religious paraphernalia, and participate in marches in commemoration of Imam Hussain's death.
On January 24, 2008,
There were reports that Sunnis, Shi'a, and Sufis in the western Hejaz region were able to celebrate the Prophet's birthday with less Government interference than in previous years. On January 23, 2008, the
On January 19, 2008, the
On December 21, 2007,
On December 10, 2007,
On November 29, 2007,
The November 28, 2007,
On November 6, 2007, local and international papers reported on the meeting between King Abdullah and Pope Benedict XVI in Rome, in which their discussions centered on interfaith dialogue, tolerance, and denouncing terrorism. This was the first meeting of a Saudi King with the Pope and it was reportedly at the request of the Saudis. On March 22, 2008, BBC News reported that Archbishop Paul Mounged al-Hachem, a senior Middle East representative of the Pope, said the Vatican was holding talks with the Saudi government on the subject of building churches in the Kingdom. Al-Hachem said discussions began a few weeks earlier, but the outcome was unclear.
On October 29, 2007,
On October 22, 2007,
On October 2, 2007,
On October 1, 2007, the Grand Mufti issued a fatwa warning Saudi youth against traveling to Iraq and noted that only Islamic rulers can call for jihad.
On September 29, 2007,
On September 17, 2007, several papers reported about an Internet statement from prominent Sunni religious scholar and Saudi Sheikh Salman al-Oudah, who criticized Osama Bin Laden for the first time and bemoaned the loss of innocent lives to al-Qa'ida.
On September 11, 2007, the
On September 9, 2007,
On September 8, 2007, the CPVPV Vice-President said that rooms previously used for holding detainees were in the process of being converted into offices.
On August 14, 2007,
On July 23, 2007,
On July 14, 2007,
On July 1, 2007, the Ministry of Interior stated publicly that CPVPV members could no longer detain any citizen at CPVPV branch offices and instead must immediately hand over anyone they wanted arrested to the police.
Section III. Societal Abuses and Discrimination
In addition to the religious basis on which the Government claims its authority and the significant role the country's religious leadership plays in the Kingdom, the culture also exerts intense pressure on the population to conform to socio-religious norms. The result is that a majority of citizens support a state based on Islamic law, although there were differing views as to how this should be realized in practice.
Discrimination based on religion is a factor in mistreatment of foreign workers by citizen employers and coworkers. There were reports that some sponsors withheld pay and residency card renewal based on religious factors. In addition, there was a report that a non-Muslim foreign worker was targeted by Muslim coworkers and accused falsely of proselytizing, knowing that the non-Muslim would be censured and possibly deported.
There were reports that religious vigilantes, unaffiliated with the mutawwa'in and acting on their own, harassed and assaulted citizens and foreigners. There were also many reports of former government-paid imams disseminating extremist, intolerant ideas against Jews, Christians, and Shi'a from their pulpits. The Government has stated that it does not tolerate this behavior, and in some instances it took action against such persons. However, there were other cases where the Government took no action.
On June 25, 2008,
On June 1, 2008, several prominent Sunni Sheikhs, including Abdullah bin Jibreen, Abdul Rahman al-Barrak, and Nasser al-Omar, issued a statement on the
On May 13, 2008, Sheikh Nasser al-Omar reportedly warned readers of his
On May 3, 2008, the
Between April 16-19, 2008,
On March 15, 2008, several Web sites published an apostasy fatwa by Sheikh Abdul Rahman al-Barrak against Abdullah bin Bejad al-Otaibi and Youssef Aba al-Khail, writers considered "liberal" by the Web sites, in response to articles they wrote in which they defined "others" in the eyes of Islam. Over 20 senior clerics, including Senior Council of Ulema member Sheikh Salih Bin Fawzan al-Fawzan agreed with the fatwa, while over one hundred reformers subsequently defended the writers' right to express themselves.
On March 13, 2008,
On March 4, 2008, the
On January 25, 2008, the
On December 28, 2007, the
On October 29, 2007,
On October 15, 2007, an influential Sunni sheikh, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah al-Habadan wrote on his
In an October 14, 2007, article in
On August 9, 2007, Asharq al-Awsat reported that Sheikh Nasser al-Omar's book
Section IV. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government as part of its overall policy to promote human rights. U.S. government policy is to press the Government consistently to honor its public commitment to permit private religious worship by non-Muslims, eliminate discrimination against minorities, promote tolerance toward non-Muslims, and combat extremism.
During the reporting period, the U.S. Ambassador met with senior government and religious leaders regarding religious freedom, and raised specific cases of violations with senior officials. Senior U.S. officials discussed with the Government its policies concerning religious practice and tolerance. They encouraged the Government to honor policies to halt the dissemination of intolerant literature and extremist ideology within the country and around the world, protect private worship for all religious groups, curb harassment of religious groups, and promote tolerance towards all religious groups. Senior U.S. officials supported provisions calling for religious tolerance, including elimination of discrimination against religious minorities, improved respect for human rights, and improved accountability and transparency.
Senior U.S. officials called on the Government to enforce its public commitment to allow private religious practice and to respect the rights of Muslims who do not follow the Government's official form of Sunni Islam. In addition, embassy officers met with Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials to discuss other matters pertaining to religious freedom.
In November 2006 the U.S. Secretary of State re-designated Saudi Arabia as a CPC under the International Religious Freedom Act. In connection with this designation, Secretary Rice issued a waiver of sanctions "to further the purposes of the Act." | 68,512 | 24,872 | 0.00004 |
warc | 201704 | Producers in Colorado who are interested in implementing conservation practices to improve natural resources on their private agricultural land have until Friday, January 15, 2016, to submit applications for FY 2016 funding through the Natural Resources Conservation Service's (NRCS) Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). Eligible applications that are received after January 15 will be considered during a later time and will be processed throughout the fiscal year as needed.
EQIP is a voluntary incentives program that provides financial assistance for conservation systems such as animal waste management facilities, irrigation system efficiency improvements, fencing, and water supply development for improved grazing management, riparian protection, and wildlife habitat enhancement.
"EQIP places a priority on water quality, water conservation, and promotes soil health practices by offering financial and technical assistance to address these resource concerns on eligible agricultural land," said Clint Evans, NRCS State Conservationist, Denver. "We encourage all landowners who are interested in this limited funding opportunity to apply now."
Applications can be taken at all Colorado NRCS offices and USDA Service Centers. Applications must be received in your local Service Center by 4 p.m. on Friday, Jan. 15. In Logan County, the Sterling Service Center is located at 621 Iris Dr.
NRCS continually strives to put conservation planning at the forefront of its programs and initiatives. Conservation plans provide landowners with a comprehensive inventory and assessment of their resources and an appropriate start to improving the quality of soil, water, air, plants, and wildlife on their land.
Conservation planning services can also be obtained through a Technical Service Provider (TSP) who will develop a Conservation Activity Plans (CAP) to identify conservation practices needed to address a specific natural resource need. Typically, these plans are specific to certain kinds of land use such as transitioning to organic operations, grazing land, or forest land. CAPs can also address a specific resource need such as a plan for management of nutrients. Although not required, producers who first develop a CAP for their land use may use this information in applying for future implementation contracts.
To find out more about financial and technical assistance available to help Colorado farmers and landowners improve and protect their land, visit the Colorado NRCS website. | 2,521 | 1,218 | 0.000825 |
warc | 201704 | Growing evidence suggests that movement abnormalities are a core feature of psychosis. One marker of movement abnormality, dyskinesia, is a result of impaired neuromodulation of dopamine in fronto-striatal pathways. The traditional methods for identifying movement abnormalities include observer-based reports and force stability gauges. The drawbacks of these methods are long training times for raters, experimenter bias, large site differences in instrumental apparatus, and suboptimal reliability. Taking these drawbacks into account has guided the development of better standardized and more efficient procedures to examine movement abnormalities through handwriting analysis software and tablet. Individuals at risk for psychosis showed significantly more dysfluent pen movements (a proximal measure for dyskinesia) in a handwriting task. Handwriting kinematics offers a great advance over previous methods of assessing dyskinesia, which could clearly be beneficial for understanding the etiology of psychosis.
26 Related JoVE Articles!
Hydrogel Nanoparticle Harvesting of Plasma or Urine for Detecting Low Abundance Proteins
Institutions: George Mason University, Ceres Nanosciences.
Novel biomarker discovery plays a crucial role in providing more sensitive and specific disease detection. Unfortunately many low-abundance biomarkers that exist in biological fluids cannot be easily detected with mass spectrometry or immunoassays because they are present in very low concentration, are labile, and are often masked by high-abundance proteins such as albumin or immunoglobulin. Bait containing poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (NIPAm) based nanoparticles are able to overcome these physiological barriers. In one step they are able to capture, concentrate and preserve biomarkers from body fluids. Low-molecular weight analytes enter the core of the nanoparticle and are captured by different organic chemical dyes, which act as high affinity protein baits. The nanoparticles are able to concentrate the proteins of interest by several orders of magnitude. This concentration factor is sufficient to increase the protein level such that the proteins are within the detection limit of current mass spectrometers, western blotting, and immunoassays. Nanoparticles can be incubated with a plethora of biological fluids and they are able to greatly enrich the concentration of low-molecular weight proteins and peptides while excluding albumin and other high-molecular weight proteins. Our data show that a 10,000 fold amplification in the concentration of a particular analyte can be achieved, enabling mass spectrometry and immunoassays to detect previously undetectable biomarkers.
Bioengineering, Issue 90, biomarker, hydrogel, low abundance, mass spectrometry, nanoparticle, plasma, protein, urine
51789
Chemically-blocked Antibody Microarray for Multiplexed High-throughput Profiling of Specific Protein Glycosylation in Complex Samples
Institutions: Institute for Hepatitis and Virus Research, Thomas Jefferson University , Drexel University College of Medicine, Van Andel Research Institute, Serome Biosciences Inc..
In this study, we describe an effective protocol for use in a multiplexed high-throughput antibody microarray with glycan binding protein detection that allows for the glycosylation profiling of specific proteins. Glycosylation of proteins is the most prevalent post-translational modification found on proteins, and leads diversified modifications of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of proteins. Because the glycosylation machinery is particularly susceptible to disease progression and malignant transformation, aberrant glycosylation has been recognized as early detection biomarkers for cancer and other diseases. However, current methods to study protein glycosylation typically are too complicated or expensive for use in most normal laboratory or clinical settings and a more practical method to study protein glycosylation is needed. The new protocol described in this study makes use of a chemically blocked antibody microarray with glycan-binding protein (GBP) detection and significantly reduces the time, cost, and lab equipment requirements needed to study protein glycosylation. In this method, multiple immobilized glycoprotein-specific antibodies are printed directly onto the microarray slides and the N-glycans on the antibodies are blocked. The blocked, immobilized glycoprotein-specific antibodies are able to capture and isolate glycoproteins from a complex sample that is applied directly onto the microarray slides. Glycan detection then can be performed by the application of biotinylated lectins and other GBPs to the microarray slide, while binding levels can be determined using Dylight 549-Streptavidin. Through the use of an antibody panel and probing with multiple biotinylated lectins, this method allows for an effective glycosylation profile of the different proteins found in a given human or animal sample to be developed.IntroductionGlycosylation of protein, which is the most ubiquitous post-translational modification on proteins, modifies the physical, chemical, and biological properties of a protein, and plays a fundamental role in various biological processes
1-6
. Because the glycosylation machinery is particularly susceptible to disease progression and malignant transformation, aberrant glycosylation has been recognized as early detection biomarkers for cancer and other diseases
7-12
. In fact, most current cancer biomarkers, such as the L3 fraction of α-1 fetoprotein (AFP) for hepatocellular carcinoma
13-15
, and CA199 for pancreatic cancer
16, 17
are all aberrant glycan moieties on glycoproteins. However, methods to study protein glycosylation have been complicated, and not suitable for routine laboratory and clinical settings. Chen
et al.
has recently invented a chemically blocked antibody microarray with a glycan-binding protein (GBP) detection method for high-throughput and multiplexed profile glycosylation of native glycoproteins in a complex sample
18
. In this affinity based microarray method, multiple immobilized glycoprotein-specific antibodies capture and isolate glycoproteins from the complex mixture directly on the microarray slide, and the glycans on each individual captured protein are measured by GBPs. Because all normal antibodies contain N-glycans which could be recognized by most GBPs, the critical step of this method is to chemically block the glycans on the antibodies from binding to GBP. In the procedure, the
ci s
-diol groups of the glycans on the antibodies were first oxidized to aldehyde groups by using NaIO
4
in sodium acetate buffer avoiding light. The aldehyde groups were then conjugated to the hydrazide group of a cross-linker, 4-(4-N-MaleimidoPhenyl)butyric acid Hydrazide HCl (MPBH), followed by the conjugation of a dipeptide, Cys-Gly, to the maleimide group of the MPBH. Thus, the cis-diol groups on glycans of antibodies were converted into bulky none hydroxyl groups, which hindered the lectins and other GBPs bindings to the capture antibodies. This blocking procedure makes the GBPs and lectins bind only to the glycans of captured proteins. After this chemically blocking, serum samples were incubated with the antibody microarray, followed by the glycans detection by using different biotinylated lectins and GBPs, and visualized with Cy3-streptavidin. The parallel use of an antibody panel and multiple lectin probing provides discrete glycosylation profiles of multiple proteins in a given sample
18-20
. This method has been used successfully in multiple different labs
1, 7, 13, 19-31
. However, stability of MPBH and Cys-Gly, complicated and extended procedure in this method affect the reproducibility, effectiveness and efficiency of the method. In this new protocol, we replaced both MPBH and Cys-Gly with one much more stable reagent glutamic acid hydrazide (Glu-hydrazide), which significantly improved the reproducibility of the method, simplified and shorten the whole procedure so that the it can be completed within one working day. In this new protocol, we describe the detailed procedure of the protocol which can be readily adopted by normal labs for routine protein glycosylation study and techniques which are necessary to obtain reproducible and repeatable results.
Molecular Biology, Issue 63, Glycoproteins, glycan-binding protein, specific protein glycosylation, multiplexed high-throughput glycan blocked antibody microarray
3791
Multi-step Preparation Technique to Recover Multiple Metabolite Compound Classes for In-depth and Informative Metabolomic Analysis
Institutions: National Jewish Health, University of Colorado Denver.
Metabolomics is an emerging field which enables profiling of samples from living organisms in order to obtain insight into biological processes. A vital aspect of metabolomics is sample preparation whereby inconsistent techniques generate unreliable results. This technique encompasses protein precipitation, liquid-liquid extraction, and solid-phase extraction as a means of fractionating metabolites into four distinct classes. Improved enrichment of low abundance molecules with a resulting increase in sensitivity is obtained, and ultimately results in more confident identification of molecules. This technique has been applied to plasma, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid samples with volumes as low as 50 µl. Samples can be used for multiple downstream applications; for example, the pellet resulting from protein precipitation can be stored for later analysis. The supernatant from that step undergoes liquid-liquid extraction using water and strong organic solvent to separate the hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds. Once fractionated, the hydrophilic layer can be processed for later analysis or discarded if not needed. The hydrophobic fraction is further treated with a series of solvents during three solid-phase extraction steps to separate it into fatty acids, neutral lipids, and phospholipids. This allows the technician the flexibility to choose which class of compounds is preferred for analysis. It also aids in more reliable metabolite identification since some knowledge of chemical class exists.
Bioengineering, Issue 89, plasma, chemistry techniques, analytical, solid phase extraction, mass spectrometry, metabolomics, fluids and secretions, profiling, small molecules, lipids, liquid chromatography, liquid-liquid extraction, cerebrospinal fluid, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid
51670
Quantitative Detection of Trace Explosive Vapors by Programmed Temperature Desorption Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detector
Institutions: U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, NOVA Research, Inc., U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.
The direct liquid deposition of solution standards onto sorbent-filled thermal desorption tubes is used for the quantitative analysis of trace explosive vapor samples. The direct liquid deposition method yields a higher fidelity between the analysis of vapor samples and the analysis of solution standards than using separate injection methods for vapors and solutions,
i.e.
, samples collected on vapor collection tubes and standards prepared in solution vials. Additionally, the method can account for instrumentation losses, which makes it ideal for minimizing variability and quantitative trace chemical detection. Gas chromatography with an electron capture detector is an instrumentation configuration sensitive to nitro-energetics, such as TNT and RDX, due to their relatively high electron affinity. However, vapor quantitation of these compounds is difficult without viable vapor standards. Thus, we eliminate the requirement for vapor standards by combining the sensitivity of the instrumentation with a direct liquid deposition protocol to analyze trace explosive vapor samples.
Chemistry, Issue 89, Gas Chromatography (GC), Electron Capture Detector, Explosives, Quantitation, Thermal Desorption, TNT, RDX
51938
A Sensitive and Specific Quantitation Method for Determination of Serum Cardiac Myosin Binding Protein-C by Electrochemiluminescence Immunoassay
Institutions: Loyola University Chicago.
Biomarkers are becoming increasingly more important in clinical decision-making, as well as basic science. Diagnosing myocardial infarction (MI) is largely driven by detecting cardiac-specific proteins in patients' serum or plasma as an indicator of myocardial injury. Having recently shown that cardiac myosin binding protein-C (cMyBP-C) is detectable in the serum after MI, we have proposed it as a potential biomarker for MI. Biomarkers are typically detected by traditional sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. However, this technique requires a large sample volume, has a small dynamic range, and can measure only one protein at a time. Here we show a multiplex immunoassay in which three cardiac proteins can be measured simultaneously with high sensitivity. Measuring cMyBP-C in uniplex or together with creatine kinase MB and cardiac troponin I showed comparable sensitivity. This technique uses the Meso Scale Discovery (MSD) method of multiplexing in a 96-well plate combined with electrochemiluminescence for detection. While only small sample volumes are required, high sensitivity and a large dynamic range are achieved. Using this technique, we measured cMyBP-C, creatine kinase MB, and cardiac troponin I levels in serum samples from 16 subjects with MI and compared the results with 16 control subjects. We were able to detect all three markers in these samples and found all three biomarkers to be increased after MI. This technique is, therefore, suitable for the sensitive detection of cardiac biomarkers in serum samples.
Molecular Biology, Issue 78, Cellular Biology, Biochemistry, Genetics, Biomedical Engineering, Medicine, Cardiology, Heart Diseases, Myocardial Ischemia, Myocardial Infarction, Cardiovascular Diseases, cardiovascular disease, immunoassay, cardiac myosin binding protein-C, cardiac troponin I, creatine kinase MB, electrochemiluminescence, multiplex biomarkers, ELISA, assay
50786
Dependence of Laser-induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Results on Pulse Energies and Timing Parameters Using Soil Simulants
Institutions: Alvernia University, Applied Research Associates (ARA), Inc..
The dependence of some LIBS detection capabilities on lower pulse energies (<100 mJ) and timing parameters were examined using synthetic silicate samples. These samples were used as simulants for soil and contained minor and trace elements commonly found in soil at a wide range of concentrations. For this study, over 100 calibration curves were prepared using different pulse energies and timing parameters; detection limits and sensitivities were determined from the calibration curves. Plasma temperatures were also measured using Boltzmann plots for the various energies and the timing parameters tested. The electron density of the plasma was calculated using the full-width half maximum (FWHM) of the hydrogen line at 656.5 nm over the energies tested. Overall, the results indicate that the use of lower pulse energies and non-gated detection do not seriously compromise the analytical results. These results are very relevant to the design of field- and person-portable LIBS instruments.
Chemistry, Issue 79, analytical chemistry, laser research, atomic physics, [LIBS, Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, gated and non-gated detection, energy study]
50876
A Microfluidic Chip for the Versatile Chemical Analysis of Single Cells
Institutions: ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
We present a microfluidic device that enables the quantitative determination of intracellular biomolecules in multiple single cells in parallel. For this purpose, the cells are passively trapped in the middle of a microchamber. Upon activation of the control layer, the cell is isolated from the surrounding volume in a small chamber. The surrounding volume can then be exchanged without affecting the isolated cell. However, upon short opening and closing of the chamber, the solution in the chamber can be replaced within a few hundred milliseconds. Due to the reversibility of the chambers, the cells can be exposed to different solutions sequentially in a highly controllable fashion,
e.g.
for incubation, washing, and finally, cell lysis. The tightly sealed microchambers enable the retention of the lysate, minimize and control the dilution after cell lysis. Since lysis and analysis occur at the same location, high sensitivity is retained because no further dilution or loss of the analytes occurs during transport. The microchamber design therefore enables the reliable and reproducible analysis of very small copy numbers of intracellular molecules (attomoles, zeptomoles) released from individual cells. Furthermore, many microchambers can be arranged in an array format, allowing the analysis of many cells at once, given that suitable optical instruments are used for monitoring. We have already used the platform for proof-of-concept studies to analyze intracellular proteins, enzymes, cofactors and second messengers in either relative or absolute quantifiable manner.
Immunology, Issue 80, Microfluidics, proteomics, systems biology, single-cell analysis, Immunoassays, Lab on a chip, chemical analysis
50618
High Throughput Sequential ELISA for Validation of Biomarkers of Acute Graft-Versus-Host Disease
Institutions: University of Michigan .
Unbiased discovery proteomics strategies have the potential to identify large numbers of novel biomarkers that can improve diagnostic and prognostic testing in a clinical setting and may help guide therapeutic interventions. When large numbers of candidate proteins are identified, it may be difficult to validate candidate biomarkers in a timely and efficient fashion from patient plasma samples that are event-driven, of finite volume and irreplaceable, such as at the onset of acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), a potentially life-threatening complication of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT).Here we describe the process of performing commercially available ELISAs for six validated GVHD proteins: IL-2Rα
5
, TNFR1
6
, HGF
7
, IL-8
8
, elafin
2
, and REG3α
3
(also known as PAP1) in a sequential fashion to minimize freeze-thaw cycles, thawed plasma time and plasma usage. For this procedure we perform the ELISAs in sequential order as determined by sample dilution factor as established in our laboratory using manufacturer ELISA kits and protocols with minor adjustments to facilitate optimal sequential ELISA performance. The resulting plasma biomarker concentrations can then be compiled and analyzed for significant findings within a patient cohort. While these biomarkers are currently for research purposes only, their incorporation into clinical care is currently being investigated in clinical trials.This technique can be applied to perform ELISAs for multiple proteins/cytokines of interest on the same sample(s) provided the samples do not need to be mixed with other reagents. If ELISA kits do not come with pre-coated plates, 96-well half-well plates or 384-well plates can be used to further minimize use of samples/reagents.
Medicine, Issue 68, ELISA, Sequential ELISA, Cytokine, Blood plasma, biomarkers, proteomics, graft-versus-host disease, Small sample, Quantification
4247
Dried Blood Spot Collection of Health Biomarkers to Maximize Participation in Population Studies
Institutions: Harvard School of Public Health, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Pennsylvania State University.
Biomarkers are directly-measured biological indicators of disease, health, exposures, or other biological information. In population and social sciences, biomarkers need to be easy to obtain, transport, and analyze. Dried Blood Spots meet this need, and can be collected in the field with high response rates. These elements are particularly important in longitudinal study designs including interventions where attrition is critical to avoid, and high response rates improve the interpretation of results. Dried Blood Spot sample collection is simple, quick, relatively painless, less invasive then venipuncture, and requires minimal field storage requirements (
i.e.
samples do not need to be immediately frozen and can be stored for a long period of time in a stable freezer environment before assay). The samples can be analyzed for a variety of different analytes, including cholesterol, C-reactive protein, glycosylated hemoglobin, numerous cytokines, and other analytes, as well as provide genetic material. DBS collection is depicted as employed in several recent studies.
Medicine, Issue 83, dried blood spots (DBS), Biomarkers, cardiometabolic risk, Inflammation, standard precautions, blood collection
50973
Real Time Measurements of Membrane Protein:Receptor Interactions Using Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
Institutions: The Technion-Israel Institute of Technology.
Protein-protein interactions are pivotal to most, if not all, physiological processes, and understanding the nature of such interactions is a central step in biological research. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is a sensitive detection technique for label-free study of bio-molecular interactions in real time. In a typical SPR experiment, one component (usually a protein, termed 'ligand') is immobilized onto a sensor chip surface, while the other (the 'analyte') is free in solution and is injected over the surface. Association and dissociation of the analyte from the ligand are measured and plotted in real time on a graph called a sensogram, from which pre-equilibrium and equilibrium data is derived. Being label-free, consuming low amounts of material, and providing pre-equilibrium kinetic data, often makes SPR the method of choice when studying dynamics of protein interactions. However, one has to keep in mind that due to the method's high sensitivity, the data obtained needs to be carefully analyzed, and supported by other biochemical methods. SPR is particularly suitable for studying membrane proteins since it consumes small amounts of purified material, and is compatible with lipids and detergents. This protocol describes an SPR experiment characterizing the kinetic properties of the interaction between a membrane protein (an ABC transporter) and a soluble protein (the transporter's cognate substrate binding protein).
Structural Biology, Issue 93, ABC transporter, substrate binding protein, bio-molecular interaction kinetics, label-free, protein-protein interaction, Surface plasmon resonance (SPR), Biacore
51937
P50 Sensory Gating in Infants
Institutions: University of Colorado School of Medicine, Colorado State University.
Attentional deficits are common in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar mood disorder, and schizophrenia. There has been increasing interest in the neurodevelopmental components of these attentional deficits; neurodevelopmental meaning that while the deficits become clinically prominent in childhood or adulthood, the deficits are the results of problems in brain development that begin in infancy or even prenatally. Despite this interest, there are few methods for assessing attention very early in infancy. This report focuses on one method, infant auditory P50 sensory gating.Attention has several components. One of the earliest components of attention, termed sensory gating, allows the brain to tune out repetitive, noninformative sensory information. Auditory P50 sensory gating refers to one task designed to measure sensory gating using changes in EEG. When identical auditory stimuli are presented 500 ms apart, the evoked response (change in the EEG associated with the processing of the click) to the second stimulus is generally reduced relative to the response to the first stimulus (
i.e.
the response is "gated"). When response to the second stimulus is not reduced, this is considered a poor sensory gating, is reflective of impaired cerebral inhibition, and is correlated with attentional deficits.Because the auditory P50 sensory gating task is passive, it is of potential utility in the study of young infants and may provide a window into the developmental time course of attentional deficits in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders. The goal of this presentation is to describe the methodology for assessing infant auditory P50 sensory gating, a methodology adapted from those used in studies of adult populations.
Behavior, Issue 82, Child Development, Psychophysiology, Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders, Evoked Potentials, Auditory, auditory evoked potential, sensory gating, infant, attention, electrophysiology, infants, sensory gating, endophenotype, attention, P50
50065
Setting-up an
In Vitro Model of Rat Blood-brain Barrier (BBB): A Focus on BBB Impermeability and Receptor-mediated Transport Institutions: VECT-HORUS SAS, CNRS, NICN UMR 7259.
The blood brain barrier (BBB) specifically regulates molecular and cellular flux between the blood and the nervous tissue. Our aim was to develop and characterize a highly reproducible rat syngeneic
in vitro
model of the BBB using co-cultures of primary rat brain endothelial cells (RBEC) and astrocytes to study receptors involved in transcytosis across the endothelial cell monolayer. Astrocytes were isolated by mechanical dissection following trypsin digestion and were frozen for later co-culture. RBEC were isolated from 5-week-old rat cortices. The brains were cleaned of meninges and white matter, and mechanically dissociated following enzymatic digestion. Thereafter, the tissue homogenate was centrifuged in bovine serum albumin to separate vessel fragments from nervous tissue. The vessel fragments underwent a second enzymatic digestion to free endothelial cells from their extracellular matrix. The remaining contaminating cells such as pericytes were further eliminated by plating the microvessel fragments in puromycin-containing medium. They were then passaged onto filters for co-culture with astrocytes grown on the bottom of the wells. RBEC expressed high levels of tight junction (TJ) proteins such as occludin, claudin-5 and ZO-1 with a typical localization at the cell borders. The transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) of brain endothelial monolayers, indicating the tightness of TJs reached 300 ohm·cm
2
on average. The endothelial permeability coefficients (Pe) for lucifer yellow (LY) was highly reproducible with an average of 0.26 ± 0.11 x 10
-3
cm/min. Brain endothelial cells organized in monolayers expressed the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), showed a polarized transport of rhodamine 123, a ligand for P-gp, and showed specific transport of transferrin-Cy3 and DiILDL across the endothelial cell monolayer. In conclusion, we provide a protocol for setting up an
in vitro
BBB model that is highly reproducible due to the quality assurance methods, and that is suitable for research on BBB transporters and receptors.
Medicine, Issue 88, rat brain endothelial cells (RBEC), mouse, spinal cord, tight junction (TJ), receptor-mediated transport (RMT), low density lipoprotein (LDL), LDLR, transferrin, TfR, P-glycoprotein (P-gp), transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER),
51278
Olfactory Neurons Obtained through Nasal Biopsy Combined with Laser-Capture Microdissection: A Potential Approach to Study Treatment Response in Mental Disorders
Institutions: Johns Hopkins University, Howard University, Johns Hopkins University, Sheppard Pratt Hospital, Indiana University.
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder with poorly understood pathophysiology and typically treated with the mood stabilizer, lithium carbonate. Animal studies as well as human genetic studies indicate that lithium affects molecular targets that are involved in neuronal growth, survival and maturation, and notably molecules involved in Wnt signaling. Given the ethical challenge to obtaining brain biopsies for investigating dynamic molecular changes associated with lithium-response in the central nervous system (CNS), one may consider the use of neurons obtained from olfactory tissues to achieve this goal.The olfactory epithelium contains olfactory receptor neurons at different stages of development and glial-like supporting cells. This provides a unique opportunity to study dynamic changes in the CNS of patients with neuropsychiatric diseases, using olfactory tissue safely obtained from nasal biopsies. To overcome the drawback posed by substantial contamination of biopsied olfactory tissue with non-neuronal cells, a novel approach to obtain enriched neuronal cell populations was developed by combining nasal biopsies with laser-capture microdissection. In this study, a system for investigating treatment-associated dynamic molecular changes in neuronal tissue was developed and validated, using a small pilot sample of BD patients recruited for the study of the molecular mechanisms of lithium treatment response.
Neuroscience, Issue 94, bipolar disorder, lithium therapy, nasal biopsy, olfactory epithelium, laser-capture microdissection, real-time PCR,
GSK-3β
51853
Development of a Virtual Reality Assessment of Everyday Living Skills
Institutions: NeuroCog Trials, Inc., Duke-NUS Graduate Medical Center, Duke University Medical Center, Fox Evaluation and Consulting, PLLC, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine.
Cognitive impairments affect the majority of patients with schizophrenia and these impairments predict poor long term psychosocial outcomes. Treatment studies aimed at cognitive impairment in patients with schizophrenia not only require demonstration of improvements on cognitive tests, but also evidence that any cognitive changes lead to clinically meaningful improvements. Measures of “functional capacity” index the extent to which individuals have the potential to perform skills required for real world functioning. Current data do not support the recommendation of any single instrument for measurement of functional capacity. The Virtual Reality Functional Capacity Assessment Tool (VRFCAT) is a novel, interactive gaming based measure of functional capacity that uses a realistic simulated environment to recreate routine activities of daily living. Studies are currently underway to evaluate and establish the VRFCAT’s sensitivity, reliability, validity, and practicality. This new measure of functional capacity is practical, relevant, easy to use, and has several features that improve validity and sensitivity of measurement of function in clinical trials of patients with CNS disorders.
Behavior, Issue 86, Virtual Reality, Cognitive Assessment, Functional Capacity, Computer Based Assessment, Schizophrenia, Neuropsychology, Aging, Dementia
51405
Developing Neuroimaging Phenotypes of the Default Mode Network in PTSD: Integrating the Resting State, Working Memory, and Structural Connectivity
Institutions: Alpert Medical School, Brown University, University of Georgia.
Complementary structural and functional neuroimaging techniques used to examine the Default Mode Network (DMN) could potentially improve assessments of psychiatric illness severity and provide added validity to the clinical diagnostic process. Recent neuroimaging research suggests that DMN processes may be disrupted in a number of stress-related psychiatric illnesses, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).Although specific DMN functions remain under investigation, it is generally thought to be involved in introspection and self-processing. In healthy individuals it exhibits greatest activity during periods of rest, with less activity, observed as deactivation, during cognitive tasks,
e.g.
, working memory. This network consists of the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex/precuneus, lateral parietal cortices and medial temporal regions.Multiple functional and structural imaging approaches have been developed to study the DMN. These have unprecedented potential to further the understanding of the function and dysfunction of this network. Functional approaches, such as the evaluation of resting state connectivity and task-induced deactivation, have excellent potential to identify targeted neurocognitive and neuroaffective (functional) diagnostic markers and may indicate illness severity and prognosis with increased accuracy or specificity. Structural approaches, such as evaluation of morphometry and connectivity, may provide unique markers of etiology and long-term outcomes. Combined, functional and structural methods provide strong multimodal, complementary and synergistic approaches to develop valid DMN-based imaging phenotypes in stress-related psychiatric conditions. This protocol aims to integrate these methods to investigate DMN structure and function in PTSD, relating findings to illness severity and relevant clinical factors.
Medicine, Issue 89, default mode network, neuroimaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, structural connectivity, functional connectivity, posttraumatic stress disorder
51651
The Use of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy as a Tool for the Measurement of Bi-hemispheric Transcranial Electric Stimulation Effects on Primary Motor Cortex Metabolism
Institutions: University of Montréal, McGill University, University of Minnesota.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a neuromodulation technique that has been increasingly used over the past decade in the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders such as stroke and depression. Yet, the mechanisms underlying its ability to modulate brain excitability to improve clinical symptoms remains poorly understood
33
. To help improve this understanding, proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (
1
H-MRS) can be used as it allows the
in vivo
quantification of brain metabolites such as γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate in a region-specific manner
41
. In fact, a recent study demonstrated that
1
H-MRS is indeed a powerful means to better understand the effects of tDCS on neurotransmitter concentration
34
. This article aims to describe the complete protocol for combining tDCS (NeuroConn MR compatible stimulator) with
1
H-MRS at 3 T using a MEGA-PRESS sequence. We will describe the impact of a protocol that has shown great promise for the treatment of motor dysfunctions after stroke, which consists of bilateral stimulation of primary motor cortices
27,30,31
. Methodological factors to consider and possible modifications to the protocol are also discussed.
Neuroscience, Issue 93, proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, transcranial direct current stimulation, primary motor cortex, GABA, glutamate, stroke
51631
Utilizing Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation to Study the Human Neuromuscular System
Institutions: Ohio University.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been in use for more than 20 years
1
, and has grown exponentially in popularity over the past decade. While the use of TMS has expanded to the study of many systems and processes during this time, the original application and perhaps one of the most common uses of TMS involves studying the physiology, plasticity and function of the human neuromuscular system. Single pulse TMS applied to the motor cortex excites pyramidal neurons transsynaptically
2
(Figure 1) and results in a measurable electromyographic response that can be used to study and evaluate the integrity and excitability of the corticospinal tract in humans
3
. Additionally, recent advances in magnetic stimulation now allows for partitioning of cortical versus spinal excitability
4,5
. For example, paired-pulse TMS can be used to assess intracortical facilitatory and inhibitory properties by combining a conditioning stimulus and a test stimulus at different interstimulus intervals
3,4,6-8
. In this video article we will demonstrate the methodological and technical aspects of these techniques. Specifically, we will demonstrate single-pulse and paired-pulse TMS techniques as applied to the flexor carpi radialis (FCR) muscle as well as the erector spinae (ES) musculature. Our laboratory studies the FCR muscle as it is of interest to our research on the effects of wrist-hand cast immobilization on reduced muscle performance
6,9
, and we study the ES muscles due to these muscles clinical relevance as it relates to low back pain
8
. With this stated, we should note that TMS has been used to study many muscles of the hand, arm and legs, and should iterate that our demonstrations in the FCR and ES muscle groups are only selected examples of TMS being used to study the human neuromuscular system.
Medicine, Issue 59, neuroscience, muscle, electromyography, physiology, TMS, strength, motor control. sarcopenia, dynapenia, lumbar
3387
Biomarkers in an Animal Model for Revealing Neural, Hematologic, and Behavioral Correlates of PTSD
Institutions: Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, GenProMarkers, Inc..
Identification of biomarkers representing the evolution of the pathophysiology of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is vitally important, not only for objective diagnosis but also for the evaluation of therapeutic efficacy and resilience to trauma. Ongoing research is directed at identifying molecular biomarkers for PTSD, including traumatic stress induced proteins, transcriptomes, genomic variances and genetic modulators, using biologic samples from subjects' blood, saliva, urine, and postmortem brain tissues. However, the correlation of these biomarker molecules in peripheral or postmortem samples to altered brain functions associated with psychiatric symptoms in PTSD remains unresolved. Here, we present an animal model of PTSD in which both peripheral blood and central brain biomarkers, as well as behavioral phenotype, can be collected and measured, thus providing the needed correlation of the central biomarkers of PTSD, which are mechanistic and pathognomonic but cannot be collected from people, with the peripheral biomarkers and behavioral phenotypes, which can.
Our animal model of PTSD employs restraint and tail shocks repeated for three continuous days - the inescapable tail-shock model (ITS) in rats. This ITS model mimics the pathophysiology of PTSD
17, 7, 4, 10
. We and others have verified that the ITS model induces behavioral and neurobiological alterations similar to those found in PTSD subjects
17, 7, 10, 9
. Specifically, these stressed rats exhibit (1) a delayed and exaggerated startle response appearing several days after stressor cessation, which given the compressed time scale of the rat's life compared to a humans, corresponds to the one to three months delay of symptoms in PTSD patients (DSM-IV-TR PTSD Criterian D/E
13
), (2) enhanced plasma corticosterone (CORT) for several days, indicating compromise of the hypothalamopituitary axis (HPA), and (3) retarded body weight gain after stressor cessation, indicating dysfunction of metabolic regulation.
The experimental paradigms employed for this model are: (1) a learned helplessness paradigm in the rat assayed by measurement of acoustic startle response (ASR) and a charting of body mass; (2) microdissection of the rat brain into regions and nuclei; (3) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for blood levels of CORT; (4) a gene expression microarray plus related bioinformatics tools
18
. This microarray, dubbed rMNChip, focuses on mitochondrial and mitochondria-related nuclear genes in the rat so as to specifically address the neuronal bioenergetics hypothesized to be involved in PTSD.
Medicine, Issue 68, Genetics, Physiology, Neuroscience, Immunology, PTSD, biomarker, stress, fear, startle, corticosterone, animal model, RNA, RT-PCR, gene chip, cDNA microarray, oligonucleotide microarray, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, cingulate cortex, hypothalamus, white blood cell
3361
Diffusion Tensor Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Analysis of Neurodegenerative Diseases
Institutions: University of Ulm.
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) techniques provide information on the microstructural processes of the cerebral white matter (WM)
in vivo
. The present applications are designed to investigate differences of WM involvement patterns in different brain diseases, especially neurodegenerative disorders, by use of different DTI analyses in comparison with matched controls. DTI data analysis is performed in a variate fashion,
i.e.
voxelwise comparison of regional diffusion direction-based metrics such as fractional anisotropy (FA), together with fiber tracking (FT) accompanied by tractwise fractional anisotropy statistics (TFAS) at the group level in order to identify differences in FA along WM structures, aiming at the definition of regional patterns of WM alterations at the group level. Transformation into a stereotaxic standard space is a prerequisite for group studies and requires thorough data processing to preserve directional inter-dependencies. The present applications show optimized technical approaches for this preservation of quantitative and directional information during spatial normalization in data analyses at the group level. On this basis, FT techniques can be applied to group averaged data in order to quantify metrics information as defined by FT. Additionally, application of DTI methods,
i.e.
differences in FA-maps after stereotaxic alignment, in a longitudinal analysis at an individual subject basis reveal information about the progression of neurological disorders. Further quality improvement of DTI based results can be obtained during preprocessing by application of a controlled elimination of gradient directions with high noise levels. In summary, DTI is used to define a distinct WM pathoanatomy of different brain diseases by the combination of whole brain-based and tract-based DTI analysis.
Medicine, Issue 77, Neuroscience, Neurobiology, Molecular Biology, Biomedical Engineering, Anatomy, Physiology, Neurodegenerative Diseases, nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR, MR, MRI, diffusion tensor imaging, fiber tracking, group level comparison, neurodegenerative diseases, brain, imaging, clinical techniques
50427
Identification of Disease-related Spatial Covariance Patterns using Neuroimaging Data
Institutions: The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research.
The scaled subprofile model (SSM)
1-4
is a multivariate PCA-based algorithm that identifies major sources of variation in patient and control group brain image data while rejecting lesser components (
Figure 1
). Applied directly to voxel-by-voxel covariance data of steady-state multimodality images, an entire group image set can be reduced to a few significant linearly independent covariance patterns and corresponding subject scores. Each pattern, termed a group invariant subprofile (GIS), is an orthogonal principal component that represents a spatially distributed network of functionally interrelated brain regions. Large global mean scalar effects that can obscure smaller network-specific contributions are removed by the inherent logarithmic conversion and mean centering of the data
2,5,6
. Subjects express each of these patterns to a variable degree represented by a simple scalar score that can correlate with independent clinical or psychometric descriptors
7,8
. Using logistic regression analysis of subject scores (
i.e.
pattern expression values), linear coefficients can be derived to combine multiple principal components into single disease-related spatial covariance patterns,
i.e.
composite networks with improved discrimination of patients from healthy control subjects
5,6
. Cross-validation within the derivation set can be performed using bootstrap resampling techniques
9
. Forward validation is easily confirmed by direct score evaluation of the derived patterns in prospective datasets
10
. Once validated, disease-related patterns can be used to score individual patients with respect to a fixed reference sample, often the set of healthy subjects that was used (with the disease group) in the original pattern derivation
11
. These standardized values can in turn be used to assist in differential diagnosis
12,13
and to assess disease progression and treatment effects at the network level
7,14-16
. We present an example of the application of this methodology to FDG PET data of Parkinson's Disease patients and normal controls using our in-house software to derive a characteristic covariance pattern biomarker of disease.
Medicine, Issue 76, Neurobiology, Neuroscience, Anatomy, Physiology, Molecular Biology, Basal Ganglia Diseases, Parkinsonian Disorders, Parkinson Disease, Movement Disorders, Neurodegenerative Diseases, PCA, SSM, PET, imaging biomarkers, functional brain imaging, multivariate spatial covariance analysis, global normalization, differential diagnosis, PD, brain, imaging, clinical techniques
50319
The NeuroStar TMS Device: Conducting the FDA Approved Protocol for Treatment of Depression
Institutions: Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Inc..
The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic fields. These rapidly alternating fields induce electrical currents within localized, targeted regions of the cortex which are associated with various physiological and functional brain changes.
1,2,3
In 2007, O'Reardon
et al.
, utilizing the NeuroStar device, published the results of an industry-sponsored, multisite, randomized, sham-stimulation controlled clinical trial in which 301 patients with major depression, who had previously failed to respond to at least one adequate antidepressant treatment trial, underwent either active or sham TMS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The patients, who were medication-free at the time of the study, received TMS five times per week over 4-6 weeks.
4
The results demonstrated that a sub-population of patients (those who were relatively less resistant to medication, having failed not more than two good pharmacologic trials) showed a statistically significant improvement on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Scale (MADRS), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD), and various other outcome measures. In October 2008, supported by these and other similar results
5,6,7
, Neuronetics obtained the first and only Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the clinical treatment of a specific form of medication-refractory depression using a TMS Therapy device (FDA approval K061053).
In this paper, we will explore the specified FDA approved NeuroStar depression treatment protocol (to be administered only under prescription and by a licensed medical profession in either an in- or outpatient setting).
Neuroscience, Issue 45, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Depression, Neuronetics, NeuroStar, FDA Approved
2345
Basics of Multivariate Analysis in Neuroimaging Data
Institutions: Columbia University.
Multivariate analysis techniques for neuroimaging data have recently received increasing attention as they have many attractive features that cannot be easily realized by the more commonly used univariate, voxel-wise, techniques
1,5,6,7,8,9
. Multivariate approaches evaluate correlation/covariance of activation across brain regions, rather than proceeding on a voxel-by-voxel basis. Thus, their results can be more easily interpreted as a signature of neural networks. Univariate approaches, on the other hand, cannot directly address interregional correlation in the brain. Multivariate approaches can also result in greater statistical power when compared with univariate techniques, which are forced to employ very stringent corrections for voxel-wise multiple comparisons. Further, multivariate techniques also lend themselves much better to prospective application of results from the analysis of one dataset to entirely new datasets. Multivariate techniques are thus well placed to provide information about mean differences and correlations with behavior, similarly to univariate approaches, with potentially greater statistical power and better reproducibility checks. In contrast to these advantages is the high barrier of entry to the use of multivariate approaches, preventing more widespread application in the community. To the neuroscientist becoming familiar with multivariate analysis techniques, an initial survey of the field might present a bewildering variety of approaches that, although algorithmically similar, are presented with different emphases, typically by people with mathematics backgrounds. We believe that multivariate analysis techniques have sufficient potential to warrant better dissemination. Researchers should be able to employ them in an informed and accessible manner. The current article is an attempt at a didactic introduction of multivariate techniques for the novice. A conceptual introduction is followed with a very simple application to a diagnostic data set from the Alzheimer s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI), clearly demonstrating the superior performance of the multivariate approach.
JoVE Neuroscience, Issue 41, fMRI, PET, multivariate analysis, cognitive neuroscience, clinical neuroscience
1988
The use of Biofeedback in Clinical Virtual Reality: The INTREPID Project
Institutions: Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by a constant and unspecific anxiety that interferes with daily-life activities. Its high prevalence in general population and the severe limitations it causes, point out the necessity to find new efficient strategies to treat it. Together with the cognitive-behavioral treatments, relaxation represents a useful approach for the treatment of GAD, but it has the limitation that it is hard to be learned. The INTREPID project is aimed to implement a new instrument to treat anxiety-related disorders and to test its clinical efficacy in reducing anxiety-related symptoms. The innovation of this approach is the combination of virtual reality and biofeedback, so that the first one is directly modified by the output of the second one. In this way, the patient is made aware of his or her reactions through the modification of some features of the VR environment in real time. Using mental exercises the patient learns to control these physiological parameters and using the feedback provided by the virtual environment is able to gauge his or her success. The supplemental use of portable devices, such as PDA or smart-phones, allows the patient to perform at home, individually and autonomously, the same exercises experienced in therapist's office. The goal is to anchor the learned protocol in a real life context, so enhancing the patients' ability to deal with their symptoms. The expected result is a better and faster learning of relaxation techniques, and thus an increased effectiveness of the treatment if compared with traditional clinical protocols.
Neuroscience, Issue 33, virtual reality, biofeedback, generalized anxiety disorder, Intrepid, cybertherapy, cyberpsychology
1554
Interview: Protein Folding and Studies of Neurodegenerative Diseases
Institutions: MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In this interview, Dr. Lindquist describes relationships between protein folding, prion diseases and neurodegenerative disorders. The problem of the protein folding is at the core of the modern biology. In addition to their traditional biochemical functions, proteins can mediate transfer of biological information and therefore can be considered a genetic material. This recently discovered function of proteins has important implications for studies of human disorders. Dr. Lindquist also describes current experimental approaches to investigate the mechanism of neurodegenerative diseases based on genetic studies in model organisms.
Neuroscience, issue 17, protein folding, brain, neuron, prion, neurodegenerative disease, yeast, screen, Translational Research
786
A Strategy to Identify de Novo Mutations in Common Disorders such as Autism and Schizophrenia
Institutions: Universite de Montreal, Universite de Montreal, Universite de Montreal.
There are several lines of evidence supporting the role of
de novo
mutations as a mechanism for common disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. First, the
de novo
mutation rate in humans is relatively high, so new mutations are generated at a high frequency in the population. However,
de novo
mutations have not been reported in most common diseases. Mutations in genes leading to severe diseases where there is a strong negative selection against the phenotype, such as lethality in embryonic stages or reduced reproductive fitness, will not be transmitted to multiple family members, and therefore will not be detected by linkage gene mapping or association studies. The observation of very high concordance in monozygotic twins and very low concordance in dizygotic twins also strongly supports the hypothesis that a significant fraction of cases may result from new mutations. Such is the case for diseases such as autism and schizophrenia. Second, despite reduced reproductive fitness
1
and extremely variable environmental factors, the incidence of some diseases is maintained worldwide at a relatively high and constant rate. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia, with an incidence of approximately 1% worldwide. Mutational load can be thought of as a balance between selection for or against a deleterious mutation and its production by
de novo
mutation. Lower rates of reproduction constitute a negative selection factor that should reduce the number of mutant alleles in the population, ultimately leading to decreased disease prevalence. These selective pressures tend to be of different intensity in different environments. Nonetheless, these severe mental disorders have been maintained at a constant relatively high prevalence in the worldwide population across a wide range of cultures and countries despite a strong negative selection against them
2
. This is not what one would predict in diseases with reduced reproductive fitness, unless there was a high new mutation rate. Finally, the effects of paternal age: there is a significantly increased risk of the disease with increasing paternal age, which could result from the age related increase in paternal
de novo
mutations. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia
3
. The male-to-female ratio of mutation rate is estimated at about 4–6:1, presumably due to a higher number of germ-cell divisions with age in males. Therefore, one would predict that
de novo
mutations would more frequently come from males, particularly older males
4
. A high rate of new mutations may in part explain why genetic studies have so far failed to identify many genes predisposing to complexes diseases genes, such as autism and schizophrenia, and why diseases have been identified for a mere 3% of genes in the human genome. Identification for
de novo
mutations as a cause of a disease requires a targeted molecular approach, which includes studying parents and affected subjects. The process for determining if the genetic basis of a disease may result in part from
de novo
mutations and the molecular approach to establish this link will be illustrated, using autism and schizophrenia as examples.
Medicine, Issue 52, de novo mutation, complex diseases, schizophrenia, autism, rare variations, DNA sequencing
2534
Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Emotion Regulation
Institutions: University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, University of Alberta, Edmonton, University of Alberta, Edmonton, University of Alberta, Edmonton, University of Alberta, Edmonton, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
The ability to control/regulate emotions is an important coping mechanism in the face of emotionally stressful situations. Although significant progress has been made in understanding conscious/deliberate emotion regulation (ER), less is known about non-conscious/automatic ER and the associated neural correlates. This is in part due to the problems inherent in the unitary concepts of automatic and conscious processing
1
. Here, we present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of both deliberate and automatic ER using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This protocol allows new avenues of inquiry into various aspects of ER. For instance, the experimental design allows manipulation of the goal to regulate emotion (conscious vs. non-conscious), as well as the intensity of the emotional challenge (high vs. low). Moreover, it allows investigation of both immediate (emotion perception) and long-term effects (emotional memory) of ER strategies on emotion processing. Therefore, this protocol may contribute to better understanding of the neural mechanisms of emotion regulation in healthy behaviour, and to gaining insight into possible causes of deficits in depression and anxiety disorders in which emotion
dys
regulation is often among the core debilitating features.
Neuroscience, Issue 54, Emotion Suppression, Automatic Emotion Control, Deliberate Emotion Control, Goal Induction, Neuroimaging
2430 | 57,790 | 22,223 | 0.000045 |
warc | 201704 | Project
The project team consisted of a wide variety of clinical and support personnel. Its members represented outcomes management, nursing, respiratory, professional practice, medical staff, and finance. The team selected the Six Sigma DMAIC process as its improvement method. Using Juran’s Pareto Analysis, VOCs, cause-effect diagrams, and FMEA, the team developed improvement strategies and was able to reach its goal of a 90% compliance rate with heart failure discharge instruction.
Problem
A not-for-profit healthcare system found that adherence to clinical quality ob- served metrics for inpatient heart failure discharge instruction (HF-1) was consistently below national standards. For FY 2006, the average observed rate of compliance was 45.3%. Noncompliance could result in penalties with reimbursements from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), additional costs because of the potential of harmful events, and a decrease in patient satisfaction.
Improvement Process
The project Y was average length of stay (ALOS), measured in days for all adult inpatients coded with DRG 1272 (heart failure and shock). This included patients entering the facility through the Emergency Department (E.D.), direct admits from a physician, or patients arriving from another healthcare organization. The beginning boundary for the project was the time the admission order was logged. The ending boundary was when the patient was discharged from the bed and left the floor. Excluded from the project was the patient’s stay in the E.D., and observation patients (held
To better understand the current process, length of stay data were gathered and the process was characterized in terms of the major workflows. Over the preceding year, 57% of DRG 127 patients had a length of stay less than or equal to the target of 4.1 days. This had an associated baseline sigma level of 1.68 and cost of poor quality of $1,001,000 annually. A SIPOC high-level process map and detailed process maps were created for the following workflows: E.D., inpatient flow, floor arrival, critical care transfer, ongoing assessment, and discharge. This effort provided all team members with a deeper under- standing of the overall process.
After analyzing these process maps, the team brainstormed potential causes of extended length of stay and organized
them into possible cause categories. A cause-effect diagram was constructed for each possible cause category. Using the diagram, the team was able to further identify possible root causes. Subject matter experts organized these theories by common groupings. As a result 25 possible root causes were identi- fied. To narrow the group, the team prioritized the root causes based on the degree of expected impact on length of stay, and the degree of control the team had over them.
A detailed data-collection plan was created to document data sources, sample sizes, data analysis tools, and responsible parties for each of the possible root causes. In most cases, data were available in electronic logs, but new data had to be collected for others. Graphical analysis tools used included box plots, scatter plots, Pareto charts, and bar charts. In addition to descriptive statistics (average, median, standard deviation), statistical analysis tools including non- parametric hypothesis tests, regression, and Chi-square analysis were used. Some hypothesized root causes were:
Inpatient holding process was not standarized Socially-related discharge needs assessments were not comprehensive Socially-related discharge needs were not identified early in admission
Rigorous analysis of the data revealed the vital few Xs driving extended length of stay. Some included:
Inpatient holding process not standardized CHF standard orders were not used (no parameters) There was delay between the discharge order and the time the patient leaves the floor.
The team brainstormed possible solution strategies that would address each of the vital few Xs causing extended length of stay for congestive heart failure patients. Some included:
Patient holding: Develop ways to get the patient out of the E.D. faster; improve and expedite care for patients that are held. CHF Standard Orders: Reduce variation in practices by developing an order set and interdisciplinary pathway and provide for the education of physicians and hospital staff in their use. Delay in DC orders to leave floor: Develop a better communication process in relationship to the anticipated discharge date and the needs starting at day one of admission.
Additional detailed solutions were developed to enable these strategies. These solutions were rated against
13 specific performance and business criteria using a Pugh Concept Selection Matrix. The selected solution was piloted over a four-week period. During the pilot, the team collected data on length of stay and key process variables to ensure individual components of the overall solution were properly implemented and effective.
The pilot was successful in reducing length of stay to an average of 2.6 days for patients with hospitalists attending, with 91% of patients discharged within 4.1 days of admit. The team documented process changes on the original process maps and developed an implementation plan to formally roll out the new process.
A control plan was developed to ensure the improvements and gains would be sustained over the long term. Key elements included the control subjects (length of stay, readmission rate, and proven Xs), measurements (sensor, frequency, sample size), and actions (criteria for taking action, responsibilities).
Results
Results are being monitored as an ongoing activity. To date, the ALOS has been reduced 31%, from 5.18 days to 3.6 days and continues to drop towards the level shown possible in the pilot. Compared to the baseline of 57% of patients discharged within 4.1 days, more than 80% are now discharged within 4.1 days. Readmission rates are being monitored to ensure there is no increase. | 6,026 | 2,699 | 0.000372 |
warc | 201704 | How long has this been going on? How often does it happen?
Are you there?
Twice this year enough to make me stop driving only lasts for less than one minute or so
does it involve the eye at all...pain, watering, blurred vision?
This could represent one of the trigeminal autonomic cephalgias. The trigeminal nerve is the 5th cranial nerve (there is one on each side of the head). It supplies sensation to the temple region as well as the face. It can be easily irritated and can cause severe boring or lancinating pain.
Short lasting unilateral neuralgiform (SUNCT) headache attacks are very brief, lasting between 5–250 seconds (mean duration 49 seconds). The paroxysms begin abruptly, reaching the maximum intensity within 2–3 seconds; the pain is maintained at the maximum intensity before abating rapidly. Most patients are completely pain-free between attacks.
If these attacks increase in frequency, you can try treating them with indomethacin. This is an anti-inflammatory that often helps.
If ineffective, you could try carbamazepine or lamotrigine. These are typically effective at preventing the attacks.
Please let me know if you have any follow up questions about this. | 1,201 | 688 | 0.001478 |
warc | 201704 | Kudos to the IRD for their attitude:
If putting off paying tax is what a company needs to do to survive, then it should, the Commissioner of Inland Revenue says.
IRD is urging businesses to get in contact at the earliest opportunity if they are having trouble meeting their tax obligations. Bob Russell said the department could ease the burden in a number of ways, such as agreeing to payments in instalments and waiving penalties.
Tax payments can be challenging for some businesses, especially that you often have to pay tax on income before you have always received it all.
However be aware you will still have to pay interest, and IRD interest will be more than what you can borrow comercially for.
IRD charged use-of-money interest – currently 9.73 per cent, having dropped from 14.24 per cent as part of the Government’s small-business relief package – and it was not opposed to companies considering that as a banking facility if they needed to for a time.
“In fact we might think that that’s a good strategy for them if they come and talk to us and get into an instalment arrangement,” Russell said. “We’re prepared to wait a little while, the interest will accrue but the penalties can be turned off while they do the things they need to do to survive and get past their difficult time.”
Very reasonable. | 1,368 | 739 | 0.001409 |
warc | 201704 | A major donor to the Colorado Springs Diocese is threatening to withhold his contributions. That’s in the wake of the bishop’s controversial call to ban communion for Catholics, if they vote for certain political candidates. In fact, Parker lawyer and businessman Ric Kethcart likens Bishop Michael Sheridan's stance to McCarthyism.
Last week Bishop Sheridan asked Catholics who vote for candidates backing abortion, gay marriage, stem-cell research, or euthanasia to recant and confess before they receive communion. But Kethcart says mixing politics and the church is more disturbing than the clergy abuse scandal.
He says the bishop, in his opinion, has chosen to lay down his staff and replace it with a bludgeon. "To basically put sanctions on people who exercise their right to vote is, I feel, a step too far," he says.
That's Kethcart’s basic argument. He had pledged $100,000 to help build a new church in Highlands Ranch, which is part of the Colorado Springs Diocese. But now that Bishop Michael Sheridan has said Catholics should not support candidates who are in favor of abortion, euthanasia or same-sex marriage, he is threatening to pull his donation. "Unless his position has changed, I can't in good conscience---my family can’t in good conscience---contribute to support this attitude that creates guilt in its parishioners because they make political choices," he says. “Those who oppose have a tendency to try and bark louder than the rest.”
Peter Howard is Bishop Sheridan's spokesman. He says the Diocese will not allow money to dictate the policies of the church. "If people want to withdraw their money, they are free to do that. It’s their money, but the church will go on. God will always provide, so we're not concerned."
But Kethcart believes others will join him in voting with their wallets. "I've gotten a tremendous number of emails and calls," he says. In the end, he hopes he can convince Bishop Sheridan to take a more moderate view. "I am hopeful that this dialogue will result in maybe a reassessment or a restatement of positions that have become increasingly harsh," he says.
Kethcart says even if he can't resolve his dispute with the Diocese, he will still give the money to charity.
Here is the complete text of Kethcart's letter to Bishop Sheridan:
AN OPEN LETTER TO BISHOP SHERIDAN
Dear Bishop Sheridan:
I have been an active member of the Diocese of Colorado Springs virtually since its inception. I have participated in many efforts within the Diocese to create new communities in the Northern Region and have sought to help both the Diocese and its Northern parishes to create “community” to spread Christ’s word and love. Your recent pastoral letter on the exercise of your parishioners’ right to vote is, frankly, more of a threat to this Diocese, and its Catholics, than any of the recent Church scandals we have all had to suffer through. In this pastoral letter, you have chosen to lay down your staff and replace it with a bludgeon. I cannot help but be reminded of such things as the McCarthy Era in the 50s, the Inquisition and the much checkered history of Christ’s Church regularly forgetting that the free will of its members cannot be pummeled into “correct thought”, but rather that the choices of its members must be freely made as an act of love, not fear.
Your position is full of misunderstanding of the complexities of choice and the obligations of political leadership. Your challenge to our Church and its most loyal members will simply alienate the most caring and loving people who make up the majority of Christ’s Church in our Diocese. Instead of being a bold leadership position, it is divisive, callus and cold hearted dictum. Catholic men and women who choose to dedicate themselves to others by running for office, thereby assuming the responsibility of representing the interests of their constituents, cannot be placed in the position of being “un-Catholic” by doing precisely what they are elected to do ... represent the views and desires of all their constituents. Their representation does not mean they necessarily believe a certain course of action is a “good”, they only are affirming that moral choices must be made based upon the free will of those who must act. Our job as Christ’s Church is to give these dedicated people support and counsel so that they understand many perspectives in order that they make the best possible decisions for all their constituents. Legislating morality never works, for it just creates an illegal industry that exploits those who may have a different perspective and viewpoint than those who propose, and then cram down, “moral legislation”.
Regardless of your postulation, abortion, stem cell experimentation, euthanasia and gay marriages are NOT a litmus test of proper choices of representatives; they are, at best, specific and narrow aspects of a rich spectrum of how these representatives choose to address the very real, complex moral issues they must deal with daily. I need to make some specific, critical points:
One of the basic fallacies of your position is that if you elect officials who “think right” by taking “Right Positions” that they will actually vote “right”. In fact, there is no accountability to assure they will even vote a particular way once they are in office. Virtually all legislation deals with a multiplicity of issues. It could well be that a particularly complex piece of legislation, which has truly compelling aspects which demand its passage, may take an incorrect position on one of your “Right Positions”. Under such circumstance, any elected official will inevitably vote against this particular “Right Position” for the overriding good of those he/she represents by passing the desirable legislative act.
Another fallacy of your position is that those “espousing” the “Right Positions” actually believe these positions, and will stake their political future on always supporting your narrow agenda.
o You may not accept this, but a number of people are currently “anti-abortion” publicly, to secure voting blocks, and not because they have a firm, committed belief in this issue. o The same can be said for the narrow group who wish to ban “gay marriages”. They are simply using homosexual prejudices of certain voters to fan this prejudice and to get their votes. This “anti-gay” movement is being steered towards a constitutional amendment for a very obvious reason; such an action will virtually kill any viable need to address the realities of actually voting on such an issue in the near future, thereby allowing these politicians to “trash” those who are the focus of this prejudice, without having to actually so vote. All you have to do is live in Washington DC, and interact with professional politicians as I have, to truly understand the pragmatic reality within which these people must survive.
It is very possible that any elected representative may never deal with any issue addressing and/or incorporating one of those “Right Positions” during their term, but they will deal with life changing issues that have nothing to do with these limited issues virtually daily. Using your test, you have just elected an individual for specific reasons and then they simply never deal with the “Right Positions”.
How can any ethnical person choose a candidate simply because they have “Right Positions”, when all of their other positions could be “wrong”? I can list a number of infamous persons who would be correct on “Right Positions”, but have been abominations in public office. You only need to think of the junior senator from Wisconsin in the 1950s to see that; Joe McCarthy would have been completely aligned with the “Right Positions”.
You have indicated that if neither candidate has “Right Positions”, a Colorado Springs Catholic must “write in” another candidate. In our representative democracy, the dominant vote getter takes all. “Writing in” a name that has no realistic hope of being elected simply supports the incumbent or the favored candidate (who may be the same). Such an action is actually a vote FOR what may a totally unacceptable candidate as surely as any other action. The proper action is to vote for the candidate which more closely represents an individual’s total perspective. While in graduate school, I participated in studying a University of Michigan report on the presidential election of 1968. Many of us who had supported Robert F. Kennedy could not support Hubert Humphrey and chose not to vote. As a result, Richard Nixon was elected. In effect, I elected Richard Nixon. I will never NOT vote again, and I will never throw my vote away as you counsel.
Your simplistic perspective on the four “Right Positions” does not support Christ’s Church’s view of love, compassion and community. The fact that there can be meaningful, differing opinions on moral issues is abhorrent to doctrinarians, but, since all of these are moral issues, which involve judgments and choices, it means that differing opinions exist. These very complex ideas and challenges do not have clear answers, regardless of narrow minded perspectives.
o Abortion. Of course, Christ’s Church and all of its members want to save every life, and every day, we should reach out and try and create an environment to allow the birth of all conceived children. Our Church tries very hard to offer a support system to allow this natural unfolding of conception, but we cannot touch and assist all who must deal with this very complex issue. Our obligation is to help, not condemn. Would Christ do anything else?
Pro Choice is not Pro Abortion. The equating of these concepts is incredibly naive and insultful. If you create an environment in which every person addressing this issue has a choice and is given a chance to act freely, many will make a choice for life; some will not. That is the choice that is made about sin each day ... it’s that free will aspect of humans which we must respect. If one chooses “wrong” and “sins”, we must create the opportunity for repentance and redemption, not castigate the “sinners” and push them from the Body of Christ.
Outlawing abortion will kill more than unborn babies. Since the relaxation of laws due to Roe v. Wade, at least those women who choose abortion have proper medical care and a support system to try and recover from this trauma. Would you really return our society to illegal abortions and the very real health threats for the women involved? I have heard the argument that we have made abortions too easy. Have we really? Or is it that with no illegal shroud we are realizing the scope of this very shocking circumstance through stark, public data?
To suggest the right of the unborn to life is absolute without also taking an absolute position on the death penalty and fighting in a war, by saying “... there are differing thoughts on the war and the death penalty ...” is simply choosing which killing is an absolute and which one can be “danced around”. If you are going to have moral absolutes ... well, they must be absolutes! Is killing an innocent fetus any more “heinous” than injecting lethal drugs into a possibly repentant murderer... or even someone who is not truly guilty? Or any more heinous than shooting a wide-eyed “combatant” who is holding a gun pointed at you in the streets of Baghdad simply because you are not sure if he will pull the trigger or throw down the weapon? All of these tragic circumstances are rife with very complex moral issues that defy generalizations. I hate the results of them all, but I am not ready to condemn anyone for considering all of the possible facets that impact such choices.
o Gay Marriages. Frankly, this is the biggest non-issue in recent history. The sanctity of marriage, as we traditionalists know it, is not in the least threatened by choices that some individuals may make which are simply choices I might not make. I don’t drink, but I certainly would not condemn others for choosing to drink. In case it is not obvious, those choosing such a lifestyle most likely would neither choose a more traditional relationship, nor would they be happy if forced by convention to take such action. If such a choice would make those lacking happiness in their world more happy, and perhaps more Christian towards others, how could this “joining” be wrong for all those around these two people? If any person chooses such a course of action, this does not mean they are any less entitled to our love and welcoming into our community. We are all sinners, and if such act is a sin, is it any worse than my own? Is it worse than those traditional couples who are divorced and remarried outside the Church? Am I to judge that, or are you to judge that? Why are we so concerned about judging, when Christ said to love one another? Shouldn’t we put down our stones and embrace those who “sin” or otherwise choose differently than I? o Stem Cell Research. To object to using stem cells for research is like stating doctors who harvest organs to save lives from a recently murdered person are guilty of the murder. If the tissue is going to be available, or otherwise discarded, there is no reason not to harvest their value for medical research. If you have ever had a loved one suffer from Alzheimer’s disease or Diabetes, like I have, you would not be so quick to judge such beneficial work. If properly done with reasonable controls, this effort will save lives and more importantly avoid terrible and decaying diseases which take horrific tolls not only on the suffering individuals but their families. o Euthanasia. What precisely qualifies as Euthanasia? Certainly killing healthy people due to ethnic cleansing, more correctly known as genocide, is clearly immoral, illegal and abhorrent. However, I am certain this is not what is at issue.
Is assisted suicide what is meant here? If that is the focus, would this not also qualify for the same type of reasonable disagreements which affect the issue of abortion? Is not the Church better off to provide proper counseling and help than to condemn those who may have what they believe is a moral right to choose this course and give them an opportunity to share in Christ’s love? How can the Church demand absolutes when a loved one is suffering excruciating pain endlessly, simply because they can be kept alive? If someone, or some person’s family, thoughtfully makes such a terrible choice, how can I be so arrogant so as to condemn them?
Is it Euthanasia to
Choose to not authorize elective surgery on someone dying of a disease, so that their death may occur sooner? I and my family have had to make such a choice; or to Choose to not authorize nourishment to someone so ill that to choose otherwise would prolong an illness which has no possibility of survival? Again, my wife, Cindi, has had to make this horrible decision in support of her Dad with regard to her Mom; or to Disconnect life support if someone is brain dead? I did that for my Dad when only his pacemaker was keeping his body functioning; this “choice” allowed him to donate his liver to another critically ill woman 2,000 miles away. Where do such choices stop being an act of love and become sin? I will never accept that each of these decisions were not ones that Jesus would make.
Perhaps the most unacceptable attribute of your position is the fact it is a direct slap to my Irish Catholic, Democratic roots. The Catholic Church in this country survived and flourished, due, in large part, to the devotion and commitment of us Irish Catholics who were predominantly Democrats. Your position, and to a lesser extent, the position of Archbishop Chaput, is clearly anti-Democratic and has the result of endorsing candidates who in many instances do not care one wit about the inherent dignity of each and every person in this world; they have simply taken a position to get votes. I would never suggest that only Democrats feel true compassion for all humans and all Americans. It is just that basic human dignity has been a core philosophy of this party and its leaders, especially over the last 70 years. Specifically, this positioning insults a wonderful Catholic, Ken Salazar. One may disagree with his political stands on certain key economic or international issues, but to seek to isolate and castigate him for his belief that every American should be free to make his/her own choices is a blatant misuse of your canonical authority, especially given his real devotion to our faith. There are many other highly dedicated Democrats and Republicans who will be inappropriately washed by these gross and inaccurate generalizations, so Ken Salazar shall not be alone.
Unquestionably, you have been deluged with a number of comments on your public position and the use of your pulpit and office to raise your opinions to a “Catholic Church statement of position”. We must remember that Christ’s Church is a Church of its people, and that its leaders are temporary servants, who are to foment Christian love, and to guide in moral ways, using powers of persuasion and Christ’s word, not sacramental extortion.
Please, recant your ill-informed position! Emphasize that the Church’s teachings are that all men and women are loved by God and that Christ’s Church will offer its perspective and views on all issues as it sees fit, as it offers a reasoned interpretation of Christ’s teachings. Do not judge others for their willingness to refrain from imposing their personal moral and religious viewpoints on others or for their “failure” to condemn others who think differently. Support those who accept all humans as dignified members of God’s family, whether they may choose to “sin” or to choose the way some would think as “the right way”. Please do not let our Church leadership become modern day Pharisees, who feel only their way is the “right” way; unquestionably they, too had “Right Positions” 2000 years ago, just as you now espoused.
If such action is not taken, I and my family have some difficult choices to make. I have willingly and eagerly supported our Church and our Diocese for many decades. However, I cannot support such narrow mindedness and such misplaced and uninformed zealotry. While I know that no position of the Diocese and its Shepherd should, or will, be made as a result of money, I will have no choice but to revoke my $100,000 pledge to St. Mark’s capital campaign and further economic support for the Diocese of Colorado Springs. I have no doubt that many others will act similarly; my views are not solitary or particularly unique. Frankly, if I must “move back” into the Archdiocese of Denver (even the Archbishop of Denver has not chosen to hold its members’ sacramental right hostage as you have), I will do so with extraordinary sadness, for my “Church” is the families of St. Mark, of Pax Christi, of Ave Maria and of St. Francis; the edifices we have built are only manifestations of the love of these communities for each other, their God and those who will follow them.
The choice is now with you, as caretaker for our particular section of the Body of Christ.
Respectfully submitted,
Ric Kethcart Francis F. Kethcart | 19,800 | 8,280 | 0.000125 |
warc | 201704 | Home News Sports Opinion Obituaries Features Special Sections Classifieds Public Notices
It seems like New Mexico, Colorado and Texas are feeling big these days. And while we understand that Colorado and Texas are doing OK, we are really wondering how little old us is sharing in that wealth.
See, the three states are applying for federal funds to study the viability of a high-speed rail system in the hopes of putting new life into passenger railroads in the Intermountain West.
While that may be a good idea, how do we benefit from what is going to be a huge price tag. We are struggling to pay for the glorious RailRunner now.
But Sen. Tom Udall, D-N.M., said Thursday the 720-mile high-speed rail system would travel at speeds of 110 mph to more than 200 mph from El Paso, Texas, through Albuquerque to Denver.
“The West was connected to the rest of the country by railroads. Our history is until the 1880s and the coming of the railroads, we were isolated,” Udall said. “You could view (the proposed high-speed rail corridor) as a second wave which revives the railroads that we've allowed to wither.”
Now this may not be a terrible idea, but does anyone expect it to work? Is not Amtrak only surviving via huge government subsides?
Gov. Richardson and Udall, a member of the Senate Commerce, Science and Transportation Committee, said the three states will submit a joint pre-application Friday for up to $5 million to pay for the study.
Congress has authorized up to 11 high-speed rail corridors nationwide. Ten have been designated, and the three states hope to become home to the 11th.
“Today, you cannot get from Albuquerque to Denver by rail without changing trains in Los Angeles or Chicago, and our regional railways run from East to West, with no North-South connections,” Udall said.
This is true. But honestly, do these folks think this will work? That it will even come close to paying for itself?
I don’t. Do you?
Richardson and Udall said such a rail system would bring business and tourism growth to the region.
“High-speed rail is the future of our country and is going to be a major boost to the economic vitality of the cities and states along its routes,” Richardson said in a news release.
It's too early to say where the stops on the proposed route would be, said Udall's spokeswoman, Marissa Padilla.
New Mexico started a commuter rail service in July 2006 that connects Belen, south of Albuquerque, to Santa Fe.
Colorado Gov. Bill Ritter said his state has long been talking about high-speed rail.
“There is a great deal of movement of people, goods and services along the Front Range and the entire Colorado-Texas-New Mexico corridor, and it is high time Congress designate a Western corridor,” Ritter said.
Texas is already home to one of the designated high-speed rail routes, the South Central Corridor. It has a proposed hub at Dallas-Fort Worth and spokes extending to Austin and San Antonio, Oklahoma City and Tulsa, and Little Rock, Ark.
“Improving and expanding our transportation infrastructure is vitally important in a state that grows by more than 1,000 people each day,” Texas Gov. Rick Perry said.
We do think that the population in that part of the world is just a bit higher than ours and may make sense.
We don’t see it here.
The Federal Railroad Administration will decide which region gets the 11th high-speed rail corridor designation based on the strength of their applications, FRA spokesman Rob Kulat said.
New Mexico, Colorado and Texas may have competition. Kulat declined to say how many pre-applications for feasibility studies the FRA has received so far.
“Quite a few are in already, but the number is going to grow by tomorrow,” he said.
Final applications for the grants are due Aug. 24, he said.
The nation’s 10 existing high-speed rail corridors were authorized from 1991 to 2000. They are located in major metropolitan areas along the East Coast and in the South, the Chicago area, the Pacific Northwest and California. They are in varying stages of development.
In April, President Obama launched a renewed effort to develop a national network of high-speed passenger rail lines, identifying $8 billion in federal stimulus funds.
Of course given the fact that the government is drowning in excess money, why not go for it? | 4,403 | 2,179 | 0.000471 |
warc | 201704 | As the city of Los Angeles continues its ambitious 35-year project to build out 1,684 miles of bikeways, it is running into resistance in some neighborhoods from politicians, merchants and residents. Plans to paint bike lanes on a three-mile stretch of North Figueroa from York Boulevard to Avenue 26, for example, have been stopped altogether by City Councilman Gil Cedillo, whose district includes that area. Cedillo says he heard strong opposition to the plan at community meetings and that some local fire and police officials told him it could pose a safety problem for emergency response vehicles.
City traffic engineers, meanwhile, say the fire and police officials they spoke to did not have problems with this particular route for emergency vehicles. And as for congestion worries, they're probably overblown. In fact, no traffic lanes would be removed on the northbound side of Figueroa in that stretch; they would just be narrowed to allow for the addition of a bike lane. On the southbound side, two vehicle lanes would be reduced to one. But Department of Transportation traffic engineers who studied the route estimate that southbound drivers would spend only an extra 41 to 46 seconds in traffic.
This battle is familiar. Building a bike-friendly city, a goal the City Council adopted when it passed its official city bicycle plan in 2011, requires clear, measurable trade-offs. Adding bike lanes reduces space for cars and irritates drivers; that's undeniable. But making the city safe and hospitable for cyclists can also reduce carbon emissions and overall congestion by luring Angelenos out of their cars. That's a worthwhile objective.
Unless some demonstrable miscalculation was made in the bike plan, or unless there's a real safety issue, individual City Council members should not be tinkering with the plan, which was designed carefully with the whole city in mind. Currently, Los Angeles has 337.62 miles of dedicated bike lanes. Cedillo is looking at alternatives to the Figueroa corridor, but the city planners chose these designated routes for specific reasons; nearby streets, they say, won't work. The idea is to create a seamless network of bike lanes that allow cyclists to travel continuously from one point to another.
No one said it would be easy to make legions of drivers in car-obsessed Los Angeles relinquish a fraction of their lanes to bicycles. No driver wants to be slowed down by even 47 seconds. And it's understandable that drivers are frustrated when they see congested roads and empty bike lanes.
But the more the city continues to implement its bike plan, the more extensive the network of bike lanes becomes. The hope is that over time, those lanes will begin to fill up — and maybe some drivers will get out of their cars and onto bikes.
Follow the Opinion section on Twitter @latimesopinion | 2,856 | 1,452 | 0.000692 |
warc | 201704 | Oscar Wilde
Using Literature to Make Better Lawyers
Denise Forster
FOR YEARS,
law professors have woven works of literature—novels, memoirs, short stories, essays—into classes and seminars to tell the stories of law. Using these works, professors and students dissect scenarios not otherwise encountered in traditional legal curricula. A survey of some of the Law School ’s recent courses follows. Literature as Gateway
Anne Coughlin says it over and over—there are certain legal spaces where it’s very hard to get information about what’s taking place. To get into those legal spaces, she asserts, “lawyers and law professors almost have to turn to narratives to understand how our system is functioning.”
Coughlin, the O.M. Vicars Professor of Law and Barron F. Black Research Professor, takes her students inside the workings of a jury by reading
Trial By Jury, a Princeton historian’s first-person account of serving as jury foreman in a Manhattan trial. Literature can be a place to turn for empirical data, according to Coughlin, who concedes it may be only anecdotal. “We’re bringing into the Law School a text that’s unconventional in the sense that it doesn’t purport to be doctrinal, it doesn’t purport to be written from the perspective of a legal academic or a legal practitioner. But it does fill in the blanks,” she said.
The caption on this 1893
publication reads “A scene
in the court-room before
the acquittal—Lizzie Borden,
the accused, and her
counsel, ex-Governor
Robinson.”
A prior culture’s norms are the blanks that literature can fill. “We have an intuition that women in the 19th century were harmed by extramarital affairs. Well, how do we know that? There aren’t a whole lot of cases on the books. Most of the facts get handled out of court privately and don’t become law cases. To the extent that there are cases on the books about sex, whether it be consensual or rape, the cases don’t tell you very much because judges won’t write about it. It’s indecent. It’s dirty. It’s unmentionable, so we don’t know a whole lot about it. We certainly don’t have the young woman’s perspective. She’s completely lost as a character, so sometimes the best way is to turn back to fiction. You have to be cautious; this is literature and we must be very careful in our generalizations. But for us to understand how they defined rape or how they defined criminal conversation, we need to know more of the facts.”
Coughlin co-taught a course, Trials of the Century: Literary and Legal Representations of Sensational Criminal Trials, with former Law School Professor Jennifer Mnookin, studying essays, trial transcripts, memoirs, short stories, films, and novels, and it worked: the class dazzled professors and students alike.
“We took sensational trials that have become part of our cultural repertoire, our cultural canon. We asked ourselves, what is the great lawyer’s work product? We were interested in the cases that changed legal culture and popular culture, so we used cases that themselves are legends in their own time or have become the basis for movies, novels, and plays.”
The class read portions of transcripts of the Lizzie Borden trial and the lawyers’ arguments, watched a reenactment done by the Stanford Law School, and read a short story about Lizzie. “It was absolutely eye-opening,” says Coughlin, “just riveting in terms of giving you a sense of that hot August day when somebody—we think it was Lizzie Borden, but it was never proved—went and killed Mr. and Mrs. Borden. We were looking for a three-dimensional understanding of that trial in its time and place and its meaning for subsequent generations.”
The class did the same thing with the Oscar Wilde case, looking at the connection between law and literature. Perhaps the most popular playwright on the planet at that time, Wilde brought a criminal libel action based on his lover’s father’s accusation that Wilde was “posing as a sodomite.” For the purposes of the class, “it was just too good to be true,” says Coughlin. “Wilde takes the stand as a playwright who, of course, writes dialogue; some portions of the transcript of the Oscar Wilde trial read like a play. He is so witty and so funny, but then reality sets in. He can’t control it. He’s no longer the playwright. The lawyers are in control and you can suddenly see Wilde’s story starting to disintegrate as his case falls apart, revealing the truth: not only was he in fact posing as a sodomite, he was having sex with many young men.”
The class went on to cover the trial of Socrates, and the Scottsboro boys, and was intrigued by the parallels of the contemporary significance of those trials. “Look at Scopes, the evolution question. It’s right back on the table. Look at Oscar Wilde—gay marriage, gay sex. Right back on the table,” says Coughlin. “We all learned so much—and it was a huge help for practical lawyering. We read a lot of lawyers’ works and studied them together systematically and the ways in which they get represented and readdressed. And we read some of the greatest closing arguments of all time. The words of Clarence Darrow just blow you away. These are students who want to litigate and get up on their feet and they have to learn how to perform. Of course, they’re not all going to be trying the trials of the century, but some of them will. These are brilliant students and I just never saw anything like it.”
Law and Lit in the Classroom
George Rutherglen, John Barbee Minor Distinguished Professor of Law and Edward F. Howrey Research Professor, has taught Seminars in Ethical Values through the years in different settings, working through different genres. He recently co-taught a seminar through the Institute for Practical Ethics with the University’s Taylor Professor of English and American Literature Stephen Cushman.
The class was half law and half English students; the professors worked to establish common themes and techniques of interpretation, crossing multiple boundaries and eliciting comparative discussions of professional ethical commitments while discussing their featured books:
A Bend in the River, Atonement, Disgrace, and Emma. As the class progressed, the common themes one finds at the intersection of life and law emerged.
As Rutherglen illustrates, “Implicit in
Emma is a discussion of British social class and empire and that comes out much more clearly in A Bend in the River, which is concerned directly with imperialism in Africa. We saw a lot of connections that we could draw from one to another—and all raised ethical issues.
Poster for “The Big Sleep,”
the 1946 film based on the novel of the same title by Raymond Chandler.
“Jane Austen is quite concerned with the issue of marriage, which has a lot of political reverberations around feminist issues or issues of gay rights. We talked about
Disgrace, which, again, is concerned with Africa and questions of imperialism. It’s easy to teach these seminars once you find the right materials, because almost any work of literature that has any depth at all just raises a number of themes that intersect at a variety of different points with law. Even in books like Emma, which explicitly have only a relatively small legal component, it’s very easy to draw the implications for what our students have to face in their professional lives.”
One of the books Rutherglen most enjoyed reading and teaching for its overlapping connections was
Atonement, a cross between a murder mystery and a detective story— something Rutherglen is going to become more familiar with soon. He and Professor Earl Dudley will be examining the detective story and its subgenre of police procedurals, hoping to focus on the strong moral component within. “I think the detective story is a fertile area for examination in law and literature. I don’t read many detective novels, but the ones I’ve read—certainly classic works by Raymond Chandler—have a very strong moral component, where the detective is always someone who’s trying to promote good in a world of evil,” Rutherglen said. From Hamlet to Homer (Simpson)
Because Professor John Setear’s International Ifs seminar focused on U.S. foreign policy between World War I and World War II, he assigned Philip Roth’s
The Plot Against America, an alternative history of the United States that assumes Charles Lindbergh becomes president in 1932 instead of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and then adopts a pro- German foreign policy along with domestic policies that are a trans-Atlantic echo of Nazism.
Setear, the Thomas F. Bergin Professor, chose the book, he says, because he finds Roth to be a skilled author, “but mostly because the book is a very nicely written, literary examination of a what-if possibility set in the period that we study in the course. Also, since the book is somewhat ambiguous about whether the alternative Lindbergh’s policies were first steps toward a very frightening destination or just gestures to keep the Nazis from pressuring the United States, it lets us talk about how hard it is to know during any given event just where things will lead. That is an important point when you’re teaching a course about why the United States, among others, seemed to have its head stuck in the sand about the dangers presented by Germany and Japan during the 1930s.”
In his Contracts class, Setear uses passages from “choice works” of literature—both classics and “literature-lite” to keep things fresh. A few samples:
When talking about the effect of mental illness on the validity of contracts, the class reads Hamlet’s “what a piece of work is man” speech and asks if he’s depressed enough to get out of contracts he made at the time. A passage from The Firm, where the law firm makes employment offer to young Mitch McDeere that is quite specific as to most terms but leaves out the fact that the firm’s clients are definitely crooks. Setear asks if the offer has sufficiently specific terms to be a valid offer (it almost certainly does) and if the failure to disclose the nature of the firm’s clientele is bad enough to invalidate the offer anyway (a tougher call). Setear also use some passages from movies based on books, such as The Godfather—the famous offer you “can’t refuse” is actually an offer about signing a release agreement from a recording contract. And the class looks at passages from The Simpsons, which “has enough insights about relationships to stack up favorably against any Russian novel,” for scenes not just about contracts but also about fraud, causation, bad bargaining, and the public’s perception of lawyers.
Setear says he uses these examples “partly for relief from an unremitting parade of cases, and partly to show the ubiquity of contractual concepts. If these ideas pop up in
The Godfather or The Simpsons, which most people don’t associate with common-law notions of commercial agreements, then you should expect these ideas to pop up in life more generally. That’s the general idea with literature as a reflection of life—it’s just that here the part of life reflected is the law.” Race: Just One Defining Factor
As director of the Law School’s Center for the Study of Race and Law, Professor of Law and Justice Thurgood Marshall Research Professor Kim Forde-Mazrui wanted to run a Seminar on Ethical Values devoted to race-related literature. Literary works such as
Beloved, Their Eyes Were Watching God, and Cry, the Beloved Country proved to be the provocative fodder Forde-Mazrui had hoped.
Japanese-American internees leaving a
Buddhist church, winter, Manzanar Relocation Center, California. Photograph by Ansel Adams.
But race was only one factor Forde-Mazrui wanted students to scrutinize with regard to identity. “One of the things I find useful when studying race is how it compares to other ways we define ourselves. A part of studying race and law is to study gender or sexual orientation issues because they inform each other; the insights we gain from one tell us something about the other.”
An additional aspect his students’ study is the comparison of the experiences of people of different races. His seminar analyzed the novel
Snow Falling on Cedars, which is largely about Japanese Americans during the internment and the period that followed. “It has quite a lot to say about law, because it both gives us some insights into what it was like to be Japanese American during World War II, and because a trial is taking place.
“The trial of a Japanese American accused of murdering a white fisherman was run quite fairly. All the actors involved were trying to be conscientious and fair, yet there was this sense it couldn’t be fair. If the defendant is quiet, the whites think, it’s because he’s guilty, not because culturally that’s how he holds himself. There’s a sadness to it.”
An approach to scholarship that emerged in the mid-1980s called Critical Race Theory uses narratives in legal scholarship, according to Forde-Mazrui. “One of the things that critical race theorists argue is that privilege tends to be invisible to the privileged. Privileged people often believe we live in a colorblind meritocracy, so they see affirmative action as wrong because people don’t need a benefit. Everyone should just be treated the same. But critical race theorists contend that this obscures that there are real kinds of economic and political hierarchies connected to race. Literature helps us see that privilege, like in
Snow Falling on Cedars, where a Japanese American protagonist was inherently disadvantaged because of the culture. Observing the law on the books and even how it was carried out in practice isn’t telling you the whole story about whether the system as a whole is treating people fairly, at least with respect to race.” Scholars Tackle Marriage & Family
Associate Professors Risa Goluboff and Richard Schragger co-taught two Seminars in Ethical Values that centered on work, marriage, and family. They used literature to make sense of societal pressure, gender issues and roles, and the ways couples negotiate familial expectations. They brought to the seminar the experiences of their own marriage, parenthood, and work-family balance, as did the students themselves.
Incorporating cultural texts in a broad sense—including popular-culture depictions of families on television sitcoms and in movies—Goluboff and Schragger’s students cover everything from stay-at-home moms to gay men’s experiences with the adoption process. Books such as
The Velveteen Father, The Mommy Myth, and The Kid facilitated hours of discussions about things Goluboff says “don’t get talked about very much in law school.”
“I can’t imagine teaching this class without galvanizing books, like
I Don’t Know How She Does It. We could not get the students to have just one conversation about it. Some were furious at the book,” says Goluboff, while others found it spoke to them. Although some deemed the novel “Chick Lit” at first glance (the pink cover gave it away), Goluboff and Schragger’s seminar students never failed to choose sides. Either they wholeheartedly supported the working mom turned “Muffia” (Muffia being the tongue-in-cheek name for stay at home mothers who must make everything from scratch and join every child related committee) who tossed aside the high-powered job she loved to stay home with the kids, or they called her a sellout because she excelled at her job, in fact existed for it.
While using a novel to address an issue as complex as parenting roles works for some, the seminar also tackles the issues through such works as
The Mommy Myth: The Idealization of Motherhood and How It Has Undermined Women, whose authors assail the ascendancy of what’s been labeled as “new momism,”—the media’s depiction of perfect motherhood—just as many feel women were breaking free of traditional gender roles. Images courtesy Library of Congress. | 16,620 | 7,256 | 0.000145 |
warc | 201704 | On 6 July 2016, the final text of the Network and Information Security (NIS) Directive was adopted by the European Parliament.
The main objective of the Directive – to strengthen the security of network and information systems underpinning key economic and social services across Member States – is undoubtedly commendable. However, the real benefit in the Directive is likely to be in raising overall security standards across the Union, as aspects of the Directive are already in place in many Member States or covered (at least in part) by pre-existing national or European legislation. There also remains uncertainty around the extent of the obligations being placed on the organisations operating in these key sectors.
A national framework for cyber security
One of the main features of the Directive is the establishment of national infrastructures for the notification of cyber-security incidents and the sharing of information and expertise.
Each Member State will be required to set up and resource:
a “competent authority” for network and information security, responsible for monitoring the application of the Directive; a “single point of contact”, to act as a liaison between Member States and ensure effective cross-border cooperation on cyber security matters; and a “Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT)”, responsible for handling cyber security risks and incidents.
These functions may be performed by one or more national bodies within each Member State. Member States are also required to ensure that these organisations have the power to obtain information from organisations and, where appropriate, impose “effective, proportionate and dissuasive penalties” for breaches of the Directive. At this stage, it is unclear how such penalties will be applied, particularly for cross-border organisations.
In the UK, much of this framework is already being put in place. CERT-UK, set up in March 2014, acts as the body for reporting and handling cyber security breaches. The British government is also in the process of setting up the National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC), which will take on most (if not all) of these functions. The government has yet to provide an indication of the NCSC’s likely position on incident response, investigation and penalties.
Member States must also adopt national strategies on the security of network and information systems. These strategies will be required to cover a wide range of cyber security issues; from government support and supervision, to incident identification and response, to education and training.
A structured government plan to tackle cyber security risks is an essential part of providing a meaningful response to threat of cybercrime. However, the implementation of such policies is not new in much of the EU. In practice, the majority of Member States have already established cyber security plans. For example, in the United Kingdom, a detailed cyber security strategy covering each of the areas set out in the Directive has been in place since 2011 – with the next 5-year strategy due later this year.
Appropriate technical and organisational measures
The Directive also requires Member States to place specific notification and information security obligations on what are defined as, “operators of essential services” and “digital service providers”.
“Operators of essential services (OESs)” include providers of economically or socially critical services in the transport, energy, healthcare, banking, financial markets infrastructure, water and digital infrastructure sectors. Essentially, this will cover organisations such as key utilities providers, banks, internet service providers and stock exchanges insofar as the critical services they provide depends on a network or information system. “Digital service providers (DSPs)” include online marketplaces, search engines and cloud computing providers with over 50 employees and whose annual turnover and/or annual balance sheet total exceeds EUR 10 million.
Both OESs and DSPs will be required to implement “appropriate technical, organisational and security measures” to manage the risks posed to their network and information systems. This reflects the wording of the security obligations already in place under the Data Protection Act 1998 (DPA 1998).
However, unlike the requirements under the DPA 1998, these organisations are also explicitly required to have “regard to the state of the art” in ensuring that the level of the security is appropriate to the risk posed. At the very least, this emphasises that such organisations are under an obligation to continually monitor and review the level of their network security in line with advancement or development of cyber security threats. However, it is important to note that this security obligation will extend to the security of the network and system as a whole, rather than just the personal data processed within.
The precise technical requirements of the measures to be taken will depend on the risks to each entity’s network and information systems and the potential consequences of any related security incident. Given that many of the systems concerned, by definition, relate to the provision of economically or socially critical services, it is likely that a very high level of security will be required to ensure compliance with the Directive. However, what is, or is not, “state of the art” is up for debate in some areas, and this is a continually moving target for organisations to have regard to.
Notification of cyber security incidents
OESs and DSPs will also be required to notify either the competent authority or CSIRT of any incidents having a “significant” (in the case of OESs) or “substantial” (in the case of DSPs) impact on the continuity /provision of the services they provide. Where an OES relies on network services provided by a third-party DSP, the OES will also be required to notify the relevant authority of qualifying incidents affecting the DSP, where these affect the continuity of the service the OES provides.
In both cases, the significant/substantial nature of an incident will be determined by reference to the number of users affected by the incident, the duration of the incident and the geographical spread of the incident. DSPs will also be required to consider the extent of the disruption on the functioning of their service and of any related impact on economic or social activities.
As with similar notification obligations under the GDPR, it is far from clear exactly when these notification obligations will “bite”. Whilst some clarity is likely to be gained from national and European technical guidance, this will still ultimately boil down to a judgment call for the organisation concerned.
The Directive also provides for the voluntary notification for incidents or organisations that fall outside of the scope of these mandatory obligations.
Cross-border cooperation
The Directive provides for the establishment of a European “Cooperation Group” for sharing expertise, strategies and best practice, and a “network of CSIRTs” for dealing with cross-border incidents.
The establishment of such a pan-European framework may well help provide for more consistent support for cross-border organisations that are heavily reliant on network and information systems. It can be hoped that communication between national competent authorities through the Cooperation Group may lead to a more uniform application of the provisions of the Directive, particularly in respect of penalties.
The Directive also allows for the sharing of information relating to cyber security incidents, particularly where these may involve a cross-border element. In doing so, the Directive has sought to strike a balance between facilitating an effective cross-border response to cyber security threats, whilst also protecting the privacy, confidentiality and personal data of those affected by the incident.
When passing information to another Member State, the relevant national authority will be required to preserve the confidentiality, security and commercial interests of the relevant OES or DSP. National authorities will also need to ensure all such transfers comply with the European data protection law. However, organisations which are subject to NIS will need to be aware that while they may be comfortable with how their CSIRT will deal with notifications, different CSIRTs in other jurisdictions may take different approaches. This may also discourage organisations which are not technically subject to NIS, but which can make voluntary notifications to their relevant CSIRT, from doing so. | 8,848 | 3,520 | 0.000291 |
warc | 201704 | Use the Lexology Navigator tool to compare the answers in this article with those from 20+ other jurisdictions. Hiring Advertising What are the requirements relating to advertising open positions?Wyoming has no law specifically related to advertising open job positions. Employers must comply with the anti-discrimination provisions of the Wyoming Fair Employment Practices Act (Wyo. Stat. §27-9-105.3). Background checks What can employers do with regard to background checks and inquiries? (a) Criminal records and arrestsWyoming law does not restrict an employer’s use of criminal history records for both arrests and convictions. (b) Medical historyUnder Wyoming’s Fair Employment Practices Act, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability (among other things), employers cannot take adverse action against an applicant or employee because of genetic information. ‘Genetic information’ is defined as information about an individual’s genetic tests, the genetic tests of his or her family members, or occurrences of disease or disorder among his or her family members (Wyo. Rules, Dept. of Workforce Servs., Labor Standards, Ch. 5, Sec.2(f)). (c) Drug screeningWyoming has no state law regulating drug and alcohol testing. However, courts have addressed the reasonableness of employer testing (e.g., Employment Sec. Comm’n v. Western Gas Processors, Ltd., 786 P.2d 866 (Wyo. 1990)).
Employers can receive a discount on workers’ compensation premiums by participating in a drug and alcohol testing program approved by the Wyoming Workers’ Safety and Compensation Division (Wyo. Stat. §27-14-201(o); Wyo. Rules, Dept. of Workforce Servs., Workers’ Compensation Div., Ch. 2, Sec.8).
(d) Credit checksWyoming has no law restricting how employers can use credit reports. (e) Immigration statusThere is no Wyoming law regarding immigration or employment eligibility verification. (f) Social mediaNo Wyoming law addresses social media in the context of employment. (g) OtherUnder Wyoming’s Fair Employment Practices Act, employers cannot require that employees or prospective employees refrain from using tobacco products off duty, or otherwise discriminate against an employee for use or non-use of tobacco products outside of his or her employment. An exception may apply if there is a bona fide occupational qualification that an individual not use tobacco products outside the workplace (Wyo. Stat. §27-9-105). Wage and hour Pay What are the main sources of wage and hour laws in your state?Chapter 4 of Title 27 of the Wyoming Labor and Employment Statutes on Wages. What is the minimum hourly wage?As of January 1 2016 Wyoming’s minimum wage is $5.15 per hour. This is less than the federal minimum wage, so all employees covered under the federal Fair Labor Standards Act must be paid the higher federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Employees receiving tips of at least $30 per month can be paid a cash wage of $2.13 per hour, if the cash wage and tips total at least the hourly minimum wage. Workers under 20 years of age can be paid a training wage of $4.25 per hour for the first 90 days of employment (Wyo. Stat. §27-4-202). What are the rules applicable to final pay and deductions from wages?An employee who is voluntarily or involuntarily terminated from employment must be paid all wages due no later than the employer’s usual practice on regularly scheduled payroll dates (Wyo. Stat. §27-4-104). On a temporary layoff or suspension of work due to a labor dispute, affected employees must be paid all wages due on the next regular payday (Wyo. Stat. §27-4-101(d)).
Generally, deductions from wages are permitted as required by law or court order, or with written authorization by the employee in accordance with the state’s offset rules – for example, for:
union dues; contributions to health, welfare, retirement, or other benefit plans; deposits to a financial institution; and the cost of tools, equipment, uniforms and other items (Wyo. Stat. §27-4-101; Wage Offset Rules, Ch. I, Sec. 6(b)).
Deductions are permitted for damages caused by the employee’s negligence or for cash shortages under certain conditions (Wyo. Stat. §27-4-116; Wage Offset Rules, Ch. I, Sec. 6(b)).
All deductions from wages for each pay period must be shown on an itemized statement (Wyo. Stat. §27-4-101).
Hours and overtime What are the requirements for meal and rest breaks?Wyoming law does not require that employers provide meal or rest breaks. If employers choose to provide meal or rest periods, they should determine whether such periods must be paid under the federal Fair Labor Standards Act. What are the maximum hour rules?Employers in Wyoming generally can require employees to work any length of working day and can discipline or terminate employees who do not perform duties or hours as assigned. An exception exists for state and county employees and mining employees (Wyo. Stat. §27-5-101, 102).
Minors under 16 years of age may be limited on the number of hours they work, depending on whether the work is performed on school days (Wyo. Stat. §27-6-110-114).
For overtime purposes, Wyoming does not require overtime for employees of private employers.
How should overtime be calculated?
Wyoming has no state law governing overtime for employees of private employers. Any overtime obligations and exemptions would flow from federal law under the Fair Labor Standards Act.
What exemptions are there from overtime?Wyoming has no state law governing overtime for employees of private employers. Any overtime obligations and exemptions would flow from federal law under the Fair Labor Standards Act. Record keeping What payroll and payment records must be maintained?Wyoming law requires that the following records be kept by employers for a two-year period for each employee: employee’s name, address, and occupation; amount paid each pay period; rate of pay; and hours worked each day and each working week (Wyo. Stat. §27-3-502; 27-4-203).
Wyoming employers must maintain unemployment compensation records for four years (Wyo. Dept. of Workforce Servs., Unemployment Ins. div., Records and Reports, Ch. 11, Sec. 1).
Federal payroll record keeping requirements exist under the Fair Labor Standards Act. | 6,380 | 2,652 | 0.000387 |
warc | 201704 | In a widely anticipated decision, the High Court has upheld a decision of the Full Federal Court (which was made by five, rather than the usual three, Federal Court judges) that AstraZeneca’s patent relating to low dosages of rosuvastatin is invalid for want of inventive step.
[1]
Rosuvastatin is used in the treatment of high cholesterol and is marketed by AstraZeneca as Crestor. The decision will be a relief for companies that have already launched generic versions of rosuvastatin.
While AstraZeneca appealed the Full Court’s findings on inventive step, novelty and entitlement, it was only necessary for the High Court to consider inventive step.
The High Court’s decision is important because:
it does not disturb the Full Court’s decision below that when assessing inventive step, the invention as claimed must be compared against the common general knowledge (CGK) and any prior art information, irrespective of the description of the inventive step in the specification; and it clarifies that an invention will be obvious in light of one prior art document irrespective of the fact that other prior art documents which have also been shown to be relevant may suggest an alternative course. The starting point for assessing inventive step
The High Court did not disturb the Full Court’s finding below that when assessing inventive step, the comparison must focus on the claimed invention, which must be compared against the CGK and any prior art information. The Full Court’s decision effectively overturned an earlier Full Court decision in
Apotex Pty Ltd v Sanofi-Aventis [2] in which the Court held that when assessing inventiveness, it is necessary to determine the nature of the claimed invention and the inventive step as described in the specificationand then assess that inventiveness by reference to the CGK and any prior art information. According to the Full Court in this proceeding at least, information against which the question of inventiveness is to be determined cannot be enlarged by reference to the description in the body of the specification.
At first instance, the primary judge relied on the
Apotex v Sanofi decision to conclude that the description of the invention was such that rosuvastatin could be taken into account as part of the “starting point” when considering whether the claimed invention was obvious. On appeal, the Full Court overturned this aspect of the primary judge’s decision and found that whether the patentee knew of the existence of rosuvastatin was not relevant to considering the question of inventive step – the question must always be whether the claimed invention is obvious in light of the CGK and any prior art information.
This important aspect of the Full Court’s decision did not upset the finding of obviousness as rosuvastatin was nonetheless disclosed in the prior art and the invention was found to be obvious in light of this prior art. However, the Full Court’s decision does represent a shift in approach to obviousness which the High Court has not disturbed.
The existence of more than one prior art document
In the High Court, AstraZeneca argued that an invention should not be found to lack an inventive step where one prior art document is selected from a group of documents which have all been identified as potentially relevant. That is, to determine the question of obviousness on the basis that the only course available to the person skilled in the art is the one identified in one of multiple prior art documents ignores false routes suggested by other prior art documents which also meet the relevance requirement. Such an approach, it was argued, gives the skilled person the benefit of hindsight.
The High Court rejected this. The Court confirmed that when assessing inventive step, it is permissible to consider different prior art documents separately (and each in light of the CGK), provided it is established that the skilled person could be reasonably expected to have ascertained, understood and regarded each as relevant. If the invention as claimed lacks inventive step having regard to either, the invention will be invalid for obviousness.
The High Court also rejected AstraZeneca’s argument that in ascertaining a relevant single prior art document, sections 7(2) and 7(3) of the
Patents Act preclude the use of other information that is not part of the CGK. Astra Zeneca argued that when establishing that a publication “could be reasonably expected to have ascertained, understood and regarded as relevant”, it is impermissible to look to publications which are not part of the CGK.
The High Court upheld the Full Court’s finding that the skilled person may well sort through all manner of information in order to find something that is regarded as relevant. There is nothing in the Act which places an embargo on using combinations of sources of information along the road to that destination. While section 7(2) (at the relevant time) precludes the combining of information in separate publications for the purposes of assessing obviousness, it does not preclude a combination of documents being considered for the purposes of assessing each document’s relevance.
It is important to note that the priority date of the patent in suit was 6 February 1999. Since that time the
Patents Act has been amended such that combining information from multiple prior art documents is permissible. Similarly, following the IP Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Act 2012, it is no longer necessary to establish that prior art information is information which the skilled person could be reasonably expected to have ascertained, understood and regarded as relevant. The test for inventive step – the Cripps question
The High Court agreed with the Full Court below that the claimed invention lacked inventive step in light of the CGK considered with either of two prior art documents. The Court applied the Cripps question from
Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation v Biorex Laboratories Ltd [3] and found that the skilled person would have been led directly as a matter of course to try rosuvastatin in the expectation that it might well be an efficacious treatment. Further, it would be a routine step to test rosuvastatin in the claimed dosage range in clinical trials which, while expensive, could be conventionally carried out. | 6,427 | 2,421 | 0.00042 |
warc | 201704 | Though recent amendments to Canada's Personal Information and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) are now in force, the federal government has yet to release regulations addressing data breach notification. Still, given the growing number of well-publicized data breaches, it’s critical for organizations to understand that their privacy policies and security safeguards are coming under greater scrutiny on all fronts. Below is a summary overview of some of the issues they need to keep in mind, as they prepare to face evolving cyber threats.
Stay tuned: the new breach notification regime
The new PIPEDA provisions require organizations to keep a record of every breach of security safeguards involving personal information under its control. The amendments also require organizations to notify both affected individuals and the Privacy Commissioner of Canada if it is reasonable to believe that the breach risks significant harm to an individual. “Significant harm” includes bodily harm, humiliation, damage to reputation or relationships, loss of employment, business or professional opportunities, financial loss, identity theft, negative effects on the credit record and damage to or loss of property. Relevant factors in determining such a risk include the sensitivity of the personal information involved in the breach and the probability that it may be misused. Notification must be given "as soon as feasible" after the organization determines that the breach happened. The new provisions also give enhanced powers to the Privacy Commissioner of Canada. Failing to meet reporting requirement can carry a fine up to $100,000.
PIPEDA applies to organizations’ commercial activities in all provinces, except within provinces that have their own privacy laws, which have been declared substantially similar (Québec, British Columbia, Alberta), and subject to certain exceptions.
Though the new federal breach requirements are not yet in force, companies facing a breach ought to consult legal counsel to advise them on the best notification and reporting practices.
In truth, larger organizations have been doing this for some time. SMEs, however, often have fewer resources. According to a 2015 Shred-It survey, 24% of SMEs offer their staff training on information security, compared to 73% within large organizations. The survey also shows that SMEs are less aware of security issues and have fewer protocols in place. This puts them at greater risk of becoming victims of a breach. What’s more, they may be unprepared to respond in the event of a breach, even though many are involved in multiple-party contractual situations where they are expected to maintain high standards of security safeguards.
The Board must take the lead
Privacy statutes impose stringent obligations on organizations to protect personal information in their possession or under their control. Although cyber risk is frequently seen as a budget item delegated to the IT department, it should definitely be handled at the board level. The board's role is to establish senior management accountability and a cyber-aware culture. This includes having proper security safeguards in tune with industry standards.
Manage the "Insider Threat"
IT experts often say that if they only had one dollar to spend on cyber risk, they would spend it on training IT users. Cyber risks can be managed and greatly reduced by properly training the organization's employees, along with the implementation of privacy safeguards. Also, systems should be internally monitored and gap identification should be tracked. As the saying goes, it is impossible to manage what is not measured.
Beware of B2B cyber liability
There are risks when contracting with third parties. When outsourcing work, for instance, organizations should have strong agreements in place that address cyber security policies and safeguards. Under privacy statutes, organizations that collect personal information remain accountable even when the information is transferred to a third party for processing. And often the organization that has the direct relationship with the customer will be expected to respond, even if the breach was caused by the service provider's negligence. In all cases organizations should have written contracts with their suppliers or vendors that address these issues and provide for a general undertaking to respect the organization's privacy policies.
The breach response or building trust with your customers
It is said that even the best systems are vulnerable to a breach: a small crack in a company's systems is more than enough for hackers to wreak havoc on a company's IT infrastructure.
Human error also remains a factor – everyone makes mistakes. That's why every organization needs a proven breach response plan involving the right people – board members, IT department, PR and HR professionals, external legal consultants, and their cyber insurers. Depending on the company's arrangements, part of its risk may be transferred to the insurer through a cyber policy, which will offer coverage for cyber-related risks and claims support by a specialist crisis management team (including counsel and forensic experts).
Also, the world is moving from an environment of liability to one of accountability, and building trust with customers is essential to surviving a crisis. As scandals pile up about questionable handling of personal data, organizations must promptly set a course of action, which may include notifying individuals, privacy commissioners and other interveners (third party contractors, law enforcement authorities, etc).
Know the law wherever your business takes you
Privacy laws vary from one jurisdiction to another, and global organizations have no choice but to comply with all privacy standards wherever they do business. For instance, with respect to breach notification, organizations are subject to the rules where the individual victims reside. There is no global standard that can be easily met. In the U.S. alone, states have legislated dozens of different standards. There are efforts under way there to unify the various data breach disclosure laws into a single, federal standard. But until then, organizations must deal with a patchwork of notification requirements, some of which impose direct consumer notification; others will simply issue fines for the non-respect of privacy laws.
Keep an eye on rulings from local courts
Another challenge is the evolving role of local courts in enforcing privacy laws against global companies. We saw this recently when, in June 2015, the Court of Appeal of British Columbia upheld a worldwide injunction ordering the internet giant Google to block a website that violated the trade secrets of the plaintiffs. The ruling is remarkable because Google is incorporated in Delaware and has no physical presence or staff in B.C. Nevertheless, the court found that Google was subject to its jurisdiction because its commercial activities target users, advertisers and businesses in the province. It isn’t a major stretch to imagine lawmakers and courts all over the world taking a keen interest in the cross-border nature of data breaches.
Outside counsel: guiding your response efforts
When facing a data breach, an organization will have to manage what information it discloses to its consultants or privacy authorities. Having legal counsel involved in process helps protect the actions and communications of the organization during the breach response, through client or litigation privilege. Outside counsel will also bring some objectivity to the table in framing the organization's obligations, notably with respect to disclosure. By being in a position to communicate freely with their legal counsel, risk managers will be able to swiftly identify all legal requirements that flow from the breach findings, thereby ensuring a quicker corporate response.
Also, under the new PIPEDA rules (not yet in force), law enforcement or government agencies might prevent an organization from reporting or notifying a breach until they’ve completed their investigation. And yet an organization may be bound by other requirements, such as communicating a breach to its insurer. Legal counsel can help to sort through the competing requirements.
Cyber insurance
The process of buying cyber insurance should be part of a comprehensive cyber security plan. For one, it requires an assessment of the risks the business faces and implementing safeguards to mitigate those risks. Indeed, a common misconception is that only large organizations, financial institutions, retailers or companies that directly collect personal information have exposure to cyber risk. And yet any company that transacts with third parties handling large amounts of data is potentially exposed. Knowing what that exposure is a crucial step in limiting cyber liability for any organization, regardless of its size. | 8,994 | 3,951 | 0.000255 |
warc | 201704 | The Justice of God’s Choice
“If, because of one man’s trespass, death reigned through that one man, much more will those who receive the abundance of grace and the free gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man Jesus Christ” (v. 17).- Romans 5:15–17
Adam’s sin becomes our own by way of imputation, and because of that we are born guilty and deserving of death (Rom. 5:12–14). Many people find this idea highly objectionable, accusing the Lord of being unfair or unjust for condemning people for something they did not do themselves. Moreover, many object that the notion of our being found guilty for Adam’s sin violates the biblical principle that the son shall not be forced to pay for his father’s crimes, for is it not true that “the soul who sins shall die” (Ezek. 18)?
These objections are worth serious consideration, and there are answers to them. First, it is helpful to realize that Paul certainly knew of such teachings from Ezekiel and the other prophets, but he had no problem fitting them with the notion of our being found guilty in Adam. Second, we must also understand that although the Bible often speaks of sin and guilt in individualistic terms, it also affirms that there can be guilt in a corporate sense. Joshua 7, for example, tells us the story of Achan, whose family was put to death because of his sins at Ai. Under special circumstances, one person can represent many for good or for ill.
In the case of Adam—both the first Adam and the last Adam—we find this principle of representation, or federalism,
par excellence. Simply put, the Bible tells us that our relationship to Adam is unlike our relationship to any other human being. God appointed Adam to represent us in Eden and for us to share in the consequences of His acts. If we protest this, let us remember that this federal relationship was God’s perfect choice. In the United States, we elect representatives every few years, hoping that they will make the same choices we would make if we were in their shoes. Because we cannot make a perfect selection, we are often disappointed. But the Lord is not susceptible to such error. After all, He is the “only wise God” (Rom. 16:27). In choosing Adam, He chose someone who would do exactly what we would have done if we were actually in Eden. If we think otherwise, we sin by pridefully overestimating our own abilities and questioning God’s wisdom.
Should we protest Adam’s representation of us, we must also protest Christ’s representation of us. It is no more “fair” for us to receive the glorious free gift of salvation (5:15–17) because Jesus stood in for us than it is for us to be counted guilty because Adam stood in for us. Christ’s representation of us unto salvation and Adam’s representation of us unto condemnation go hand in hand. We cannot have one without the other.
Coram Deo
We must take our standards for justice from what God says and not from our own arbitrary opinions. If God says something is just, it is just. Of course, the Lord is not arbitrary about this. Justice is grounded in His own eternal, unchanging character. But we only know this character by what He tells us. Believing God means taking Him at His Word, and our identification of what is good, holy, and just must match what He says is good, holy, and just.
Passages for Further Study
Isaiah 55:8–9
Romans 9:20 For permissions, please see our Copyright Policy. | 3,537 | 1,715 | 0.000607 |
warc | 201704 | Individually or in combination, coconut oil and olive oil are natural treatments to promote healthy hair. Both fight dryness, with a coconut oil treatment being particularly effective in preventing frizz. Research in a 2003 issue of the "Journal of Cosmetic Science," said coconut oil penetrates deep into the hair shaft and, when used as a pre- and postwash treatment, also protects hair from protein loss, which can lead to hair damage. Adding olive oil to the coconut oil hair treatment will moisturize your scalp and discourage flakes.
Suggested Uses
Coconut oil is solid at room temperature. You'll need to warm it gently -- but not too much or risk a burn -- so you can blend it with olive oil and apply it easily to your hair. Use a ratio of one part coconut oil to one part olive oil. Apply the warm mixture to your strands, wrap your hair in a plastic bag and then cover with a towel. Allow the blend to penetrate for about 45 minutes, recommends "Reader's Digest," and then shampoo. | 1,000 | 570 | 0.001769 |
warc | 201704 | Sheep milk is not as popular as cow milk in the United States, but sheep milk and its products are widely consumed in other parts of the world, especially in the Mediterranean. In fact, Greek feta cheese and Italian ricotta cheese are made from sheep milk. Sheep milk is rich in many nutrients, but it is not recommended that you drink it raw. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration or FDA states that drinking raw milk is a health risk because it can contain bacteria such as E. coli. The FDA also assures that pasteurization does not degrade the milk’s nutritional quality in any way.
Protein and Carbohydrate
Sheep milk is richer in protein than either cow or goat milk -- it contains about two percent more. You will find 14.7 grams of protein, or 29 percent of the recommended daily intake, in a 1-cup serving of sheep milk. Protein from mammalian milk is of high quality because it contains all essential amino acids. Getting enough protein is important because your body needs it to grow and repair itself. Sheep milk is also higher in lactose than cow and goat milk and is therefore not recommended for lactose-intolerant individuals.
Energy and Fat Content
Sheep milk contains roughly double the amount of fat than you find in cow and goat milk, with 17 grams of fat in sheep milk compared to 8 grams in cow milk. It also contains considerably more calories -- 265 versus 146 in cow milk -- and therefore might not be the best choice for persons trying to lose weight. However, sheep milk also contains higher levels of conjugated linoleic acid than either cow or goat milk, reports the 2007 issue of “Small Ruminant Research.” Research indicates that conjugated linoleic acid can promote fat loss, as documented in the January 2010 issue of “Nutrition and Metabolism.” This issue also reported that conjugated linoleic acid can improve blood lipid levels and may help prevent diabetes.
Vitamin and Mineral Content
Sheep milk is higher in vitamins and minerals than either cow or goat milk. For example, it contains considerably more vitamin C, riboflavin, thiamin and vitamin B-12. A 1-cup serving contains 10.3 milligrams of vitamin C, or 17 percent of the recommended daily intake based on a 2000 calorie diet. Vitamin C is essential for proper immune function and for collagen synthesis. Riboflavin is needed for good vision, and a 1-cup serving of sheep milk contains 0.9 milligrams, or 51 percent of the RDI. Sheep milk also contains 0.2 milligrams of thiamin, or 11 percent of the RDI. Thiamin is a B vitamin that plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism and muscle contraction. Vitamin B-12 -- in the amount of 1.7 micrograms or 29 percent of the RDI -- participates in the making of red blood cells and the maintenance of the central nervous system. In addition, sheep milk has almost double the calcium content of either cow or goat milk. Calcium is the main mineral in bone and teeth, with 473 milligrams in a 1-cup serving, or 46 percent of the recommended daily intake for a 2000 calorie diet. Sheep milk also has a high phosphorous content, with 387 milligrams or 39 percent of the RDI in a 1-cup serving. MedlinePlus.com reports that phosphorous works closely with the B vitamins in metabolism and muscle contraction. It also supports kidney function and prevents an irregular heart rhythm.
Organic Advantage
Whenever possible, choose organic products. These products are produced in an environmentally friendly way and more attention is given to the welfare of the animals. Organic sheep milk is also nutritionally superior to non organic. A study reported in the August 2010 of the “Journal of Dairy Research” found that milk from organic sheep had higher levels of monounsaturated fat, conjugated linoleic acid, and omega-3 fatty acids. All these nutrients exert health-promoting benefits including protection from heart disease. | 3,899 | 1,724 | 0.000587 |
warc | 201704 | Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) present an incomparable number of options for the design of the new organization’s supply chain; a staggering percentage of initiatives fail to meet executive and shareholder expectations. Supply chain design technology enables companies to model their supply chains, evaluate alternatives, optimize the structure and simulate multiple scenarios in order to predict the resulting operational performance of the merged organizations. Tremendous Opportunity; Hefty Risk
Global political and economic uncertainty may persist, but global M&A activity remains steady, even increasing in some regions such as the United States and Asia- Pacific region. M&A deal volume and deal value in the U.S. rose 6 percent from 2011 to 2012, from 9,831 transactions to 10,419. U.S. deal value increased even more—up 22 percent from $1.09 trillion $1.33 trillion1.
Despite the increasing numbers, failure rates for M&A initiatives are extremely high. Depending on which report you consult, M&A initiatives have a failure rate of anywhere between 50 and 85 percent. Failure to consider the synergies and redundancies of the end-to-end supply chain of both companies is arguably a top contributor to the shortfall. Redundant facilities, assets, suppliers, customers and products can put a significant drag on profitability and efficiency. Furthermore, many deals fail to look beyond the value that justified the transaction to find new sources of synergies and value. Due diligence in most deals can overlook as much as 50 percent of the potential merger value2.
It’s no wonder that, while many executives are enthusiastic about M&A deal potential, their boards are hesitant to act because of lack of clarity on how the company will successfully manage an ambitious deal. How can businesses improve their chances for M&A success and reduce the inherent risk?
Apply Supply Chain Design Across M&A Activities for a Better Future State
Supply chain design technology enables companies to model their supply chains, evaluate alternatives, optimize the network structure and simulate multiple scenarios in order to predict the resulting operational performance of the merged organizations. There are opportunities to leverage modeling across all stages and types of M&A activity, including:
Pre-Merger Post-Merger Divestiture/Spin-Off
Supply chain design technology enables companies to build models that include all of the potential inter-related operations and incorporate time and variability in order to identify the best M&A opportunities and the resulting strategy for combining the organizations. This white paper will review each of these three unique M&A activities and recommend supply chain modeling solutions, along with case examples, that can be applied to help businesses visualize, analyze and optimize current and future-state supply chains.
Pre-Merger Analysis The pre-merger phase is uniquely challenging in that access to data for potential markets and acquisition/merger targets is often difficult to access. Strategy building and decision making relies heavily on assumptions rooted in available data. Companies can use supply chain network models to visualize and analyze M&A strategies and perform critical sensitivity analysis on key assumptions.
Using modeling and supply chain design during this critical phase gives companies the insight and decision support needed to:
Avoid costly mistakes such as over-estimation of potential synergies Compare alternative M&A targets Analyze the most effective strategy for entering a new market Examples Pre-Merger Example 1: What is the Real Opportunity for Supply Chain Operational Efficiency? The assumptions executives and financial analysts make with regards to operational efficiencies often fail to take into account the inherent constraints associated with two corporate supply chains. By modeling the footprint and product flows, including constraints such as capacity limitations, product handling, sourcing policies and facility leases, a supply chain designer can more accurately identify the true opportunity for operational efficiencies—information that can be extremely valuable in pre-merger valuations. Pre-Merger Example 2: What Companies are the Best M&A Targets for Entry into a New Market? Acquisitions are often made to help a company enter into a new market including a new product category, a new customer base, or an entirely new geography. By creating a model of the existing corporate supply chain, then overlaying the supply chain footprints of potential M&A targets, executives can evaluate the trade-offs including market coverage, operational redundancies and total combined cost. This information can prioritize acquisition candidates and lead to more informed negotiations with the chosen company. Post-merger Analysis Once an acquisition has happened, it is often up to the supply chain executives and their teams to help realize the operational efficiencies promised in the board room.
With two unique, complex operations often including overlapping assets, products, customers and suppliers, this is not an easy task. Supply chain modeling and design is essential to help make sense of this array of possibilities.
The benefits of modeling and supply chain design at this phase include:
Finding short-term improvements with limited disruption Simultaneously analyzing big-win but potentially more disruptive changes Creating a more accurate projection of cost savings and operational efficiencies that can be reported to executives, the board and the investors Examples Post-Merger Example 1: Identifying the Immediate, Quick-Win Opportunities Following the merger, executives want to show some “early returns” to (1) prove the wisdom of the acquisition, and to (2) buy time so that they can hopefully achieve the lofty goals of complete operational efficiency. Supply chain designers can model and optimize the supply chain networks of each individual company to identify quick-wins or “low-hanging fruit” and locate opportunities to share assets without significant structural redesigns or capital expenditures, and with minimal disruption to the newly-merged supply chains. These opportunities often represent millions in annual cost savings and are relatively easy to implement. Post-Merger Example 2: Developing the Combined Supply Chain Roadmap Following initial optimization of the individual supply chains, the company can determine the best way to merge them. Site selection and asset rationalization decisions have the potential to save—or cost—a merged company tens of millions of dollars. Supply chain modeling and design can help companies identify the optimal footprint (i.e. number and location of facilities, production capacity, suppliers, transportation assets, etc.) by evaluating all the potential options and required capacity over a three, five or even 10-year time horizon. This enables companies to create a structured long-term plan for successfully combining the two companies’ supply chain operations to achieve the optimal level of efficiency. Divestiture/spin-off analysis In a divestiture or spin-off scenario, previously shared resources need to be separated, manufacturing and distribution capacity is reduced and shared customers and suppliers may need to be allocated to one or the other entity.
Supply chain modeling can be employed in these situations to enable data driven decisions on which sites, products, customers and suppliers to keep and which to eliminate, as well as for costing of supply chain operations with new facility and lane volumes and capacities.
The benefits of using detailed supply chain modeling during a divestiture or spin-off include:
Identification of the capacity requirements and product flow volumes for the resultant business Data to drive the negotiation of new business terms with transportation service providers and suppliers Implementation timeline for the transition from shared assets and resources to independent status Examples Divestiture Example 1: Right- Sizing the New Supply Chain Corporate supply chains are typically designed to handle a certain volume of products flowing from suppliers through to end customers. This design includes the footprint of facilities and policies around sourcing, inventory and transportation. When a business unit or product line is divested, the existing supply chain likely requires “rightsizing”. Supply chain modeling and optimization can help determine the proper design for the new remaining network, and can help define which assets to keep and which to eliminate. Divestiture Example 2: How Will the Remaining Supply Chain Perform? The new supply chain will be responding to a different set of demand signals, with different volumes and order patterns. Supply chain designers can create a model of the new network and run the remaining orders through a simulation to help predict how that new network will perform under real-life conditions. A simulation analysis can provide detailed metrics on capacity requirements, shipment volumes, on-time deliveries and inventory levels to validate the design of the new supply chain network. Designing a Tax-Efficient Supply Chain During M&A activities, it is imperative to consider the tax implications of alternate geographies and cities for potential facility locations, as well as the most tax-efficient location for company headquarters.
Modeling technology allows the capturing of tax and duty-specific parameters as well as generating optimal network locations that take tax and duty into account. This method applies tax and duties when products are transferred across regions within or outside of a company, leading to network decisions supporting higher margins and/or lower costs.
Optimized network without tax considerations Tax-efficient network Modeling a Merger
Supply chain design enables companies to create a structured long-term plan for successfully combining the two supply chains to achieve the optimal level of efficiency. This example shows how models of the two individual supply chain operations can be combined and optimized to recommend a structure for the new combined supply chain.
Company A Company B Merged Companies A sample of the issues considered during the modeling and analysis of a new combined and optimized supply chain include: Distribution footprint Number of facilities—existing and potential Total capacity of each facility Lease terms and durations (operating and closing costs) Products Current products offered, costs, volumes Expected new mix after merger Customers Location of customers Product demand and volumes by customer location Shared vs. unique Suppliers Location of suppliers Volumes by product and customer location Transportation Current lane volumes, costs and contracts Potential new lanes, volumes and costs Demand Historical demand of products New projected demand based on combined products and customers M&A Case Examples Case Example: Pre-Merger Network Optimization Challenge: A global manufacturing company was exploring a merger with a competitor which would combine two large supply chains. The company needed to identify operational redundancies and cost reductions and find strategic locations for new facilities to optimize service and minimize costs. Solution: A baseline supply chain model was built incorporating both existing networks to validate costs. The model was optimized to combine networks and eliminate less efficient locations. “What if” scenarios were evaluated to consider changes in demand, fuel costs and capacity. Results: The optimized network could create over $24 million in savings, with no degradation of service levels and fewer total facilities. The model can also be used to identify optimal locations for additional facilities when capacity limits were reached. Comparison of supply chain costs across alternate network scenarios Service-area mapping precisely displays service distance to various geographic regions using shaded areas bounded by actual street-level details Case Example: Planning Adequate Production Capacity for Merged Supply Chains Production modeling can be used in conjunction with network optimization to rightsize production footprint and optimize production capacities across the merged supply chains. Models can incorporate all production-related data structures such as work centers, work resources, production processes, bills of material and related production rates, costs and yields, to balancing production capacities globally or within individual facilities. Production modeling is an ideal tool for higher-level production footprint/ facility decisions as well as creating “what ifs” for S&OP near-term realignments. Modeling results can also determine lot sizing, labor shift allocation, working hours or best utilization of changeovers. Depending on corporate goals, companies may choose to optimize for maximum utilization or maximum profit. Challenge: A well-known global food and beverage producer had acquired a new line of snack foods. Given this addition, the company wanted to know how their current production and distribution network was positioned to meet the increased volume and when and where capacity problems could occur. Solution: A multi-period network optimization model was built incorporating existing production locations and work centers and showing customer, capacity, product and demand data forecast for the next six years. Given inputs including raw material, sourcing and production costs, transportation costs, fixed operating costs and startup costs, when and where would it make sense to open new production lines to ensure all the demand for the product would be met while keeping total cost at a minimum? Results: Many people at the company were surprised by the optimization results, which recommended a much earlier date for new facility openings than was generally believed to be optimal. However, by viewing detailed output graphics of the total landed costs, employees could see and understand that when end-to-end costs are considered, the optimal solution oftentimes is not the one that was predicted. The model showed a potential savings of $7 million in labor and transport savings by opening facilities earlier than the company had originally planned. The network optimization showed a potential savings of $7 million in labor and transport savings Case Example: Designing an Optimal Transportation Network for the Merged Organization When merging supply chains there is also an opportunity to optimize transportation networks. Often lane and route consolidation can result in millions of dollars in reduction in annual transportation cost. Transportation network design can be done alone or in conjunction with network optimization, and enables companies to visualize their entire transportation network, identify optimal DC-to-customer assignments, determine the ideal mode mix and create optimal multi-stop delivery and/or pick-up routes and determine the best utilization of assets, evaluate driver work schedules and even perform service-based greenfield analysis. Challenge: A medical imaging company needed to quickly create a post-merger distribution network. Solution: Analysts created a model of the existing network based on historical costs and inventory from their SAP system in order to evaluate multiple network scenarios. Results: The analysis recommended that the company use six pool points to shave $1 million annually from its transportation budget while breaking down truckloads into LTL shipments to yield higher truck utilization. The company also used the model to analyze its truck routings and shipments—and found that it was wasting resources in many cases. Start Here for a Successful M&A Strategy
Mergers and acquisitions introduce an incomparable number of options for the design of the new organization’s future supply chain. Redundant facilities, assets, suppliers, customers and products set many M&A efforts up for failure. Using modeling technology to visualize, analyze and optimize the current and future supply chains can help significantly reduce the risk and provide a data-driven roadmap for success.
References (1) WilmerHale 2013 M&A Report (2) “The Big Idea: The New M&A Playbook”. The Harvard Business Review Online 3/11 | 16,450 | 6,263 | 0.000161 |
warc | 201704 | Alternative green food processing technologies have gained much technical and industrial attention in recent years as a potential means of reducing costs and promoting consumer awareness of corporate environmental responsibility. However, utilizing green principles is now becoming an effective business approach to enhance vegetable oil processing profitability. Two years have passed since the first edition of Green Vegetable Oil Processing was published. The Revised First Edition includes much of the content of the first edition, but incorporates updated data, details, images, figures, and captions. This book addresses alternative green technologies at various stages of oilseed and vegetable oil processing. This includes oil extraction technologies such as expeller, aqueous and supercritical methods, and green modifications of conventional unit operations such as degumming, refining, bleaching, hydrogenation, winterizing/dewaxing, fractionation, and deodorization. While most chapters describe soy oil processing, the techniques described equally applicable to oils and fats in general
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Ebook Details Pages: 302 Size: 18.5 MB Publisher: AOCS Press/Academic Press Date published: 2013 ISBN: 9780983057208 (DRM-EPUB) 2370006782940 (DRM-PDF)
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warc | 201704 | Focusing on the literary representation of performance practices in anglophone, francophone, and hispanophone Caribbean literature, Jeannine Murray-Román shows how a shared regional aesthetic emerges from the descriptions of music, dance, and oral storytelling events. Because the historical circumstances that led to the development of performance traditions supersede the geopolitical and linguistic divisions of colonialism, the literary uses of these traditions resonate across the linguistic boundaries of the region. The author thus identifies the aesthetic that emerges from the act of writing about live arts and moving bodies as a practice that is grounded in the historically, geographically, and culturally specific features of the Caribbean itself.
Working with twentieth- and twenty-first-century sources ranging from theatrical works and novels to blogs, Murray-Román examines the ways in which writers such as Jacques Stephen Alexis, Zoé Valdés, Rosario Ferré, Patrick Chamoiseau, and Marlon James experiment with textually compensating for the loss of the corporeality of live relationship in performance traditions. Through their exploration of the interaction of literature and performance, she argues, Caribbean writers themselves offer a mode of bridging the disjunction between cultural and philosophical approaches within Caribbean studies.To view this DRM protected ebook on your desktop or laptop you will need to have
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Ebook Details Pages: 256 Size: 1.6 MB Publisher: University of Virginia Press Date published: 2016 ISBN: 2370007146277 (DRM-EPUB) 9780813938493 (DRM-PDF)
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warc | 201704 | HBW 10 - Family text: Troglodytidae (Wrens) Class AVESOrder PASSERIFORMESSuborder OSCINESFamily TROGLODYTIDAE (WRENS) Very small to medium-sized, mostly insectivorous birds with finely pointed and often decurved bill, tail variously long and graduated to extremely short, one species with sturdy legs and bill; plumage colours mostly grey and brown, often with rufous tones. 9-22 cm. New World, one species also in Eurasia and north Africa. Forest, forest edge, scrubland, suburban gardens, marshes, desert brushland, rock faces. 17 genera, 85 species, 401 taxa. 6 species threatened; none extinct since 1600. Systematics Troglodytidae is essentially a New World family, most diverse in Central America and north-western South America, with only one species, the Northern Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), having escaped to the Old World. Everywhere, the members of this family are small, highly active, and highly vocal insectivores, perhaps seldom seen but always, it seems, dominating the soundscape.
The relationships of wrens to other avian groups have been debated over the years. In 1881, R. B. Sharpe, in the Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, classified the wrens as a subfamily within the Timaliidae, which also included the dippers (Cinclidae). A few years later, the American Ornithologists' Union, in its 1889 Check-list of North American Birds, included the wrens as one subfamily and the mockingbirds and thrashers (Mimidae) as another within the family Troglodytidae, which it placed just after the wagtails and pipits (Motacillidae) and the dippers, and before the treecreepers (Certhiidae) and the tits and chickadees (Paridae). In 1904, R. Ridgway discussed the long-suspected probability that other songbirds most closely related to the wrens were the treecreepers and the mimids, "not far removed" from the dippers. Ridgway used the relatively high degree of cohesion between the anterior toes to show that the wrens were more like the treecreepers and parids than like the mimids, the latter, which are often referred to as "mimic-thrushes", being in turn more like the true thrushes (Turdidae). E. Mayr and D. Amadon, in 1951, placed the wrens in the family Muscicapidae, which they subdivided into the seven subfamilies Muscicapinae, Timaliinae, Sylviinae, Malurinae, Turdinae, Miminae, and Troglodytinae. They thereby suggested a relationship with, among others, the Old World flycatchers (Muscicapidae), the Old World warblers (Sylviidae) and the Australasian fairywrens (Maluridae). Another group that has often been associated with the wrens is the nuthatches (Sittidae). In a typical linear classification, Troglodytidae has been placed between the dippers and the mimic-thrushes, as by Mayr and Greenway in 1960, or between the treecreepers and the dippers, as by Ridgway in 1904.
In more recent decades, the data obtained by C. G. Sibley and J. E. Ahlquist from studies involving DNA-DNA hybridization suggested a novel hypothesis for the relationships of wrens. Their results indicated that the wrens, including the highly unusual Donacobius (Donacobius atricapillus), were the sister-group to the gnatcatchers (Polioptila), the gnatwrens (Microbates) and the Verdin (Auriparus flaviceps). The first two of these groups had traditionally been located within the subfamily Polioptilini of the Muscicapidae, while the Verdin had been included with the penduline tits in the family Remizidae. Furthermore, Sibley and Ahlquist suggested that the wrens, the gnatcatchers and the Verdin together formed a sister-group to the treecreepers of the genera Certhia and Salpornis, and proposed that they all be combined into a single family, the Certhiidae. This family, thus expanded, was a sister-group to Sittidae, which comprises the nuthatches (Sitta) and the Wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria). In addition, these genetic data emphasized the groups to which the wrens appeared not to be closely related: the babblers, which were moved to the family Sylviidae, the mimic-thrushes, which were found to be a sister-group to the traditional starling family Sturnidae, placed in another superfamily, and the dippers, forming yet another superfamily.
These recent ideas concerning the relationships of wrens received considerable support from a subsequent genetic analysis undertaken by F. H. Sheldon and F. B. Gill, whose results were published in 1996. It was agreed that the wrens' closest relatives are the gnatcatchers and gnatwrens, the treecreepers and the nuthatches. These authors' data also supported Sibley and Ahlquist's hypothesis that the mimic-thrushes and Sturnidae, the starlings, are sister-groups, well separated from the wrens. The Verdin, however, remained with the penduline tits.
Many of these proposed relationships were, in turn, corroborated in 2002 by F. K. Barker and colleagues, and they seem now to be generally accepted. Thus, the sister-group to the wrens is Polioptila, and the two together are sister to the treecreepers. Somewhat less certain is that all of these birds are the sister-group to the nuthatches. Further, all of these groups appear together to represent a sister-group to a clade that includes the dippers, the starlings, the mimic-thrushes, the thrushes of the genus Turdus, and the Old World Muscicapa flycatchers.
Over the last century or so, the family itself has largely been accepted as comprising a cohesive, monophyletic group of species, once several members of the Timaliidae and the Sylviidae were removed. The one remaining problem, however, concerns the Donacobius, a puzzling marsh-nesting bird found throughout most of lowland tropical South America. Details of its anatomy, social structure and behaviour (see General Habits) have suggested that it is either a wren or a mimic-thrush, and classifications over the years have alternately placed this species in either the Mimidae or the Troglodytidae. One of the last public statements, in 1982, declared that the Donacobius is a wren, and not a mimid, a view based on a still unpublished study of pterylosis by M. H. Clench and colleagues. That declaration was accepted by the American Ornithologists' Union in 1983. A year later, the genetic data of Sibley and Ahlquist indicated that the Donacobius was, in fact, as genetically distant from the wrens as it was from the mimic-thrushes, although, somewhat surprisingly, Sibley and Ahlquist used this equivocal information to place the Donacobius among the wrens. More recent genetic analyses by Barker, however, suggest that this species is neither a wren nor a mimid but, rather, a unique "sylvioid", a group that includes the babblers and the Old World warblers, as it clusters close to Prinia and Zosterops.
For the time being, it is deemed best to retain the Donacobius among the Troglodytidae, pending its "official" transfer to a more appropriate taxonomic position.
Less effort has been expended in trying to determine the relationships among the genera within the wren family. Some debate has centred on the genera Hylorchilus, Catherpes and Salpinctes. In 1904, for example, Ridgway accepted all three genera, but in 1960 Mayr and J. C. Greenway placed the Canyon Wren (Catherpes mexicanus) with the American Rock Wren (Salpinctes obsoletus) in the genus Salpinctes. Sumichrast's Wren (Hylorchilus sumichrasti) was originally described in the genus Catherpes back in 1871, and then moved to Hylorchilus in 1897, although, 90 years thereafter, J. W. Hardy and D. J. Delany argued that, on the basis on vocal similarities, it should be returned to Catherpes. A vocally distinct former subspecies of Sumichrast's Wren was elevated to full species status in 1993, becoming Nava's Wren (Hylorchilus navai), and thereby providing a small point in favour of keeping these two closely related wrens in their own separate genus, Hylorchilus.
A recent survey of the wrens in the genus Troglodytes, carried out by N. H. Rice and colleagues, is consistent with some suspected relationships, but it also offers some surprises. Most of all, it encourages further study not only of this genus but also of others within the family, especially the speciose Thryothorus. The genetic data obtained by Rice and co-workers indicate, not surprisingly, that the Northern House Wren (Troglodytes aedon), the Southern House Wren (Troglodytes musculus) and the Brown-throated Wren (Troglodytes brunneicollis) represent one major clade and, perhaps less expectedly, that the Rufous-browed Wren (Troglodytes rufociliatus) is a sister to this clade; in their analysis, the two house wrens are sister-taxa. An association of the same group of three species had been found in the analysis made just a few years earlier by R. T. Brumfield and A. P. Caparella, but these authors concluded that the Northern House Wren and the Brown-throated Wren were sister-taxa, a disagreement that will have to be settled through further analyses. Another major clade identified by Rice and colleagues included the Mountain (Troglodytes solstitialis), Tepui (Troglodytes rufulus) and Ochraceous Wrens (Troglodytes ochraceus). Surprisingly, the sister-group to these two clades was the Timberline Wren (Thryorchilus browni), and the Northern Wren fell well outside this grouping and was considered sufficiently different to be placed alone in a monotypic genus, Nannus. These various hypotheses of relationships are intriguing, but they are based on relatively limited genetic sampling, and the true relationships of these species to one another must remain a mattter of debate until further study is undertaken.
The only other proposed relationships among wren genera are those implied in various linear classifications, such as the sequence that is used in the present treatment. In such linear sequences, the genera Troglodytes and Thryorchilus, for example, are placed together, implying that they are closely related, but few data exist to support one linear classification over another.
Further genetic analyses, such as those by Barker, are likely to clarify relationships among the genera. In his thorough study, Barker drew genetic samples from 20 species among the traditional Troglodytidae, and from all genera except the monotypic Ferminia, Thryorchilus and Uropsila, although, as implied in the preceding paragraphs, Thryorchilus is assumed to be closely allied to Troglodytes. This study also incorporated close relatives of the wrens, such as treecreepers, nuthatches, mimids and a gnatcatcher, as well as several more distantly related species.
Barker's results conflict with the traditional linear series of genera, which had hitherto been the "best guess" of a sequence listed from "primitive" genera to "derived" ones. For example, although traditional linear classifications place Campylorhynchus first, and even within its own subfamily, these wrens are clearly not the sister-group to all other wrens, and phylogenetic trees show them nested well within, rather than basal to, the other troglodytids. In addition, such linear series place at the end those genera that tend to be ground-oriented, including Thryorchilus, Henicorhina, Microcerculus and Cyphorhinus, but this group is polyphyletic. Thryorchilus belongs to a clade that also includes Cistothorus and Troglodytes, while Microcerculus may be part of a basal radiation within the family, and Henicorhina and Cyphorhinus are sister-taxa, which in turn are probably sister to most Thryothorus.
Barker also concluded that Hylorchilus and Catherpes are sister-taxa, a result consistent with arguments based on similarity of song between the Canyon Wren and Sumichrast's Wren, with the distinct songs of Nava's Wren secondarily derived. It is possible that the sister-group of these wrens is the similarly petrophilous (rock-dwelling) American Rock Wren, which would permit all four of these species to be combined in the same genus, but other data suggest that Salpinctes, the rock wren, may be basal to all other wrens.
One of the more controversial of Barker's hypotheses is that the Carolina Wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus) is a sister-taxon to Bewick's Wren (Thryomanes bewickii), the two being sister-taxa to the Campylorhynchus wrens. A discovery that Thryothorus is polyphyletic, with, for example, Thryomanes nested within it, would not be so surprising in view of the large number of species currently contained in this little-studied genus, but the removal of the Carolina Wren to so distant a location is a rather novel hypothesis.
Clearly, these genetic data provide hypotheses for relationships that are worthy of further testing. Moreover, and above all, it is important to realize that the above-mentioned ideas are largely hypothetical, representing what are currently the best guesses based on limited data. It may be hoped that further research work will significantly clarify these relationships.
Research on vocalizations (see Voice) has suggested that recognition of additional species within the Troglodytidae may be warranted. The Marsh Wren (Cistothorus palustris), for example, consists of highly differentiated eastern and western populations in North America, as also does the Northern Wren, the Old World population of which may represent a further one or more species. As revealed by D. E. Kroodsma and co-workers, the Sedge Wren (Cistothorus platensis), too, exhibits substantial variation in plumage, vocal behaviour and style of song development, and habitat selection (see Habitat) within its large range, which extends from North America down through South America, and it is almost certain that more than one species is involved.
So far as the Marsh Wren is concerned, not only do the eastern and western populations differ in many perceivable ways, many of these differences being based on genetic differences, but they also occur together in the same marshes in central Saskatchewan, where interbreeding between them is limited. Eastern and western males defend territories against one another, and analysis of mitochondrial DNA in the population largely reveals two types of wren, one eastern and one western, with little interbreeding. If they interbred freely, then one would expect a genetically homogeneous population of Marsh Wrens in this transition zone, but the two types of wren signal that they themselves distinguish each other as two species.
Another currently recognized species in which songs provide clues to past evolutionary history is the Northern Wren. In North America alone there are two strikingly different singers, again separated along east-west lines. Eastern and boreal males occur from Nova Scotia south to North Carolina, and west at least to Michigan and Minnesota, while western males have been documented from British Columbia south to California; it is not known where these two types of singer meet, if they do at all. In addition, the songs of Northern Wrens in the Old World are different from those in North America.
On the basis of singing behaviour alone, the emerging hypothesis is that the western Nearctic and eastern Nearctic Northern Wrens diverged first, followed by a divergence of eastern Nearctic wrens and Palearctic wrens. This hypothesis is now supported and enhanced by the work of Drovetski and co-workers, who analyzed the genomic DNA from 97 wrens from throughout North America and Eurasia. These authors estimate that the western Nearctic wren diverged from the Holarctic ancestor roughly 1·6 million years ago, and that the Holarctic ancestor diverged into eastern Nearctic wrens and Palearctic wrens about one million years ago. Within Eurasia, four more groups are now identified, having originated as follows: eastern and western Palearctic wrens diverged about 0·83 million years ago, and then each respective population diverged one more time, between 0·54 million and 0·67 million years ago. The proliferation of these groups thus occurred during the early and middle Pleistocene glaciations. How many species occur in this Holarctic distribution depends on one's definition of a species, but the best guess is that at least three should be recognized, two in North America and one in Eurasia, and that perhaps each of the four clades in Eurasia could also be recognized as a full species.
Very recently, differences in songs among supposed Grey-breasted Wood-wrens (Henicorhina leucophrys) were used in helping to identify a new species in the western Andes of Colombia. This new species, the Munchique Wood-wren (Henicorhina negreti), is found only at high elevations on the Pacific slope, in the extremely wet, stunted cloudforest that is almost continuously shrouded in fog. In the taller forest at lower elevations on the west slope, it is replaced abruptly by the Grey-breasted Wood-wren of the subspecies brunneiceps, and on the drier east slope by the nominate race of the latter. Compared with the adjacent populations of Grey-breasted Wood-wrens, the Munchique Wood-wren has a more distinctly barred abdomen, a darker juvenile plumage, relatively longer tarsi and a proportionately shorter tail.
It is likely that, were it not for the fact that these wrens learn their songs and therefore have geographically differentiated song dialects (see Voice), far more species of wren would be recognized. New species are rather routinely described for various suboscines, such as the tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannidae), the songs of which are not learnt and therefore represent a vocal signature for the genotype of the bird; in the case of Thamnophilus punctatus, another suboscine that presumably does not learn its songs, M. L. Isler and colleagues have suggested that what was previously considered a single species, the Slaty Antshrike, in fact consists of six or more species. Most species of songbird, however, offer no such obvious vocal clue as to how their populations are differentiated, and the conservative approach is therefore to keep the highly differentiated Northern Wrens in one species. The same reservations apply to the Marsh Wrens and the Sedge Wrens and, no doubt, to other troglodytids, too. Nevertheless, future research will surely lead to the elevation to species rank of a good number of these behaviourally and vocally distinctive taxa. Indeed, very recently published work suggests that the globally threatened Apolinar's Wren (Cistothorus apolinari) of Colombia may, in fact, consist of two species, differentiated not only morphologically and by habitat preference but also by song. One form, currently described as the subspecies hernandezi, not only has a different song from the nominate race, but additionally, and in contrast to the latter, indulges in communal group song, both antiphonal and in duet.
Morphological Aspects
None of the troglodytids is brightly coloured in plumage, and reds, bright yellows, greens and blues are entirely absent in the family. Instead, all wrens are various shades of brown or rufous, often with areas of black and white. Despite this modesty of coloration, some species, particularly in the genus Thryothorus, have very attractive patterns of plumage, especially around the head and chest. One feature characteristic of virtually all wrens, and largely absent in most other passerines, is the predominance of barring on both the remiges and the rectrices. This usually takes the form of narrow alternating sections of blackish or dark brown and lighter brown on the outer webs of the primaries and secondaries; the tertials and the rectrices are typically barred on both webs. In a few species, especially the ground-dwelling wrens inhabiting thick, wet, dark tropical forest, the barring is very muted or almost absent, but, on close examination, traces are still discernible, suggesting that the ancestral wrens were barred. The plumage of wrens tends to be soft and rather fluffy.
Most members of the family have twelve rectrices, although the Timberline Wren, the two members of the genus Hylorchilus and the enigmatic Zapata Wren (Ferminia cerverai) have only ten. The rectrices tend to be rounded, with the outer ones often significantly shorter than the central ones. The tail length differs widely among genera. In the genus Odontorchilus, containing two South American species that appear to be converging evolutionarily with the unrelated Polioptila gnatcatchers, birds of similar habits and lifestyle, the tail accounts for almost half of the bird's total length. In the cactus wren group, the genus Campylorhynchus, it is almost as long in relative terms. More usually, however, the tail is shorter, and in some genera much shorter. The Northern Wren, for example, has a tail that makes up only 25-28% of the total body length. The most extreme instance, however, is that of the ground-dwelling Microcerculus wrens, which appear almost tailless in the field, the rectrices being typically no more than one-fifth of the total length of the bird. This is a further example of convergent evolution, in this case with the small Grallaricula antpittas in the antbird family (Formicariidae), the habitat and habits of which they share.
All wrens have ten primaries. Although the tenth primary, the outermost, may be much reduced, it is always present. They have relatively short and rounded wings, with usually the middle primaries, P5 to P7, the longest. The primaries of some species, when spread out, seem almost to describe an arc of a circle. The wing shape has clearly evolved for a lifestyle centred around short flights in dense vegetation, rather than for aerodynamic efficiency. Notwithstanding this, some species, notably the Northern Wren and the Northern House Wren, undertake long migratory journeys (see Movements).
There is no sexual dimorphism in wren plumages. Males and females are essentially identical in virtually all cases. In addition, there is frequently little distinction between adults and young. In some members of the genus Campylorhynchus and a few of the genus Thryothorus, juveniles do differ markedly in plumage from the adults of the species, but in most genera the distinctions between adult and young plumages tend to be minor and subtle.
Although the troglodytid bill tends to be long and often substantially decurved, considerable variation exists within the family, the bill morphology being dependent on lifestyle and food preferences. Some genera, such as Salpinctes and Troglodytes, have a very fine bill. Members of Catherpes and Hylorchilus, two genera specializing in foraging on rock faces, have a bill that is especially fine and decurved; they also exhibit several other specific modifications, including a flattened skull, for obtaining prey from crevices in rocks. The two Odontorchilus wrens have a very fine bill with a peculiar little notch, of unknown function, two-thirds of the way down the cutting edge of the upper mandible. In the genus Campylorhynchus, several species of which include major quantities of hard vegetable matter as well as large, well-armoured arthropods in the diet, the bill may be quite heavy and powerful. Some members of this genus, such as the Band-backed Wren (Campylorhynchus zonatus), appear to specialize in probing for prey in epiphytes and, consequently, have a longer, finer bill.
The most peculiar bills in the family are found in the ground-dwelling genus Cyphorhinus. The bill is quite stout and powerful, with a curious upper mandible compressed into a sharp, wedge-shaped ridge along the upper surface, giving an odd "Roman-nose" appearance. The precise function of this character is not known. Another unique feature of this genus, shared with many other, totally unrelated South American suboscine passerines, is a patch of bare, coloured skin around the eye.
Rictal bristles are present in some troglodytid genera, such as Campylorhynchus, Henicorhina and Uropsila. In some cases, as in the three Cyphorhinus species and some Thryothorus wrens, they may be very short or unobvious, but in many genera, including Troglodytes, Cistothorus, Salpinctes, Catherpes, Hylorchilus and Microcerculus, rictal bristles are obsolete or absent.
As may be expected for a group of birds that spends most of its time in foraging near the ground, the legs and feet of wrens tend to be substantial in proportion to the small size of the birds, and in some cases they are rather heavy and powerful, with large claws. In contrast, the legs and feet of the canopy-dwelling Odontorchilus wrens are quite fine and dainty.
Finally, one species currently included in Troglodytidae, but almost certainly belonging elsewhere (see Systematics), differs in several respects from the "true" wrens. In general external appearance, the Donacobius resembles the mimids more than it does any wren. The wings are powerful and rather rounded, with very short primaries, and the tail is long and very graduated, almost fan-shaped in fact, with the outer rectrices much shorter than the central ones. The legs are long and very robust, and the bill is long and sturdy, with rictal bristles present but not very obvious. A unique feature of the Donacobius is the presence of a patch of bare yellow to orange skin on each side of the neck, not usually visible in the field, but distended during display.
Information on moult sequences is generally lacking for the great majority of wren species, namely those occurring in Central and South America; this would be a very fertile and productive area of study. More data are available for those species found in North America and Europe. Typically, the first moult that a bird undergoes, that in which it renews the original feathers that it grew as a nestling, occurs within a few months of fledging and is incomplete. The body feathers are replaced, but usually only some flight-feathers are renewed. The extent of this moult is variable, not only among species but also among different individuals of a single species. In Bewick's Wren, for example, some individuals replace no tail feathers at all in the first moult and some replace all of them, but about two-thirds of individuals replace only some of the rectrices. The more southerly races of this species tend to renew more feathers than do the northern ones. Among wrens, the replacement of the remiges in this first moult is frequently incomplete and often eccentric; rather than starting at the outermost or innermost primary or secondary and proceeding inwards or outwards in sequence, it begins several feathers in, thereby producing a mixture of old and new feathers in patches. In subsequent years, the prebasic moult of all North American wrens is complete.
Most wrens do not undergo a pre-breeding moult, a spring moult that in some families, such as the parulid warblers, results in a characteristic bright breeding plumage. The exceptions to this are the Cistothorus wrens, which have a partial moult before breeding. In the case of the Sedge Wren, this results in the replacement of a variable number of greater wing-coverts, tertials and rectrices, but not, apparently, of the primaries or secondaries. A similar pattern is found in the Marsh Wren.
Habitat As a family, the wrens have been highly successful in adapting to a very wide range of habitats, occupying a variety of ecological niches which, in continents other than the Americas, are taken up by several different avian families.
The largest wren genus is Thryothorus, which has the greatest density of species occurring in southern Central America and north-western South America. Within this one genus there is a considerable diversity of habitat requirements, as may be expected since its members are found all the way from southern Canada south to Bolivia, but, in broad terms, all require areas of trees with substantial undergrowth. Some species, such as the Banded Wren (Thryothorus pleurostictus) and the Happy Wren (Thryothorus felix), are found in dry forest and bushland. The majority, however, favour more humid habitat, while some, such as the Bay (Thryothorus nigricapillus), Riverside (Thryothorus semibadius) and Coraya Wrens (Thryothorus coraya), show a preference for the vicinities of actual watercourses. Thryothorus wrens tend to live more at forest edge than in deep unbroken forest, doubtless owing to the presence of denser undergrowth in areas exposed to sunlight. Consequently, several members of the genus, such as the Plain Wren (Thryothorus modestus), have thrived in somewhat disturbed habitat where climax forest has been partially cut over or allowed to regenerate. Sometimes, there is an apparent division of habitat utilization between two species. In Colombia, for example, the Bay Wren tends to occur at forest edge, being replaced in the deeper interior by the Sooty-headed Wren (Thryothorus spadix), while in western Mexico a frequently sympatric pair of species, the Happy and Sinaloa Wrens (Thryothorus sinaloa), may have slightly different requirements, the latter being able to tolerate sparser woodland. Some species are largely associated with specific vegetation; among these are the Plain-tailed (Thryothorus euophrys) and Inca Wrens (Thryothorus eisenmanni), which usually occur in areas with Chusquea bamboo. Typically, the Plain-tailed Wren is the first colonist of highly disturbed land, such as landslips in the precipitous Andes, a habitat which is mimicked by spoil slopes from road construction. In Bolivia, Moustached Wrens (Thryothorus genibarbis) are often found in Bambusa bamboo, whereas Heliconia thickets in Costa Rica are the preferred habitat of both the Bay Wren and the Black-bellied Wren (Thryothorus fasciatoventris). Because of their preference for secondary growth, many species in this genus have survived, or even prospered, with man-made habitat change. The Stripe-breasted Wren (Thryothorus thoracicus) in Costa Rica has adapted well to cacao plantations at low altitudes and to shade coffee plantations at higher elevations.
The only temperate-zone Thryothorus, the Carolina Wren, which, according to recent studies, may not really belong in this genus (see Systematics), lives largely in highly modified habitats, such as abandoned farmland and well-vegetated suburbs. Its natural habitats included oak (Quercus) hardwoods and mixed woodlands of oak and pine (Pinus) having a variety of other tree species, such as hickory (Carya) and cottonwood (Populus). The two insular subspecies of the Carolina Wren, burleighi and nesophilus, are found in slash pine (Pinus elliottii) and palmetto stands.
In contrast to Thryothorus, the highly terrestrial members of the genus Microcerculus are much more restricted to undisturbed virgin lowland humid forest, and do not take at all well to habitat modification. The opening-up of the forest canopy induces lower-level growth unsuitable for these wrens. The four Microcerculus species are generally found at lower altitude, usually from sea-level to 1500 m, although the Flutist Wren (Microcerculus ustulatus) is a more montane species, being encountered at up to 2100 m on tepui summits in Venezuela.
Four troglodytids are closely associated with rocks. Ironically, the American Rock Wren exhibits the least morphological adaptation to this habitat, not differing greatly, in external form, from members of the genus Thryothorus. It occurs in habitats that range from fairly dry to very arid, and is usually to be seen in barren rocky places, including scree slopes, boulder falls and areas of bare, sunbaked mud. It will take advantage of mining and quarrying activities, occurring in areas of spoil and tailings, as well as colonizing areas temporarily made bare by clear-cut forestry. As a vagrant, with records over much of eastern North America, the American Rock Wren is often found in artificial situations which resemble its preferred habitat, such as concrete structures.
The three other rock-dwelling species are truly petrophilous, being associated with rock faces and showing major morphological adaptations to exploit this niche. Canyon Wrens are, indeed, associated exclusively with canyons, rock faces and, in California, sea-cliffs. Given this requirement, this species is quite catholic in its habitat choice, occurring in cool uplands at up to 3000 m, in dry oak-wood canyons or, in southern Mexico, in humid areas as low as 200 m. In contrast, the two members of the genus Hylorchilus are very specific in their habitat requirements and, as a consequence, have highly restricted geographical ranges. Both Sumichrast's and Nava's Wrens are found solely in forested karst limestone outcrops. The former can tolerate some slight changes to the forest cover, including the planting of shade coffee, since this does not impinge on the rock faces where it feeds, but for Nava's Wren any disturbance seems to be unacceptable.
Some wrens have radiated into marshland and swamp, exploiting niches that in the Old World are occupied mainly by various warbler genera of the family Sylviidae. The four species of Cistothorus have all specialized in wet, mostly monocotyledonous habitat of varying types. The Marsh Wren, as a breeding species, is usually confined to vegetation over standing waters, normally cat-tails (Typha), bulrushes (Scirpus) and reeds (Phragmites) in northern freshwater marshes, and cordgrass (Spartina) and sedges (Juncus) in brackish coastal marshes. Northern interior populations spend the winter in other fresh and brackish marshes, in the latter case frequently co-existing with resident, non-migrating individuals of the species. The Sedge Wren, on the other hand, in North America, usually avoids areas of standing water, preferring damp sedgy meadows, often with small bushes, although it may occur also in weedy rice paddies in the southern United States. In its extensive South American range, however, this wren's habitat varies enormously, from cold páramo in the Andes to open grassy savanna in Venezuela, dry cerrado grassland in Brazil, wet alder (Alnus) forest and bamboo bogs in Colombia, the borders of tidal marshes in Argentina and tussac grass in the Falklands. The great diversity of habitat occupancy, along with vocal differences, gives support to the argument for the separation of South American forms taxonomically from those in North and Central America (see Systematics).
The two subspecies of Apolinar's Wren differ markedly in their habitat requirements. The nominate race lives in similar lake-edge habitat to that occupied by the Marsh Wren, namely reedbeds dominated by cat-tails and bulrushes, albeit at altitudes of 2500 m to slightly over 3000 m. In contrast, the race hernandezi occurs higher up, between 3800 m and 3900 m, in boggy páramo with low shrubs and a hirsute leafy ground plant known locally as "frailejón" (Espeletia grandiflora).
Restricted to a very small area of Cuba, and one possessing a unique habitat, the enigmatic Zapata Wren has very specific habitat requirements. These are savanna-type swamp with sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) and rushes, and with some bushes which can be used as songposts. The water level in the Zapata Swamp is quite variable, but the Zapata Wren tends to live in drier areas, which allow it to forage on the ground.
Another wetland-dwelling species currently included within the family is the Donacobius. This relatively large bird, of uncertain taxonomic affiliation (see Systematics), inhabits brushy vegetation along riversides and the overgrown margins of water impoundments in the lowlands of tropical South America. Although it sometimes forages away from such areas, it invariably nests only in marshy vegetation.
In North America, the Northern Wren occurs in such boreal-type habitats as moist coniferous forest with extensive underbrush, but also in mixed hardwood-conifer stands. In addition, it is also found, in an extensive range of subspecies, on treeless or nearly treeless oceanic islands in the Aleutian chain. The same species, having invaded the Old World via the Bering bridge, has, in the absence of competition from other troglodytids, expanded into a catholic range of habitats in three continents. In western Europe, the most favourable habitat is damp woodland, either deciduous or mixed, with extensive undergrowth, but the species is also common in suburban gardens, in moorland scrub and on oceanic islands with scanty vegetation. In other parts of its Old World range it may be more restricted, as, for example, in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, where it is largely confined to stream valleys and forests at altitudes between 1200 m and 1800 m; in Nepal, it is found at elevations of 2500 m to 4800 m.
In the Americas, the "house wren superspecies" (see Systematics) occupies many of the ecological niches exploited by the Northern Wren in the Palearctic Region, especially highly modified landscapes such as wood edges, well-vegetated suburban areas and regenerating abandoned farmland. The Southern House Wren, being unable to tolerate unbroken forest, does not occur over much of Amazonia, but it rapidly colonizes suitable clearings when they appear. Over the remainder of the continent, this species occupies a remarkable range of habitats, from quite highly urbanized situations to montane areas and arid regions with dry bushland, from sea-level up to 4000 m. In the Falkland Islands, the isolated Cobb's Wren (Troglodytes cobbi), obviously closely related to the mainland house wrens, has adapted to a harsh environment consisting of moorland and the tussac grass Paradiochloa; unlike any other troglodytid species, it has learnt to forage among seaweed on tidal shores, and it does in fact occur at higher densities in places where territories actually abut the sea. In contrast to the house wrens, the group of montane Troglodytes wrens occurring from southern Mexico southwards to northern Argentina is much more specific in its habitat requirements. This group, comprising the Mountain, Santa Marta (Troglodytes monticola), Ochraceous, Rufous-browed and Tepui Wrens, is usually restricted to various forest types, always in uplands and often at considerable altitude, in the case of the Santa Marta Wren up to 4800 m. Similar habitat, that of bamboo thickets in páramo and sub-páramo, is required by the appropriately named Timberline Wren.
Bewick's Wren often co-exists with, and perhaps suffers from competition from, the Northern House Wren in eastern North America. Here, it has benefited from European colonization, as semi-open habitat was created by the clearing of climax forest for farmland. In western North America, it occupies a very wide variety of habitats, including chaparral brushland, cactus-dominated scrub and riparian woodland, some of which are unsuitable for house wrens.
Forming a group of four closely related species, the wood-wrens are found in forested land from Mexico south to Bolivia. Notwithstanding their great morphological and behavioural similarities, they have developed distinct habitat requirements and only rarely occur together. The White-breasted Wood-wren (Henicorhina leucosticta) inhabits wet lowland broadleaf forest, mostly below 1500 m, whereas the Grey-breasted Wood-wren lives in humid mountain forest, usually above 1500 m, and extending up to páramo edge at 3800 m in Costa Rica. The Bar-winged Wood-wren (Henicorhina leucoptera) is found very specifically in a few high-altitude forests, usually very impoverished, with stunted trees and heavy ericaceous undergrowth, on leached quartzite soil, a habitat which it sometimes shares with the previous species. The fourth species, only recently distinguished as a separate species from the Grey-breasted Wood-wren (see Systematics), is the Munchique Wood-wren, which has hitherto been recorded only at 2250-2640 m in extremely wet, stunted cloudforest on the Pacific slope of the Colombian Andes. It is ecologically sharply separated from the two neighbouring subspecies of the Grey-breasted Wood-wren, one of which lives at lower elevations on the same slope, while the other occurs on the drier eastern slopes of the Munchique massif. Although all three taxa can be seen within a distance of 1 km in some areas, no two of them have ever been found together.
The genus Cyphorhinus contains three species which, in appearance and habits, seem to be evolving convergently with the terrestrial antbirds, the habitat of which they frequently share. All occur in wet forest with extensive undergrowth. One, the Chestnut-breasted Wren (Cyphorhinus thoracicus), is a montane form, found in wet upland forest and cloudforest, often with a luxuriant growth of mosses and epiphytes. The other two, the Song Wren (Cyphorhinus phaeocephalus) and the Musician Wren (Cyphorhinus aradus), are lowland species, inhabiting humid forest and second growth with an extensive understorey, or várzea, from sea-level to 1000 m.
In the Andes, from Colombia southwards to northern Bolivia, the four species in the genus Cinnycerthia are very similar to one another not only in appearance but also in habitat requirements. All are found in wet mountain forest with a luxuriant understorey, usually between 1500 m and 3500 m, and often in association with thickets of Chusquea bamboo or in areas with extensive wet mosses growing epiphytically on tree boles and low branches. This genus as a whole does not tolerate extensive habitat modification.
The two Odontorchilus species are unusual among wrens in that they feed mostly in the forest canopy. As a consequence, both are restricted to areas of suitable forest, usually those which have not undergone much human modification. The Tooth-billed Wren (Odontorchilus cinereus) is a lowland species, found in tropical Amazonian forest below 500 m, while the Grey-mantled Wren (Odontorchilus branickii) lives in humid montane upper-tropical and subtropical forest of the Andes from Colombia south to Bolivia. The latter lives at 1400-2200 m on the Amazonian drainage, but can be observed as low down as 800 m on the Pacific slope.
The large wrens in the genus Campylorhynchus have succeeded in colonizing some habitats which are denied to smaller members of the family. No other troglodytid genus has been so successful in arid areas of Mexico and the south-western United States, although several other small insectivorous birds from different families, such as the Verdin and the gnatcatchers, have managed to exploit very arid landscapes. The Cactus Wren (Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus) occurs in a number of different types of desert, although always with the proviso that there be spiny cacti, such as prickly-pear (Opuntia) or various species of cholla (Opuntia), in which to nest. In the absence of such cacti, as, for example, in uniform stands of mesquite bushes (Prosopis), the Cactus Wren is generally absent. Cactus Wrens adapt quite well, albeit at a lower density, to highly degraded and disturbed habitats, including such areas as gravel pits and junkyards, so long as sufficient suitable vegetation remains for foraging and nesting.
Several other members of the genus, such as the Fasciated (Campylorhynchus fasciatus) and Boucard's Wrens (Campylorhynchus jocosus), also specialize in semi-arid habitats, although none has been able to exploit true desert to the same degree as has the Cactus Wren. A number of species, such as the Grey-barred Wren (Campylorhynchus megalopterus), are found at higher altitudes in Middle America, when their habitats include pine and pine-oak forest. The Rufous-naped Wren (Campylorhynchus rufinucha) occurs mostly on the drier Pacific slope, where it is frequently associated with bull's-horn acacias (Acacia collinsii and A. cornigera). These trees are host to aggressive symbiotic ants of the genus Pseudomyrmex, which provide the nesting wrens with vicarious protection from predators such as white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus) (see Breeding). In other parts of Middle and South America, species of Campylorhynchus have adapted to much more humid forest, where they may specialize in foraging in epiphytes, plant forms that are generally absent in arid areas. Troglodytids occurring in such humid biotopes include the White-headed Wren (Campylorhynchus albobrunneus) and the Band-backed Wren, although, in areas where the two are sympatric, the former tends to be found in the wetter habitats. The Band-backed Wren is, in fact, a very adaptable species, occurring in a wider range of habitats than does any other member of the genus; it inhabits humid forest at sea-level in Mexico and Guatemala, palm groves, wet epiphytic and drier pure oak forest at intermediate altitude and, at 3000 m, cypress (Cupressus) forest. It can also tolerate substantially disturbed habitat, such as forest clearings and clumps of trees bordering farmland.
General Habits Among the different groups of wrens there is a considerable diversity of habits. The great majority of the species are found in forest of various types or at forest edges, mostly in tropical areas. These are complex biotopes, with several different ecological niches, the exploitation of which by different troglodytid genera has given rise to quite diverse behavioural patterns. Several groups of wrens keep on or close to the ground. The most highly terrestrial are the Microcerculus nightingale-wrens, which spend most of their time on the forest floor, walking with a mincing gait, constantly teetering the tail in the manner of an Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla). Nightingale-wrens fly only infrequently, and they are rarely caught in mist-nets, as they simply walk underneath them. In both behaviour and external appearance they are obviously converging evolutionarily with a group of small formicariids, the antpittas, the habitat of which they share. Almost equally terrestrial are the Cyphorinus wrens, which forage on or near the forest floor and which, again, share many morphological characteristics with the unrelated terrestrial antbirds.
Wrens enjoy a reputation for furtiveness. Indeed, the majority of species are relatively difficult to observe, as they readily disappear into dense vegetation at the slightest disturbance. The Microcerculus wrens have developed this behaviour to a fine art and can be extraordinarily difficult for even the most patient watcher to see. By contrast, the large wrens of the genus Campylorhynchus are raucous, boisterous and extrovert birds, frequently singing from exposed posts, in suburban areas even from the tops of lampposts, and generally acting in a rambunctious and uninhibited fashion, travelling in noisy groups that are very easy to locate. In terms of general behaviour, however, most members of the family fall somewhere in between these two extremes. Species such as Sumichrast's Wren can be very secretive, but frequently are overcome by a sense of curiosity that impels them to emerge in order to sneak a look at the intruder. Without their loud and persistent songs, many wren species, especially those inhabiting dense tropical forest, would go largely undetected.
The wrens living in temperate climates tend to be solitary or to occur in pairs, the young associating with their parents for only a limited period of time. Among tropical genera the situation is more variable. The genus Cinnycerthia is notably gregarious. The Rufous Wren (Cinnycerthia unirufa), for example, occurs in parties of up to 20 individuals, more than can be accounted for by an extended family, and frequently joins mixed flocks with other species. Several other tropical wrens occur in mixed flocks, as typified by the two Odontorchilus species, the Tooth-billed and Grey-mantled Wrens, which frequently associate with mixed parties of tanagers (Thraupidae), becards (Pachyramphus) and other canopy-dwellers. Similarly, the Stripe-throated Wren (Thryothorus leucopogon) routinely occurs in mixed flocks of antwrens (Thamnophilidae) and other species, whereas several of its congeners, such as the Plain-tailed Wren, apparently never do so. Some species routinely follow swarms of army ants (see Food and Feeding). For species with co-operative nesting strategies, notably the tropical members of the genus Campylorhynchus, groups of blood-relatives associate and act collaboratively to defend the nest and rear the young (see Breeding).
A few troglodytids, such as the Marsh Wren, will sing at night, especially in moonlight, but generally wrens are strictly diurnal. Most members of the family roost in cavities or in nests. Multiple nest-building during the breeding season is common among wrens, in some cases, as in the Marsh Wren, to an extraordinary degree, leaving numerous surplus nests for roosting. Some species, however, build nests for specific use as roosting sites. These include many of the Campylorhynchus wrens. Cactus Wrens, for instance, build nests throughout the year, and the juveniles may make tentative efforts at nest-building within days of fledging, with serious construction by ten weeks, obviously long before there is any chance of the youngsters themselves breeding. Wood-wrens, too, construct special roosting nests. In the case of the lowland-dwelling White-breasted Wood-wren, these are quite different from the breeding nest, being of very flimsy construction, and often with little effort at concealment; they are usually placed higher up in forks of slender saplings, so that a predator climbing to the nest cannot avoid shaking the support and alerting the occupant. In contrast, the Grey-breasted Wood-wren, living in the colder highlands, builds a thick-walled, well-insulated and snug roosting nest. White-bellied Wrens (Uropsila leucogastra) also build two types of nest, one a flimsy, thin-walled construction that is presumably intended for roosting only.
Many wrens roost as family groups, or the female sleeps with the young. Juveniles may then roost alone, sometimes, as with the Cactus Wren, in nests not of their own construction. Communal roosting also occurs among Northern Wrens. In this case, the birds forage as individuals during the daytime, gathering together only at dusk, the incentive being mutual body-heat conservation during long, cold nights. Northern Wrens frequently roost in cavities, usually with up to ten individuals together, but up to 96 have been found in one site in Europe and 31 in North America. In roosting aggregations of this kind, the wrens position themselves in layers, and the individuals in each layer hold the head pointing inwards, so that a rough circle is formed.
One extraordinary type of behaviour, found among many wrens of different genera and in totally different habitats, is the destruction of the eggs and, sometimes, the young of other birds, sometimes of conspecifics but very frequently those of other species. Both the Giant Wren of southern Mexico and the Bicoloured Wren (Campylorhynchus griseus) of northern South America have acquired the local dialectal name of "chupahuevo", meaning literally egg-sucker, apparently owing to a propensity of these wrens to enter chicken coops and attack the eggs therein.
Other troglodytids have developed egg destruction to a much greater degree than an occasional raid on a hen-house. In temperate North America, the Northern House Wren can be extremely destructive of other species. House wrens will enter the nests of other cavity-using species, such as the Carolina Chickadee (Poecile carolinensis), the Tufted Titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor) or the White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis), and either pierce the eggs or throw them out. Not all of the wren's aggression, however, is directed at cavity-nesters; species such as the Chipping Sparrow (Spizella passerina) may also be victimized, and quail (Odontophoridae) eggs experimentally placed in open nests in Northern House Wren territories may be attacked. The destructive effect of this troglodytid on other avian species has been observed for more than a century, and gave rise to a superbly vitriolic paper by a certain A. Sherman, published in the Wilson Bulletin of 1925, entitled "Down with the House Wren boxes". Sherman documented in great detail the crimes of the "felonious House Wren", prophesying that "if no steps are taken to stop his unrestricted breeding it is safe to predict the time will come when all true bird lovers will wring his neck as cheerfully as they now wring the neck of the pestiferous English Sparrow". Her solution was that persons who put up nestboxes used by these wrens should take them down again, so that "a kind Providence need not protect his memory from the just execrations of future generations". In one interesting instance observed by Sherman, a Northern House Wren entered a building where there was a preserved shrike (Lanius) nest with blown eggs; the wren pitched the eggs out on to the floor. On being replaced, the eggs were again tossed out by the wren on a second raid, by which time they were a little the worse for wear.
There is circumstantial evidence that nest predation by house wrens may have been heavily implicated in the decline of Bewick's Wren in eastern North America. In most areas, the appearance of the one coincided with the disappearance of the other. Certainly, the Northern House Wren has a substantial impact on the Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea) in Canada, where this cavity-nesting parulid is considered endangered (see Status and Conservation). In southern Ontario, nest predation by the wrens is one of the major causes of nesting failure among the warblers.
Although egg predation by Northern House Wrens has attracted the most attention by virtue of the species' close association with humans, other, non-cavity-nesting troglodytids, notably the marsh wrens in the genus Cistothorus, are also well known as predators of eggs. In eastern North America, the Marsh Wren frequently attacks the eggs of Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus), as well as those of species up to the size of the Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis). Intraspecific egg destruction also occurs; females have been seen to kill the chicks of wrens in adjacent territories and to throw them out of the nests. Marsh Wrens can even be caught in traps baited with small eggs. Furthermore, incubating females of the Marsh Wren may show considerable hostility towards their mates, doubtless in order to protect their own eggs; these are unusually thick-shelled, perhaps as a defence against attack. Marsh Wren predation may have a significant negative effect on the breeding success of Red-winged Blackbirds, which, for their part, are very aggressive towards wrens. In western North America, a similar state of mutual hostility exists between Marsh Wrens and Yellow-headed Blackbirds (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus); the blackbirds may destroy wren nests in order to prevent a brooding female from returning to her eggs. In Colombia, Apolinar's Wren appears to have an equivalent mutually hostile relationship with the local icterid, the Yellow-hooded Blackbird (Agelaius icterocephalus).
The Sedge Wren in North America exhibits the same behaviour towards marsh-dwelling icterids and may have a significant adverse effect on their populations. Sedge Wrens have been seen to attack the eggs of species as large as the Cinnamon Teal (Anas cyanoptera), but without being able to penetrate the shell. Several other troglodytids, such as the Plain Wren in the genus Thryothorus, have been seen to prey on other species' eggs or young, and additional observation and fieldwork would doubtless reveal that this behaviour is quite general.
A number of explanations have been advanced for the phenomenon of egg predation by wrens. In some cases the eggs may be wholly or partially eaten, but frequently they are not; eggs are not, therefore, a significant food source. Intraspecific egg destruction may be a useful way of reducing competition for food resources at the period of maximum demand, and it may be relevant that Marsh Wrens, for example, sometimes nest at very high densities with tiny territories. This explanation, however, is less plausible when applied to interspecific predation involving large unrelated species such as the Yellow-headed Blackbird. In the case of the cavity-nesting house wren, the act of destroying the nests of other cavity-nesting species may, in the long run, ensure a supply of nesting sites for the wrens; the latter, being migratory, arrive and commence nesting later than do some resident victims such as the Carolina Chickadee or the Tufted Titmouse. Perhaps significantly, the non-cavity-nesting Northern Wren appears not to prey on eggs. On the other hand, the highly predatory marsh wrens are also non-cavity-nesters.
The behaviour and general habits of the Donacobius resemble those of the mockingbirds more than they do those of the wrens, a fact that, prior to recent DNA investigations, was used by some authors to argue that this species belongs in the family Mimidae (see Systematics). This is a noisy, extrovert bird, usually occurring in small groups of up to four, blood-related individuals. Pairs perform ritualized mutual displays, with much flirting and wagging of the long tail, which is held such that the conspicuous white tips are on show. A more intense form of display involves the adoption of a hunched-back posture, with the head and tail held down, the throat grossly distended, and sometimes with the wings drooped to reveal the conspicuous white flash on the primaries. Both sexes sing. During mutual song sessions, the pair-members may sit close to one another, waving the long tail rhythmically from side to side, with the inflatable yellow throat patch distended. As the Donacobius seems to form long-term pair-bonds, breeds co-operatively and has a rather extended breeding season, it is somewhat difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between possible breeding displays and general social activity.
For many troglodytids living in arid conditions, water-bathing is not an option. Indeed, even when water is available, the American Rock Wren and the Canyon Wren have not been observed to indulge in this activity, preferring instead to dust-bathe. Cactus Wrens, too, habitually dust-bathe, but they will bathe in water when it is present, even visiting suburban birdbaths for that purpose. Marsh Wrens, but not Sedge Wrens, have been seen to bathe in swamp water. Curiously, water-bathing has not been reported for Northern House Wrens, although both this species and the Carolina Wren do dust-bathe. Bewick's Wren bathes in both water and dust. There are a few reports of sun-bathing. Carolina Wrens have been seen to lie in the sun with the eyes half-closed, the wings and tail partially spread, and the feathers of the head, back and rump raised.
Most species of wren have been seen to preen, head-scratching being of the indirect type, with the foot lifted over the wing. Allopreening is apparently rare among troglodytids, although it has been observed for a few species.
Aggressive behaviour by wrens is generally associated with territoriality and breeding. Threat displays usually involve the fanning of the wings and the drooping and partial spreading of the tail, while pointing the bill at the object of aggression. Actual physical combat, however, is uncommon. Typically, two individuals will fly vertically upwards for a short distance, while flapping the wings into each other, grasping each other's feet and sometimes pecking. Occasionally, such efforts are directed against other species. American Rock Wrens, for example, have been seen to attack Northern House Wrens which were attempting to pilfer nesting material from their nest, and have also been observed to attack the much larger Western Kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis).
Voice The Troglodytidae include some of the finest and most appreciated singers among all birds. The Northern Wren, for example, heard throughout the Holarctic Region, is appreciated for the long duration of its song and for the degree of expressiveness contained within its singing. This species' songs range from barely audible whispered ones, given while courting a female, to songs delivered with a truly surprising vehemence for so tiny a bird. It is the songs of wrens that define certain habitats throughout much of the New World. Examples are the cascading, sweet liquid whistles of the aptly named Canyon Wren, heard throughout canyons in western North America, the rhythmic "char char char char" of the Cactus Wren in the deserts of the south-west United States and northern Mexico, the unmistakable gurgling of Marsh Wrens, inseparably linked with cat-tail and bulrush marshes from the Pacific seaboard across to the Atlantic coast, the "tea-kettle tea-kettle tea-kettle" song of the Carolina Wren in the Deep South of the USA, and similar striking songs and duets of other Thryothorus wrens throughout Central and South America.
Although most wrens bear English names that helpfully allude to their distinctive plumages, or to the habitat or geographical area in which they are found, some have escaped such mundane appellations and have been given names drawing attention more to their vocal abilities. Thus, two of the Microcerculus species are known as nightingale-wrens and another as the Flutist Wren, while the Central American subspecies luscinia of the Southern Nightingale-wren (Microcerculus marginatus) is generally referred to as the Whistling Wren; and two of the three Cyphorhinus species are the Song Wren and the Musician Wren. Given the appealing qualities of these songsters, it is no surprise that they have attracted considerable attention, both aesthetically and scientifically.
Most members of the family achieve their remarkable songs by learning, the young birds imitating the songs of adults in the population. This was nicely demonstrated in a study of Bewick's Wrens undertaken by Kroodsma in the north-west United States. In the Willamette Valley of Oregon, where Bewick's Wrens are resident, a young male stays with his parents until four or five weeks of age, and then sets out to find a territory of his own. By eight weeks of age, he will probably already be on his own territory, one that he will retain for the rest of his life. There, the youngster begins to practise singing; his first attempts are only scratchy, continuous jingles, but his efforts gradually improve, and within a few weeks he is already singing what are clearly attempts at imitations of the songs of adult males around him. The young male perfects his songs during the autumn and over the winter, and by the following spring has acquired the songs of his immediate neighbourhood, as those are the ones that he must use in order to function there. Although he was capable of imitating his father's songs before dispersing, all of these were eventually rejected and replaced with the songs that he needed at his permanent breeding location.
This learning process is easily demonstrated also in laboratory experiments, as with Marsh Wrens. If a ten-day-old Marsh Wren is removed from the nest and hears no songs over the next year, he sings "nonsense" songs, songs that are unrecognizable as to species. If he is allowed to hear some Marsh Wren songs over loudspeakers, however, he attends to the minutest of details in those songs, imitating them with remarkable precision. In the laboratory, males can begin to imitate songs broadcast from loudspeakers when they are as young as 15 days of age, with a peak of learning ability when between 25 and 40 days, and perhaps a secondary peak ending around day 60; little to no learning of additional songs occurs after 75 days. More realistic learning experiences can be achieved by allowing a juvenile to learn songs from an adult, singing male, and the sensitive phase for learning can then be extended well beyond 75 days, to the following spring, at a time when a migratory yearling male would establish his first breeding territory. Flexibility in where and when to learn is necessary for these wrens, as some nestlings hatch in the period after the adults have stopped singing for the year, and those nestlings must delay much of their learning until the following spring.
Most wrens probably learn their songs in this fashion, whereby young birds disperse to a breeding location and learn their songs there. One of the best forms of evidence for this is vocal dialects, in which the songs of the wrens vary over short geographical distances. Songs of Bewick's Wrens, for example, change gradually over distance, and sometimes change abruptly at discontinuities in habitat, so that the songs in a father's neighbourhood are different from those in the neighbourhood where his young male offspring establishes a territory. Songs of Marsh Wrens, and the sequences in which individuals use them, vary from one marsh to another, as J. Verner found in the 1970s. Similarly, Kroodsma recorded that songs of American Rock Wrens at a site in eastern Oregon were different from those uttered by the species at another locality only 160 km away. In Europe, the songs of Northern Wrens can differ over very short distances, a small lake being enough of a barrier that songs on one side are different from those on the other. Likewise, among Carolina Wrens in the United States, it was found that songs changed rapidly over a 145-km transect; most versions were heard at only a single locality, and most songs in the wren repertoires changed abruptly at dispersal barriers.
The one known exception to this process of precise song imitation and the formation of song dialects involves the North American population of the Sedge Wren, which is closely related to, yet so different from, the Marsh Wren. A nestling Sedge Wren, when taken into the laboratory and exposed to songs of adults of its species, imitates none of those songs. Instead of copying songs from the loudspeakers or from other young birds nearby, he improvises a sizeable repertoire of unique songs, such that few, if any, of the songs that he perfects are like those of others of the species. Consistent with this style of song development is the evidence from wild-living individuals in North America, where neighbouring males also have unique repertoires of songs. In effect, Sedge Wren songs are like snowflakes, as no two seem to be exactly alike, but each is instantly recognizable as being the song of a Sedge Wren because all songs are built on the same principle, a few introductory notes followed by a dry, staccato trill, "cut-cut-cut-trrrrrrrrrrrrrr".
Why the North American Sedge Wren seems to differ from all other troglodytids in its style of song development may perhaps be explained by its unique reproductive biology. Individuals that are ringed at one location early in the season, in the northernmost part of the range, typically leave there during mid-season, presumably going elsewhere to breed; as these wrens often arrive to breed at lower latitudes, such as Nebraska, Indiana and Kentucky, during July and August, it appears that they make a stopover to nest on their migratory route back to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. These Sedge Wrens are rather nomadic, and not at all site-faithful. They rarely return to the same breeding location in successive years; in one unpublished study, S. Johnson found that, of 300 individuals, only one returned to breed at the site where it had nested in the preceding year.
The uniqueness of these North American Sedge Wrens is highlighted by a brief survey of other Cistothorus wrens, based largely on the investigations of Kroodsma and colleagues. In Costa Rica and the Falkland Islands, other populations of the Sedge Wren are sedentary, and neighbouring males imitate songs from one another, creating song dialects over relatively short distances. In Brazil, neighbouring male Sedge Wrens answer each other with identical songs, such behaviour being possible only if the birds learn their songs from each other. Similarly, the Merida Wren (Cistothorus meridae) of the Venezuelan Andes and the globally threatened Apolinar's Wren of Colombia are sedentary and, again, neighbouring males learn each other's songs, as evidenced by the readily documented song dialects of these species. Interestingly, the recently described subspecies hernandezi of Apolinar's Wren not only has a more varied repertoire of song types than the nominate form, but also lives in small groups in which several individuals, of both sexes, sing communally.. In North America, too, populations of the Marsh Wren are typically sedentary or, if migratory, individuals are highly site-faithful, returning annually to the same marsh.
It is likely that the unparalleled movement patterns among the North American Sedge Wrens have co-evolved with a reduced emphasis on song imitation. Local communities of birds are highly ephemeral, with individuals staying together just long enough to raise one family. They then move on to the next breeding location, either in the same year or in the following year. There is little time or opportunity to relearn large vocal repertoires at each breeding location; indeed, as the repertoire of a single male can number up to 300 different songs, it is perhaps impossible to accomplish such a feat twice in each breeding season. The solution for these Sedge Wrens is to improvise or invent songs, using some shared rules for generating species-typical songs. The result is that, no matter what the geographical origin of each singing individual, and no matter where he has been on his travels, he will instantly be recognized, both by other males and by females, as a Sedge Wren.
Geographical patterns in songs can be the first clues to the evolutionary history of the wrens that sing them. In Costa Rica, for example, F. G. Stiles discovered a sharp transition zone in the songs of nightingale-wrens, leading to the formal recognition of two species, the Northern Nightingale-wren (Microcerculus philomela) and the Southern Nightingale-wren. Farther north, in Mexico, the songs of two allopatric Hylorchilus populations were found by H. Gómez de Silva to be sufficiently distinct to warrant species status for both, as Sumichrast's Wren and Nava's Wren (see Systematics). In the Neotropics, likewise, careful listening to wood-wrens in Colombia led S. L. Hilty to suggest that the birds living at especially high altitudes represented a new species, as their songs were different from those of the wood-wrens throughout the rest of Colombia. In 2003, this high-elevation form was officially recognized as a new species, the Munchique Wood-wren (see Systematics). The songs of North American Sedge Wrens vary little, if at all, geographically, revealing what must be one large evolutionary unit in North America. In contrast, local dialects conceal these evolutionary groups to some extent in Central and South America, but major geographical differences in songs, from Costa Rica to Brazil and to the Falkland Islands, surely represent different evolutionary groups, which are perhaps, as suggested by M. T. Traylor in 1988, worthy of species status.
Another example in North America is that of the Marsh Wren populations, which almost certainly consist of two species (see Systematics), not one as currently recognized. From the Atlantic coast east to the central Great Plains one style of singer is found, and from the central Great Plains west to the Pacific another kind, and the differences between the two in behaviour are striking. The songs of western males are highly diverse, with harsh and grating sounds contrasting with loud tonal notes; those of eastern males are more liquid, without the harshness, and far less diverse. Western males introduce their songs with short, sharp "click" notes, whereas eastern males begin with a nasal buzz. In addition, western males have much larger song repertoires, containing an average of perhaps 150 different songs, far more than the 30 to 50 songs in the repertoires of eastern males, and western males race through their repertoires much faster than do eastern males. These differences in vocal repertoires are reflected in the song control centres of the forebrain, too, with western males devoting about 50% more brain space to controlling their much larger song repertoires. The extra brain space in western birds is not generated because the birds learn more songs, but, rather, it seems to be part of a genetic programme that generates sufficient brain space so that large repertoires can be learned.
Furthermore, many of these behavioural and neural differences are based on genetic differences between eastern and western birds, as nestling males taken from eastern and western populations, respectively, behave differently when they experience the same laboratory environment. Juveniles from western North America still imitate about three times as many songs as do eastern ones, and the western individuals also allocate more brain space for controlling those larger repertoires. In the laboratory, western males also race through their repertoires faster than do the eastern males. The western males are simply more proficient at learning the larger repertoires than are the eastern birds, and these differences in ability are due to genetic differences that have evolved in the two respective groups since they diverged from their common ancestor. One possible explanation for the escalation in vocal behaviour among western Marsh Wrens is that territories in the west are often smaller, so that competing males are singing more closely together, and males are also more polygynous, so that the stakes in the singing game are higher. With these smaller territories, a small marsh reaches lek-like proportions, and prospecting females can choose from among all of the competing males, a situation that may have promoted the evolution of especially large repertoires and complex singing behaviour.
Just how complex these aspects of vocal behaviour are is revealed by Verner's study of western Marsh Wrens. At Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge, in eastern Washington state, he found that neighbouring males have essentially the same repertoires of about 115 different songs, but they have learnt not only the songs, but also the sequences in which to use them. As the wrens countersing from neighbouring territories, they often answer each other with identical songs, not just once, but many times in succession; there is frequently a community effect, too, as other males within earshot are often heard to echo the same song. The possibilities for interactions are intriguing, as a male can respond to a neighbour with the song that he just sang, or jump ahead one song in the standard sequence, or give a song that is well removed from that particular sequence. The response choice that a male makes, or perhaps is allowed to make, may well signal important information to other individuals listening to this exchange, information that may indicate the relative prowess of the two singers. When a tape recorder plays a standard sequence of song within a territory, for example, a male routinely jumps ahead in the sequence, so that the tape recorder "sings" a particular song type after the resident male. It is possible that, by refusing to follow the recorder, the male signals his dominance to this simulated intruder.
As already initimated (see also Systematics), the eastern and western populations of the Marsh Wren almost certainly represent two separate species, and a similar situation prevails with the Northern Wren. The songs of males of the latter species in western North America consist of brief notes delivered at breakneck speed, so that human ears hear little more than a high-pitched blur. In contrast, eastern songs are far less complex; they are delivered more slowly, contain fewer notes, and have fewer notes per unit time. Repertoire sizes, too, differ, eastern males having an average of only two relatively simple songs apiece, whereas western males have perhaps a dozen basic songs, from which countless permutations are generated. Moreover, the non-learnt call notes differ, western Northern Wrens having a sharp, high-pitched note and eastern ones a lower-pitched, richer note. Predictably, perhaps, the songs of this species in the Old World, from Britain east to Japan, are different again. In tonal quality and organization, they are most like those of the wrens from eastern North America. Repertoires in Eurasia consist typically of six or seven songs, each given in a constant, repeatable fashion, much like the singing of eastern Nearctic wrens.
As the tropical biologist A. F. Skutch pointed out in 2001, we know far more about the few "odd" wrens that have invaded the north-temperate zone than we do about the 50 or so that have remained in the New World tropics. In the tropics, the vocal behaviour of troglodytids can be very different.
One immediately noticeable difference between the wrens in the north-temperate zone and the tropical wrens is that females in the tropics sing far more. In the case of the two house wrens, for example, females in North America sing occasionally in at least one well-studied population, in Wyoming, although perhaps not in some other populations; these Northern House Wrens are polygynous. In contrast, females of the Southern House Wren, which are monogamously paired to their males, sing far more regularly throughout the tropics. Females of the related Socorro Wren (Troglodytes sissonii), confined to the island of that name off western Mexico, also sing. Among the Cistothorus wrens, females of the temperate-zone Marsh Wren and Sedge Wren do not sing, but those of the two Andean species do; female Merida Wrens emit a simple trill as their mates sing a more complex, whistled song, and female Apolinar's Wrens utter a prolonged trill that slowly rises and falls in pitch, the male then chiming in with a briefer, more complex song. In southern Mexico, Sumichrast's Wren, in the genus Hylorchilus, exhibits similar vocal differences between the sexes: the female's song is less complex than that of the male, being a dry, staccato chatter, much like that of a male Cactus Wren, whereas her mate's song is a rich series of descending whistles.
These differences between temperate and tropical representatives of a genus are especially pronounced among the Thryothorus wrens. Only one of these, the Carolina Wren, reaches North America, and the male of that species has a repertoire of 40 or so loud, rich songs; the female, in contrast, utters a simple rattle, typically in response to her mate's song during aggressive encounters with other wren pairs. In the tropics, however, female Thryothorus wrens often have songs that are just as complex as are those of the males. The songs of both sexes of the Rufous-and-white Wren (Thryothorus rufalbus), for example, consist of a series of pure whistles gradually or abruptly accelerating in tempo, with the female's song slightly higher in frequency than the male's; a male and a female often sing simultaneously, the songs overlapping in time but less so in frequency. In the Black-bellied Wren, too, male and female songs are an equally complex series of rich whistles, often overlapping in time, but that of the the female again perhaps a little higher in frequency. Most impressive among these Thryothorus wrens are those species, such as the Buff-breasted Wren (Thryothorus leucotis), in which the male and female sing such a tightly co-ordinated duet that their respective roles are indistinguishable, unless one happens to be standing between the two singers.
Careful study of one of these duetting species, the Bay Wren, has revealed how and, to some extent, why the sexes engage in such duets. R. N. Levin found that males and females duet precisely, even when they first meet, thereby dispelling the previously held notion that it would take time, in a long-term monogamous pair-bond, for such precision to be learnt. Rather, it seems that the birds follow some general rules that enable this precision, regardless of which particular song type each contributes. Further, a lone female or a lone male can maintain the territory by itself, dispelling still another idea, namely, that the duet is needed for joint territory defence. It is the female that begins each duet, the male then joining her, and it seems therefore to be the male's behaviour, not that of the female, that makes the joint singing a duet. Perhaps this is because the male can in this way announce to other males in the neighbourhood that this particular female is taken; in other words, he is employing "acoustic mate-guarding".
Equally enlightening is the way in which territorial males and females sing and respond to songs. A paired male responds strongly to both male and female song, as if territorial towards both sexes. When he becomes unpaired, he increases his singing substantially, just as do most unpaired songbird males, and he then responds more strongly to female song than to male song, suggesting that his abundant songs serve to attract a mate. A female that becomes unpaired, however, does not change her singing rate, and lack of a male song accompanying her clearly signals that she is unpaired. Whether she is unpaired or not, she responds strongly to songs of other females but not to those of males, suggesting that she uses her songs in order to defend her territory against other females.
Ongoing studies of another Thryothorus species in Costa Rica, by L. E. Molles and S. L. Vehrencamp, illustrate the diverse singing styles within this genus. In the case of the Banded Wren, males are the primary singers, and a typical repertoire consists of about 20 different songs. Females, too, sing, and their songs are of the same general form as those of the males, but of lower amplitude; a female occasionally sings jointly with her mate during a territorial dispute. As with some other troglodytids, such as the Sedge Wren and the Marsh Wren, males sing vigorously at dawn and switch to new song types more at that time than they do later in the morning. Among these wrens, the rate of singing and the frequency with which a male switches to a new song type may signal important information to listeners about his mood, but the exact rules for conveying the appropriate information are not necessarily the same for all species.
What appears to be one of the most complex duets is that of the Canebrake Wren (Thryothorus zeledoni), a species restricted to the Caribbean slope of Central America. A study of this wren was recently undertaken in north-east Costa Rica by N. I. Mann and others, who captured and individually colour-ringed 24 territory-holding adults. Blood samples were analysed to enable these to be sexed. The researchers found that the duet of this species consisted of three main components, each one distinctive in structure. The male had a repertoire of very brief rapid phrases and the female had a repertoire of different, slightly longer phrases. In addition, the male possessed a second, separate repertoire of somewhat longer, higher-frequency phrases, each containing 4-6 elements; each duet was almost invariably introduced by one of these. Thus, a typical duet would consist of the male's introductory phrase followed by a very fast and highly co-ordinated alternation of female and male phrases. In a very few instances, the male's introductory phrase, which he also used as a solo song, was omitted. The Canebrake Wren is often considered conspecific with the Plain Wren, although it differs vocally and in plumage. Interestingly, Mann and colleagues' preliminary data on the nominate race of the Plain Wren, inhabiting the Pacific slope of Costa Rica, appear to suggest that this has a song pattern similar to that of the Canebrake Wren.
Vocalizations include more than singing, of course, and the members of this family have extensive repertoires of calls as well. Partly because wren songs are often so striking, the calls of these species have been studied relatively infrequently. The most thorough study in this respect has been done with the Stripe-backed Wren (Campylorhynchus nuchalis), a co-operative breeder (see Breeding) that occurs in Venezuela and Colombia. Price found that, in co-operative family groups, young males learn their repertoires of calls from adult males, and young females learn their calls from adult females. As a result, males in the same "patriline" have nearly identical call repertoires, no matter whether the young male stays at home or disperses to another group, and all females within a "matriline" have identical repertoires, too, but the calls are different from those of the males. This form of vocal tradition thus provides clues as to both sex and kinship, and studies using playback have shown that the males can readily distinguish male relatives from non-relatives. These wrens provide a rare example of individuals being able to recognize their kin on the basis of learnt vocal cues, and these cues undoubtedly prove useful in helping them to keep track of close kin within and among family groups, thereby enabling complex social relationships among individuals in this co-operative breeder.
Food and Feeding Arthropods make up the bulk of the food items eaten by most troglodytids. Among the different wren genera, however, there is considerable variation both in the food and in the techniques used as a means of acquiring it.
There is a substantial body of data on the diets of most of the North American wren species, as well as that of the Northern Wren in Europe, derived from examination of stomach contents of specimens. It should be borne in mind, however, that studies of stomach contents were typically undertaken in one geographical location and were often quite limited in scope; hence, published results may not be entirely representative of the diet of a species throughout its range, or even throughout the year. Broadly speaking, invertebrates of many kinds form most or all of the food of this family. For example, American Rock Wrens take such prey as locusts and grasshoppers (Orthoptera), earthworms (Oligochaeta) and grubs, and Canyon Wrens consume spiders (Araneae), beetles (Coleoptera), bugs (Hemiptera), planthoppers (Homoptera), ants (Hymenoptera), termites (Isoptera) and similar prey, ranging in length from 2 mm to 12 mm, while Bewick's Wrens feed on bugs, beetles, bees and wasps (Hymenoptera) and caterpillars. The Northern House Wren eats caterpillars, grasshoppers, beetles, leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) and spiders, among others, and the Northern Wren's diet includes such items as grasshoppers, earwigs (Dermaptera), beetles, spiders, woodlice (Isopoda) and the like. Northern House Wrens are known to favour slower-moving prey, such as spiders and bugs, rather than such insects as flies (Diptera), the capture of which would be more challenging. This species has been seen also to take calcareous matter, such as mollusc shells, and to feed such inorganic items to its young, presumably as a calcium supplement at a time when it is needed for bone growth. Larger, vertebrate prey is occasionally found in stomachs. The American Rock Wren, for example, will take young lizards. It is of interest to note, incidentally, that neither the latter species nor the Canyon Wren appears to drink, even when water is freely available.
Vegetable matter does figure to a minor extent in the diets of some of the smaller North American troglodytids. For instance, Bewick's Wren takes some vegetable matter, especially in winter, while the Northern Wren has been observed to eat berries, including elderberries (Sambucus) and blueberries (Vaccinium), as well as some seeds and even seaweed.
The large wrens of the genus Campylorhynchus have a dietary spectrum that is wider than that of smaller troglodytids. Most members of this genus eat substantial quantities of vegetable matter, such as cactus seeds. The only one which has been studied in any great depth is the Cactus Wren; in one case, 17% of the diet of this species consisted of vegetable matter. Campylorhynchus wrens also take relatively large prey, such as lizards and frogs, and the Spanish name for Boucard's Wren, "Matraca alacranera", implies that this species eats scorpions (Scorpiones). As previously mentioned (see General Habits), the Giant and Bicoloured Wrens are known in local Mexican and Colombian dialects as "chupahuevo", meaning egg-sucker, although whether they actually eat hens' eggs or merely vandalize them is not known. Bicoloured Wrens can also be quite destructive to soft fruit, such as mangoes.
For many of the Neotropical wren species, the data on prey items are very scanty and, in many cases, few relevant observations are available. Furthermore, the notes on stomach contents accompanying specimens frequently contain unhelpful and vague generalizations, such as "insects", "insect parts" and the like. As a result of the more meticulous work of A. Wetmore in Panama and of F. Haverschmidt in Suriname, the diets of most species in these two countries are known in better detail. According to the rather limited information published, the diet of the tropical Thryothorus wrens encompasses a very great variety of arthropods. These comprise many orders of insects, including lepidopteran larvae, ants, bugs, grasshoppers, cockroaches (Blattodea) and dipteran flies, as well as other groups, among them spiders, woodlice, centipedes (Chilopoda) and millipedes (Diplopoda). So far as is known, vegetable matter, usually in the form of seeds, is a very minor component in the food of these species. The sole North American member of this genus, the Carolina Wren, will also take small invertebrates, including lizards, tree-frogs and young snakes.
In its unique sawgrass habitat in western Cuba, the Zapata Wren has learnt to exploit a more varied range of food resources, including fairly large lizards of the genus Anolis, seeds, lichen, snail eggs, slugs and a wide variety of invertebrates. By contrast, the marsh-dwelling Cistothorus wrens are more purely insectivorous, although in mid-winter, with snow on the ground, the Sedge Wren in extreme southern South America does eat seeds. Snails have not been recorded as being consumed by any troglodytids with the single exception of Sumichrast's Wren, in the diet of which they may figure quite prominently.
The food of the Donacobius consists almost entirely of invertebrates, mostly gleaned from leaf surfaces, but also taken in flight. Recorded prey items of this species include beetles, hymenopterans, orthopterans, neuropterans and arachnoids.
The feeding techniques of wrens also exhibit considerable variation and adaptation to different habitats. The members of many genera spend most of their time in foraging in the lower levels of dense vegetation, where they examine leaves for prey or rummage in leaf litter. Henicorhina, Thryothorus and Troglodytes are typical examples of such unobtrusive wrens. Nevertheless, the various species have differing habits. Some, such as the Coraya and Buff-breasted Wrens, routinely feed quite high up in trees, whereas the Rufous-and-white Wren specializes in foraging in leaf litter and is rarely seen far from the ground. The only wrens which might be described as canopy feeders are the two species in the genus Odontorchilus, the Tooth-billed and Grey-mantled Wrens, which are regularly found 30 m or more above the ground in the upper levels of tropical and subtropical forest.
Some tropical species have developed a technique employed by antbirds and many other Neotropical birds, that of following swarms of army ants, opportunistically snapping up invertebrate prey flushed from otherwise secure hiding-places by the insects. Typical in this respect are the terrestrial Cyphorhinus wrens, such as the Song and Musician Wrens, which bear a superficial resemblance to some of the formicariid antbirds. Others include the Sooty-headed Wren in the genus Thryothorus and, at least where its range overlaps that of army ants, in southern Mexico, the White-bellied Wren in Uropsila. The lowland White-breasted Wood-wren is also a typical ant-follower, but its relative, the highland Grey-breasted Wood-wren, is not, as it is altitudinally separated from army ants. Not unexpectedly, the degree of association with army ants varies. Some species, such as the Riverside Wren, will join swarms briefly, before losing interest and foraging elsewhere.
Northern Wrens are somewhat unusual within the family in that they have been seen to prey on tadpoles and tiny fish, by wading into shallow water and actually immersing the head as they search for these food items. They have also been observed while attending the European badger (Meles meles), much in the manner of Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) following livestock, and catching prey disturbed by the mammal's foraging activities. The rock-dwelling wrens, the Canyon, Sumichrast's and Nava's Wrens, have developed special anatomical features, such as a long, decurved bill, a flattened skull and widely splayed legs, which enable them to forage deeply into crevices in rock faces. In addition, Canyon Wrens will often sally forth briefly from high rock walls to seize insects flying nearby. Classic flycatching behaviour, involving the mid-air pursuit of flying insects, is uncommon among the members of this family, although Northern Wrens may occasionally practise this method of foraging.
Most terrestrial wrens are very secretive, the two nightingale-wrens obsessively so, feeding only in places where they are well hidden. The Wing-banded Wren (Microcerculus bambla) appears to specialize in finding prey in rotten logs lying on the forest floor, where it vanishes for several seconds inside cavities in hollow fallen tree trunks. Campylorhynchus species, on the other hand, are anything but furtive. The Cactus Wren, for example, frequently feeds on the ground well in the open, even sometimes on suburban lawns.
Several troglodytids have developed opportunistic feeding strategies. Carolina Wrens, especially during the winter months, come to feeding stations, where they are especially fond of suet. They have also been seen to take sunflower seeds and to crack them open in the manner of a nuthatch, by wedging the seeds into a cranny and hammering them with the bill. Canyon Wrens may pilfer the paralysed spiders with which mud-dauber wasps (Scelifron cementarium) provision their nests, while the White-bellied Wren will steal prey from spiders' webs. On Guadalupe Island, off Baja California, the local subspecies guadeloupensis of the American Rock Wren, restricted to that island, has learnt to frequent slaughterhouses, where it feeds on flies attracted to the offal. Another example of opportunism concerns the Cactus Wren. In suburban situations in the American South-west, some individuals of this species have discovered that the squashed insects on the radiators of cars are a reliable source of conveniently pre-cooked protein.
Breeding Among different groups of wrens there exist a number of breeding features and strategies that are quite unusual in passerines. These include polygamy, usually in the form of polygyny but also, more rarely, polyandry, as well as co-operative breeding and an extraordinary degree of multiple nest-building. It should, however, be admitted that there are major gaps in our knowledge of the breeding biology of the Troglodytidae. Indeed, for more than a quarter of the tropical wrens, not even has the nest been described, and detailed studies of the breeding strategy exist for only a few species.
The fact that wrens build more than one nest in a single season has been well known for many years. In England, for example, many decades ago, every bird-nesting schoolboy was familiar with the phenomenon of the "cock's nests" of the Northern Wren. The degree of multiple-nesting varies greatly among wren genera, apparently not occurring at all in some, but reaching an extraordinary degree in the Cistothorus marsh wrens, and a peak in the Marsh Wren itself. Male Marsh Wrens may, in the course of a season, construct up to twenty separate nests. From among these the female will then choose a suitable one, which she then completes, or she may even, apparently, induce the male to build yet more. It takes the male perhaps two days to build a candidate nest, but it can require eight days for both sexes to complete the nest that is to be used for breeding. Given the very substantial resources demanded of the male for this construction bonanza, there must be a major payback in evolutionary terms. The precise nature of this is, however, a matter of considerable debate. Certainly, in the event of a disaster befalling a breeding nest, it is obviously advantageous to have a half-completed back-up nest at hand. In a cat-tail marsh, where it is not easy to conceal a nest, the presence of numerous "decoy" nests may confuse a predator, and it is perhaps significant that the Sedge Wren, which nests in more tangled vegetation where concealment is easier, builds only half as many surplus nests as does the Marsh Wren. It has been suggested that the sheer vigour of a male's nest-building activities may indicate to the female his breeding fitness. Surplus nests are also useful for roosting, but why would twenty such nests be required? Probably, no single hypothesis completely explains the phenomenon. The building of additional nests for roosting is widespread among the members of this family. In the case of some species, such as the White-breasted Wood-wren, the Riverside Wren and the White-bellied Wren, the dormitory nests are slighter in construction and more poorly concealed than are the breeding nests, and the roosting nest of the Plain Wren, for example, is so flimsy that the bird can make an emergency exit by bursting out through the back wall.
For a number of genera, among them Odontorchilus, Hylorchilus and Microcerculus, there is no documented evidence that multiple nests are built, although this may be due to a lack of observation. Many Thryothorus wrens build dormitory nests but not, apparently, multiple breeding nests. One species, the Carolina Wren, a debatable member of this genus (see Systematics), occasionally builds spare nests in the breeding season. By way of contrast, the constructing of multiple nests appears to be standard in the genus Troglodytes, at least for those of its members which have been adequately studied. In Europe, Northern Wrens build half a dozen or more nests in each breeding season, although the number is smaller in western North America, as it is also, evidently, in the case of island populations of this species. Similarly, male Northern House Wrens construct multiple nests and, indeed, throughout the breeding season, they seem incapable of resisting the temptation to drop a few twigs into suitable cavities, often to the discomfiture and annoyance of the rightful owners. Among the Campylorhynchus species, the Rufous-naped Wren in El Salvador builds at least eight nests for each one actually used for breeding, at least some of the remainder serving as roosting sites. In Arizona, USA, the male Cactus Wren habitually starts to construct a second nest while his mate is incubating the first clutch; after this brood has fledged and become independent, the female will join in the completing of the second nest, which is immediately used for the rearing of a further brood.
Detailed study, with individually marked birds, is required in order to establish whether a wren species is routinely polygamous. In view of the paucity of such studies with regard to the species not occurring in Canada and the United States, it is not surprising that reproductive strategies are known for only a few of the tropical members of the family. In North America, on the other hand, extensive investigations have revealed that Cistothorus wrens are frequently polygynous. In one Canadian study of Marsh Wrens, undertaken in Manitoba, a total of 120 males consisted of ten bachelors, 53 monogamists, 48 bigamists and nine trigamists, suggesting an unequal sex ratio of about 0·65 males for each female. In contrast, a study in Georgia, in the south-east USA, revealed only 5% bigamous males. Being mated to a bigamist has its disadvantages. For instance, female Marsh Wrens with promiscuous mates tend to receive short shrift from the partner when it comes to providing care for the nestlings, and are frequently left entirely to their own devices. Polygyny occurs also among Sedge Wrens, although less frequently than is the case with the related Marsh Wren. Female Sedge Wrens mated to an already mated male tend to nest later, to lay fewer eggs and to rear fewer young when compared with females in a monogamous relationship, and they rarely attempt a second brood; furthermore, their nestlings tend to weigh less than do those of monogamous parents, no doubt because they receive less food.
Polygamy is known to occur in those species of Troglodytes which have been studied. In western European populations of the Northern Wren, about half of the males are polygynous, although polygyny is apparently rarer among the North American races of this species. Substantial levels of polygyny have, however, been discovered in some populations of the Northern House Wren, especially in situations where surplus nest-sites are available. Secondary females tend to be less successful in rearing young than are primary ones, the latter having the help of the male in the feeding of nestlings. Notwithstanding this, some female Northern House Wrens seem preferentially to choose an already mated male, even when surplus bachelor males are available. Presumably, in those cases, the advantage of passing on one's own genes in combination with the genes of a particularly fecund male outweighs the reduction in the absolute number of offspring produced. In contrast to its northern relative, the Southern House Wren appears to be only rarely polygamous. In one detailed study of this species in Colombia, no instances of polygamy were observed, although, in a Panamanian study, both the active displacement of the male of a mated pair by an intruding male and the opportunistic taking-over of a bereaved female were recorded.
In an interesting study of Northern House Wrens that utilized nestboxes at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Field Station, N. E. Poirier and colleagues found that mate-switching during a single breeding season was fairly common. Although this was initiated by the male, it was not correlated with his paternity of the first brood. It was found that males were more likely to change partner when unmated females were nearby. Such males generally started to advertise for a new mate during the incubation stage or the early part of the nestling stage at their first nest, and they successfully paired with a different female during and just after the nestling period. As mate-switching males sired more or less the same number of young as did males that stayed with the same partner, they appeared not to benefit directly from switching mates. Of the females that were deserted, on the other hand, half did not find a second mate during the breeding season and thus incurred a reproductive cost.
Co-operative breeding by birds is a more common phenomenon than was previously believed, having been documented for a number of different, unrelated avian families. Typically, it involves the assistance of individuals other than the mated pair in defending territories against conspecifics, in rearing young and in defence against predators. The "helpers at the nest", to use the phrase coined by Skutch, are usually blood relatives of the primary breeding pair. By enhancing the survival of that pair's young, the helpers also ensure the propagation of their own genes, albeit in a more diluted manner. Among the troglodytids, co-operative breeding reaches its most developed form in some of the tropical members of the genus Campylorhynchus. In the Stripe-backed Wren of Venezuela and Colombia, breeding groups can contain up to 14 individuals, consisting of a dominant breeding pair and numerous assistants, which are mainly the pair's offspring from previous broods. Several group-members may sing, and all may participate in defensive activities against, for example, Shiny Cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis); the two dominant individuals, are, however, the only breeders and are the most persistent singers. All members of a group may assist in the rearing of the young, and breeding success is strongly correlated with the number of assistants available. The young wrens usually remain with their natal group for up to a year, after which all females, and the majority of males, disperse to nearby groups, thus reducing the potential for incest. Vacancies in large groups are much sought after and are the subject of much competition; small groups, on the other hand, may have difficulty in filling vacancies. Individuals joining adjacent groups initially have a low rank within that group, but later rise to a senior breeding status.
The Fasciated Wren of western Ecuador and Peru has been less intensively studied than has its close relative the Stripe-backed Wren, but it appears to have a well-developed co-operative breeding strategy, with groups of up to ten individuals for each breeding pair, the young of one year remaining to assist with nesting in the next year. Conventional, unaided pairs do also exist, however. As for other members of the genus Campylorhynchus, the degree of co-operative breeding varies both among species and within a given species. In a Venezuelan study, for example, two different populations of Bicoloured Wrens had quite different strategies. In one population, only 15% of nests had a helper, and then only a single one, whereas more than half of the nests in the other population had assistants, often several of them and of both sexes. Some other Campylorhynchus species show some degree of co-operative breeding, but the strategy seems to be less pronounced in the more northerly species. The Cactus Wren, resident in the southern United States and the northern half of Mexico, is essentially a conventional breeder. On rare occasions juveniles of one brood have been seen to bring food to a subsequent brood, but this seems to be exceptional.
Of particular interest is the reproductive behaviour of the recently described subspecies hernandezi of Apolinar's Wren, which differs from the nominate race in indulging in classic co-operative breeding, with group defence of the territory but only one pair nesting. This appears to be the first report of this reproductive strategy, as opposed to polygamy, for the genus Cistothorus.
Finally, co-operative breeding has been suspected also for the Peruvian Wren (Cinnycerthia peruana). In this case, the variable amount of white feathering on the face of adults may indicate social and breeding status.
With the exception of the cavity-nesting species, and disregarding the atypical Donacobius, all wrens build an enclosed, roofed nest with a side entrance. In the genera Henicorhina, Cistothorus, Troglodytes, Campylorhynchus, Thryorchilus and Ferminia, and in some Thryothorus, the general nest form is an ovoid ball made from grass, rootlets and fibres and with a hole at the side. In the case of the Marsh Wren, the breeding nests are distinguished from surplus or dummy nests by the fact that they have a sill at the entrance, which prevents the eggs from rolling out in windy conditions. The female usually lines the nest with finer material, hair and feathers. In other troglodytid genera, the nests are more elaborate in form, often with an entrance tube pointing downwards. That of the White-bellied Wren, in the monotypic genus Uropsila, is a beautifully woven structure resembling an old-fashioned chemical retort, with an ovoid nesting chamber and downward-pointing entrance tunnel. Some Thryothorus species, such as the Happy and Sinaloa Wrens, build a similar type of two-part nest, often draped over a twig so that the breeding chamber is on one side and the entrance on the other. A similarly shaped nest, suspended over a twig, is made by the Peruvian Wren, but the nests of the other three members of the genus Cinnycerthia have not been described. Likewise, the nest of the Song Wren, the best-known member of Cyphorhinus, is boomerang-shaped, an untidy structure of coarse roots and leaf skeletons placed over a thin branch.
Cavity-nesting wrens do not build a roof over the nest. Males of both the Northern House Wren and the Southern House Wren fill the nesting cavity almost completely with coarse twigs, or even with such items as bits of rusty wire, before the female, after adding more twigs, builds a cup and lines this with hair, wool and feathers. Information on the nests of the four Microcerculus species is scanty, but those described are open structures made from dead leaves.
The crevice-nesting Canyon Wren constructs an open cup of wool, hair and feathers on a base of twigs and moss. Frequently, extraneous matter is included. One especially larcenous Canyon Wren in California regularly pilfered an extraordinary collection of loot from a nearby office, to the total of 600 paper clips, 500 pins, 100 matches and such other miscellaneous sundries as pen-nibs, screws and similar odd items. The American Rock Wren, also a crevice-nester, has the peculiar habit of building a nest foundation of pebbles. The expenditure of energy for this is by no means trivial; one nest of this species, the only member of the genus Salpinctes, had 2·2 kg of pebbles, the equivalent of 120 times the 18-g body weight of the wren itself, with the largest pebble, at 6 g, weighing almost a third of the bird's own weight. The evolutionary advantage of this major expenditure of energy is obscure; curiously, similar behaviour is exhibited by the Black Wheatear (Oenanthe leucura), an inhabitant of rocky slopes in Spain and Morocco. The Thrush-like Wren (Campylorhynchus turdinus) of central South America also frequently includes extraneous objects in its nest, a habit which has given rise to local legend in Bolivia (see Relationship with Man).
In certain cases, the form of the nest is dependent on the selected nest-site. Thus, the Carolina Wren usually builds a domed nest, but in totally enclosed sites, such as nestboxes, it may reduce or omit the roof. Bewick's Wrens, too, will build either an open nest or a domed one according to circumstances.
There is much variation in nest-sites among the Troglodytidae, and sometimes even among members of the same genus. Most wrens nest in vegetation of various kinds, the Thryothorus and some Troglodytes species typically in dense brush, Cistothorus and Ferminia in grasses and rushes, and Campylorhynchus in various bushes and cacti. Other species are cavity-nesters. In North America, for example, the Northern House Wren relies heavily on artificial sites, both nestboxes and such incidental locations as cavities in sheds, but it also uses natural cavities such as woodpecker (Picidae) holes and a variety of other sites; the latter include old nests of paper wasps (Polistes), from which the wren first removes some of the interior structure, and the riverbank burrows of Belted Kingfishers (Megaceryle alcyon), the mud-bottle nests of Cliff Swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and the pendent nests of Northern Orioles (Icterus galbula). The petrophilous wrens, those in the genera Salpinctes, Catherpes and Hylorchilus, nest in rock crevices, while the Southern Nightingale-wren, in Microcerculus, utilizes the disused burrows of other species, either in sandy banks or in old termite (Isoptera) nests.
Several members of the family have learnt to place their nests in naturally defended sites. A prime example is that of the Cactus Wren, which makes little effort to conceal its nests, instead building them in the savagely spiny cholla cactus, which acts as an effective deterrent to such predators as raccoons (Procyon lotor) and ring-tails (Bassaricus astutus). Some other troglodytids nest in spiny bromeliads or nettles. Several species, in different genera, routinely site their nests in places where they can obtain vicarious protection, by hostile insects, from such mammalian predators as monkeys. Thus, the Sinaloa and Happy Wrens frequently build in bushes next to the nests of hornets (Vespa). In the American tropics, there exists a curious symbiotic relationship between ants of the genus Pseudomyrmex and bull's-horn acacia trees. The ants nest in the hollow acacia thorns and feed on nectar and small nutritious corpuscles, called "Beltian bodies", provided by the tree; in return for this board and lodging, the ants defend the trees against predatory insects and, further, even remove weeds from the ground around the trunk of emerging plants. Bull's-horn acacias thus represent a very hostile environment, one where the ants are in effect "kept by the acacia as a standing army" and savagely attack the unwary intruder. Several wrens have learnt to capitalize on this, by siting their nests in such trees. The White-bellied Wren in Guatemala almost invariably nests in acacias, and in Costa Rica the Rufous-naped Wren goes even further, actively seeking out trees with the most aggressive ants and defending them against birds of other species. Wrens building in such secure locations appear to make little effort to conceal their nests. In contrast, the Bicoloured Wren, which does not routinely build in ant-inhabited trees, hides its nests much more effectively. Although the presence of wrens' nests would seem to confer no obvious advantage either on the tree or on the ants, the birds and their young are not molested by the insects.
The Troglodytidae exhibit considerable variation not only in nest-sites, but also in egg colour and in clutch size. Egg colour can vary within a genus, and sometimes even within a species. In the genus Thryothorus, some species lay immaculate white eggs or, more rarely, pale blue, bluish-green or deep sky-blue ones, while the eggs of other species are whitish or buff-white with a variable amount of brown or cinnamon speckling or blotching. Similar variation occurs in the genus Campylorhynchus: the eggs of the majority of its members are whitish with speckles or blotches of various shades of brown, but those of the Stripe-backed and Band-backed Wrens are plain white. In the case of the Cactus Wren, even different subspecies lay distinctive eggs, affinis in southern Baja California having paler eggs than those of the races in coastal California, and inland races having egg markings that are more brightly coloured. Similarly, the Sedge Wren lays white eggs in most parts of its huge range, but in Tierra del Fuego the local race hornensis lays speckled eggs, and an Aleutian race of the Northern Wren, meligerus, has white eggs, in contrast to the heavily marked eggs of other subspecies. A further example of intraspecific variation is provided by the Marsh Wren, the eggs of which are usually chocolate-coloured or brown, spotted with darker brown, but some individuals appear to lay clutches of white eggs. Sometimes, single white eggs also appear in a clutch.
There is a general tendency among passerines for clutch sizes to be smaller in tropical regions than they are in temperate ones, while tropical species, perhaps as a means of compensating for this low fecundity, have longer breeding seasons and, often, more broods. This principle seems to hold for most troglodytids, and, indeed, is sometimes apparent even within one species. Thus, the wood-wrens, the Microcerculus wrens and the Cyphorhinus wrens, among other tropical species, lay only two eggs. The clutches of many tropical members of the genus Thryothorus often consist of only two or three eggs, whereas the Happy and Sinaloa Wrens, temperate representatives of the same genus in northern Mexico, usually lay five. For the Cactus Wren, the normal clutch in Arizona is of three to five eggs, rarely up to seven, but the same species in Baja California usually lays just two eggs. Similar variations are found in other species, representing several genera. Frequently, as demonstrated by the Northern Wren and the American Rock Wren, island subspecies have smaller clutches than those of their mainland counterparts.
Wrens are usually multi-brooded, insofar as the local climate allows. In temperate regions, with a constrained breeding season, there is a rush to launch one brood successfully before starting another one. Parental care of the fledged young tends, therefore, to be of short duration in North America and Europe, while in many tropical species the family-members remain together as a feeding party for several months after leaving the nest. This doubtless enhances the survival rates of offspring and thereby compensates for smaller clutches. An exception to this general tropical strategy is provided by the Southern House Wren. Athough the clutch size of this species is small when compared with that of the closely related Northern House Wren, the Southern House breeds rapidly and frequently, one female in Colombia having been observed to raise as many as seven broods in a period of just 17 months.
Incubation of the eggs seems to be the duty exclusively of the female. In come cases, she may be fed on the nest by the male, although in polygynous species, such as the Marsh Wren, she usually receives lamentably poor provision. Incubation periods tend to be longer among the larger species than among the smaller ones. For example, the Cactus Wren sits for up to 23 days and other Campylorhynchus species for 17-20 days, whereas the duration can be as short as 12 days for the American Rock Wren and the Canyon Wren. The incubation period of the small wood-wrens, however, is usually 18-20 days. The nestlings are generally fed by both parents, but in the case of polygynous species the contribution of the male may amount to little or nothing. Among the co-operative breeders, on the other hand, a variable number of helpers assist with brood-feeding.
In the tropics, the young wrens frequently associate with their parents for a prolonged period after fledging, in some cases for almost a year. Parental feeding of the fledglings is probably limited to a much shorter period, but with many species the parents and juveniles remain together as a family unit for months on end. It is easy speculate how such associations may evolve into the co-operative nesting behaviour so typical of the tropical Campylorhynchus wrens; after all, if the time is not right for the individual to reproduce, the next best option for it to propagate its own genes is to enhance the survival of its own siblings, even those of different broods.
Interestingly, in Costa Rica, young Southern House Wrens of one brood have been observed to assist in the feeding of their parents' subsequent broods, even though this behaviour seems to be rare for this Troglodytes species. Among temperate members of this genus, such as the Northern House Wren or the Northern Wren, parental care of fledged young is of short duration, usually lasting for no more than two weeks, after which the juveniles are left on their own. One could speculate that, for migratory species, the necessity of building up fat reserves prior to migration could have a greater survival benefit in terms of "the selfish gene" than does the enhancing of the survival of one's siblings.
The domed nest form of most wrens and the cavity-nesting habit of the remainder appear to provide these birds with some protection from parasitic species. Nevertheless, brood parasitism is a significant factor in reducing the nesting success of certain troglodytids. In some parts of the United States, up to 25% of Carolina Wren nests fail as a result of parasitism by the Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater). In the Neotropics, the Shiny Cowbird is generally the main culprit in this respect, although it is not a major problem for troglodytids in this region. On the other hand, two Thryothorus species, the Rufous-and-white and Buff-breasted Wrens, are frequent victims of the American Striped Cuckoo (Tapera naevia) in South America, and the Northern Wren in Europe is occasionally parasitized by the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus).
Finally, the nesting habits of the Donacobius exhibit several interesting features, formerly used by taxonomists to argue for this species' inclusion in or, paradoxically, its exclusion from the Troglodytidae. This is a co-operative nester, at least in situations where it occurs at high density. The breeding unit varies from simply the nesting pair alone to groups of up to four individuals. The nest is an open cup, quite unlike that of any other member of the family, and is built in vegetation, often over or at the edge of water. Over most of its range, which extends from east Panama across to the east coast of Brazil and southwards, east of the Andes, to north-east Argentina, the Donacobius lays a clutch usually of two eggs, but in Brazil frequently of three. The eggs, purplish-white and covered by heavy purplish blotches, are incubated by the female alone, for a period of about 16-18 days. A curious habit of the adults is that of cooling the nestlings by wetting them with water brought on the adults' breast feathers. The breeding success of this species is correlated with the amount of help available; pairs without helpers are usually able to rear only one chick to fledging, whereas those with helpers can succeed in raising two or three young. In contrast to most wrens, the Donacobius appears to be single-brooded.
Movements The great majority of wren species appear to be very sedentary. In other words, not only is the species found in a particular location throughout the year, but probably the very same individuals are present there in all months. After leaving the family group, the juveniles will disperse, probably in a random manner, until they encounter a vacant territory. In the case of the co-operatively nesting Stripe-backed Wren, the young of both sexes remain with the breeding group for a year or so, after which all females and the majority of males disperse to breed with nearby groups; the distance in terms of linear displacement may, however, be very short.
Most tropical wrens appear to be sedentary even when faced with major climatic fluctuations, such as the wet and dry seasons of Central America and northern South America. In a few cases, some altitudinal movement appears to occur, although the data are scanty and the precise nature of the movement not clearly understood. For example, the Merida Wren seems to vacate some habitats during the rainy season, and in El Salvador the Rufous-and-white Wren occurs in winter at sea-level in thickets of the palm Bactris subglobosa, a habitat known locally as "huiscoyol", whereas it is not found below 300 m in the summer. At the northern edge of its range, in the Sierra Madre of Mexico, the Happy Wren migrates vertically, but no such movements have been noted farther south in its range.
When one moves into temperate zones, however, it is noticeable that troglodytids become increasingly less sedentary. The North American populations of the Sedge Wren, for instance, are totally migratory, with no overlap at all between the breeding range, which extends from Saskatchewan east to Quebec and south to Kentucky and Pennsylvania, and the non-breeding range, mainly in the coastal states from Virginia south to north-eastern Mexico. These North American populations are also unique in that they are nomadic during the breeding season, abandoning some areas and, later in the same season, appearing in others. In contrast, the Sedge Wrens in Middle America, from the highlands of southern Mexico southwards to Costa Rica, seem to be entirely sedentary. In South America, too, the Sedge Wren populations, which may perhaps represent two separate species (see Systematics), are similarly non-migratory; here, the southernmost subspecies, hornensis, experiences very harsh conditions during the austral winter, although the type specimen of this taxon was taken on a ship "twenty leagues south-east of Cape Horn", suggesting that some movement may occur at times.
A similar distinction in the movements of different populations is exhibited by the Marsh Wren complex of taxa. Those summering in the vast area from northern Alberta eastwards to New England are entirely migratory, spending the winter months along the Atlantic seaboard from New York south to Mexico, whereas the subspecies breeding in coastal habitat in the eastern United States are either partial migrants, in the north, or sedentary. In some coastal marshes in the southern-eastern United States, the Marsh Wren populations present in winter are a mixture of sedentary local breeders and winter visitors from farther north. A totally sedentary race is found in central Mexico. Vagrant Marsh Wrens have been recorded in Bermuda and Cuba, illustrating this species' ability to cross large expanses of open water.
In western North America, the American Rock Wren is partially migratory. It vacates the northern portion of its range, from British Columbia south to Colorado, in winter, whereas the species is present throughout the year in the remainder of the western United States and in Mexico; again, disjunct populations from south Mexico south to Costa Rica are totally sedentary. The American Rock Wren is a notable vagrant, stray individuals turning up, usually in October and November, in various places across eastern North America, from Nova Scotia and New Jersey south to Louisiana and Florida. The Canyon Wren, on the other hand, appears to be much more sedentary. Although it does undertake some altitudinal movements in the northern parts of its range, occurrences of vagrants are fewer, and in localities closer to the breeding area.
A very limited partial migration takes place in the case of Bewick's Wren, the eastern populations of which are more mobile than are the western ones. Carolina Wrens are essentially sedentary, but they do crop up extralimitally, sometimes in locations well removed from the breeding range. Of over 500 recoveries of individuals of this species ringed in North America, only 31 had made any movement at all, and only three demonstrated significant displacement, having covered distances of, respectively, 250 km, 150 km and 75 km. Extralimital movements made by the Carolina Wren may involve wandering by juveniles in their first season.
The two Troglodytes species breeding in North America are strongly migratory. For the Northern House Wren, a large body of data has been amassed from recoveries of ringed birds, and this information allows a detailed analysis of movements; for no other wren species in the Americas are there adequate data for such studies. The Northern House Wren is totally migratory; apart from a small area of southern California, there is no part of its range where it occurs in all months of the year. Individuals ringed on the breeding grounds in coastal eastern North America appear to winter in Florida. Inland breeders, from east of the Appalachians, migrate on a broad front to non-breeding quarters extending mostly from Texas eastwards to Georgia and Florida, those from the eastern part of the breeding range tending to winter farther east than do those from more westerly areas; there are, however, a few recoveries demonstrating strong longitudinal displacements, as, for example, from Ontario south-west to as far as Texas. Northern House Wrens breeding on the Great Plains and the Prairie Provinces of Canada, in contrast, have a strongly south-eastern orientation of migration. There are no significant recoveries of house wrens ringed in western North America. This species has occurred as a vagrant in western Cuba, the Bahamas, Newfoundland, and as far north as Churchill, in the Canadian province of Manitoba.
The Southern House Wren, incidentally, is essentially sedentary over most of its vast range, although it displays a remarkable ability to appear in small isolated patches of suitable habitat when these are created by human activity. The populations in extreme southern South America, however, are truly migratory, leaving southern Tierra del Fuego during the austral winter. The precise whereabouts of their non-breeding quarters are not known, and no information on their movements is available from any ringing studies.
For the other Troglodytes wren of the Nearctic, the Northern Wren, the situation is more complex. The bulk of the breeding range, from northern British Columbia across southern Canada to Newfoundland, is vacated after the breeding season, when the wrens migrate to a wintering range that extends from New England south to Florida, Texas and north-eastern Mexico; the species occurs in all months in southern Ontario and the Appalachian chain, but it is not certain that it is the same individuals that are present there throughout the year. Western North American populations may be partially migratory or sedentary. The numerous endemic subspecies of the Aleutian chain and the Pribilof Islands are known to be totally sedentary, and those breeding in the region from Alaska south through northern California appear to be so. In southern California and Arizona, however, the species does occur in winter but is absent in the summer months.
In the Old World, the Northern Wren again comprises a mixture of sedentary and migratory populations. The species leaves most of Scandinavia and north-western Russia after breeding, as it appears unable to tolerate winter conditions north of the -7°C isotherm. In western Europe, from Iceland south to the Mediterranean Basin, and from the south Baltic region south to Poland and the Ukraine, the Northern Wren occurs throughout the year, as it does also in north Africa, Turkey, Cyprus, the Caucasus and northern Iran. Isolated island populations, such as those on the Faeroes and St Kilda, are also sedentary. Farther east, in the Himalayan region, eastern China, Japan and Taiwan, it is likewise observed in all months. The breeding grounds in northern China and eastern Siberia, including Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island, are vacated in winter, although the species is resident on the Commander Islands, east of Kamchatka.
Whereas there are, unfortunately, no worthwhile ringing data for the Northern Wren in North America, a substantial number of ringing recoveries exists in Europe. Individuals breeding in Norway have been encountered in winter in the region from northern Germany south to Belgium; wrens from Sweden and the Baltic area tend to have a generally, but not exclusively, south-western orientation, with recoveries reported from Hungary westwards, all the way to south-western France and eastern Spain. Northern Wren movements in Britain seem to be of two distinct types. The first is a short-distance movement of up to 50 km, and is essentially random in orientation, while the second is longer, up to 250 km, and with a markedly north-south orientation between summer and winter and the reverse heading in spring. A number of wrens that had been ringed at locations on the south coast of England have been recovered in France, including several in the south of that country. These may well have involved individuals that were already on migration when they were caught for ringing, since it is obvious that the vast bulk of British Northern Wrens, which are subspecifically distinct from mainland European ones, do not leave the British Isles.
Observations of birds striking tall buildings, TV towers, lighthouses and similar structures at night, or being found dead in the morning at such places, indicate that all migratory troglodytid species in North America and Europe migrate nocturnally. This can occasionally lead to considerable mortality (see Status and Conservation).
It is worth mentioning here that the Donacobius, almost certainly not a "true" wren (see Systematics), appears to be a very sedentary species. In one study in Peru, in which birds were individually marked, there was no evidence of any movement between patches of suitable habitat that were separated by a distance of only 2 km.
Relationship with Man
In contrast to the minimal economic interaction between the Troglodytidae and humans, the role of wrens in folklore and legend is extraordinarily widespread and pervasive. This is especially true of the Northern Wren in Europe. It is odd that a small, brown, inedible bird should be so important in the folklores of so many diverse cultures. Indeed, in western Europe, among passerines, probably only the European Robin (Erithacus rubecula) figures more prominently. Doubtless, this is due in some measure to the loudness of its song. Certainly, the songs of the members of this family make them difficult to overlook. In Canada, for example, the name for the Northern House Wren in the Ojibway language of Ontario translates literally as "he who makes a lot of noise for his size".
One common feature in many different cultures is the recognition of the wren as the "King of the Birds". In a number of European languages, as diverse as Dutch, Classical Greek, Polish, Romanian and Lithuanian, among others, the vernacular name for the Northern Wren implies royalty. One example is the German Zaunkönig, meaning "king of the fence". In Britain and France, however, the mantle of royalty seems to have been taken over by the even smaller kinglet (Regulus), the roitelet in the French language.
How did the tiny wren become the birds' king? One legend, widespread among several European cultures, tells of a contest among the birds for the throne; the one which could fly the highest would inherit the crown. As might be expected, this was the eagle. As the eagle, exhausted and incapable of further climbing, was about to call down to the unsuccessful claimants below to proclaim his triumph, the wren, which had concealed itself among the eagle's back feathers or, in some versions, under his wing, popped out and flew a few feet higher. The origin of this widespread legend is obscure, but it may have come from one of Aesop's fables, since lost. Aesop himself probably acquired many of his fables from Indian sources, although, curiously, an almost identical legend is found among the Canadian Ojibway people.
An obviously related legend, again widespread in western Europe, involves the bringing of fire, or light, to the world by the wren. This entailed a flight to the heavens from which the wren returned successfully, but with all of his feathers burnt off. In gratitude, all except one of the birds agreed to give the wren one of their own feathers so that he could clothe his nakedness. The single exception was the owl, which maintained that he had none to spare. As punishment for his stinginess, the owl was for ever thereafter condemned to a solitary life; harassed by small birds during the day, and spending the nights alone in the dark forest, making forlorn and mournful hooting noises. A variation of this story identifies the robin as the fire-fetcher, although in Breton legend it was Hell, not Heaven, that provided the fire. In eastern Europe, the fire-bringer was the swallow.
A remarkable tradition, formerly practised in much of western Europe, was the wren hunt. Typically, this took place on St Stephen's day, or Boxing Day, 26th December, although in some locations it happened on Christmas Eve, on Christmas morning, on the Epiphany, or "Twelfth Night", or even on St Valentine's Day. Basically, groups of young boys would catch wrens and attach them to decorated poles, a holly bush (Ilex) or, in Wales, a house adorned with ribbons. The unfortunate bird would then be paraded by a procession of boys and young men in strange and fantastic garb, some dressed as women, sometimes with blackened faces and carrying wooden swords; in Ireland, the parade took place to the accompaniment of doggerel verse and the music of flutes and the bodhrán, a traditional drum. The young participants then went from door to door, soliciting modest funds and treats. In the Isle of Man, the wren would sometimes then be interred with due solemnity and respect, to the sound of dirges sung in the now extinct Manx language. Wren-hunting occurred widely in the British Isles, not only in the Celtic areas but also in such counties as Suffolk and Surrey, as well as in parts of France. The tradition seems to have been strongest, however, in southern Ireland and the Isle of Man. Manx fishermen carried wren feathers with them to sea as protection against shipwreck, while in Scotland fisherfolk scattered wren feathers into the wind in the belief that this would enable them to predict the profitability of the herring (Clupea harengus) harvest.
The origins of the wren hunt are obscure. According to one legend, the wren betrayed St Stephen as he was trying to escape from jail, thereby causing his martyrdom. Several Irish legends exist. In one of these, the wren was cursed by St Moling for eating the holy man's pet fly. In another, a wren presumably of the Protestant faith was blamed for warning King William of Orange's sleeping forces of a stealthy Irish attack, by jumping up and down on a drum; most interestingly, exactly the same story existed seven hundred years earlier, but in this case it was somnolent Danes who were aroused. In all probability, the origins of the tradition date back to early or pre-Christian times. In Celtic mythology, for example, the wren was the king of the oak tree and the symbol of the Old Year, while the robin represented the New Year, hence the symbolic dispatch of the wren at a time close to the winter solstice.
In the New World, wren mythology seems to be less extensive or, in cultures lacking the written word, perhaps simply unrecorded. According to Cherokee legend, the wren closely observes women in labour, rejoicing in the birth of a girl but loudly lamenting the appearance of a boy, who will grow up to hunt the wren. In Suriname, the haunting and arresting song of the Musician Wren is reckoned to be a bad omen for hunters. In contrast, the Southern Nightingale-wren is considered to be a good talisman for deer-hunters in Brazil, although, to be efficacious for this purpose, the bird must be captured on a Thursday or Friday during a period when the moon is waxing. The habit of some species of incorporating human artefacts in their nests (see Breeding) has led to a number of superstitious beliefs. The Thrush-like Wren, for example, frequently includes extraneous objects in its nest and, according to local legend in Bolivia, if one loses a banknote, one should examine all the local wren nests to ascertain whether the thrifty birds have incorporated it into their own nest structures.
Finally, there is the curious fact that, in the Creole languages of the West Indies, the Southern House Wren is endowed not with royalty, but also with divinity. On English-speaking islands it is called "God-bird" and on French ones "Oiseau Bon Dieu", while in Suriname it is known as "Gadofowroe".
Broadly speaking, wrens are looked upon with some affection by the general public. This is presumably due largely to their small size. This may perhaps have been in the minds of the members of the German Union for Nature Conservation when they selected the Northern Wren as the "Bird of the Year" for 2004. That body stated that the Northern Wren, although not threatened, is a symbol of a natural, diverse environment that must be maintained and protected.
Status and Conservation The fate of different troglodytids at the hands of man is very varied. Some species have greatly benefited from human activity, whereas others have suffered sorely. In North America, the clearing of continuous climax forest during the period of European settlement created the forest-edge habitat suitable for the Northern House Wren and Bewick's Wren, while artificial structures provided secure nesting sites, allowing for major expansions in the range of both species. In the United States, Northern House Wrens colonized western West Virginia by the late 1800s, North Carolina by the 1920s and South Carolina by the 1940s. Bewick's Wren had expanded into West Virginia by 1834, Pennsylvania by 1843, Georgia by 1854, Ohio by 1879 and New Jersey by 1890, and had reached southern Ontario, in Canada, by 1898. In contrast to the house wren, however, Bewick's Wren has suffered major declines in the eastern part of its range and now occurs only in isolated pockets east of the Mississippi; it has been proposed that the race concerned, altus, be listed as Endangered. The reasons for this major decline are not entirely clear, but one plausible explanation is the well-documented nest destruction by Northern House Wrens (see General Habits). The latter may, in fact, represent a conservation problem under some circumstances. In Canada, the cavity-nesting Prothonotary Warbler is confined to southern Ontario, the entire population totalling fewer than two dozen pairs. Its nesting success is adversely affected on a substantial scale by Northern House Wrens, being significantly higher in areas without these nest-destroyers. The wrens cause nesting failure by puncturing and sometimes throwing out the warbler's eggs, attacking nestlings and perhaps adults, and dropping twigs into nest-cavities already occupied by the warblers. The decline of Bewick's Wren in eastern North America seems to have coincided with the expansion of the range of the Northern House Wren. Although the attributing of the disappearance of Bewick's Wren to the Northern House Wren's activities may be a facile explanation of a more complex phenomenon, the evidence is suggestive.
The two Cistothorus wrens of North America have rather specialized habitat requirements, the Marsh Wren occurring in reeds, rushes and grasses over water and the Sedge Wren in damp sedgy meadows. Since Europeans settled in North America, Marsh Wren habitat has been extensively destroyed as wetlands have been drained for agriculture and other purposes. The species' total population has doubtless declined substantially, but it remains common or abundant in suitable habitat, which in some areas is now expanding as a result of the building of artificial water impoundments. It is probable that the Sedge Wren was helped by the creation of habitat through human clearances; this wren may also breed in weedy rice fields, although these are discouraged in modern farming practices. Nevertheless, Sedge Wrens are regarded as threatened in several US states. In Canada, breeding-bird surveys over the decade 1991-2000 indicate a slow population increase.
No species of wren has become extinct in historical times, but several give cause for concern, and a number of subspecies have indeed disappeared. Of these, the race exsul of the American Rock Wren, restricted to the island of Isla San Benedicto in the Revillagigedo Group, off western Mexico, became extinct in the most spectacular fashion in 1952, when its island home catastrophically erupted. A few wrens survived the initial eruption, which also killed tens of thousands of nesting seabirds, and lingered for a few months, but all ultimately perished. All other extinctions have been caused by man, usually by the sadly familiar practices of habitat destruction and the introduction of alien predators. Two island subspecies of Bewick's Wren have been lost: brevicauda was one of several Guadelupe endemic taxa that vanished from that island, off Baja California, prior to 1892, and leucophrys, of San Clemente Island, California, became extinct by, probably, 1986. In the West Indies, the Martinique race of the Southern House Wren became extinct about 1900. Two other races of that species, guadeloupensis on Guadeloupe and mesoleucus on St Lucia, are hovering on the brink, if they have not already gone over it; the first was believed to be extinct, but a tiny population was rediscovered in 1969 and 1973, and the second still persisted, in very small numbers, in 1984. No recent information is available for either subspecies. On some other islands, such as Dominica, the local races of the Southern House Wren remain common. Given the ability of this species, over most of its range, to adapt to or, indeed, to benefit from human-wrought changes, the loss of some of the races is perhaps unexpected. It can doubtless be ascribed to the typical vulnerability of naive island populations to introduced predators, in these instances predominantly mongooses (Herpestidae).
Populations of some island races of the Northern Wren fluctuate, at times plummeting to alarmingly low levels. In Scotland, for example, the subspecies fridarensis, confined to the 7·6 km² of Fair Isle, between the Shetlands and the Orkney Islands, has numbered as few as ten singing males, but it rapidly bounced back to three or five times this level. When the taxon hirtensis was first described on St Kilda, the westernmost of the Outer Hebrides, in 1884, it was initially considered to be a new species; this unleashed a frenzy of collecting, with single skins fetching a guinea or more, the equivalent of £1.05 in modern British currency, which was at that time a huge sum of money for an impoverished local Gael. Notwithstanding this, hirtensis, now treated as a subspecies of the Northern Wren, was probably never in danger, mainly because of the physical inaccessibility of much of the population, and nowadays it typically numbers more than 200 pairs. At the eastern edge of the Northern Wren's Palearctic range, the subspecies mosukei on the Izu Islands, south of the Japanese mainland, is considered endangered, while the subspecies orii recently became extinct on the Daito Islands, about 800 km south of Kyushu.
Several troglodytid species are confined to islands of various sizes, but, in contrast to the sad condition of the West Indian races of the Southern House Wren, all of them should survive. The Cozumel Wren (Troglodytes beani) is restricted to the Mexican island of that name, where it is generally both abundant and tolerant of moderate habitat modification. Off the other, western coast of Mexico, in the Revillagigedo Archipelago, are the much smaller islands of Clarión and Socorro, each with an endemic wren. Because of the small size of their respective ranges, the Clarion Wren (Troglodytes tanneri) is classified by conservationists as Vulnerable and the Socorro Wren is considered to be Near-threatened. Both islands have suffered substantial habitat changes following the introduction of such animals as goats and cats, but the wrens appear able to tolerate this environmental alteration. This situation contrasts with that of the Socorro Mockingbird (Mimodes graysoni), which is in a very sorry state and is listed as Critically Endangered. Fortunately, the archipelago is now a biosphere reserve, and efforts are being made to remove alien species.
In the Falkland Islands, the endemic Cobb's Wren was probably widespread throughout prior to human settlement, but it has since retreated to offshore islands in the face of habitat destruction and the introduction of cats and rats (Rattus). Although classified as Vulnerable owing to its restricted range, it has an estimated population of 4000-8000 pairs, spaced over more than thirty islands of between 5 ha and 3000 ha, and does not seem to be in any real danger. Accidental introduction of either cats or rats to any of these islands, however, would almost certainly result in the disappearance of the local wren population. Efforts are currently being made to exterminate alien predators on several of the more suitable islands.
Most of the conservation worries concerning troglodytids refer to Central and South American members of the family. No fewer than four species of concern occur in Colombia, a country in which an almost permanent state of severe civil unrest is not conducive to conservation efforts in remote regions. The species at the most serious and most immediate risk is Niceforo's Wren (Thryothorus nicefori), which was described in 1945 from a small area near Bucaramanga and was then not seen again until 1989, when one pair was observed. It appears to be dependent on acacia scrub, a habitat which is highly disturbed by burning, overgrazing and clearance for agriculture. Niceforo's Wren is presently classified as Critically Endangered.
Apolinar's Wren, "officially" listed as Endangered, is restricted to tiny patches of habitat in Colombia, where recent study has revealed the existence of two separate populations. These are currently treated as representing subspecies, but each is perhaps deserving of full species status (see Systematics). The nominate race is found only in reedbeds around a number of high-altitude lakes. Unfortunately, many of these are in heavily populated areas in the departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá, and much suitable habitat has been lost in recent years. Populations of 50 or so pairs exist at Laguna de Tota, in Boyacá, and at Laguna de Fúquene, in Cundinamarca; the species apparently still persists in some locations around Bogotá, and the type specimen was, in fact, collected only about 6·5 km from the capital city. Some of the breeding habitat of this taxon lies within national parks, but, given the current state of civil unrest in Colombia, park status may be no guarantee of protection. Recent estimates of the total population of the nominate race are in the region of 250 adults, justifying for this taxon a classification of Critically Endangered. A further cause for concern with this race involves a growing incidence of brood parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird, the local population of which appears to be increasing. The other subspecies of Apolinar's Wren, hernandezi, has so far been found in just two small locations. Its population density at these seems to be quite high, and the sites themselves do not appear to be under immediate threat. It is feasible that this race may occur also at other places with suitable habitat, but, because of concerns over security, it has not yet been possible to investigate these. In view of the tiny currently known range of hernandezi, it is suggested that it be afforded the conservation category of Vulnerable.
Although the Santa Marta Wren is not "officially" listed as globally threatened, it has a very limited total range, being confined to higher levels in the massif of Santa Marta, in north Colombia; notwithstanding the supposedly protected status of much of its range, which is encompassed within a national park, habitat destruction, including overgrazing, burning and forest-cutting, continues apace, suggesting that the species should be designated as, at best, Vulnerable. Similarly, the recently discovered Munchique Wood-wren (see Systematics) has a very small range of less than 100 km², greatly constrained climatically, not far from the city of Popayán, in the Western Andes. Despite the fact that its entire range lies within two protected areas, lack of adequate funds for effective wardening to prevent habitat destruction for agriculture gives reason for grave concern over its future, perhaps sufficient to recommend its being placed in the conservation category of Critically Endangered. By way of contrast, the Merida Wren of the Venezuelan Andes, despite its very restricted range, does not appear to be at any risk.
The two members of the Mexican genus Hylorchilus might almost be regarded as island species in that they live only in forest growing on isolated outcrops of karst limestone. Whether they ever occurred in the intervening non-karst areas is something of a moot point, since these have been largely deforested for agriculture. Both species are the subject of some concern. Sumichrast's Wren seems to be in the better shape. Although its total range is encompassed in an area of only 6000 km², in only a small proportion of which it is actually present, a total of twelve separate populations has been located. In some of these it is found at the very high density of one pair per hectare, and it is able to exploit very small patches of habitat, some as tiny as 0·5 hectares. In addition, it tolerates a degree of habitat disturbance. Sumichrast's Wren is currently considered Near-threatened, the greatest threats facing it being the cutting of forest for firewood and quarrying. Nava's Wren is classified as Vulnerable, with suggestions that it should be upgraded to the conservation category of Endangered. It appears to be less tolerant of habitat disturbance than is its congener. Some parts of its range are protected, but the viability of both species can be guaranteed only by further land protection, either by direct acquisition for reserves or through long-term agreements with landowners.
Farther south, in El Salvador, the local subspecies nannoides of the Rufous-browed Wren is now restricted to a protected area of 600 ha on Volcán Santa Ana. Here, its population is estimated to number no more than about 4000 individuals.
The unique Zapata Wren, confined entirely to small areas of the Zapata Swamp, in south-western Cuba, is a source of very serious concern. It is currently classified as Endangered, and at one point it was feared that it was already extinct. Recent observations, however, suggest a population in the region of 80-100 pairs. The main threats to this species appear to be destruction of its habitat by fires and predation by introduced mongooses. Currently, management plans for the Zapata Swamp are in place, with the aim of preserving this and several other endemic species.
Twenty-one troglodytids, including five of the six globally threatened ones, are restricted-range species. Of the non-threatened species in this category, it is believed that their small geographical ranges would render them vulnerable in the event of major habitat destruction. In southern Mexico, for instance, the Giant Wren is restricted to a narrow coastal strip of the state of Chiapas. It seems to be abundant in parts of this small range, and to be able to co-exist well with present land uses, but any change in its environment could cause problems for this distinctive wren. On the Caribbean coast, the Yucatan Wren (Campylorhynchus yucatanicus) occupies an even smaller range, some of which is protected by national parks. This, however, is no justification for complacency, as the Yucatán Peninsula is currently undergoing extensive development for resorts. As a further example, the Bar-winged Wood-wren, already listed as Near-threatened, occurs in very limited areas on high mountains in southern Ecuador and northern Peru, where it is confined to stunted forest on impoverished soils. This choice of habitat, unattractive for human exploitation, is probably the species' best guarantee for survival. Also highly restricted in Peru is the Inca Wren, which does, however, seem to be common in suitable areas.
Although many members of the family have large geographical ranges, these are becoming increasingly fragmented. This is especially true of species which rely on lowland tropical forest and have limited tolerance of change, such as the Northern Nightingale-wren, large segments of the former habitat of which have been deforested. While such species may be abundant in areas where suitable habitat still remains, their populations as a whole have exhibited substantial declines in recent years. The future health and viability of these forest-reliant species will obviously depend on the capacity of the human population to reverse the present rate of habitat destruction in Central and South America.
Apart from habitat loss and degradation, there appear to be few threats to troglodytids. As mentioned previously (see Movements), non-resident populations of wrens migrate during the night-time. These nocturnal movements can at times involve certain hazards, chief among which is probably the risk of flying into stationary structures such as lighthouses, TV towers and various tall buildings. Observations suggest that, under certain weather conditions, Northern House Wrens, Marsh Wrens and Sedge Wrens in North America and Northern Wrens in Europe can suffer substantial numbers of casualties as a consequence of hitting tall obstructions in the dark. The level of mortality due to such accidents, however, is extremely minimal in terms of the total population of the species concerned.
Natural deaths resulting from starvation during prolonged periods of harsh weather can be more serious, sometimes depressing populations for several years. Nevertheless, wrens are generally capable of recovering to their former strength within a relatively short length of time.
General Bibliography Aldrich (1946), Allen (1914), Álvarez-Lopéz et al. (1984), Anderson & Anderson (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1973), Arizmendi & Márquez (2000), Armstrong (1955, 1958, 1975), Aspinall & Aspinall (1987), Atkinson et al. (1993), Austad & Rabenold (1986), Badzinski (2001), Bailey (1904, 1922), Bancroft (1946), Barbour (1926), Barker (2004), Barker et al. (2001), Bart & Tornes (1989), Belles-Isles & Picman (1986a, 1987), Bent (1948), Borror (1956), Brewer (2001), Brewer et al. (2000), Brodkorb (1943), Brumfield & Capparella (1996), Brumfield & Remsen (1996), Bruner (1934), Bump (1986), Burns (1982), Catchpole & Rowell (1993), Christian & Roberts (2000), Clench et al. (1982), Colyer (2000), Crawford (1977), Creaser (1925), Crossin & Ely (1973), De Santo et al. (2003), Dickerman (1973, 1975), Drovetski et al. (2004), Farabaugh (1996), Fitzpatrick et al. (1977), Fleischer & Tarr (1995), Freed (1986, 1987a), Garrido & García (1965), Gilardi & von Kugelgen (1991), Gill (2003), Gochfeld (1979), Gómez de Silva (1997b), Grant (1966a, 1966b), Graves (1980), Griscom (1923), Gross (1968), Hardy & Delaney (1987), Hawthorn & Mead (1975), Hejl & Holmes (2000), Ingersoll (1923), Isler et al. (1997), Johnson & Kermott (1990), Johnson, Kermott & Lein (1993, 1994), Johnson, Merkle & Kermott (1992), Joyce (1993), Jullien & Cariveau (2001), Kattan (1993), Kendeigh (1941), Kiltie & Fitzpatrick (1984), Kirwan (2003), Krabbe & Sornoza (1994), Kroodsma (1974, 1975, 1978, 1988), Kroodsma & Pickert (1980, 1984), Kroodsma, Liu et al. (1999), Kroodsma, Wilda et al. (2001), Kroodsma, Woods & Goodwin (2002), Lanyon (1960), Laskey (1948), Leonard & Picman (1987a), Levin (1996a, 1996b), lldobler & Wilson (1994), Loetscher (1952), Lofberg (1931), Martin (1971), Martínez & Martínez (1991), Mayr & Amadon (1951), Mayr & Greenway (1960), McCracken & MacKenzie (2003), McLellan (1926), Meanley (1952), Merola (1995), Metz (1991), Meyer de Schauensee (1946a), Molles & Vehrencamp (1999, 2001a, 2001b), Morton (1987), Morton & Farabaugh (1979), Mousley (1934), Olivares (1969), Parker & O'Neill (1985), Parkes (1990), Pérez-Villafaña et al. (1999), Pernety (1771), Picman (1980a, 1980b, 1980c), Picman & Picman (1980), Picman et al. (1996), Piper (1994), Piper & Slater (1993), Price (1998, 1999), Rabenold (1984, 1990), Ragusa-Netto (1996, 1998), Rice et al. (1999), Richardson (1965), Selander (1964), Sheldon & Gill (1996), Sherman (1925), Sibley & Ahlquist (1990a, 1990b), Sibley & Monroe (1990), Smith (1904), Stiles (1983, 1984), Sutton (1948), Tintle (1982), Tramontano (1964), Velásquez et al. (2000), Verner (1964, 1965, 1975, 1976), Waters (1964), Wiley & Wiley (1977), Williamson (1958), Young, B.E. et al. (1990), Young, C.G. (1925), Zack & Rabenold (1989), Zimmer et al. (2001). Lynx Edicions Publications Natural History Bookstore | 160,063 | 57,446 | 0.000017 |
warc | 201704 | Depending on the year and the survey, they tell us Oklahoma is the fattest state, have more babies out of wedlock and our schools are the worst, but today some good news – we are one the five freest states, and would be more so if our state payrolls weren’t also so fat, making state and local government public officials abusers of taxpayer monies. Nevertheless, we have improved more than any other state other than North Dakota. In 2011 we ranked No. 12, today we are No. 5.
Oklahoma is the fifth freest state in the country. It does especially well on fiscal policy (ranking fourth) but slips, like many southern states, on personal freedom (ranking 31st). The Sooner State also improved more than any other state except for North Dakota over the last decade.
In terms of fiscal policy, Oklahoma enjoys particularly low taxes and debt (7.4 percent and 14.0 percent of personal income, respectively). However, it does not equal this superior performance on spending, where it is a full standard deviation worse than average (at 13.0 percent of personal income). One of the reasons for this is that the Oklahoma state and local governments have bloated payrolls amounting to 16.5 percent of the private workforce. Oklahoma is also fairly fiscally centralized.
In the regulatory realm, the state performs quite well on land-use freedom, though eminent domain reform has been quite limited. Oklahoma is mediocre on tort abuse, health insurance freedom, occupational freedom, and utility deregulation. However, its number of health insurance coverage mandates is better (lower) than average. It has been a right-to-work state since 2001. Unfortunately, Oklahoma requires too many occupational licenses; occupational fees and education/experience requirements are, however, lower than average. Campaign finance regulations are quite strict.
In terms of personal freedom, gun control is fairly limited and alcohol taxes and restrictions are modest (although the state does have blue laws and a “happy hour” ban). The state’s marijuana sentencing is unreformed. Indeed, Oklahoma’s maximum possible sentence for a single marijuana offense—lifetime in prison—is draconian. Asset forfeiture rules are in need of reform. Several types of gambling are legal (not including casino gambling), though social gambling is technically prohibited and aggravated gambling is a felony.
Private and home schools are virtually unregulated—though kindergarten attendance is required by law. The state has limited smoking bans with a number of exceptions. Arrests for victimless crimes are well above the national average, significantly dragging down the state’s personal freedom score. Reforming this rate to the national mean would have raised Oklahoma’s personal freedom ranking from 31st to 13th. Surprisingly, the drug arrest rate is better (lower) than average. Source: Freedom In The 50 States: Oklahoma
Those states showing a minus in Economic Freedom in descending order are New York -133.6, California, New Jersey, Hawaii, Vermont, West Virginia, Rhode Island, Maine, Connecticut, Mississippi, Mryland, Wyoming Wisconsin, Illinois, Arkansas, Minnesota, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan and Ohio at -2.5
Those states showing a minus in Regulatory Policy in descending order are California -42.3, West Virginia, New Jersey, New York, Louisiana, Misissippi, Maryland, Rhode Island, Illinois, Hawaii, Arkansas, New Mexico, Alabama, Washington, Massachusetts, Montana, Kentucky, Connecticut, Florida, Pennsylvania, Oregon, Vermont, and Alaska -0.6.
Those states showing a minus in Personal Freedom in descending order are Illinois -22.1, Maryland, New York, California, South Dakota, Hawaii, Mississipi, Alabana, New Jersey, Michigan, Louisiana, Idaho, Virginia, Wisconsin, Florida, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Texas, Delaware, Iowa, Oklahoma, Utah, Arizona, Minesota, Tennessee, Montana -1.0 | 3,961 | 1,823 | 0.000558 |
warc | 201704 | New York, July 8 (IANS) Providing fresh insight into treatment of patients with schizophrenia, scientists have identified structural brain abnormalities in such patients, says a new study.
Scientists analyzed brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans from 2,028 schizophrenia patients and 2,540 healthy controls, assessed with standardized methods at 15 centres worldwide.
“This is the largest structural brain meta-analysis to date in schizophrenia and, specifically, it is not a meta-analysis pulled only from the literature,” said co-author Jessica Turner, associate professor of psychology and neuroscience at Georgia State University.
“We identified brain regions that differentiated patients from controls and ranked them according to their effect sizes,” Turner said.
The study was the outcome of the Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) project, from the Schizophrenia Working Group.
The findings, published in Molecular Psychiatry, help further the understanding of the mental disorder. The team found that individuals with schizophrenia have smaller volume in the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, nucleus accumbens and intracranial space than controls, and larger pallidum and ventricle volumes.
The study validates collaborative data analyses can be used across brain phenotypes and disorders, and encourages analysis and data-sharing efforts to further understanding of severe mental illness.
The next step in this research is to compare the effects across disorders, to identify which brain region is the most affected in which disorder, and to determine the effects of age, medication, environment and symptom profiles across these disorders.
“There’s the increased possibility, not just because of the massive datasets, but also because of the collaborative brain power being applied here from around the world, that we will find something real and reliable that will change how we think about these disorders and what we can do about them,” Turner said. | 2,043 | 1,046 | 0.000978 |
warc | 201704 | This is Richard Rael. And this is Rich Kleinfeldt with
THE MAKING OF A NATION -- a VOA Special English program about the history of the United States.
Today, we tell about the movement for civil rights for black Americans.
The day is August twenty-eighth, 1963. More than two hundred fifty-thousand people are gathered in Washington. Black and white, young and old, they demand equal treatment for black Americans. The nation's most famous civil rights leader, Martin Luther King, is speaking.
MARTIN LUTHER KING: "I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration of freedom in the history of our nation. "
Early in its history, black Africans were brought to America as slaves. They were bought and sold, like animals. By the time of America's Civil War in the 1860s, many had been freed by their owners. Many, however, still worked as slaves on the big farms of the South. By the end of the war, slavery had been declared unconstitutional. But that was only the first step in the struggle for equality.
Most people of color could not get good jobs. They could not get good housing. They had far less chance of a good education than white Americans. For about one hundred years, blacks made slow gains. Widespread activism for civil rights did not really begin until after World War Two. During the war, black Americans earned respect as members of the armed forces. When they came home, many demanded that their civil rights be respected, too. An organization, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, led the way.
In 1951, the organization sent its lawyers to help a man in the city of Topeka, Kansas. The man, Oliver Brown, and twelve others had brought legal action against the city. They wanted to end racial separation in their children's schools. At that time, two of every five public schools in America had all white students or all black students. The law said all public schools must be equal, but they were not. Schools for white children were almost always better than schools for black children. The situation was worst in Southern states.
The case against the city of Topeka -- Brown versus the Board of Education -- was finally settled by the nation's highest court. In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that separate schools for black children were not equal to schools for white children. The next year, it said public schools must accept children of all races as quickly as possible.
In September 1957, a black girl tried to enter an all-white school in the city of Little Rock, Arkansas. An angry crowd screamed at her. State guards blocked her way. The guards had been sent by the state governor, Orville Faubus. After three weeks, a federal court ordered Governor Faubus to remove the guards. The girl, Elizabeth Eckford, and seven other black students were able to enter the school. After one day, however, riots forced the black students to leave.
President Dwight Eisenhower ordered federal troops to Little Rock. They helped black students get into the white school safely. However, angry white citizens closed all the city's public schools. The schools stayed closed for two years.
In 1962, a black student named James Meredith tried to attend the University of Mississippi. School officials refused. John Kennedy, the president at that time, sent federal law officers to help him. James Meredith became the first black person to graduate from the University of Mississippi.
In addition to fighting for equal treatment in education, black Americans fought for equal treatment in housing and transportation. In many cities of the South, blacks were forced to sit in the back of buses. In 1955, a black woman named Rosa Parks got on a bus in the city of Montgomery, Alabama. She sat in the back. The bus became crowded. There were no more seats for white people. So, the bus driver ordered Mrs. Parks to stand and give her seat to a white person. She refused. Her feet were tired after a long day at work. Rosa Parks was arrested.
The Reverend Martin Luther King organized the black citizens of Montgomery. They were the major users of the bus system. They agreed to stop using the buses. The boycott lasted a little more than a year. It seriously affected the earnings of the bus company. In the end, racial separation on the buses in Montgomery was declared illegal. Rosa Parks's tired feet had helped win black Americans another victory in their struggle for equal rights. And, the victory had been won without violence.
The Reverend King was following the teachings of Indian spiritual leader, Mohandas Gandhi. Gandhi urged his followers to reach their political goals without violence. One of the major tools of nonviolence in the civil rights struggle in America was the "sit-in". In a sit-in, protesters entered a store or public eating place. They quietly asked to be served. Sometimes, they were arrested. Sometimes, they remained until the business closed. But they were not served. Some went hours without food or water.
Another kind of protest was the "freedom ride." This involved buses that traveled through states from the North to the South. On freedom rides, blacks and whites sat together to make it difficult for officials to enforce racial separation laws on the buses. Many freedom rides -- and much violence -- took place in the summer of 1964. Sometimes, the freedom riders were arrested. Sometimes, angry crowds of whites beat the freedom riders.
Perhaps the most dangerous part of the civil rights movement was the campaign to win voting rights for black Americans. The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution said a citizen could not be denied the right to vote because of race or color. Several Southern states, however, passed laws to try to deny voting rights to blacks for other reasons.
Martin Luther King and his supporters demonstrated to demand new legislation to guarantee the right to vote. They held protests in the state of Alabama. In the city of Birmingham, the chief law officer ordered his men to fight the protesters with high-pressure water hoses and fierce dogs. People throughout the country watched the demonstration on television. The sight of children being beaten by policemen and bitten by dogs awakened many citizens to the civil rights struggle. Federal negotiators reached a compromise. The compromise was, in fact, a victory for the protesters. They promised to stop their demonstrations. In exchange, they would be permitted to vote.
President Johnson signed a major civil rights bill in 1964. Yet violence continued in some places. Three civil rights workers were murdered in Mississippi. One was murdered in Alabama. Martin Luther King kept working toward the goal of equal rights. He died working. On April fourth, 1968, he was shot to death in Memphis, Tennessee. He had gone there to support a strike by waste collection workers. A white man, James Earl Ray, was tried and found guilty of the crime.
A wave of unrest followed the murder of Martin Luther King. Blacks in more than one hundred cities in America rioted. In some cities, areas affected by the riots were not rebuilt for many years. The movement for civil rights for black Americans continued. But it became increasingly violent. The struggle produced angry, bitter memories. Yet it also produced some of the greatest words spoken in American history.
MARTIN LUTHER KING: "When we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children -- black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics -- will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: 'Free at last! Free at last! Thank God almighty, we are free at last!'"
This program of
THE MAKING OF A NATION was written by Jeri Watson and produced by Paul Thompson. This is Rich Kleinfeldt. And this is Richard Rael. Join us again next week for another VOA Special English program about the history of the United States. | 8,081 | 3,591 | 0.00028 |
warc | 201704 | Study: O&G Setback Cost U.S. Jobs
A new study released today by the National Ocean Industries Association (NOIA) and the American Petroleum Institute (API) shows the important nationwide jobs and economic impact of the Gulf of Mexico offshore oil and gas industry and reveals the effect of permitting on those
figures. According to the study conducted by Quest Offshore Inc., the Gulf offshore oil and gas industry supported more than 240,000 jobs across the country while contributing more than $26 billion to the nation’s GDP in 2010. "The Gulf offshore oil and gas industry supports tens of thousands of jobs outside the Gulf of Mexico," said Randall Luthi, president of NOIA. "These jobs are found across the United States – at places like Redwing Shoe Company in Minnesota, Godwin Pumps in New Jersey and Hammerhead Industries in California, just to name a few." But offshore industry-related jobs are down from 2008, the study shows, due in part to the poor economy, the deepwater moratorium, and the continuing slow pace of new drilling permits in the gulf. More than 60,000 jobs have been lost in the Gulf States alone since 2008, according to the study. There is potential for good news, though: the study also projects that if exploration and development permitting return to historic levels and backlogged projects are processed, the Gulf offshore industry could help create an additional 190,000 jobs by 2013 for a total of more than 400,000 industry supported jobs across the United States. The Gulf offshore industry could also contribute nearly $45 billion dollars to the nation’s GDP by 2013. "The bad news is that the current pace of permit reviews and approvals will just not get us there," said Luthi. The study also found that the vast majority of industry-related spending, more than 95 percent, stays right here in the United States, creating more jobs and more economic growth at home, instead of sending it overseas. “American energy, the American economy, and American jobs -- this new study clearly shows that the offshore oil and gas industry is an essential part of creating and sustaining all three," said Luthi. "And that’s just the beginning. The Gulf could do even more to fuel America and America’s economic-recovery—if allowed." | 2,310 | 1,120 | 0.000912 |
warc | 201704 | I just returned from a six-day backpacking trip in Kings Canyon, CA. While I'm not quite as obsessive as Kevin Meyer in turning my vacations into opportunities to think deeply about lean, the lessons from lean thinking were inescapable.
Lesson #1: When you don't have a lot of space, you only schlep what's essential. Backpacks are comparatively small, and I didn't hire any sherpas to stagger through the backcountry with 125 pound loads. That meant that I had to ruthlessly pare down the items that I would take with me. No extra food (3/4 of a pound of dry food per person per day), no extra clothes (you really can make two paris of socks and underwear last for a week), no extra gear that didn't perform a critical function (so much for the solar shower and the lawn chairs).
Now think about your office/computer/desk: how much unnecessary crap are you holding onto just because you can? Raise your hand if you have a file cabinet you've inherited from a predecessor that contains stuff you've never even looked at. Raise another hand if you're holding onto year-old emails and old revisions of files that have absolutely no value.
Why is this important? Because...
Lesson #2: When you're lean, you're fast. I set up -- and took down -- my campsite in about half the time it took my friend. I didn't have to search through piles of excess crap to find the gear I needed. By contrast, he struggled to find the right gear in the right sequence. (Pulling out his toothbrush before his tent made very little sense.)
How long does it take you to access the critical information you need for your job?
Lesson #3: Flexibility ain't just about yoga. With less inventory of stuff, I was more flexible in pulling out the gear I needed at the right time. I could easily access my water filter at a stream crossing when I needed it, just as I could quickly pull out raingear when I needed that. My friend pretty much had a yardsale everytime he needed something from inside his pack.
Can you switch gears quickly at work? Can you move from one task to another smoothly and efficiently? Or do you waste time, energy, and effort in the transition?
Lesson #4: Peace be on you, brother. This last benefit is a bit squishy and granola-y, but nonetheless real. There's a peace of mind, a calmness, that comes with knowing you have just what you need to get the job done. There's no confusion -- only clarity. There's no frustration -- only focus. It's liberating to be stripped to the essentials so that you can fully concentrate on whatever is the task at hand.
What's your work environment like? Can you focus on what you're doing? Or do the email alerts, photos of the company picnic, and collection of Yankees bobblehead dolls fracture your attention?
Take advantage of your company's janitorial services and toss some junk today. Let the IT department relieve you of some of the old crap you're holding onto with an archive. Your mental backpack will be much better off. | 2,974 | 1,546 | 0.000649 |
warc | 201704 | The Bechdel test: Application, historical context, and introducing a male equivalent
I write about men in movies. I write about how they can serve to inspire us to greatness.
Thankfully, there are also those who write about women in movies. Or rather the lack of women in movies. And when doing so, some tend to pull on the
Bechdel-test.
The Bechdel test was introduced by Alison Bechdel, an American cartoonist, back in 1985. Here are its humble beginnings:
A movie, as the cartoon tells you, passes the Bechdel test if:
It has at least two women (with names) in it, who talk to each other, about something besides a man
The test has become very popular in feminist circles and recently Swedish cinemas announced that they will henceforth rate all movies using the Bechdel test.
In other words, the test has become politicized.
Applying the Bechdel test
The basic premise of the Bechdel test is that there are too few women in significant roles in movies. And there seems to be truth in that; According to Colin Stokes’s TED talk “How movies teach manhood” that I wrote about a few days ago, only 11 of the top 100 movies of 2011 had women leads.
Most movies featured on my site fail the test. Here’s a list of those who pass it (with a score of 3 out of 3), according to Bechdeltest.com:
American Beauty Beowulf Eyes Wide Shut Revolutionary Road Lars and the Real Girl Mrs Doubtfire Robin Hood Sideways The 13th Warrior The Fisher King The King’s Speech V for Vendetta
Here’s something puzzling though: A movie like
Tomb Raider (which I haven’t reviewed) fails the Bechdel test. In fact, it absolutely flunks it (0 out of 3 points). So in other words, a female heroine with enormous courage making her way through a typically male-dominated environment scores no points. I understand that Lara Croft is not a well rounded, realistic female character that will serve as a positive role model to the young women of the world, but it still strikes me as peculiar that a movie featuring a female heroine scores 0 points on the Bechdel test.
Another interesting observation: Despite a whole host of powerful female characters, the Lord of the Rings trilogy gets pummeled (1 out of 3 points) and the scene in
Return of the King where Eowyn arguably saves Middle Earth by defeating the Nazgul King while exclaiming “I am no man!” (she can kill him only because she is a a woman; see scene below) scores no points with the Bechdel test.
Basically, a wide range of movies where women are portrayed as powerful and in control of their destinies fail this test. Here’s but a few:
X-men (Jean Grey and Storm to mention but a few) Superman (Lois Lane) The Dark Knight rises (Cat Woman) Hansel and Gretel (Gretel) Tomb Raider (Lara Croft) Avatar (Neytiri and Grace) Run Lola Run (Lola)
That seems strange to me.
So while there seems to be some validity to the test, it shows some strange results in practice.
What is still undeniable, however, is that there
are more male protagonists in the movies. Why is that so? Historical context
The role of women has historically been about nurture and the family sphere. There are good reasons for this. The male brain has much greater spatial awareness and our bodies are better at dealing with adrenaline and extreme physical conditions. In effect, we cope with hunting, hard labor and danger better than women.
Workplace death statistics (more than 90% are men) reflect this fact; men seek out the challenges and danger for which our physiologies are built. The woman’s brain, however, is much better at language, social interaction etc. In fact, women on average use three times as many words per day compared to men (20000 vs 7000).
These naturally occurring differences are the result of a co-created evolutionary process which has, among other things, ensured that pregnant women were sheltered from hard physical labor. (for a feminist who gets this, refer to Lauren Barnett’s presentation).
While the women were sheltered, men have historically been expected to provide that shelter. The ideals of the traditional male role are to serve, provide and protect. World mythology is overflowing with stories of men starting from humble beginnings, only to become a true hero after overcoming a series of trials. These tales – and acts – of heroism have brought solace and protection to those in need for milennia. Mythology expert Joseph Campbell calls this mythological theme the
Hero’s journey.
There is something inherently exciting about the Hero’s journey. Most men I know feel a visceral bodily response when observing other men undertake acts of heroism. It’s what made
Braveheart so impactful when I watched it in my teens. And women seem to find such men very sexy. (quote from a female friend: “I don’t like Mel Gibson, but William Wallace is super hot”). The archetypal theme of the Hero’s journey has called many men to greatness. But it has a shadow side too; it has trained men to see themselves as expendable. The basic idea was this: As long as men died in service of a noble purpose, theirs was a fine death.*
So this is the bottom line: While women were expected to live limited yet relatively safe and social lives at home, men were given influence on the condition that they would sacrifice their lives in a heroic spectacle at the drop of a hat.
These are the tradeoffs inherent in the traditional gender roles.
*added 30. nov: The hero’s journey is really a metaphor for inner transformation. As such, it is an archetype that exists on all levels of development. Its themes have however exerted influence over the gender roles of society, and particularly those of the premodern era. Understanding the mythical foundation of movies
Movies are the main propagators of mythological themes in today’s world. In the absence of stories around the fireplace and kids gathering at the feet of grandpa reading fairy tales in the flickering light of a lone oil lamp, we look to the silver screen for that essential soul food. The movies which make our spirit soar build on the same essential themes as humanity have grappled with for millennia: Survival in a dangerous world, truth, justice, purpose, faith, love.
These myths always involve a Hero’s journey of some sort, even the ones featuring women in leading roles (few characters in movie history are as heroic as Ripley in Aliens). They resonate in some deep part of us, where things still matter and there’s something worth dying for.
When you get that a majority of people still hunger for epic stories featuring danger and the overcoming of it, and you also get that this is what the male body is designed for, you will begin to understand why so many movies feature male instead of female characters.
Men leading, women following: Have movies lost touch with society?
As I make these observations, a question becomes pressing: Have these movies become outdated? Are they out of touch with the world we live in? The answer is: Possibly. It depends on our cultural perspective.
In parts of the world, the liberal West primarily, gender roles are changing and men are becoming sensitized and somewhat domesticated. Women, on the other hand, are becoming more agentic and autonomous. Women are clearly leading the way in this process; it’s as if the men have become sensitive because the women demanded it, not because the men wanted it.
These changes are made possible thanks to huge changes in the techno-economical structures of society; in a service and information-based economy, career success does not involve risking my life at work.
In the conservative Western world and most of the rest of the world, however, traditional gender roles still prevail.
Let this much be clear: I would rather live in the liberal West than elsewhere. And I think it’s tremendous that we are encouraged to have more emotional range as individuals in this postmodern era (Spiral Dynamics green meme). But have you noticed, as I have, that most people who live in this cultural context seem a little bored? It’s almost as if nothing is at stake, everything is safe and comfortable. Life runs on auto-pilot. Despite all this emphasis on individual expression, things seem awfully
flat.
Life-affirming qualities like vitality, passion and creativity have pretty much been erased by a postmodern crusade over the last several decades. Just look at postmodern art; often little more than ugly objects with some fancy conceptual description on a plaque. Pardon me for saying it, but most of it seems like pretentious crap. Beauty seems to have no inherent value anymore. Flying the banner of relativism, humanism and multi-culturalism, postmodernism has successfully wiped out all truths and absolutes. Without reference points to navigate by, life has become somewhat meaningless. It seems that these days, it doesn’t matter if what we say is true or meaningful, as long as we are expressing
something. Look no farther than reality TV for what I’m talking about.
It’s as if the liberal West is held hostage by this pervasive meaninglessness. And men in particular seem affected. They’re becoming apathetic and impotent, in a double sense of the word. They’re dropping out of school, becoming losers in the workplace. It’s so epidemic that journalist Hanna Rosin is talking about “The End of Men”.
So for those of us who live in the liberal West, the theme of these movies may indeed be outdated. And yet, their success at the box office shows that even in this gender neutral postmodern era, the need for mythical stories of archetypal men and women still linger. I think the fact that they are “outdated” is
exactly why they are popular. Once the politically correct police has gone home, people yearn for a different world, one where things matter, where people are loyal, have substance, integrity and dare to stand for something. Introducing a new test
While the Bechdel test is great at pointing out how common it is for women in movies to be stuck in traditional gender roles, it doesn’t come with a multi-faceted and intelligent context within which to interpret the results. Accordingly, the people who use it often conclude that the marginalization of women is tantamount to discrimination, not realizing that the themes which they are critiquing are the very themes which contributed to making possible their modern lives of comfort.
To make my point more explicit, I have decided to design a male equivalent of the Bechdel test. It targets two primary facts of the male role:
There are twice as many women as there are men in our genetic ancestry. Many men of history lived lonely lives without a woman to carry his child. Men’s lives are expendable.
A movie fails this brand new “Masculinity-Movies.com test” if it has a leading male role who:
Is risking his life in order to serve/protect Is risking his life in service of truth and/or justice Is risking his life/wellbeing in order to make it in the world/“become successful” Is jumping through hoops to get the girl
Now, with the introduction of this test, we can join in with the women and point to movies and go “ooooh, traditional gender roles!”
Here are the movies on my site which pass this test:
That’s 5 out of 41 movies – about 12% – and most of them are debatable. In other words, my test used against the archived reviews yields far worse results than the Bechdel test does.
Which begs the question: Why aren’t you complaining, men?
Why men aren’t complaining
So women are stuck in traditional gender roles in a majority of movies... check! And using the new test I just created, we can easily see that an even greater majority of movies features men in traditional gender roles. Surprising?
If the Bechdel test and feminism form our lens, we might be upset that a movie like
Saving Private Ryan fails it. Complaining about a lack of women, we may pay little attention to the extraordinary suffering men go through in the movie in service of the women and children who are at home. It’s a telling sign of how blind postmodern thinking can make us.
When cinemas in Sweden now introduce the Bechdel test, it’s because they take it for granted that women should now be portrayed in a more postmodern light – free to do what they want, self-expressed and not limited by their traditional gender role. In other words, the women of Sweden should move on from traditional to postmodern gender roles and so should the movies they watch.
And since fewer are arguing a similar case for men, I can only assume that it’s because it’s not as big of a deal that men are stuck in
their traditional gender roles. In effect, women are invited to the evolutionary process while it’s sort of handy that a large part of the men don’t come along. If they did, they might change their minds about dying at work and then civilization would start crumbling as communications towers fell into disrepair, resources stopped getting mined, nuclear plant meltdowns did not get attended to etc.
Society needs men who are willing to pay the ultimate price. And if we start talking men out of that, perhaps by making movies that pass the test I just designed above (oops), civilization as we know it would collapse. It’s not pretty, but it’s the truth.
Conclusion
For fear of repeating myself, the Bechdel test does a great job of identifying movies featuring women in traditional gender roles. It does a terrible job of identifying movies in which women are being discriminated against, however. It requires a special kind of postmodern thinking to assume that the two are synonymous, which I hope I have done an adequate job of explaining to you.
If the people who complain about movies using the Bechdel test would instead proactively contribute to making the postmodern movies they want, maybe things would look differently. But I don’t think they will anytime soon. Because frankly, the world looks a lot more boring from this gender neutral place. There are no epic storylines that play out in a postmodern context. The postmodern imperative is, somewhat crudely put, to complain, not to make art. It doesn’t sell at the box office.
Beauty arises in the dance of polarity. It arises in the longing for merging with something that feels “other than” and the alluring promise that this Other is our long-lost portal to Oneness. This is the yearning that has inspired poets since the dawn of time, be it for an idea, a woman or God. When that polarity is deconstructed, so is beauty, meaning, purpose. And men without purpose wither and die.
Use the Bechdel test all you like. It serves a purpose. But realize that its purpose will forever be to point towards more postmodern gender roles, and for women only. If that’s what you want, then so be it.
But if you, like me, are bored with that and instead are yearning for a world in which we dare synthesize old with new, masculine with feminine, in a genuine life expression free from traditional stereotypes and postmodern ideology, then you’ll turn your back on it and maybe find, as you turn, that in the place you dared not look, true art awaits. | 15,431 | 6,921 | 0.000148 |
warc | 201704 | Clinical Research Programs Behavioral Sleep Medicine Program (BSM) Center on the Continuum of Care in the Addictions (CCC) Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Nicotine Addiction Center for Mental Health Policy and Services Research (CMHPSR) Center for Neuromodulation in Depression and Stress (CNDS) Center for the Prevention of Suicide Center for Psychotherapy Research (CPR) Center for Studies of Addiction/Treatment Research Center (CSA) Center for the Treatment and Study of Anxiety (CTSA) Center for Weight and Eating Disorders Child and Adolescent OCD, Tic, Trich & Anxiety Group (COTTAGe) Delaware Valley Node Depression Research Unit (DRU) Geriatric Psychiatry Section HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Division Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program (MADS) Neuropsychiatry Program Penn Center for Women's Behavioral Wellness Penn Mental Health AIDS Research Center (PMHARC) Unit for Experimental Psychiatry (UEP)
The Behavioral Sleep Medicine Program (BSM), under the direction of Michael Perlis, MD, provides care for Insomnia (both with cognitive behavioral treatment of insomnia, CBT-I, and/or Pharmacotherapy) and a full spectrum of non-pharmacologic interventions for most of the intrinsic sleep disorders.
The Center on the Continuum of Care in the Addictions, under the direction of James R. McKay, PhD, was established in 2005 to further the development and evaluation of adaptive approaches to the delivery of treatment across the continuum of care. This Center represents a collaboration between the Department of Psychiatry, the Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and the Treatment Research Institute (TRI), in order to take advantage of complementary strengths in these groups.
The Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Nicotine Addiction (CIRNA), under the direction of Caryn Lerman, Ph.D., aims to translate discoveries in basic neuroscience, pharmacology, genetics, and behavioral science to improve treatment for nicotine dependence. The PENN CIRNA is currently conducting several research projects that focus on different aspects of nicotine dependence, including pharmacotherapy, medication development, genetics, and neuro-imaging. These studies draw upon the expertise of researchers from a variety of disciplines, including psychology, genetics, neuroscience, pharmacology, medicine, epidemiology, communication, and public policy.
The Center for Mental Health Policy and Services Research, under the direction of David Mandell, ScD, seeks to answer policy questions related to the appropriate distribution of public resources and the development of high-quality interventions for consumers who are likely to be long-term recipients of mental health care. The City of Philadelphia uses the Center as its “think tank” on health services delivery policy and the Center and its leadership are widely recognized in the region and the nation for the breadth and depth of their expertise.
The Center for Neuromodulation in Depression and Stress (CNDS), under the direction of Yvette Sheline, MD, was founded to spur new research on the science and treatment of affective disorders. They seek to fully integrate state-of-the-art neuroimaging with cross sectional and longitudinal phenotypic characterization, including blood and CSF biobanking and to use molecular neuroimaging to identify changes in stress-related neuroplasticity, neuroreceptors, inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species, amyloid and tau proteins in stress and depression-related disorders.
The Center for the Prevention of Suicide at the University of Pennsylvania was founded to develop empirically supported therapies for the prevention of suicide attempts in high risk populations. Current research is focused on the effectiveness of cognitive therapy interventions administered in community settings.
The Center for Psychotherapy Research, under the direction of Paul Crits-Christoph, Ph.D., has been the only NIMH-funded center directed to the study of the mechanisms of effective psychotherapy treatment. For more than 10 years, the Center has led the way in the study of psychotherapy treatments for psychiatric disorders with and without pharmacotherapy.
The Center for Studies of Addiction/Treatment Research Center (TRC) directed by Charles O’Brien, M.D., Ph.D., is an outpatient addiction treatment and research facility which is funded by federal grants and pharmaceutical contracts. The TRC aims to better understand the genetic, behavioral, and environmental causes of addiction. Investigators evaluate the effectiveness of new approaches to treating addictions namely, cocaine, nicotine, alcohol, cannabis and opiate dependence.
The Center for the Treatment and Study of Anxiety, under the direction of Edna B. Foa, Ph.D., focuses on the development and testing of treatments for various anxiety disorders including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and generalized social phobia (GSP).
The Center for Weight and Eating Disorders, under the direction of Thomas Wadden, Ph.D., aims to better understand the genetic, medical, and behavioral factors involved with weight disorders, and to study the efficacy of weight management treatments across patient populations. The philosophy of the Center is simple and straightforward – overweight persons should be treated professionally and compassionately. For over 45 years, the Center has focused its research on the causes and treatments of weight and weight-related disorders.
The Child & Adolescent OCD, Tic, Trich & Anxiety Group (The COTTAGe), led by Dr. Martin Franklin, is a specialty clinic in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania for children and adolescents with OCD, Tic Disorders, Trichotillomania, Anxiety and related disorders.
The Delaware Valley Node has been a part of the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network since its onset in September 1999 with the goal of forging partnerships to improve the quality of drug abuse treatment in our region and throughout the nation. The DV Node is a collaboration of the Regional Research and Training Center at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and twelve affiliated community treatment programs in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware.
The Depression Research Unit focuses on severe and refractory depression. During the course of over 20 years, the DRU has conducted more than 100 treatment outcome studies, including more than 70 phase II-IV pivotal drug trials with antidepressants, anxiolytics, and mood stabilizers. In recent years, the DRU has received significant NIH research funding, as well as pharmaceutical industry grants and funding from the Stanley Research Foundation.
The Geriatric Psychiatry Section conducts patient-oriented and practice research on late-life depression, Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias, alcohol abuse, and delirium. Clinical research is conducted through the Penn Memory Center (Steven E. Arnold, M.D., Ph.D., Director), and in collaboration with the Alzheimer's Disease Research Center.
The HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Division, under the direction of David Metzger, PhD, works to develop and evaluate interventions designed to reduce the spread of HIV and other blood-borne infections among injection and non-injection drug users. The Division promotes the application of scientifically sound data in the development of public health policies designed to respond to the HIV epidemic among drug users.
The Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, directed by Michael Thase, M.D. and Karl Rickels, M.D., studies anxiety and depression throughout the lifespan-from childhood through adulthood. The focus of research is studying causes and treatments of depression and anxiety disorders including generalized anxiety, social phobia, panic disorder, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. By studying both marketed and investigational medications, our researchers are working to establish the safety and effectiveness of new medications as well as look for better and/or new ways to use and prescribe current medications.
The Neuropsychiatry Program, under the direction of Raquel E. Gur, M.D., Ph.D., integrates basic and clinical neuroscience research to help elucidate neural substrates of schizophrenia. The Neuropsychiatry Program includes two complementary and interactive research programs which examine brain behavior relations in clinical and healthy populations: the Neuroscience Schizophrenia Center (Raquel E. Gur, M.D., Ph.D., Director) and the Brain Behavior Laboratory (Ruben C. Gur, Ph.D., Director).
The Penn Center for Women's Behavioral Wellness, under the direction of C. Neill Epperson, MD, is a collaboration between the Departments of Psychiatry and Obstetrics/Gynecology at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. The PCWBW provides clinical consultation and treatment, as well as opportunities to participate in research focusing on conditions related to women's behavioral health across the lifespan; from menarche to menopause.
The Penn Mental Health AIDS Research Center (PMHARC) strives to transform how individuals with comorbid mental illness and HIV/AIDS are treated and managed by developing innovative, interdisciplinary, and integrative approaches to optimize psychiatric, behavioral, and medical outcomes and achieving a better understanding of the biological, psychological, and behavioral mechanisms underlying these combined illnesses and treatments.
The Unit for Experimental Psychiatry, under the direction of David F. Dinges, Ph.D., is an integrated group of scientific investigators, focused on achieving creative and practical solutions to problems involving human health and safety in relation to sleep need, sleep disorders, circadian rhythms, work demands, fatigue, and vulnerability to emotional disturbance, memory distortions, pain, and other sources of stress or discomfort. Studies are conducted on both healthy individuals and patient populations for two primary purposes:
To identify the physical, behavioral, emotional and psychological effects of sleep disturbance, sleep deprivation, and circadian disruption brought about by life style, work schedules, diseases, medical treatments, and environmental and genetic factors; and To discover new ways to effectively prevent and treat neurobehavioral, neuroendocrine, neuroimmune and psychophysiological impairments from sleep loss, sleepiness, fatigue and related stressors, and their adverse effects on health, behavior, and safety, using novel behavioral, pharmacological, and technological countermeasures.
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warc | 201704 | We understand why our elderly loved ones choose to live independently and on their own terms, but that doesn’t prevent us from worrying about them. The statistics speak for themselves — elderly people are
A medical alert device is an important safeguard for seniors living independently. It is the best way to ensure rapid emergency medical response in a health crisis, which can make all the difference in
When elderly people are living independently, their loved ones tend to worry about them – and with good reason. Statistically, seniors face a higher risk of stroke, heart attack, and other health emergencies than
ADT is known for their home security systems – but ADT Health also provides outstanding personal security with high-tech medical alert systems. The ADT medical alert system provides 24/7/365 professional monitoring. For seniors who
Most senior citizens today intend to live out their lives in their own homes if at all possible, and with good reason. Living independently allows greater comfort and more options, such as setting your | 1,079 | 576 | 0.001779 |
warc | 201704 | Homocysteine for Depression
FORT LAUDERDALE, Fla., Aug. 18, 2016 /PRNewswire/ -- It is estimated that 15.7 million American adults experienced depression in 2014. And one of the main reasons so many people continue to experience this condition is that a large percentage of physicians are unaware of the documented link between homocysteine and depression, as reported in the August 2016 issue of
Life Extension MagazineŪ.
Antidepressant use is on the rise, with about one in 10 Americans 12 years and older using them. Yet antidepressants only work as little as 50% of the time and people often experience an array of side effects. Now, a simple blood test that measures homocysteine levels, along with a metabolically active form of folate, 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF), may offer hope to the millions of depression sufferers.
Homocysteine is a non-protein amino acid. It is produced in the body by the breakdown of methionine, a common amino acid present in a variety of foods such as cereals, legumes, seafood, meat, and dairy products. When elevated, homocysteine can damage the inner linings of the body's blood vessels, leading to a range of cardiovascular conditions, including stroke. Also, a clinically relevant correlation has been established between high homocysteine levels and depression. The conversion of methionine into homocysteine is a process that involves the addition of a methyl group, a reaction that is known as methylation and requires key B vitamins.
The best way to control dangerous levels of homocysteine is through adequate intake of folate and vitamin B12. When either of these vitamins are deficient, homocysteine levels rise. Healthy levels of folate and vitamin B12 have been shown to keep homocysteine in check.
When the connection between high homocysteine levels and the occurrence of depression symptoms was discovered, researchers began to investigate whether the active form of folate, 5-MTHF, could have a beneficial impact on depression.
The results of these studies opened a new avenue for the treatment of depression. Scientists discovered that taking 5-MTHF in addition to antidepressant drugs dramatically improved response rates and did so in a significantly shorter amount of time.
In one study, only about 7% of subjects taking an antidepressant drug experienced major improvement on a standard depression score. That number jumped to almost 19% in those patients taking 5-MTHF in addition to an antidepressant drug.
The results were even more impressive in those with the most severe depression. Improvements of 40% were experienced while taking 5-MTHF in addition to the antidepressant drug, versus just about 16% of those taking the drug by itself.
Furthermore, 5-MTHF brought about these improvements significantly faster than antidepressant drugs alone. Specifically, the 5-MTHF group saw improvements in just 177 days, compared to 231 days in the control group. For those with the most severe depression, the results were even more dramatic. The median time to improvement was only 85 days, as compared to 150 days in the control group. A key finding was that nearly twice as many people in the antidepressant-only group stopped therapy due to adverse events (34%) as compared to the 5-MTHF with antidepressant group (17.9%), providing evidence for the potential safety benefits for the combination.
These are very encouraging results, especially considering the fact that depression is often difficult to treat, with only 30% of patients treated with a single antidepressant achieving resolution of their symptoms, a figure that rises to just 50% to 55% when a second drug is added.
This correlation makes supplementing with the metabolically active form of folate, 5-MTHF, an excellent adjunct supplementation for anyone suffering from depression.
Homocysteine levels should be part of a yearly battery of blood tests to ensure a healthy and long life. Individuals with elevated homocysteine levels should begin supplementation with 5-MTHF and retest levels after three months. For more homocysteine information, visit www.lifeextension.com.
To view the original version on PR Newswire, visit:http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/homocysteine-for-depression-300315312.html
SOURCE Life Extension | 4,283 | 1,966 | 0.000511 |
warc | 201704 | There were no significant gender-based differences in response to the anti-HIV drugs darunavir and ritonavir at least among those who remained in the trial to the end, a landmark study has found.
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However, women dropped out of the GRACE (Gender, Race and Clinical Experience) study at higher rates than men for reasons other than drug failure, indicating that more must be done to retain women in clinical trials that shed important light on the effectiveness of drugs in development or those on the market.
AdvertisementThe study, published in the Sept. 21 issue of
Annals of Internal Medicine, showed that nearly one-third of women dropped out, compared with less than one-fourth of the men enrolled.
"It is critical that women are involved in clinical trials to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of new treatment not just for HIV but for all diseases," said the study's lead author, Dr. Judith Currier, a professor of medicine and chief of the division of infectious diseases at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA.
Currier is also co-director of the UCLA Center for Clinical AIDS Research and Education (CARE) and a member of the UCLA AIDS Institute.
Conducted between Oct. 6, 2006, and Dec. 19, 2008, at 65 sites in the United States, Puerto Rico and Canada, the study examined the drugs' effectiveness, their adverse effects and tolerability in both men and women.
The researchers recruited 429 HIV-positive subjects who had previously taken HIV therapy. Of the subjects, 287 (66.9 percent) were women and 142 (33.1 percent) were men. Overall, 84 percent were black or Hispanic. In most treatment studies of HIV medications, women account for less than 25 percent of participants.
The study participants received 600 mg of darunavir and 100 mg of ritonavir twice daily. In addition, etravirine, tenofovir and emtricitabine were available for use as needed. Tibotec Therapeutics markets darunavir and etravirine, Abbot Laboratories markets ritonavir, and Gilead markets tenofovir and emtricitabine.
The percentages of women and men who were able to suppress the HIV virus during the study were generally similar. However, a significantly higher proportion of women than men discontinued the study (32.8 percent vs. 23.2 percent).
When the researchers examined the treatment response of all the participants who entered the trial including those who eventually dropped out they found that response rates in women appeared lower than response rates in men (50.9 percent vs. 58.5 percent). But this difference appeared to be due to the higher drop-out rate among women. When they excluded participants who discontinued the study for reasons other than virologic failure, the response rates were similar in women and men (73.0 percent vs. 73.5 percent).
Adverse side effects were also comparable between the sexes. For both women and men, the most common side effects which were considered to be at least possibly related to the treatment included nausea (5.2 percent of women, 2.8 percent of men), diarrhea (4.5 percent vs. 4.9 percent) and rash (2.1 percent vs. 2.8 percent).
"The GRACE study shows that it is possible to enroll large numbers of women into HIV treatment trials," the researchers concluded. "The higher discontinuation rate in women, which was driven by reasons other than virologic failure, highlights the need for additional efforts to retain diverse populations in studies."
Source: Eurekalert
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warc | 201704 | Researchers have identified a new signal that helps invading bacteria communicate. This finding could lead to new methods of combating infection not just in plants, but in humans.
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Findings from the study, conducted by a team of researchers led by a University of California, Davis, scientist, will be reported in the Dec. 12 issue of the journal
PLoS ONEand in the journal Discovery Medicine.
Advertisement"Just as invading armies often use coded messages to coordinate attacks on their targets, so single-celled bacteria use biological signals to communicate when they attack plants and animals," said Pamela Ronald, a UC Davis professor of plant pathology and the lead researcher on the study. "Scientists have known this for 20 years, however results from our study reveal a type of bacterial signal that has never been described before."
UC Davis has a long history of tackling agricultural and environmental challenges related to rice production in the United States and around the world. Today, campus researchers are using molecular biology to better understand how to improve the hardiness and yield of this grain, which is a staple food for more than half of the world's population and an important model for plant research.
Up until now, scientists thought that two major groups of bacteria used two distinctly different types of communication codes, Ronald said. However Ax21, the small protein examined in this study, doesn't fit into either of those previously identified communication codes.
Ax21 is made inside the bacterial cell and processed to generate a shorter signal that is secreted outside the bacterium. This signal tips off other bacteria to assemble themselves into elaborate protective bunkers, called biofilms, which make the bacteria resistant to drying out and antibiotic treatment.
"Additionally, Ax21 triggers a change in the expression of nearly 500 bacterial genes, transforming the bacteria from fairly benign organisms into fierce invaders," Ronald said.
"In essence, through communication and communal living, the bacteria increase their chances of survival and proliferation," she said, noting that in rice, the bacteria multiply rapidly in the arteries that transport water, causing the plant to wither and die.
While most rice plants have little defense against the Ax21-mediated bacterial attack, some rice plants carry an immune receptor called XA21 that detects the Ax21 protein produced by the invading bacteria. XA21 belongs to a large class of immune receptors in plants and animals.
The importance of these receptors in immunity is reflected in the awarding of the 2011 Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine to researchers Bruce Beutler of The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla and Jules Hoffman of the National Center of Scientific Research in Strasbourg, France, for their discoveries of similar receptors in animals.
The new study points out that the Ax21 signaling protein triggers the XA21 immune receptor to biologically alert the plant to launch a powerful defense response against the invading bacteria. The researchers also demonstrated that Ax21 is present in a human disease-causing bacterium that is known to infect hospital patients.
"This study demonstrates that bacteria communicate using private messages. However, plants can intercept these messages and gain a tactical advantage in the evolutionary battle," Ronald said. " It's a fascinating story."
Source: Eurekalert
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warc | 201704 | A meta-analysis involving ten studies has found that there was an increased incidence of all-cause mortality in those patients who had received a blood transfusion while being treated for myocardial infarction, or heart attack.
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Therapeutic methods, such as anticoagulation and anti platelet drugs, have truly been outstanding in treating and improving the clinical outcomes of coronary syndrome. Nevertheless, they are also capable of increasing the risk for bleeding, leading to anemia in patients during their hospital stay, making blood transfusion necessary.
AdvertisementSaurav Chatterjee, MD, of Brown University and Providence Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Rhode Island, and his colleagues, carried out a review of studies published during the period between January 1966 and March 2012.
Ten studies, comprising 203,665 subjects, were included for analysis. All studies were observational, while just a single study was a randomized trial. The analysis was carried out to assess the effect of blood transfusion in myocardial infarction (heart attack) patients as against no blood transfusion during myocardial infarction. It was found that there was a death risk increase by 12 percent in the former.
Other statistical studies revealed that
blood transfusion was linked to a higher risk for deathand this was independent of baseline or nadir hemoglobin level or any other change in hemoglobin level during the patient's stay in the hospital. Blood transfusion is also a risk factor for subsequent heart attack, the study showed.
The study published online by the Archives of Internal Medicine, a publication of the JAMA Network, concluded that the risks for all-cause mortality and subsequent myocardial infarction are notably greater in acute myocardial infarction patients getting a blood transfusion.
Jeffrey L. Carson at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, and Paul C. Hébert at the Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Canada, however, are not very convinced. According to them, 'The authors remind us that patients with an acute myocardial infarction are often anemic and receive red blood cell transfusion. However, because of its many limitations, as physicians, we should not use the results of this review to justify or limit the use of red blood cells'.
Source: Medindia
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warc | 201704 | Faith and a positive mind set play a significant role in the healing process, according to a study conducted by the Arthritis Research Campaign.
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During the experiment, pain was first induced in 40 volunteers using an artificial pain stimulus; they were later led to expect reduced pain after the application of a cream, which was actually a placebo.
AdvertisementThe results suggest : faith in a Doctor or a medicine leads to expectation of pain relief which leads to the release of endorphins, the brain's natural pain killers and hence the amount of faith and relief are related.
Lead researcher Alison Watson said: 'Any medical treatment involves a placebo element; the psychological suggestion that it is going to work. So, we theorized that a proportion of any treatment's effectiveness would relate to how much we wanted it to work, believed in it or trusted the person administering it.
'Doctors and nurses can transmit a lot of information about a treatment and its effectiveness through their words and gestures. We know that when people visit their preferred GP, the treatment or advice they receive will be more effective than that given by a GP they prefer not to see. Similarly, red pills have been shown to be more effective than green ones; so we wanted to test whether all this was due to expectations of successful treatment and trust in the person giving it.'
24 of the volunteers initially received a moderately painful heat stimulus to both arms. The placebo cream was then applied to the skin, but they were led to believe that the cream on one of their arms may be a local anaesthetic.
After the application of the cream, the intensity of the heat stimulus was turned down on one arm without informing the volunteer. Subsequently the intensity was returned to its previous level, but - in contrast to the 16 people in the control group - 67% of the treatment group continued to perceive the heat as less painful.
Alison explained at length: 'The expectation of pain relief leads to a release of endorphins, the brain's natural pain killers, which is likely to contribute to a sensation of reward and well-being.
'Interestingly, there was an exact split in the range of responses to the placebo; a third of people reporting a reduction in the pain intensity in the 'treated' arm only, another third in both arms and the remainder's intensity-ratings not being influenced by the application of the cream. The different responses can be related to the different levels of pain relief the volunteers expected, which may have allowed their individual suggestibility to influence their assessment of the pain experience.
'Our findings suggest that different individuals may have different styles of placebo response, which is likely to affect how they respond to real treatments too. Understanding these differences could better inform the way doctors and nurses provide treatments in the future.
'It could also facilitate more effective clinical trial design, which could substantially reduce the costs of developing new pain killers for patients with conditions like cancer and arthritis.'
'A further, exciting possibility is that we could develop talking and drug-based therapies to enhance people's response to placebos. The experimental methods we're using will allow us to test out such possibilities as a method of treating pain.'
Source: Eurekalert
PRI/M
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warc | 201704 | A major step was initiated by World Health Organization's (WHO) authority to verify disease outbreaks from all available official and unofficial sources, soon after any outbreak of infectious diseases and other threats to international public health. In a crucial decision it was decided that when necessary WHO would carry out a through on-the-spot investigations to determine the severity of an outbreak and to ensure it is appropriately controlled.
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International Health Regulations were first published in 1969. This regulations limit mandatory reporting to just a few diseases and was written for a different era. The process of revising these regulations has been placed on a strong footing by the Assembly, which has also urged all Member States to establish an improved system to ensure rapid two-way communication between WHO and the national authorities.
Advertisement"This is an extremely significant step for international public health," said Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland, Director-General of WHO. "SARS has shown us the size of the challenges we face. These new measures will help us respond even more effectively to the next public health threat."
Member States noted that "national and international experiences with SARS contribute lessons that can improve preparedness for responding to, and mitigating the public health, economic, and social consequences of the next emerging infectious disease, the next influenza pandemic, and the possible use of a biological agent to cause harm."
The Member States also called on WHO "to take into account evidence, experiences, knowledge and lessons acquired during the SARS response when revising the International Health Regulations."
For more information contact:
Mr Iain Simpson - Communications Officer
Communicable Diseases
WHO, Geneva
Telephone: +41 22 791 3215
Mobile phone: +41 79 475 5534
Email: simpsoni@who.int
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warc | 201704 | It has now been found out that women who had day labor got longer pain relief than women with night labor with the same amount of labor pain medicine. This could be due to the impact of natural daily body rhythms that may influence the effectiveness of spinal-epidural pain medication for women in labor.
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Therefore the time of administration of the medication is regarded to be an important factor in determining its effectiveness. In the future, doctors may consider time of day, as well as patient's weight and other factors, when determining the best dose or method of drug delivery. The study's goal was to determine if the body's natural internal rhythms can affect the effectiveness of pain medication for laboring women. The study, involved 77 women who were in labor with their first babies and requested spinal-epidural pain medication.
AdvertisementThe biological rhythms studied include the circadian rhythm, the 24-hour body clock, and the ultradian rhythm, shorter-than-24-hour-cycles, which determine sleeping and eating patterns and can also affect blood pressure, heart rate and body temperature. Some rhythms are controlled by sunlight and others are controlled internally.
The researchers found that women who labored between noon and 6 p.m. got an average of 27 percent longer pain relief from a single dose of the spinal-epidural medication fentanyl than women whose labor was between 8 p.m. and 2 a.m. This is one of the first studies to examine whether there are chronobiological variations in the effectiveness of a drug for labor pain relief.
Knowing more about how time of administration influences the drug's effects could have significant practical implications for how it is prescribed and delivered. For example, the dose could be tailored to the time of day or a smart, programmable, time-released version of the drug could be developed to optimize desired drug effects and minimize undesired side effects both for women in labor and patients with other pain syndromes.
Furthermore, the right treatment given at the wrong time can be ineffective or create a crisis of escalating toxicity. Conversely, even a weak treatment, if given at the right moment, could prove surprisingly effective.
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warc | 201704 | Children who begin eating solid finger foods rather than being given pureed baby foods by their parents developed healthier eating patterns, researchers found.
In comparison with parental spoon-feeding, baby-led weaning was associated with a significant preference for carbohydrates (
P=0.003), according to Ellen Townsend, PhD, and Nicola J. Pitchford, DPhil, of the University of Nottingham in England.
In fact, children who were introduced to solid foods by feeding themselves preferred carbohydrates over all other types of foods, with a preference rating of 1.82, with 1 being the highest rating and 5 the lowest, while spoon-fed babies preferred sweets, with a rating of 1.81, the researchers reported online in
BMJ Open.
"Our findings show that baby-led weaning has a positive impact on the liking for carbohydrates -- foods that form the building blocks of healthy nutrition (i.e., those found at the bottom of the food pyramid)," they observed.
There has been considerable interest in baby-led weaning, which encourages a less controlling parental style and can help ease maternal worries about appropriate feeding, the authors noted.
However, the effects on infant health have not been explored, so Townsend and Pitchford recruited the parents of 155 children, 92 of whom had baby-led weaning while the remainder were spoon-fed with pureed foods.
Parents completed a questionnaire about their weaning style and infants' food preferences, and provided other information such as socioeconomic status.
At the time of the study, children in the baby-led group were significantly younger than the spoon-fed group (32.12 months versus 41.62 months), so the researchers also generated a case-control sample of 74 age-matched participants to control for potential differences in food preferences according to age.
Aside from carbohydrates, the baby-led group also favored protein-based foods and whole meals, although after adjustment these differences compared with the spoon-fed group were no longer significant.
In the case-control sub-sample, increased exposure to carbohydrates was not associated with preference for these foods, which "suggests that for carbohydrates, the only food category with significant group differences, weaning style was more influential than exposure on preference ratings," explained Townsend and Pitchford.
The researchers then examined the effects of type of weaning on BMI, and found that the baby-weaned group were closer to the 50th percentile (48.46 versus 61.44,
P=0.009).
The differences in BMI between the groups were not explained by differences in birth weights, which were similar, at slightly over 7 lb.
They also calculated BMI z-scores and found that more children in the spoon-fed group were obese (8 versus 1), but more in the baby-led group were underweight (3 versus 0,
P=0.02), a finding that will require more research.
There were no associations between BMI scores and duration of breastfeeding or parental socioeconomic status.
Possible reasons why self-feeding babies showed a preference for carbohydrates included ease of chewing, pleasing presentation, and texture in foods such as toast, the researchers suggested.
Future studies should examine the effects of baby-led weaning in specific groups, such as premature infants or those with medical problems.
In addition, a large trial should more fully explore weaning in conjunction with other early-childhood factors such as breast versus bottle feeding and "picky eating," according to Townsend and Pitchford.
The study was funded by the University of Nottingham School of Psychology. The authors also have received funding from Nutricia/Danone.
Reviewed by
Zalman S. Agus, MD Emeritus Professor University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine and Dorothy Caputo, MA, RN, BC-ADM, CDE, Nurse Planner | 3,839 | 1,785 | 0.000565 |
warc | 201704 | Settling into a hotelroom, we are conditioned to expect clean sheets and towelsevery day. But more and more travelers are reusing linens andfollowing other environmentally friendly practices on the road. Aremeeting planners going green at home and away? Of the 200 plannerssurveyed online in August, 64 percent said their conservationhabits are better at home than on the road, while 3 percent aremore conscientious while traveling and 33 percent said their habitsare the same all the time.
At home, 71 percent of the sample alwaysrecycle all that their towns allow, 20 percent do so sometimes and9 percent never do. Twenty-one percent of the sample said they alsocompost, 50 percent use low-flow showerheads and other water-savingfixtures, and 80 percent use energy-saving devices, while 12percent are not incorporating any of those habits at their homes.On the road, an impressive 67 percent try to recycle their paperand bottles, and half of those surveyed make an effort to avoidharmful materials, such as Styrofoam and plastic foodcontainers.
Planners don’t save much gas at home but arewilling to do so on the road. While just 4 percent of the sampleown a hybrid vehicle, 64 percent would rent one if it doesn’t costmore, and 9 percent would rent a hybrid regardless of the cost.Still, 27 percent would not choose to rent a hybrid vehicle.
Most planners surveyed are willing toforgo the daily changing of sheets in their hotel rooms, while theyare more likely to ask for the towels to be changed. Just 17percent of the respondents want their sheets changed every day,while 40 percent want fresh towels daily and 2 percent like to havenew towels twice a day. | 1,678 | 834 | 0.00121 |
warc | 201704 | The ultimate weapon in any tennis player's arsenal is an accurate, high-velocity serve. Long a mainstay of men's tennis, rocketing serves have been the foundation Venus Williams's dominance over the last decade. Venus and Serena Williams both register serves in the 120s and rank tops in the fastest serves ever recorded. Serena launched a 128.6-mile-per-hour serve at last year’s Australian Open, but Venus still holds the crown with her 129-mile-per-hour missile at the 2007 U.S. Open.
Though Venus, who has won seven Grand Slam titles and is currently promoting Jamba Juice's Million Free Smoothie giveaway, is past her prime at age 33 and trying to cope with Sjögren's syndrome, an autoimmune disease that derailed her 2011 season, she enters the 2014 Australian Open ranked 38th in the world, a position she’s maintained almost solely on the strength of her service.
At 6-foot-1, Venus is aided by her natural length, but she believes her muscle memory has been the key to success. "I've seen matches [where] people's serves go on and off because it's just not guaranteed as much," she tells 'Men's Journal.' "It's about the rhythm. It’s about the timing."
Williams shared the keys to her serving game, but she admitted that the one thing she could provide was the opportunity to help tennis enthusiasts train hard and get some of what she has. "A serve is a complicated shot," she says. Good service demands both finesse and practice. Here's what Venus recommends.
Turn the racquet.
Only just before contact should the racquet face be exposed to the ball. Flattening out the face will increase surface area and, in turn, air resistance. Rather, the racquet face should be “on edge,” like the side of a coin. Using the eastern grip, Williams lets the racquet frame cut through the air and, if desired, applies spin.
“Getting to the edge is going to give you more power,” she says. “You're able to move the ball around the box a lot more, and you get the spin, which gives you control.” Credit: Mark Kolbe / Getty Images | 2,088 | 1,149 | 0.000898 |
warc | 201704 | Travel by Car
Before taking a long trip by car, it is helpful if you can take your pet for short rides in its carrier so that it becomes accustomed to being confined. Some pets have only been in their carriers during trips to the veterinarian, so they associate the carrier and car ride with an unpleasant experience. Enjoyable destinations such as a dog park can help your pet feel better about trips in the car.
Small animals should be kept within a travel carrier while riding in the car. This is the safest method not only for your pet, but also for other car passengers and even other drivers on the road. Within a carrier, your pet is more protected from sudden car movements. In addition, an excited animal can jump out of a car window or distract (or even impede) the driver. Dogs that are too large to ride in a carrier should be kept in the back seat, ideally with an appropriate restraining harness. This minimizes their chances of interfering with the driver; in addition, it protects them from injury during an accident.
As much as they enjoy it, dogs should not be allowed to put their heads out of car windows. In addition to the risk of jumping out, they may suffer injury from flying debris or from their ears being flapped around. Similarly, a dog in the back of a pickup should be in a carrier.
A car can heat to dangerous levels in a very short time, even when the weather seems mild. Animals should not be left in a parked car if outside temperatures are above 72°F or below 55°F.
Animals (like their owners) should take frequent breaks while traveling by car. Stop about every 2 hours for a water and “potty” break. Be sure to keep your animal on a leash when leaving the car for such breaks. Feed your pet on its regular schedule if possible. Dry food is most convenient if the animal will take it; if moist food is needed, refrigerate or discard any leftovers.
Speak to your veterinarian if you know that your dog or cat does not travel well by car. For some animals, a small meal about 30 minutes before the trip will alleviate carsickness. If this does not work, your veterinarian may be able to recommend an appropriate prescription or over-the-counter medication to help with nausea. Prescription tranquilizers are available as a last resort for animals that must travel by car but have difficulty doing so.
There are 2 general methods for transporting horses on the road. One is to tow the animal yourself; the other is to hire a horse transport company. Horse trailers can be rented; however, if you have not driven one before, you should practice with it before the trip. If your horse is not accustomed to trailering, you will need to spend time getting it used to entering and exiting the trailer. As with other pets, overnight accommodations should be thought out in advance. Some hotels and motels may allow a horse trailer to be parked overnight, or overnight boarding may be available along the route. Web sites dedicated to the traveler with horses are a good source for information about accommodations along the way. | 3,085 | 1,501 | 0.000673 |
warc | 201704 | Divorce, abuse, joblessness, infertility, miscarriage, troubled relationships, financial problems… we all battle stress, however, is it possible to change the way we respond to it? We have our
natural responses to stress, but are there ways that God wants us to respond?
I highly doubt that I am the only one who is dealing with ridiculous amounts of stress; which is making me increasingly aware that my natural responses are ungodly. So the question remains, “By submitting our responses to God in prayer are we able to overcome our unhealthy responses to stress? Is it possible for the Lord to radically reshape the DNA of our hearts in how we respond?” If we want to become stronger warriors for Christ we must learn how to cope with stress in a Godly way. I believe that the One who knit us together in our mother’s womb, the One who spun the planets into orbit and the One who gave His life for us so that we may experience the “
abundant life” through our relationship with Him, not only but He can wants to. He wants us to experience His presence in all areas of our lives; even how we respond to stress. Let’s face it, if we’re making an impact on the Kingdom, the enemy is ready to make an impact on us, and that is cause for a lot of crazy circumstances in our lives.
Consider Job, an upright and Godly man who could easily be considered the most patient man in Scripture with the exception of Jesus Himself. Job became a target for the enemy and while he endured for a while, his circumstances finally broke him and “stressed
him out”. If stress could consume him, isn’t this something that we should take seriously and look into from a biblical perspective. How do we respond to these situations and use our responses for the glory of God?
First of all, we must identify the specific cause of the stress:
In honesty, discover the root of the stress. Acknowledge the source and bring it to God. He knows the deepest recesses of our hearts; why is it so intimidating for us to say it out loud?
We cannot realistically take our stress to God until its source becomes real and tangible to us.
After we clear our hearts, pray for Him to give us His eyes in the specific situation. Write down what we are specifically bringing to God and wait for His response. Ask how He would want us to respond.
Acknowledge the things that we have absolutely NO CONTROL over – He holds them in the palm of His hand - you know. Surrendering to
is a huge step toward freedom from our control issues, because isn’t “feeling out of control” the trigger of our stress in the first place? His control Sometimes He will change the circumstances but more often His desire is to change our heart through the circumstances as we continuously submit to His authority over our hearts and our reactions. { tweet this }
Secondly, we need to be honest with God and with ourselves about how we are responding to the stress.
Let me be transparent with you. My natural responses to stress are ugly and not in any way Godly. I am a stress eater - I can gain weight like nobody’s business when life gets rough. I also consider myself a stress head banger – meaning I feel the need to bang my head against the wall until the circumstances pass (not literally, it’s just tempting). Stress causes me to want to hermit (sleep until it passes) and sometimes even withdraw from life’s most precious relationships – even my children.
The other week, when I was praying my ugly heart prayer, broken, frustrated and asking God “Why and how much longer?” I was frustrated because these circumstances felt never ending. I felt like I was missing months of my children’s childhood because my mind and my vision were so clouded by overwhelming circumstances. When worry consumes us it makes it hard for us to enjoy the preciousness of
life happening all around us.
Yes, Jesus says,
“Do not worry about tomorrow for tomorrow has enough troubles of its own”. That is a fact. That is a promise of God that, “He clothes the fields and feeds the birds, how much more will He take care of his own” (Matthew 6:25-34). However, it is possible to “ know” that, yet when we’re riding the faith roller coaster - there are good “faith” days and there are difficult “faith” days.
I know of a Pastor who lost his 6yr old son in a horrible playground accident. One Sunday he mentioned how his heart still grieved the loss of his son, and a church member scolded him for his lack of faith.
Friends it breaks my heart when brothers and sisters in Christ criticize one another, rather than holding each another up to the Lord in prayer. We’re in this race together and faith is a daily battle! The Lord promised us that our time on earth will be filled with trouble. As brothers and sisters in Christ we are told to bear with one another and build each other up – never tear each other down.
The fact that we don’t have to fear is a promise, but it is a promise that we
we can cling to as we walk with Him daily and experience His grace. It happens on the roller coaster of faith that we finally learn we learn can truly trust His goodness.
After my long, repetitive ugly prayer is when He so graciously responded,
I want you to surrender the way you handle stress to Me. If you want to be strong for my Kingdom, if you want to be able to withstand the obstacles the enemy is throwing, and will throw, at you, you have to learn to cope My way. What I have planned for you will require you to understand what it means to totally depend on Me alone, not your ability to “fix” things. You must learn to trust, embrace, and lean upon ME!!
The thing is, I thought I
was depending on Him fully. These past 2 years it seems that my family has been learning how to literally “ walk by faith and When living by faith - life is completely out of not by sight”. control (which is where it should be, isn’t it). There’s a our difference, however, between walking by faith in contentment and walking by faith while holding on for dear life and praying this ride will be over soon. big
Jesus wants us to run to Him, with everything, instead of scrambling to get circumstances back under our control – circumstances that are meant to be out of our control –
Run to Him!
Instead of running to food - run to Me! On the treadmill while listening to worship music.
Instead of taking a nap to avoid the stress, hiding from life – run to Me, rest if it’s needed but not to escape reality.
Instead of avoiding household responsibilities - turn on a sermon podcast or worship music and clean while you spend time with Me.
Instead of being overwhelmed by your children – Be intentional, Fight it. Fight with everything you have to see them in the moment. Run to your room and
God to give you the strength to focus on them. The Lord cherishes our honesty of heart in admitting our weaknesses and rewards it every time! beg
Instead of worrying, crying, panicking – refocus your attention on Me.
Look for My hand at work around you. I am always with you. I will never forsake you. Seek me and you will find Me. Run to ME!
Instead of running to a friend to vent or addictive things of this world to cope – Run to ME! Be addicted to ME! Cry ugly tears to Me! Ask Me! Seek Me! Don’t be afraid to fall on our faces, acknowledging how helpless we are, believing -
remembering how capable He Is! That is a promise when we take our tears to Jesus, when we wrestle our hearts out with Him for the night – He brings new, “Sorrow may last for the night but Joy comes in the morning!” insight into our circumstances by Morning! He does! A night spent in tears with Jesus is never a night wasted! HIS
This, like all battles, is not something that we can conquer overnight, it is our nature to cope in our own strength – but God wants us to learn how to cope in His strength. No matter what things you may be running to in order to cope with your stress – He is patient with us! Praise the Lord, He is abounding in grace as He graciously peels away layer after layer of our sinful flesh in the process of learning to follow Him with our coping. Through
submission we will learn how to allow His grace to prevail through life’s trials. constant
Stress is a fact of life, something with which we will always be in battle. The difference is whether we will choose to face it on our own or take it to God. God is after His glory and
. If I am constantly whining, complaining, and fussing with fear while following Him, I want God to receive all of the Glory from my life, even my greatest pain ? how am I any different from the Israelites in the desert
The most exciting thing about this process is –the way the Lord will teach us to respond will build within us a living, tangible example that will show others beautiful glimpses of the character of our God. We will be showing a world that is full of sorrow, pain and worry -we serve a God who cares, loves, and jealously desires to replace the deepest grief in our hearts with His peace that passes all understanding.
About Melissa Bradley
Melissa Bradley is married with two small children. She is a co-founder of a City-Wide Women’s Ministry, The Well. She currently serves and assists in various churches around her community. The burden of her heart is to see the churches in her city come together to be the hands and feet of Christ. She is passionate to live every day missionally. You can also find Melissa at www.Melissa-Bradley.com.
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warc | 201704 | It is an insurance policy that can give you immediate assistance if you have an emergency in your home.
The insurer will arrange for a registered trades person to come to your home and fix your emergency as quickly as possible.
What counts as an emergency?
Most insurers define an emergency as something that:
Makes your home unsafe or vulnerable to thieves
Will cause permanent damage to your home
Causes a risk to your health and wellbeing
You will not be able to use home emergency cover for any situation that does not match the insurer's definition of an emergency.
Do you need it?
Check your home insurance policy carefully before you buy home emergency cover because you may already have protection.
Some home insurers include home emergency as part of their standard cover, or let you add it as an optional extra.
If you do, check the cover you are getting because you may be able to get a better deal with a standalone home emergency policy.
If you rent your property it is up to the landlord to arrange home emergency cover. You should contact them or your letting agent in the event of an emergency.
What does it cover?
A home emergency policy can protect you in the event of several potential problems:
Boiler and heating system
If your boiler stops working you could be left without heating and hot water, so you need to get the problem sorted as soon as possible, especially when it is cold.
Home emergency can cover boiler breakdowns and other things like faulty radiators, but you could get better protection through a boiler insurance policy.
Some home emergency policies limit how much you can claim for boiler repair costs, for example £250 for each claim. Here is what cover a boiler insurance policy can give you.
Plumbing and drainage
Home emergency can cover any issues you have involving your plumbing and drainage, like a burst pipe.
Most policies can also cover your:
Toiletif it is broken and you do not have another in your home Showerif it develops a serious leak Stopcock, as long as it is within the property boundaries
If you live in a flat or apartment you may not get cover for your plumbing, because you share pipes with other properties.
Check with your management company if your building is covered if you live in a block of flats.
Electrics
You will be covered if you suffer an electrical failure that means your home is uninhabitable.
This could include the wiring to your lighting or boilers failing, or if the permanent electrical supply to your home fails.
Most policies will not cover any wiring outside your home, or any temporary electrical wiring.
Security
You can call on emergency assistance if the security of your home is compromised, for example:
The locks on your external doors are broken
A window is broken
Most policies will only cover you if there is an immediate security risk to your property.
You will not be covered for replacement locks if you lose your keys.
Roof and exterior
Some policies will cover you if bad weather causes damage to your roof.
You may only be able to claim if the damage to your roof leads to the interior of your home being damaged too. For example, if tiles come off your roof and exposes the inside of your house to bad weather.
Home emergency cover may not repair the damage, but will make it safe so your home is no longer at risk.
Pest infestation
You may be covered if your home has an infestation of pests, including:
Wasps
Hornets
Mice or rats
Your insurer can arrange for an exterminator to come to your property and get rid of the pests, and you can also claim the cost of accommodation if they need to fumigate your home.
Not all home emergency cover policies protect against pet infestations, so read the policy carefully if you want this cover.
How to get home emergency cover
It is often offered as an optional add on to your home insurance policy, but make sure you look at standalone home emergency policies too because they could offer better protection.
Adding home emergency to your home insurance could be the cheapest option, but it may not offer the best cover. Before you compare deals think about:
What level of cover you need:Some home emergency policies offer unlimited cover, but others only pay up to a set amount or limit the number of call outs you can make. What you want covered:Most policies cover boilers and burst pipes, but you may have to pay extra for things like electrical or pest cover.
Once you know what cover you want you should compare policies to find one that gives you the protection you need at the best price. | 4,602 | 1,929 | 0.000525 |
warc | 201704 | The room is filled with guys who have seen it all and done worse. The men — as young as 18 and as old as 34 — have been convicted of violent crimes during the past three years, and most are hard-core gang members.
"I know most of you guys that walked in," a San Francisco gang officer tells the group, according to a transcript of the meeting.
The men know that federal prosecutors, local police and district attorneys have them marked for serious prison time if they ever shoot another gun — in fact, those very people are in the room with them.
But something is different: The cops and prosecutors keep saying they want to help. Waiting for the gang members in an adjacent room are job and school counselors, offering an alternative to the gang lifestyle.
"I'd much rather see you working and passing by and saying, 'Hi,' than putting handcuffs on you," the gang cop says, "or to have to call your mom and let her know you're dead on the street."
His message, delivered at a meeting known as a "call-in," is the heart of a strategy called Ceasefire — and it's coming to Salinas.
When it was first introduced on the East Coast 15 years ago, Ceasefire was seen as a radical experiment. But with research reinforcing its claims of quickly lowering the number of gang murders by up to 75 percent, many are now calling the strategy revolutionary.
It has been dubbed Operation Peacekeeper, Safe Streets and The Boston Miracle. California's version is the Safe Community Partnership. Whatever the name, studies indicate that variations of Ceasefire have been successful in dropping gang murder counts, usually within a year or two, in the roughest neighborhoods of Boston, Chicago and other cities.
Even as Salinas residents complain that little is being done to stop murders from speeding toward record levels, the city has quietly launched a behind-the-scenes effort to get Ceasefire up and running.
"We need it now, today, more than ever," says the project's manager, Salinas police Cmdr. Kelly McMillin.
Though few in Salinas have heard about the city's involvement in the cutting-edge program, a dozen or more gang prevention activists, police and prosecutors have already joined forces with McMillin.
Unlike programs addressing the root causes of gangs and violence, Ceasefire has one simple goal: to lower the number of shootings.
It makes sense, McMillin says, because it's aimed directly at the relatively small number of youths who are most likely to instigate violence, as shown by data analysis and gang intelligence.
More than a decade ago, researchers in Boston, where the strategy was born, found that only a small percentage of young men caused most of the city's gang violence. (See sidebar: Boston's and Chicago's "Miracles," below.)
McMillin thinks the same is likely true in Salinas today. Police estimate there are 3,500 gang members in the city, with roughly 100 to 150 gun crimes reported each year. It's possible, McMillin says, that fewer than 50 youths are doing most of the shooting.
"If you don't know what you're looking for, you're not as effective as you could be. If you focus on 50 or so guys, isn't that a better use of resources?"
The heart of Ceasefire
Skeptics who dismiss Ceasefire call-ins as bleeding-heart "Kumbaya" gatherings may be surprised to learn this is truly tough love. Cops and court officials at the meetings assure the men that law enforcement will tail them night and day if they choose to ignore this last chance to give up their violent ways.
"We will listen to your phone calls. We will survey your every move," a federal prosecutor tells the men at the San Francisco call-in. "When we make a case, we exile you ... You don't stay in California ... the people that will miss you will be your little brothers, your sisters, your father and your mother."
But this isn't a "scared straight" session, either. The speakers urge the men to take advantage of a nearby room where social service workers offer job training and tools to help them stay away from gang life.
A call-in group might also hear from a victim of gang violence, such as a mother who has lost a son. At the San Francisco event, a neighborhood preacher asks the men to hold hands. He tells them he has buried 119 men younger than age 25 and is tired of the killing.
The meeting ends with words from Kevin Grant, a "bona fide dope fiend, convict, all of the above" who has spent 17 years in federal prisons. He is now a consultant and outreach worker in Oakland, work that sometimes has him "out on the block till one in the morning." He promises the men he'll keep it real.
"We did what we did, in the gang," he says. "But watch this, I'm going to break your heart ... the gang ain't making no money. Only thing in the game is violence.
"What's the dividends?" he asks. "The last person you pointed a gun at, who'd they look like?"
"Us," several men respond.
"Just like you," Grant says. "Imagine that."
Getting Salinas on track
McMillin, who has spent a good part of two decades on Salinas streets suppressing gang activity, is not known among gangsters as a touchy-feely guy. And he certainly doesn't let them off the hook.
When talking about a former gang member who purports to have gone straight, McMillan says, "Last time I saw that guy was through the sights of a submachine gun."
Yet McMillin is sold on the prospects of Ceasefire, so much so that he's managing the program in addition to doing his job as Community Safety Director.
To help pinpoint who should be targeted for Ceasefire call-ins, he says independent teams, including a group from the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, are analyzing data from violent crimes in Salinas. After a few days this summer that saw the gang murder total for the year leap from 14 to 21, McMillin is eager to act on the results of the analysis. Once the high-risk group is identified, call-ins will begin, most likely in two to three months, he says.
"If any of them are violent, all of them will feel it. You can affect (a gang member's) circle."
For gang members ready to get out, the city has to immediately put all alternatives on the table — from job training and back-to-school programs to tattoo removal — a critical step in Ceasefire that's still in the planning stages.
"Telling them to stop leaves a huge void," McMillin says. "We need to fill that void with something immediate and substantial."
For a young adult who has seen himself as a gang soldier since middle school, it means coming up with a whole new identity.
But the idea is that he shouldn't have to go it alone. Ceasefire also means changing what academics call the "social norms" surrounding that youth, norms that have had residents murmuring for decades that murder and Salinas just seem to go together.
Families, neighbors and, especially, city agencies have to consistently hammer home the message that shooting is no longer acceptable.
"What was central about Ceasefire was that all the authorities got together for the first time and said, 'We care more about violence than anything else,'" Harvard researcher David Kennedy, who developed the strategy for Boston, once told reporters.
In addition to the call-ins, a public education campaign — similar to the way health officials get the word out to stop smoking or wear seatbelts — is often part of Ceasefire's mix.
After 25 years as a police officer, McMillin is "a little nervous" but hopeful it can all be done. He wants to see how gang members react when the mother of a murder victim looks them in the eye at a call-in.
"The most stable thing in their life is their mom," he says, but gang members rarely imagine how their own mothers would feel if they were killed or sent to prison for life. "The evidence says they're just as likely to be victims as murder suspects."
Brian Contreras, director of 2nd Chance Family and Youth Services in Salinas, is just as eager to hear police speak to gang-involved youth in a new way.
"I want to sit there," he says, "and listen to (officers) say, 'We care about you. We care about your community.'"
But in the end, for those who "don't want to play," McMillin says, "we'll bring to bear every enforcement tool we have."
Perils of sustainability
Though the kickoff of Ceasefire was delayed for months by the transition of new Police Chief Louis Fetherolf and the preparation of his 90-day assessment of his department, Salinas is finally gearing up.
McMillin says the city has the first components in place, starting with a working group that includes representatives from law enforcement, parole, probation and the district attorney's offices; the FBI and federal prosecutors; the county's Office of Education and Training; and community groups such as Contreras' 2nd Chance.
The second step — collecting and analyzing the data to help the group decide which youths to target — will wrap up soon, he says.
Ultimately, Salinas leaders will have to search their souls and ask if the commitment is there — financial and otherwise — to keep Ceasefire going. Experience shows that so far, Ceasefire has failed when agencies didn't work together, or when cities, sometimes after great success, simply stopped following its guidelines.
Even Stockton, a Ceasefire city that managed to lower gang murders by 75 percent with no special grants or funding, became lax after four years — and its homicide numbers rose accordingly.
Former Stockton Police Chief Wayne Hose says the lesson learned is that cities must make Ceasefire's tactics part of their regular business. That means folding them into departmental budgets.
Stewart Wakeling, a former Harvard researcher who helped implement Ceasefire in Stockton and is now working with Salinas, calls this the paradox of too much success — as murder rates go down, officials move on to other issues.
It's what Mayor Dennis Donohue and other local leaders call the perils of sustainability.
Contreras, of 2nd Chance, says in 20 years he's seen state funding follow a pattern in sync with election cycles. The first year of a program is spent planning and putting people in place, he says.
"By year two, you're rolling, starting to see some successes after the first couple of hiccups. Year three, you're up and running," he says. "Then year four, they shut it down."
Contreras cautiously hopes Ceasefire will bring new focus and alignment to a city in dire need of a solution to its escalating gang murder counts.
Ceasefire, he says, "is a paradigm shift."
"It's going to come as a lot softer approach," he says, "with the baseball bat there just in case."
Julia Reynolds can be reached at 648-1187 or jreynolds@montereyherald.com. | 10,818 | 5,074 | 0.000201 |
warc | 201704 | Oats have a lot going for them. The soluble fibre in oats can help your body to get rid of excess cholesterol, something pretty much everyone can benefit from. I’m spending a lot of time working with people who have irritable bowel syndrome at the moment and it seems that oats are also one of the few starchy foods that can exert a calming influence across the full spectrum of uncomfortable symptoms that can come with IBS. And did I mention that they’re also tasty, filling, cheap and versatile?
So far so good, but what if you don’t like to porridge (oatmeal)? A bit of trawling through my bookmarks and cookbooks and it turns out that there are loads of different ways to include more oats in your diet:
Start at breakfast Mix together oats, natural yogurt and a grated apple with a pinch of cinnamon and leave to meld overnight in the fridge. The oats will soften perfectly and breakfast is ready in an instant in the morning (just remove from the fridge and drizzle with honey). Choose an oat-based cereal. There’s a much wider choice on the market these days than just muesli; compare labels to find one that isn’t loaded with fat or sugar. Thicken your smoothie with a spoonful of oats Whistle up a batch of oatmeal pancakes topped with fresh fruit and maple syrup (or veggies if you prefer). Bake your own oaty Wholemeal porridge bread and serve with poached eggs or baked beans Another non oatmeal fan, Clotilde from Chocolate and Zucchini, has a recipe for an Oatmeal Breakfast Clafoutis (great made with raspberries and warmed through just before eating) Love porridge but in a bit of a porridge rut? I’ve written before about some of my favourite porridge combinations which might give you ideas for new toppings. And OMG, I can’t believe I nearly forgot the fruit, nut and tahini breakfast bars, a great idea from Cassie and perfected by Kathryn with her tahini twist. The main event Swop meatballs in marinara sauce for these fantastic Walnut pecan balls. Great with pasta and tomato sauce and the leftovers are handy in a salad or sandwich. Use oats as an alternative to breadcrumbs to coat chicken or fish as in this Pan fried mackerel coated with lemon oatmeal Oat groats can replace spelt, brown rice, buckwheat groats etc in cold salads or serve them warm like this Warm savoury oatgroats with kale recipe from Martha Stewart. Scottish savoury oat dish Skirlie is quickly prepared and can be used as a side dish or a meal in its own right topped with a poached egg. This savoury crumble recipe has the added benefit of being packed with vegetables plus canellini and kidney beans. Snacks and nibbles Any toppings that work for crackers and crispbreads will work for a oat biscuits too; for healthier options try nut butters, houmous, low fat soft cheese and pure fruit spreads. Flapjacks are the ultimate oaty convenience food. Flapjack recipes can be overly high in sugar and butter – the best healthy(ish) flapjack recipe I’ve found to date is this one from Jane Clarke (you’ll have to scroll down the page to reach the recipe), but I’d love to hear your suggestions if you know of a really good recipe. These oat slices are the savoury, cheesy equivalent of a flapjack if you don’t have a sweet tooth. Oat biscuits and oatcakes make a pleasant change to bread as an accompaniment to a steaming bowl of soup in winter. The food coach has a healthier take on oat-based cookie favourite, the anzac biscuit. The pudding course Incorporate oats into your crumble topping (the topping on my Plum and Cherry crumble recipe will work with any fruit you like) Combine your favourite tart filling with an oaty wholewheat pastry, as with Heidi’s Yogurt Tartlets. Traditionally Scottish recipe Cranachan (usually made with toasted oats, whisky, whipped cream and berries) can be lightened with low fat creme fraiche or thick natural yogurt in place of the whipped cream. Experiment with your favourite cake or muffin recipe by substituting some of the flour for rolled oats (this is exactly how these Butternut squash, oat and ginger cake bites came about).
I’m also including a couple of handy links for helping you to match the type of oats in the recipe to that bag in your cupboard (there are so many different names for the same type of oats). I’d love to hear about your favourite oat recipes (especially if you have a stellar flapjack recipe to tell us about?) | 4,459 | 2,204 | 0.000462 |
warc | 201704 | (TheNicheReport) -- This past week was a perfect time for me with my clients. After reviewing their week, asking questions about what sources were the best for them, asking them to continue to focus on target marketing, inquiring as to their next week’s calendar, pleading with them to be sure to connect with their past clients and referral sources, I knew that I had one more subject to broach.
A few of my clients and I have worked together for years. Every time they contact me, send me an inquiring email or agree tacitly to continue to work with me and allow me to coach them, I truly get a feeling of gratitude.
“It’s time to take stock,” I said to many of them. “It’s time to review what you did this past six months.” It was then that questions started to come from the depths of my inner being. An exaggeration? No! Not at all! I just started to ask questions that interest me, have previously interested me, and more than likely will continue to haunt me till the day I die.
Here are the questions and the form I sent to them all, exactly as I wrote them:
“These questions are designed to make you think about your business. They should be answered seriously and with more than just one word.
Did you reach your six-month goals as you set them in January?
If yes, why?
If no, why?
What do you think is holding you back from achieving your goals?
Are you following your marketing plan?
What marketing are you doing that works?
What marketing are you doing that should be trimmed/cut/deleted?
What separates you from the others who do what you do? How are you different?
Do you have enough good referral sources?
Do you have referral sources that you spend time cultivating/marketing to people that do not produce business for you?
Do you continue to learn/study more about the business?
Is there anything you wish you would have done to generate more business?
Is there any class of buyers/borrowers that you would like to pursue?
Are you setting new goals for the balance of the year? What are they? How will you accomplish them?”
Then I dropped the bomb, which came down to this. “What separates you,” I asked, “from those who produce $200,000,000 in volume a year?” I continued with, “What makes them more successful than you? How do they produce such great volume? Do they sell rates? Do they pay for the business? Do they have weekly meetings with referral sources? Is it because of their superior knowledge of the business? Do they cheat somehow?”
Ok, everybody relax, because I am sure they do have some combination of certain skills that do not include cheating in any way. “They” have too much to lose.
But if you took the time to think about it, most of you would explore the following: these superstars didn’t start out producing large volumes of business. They had to start somewhere, with something, probably something special. What was it? What did they think and then do that put them on a path to having an income of a million dollars a year or more?
Too many of us focus on and search for only one reason why people do the things they do. Mikhail Gorbachev, former General Secretary of the Communist party of the Soviet Union before it was broken into separate countries, wrote a book published in 1988 entitled
Perestroika. The literal meaning of the word is restructuring or rebuilding. In this book – and I remember this very clearly – he chastised Americans for one of their failings. He wrote that the American psyche seems to most often seek one answer to why things happen, instead of realizing that there are always multiple reasons why things happen.
If you’ll think about recent conversations that you’ve had with friends and relatives, you will recall that most often we try to figure out why something happened. I wonder why Joe and his wife split, I wonder why the Joneses bought that car, I wonder why Amanda does so much business – and finally, what is the secret to success? I’ve often spoken of this really bad habit to many audiences, but it’s very difficult to change the perception that most of us have. We really think there is one reason why something happens. Well, there is no one reason “why” to almost anything. It’s not like, as parents we’ve told the kids, “cause I said so,” and that is the only reason.
People who do what they do have multiple reasons for their actions. But really successful people seem to have one very strong psychological part of their being that is different than most of the rest of us. They are driven to succeed. It is a very strong desire to be the best at what they do. And they sacrifice almost everything else in their lives to achieve their desired goal.
I laugh when I hear an Olympic champion, having just won the event that they have trained for the past 20 years to succeed at, say to a TV interviewer that they never believed they would win, all they wanted was to participate. If that were true, why did they spend the greater majority of their life training? They want to win, every one of them. It’s a burning desire they have. They sacrificed any semblance of a normal life. Are there exceptions? Sure, but the exceptions are negligible. Are some people born with the silver already in the bank? Sure – but not many in comparison. And then there are those who had the silver at birth and blew it.
But let’s concentrate on you. Let’s think about you becoming successful. Then let’s put it into perspective. What do YOU want? What will YOU do to achieve it? Have you listened to the Strangest Secret by Earl Nightingale? If you believe it, it will be. If you want it badly enough, you’ll sacrifice almost everything to acquire it.
What do you want? How badly do you want it?
Read the questions above and write out your answers – not one-word answers, but sentences. You’ll learn a lot about yourself.
Ralph LoVuolo, Sr., is President of Mortgage Motivator, a consulting firm on the cutting edge of the mortgage business to help people achieve their true potential. He is one of the founding fathers and a two-term president of the New York Association of Mortgage Brokers. Additionally, he served as Parliamentarian for six years on the Board of Directors of the National Association of Mortgage Brokers. LoVuolo, Sr. can be reached at ralph@mortgagemotivator.com , or visit him at http://www.mortgagemotivator.com | 6,535 | 3,001 | 0.000345 |
warc | 201704 | This One Graph Single Handedly Explains The Obesity Epidemic (And The Low-Carb Lies) The bulgur wheat in this dish gives it a ground hamburger texture and it’s all smothered in a cheezey sauce. Think vegan hamburger helper-y goodness. Another plus is it’s very easy to throw together and cooks perfectly in the microwave with no fear of anything sticking to a pot.
Before you ask, no this will not cook the same way in an oven or on the stove top, I tested it. The microwave does an amazing job of cooking everything with an even heat. I love microwaves, sorry microwave haters lol
Here’s what it looks like before it goes in the microwave and after the bulgur wheat has cooked and absorbed all the liquid. Umm yummy!
Can you believe it, this blog turned 7 years old last month? That means I have officially been vegan for 8 years! I’ve almost been vegan for a decade. But it’s no big accomplishment to me really because being vegan is easy. Anyways, Now GO TO RECIPE >
Are Dr. T. Colin Campbell’s findings that casein is the most carcinogenic toxin known to man correct? It’s something that those in the ANTI-plant based movement camp like to debate. Their main talking point is that casein fed to the rats were in doses higher than most humans would ever consume in a real life setting. In this video Colin finally addresses his critics about this squarely, and puts the argument to bed.
I like how at the end of the video he asks, “What would you conclude?” I’m guessing, but I’m pretty sure he’s probably not asking you or me but his peers. Those who have decades of experience in this kind of research.
A delicious vegan apple praline bread recipe. Good with a vegan cream cheese spread.
GO TO RECIPE >
I wanted to talk about something that has been discussed in some of the comments on my cake and bread recipes. I always add sugar to the dry ingredients. There are those who disagree with my method. It may be true that sugar is considered a wet ingredient. But let me explain why I do what I do. It is my opinion that sugar acts as a sanding agent when mixing together the ingredients. It helps remove lumps so you don’t have to stir too much. Over stirring a cake without eggs will result in a tough cake or bread in this case. I don’t know the science behind my method, but for me I have found it to work. If you doubt me, try both methods and see what gets the better results. | 2,467 | 1,300 | 0.000795 |
warc | 201704 | Guest: Join Nairaland / LOGIN! / Trending / Recent / New Stats: 1,732,124 members, 3,322,841 topics. Date: Sunday, 22 January 2017 at 07:18 PM (0) ( Reply)
Quail Farmng,quick Cash: by ogbongenet: 3:56pm On Mar 07, 2012
Quail farming is an uncommon farming business in Nigeria, but the few people that have embraced it are not only smiling to banks, they are also enjoying both the nutritional and health values derived from consuming it
Considering the large number of poultry farmers in Kaduna that have embraced quail farming, it is no doubt one booming farming business that is gradually taking over chicken poultry business in most parts of the north. The high rate of returns and low cost of investment as well rearing them are some of the reasons many farmers are fast resorting to quail farming. In Zaria alone, there are more than 50 farms where quail are reared and sold. The fact that the birds grow and reach maturity stage faster and lay eggs within two months, compared with the six-month maturity period of chickens for whether egg-laying or consumption, attract them to farmers who see the business as a better and more sustainable investment to explore.
From market surveys both in Zaria and Kaduna, a female quail bird sells for N500 while the male goes for between N250 and N300. Its speckled eggs go for between N20 and N25. The bird’s high nutritional and market value encourage many chicken poultry farmers to abandon the business for quail farming. The NEWS gathered that these financial and health benefits, especially the high and quick returns on investment, largely explained farmers’ rush into the business in Jos where it first started, and in Kano, Kaduna and other states in the north where it is booming now. But it is very difficult for people in the southwest who wish to go into quail farming due to the problem of getting quail chicks for starting. Good news the problem has now been solved because you can easily get it now in Ibadan. I started the business just three months ago but glory be to God I earn nothing less than 2000 Naira every day.
BENEFIT OF QUAIL FARMING
It is very easy to maintain
It is not capital intensive compare to poultry farming
High return in a very short time (quail start laying at 45 day old)
It require small space
Quail egg are now recommended in the hospital which makes a good business
Here are some additional benefits you might get from eating quail eggs.:
* acquire a strong immunity system and improve metabolism.
* contain important quantity of calcium easy to assimilate.
* help healing gastritis, ulcer.
* increase hemoglobin level, remove heavy metals, toxins from blood.
* help in the treatment of tuberculosis, asthma,.
* diabetes
* contain ovomucoid protein, used in the production of antiallergic drugs.
* help inhibit cancerous growth.
* help eliminate and remove stones from liver, kidneys and bladder.
* stimulate intellectual activity.
* may accelerate recuperation after blood stroke and help strengthen heart muscle.
* are a powerful stimulant of sexual potency. They nourish the prostrate gland with useful substances, phosphorus, proteins and vitamins and therefore help restore sexual potency.
FOR FURTHER INFO TYPE QUAIL FARMING OR BENEFIT OF QUAIL EGG ON GOOGLE.
TO START QUAIL FARMING CONTACT ME ON 08060115253 OR profindeed@yahoo.com
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warc | 201704 | Mental Health First Aid
Mental Health First Aid is an 8-hour course that teaches you how to help someone who is developing a mental health problem or experiencing a mental health crisis. The training helps you identify, understand, and respond to signs of addictions and mental illnesses.
The course trains participants to help people who may be experiencing a mental health problem or crisis. You learn:
Risk factors and warning signs of mental health problems.
Information on depression, anxiety, trauma, psychosis, and addiction disorders.
A 5-step action plan to help someone developing a mental health problem or in crisis.
Where to turn for help — professional, peer, and self-help resources.
Mental Health First Aid teaches about recovery and resiliency – the belief that individuals experiencing these challenges can and do get better, and use their strengths to stay well.
Adult Mental Health First Aid
The adult Mental Health First Aid course is appropriate for anyone 16 years and older who wants to learn how to help a person who may be experiencing a mental health related crisis or problem. Topics covered include anxiety, depression, psychosis, and addictions.Course participants come from a variety of backgrounds and play various roles in a community, and instructors may specialize in providing the course to groups such as police officers or faith leaders.
Youth Mental Health First Aid
Youth Mental Health First Aid is designed to teach parents, family members, caregivers, teachers, school staff, peers, neighbors, health and human services workers, and other caring citizens how to help an adolescent (age 12-18) who is experiencing a mental health or addictions challenge or is in crisis. Youth Mental Health First Aid is primarily designed for adults who regularly interact with young people. The course introduces common mental health challenges for youth, reviews typical adolescent development, and teaches a 5-step action plan for how to help young people in both crisis and non-crisis situations. Topics covered include anxiety, depression, substance use, disorders in which psychosis may occur, disruptive behavior disorders (including AD/HD), and eating disorders.
If you are interested in hosting a Mental Health First Aid course, please fill out the contact form below and we will get in touch with you. Alternatively, you may call the NAMI Maine office at 207.622.5767, Ext.1 to speak with Sophie Gabrion.
Fees: NAMI Maine is offering this evidence-based course at a rate of $50/per person, which includes the 8-hour training with a nationally certified instructor, the full color MHFA training manual (retailing at $20) and a regional mental health resource guide. Individuals trained by NAMI Maine in MHFA will also continue to have the ongoing support of the agency for more individualized support and specific resources/materials.
The national average cost for MHFA is approximately $120 to $150/per person. NAMI Maine understands the economic challenges facing individuals and companies and have worked intentionally to minimize costs of this vital training in order to eliminate barriers and increase access. | 3,174 | 1,426 | 0.000707 |
warc | 201704 | By Hillary Mantis
You practiced for days. The interview’s finally behind you. What should you do now — just hold your breath and wait? There are a few things you can do to keep the ball rolling.
1. Thank You Notes: Yes, you should always send a thank you note. Send it out quickly, within 24 hours of the interview. Email is fine. It should be short, sweet, and without any typos. You can re-emphasize your interest in the position, and reiterate why you would be the perfect fit. It’s also nice to reference something you talked about during the interview that went well, or seemed to be of interest to the interviewer. 2. Follow Up: Follow up is key. You must tread carefully — too much follow up, and you might be perceived as a stalker. Too little and you risk having them forget about you. What’s the general rule of thumb for follow up? A polite email, two weeks after the interview is appropriate, if you have not heard back from them. What should you say? You can write that you are checking in to see what the status of the position is, and that you are still very interested and available.
If you have checked in politely, and a few more weeks go by, what should you do? Another follow up email or call is fine at this point. Ideally, you have something new to tell them. For example, if you placed in a Moot Court competition, wrote onto a Journal, or have some other new activity or honor to tell them about, let them know.
A month’s gone by. You still haven’t heard from them. Should you give up? Definitely not. They are on “employer time,” meaning they have clients to call, briefs to write, cases to win. You are on “applicant time,” biting your fingernails as yet another day goes by when you haven’t heard back from them. In this day and age of tight budgets, it might take a long time for them to decide, especially if they are understaffed, and busy with their own work. Don’t despair. How to make yourself feel better? Immediately shoot off a few more job applications while you are waiting. It will help you realize that they are not the only employer out there.
3. Follow Up After a Networking Meeting: Networking’s a little different. You met with someone for advice, and naturally you hope to hear from them. How should you handle the follow up? Since you never know when someone you met with might hear of a great job for you, it’s crucial to stay in touch. As with the interview, you should send a brief thank you note right away. Then a follow up email, about once a month, is a good general guideline. If you read an article you think would be of interest to them, send them the link. If you found out that you are getting an award at graduation, or you are a graduate who just passed the bar exam, that would be a great reason to be in touch. People genuinely want to help — but often need little reminders that you are still looking for a job. Hillary Mantis is a nationwide Legal Career Consultant and Pre-Law Advisor. She is the author of Alternative Careers for Lawyers. You can write to Hillary at altcareer@aol.com. | 3,138 | 1,529 | 0.000673 |
warc | 201704 | Climate change is certainly getting a lot of press these days, whether you agree with it or not. Glaciers are melting faster than in recent history, birds are changing their migratory patterns, some even believe moose are leaving areas that are getting too hot for them to comfortably endure. Last month I posted about climate change and some of the impacts it could have on some parks. Today I ran across a story in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Star Tribune that looked at how climate change might affect parks in the Midwest section of the country. The story is built around a memo the superintendent of Apostle Islands National Lakeshore sent out to colleagues back in November. In it Bob Krumenaker asked his colleagues in the Park Service's Midwest Region to start thinking about how they'll cope with climate change. Krumenaker noted in his memo that his interest in climate change asa management problem arose from a recent Government AccountabilityOffice workshop on the effects of climate change on federal lands. Butout of about 60 people at the workshop, he was the only parksuperintendent, the story reports. Many national parks have already turned torenewable and low-emission types of energy to operate buildings andvehicles as a way to reduce their "carbon footprint." But adapting towidespread climate change is another matter. You can find the entire story here. How Will Parks Cope With Climate Change?
By Kurt Repanshek on March 8th, 2007 | 1,458 | 804 | 0.001248 |
warc | 201704 | Dear Busy Professional:
If you are good at what you do on the job … if you are a conscientious, committed professional … two things will be true: (1) you’ll get more to do, and (2) you’ll want to do it all well. That’s when the vicious cycle kicks into action.
A few projects turn into many, with demands that overlap and often even conflict. The ball gets dropped in a critical project phase and schedules are compromised … deadlines loom larger and are mercilessly inflexible. Then comes a new week, filled with routine responsibilities … plus new expectations and deadlines. But there are projects carried over from last week still to
complete! Tension mounts among team members … anxiety and stress affect concentration and communication … errors result in still more delays and scheduling complications … and on and on and on.
If being good at your job and wanting to do well results in this, who needs it, right? Fortunately, the answer is: It doesn’t have to be that way!
Managing Multiple Projects, Competing Priorities & Tight Deadlines guarantees delivery of the skills you need to immediately and effectively deal with multiple projects, expectations, and deadlines … even conflicting ones … without the backlog, burnout, and stress-intensive scenarios you are experiencing now. After only one day away from work, you’ll return knowing how to:
Control the priority push that seems uncontrollable now
Cope with external and internal pressures to perform the realistic as well as the unrealistic
Deal patiently and positively with coworkers when tension is high and morale is low
Meet demands with chaos-defeating prioritizing tools
Organize yourself with systems that eliminate time-wasters and unproductive habits
And much more!
The vicious cycle of need-it-now deadlines or conflicting expectations and multiple demands doesn’t have to continue. You can make it a “success cycle” by attending
… we guarantee it! Managing Multiple Projects, Competing Priorities & Tight Deadlines
P.S. Professionals of all types, from all levels, will join you at this results-focused workshop. It’s a rare and valuable opportunity to network with others from your area and learn how they have successfully handled the challenges you’re facing right now.
1. First Things First: Gaining Control of Yourself!
Learn the principle of the one-minute focus — a time-saver you should use daily
The 7-step formula for ending procrastination ... forever
Avoid unwanted time-robbing interruptions without causing hard feelings
Regain control of your work space; learn the secret to taming the "Paper Blizzard"
5 personal filing systems that only take seconds to use
Double your productivity by identifying and eliminating time-wasters
Take control of the clutter ... on your desk and in your mind
Identify old habits and thought processes that rob you of time and effectiveness
2. Urgent or ASAP: Pinpoint and Pursue Your Real Priorities
Uncover the 9 great deceivers that keep you powerless to prioritize
Learn to make maximum use of 4 essential high-impact resources
How to make your priorities become the priorities of others in 9 easy steps
Deliver consistent quality even when the pressure for quantity seems overwhelming
Recognize which projects you can ... could ... or must delegate — and to whom
Learn our guaranteed "F.A.S.T." track to priority management! F=Focus, A=Agree, S=Schedule, T=Track
Decrease unnecessary time spent in meetings; increase the results you achieve
What to do when the clock says "go home," but your workload says you’re nowhere near quitting time
3. Divide and Conquer: Winning the War Between Multiple Tasks and Concurrent Deadlines
Learn powerful planning and organizing techniques that are guaranteed to boost productivity
5 techniques America’s top achievers use to get on track and stay on target
Meet tight deadlines and handle competing demands without losing
your cool
Cope with and conquer a high-demand workload that’s getting even
more demanding
Use 3 keys to making way for the "no way" deadline
Spot the hidden shortcuts in every project ... without
compromising quality
Take our "Multiple-Project Organizer" back to the job for
ongoing reference, results, and relief, starting the very next day
4. Dealing With Conflicting or Competing Demands
Prevent costly calendar collisions from impeding your progress in 2 easy steps
How to use the universal 8-step process so nothing is forgotten
Discover the greatest time- and labor-saving technique of all time: the power
to say "no"
Learn an effective 5-step process for satisfying more than one boss — you’ll look
like a hero
5. Through It All, Maintain Strong, Positive Working Relationships
Resolve conflicting demands with a system that cools tempers and earns respect
Learn the right way to ask for what you need without irritating coworkers
Work for and deal with a disorganized boss with less stress
Arm yourself with fallback formulas that anticipate human error and
scheduling hitches
Accurately gauge your pressure level and apply instant stress reducers
6. Establish Solid Defenses Against Advancing Stressors
You’ll get a checklist for developing balance in your life
Learn what to do when you’re sick and tired of being sick and tired
Find out how to avoid burnout and how to get the most out of stress
Learn to develop a Personal Goals Map so personal priorities get equal time
Reduce stress with a prioritizing system that keeps you in control
Detect and defuse your unique pressure-to-perform time bombs
This workshop will teach you how to make more out of your time, but it won’t give you the old time management systems you’ve been told about countless times before.
is a truly innovative, practical approach to your real-world challenges and concerns that will help you get more done in less time with greater cooperation from others. You’ll realize immediate results — we guarantee it! Managing Multiple Projects, Competing Priorities & Tight Deadlines | 6,195 | 2,965 | 0.000351 |
warc | 201704 | From Long Island to Cape Hatteras, this mid-section of the Atlantic encompasses coastal bays, barrier islands, deep submarine canyons, and ocean and seafloor habitats extending across the continental shelf.
Sea turtles, sharks, striped bass and tuna are just a few of the species that call these waters home. The Mid-Atlantic is also a virtual superhighway for migratory wildlife, including almost forty species of marine mammals. But more than 57 million people live, work, and play along this stretch of coastline as well.
A Vast Blue Frontier
With its rich history and maritime culture, we may romanticize the Mid-Atlantic as a vast blue frontier. The reality is that
our ocean is surprisingly busy and has become increasingly crowded. Major ports on the east coast handled over nine million containers and 233 million tons of cargo in 2011.
Our Mid-Atlantic Seascape remains a highly productive and diverse marine system, but must also support shipping and ports, sport and commercial fishing, recreation and tourism, offshore sand mining, and a nascent offshore wind industry. It makes for a complex tapestry with sometimes competing priorities and needs. Our ocean’s management is divided among twenty-three different federal agencies attempting to enforce more than 140 often contradictory federal laws.
The Nature Conservancy has the opportunity address these complex challenges, to transform ocean management so that it balances the needs of people and nature – and helps to ensure that nature continues to provide the bounty we all need. We partner with decision-makers and ocean stakeholders, providing them with the sound, science-based data needed to develop the practical, solution-based ocean management strategies that will meet economic, societal, and conservation goals. Our Solutions We worked closely with the Mid-Atlantic Regional Planning Body (RPB) to help develop a regional ocean plan based on robust science that provides strong commitments to conservation and considers the needs of traditional and emerging commercial and recreational users in the context of sustainability of natural resources. We actively support MARCO (the Mid-Atlantic Regional Council on the Ocean), a regional planning body, and helped create America's first regional ocean planning data portal, a publicly accessible online mapping tool. Our collaborative approach brought fishermen, scientists, and ocean managers together to find solutions to a tough puzzle — how to protect ancient deep-sea coral habitats. We’re creating tools to enable good decisions related to siting wind energy, placing offshore transmission lines, and gaining information about future impacts. We worked with many partners, including environmental groups and recreational fishing groups, across fourteen states on a successful initiative to reduce the menhaden harvest by 20%. Menhaden play a crucial role as a food source for the ocean. In Delaware, we're partnering with the Center for Inland Bays (CIB) to launch an oyster shell recycling program. The recycled shells may be used in natural bulkheads and reefs that can help control erosion, buffer the coast from storms, and provide nurseries for baby oysters, crabs, and fish. In Maryland, our Nanticoke River partnership has permanently protected a 50-mile corridor along shoreline that is vulnerable to sea level rise, ensuring man-made infrastructure is kept out of high-risk areas. New Jerseyis also working with partners to develop a first-of-its-kind screening tool to help promote nature-based infrastructure solutions. The Restoration Explorer will assist communities in identifying types of living shoreline projects that would be most appropriate to help reduce shoreline erosion and flooding at high tide. In New York, we've been working since 2004 to restore Great South Bay’s clam population in a three-pronged approach that includes stocking the bay with reproductive adult clams, helping to enact laws to protect the existing clam population, and working with partners to restore degraded water quality. In Virginia, we're expanding the Conservancy’s state-of-the-art Coastal Resilience planning tool to the Eastern Shore and restoring five oyster reefs to demonstrate nature-based solutions for risk reduction.
We can transform ocean management through science, expertise, and the practical tools that we bring to our partnerships. Most importantly, we’re a part of coastal communities and deeply invested in preserving the Mid-Atlantic Seascape for the benefit and enjoyment of generations to come.
Contact Us Explore the Mid-Atlantic
Recent research points to the critical value of natural habitats in protecting people from devastation by coastal storms like Hurricane Sandy. Explore
Making sure everyone has a fair share—and that fish stocks remain healthy enough to supply all—is the basis of fisheries management. A complex arrangement
Regional ocean planning is an exciting first step in a whole new way to manage our ocean. Explore
The Mid-Atlantic Regional Council on the Ocean (MARCO) is a multi-state and agency partnership established to address shared regional ocean priorities. Learn more | 5,210 | 2,497 | 0.000405 |
warc | 201704 | MISSOULA, Mont. - A study led by Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks kicked off Thursday that will help researchers understand elk distribution in western Montana.
It's called the North Sapphire Elk Research Project, and is focused in an area that stretches from the Northern Sapphire Mountains from Miller Creek to the north, to Rock Creek in the east, down to Burnt Fork Creek in the south.
"There's been some changes in elk distribution in the last 10 years, probably in the last 20 years," said FWP Biologist Nathan Borg. "We're trying to figure out some of the reasons for that."
Borg says biologists will begin the 2-year study by collaring 20 bulls and 45 cow elk from a herd on MPG Ranch, near Florence, that will allow them to monitor migratory behavior and nutrition.
The goal is for public and private landholders to use the information gathered to update their management policies.
"Here, on this landscape, if we find we find them changing distribution on this landscape, then that means we need to change some of our management, and that means we need to work more hand-in-hand with some of these landowners to see what we can do to improve winter range," said Borg.
Project directors say $150,000 in funding for the study has been privately donated, and they hope to collect $50,000 in additional funds to cover the 2013-14 field season. | 1,363 | 755 | 0.001338 |
warc | 201704 | When Does Policy Reform Work? The Case of Central Bank Independence
We argue that the question of whether and when policy reform works should be investigated together with the political economy factors responsible for distortionary policies in the first place. These not only determine the initial distortions, but also often shape policy in the post-reform environment. Distortionary policies are more likely to be adopted when politicians are unconstrained and unaccountable to citizens. This reasoning implies that policy reform should have modest effects in societies where the political system already places constraints on politicians. It also implies, however, that in societies with weak political constraints, which are often those adopting the most distortionary policies, policy reforms may be ineffective because the underlying political economy problems are not typically altered by these reforms. Policy reform should therefore have its largest effect in societies with intermediate levels of constraints. In addition, when policy reform is (partly) effective, it may lead to a deterioration in other (unreformed) components of policy in order to satisfy the underlying demands on politicians - a phenomenon we call the seesaw effect. We provide reduced-form evidence consistent with these ideas by looking at the effect of central bank independence on inflation. The evidence is consistent with the notion that central bank reforms have reduced inflation in societies with intermediate constraints and have had no or little effects in countries with the high and low levels of constraints. We also present some evidence suggesting that, consistent with the seesaw effect, in countries where central bank reforms reduce inflation, government expenditure tends to increase.
Document Object Identifier (DOI): 10.3386/w14033
Published: Daron Acemoglu & Simon Johnson & Pablo Querubin & James A. Robinson, 2008. "When Does POlicy Reform Work? The Case of Central Bank Independence," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 39(1 (Spring), pages 351-429. citation courtesy of
Users who downloaded this paper also downloaded these: | 2,203 | 1,063 | 0.000944 |
warc | 201704 | International students and the UK immigration debate
Universities UK (UUK) published their report on international student migration yesterday. Drawing on their nationally representative poll of 2,111 people, together with six workshops held in York, Bristol and Nottingham, UUK outline the key areas of debate. They turn to the public for their views on international student migration to the UK which highlights a number of buzzworthy findings:
59 per cent of the public says the government should not reduce international student numbers, even if that limits the government’s ability to cut immigration numbers overall. Only 22 per cent take the opposing view. 66 per cent of Conservative voters are opposed to reducing student numbers. 60 per cent of people think that international students bring money into their local economy. Only 12 per cent think they take money out. 61 per cent agree that Britain’s universities would have less funding to invest in top-quality facilities and teaching without the higher fees paid by international students. Only 7 per cent disagree. 75 per cent think that international students should be allowed to stay and work in Britain after graduating from British universities, using their skills for the benefit of our economy, for at least a period of time. Only 22 per cent of the public thinks that international students should count as migrants. Most people do not understand why they would be counted towards the government’s immigration targets.
Unfortunately UUK’s poll did not ask respondents for their attitudes to immigration more generally, but it’s clear that these responses reveal a disposition towards international students that we do not see in general surveys on immigration.
The UUK report frames the UK as a higher education giant that is slowly (but surely) shrinking in relation to global competitors such as the US, and increasingly, European nations. It suggests that migration policy is to blame. The rhetoric around international student migration is discouraging students from studying here, and this is damaging the UK’s reputation as being open for business.
The report makes four headline recommendations:
The government should remove international students from its net migration targets. The government should launch an international student growth strategy, backed by investment, to promote British universities overseas, build new international partnerships and attract more international students to Britain. The government should make a renewed effort – through its words, actions and policies – to communicate a consistent message that Britain welcomes international students. The government should enhance opportunities for qualified international graduates to stay in the UK to work and contribute to the economy.
These recommendations are a step in the right direction in an increasingly desperate battle to shift migration policy from its current state of lock down. The UK public acknowledges the contribution that international students make to the UK’s economic and social life, and this needs to be reflected in policy.
There are, however, fundamental issues with the recommendations which place them firmly in the ‘aspirational’ not currently realisable camp.
Firstly, the government will be hard pressed to remove international students from the migration targets, as this would be viewed as a major fudging of the statistics – even if their current inclusion makes the Coalition government’s migration targets of 10,000s (rather than the 100,000s that we see currently) hard to achieve.
Secondly, many UK universities are already expanding outside of the UK and EU. As Altbach and Knight suggested in 2007, "…initiatives such as branch campuses, cross-border collaborative arrangements, programs for international students, establishing English-medium programs and degrees, and others have been put into place as part of internationalisation." What part (if any) could or should the government play in this area?
Thirdly, how should government go about welcoming students when simultaneously the UK Border Agency (UKBA) is coming down like a tonne of bricks on students who over stay, or don’t have the correct papers at the airport? Between the UK Border Agency and UK Trade and Investment (UKTI) (and BIS, the department for Business, Innovation and Skills) a war of rhetoric is being played out with schizophrenic consequences for policy.
And this goes beyond international students - there are other mixed signals in UK migration policy. Take the Entrepreneur visa for example. This is aimed at migrants who want come to the UK and set up or run a business.
They have to bring in significant capital to the UK (£200,000 of their own, or £50,000 if provided by a devolved government department or government approved seed investment fund) and invest it over their three years here. They have to be highly skilled, with postgraduate qualifications and previous business experience, and they also have to hire two UK nationals to work for them if they wish to stay.
These are onerous requirements. In 2010 David Cameron stated that the UK would ‘put out the red carpet’ to overseas entrepreneurs. What has happened since? Stringent business validation checks have been implemented and as a result rejection rates for the visa have sky rocketed, up to 75% in some quarters.
And this links to the final recommendation. In 2012 the Post Study Work (PSW) visa was abolished. This was arguably the most damaging migration policy change in recent history for the UK’s competitiveness in the global war for talent.
Government has put up a banner announcing that students are welcomed with open arms, they are allowed to stay for the duration of their study, and the government sends them packing (probably to the US where migration policy works alongside skills and education policy - encouraging the retention of valuable talent). The options that are left for international students if they wish to stay in the UK, including the Entrepreneur and Graduate Entrepreneur visas, are limited and expensive.
Given the existence of skills shortages in critical areas of the labour market, there is no doubt that the government should enhance opportunities for well-qualified international graduates to stay in the UK – this is a solid aspiration. But how should they do it? We witnessed a semi U-turn on the PSW visa three months after its abolition, where Theresa May announced that PhD students nearing the end of their studies can apply to stay in the UK for one year under the Doctorate Extension Scheme. But this is no way near enough.
UUK’s report is a timely reminder of these key issues. It provides compelling evidence that people in the UK see international students as enriching the UK. But if these messages do not translate into clear policy change the perception will remain that the UK is actually closed for business.
Migration policy needs to change or this country will become a rapidly less popular place to study and work for international students. | 7,178 | 3,165 | 0.000322 |
warc | 201704 | Foodborne diseases are associated with significant morbidity and mortality and high financial costs. Each year, approximately 48 million cases of foodborne disease occur in the United States, resulting in more than 56,000 hospitalizations and 1,350 deaths annually. The estimated economic burden is $6 billion each year through healthcare costs and lost productivity. Education campaigns and patient education strategies will be discussed in order to support efforts to prevent foodborne illness. In addition, the reporting process for foodborne illnesses will be described.
Education Category :Infection Control / Internal Medicine Release Date :01/01/2016 Expiration Date :12/31/2018
This course is designed for physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and nurses seeking to enhance their knowledge of foodborne illness. The course is of particular importance for clinicians in the primary care and emergency settings.
NetCE is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education to provide continuing medical education for physicians. NetCE is accredited as a provider of continuing nursing education by the American Nurses Credentialing Center's Commission on Accreditation. NetCE is approved to offer continuing education through the Florida Board of Nursing Home Administrators, Provider #50-2405. NetCE is approved by the California Nursing Home Administrator Program as a provider of continuing education. Provider number 1622. NetCE is accredited by the International Association for Continuing Education and Training (IACET). NetCE complies with the ANSI/IACET Standard, which is recognized internationally as a standard of excellence in instructional practices. As a result of this accreditation, NetCE is authorized to issue the IACET CEU.
NetCE designates this enduring material for a maximum of 10 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity. NetCE designates this continuing education activity for 10 ANCC contact hour(s). NetCE designates this continuing education activity for 5 pharmacotherapeutic/pharmacology contact hour(s). NetCE designates this continuing education activity for 12 hours for Alabama nurses. Successful completion of this CME activity, which includes participation in the evaluation component, enables the participant to earn up to 10 MOC points in the American Board of Internal Medicine's (ABIM) Maintenance of Certification (MOC) program. Participants will earn MOC points equivalent to the amount of CME credits claimed for the activity. It is the CME activity provider's responsibility to submit participant completion information to ACCME for the purpose of granting ABIM MOC credit. Completion of this course constitutes permission to share the completion data with ACCME. This home study course is approved by the Florida Board of Nursing Home Administrators for 5 credit hour(s). This course is approved by the California Nursing Home Administrator Program for 10 hour(s) of continuing education credit - NHAP#1622010-5403/P. California NHAs may only obtain a maximum of 10 hours per course. NetCE is authorized by IACET to offer 1 CEU(s) for this program. AACN Synergy CERP Category A.
In addition to states that accept ANCC, NetCE is approved as a provider of continuing education in nursing by: Alabama, Provider #ABNP0353, (valid through December 12, 2017); California, BRN Provider #CEP9784; California, LVN Provider #V10662; California, PT Provider #V10842; Florida, Provider #50-2405; Iowa, Provider #295; Kentucky, Provider #7-0054 through 12/31/2017.
This activity is designed to comply with the requirements of California Assembly Bill 1195, Cultural and Linguistic Competency.
Physicians and other healthcare practitioners are integral to the prevention, identification, and treatment of foodborne diseases, and also play an important role in the control of foodborne disease outbreaks. The purpose of this course is to provide healthcare professionals with the information necessary to rapidly and effectively diagnose, manage, report, and prevent foodborne diseases, in the interest of individual patient care and protection of the public at large.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
List the bacterial and viral pathogens most often responsible for food-related illness in the United States. Identify the subset of the populations most at risk for a foodborne disease. Discuss the food sources of infectious and noninfectious pathogens. Outline key steps in the diagnosis of foodborne disease, including patient history, differential diagnosis, microbiologic testing, and considerations for non-English-proficient patients. Describe the general management principles and reporting requirements for cases of foodborne disease. Discuss the epidemiology, presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of foodborne bacterial infection. Identify viral foodborne pathogens, including associated diagnosis and treatment. Compare and contrast foodborne parasitic disease found in the United States. Describe marine toxins by source and the respective syndromes associated with food-related illness. List the symptoms and disease course of mushroom poisonings. Describe strategies to help individuals prevent foodborne disease.
Lori L. Alexander, MTPW, ELS, MWC, is President of Editorial Rx, Inc., which provides medical writing and editing services on a wide variety of clinical topics and in a range of media. A medical writer and editor for more than 30 years, Ms. Alexander has written for both professional and lay audiences, with a focus on continuing education materials, medical meeting coverage, and educational resources for patients. She is the Editor Emeritus of the
American Medical Writers Association (AMWA) Journal, the peer-review journal representing the largest association of medical communicators in the United States. Ms. Alexander earned a Master’s degree in technical and professional writing, with a concentration in medical writing, at Northeastern University, Boston. She has also earned certification as a life sciences editor and as a medical writer.
Contributing faculty, Lori L. Alexander, MTPW, ELS, MWC, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
John M. Leonard, MD
Jane C. Norman, RN, MSN, CNE, PhD
The division planners have disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
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Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into practice.
It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to learners.
INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW OF FOODBORNE DISEASE INFECTIOUS FOODBORNE DISEASE NONINFECTIOUS FOODBORNE DISEASE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF FOODBORNE DISEASE BACTERIAL FOODBORNE PATHOGENS VIRAL FOODBORNE PATHOGENS FOODBORNE PARASITES NATURAL TOXINS PREVENTION OF FOODBORNE DISEASE CONCLUSION RESOURCES Works Cited Evidence-Based Practice Recommendations Citations
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#98621: Foodborne Disease
Foodborne diseases are common, costly, and preventable. Based on public health surveillance data compiled from multiple sources, it is estimated that 48 million food-related illnesses occur in the United States each year. Of this total, about 9.4 million cases are caused by food contaminated with 31 known pathogens, resulting in 56,000 hospitalizations and 1,350 deaths [1].
The Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) was established in 1996 to monitor the incidence and trends of foodborne disease in the United States. FoodNet is a collaborative effort between the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and state health departments in 10 selected geographic areas. Designed as a sentinel program, FoodNet conducts active, population-based surveillance for laboratory-confirmed infections caused by nine pathogens commonly transmitted through food. In 2014, FoodNet identified 19,542 cases, 4,445 hospitalizations, and 71 deaths attributable to foodborne diseases [2]. The incidence of foodborne disease is greatest among children younger than 5 years of age, while severe illness requiring hospitalization and deaths occur predominantly among persons older than 65 years of age.
Although most food-related illnesses are sporadic, regularly occurring foodborne disease outbreaks represent an ongoing, serious public health problem. Each year, approximately 800–900 linked clusters of cases (outbreaks) are reported through the CDC Foodborne Outbreak Reporting System. In 2013, 818 foodborne outbreaks were reported, resulting in 13,360 illnesses, 1,062 hospitalizations, and 16 deaths [3]. Norovirus accounted for the majority of outbreaks, followed by Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and scombroid toxin.
Over the past decade, several national outbreaks of foodborne disease linked to a common source in the commercial food chain have heightened public awareness and illustrate the importance of a well-designed surveillance system. In 2008, two separate outbreaks of salmonellosis (serotypes Saintpaul and Typhimurium), affecting more than 1,400 persons in 44 states and Canada, were eventually traced to jalapeño and serrano peppers grown on farms in Mexico [4,5]. In 2008–2009, another outbreak of salmonellosis (serotype Typhimurium) affecting 600 people in 44 states and Canada was traced to a peanut butter producer in Georgia [6]. In 2011–2012, cantaloupes contaminated with Listeria caused the deadliest outbreak of a foodborne illness since 1973. During that time period, 146 illnesses, 30 deaths, and 1 miscarriage were reported in 28 states [7]. Another outbreak in 2012 was traced to Salmonella-infected yellowfin tuna, leading to more than 400 illnesses and 55 hospitalizations in 28 states and the District of Columbia [8]. One may conclude that despite advances in technology and food safety, foodborne disease remains a potentially serious public health threat. Physicians and other healthcare practitioners, by careful evaluation and prompt reporting of individual cases, play an important role in the early identification, control, and prevention of foodborne disease outbreaks.
Many factors account for the sustained threat of foodborne diseases. The global food supply, ease of travel and trade, changes in food preferences, increased consumption of fresh vegetables and fruits, changes in food production and distribution systems, a growing propensity to rely on food prepared in public places, and adaptation by microbial pathogens all contribute to the risk of contracting and spreading a foodborne disease [9,10,11,12]. These factors ensure continued infection with traditional foodborne pathogens as well as the emergence of novel pathogens [13].
Infectious agents (i.e., bacteria, viruses, parasites) are the cause of most confirmed cases of foodborne disease. The pathogens most commonly identified in reported foodborne outbreaks are norovirus (35%), Salmonella (34%), and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) (7%) [3]. Parasitic causes of foodborne disease are rare in the United States but occur more frequently in developing countries. Also contributing to the incidence of foodborne disease are noninfectious agents such as heavy metals and natural toxins. Of the two, natural toxins, especially marine toxins, are responsible for the majority of foodborne toxin-mediated gastrointestinal illness.
For a variety of reasons, a large percentage of foodborne disease goes undiagnosed and unreported [13,15]. Under-reporting is a primary issue because many individuals with food-related gastrointestinal symptoms do not seek medical attention. Furthermore, healthcare providers may not pursue a specific diagnosis, take a careful travel and food exposure history, or recognize the potential link to additional cases in the community.
Trends in food consumption have had an impact on the particular source of foodborne disease. For example, the increased attention to the importance of a healthy diet has led to a greater consumption of fresh produce, and the proportion of outbreaks attributed to produce trended up from 1973 to 1997 [17]. Leafy greens, cut tomatoes, and cut melons have been responsible for 80% of outbreaks caused by fresh produce in recent years [18]. Of the outbreaks reported in 2013, fish (50 outbreaks), mollusks (23 outbreaks), chicken (21 outbreaks), and dairy (21 outbreaks, with 17 due to unpasteurized products) were the most common food categories implicated [3]. Knowledge of changing trends helps practitioners to better recognize the possibility of a foodborne infection.
Foodborne disease usually presents as an acute illness with clinical manifestations that are common and nonspecific. Gastrointestinal symptoms predominate (e.g., nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort). Varying degrees of fever may be seen depending on the pathogen, and neurologic symptoms are common with certain toxins. Because of potential public health implications, practitioners should consider a foodborne etiology when evaluating a patient who presents with such symptoms. A careful, directed history is key to the identification of a foodborne disease, and practitioners should be prepared with an approach designed to elicit pertinent information. Studies have identified gaps in healthcare practitioner knowledge of the epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, and prevention of foodborne illnesses. A survey of practitioners in North Carolina showed that approximately one-third of respondents were not comfortable about their knowledge of foodborne disease or its diagnosis and treatment [19]. In addition, many practitioners did not adequately counsel patients about the prevention of foodborne illness.
This course provides an overview of infectious and noninfectious foodborne diseases in the United States. Topics to be covered include public health considerations and surveillance, common pathogens and toxins, clinical manifestations and evaluation, microbiologic testing, and management of infectious diarrhea. Emphasis is given to those foodborne pathogens and toxins that are encountered most frequently and that have the potential to cause widespread and severe disease. Pathogens and toxins are discussed in terms of their sources, the signs and symptoms they produce, the potential complications associated with infection, and the individuals who are at greatest risk. Toxins that can be deliberately introduced into a food or water supply as an act of terrorism are beyond the scope of this course.
The high incidence of foodborne disease also calls for increased education of the public at large, and healthcare professionals can play an integral role by discussing foodborne illness with their patients and providing educational resources. Media attention tends to focus on outbreaks stemming from food served in restaurants, but epidemiologic data demonstrate that a substantial proportion of food-related illness can be attributed to improper practices in food preparation in the home [20]. According to food safety experts, the importance of primary control factors in preventing foodborne infection varies according to the specific pathogen; the incidence of illness and the financial costs also vary according to pathogen [21,22]. The course concludes with a brief discussion of how healthcare professionals can help their patients better understand the need to change behaviors that put them at risk for foodborne diseases.
According to the World Health Organization, a foodborne disease is "a disease, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food" [23]. More than 250 specific pathogens or toxins have been identified as causes of human foodborne disease worldwide. In the United States, after combining the estimates for known pathogens and unspecified agents, the annual burden of foodborne diseases is estimated to be 48 million illnesses, 128,000 hospitalizations and 3,000 deaths [24]. The estimated annual economic burden is $77.7 billion, mainly due to healthcare costs and lost productivity [25]. Despite increased surveillance, intensified awareness/education campaigns, and improved food safety, the incidence of foodborne disease has not changed significantly since the late 1990s, and it may increase further as a result of the expanding global food economy and the increased threat of bioterrorism [26].
The landscape of food-related illness is continuously in flux as diseases emerge and re-emerge. For example, Campylobacter jejuni and STEC O157 were unknown pathogens in the 1970s [27]. By 2012, they were the first and third leading causes of foodborne infection, respectively, with Campylobacter accounting for more than 845,000 cases of laboratory-confirmed foodborne infections annually [28].
As noted, causative agents of foodborne disease may be infectious (i.e., bacteria, viruses, parasites) or noninfectious (e.g., heavy metals, natural toxins) [29]. Prions or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies—normal animal proteins that can become infectious through misfolding—also cause foodborne illness, but prion-related disease is extremely rare in the United States [30].
The incidence of foodborne diseases and trends over time are identified through passive and active surveillance programs of the CDC [31]. The National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System, a passive system, relies on voluntary state reporting of diseases listed by the CDC as nationally notifiable [31]. As discussed, FoodNet, a component of the CDC's Emerging Infections Program, was established to help public health officials better understand the epidemiology of foodborne illnesses in the United States. FoodNet conducts population-based surveillance for laboratory-confirmed cases of infection with one of eight bacteria and two parasites [31]. In total, FoodNet monitors 47 million people, which represents approximately 15% of the U.S. population [33]. FoodNet also monitors the incidence of post-diarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), a potentially fatal complication of bacterial infection in children, through a network of pediatric nephrologists and infection-control practitioners housed in nine sites.
Many other foodborne surveillance programs contribute to the effort to enhance the detection, evaluation, and management of foodborne disease outbreaks. Among these programs are the Environmental Health Specialists Network (EHS-Net), a group of environmental health specialists and epidemiologists who partner with the CDC's National Center for Environmental Health, FoodNet, and the FDA to facilitate information exchanges about the environmental causes of foodborne illnesses, and PulseNet, a national network that conducts molecular surveillance using standardized pulse-field gel electrophoresis DNA fingerprinting, allowing for serotyping and subtyping of foodborne pathogens, which has been critical to the early detection and termination of outbreaks.
Under-reporting/delayed reporting of mild disease
Ill individuals not seeking treatment for acute gastroenteritis
Difficulties identifying causative factors
Confounding routes of foodborne transmission
Emerging/unrecognized food-related pathogens
Misdiagnosis of illness caused by noninfectious agents
Deaths caused by unknown foodborne agents attributed to other causes
Limited ability to identify virally contaminated food
Overcoming these barriers in the future will increase the capacity of surveillance programs to prevent the transmission of foodborne infections. Healthcare practitioners play a vital role in enhancing foodborne disease surveillance by accurately diagnosing food-related illness and reporting cases in a timely manner.
The CDC defines an outbreak of foodborne disease as "an incident in which two or more persons experience a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food" [36]. After a healthcare practitioner has diagnosed a foodborne disease, he or she should notify the state health department about an outbreak (or potential outbreak). Epidemiologists then begin an investigation facilitated by the Foodborne Disease Surveillance and Outbreak Investigation Toolkit. This kit provides a guide to confirming a diagnosis of a foodborne disease, public health training network, standard questionnaires, and guidelines for specimen collection to investigate outbreaks [13]. Serotyping and genetic sequencing of pathogens enable investigators to link cases of an infection, sometimes across states, and a common source is then sought. State reports are published in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, and the incidences are summarized at the end of the reporting year.
The FDA, USDA, Environmental Protection Agency, and CDC support the efforts of state health departments as needed. In outbreak situations, state health departments commonly perform tasks such as antimicrobial susceptibility testing of submitted isolates, patient counseling, contact notification, and follow-up testing [9]. With the help of the CDC and other government agencies, state health departments may also attempt to identify the source of the illness, which could exist anywhere along the so-called farm-to-table continuum [13]. With outbreaks of bacterial and parasitic foodborne illnesses, a food source is the focal point. Because viral foodborne illnesses are usually transmitted through infected food handlers, a specific setting (e.g., restaurant, banquet) is usually the common denominator.
Identifying the source of an outbreak is associated with a variety of challenges. In 2008, the House Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigation were critical of the CDC and the FDA for not identifying rapidly and accurately that contaminated Mexico-grown jalapeño and serrano peppers were the cause of more than 1,000 cases of salmonellosis [38]. Because CDC epidemiologists determined that 84% of ill individuals ate tomatoes, tomatoes were initially targeted as the probable source [3,38]. During the search for contaminated tomatoes, the FDA found contaminated jalapeños in Texas, and investigators subsequently traced contaminated peppers back to two farms in Mexico [3].
As another example, between November 25, 2008, and January 28, 2009, 529 persons from 43 states and one person from Canada were reported to be infected with Salmonella (serotype Typhimurium) [6]. The source of the outbreak did not become apparent until after several weeks of detailed case interviews, investigations of local clusters of illness, and joint epidemiologic efforts across states. The source was a factory that made peanut butter and peanut paste for peanut butter-containing products (e.g., crackers, cookies, cereal, candy). The CDC refers to this type of outbreak as ingredient-driven, an outbreak in which a contaminated ingredient affected a variety of products that were distributed through different channels and consumed in various settings [6]. Tracing the first implicated product to its point of manufacture was crucial in defining the outbreak. The number of products and brands and the large quantities of some products recalled makes this one of the largest recalls in the United States [6].
On September 14, 2011, a farm in Colorado conducted a voluntary recall on cantaloupes that were potentially contaminated with Listeria. At the time of the recall, infected cantaloupes caused 146 illnesses, 30 deaths, and 1 miscarriage in 28 states [7]. In 2012, the common link for an outbreak of Salmonella Bareilly and Salmonella Nchanga among 425 people in 28 states was found in frozen and raw fresh yellowfin tuna products [8]. Even after the manufacturer recalled the product, infections developed in a substantial number of people, suggesting that food establishments were still serving the tuna during the recall [8].
Each year, the CDC provides a comprehensive list of outbreaks that have been reported through the Foodborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance System [3]. A review of select outbreaks since the mid-1990s demonstrates a range in causative pathogens, sources, and number of individuals affected (
Table 1). SELECT FOODBORNE-ILLNESS OUTBREAKS IN THE UNITED STATES
Pathogen/Toxin Source Number of Cases Action 2016 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O121 Wheat flour 42 cases in 21 states, 11 hospitalizations Voluntary recall of products 2015 Salmonella (serotype Poona) Cucumbers imported from Mexico 838 cases in 38 states, 165 hospitalizations, 4 deaths Voluntary recall of product Multidrug-resistant Salmonella I 4,[5],12:i:- and Salmonella (serotype Infantis) Pork 192 cases in 5 states, 30 hospitalizations Voluntary recall of product 2014 Cyclospora Cilantro imported from Mexico 207 cases in 19 states (mainly Texas) — Salmonella (serotype Newport) Cucumbers imported from Mexico 275 cases in 29 states Voluntary recall of product 2013 Cyclospora Prepackaged salad mix served at restaurant chains 400 cases in 16 states, 22 hospitalizations — Salmonella (serotype Saintpaul) Cucumbers imported from Mexico 73 cases in 18 states, 14 hospitalizations — 2012 Salmonella (serotype Bredeney) Peanut butter and other products containing nuts and seeds 30 illnesses in 19 states, 4 hospitalizations, no deaths Voluntary recall of product Salmonella (serotypes Bareilly and Nchanga) Yellowfin tuna 425 illnesses in 28 states, 55 hospitalizations, no deaths Voluntary recall of product 2011–2012 Listeria monocytogenes Cantaloupes 146 illnesses in 28 states, 30 deaths, 1 miscarriage Voluntary recall of produce 2010 Salmonella (serotype Enteritidis) Eggs 1,939 illnesses in 14 states Voluntary recall of more than 500,000 eggs 2009 Salmonella (serotype Saintpaul) Alfalfa sprouts (raw) 228 in 13 states, 9 hospitalizations, no deaths Seed supplier voluntarily withdrew specific lots of seeds 2008 Salmonella (serotype Typhimurium) Peanut butter and peanut-containing products (contamination at manufacturing plant) 529 in 43 states, 116 hospitalizations, 8 deaths Approximately 54 companies recalled at least 431 different peanut butter-containing products 2007 Ciguatera Amberjack fish 9 in 1 state — Clostridium botulinum Brand of canned hot dog chili sauce (deficiency in canning process) 8 in 3 states, 8 hospitalizations — 2006–2007 Salmonella (serotype Tennessee) Two commercial brands of peanut butter 628 in 44 states, 125 hospitalizations Voluntary recall of products, disposal of existing products in manufacturer's possession 2006 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 Prewashed, bagged spinach (growing field in California) 199 illnesses in 26 states, 102 hospitalizations, 31 HUS cases, 3 deaths Recall of product Norovirus Infected food-service workers (restaurant) 364 in 1 state — Vibrio parahaemolyticus Shellfish (oysters and clams) 177 in 3 states, 3 hospitalizations — 2003 Hepatitis A Green onions (used in foods at one restaurant) 601 in 8 states, at least 124 hospitalizations, 3 deaths — Salmonella (serotype Typhimurium) Commercially prepared egg salad 18 in 1 state, 2 hospitalizations —
Outbreak data should be kept in perspective, because they represent only a portion of all food-related illness occurring over time. For example, the proportion of all food-related illnesses associated with outbreaks is low, and some small outbreaks may not be recognized or may not be reported [14]. Also, the specific etiology of an outbreak is not always confirmed. However, outbreak data serve three important functions [52]. First, the investigation of foodborne disease outbreaks leads to changes that help prevent contamination at all levels of food production. Second, outbreak data provide information on the impact of specific pathogens and help investigators recognize emerging pathogens and ongoing problems. Third, analysis of data over time enables public health authorities to monitor trends, providing a basis for regulatory and other changes to improve food safety.
The hallmark characteristics of an infectious food-related illness are gastrointestinal symptoms, most notably diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and vomiting. However, some individuals may be asymptomatic or only mildly ill. Approximately 36% of all cases of acute gastroenteritis are attributable to foodborne disease [29].
Foodborne diseases caused by bacteria and parasites are most often acquired by ingestion of food or water that has become colonized or contaminated. Viral pathogens capable of causing food-related illness do not replicate on foods; instead, their stable structure allows them to survive for prolonged periods in the environment and they are transmitted through the fecal-oral route. Such viruses replicate in the human intestinal tract, are shed through stool, and are transmitted to other humans through foods as a result of direct or indirect contamination with human feces [53]. Most infectious foodborne agents can also be spread through secondary and tertiary transmission [54]. These modes of transmission include droplet transmission (e.g., vomitus, respiratory secretions), vertical transmission (parent to child/fetus), and fomite contamination of objects.
Bacterial contamination of food can occur at any of a number of stages along the farm-to-table continuum: during growing, harvesting, processing, storing, shipping, or final preparation (in a restaurant or home). Most available information on the incidence of bacterial foodborne disease is derived from FoodNet surveillance of disease caused by the eight common foodborne bacterial pathogens [33]:
Salmonella
Campylobacter
Shigella
STEC O157
STEC non-O157
Yersinia
Listeria
Vibrio
In 2014, these bacteria were the cause of 19,542 cases of foodborne infections reported in FoodNet's 10 states (
Table 2) [2]. One of the food safety objectives in Healthy People 2020 is to reduce the incidences of six bacterial infections—Salmonella, Campylobacter, STEC O157, Listeria, Vibrio, and Yersinia [2,55]. According to FoodNet data, there have been slight declines in the reported incidence of infections from Listeria, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Yersinia, and STEC 0157 [2]. However, cases of Salmonella have not declined in the past 15 years, and of these six bacterial infections, only Yersinia has met the target set in Healthy People 2020 [55]. BACTERIA RESPONSIBLE FOR FOODBORNE INFECTIONS IN 2014 a
Pathogen No. of Cases Incidence per 100,000 Salmonella 7,452 15.5 Campylobacter 6,486 13.5 Shigella 2,801 5.8 STEC non-O157 690 1.4 STEC O157 445 0.9 Vibrio 216 0.5 Yersinia 133 0.3 Listeria 118 0.2
As discussed, while bacterial contamination of food can occur at several points, viral contamination usually occurs during food handling. Viruses may also be transmitted to humans through mollusks from contaminated waters [53]. Produce can be a vehicle if exposed to contaminated water. The pathogenicity of viruses is enhanced by their capacity to withstand dehydration, low pH, and other adverse, environmental conditions [53,56]. They endure on human hands, in fresh and dried fecal matter, in water, and on nonbiologic surfaces (fomites) such as kitchen counters and carpets [57].
More than 100 types of enteric viruses cause food-related illness, but in the United States, three types of viruses are most common [57]:
Noroviruses (and other caliciviruses)
Hepatitis A virus
Rotaviruses
Noroviruses and hepatitis A virus are the viruses most often transmitted through food [53]. Noroviruses are the most common cause of outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis; they accounted for 93% of outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis documented over a 3-year period in the United States [3,57].
Parasitic infection can be spread through food or water but is more commonly transmitted through contaminated water [58]. Parasitic protozoa do not multiply in foods, but they are able to survive in or on moist foods for months in a cool, damp environment [58]. Four parasites present the greatest risk of foodborne illness: Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Giardia, and Toxoplasma gondii [58]. Infections caused by Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora are monitored through FoodNet.
Crowding and poor hygiene are risk factors for food-related infectious illness. This accounts for the high rates found among closed populations, such as childcare centers and healthcare facilities [31]. A review of 75 enteric outbreaks in long-term care facilities found that 52% of bacterial infections were transmitted through food [59]. Other common risk factors for exposure to foodborne pathogens include [9,54]:
Eating raw/undercooked meats or fish
Ingesting raw/unpasteurized milk or dairy products
Working with animals or animal products
Traveling to developing countries
Abusing drugs
Having children in daycare or school
The complexity of the host-pathogen relationship creates a spectrum of individual responses to foodborne agents; some people remain asymptomatic whereas others develop severe illness [60]. In addition, the incubation period (time from acquisition to onset of symptoms) varies in relation to pathogen and certain host factors, such as age and comorbidities. Several characteristics of a foodborne agent have major roles in susceptibility, including pathogenicity, antigenicity, infective dose, mechanisms of disease production, and exposure route [61]. However, host-associated variables predominantly dictate the occurrence and severity of disease [61]. Determinants of individual susceptibility to a foodborne illness include [54,61]:
Extremes of age (especially children younger than 4 years of age)
Status of immune system at the time of exposure
Underlying medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [HIV/AIDS], cancer, organ transplantation)
Medications that alter normal flora (e.g., antimicrobial agents, corticosteroids, immunosuppressant drugs)
Pregnancy
Surgical procedures and radiation therapy
Low gastric acidity
The incidences of specific foodborne pathogens varies according to age of the patient, geographic location, the severity of illness caused, and susceptibility of common food sources to contamination by a given pathogen.
The number of confirmed bacterial foodborne outbreaks has decreased slightly since the mid-2000s. In 2005, 188 outbreaks (4,348 illnesses) were reported. The number increased to 257 (6,410 illnesses) in 2007, then decreased to 239 outbreaks (5,001 illnesses) in 2013 (
Table 3) [3]. Bacteria were the suspected cause of an additional 48 outbreaks in 2013 and were a component in several outbreaks with multiple confirmed or suspected etiologies [3]. FOODBORNE DISEASE OUTBREAKS FOR 2007 AND 2013
Etiology 2007 2013 Bacterial Confirmed 257 239 Suspected 61 48 Viral Confirmed 199 160 Suspected 127 104 Parasitic Confirmed 5 7 Suspected 1 0 Chemical and Toxin a Confirmed 34 33 Suspected 15 14 Single Etiology Confirmed 495 479 Suspected 204 166 Multiple Etiologies Confirmed 12 9 Suspected 22 7 Unknown Etiology Total 362 197 All Known Outbreaks Total 1,097 818 aAgents causing outbreaks in the chemical category consisted primarily of marine toxins.
FoodNet surveillance data show that the highest incidence of bacterial foodborne disease is found among children younger than 5 years of age, followed by children 5 to 9 years of age (
Table 4) [16]. The most common causative pathogens in these two age groups are Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Shigella [16,32]. Only Vibrio and Listeria infections occur more frequently in older individuals than in children. Among individuals 60 years of age or older, Salmonella and Campylobacter are the leading causes of bacterial foodborne infection. INCIDENCE OF LABORATORY-CONFIRMED BACTERIAL AND PARASITIC FOODBORNE DISEASE ACCORDING TO AGE
Pathogen Incidence (per 100,000) <5 years of age 5 to 9 years of age 10 to 19 years of age 20 to 59 years of age >60 years of age Bacteria Salmonella 69.5 21.4 12.3 12.2 17.0 Campylobacter 24.4 10.6 10.1 13.3 13.9 Shigella 16.4 11.7 2.2 2.5 1.1 STEC O157 3.3 2.5 1.1 0.5 0.7 STEC non-O157 5.0 1.1 1.3 0.5 0.5 Yersinia 1.9 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 Listeria 0.3 0.03 0.05 0.1 1.1 Vibrio — 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.8 Parasites Cryptosporidium 5.1 2.7 2.5 2.6 2.5 Cyclospora — — — 0.1 0.1
Few studies have been conducted to evaluate differences in food-related illness according to race or ethnicity, but the available reports suggest that the rates of some bacterial infections are higher among black, Hispanic, and Asian populations than among the white population [62,63,64]. The infections occurring at higher rates are associated with food consumption habits specific to certain populations. For example, outbreaks of Yersinia have been associated with chitterlings (chitlins), a common food item in the black community, particularly in the South, and outbreaks of Listeria and Salmonella have been linked to Mexican-style cheeses and carnitas, respectively, in the Hispanic population [40,63,65]. These disparities call attention to the need for education on foodborne illnesses that is targeted to distinctive needs of specific populations.
The incidence of foodborne disease caused by bacterial pathogens also varies substantially according to geographic location. For example, the incidence of Campylobacter is more than three times higher in California (29.37 per 100,000) than in Maryland (8.34 per 100,000), while the incidence of Shigella ranges from 0.77 (per 100,000) in New York to 6.71 (per 100,000) in Georgia [16]. A survey of testing practices among laboratories in the FoodNet areas indicated that the regional differences in these incidences are not attributable to variations in stool culture practices [66].
Viral pathogens, principally norovirus, are a leading cause of foodborne gastroenteritis outbreaks investigated since 2000. In 2013, a viral etiology was identified for 160 reported foodborne outbreaks affecting 4,021 persons [3]. In all of these outbreaks except six, the causative agent was a norovirus; hepatitis A accounted for four of the other six outbreaks [3]. More than two-thirds of outbreaks of norovirus are linked to a restaurant or a healthcare facility (e.g., hospital, nursing home) [67].
Viral gastroenteritis is the leading cause of food-related illness in the United States [28]. The illness may be caused by a number of viruses, but it is thought that noroviruses account for approximately one-third of the cases (excluding children 6 to 24 months of age) [28]. More than 5 million cases of foodborne noroviruses are reported each year [28,57,68].
Approximately 5% of the estimated 83,000 cases of hepatitis A infection each year are attributed to a food source [57]. Most individuals 18 years of age or older have lifelong protection against reinfection through immunity [28]. The percentage of adults with hepatitis A immunity increases with age, from 10% for individuals who are 18 to 19 years of age to 65% for individuals older than 50 years of age [28]. The incidence of hepatitis A virus is higher in western and southwestern states than in other states [56].
Rotavirus infection is the leading cause of severe acute diarrhea among infants and young children worldwide, but foodborne transmission represents only approximately 1% of cases [57,69]. Rotavirus occurs primarily in the winter in temperate areas but throughout the year in tropical areas [28].
In the United States, parasites cause far fewer outbreaks or isolated incidences of foodborne infection than either bacteria or viruses. In 2013, a parasite was confirmed as the cause of six outbreaks (240 illnesses) [3]. The FoodNet surveillance program indicates that Cryptosporidium is the fourth-leading cause of foodborne disease [2,16]. The incidence of Cryptosporidium is highest among children younger than 5 years of age and children 5 to 9 years of age and is lowest among individuals 10 to 19 years of age [16]. The overall incidence of Cyclospora is low, with the highest incidence among individuals 60 years of age or older.
As with bacterial pathogens, the incidence of foodborne infection caused by Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora varies according to geographic location. In 2009, the incidence of Cryptosporidium ranged from 7.36 per 100,000 in New Mexico to 1.26 per 100,000 in Tennessee [16]. The incidence of Cyclospora was highest in Connecticut (0.51 per 100,000), and no cases were reported in California, Colorado, or Oregon [16].
The incidence of infection with Giardia attributable to a food or water source is not clear. In general, the infection is more prevalent among children than adults, which may be related to the potential for immunity after infection [28]. The parasite is believed to affect approximately 2% of the U.S. population [28]. From 2005 to 2007, there were approximately 65 cases of foodborne outbreaks associated with Giardia-infected food [28]. Toxoplasma gondii has been found in nearly one-third of the worldwide population [70]. In the United States, the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis has decreased among U.S.-born individuals (12 to 49 years of age) from 14.1% in 1988–1994 to 9% in 1999–2004 [71,72]. The seroprevalence is higher in women of childbearing age (15 to 44 years of age), with a rate of 11% in 1999–2004 [71]. The number of infections transmitted through food is not well known.
Most foodborne infections result in self-limited illness that resolves within a few days to a week. Severity of illness caused by bacterial foodborne disease varies by etiology, as evidenced by hospitalization rates reported by FoodNet for 2014 (
Table 5) [2]. The case-fatality rate also varies by pathogen; mortality rates in 2014 were 15.3% for Listeria, 0.9% for Vibrio, 0.4% for Salmonella, and 0.2% for Campylobacter [2]. Hospitalization and mortality rates are somewhat higher among persons older than 65 years of age, and the case-fatality rate for children younger than 4 years of age ranges from 0.05% for Shigella to 12.7% for Listeria foodborne infections [16].
According to statistics published in 1999, bacteria accounted for 72% of the deaths associated with foodborne disease; parasites accounted for 21%, and viruses for 7% [29]. The majority of deaths could be attributed to four pathogens: Salmonella (35%), Listeria (19%), Toxoplasma gondii (24%), and noroviruses (11%) [29,73]. Since 1999, Listeria has been the pathogen most likely to cause death from food-related illness, with 20% to 30% of infections in high-risk individuals being fatal [74,75].
There is a relationship between the food source and the pathogens most likely to cause contamination (
Table 6). Food sources become contaminated with pathogens in a variety of ways. Raw foods and beverages pose the greatest risk because they have not been processed, cooked, or refrigerated/frozen, all of which reduce or destroy most pathogens. Produce (fruits and vegetables) may become contaminated in the field if soil or water is contaminated, leading to the growth of a variety of pathogens, such as Salmonella, STEC O157, Cyclospora, and hepatitis A [28]. If not pasteurized, milk or fruit juices may become the source for a variety of bacteria, most notably Listeria and Salmonella. Some pathogens, such as Campylobacter, E. coli, Toxoplasma gondii, and Yersinia, live in the intestinal tracts of animals, contaminating raw meat and poultry; this contamination can spread to other animals during slaughter. Eggs may become contaminated with Salmonella through infection of hens' ovaries. PATHOGENS MOST COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC FOOD SOURCES
Food Source Pathogens Beef
Poultry
Pork
Meat products, gravies
Raw (unpasteurized) milk and dairy products (soft cheeses)
Raw and undercooked eggs Salmonella Improperly canned goods; smoked or salted fish Clostridium botulinum Fresh or minimally processed produce (vegetables, fruit)
Shellfish (raw or undercooked)
Processed meats
Rice products and other starchy foods, including potato, pasta, and cheese products Bacillus cereus (emetic type) Prepared salads (potato, tuna, macaroni, chicken) and sandwiches
Puddings, custards, pastries
Fruit juices (unpasteurized)
Freezing meat and poultry impedes bacterial replication, and cooking at an appropriate temperature serves to destroy remaining pathogens. Bacteria and parasites will not be destroyed unless the food is thoroughly cooked (at an appropriate cooking temperature and for an appropriate duration). Food may become contaminated again if left at room temperature for more than 2 hours [76]. Contamination may also occur during food preparation in a restaurant or a home kitchen through handling by an infected person or through exposure to contaminated surfaces or equipment. Norovirus is the pathogen most commonly transmitted through an intermediary food handler. Staphylococcus aureus and Cryptosporidium are also transmitted more often through an infected food handler than through direct contamination of a food product [28,76]. Rotavirus has not been isolated from any food associated with an outbreak [28].
The source of a food-related illness cannot always be identified; approximately 56% of cases have no known cause [14,52]. In 2013, an identifiable food source accounted for approximately 47% of outbreaks of known etiology [3,14]. The number of outbreaks and infected individuals associated with a food source varies over time. In 2006, fish was the leading source, causing 47 outbreaks; in 2008, poultry was the most common source, associated with 32 outbreaks [14,52]. The highest number of foodborne infections was associated with exposure to vegetables (1,596) in 2002, to poultry (1,355) in 2006, and to fruits and nuts (1,755) in 2008 [14,52]. Analysis of data from 2013 demonstrated that the pathogen-food source pairs representing the most outbreaks/illnesses were [3]:
Scombroid or ciguatoxin in fish (40 outbreaks, 118 illnesses)
Salmonella in poultry/pork/beef (23 outbreaks, 1,344 illnesses)
Vibrio parahaemolyticus in mollusks (13 outbreaks, 80 illnesses)
Norovirus in leafy vegetables (6 outbreaks, 196 illnesses)
Salmonella in seeded vegetables (5 outbreaks, 268 illnesses)
Heavy metals and natural toxins are the primary causes of noninfectious food-related illness [41,78]. Heavy metals, such as iron, lead, copper, and zinc, are primarily ingested through water contaminated by pipes or containers [78,79,80]. Food vessels, utensils, or containers are potential sources for ingestion of antimony, copper, and tin [13,78,80]. Water, soil, or food (including shellfish and finfish) may also be contaminated with arsenic, and fish and other seafood may be contaminated with methyl mercury [78,81]. Foodborne illness caused by heavy metals is extremely rare. One outbreak was reported in 2007, two outbreaks were reported in 2008, and none were reported in 2013 [3,14].
Naturally occurring toxic agents, principally marine and mushroom toxins, account for the great majority of noninfectious foodborne disease. Marine toxins include ciguatoxin, pufferfish toxin (tetrodotoxin), scombroid, and shellfish toxins. The sources of these toxins differ (
Table 7) [28]. The CDC estimates that 30 cases of poisoning with marine toxins are reported each year in the United States and that one person dies from such poisoning every 4 years [82]. The frequency of illness caused by marine toxins is not well defined for several reasons: under-reporting (related primarily to the lack of a reporting requirement), the generally mild nature and short duration of the disease, and the paucity of medical information on the toxins [28]. However, illness caused by marine toxins can be severe and carries an annual healthcare cost burden in the United States of approximately $350 million [83]. SOURCES OF MARINE TOXINS
Toxin Fish Ciguatoxin Grouper, snapper, amberjack, mackerel, triggerfish, barracuda Tetrodotoxin Pufferfish Scombroid Tuna, mahi mahi, bluefish, sardines, mackerel, amberjack, abalone Shellfish Toxins Paralytic Mussels, clams, cockles, scallops Diarrhetic Mussels, oysters, scallops, clams Neurotoxic Shellfish harvested along the Florida coast and the Gulf of Mexico Amnesic Bivalve mollusks, crabs, lobsters
Mushroom toxins are found in several species of wild mushrooms, and poisoning occurs when the toxic mushrooms are misidentified as edible. Poisonous species of mushrooms grow in a range of habitats, from deep woods to suburban yards [28]. The frequency of mushroom poisoning is difficult to determine, but the number of reported cases is low, cases are sporadic, and large outbreaks are rare [28].
Accurate and efficient diagnosis and management is essential for minimizing the spread of a foodborne disease. In addition, rapid identification of a causative agent can help to control an outbreak. Diagnosis requires a comprehensive approach that includes a detailed clinical evaluation with attention to any history of suspect food exposures and appropriate cultures to identify the etiologic agent. Four clues can help in determining the etiology of a foodborne illness: period of incubation, duration of illness, predominant clinical symptoms, and the location of the individual or the ingested food (
Table 8) [84]. FOUR DIAGNOSTIC CLUES TO DETERMINE THE ETIOLOGY OF A FOODBORNE ILLNESS
Diagnostic Clue Likely Etiology Incubation Period (Time to Onset of Symptoms) Very short (hours) Toxin Approximately one day Virus Several days Bacteria Duration of Illness Short Virus or toxin Long Bacteria Predominant Clinical Symptoms Diarrhea Virus or bacteria Vomiting Toxin Severe illness Bacteria Location of Individual or Food Closed population (school, healthcare facility) Virus Large catered event Toxin or virus
Many symptoms are common among foodborne illnesses that require disparate treatments.
The cost of ordering multiple diagnostic laboratory tests is high.
Empirical treatments can lead to serious complications, secondary transmission, and emergence of drug-resistant pathogens.
Diarrhea is the symptom that prompts many individuals to seek medical attention. It is important to distinguish between inflammatory and noninflammatory diarrhea, as the pathogens for these two types differ. With inflammatory diarrhea, mucosal invasion, usually of the large intestine, causes stools to be bloody and often to contain many fecal leukocytes [13]. Inflammatory diarrhea is usually associated with fever, abdominal pain and tenderness, headache, nausea, vomiting, malaise, and myalgia. In contrast, noninflammatory diarrhea involves watery stool, which is sometimes severe, and fever and systemic symptoms are often absent. Such diarrhea is caused by mucosal hypersecretion or decreased absorption without mucosal destruction and usually involves the small intestine. Mild dehydration is typical, although severe dehydration may be present in children or individuals older than 65 years of age [13].
Evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and management of food-related illness have been established in a primer developed collaboratively by the American Medical Association (AMA), the CDC, the American Nurses Association (ANA), the FDA, and the USDA [13]. In addition, recognizing the increasing number of enteric pathogens associated with foodborne disease (and other gastrointestinal illnesses), the Infectious Diseases Society of America established practice guidelines for the management of infectious diarrhea [9]. These guidelines include five evidence-based recommendations [9]:
Carry out clinical/epidemiologic evaluation
Order microbiologic testing, as appropriate
Begin rehydration therapy
Treat severe disease empirically, when appropriate
Educate the patient about preventing secondary transmission
In addition to clinical evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of the patient, suspected or confirmed cases of foodborne disease should be reported to local health departments so that a possible association with similar cases may be identified.
Most food-related illnesses are self-limited and require supportive care only (i.e., rest, rehydration). The routine use of antidiarrheal agents is not recommended, especially in infants and young children, as many agents have the potential for causing serious adverse effects [13]. Healthcare practitioners should ensure that patients understand the importance of checking with the practitioner before using an antidiarrheal.
The clinical presentation of a foodborne disease is often nonspecific and similar to that of viral syndromes unrelated to food exposure. In either case common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. The presence of muscle aches or joint pain makes a viral syndrome more likely, but care should be taken to distinguish such symptoms from neurologic symptoms (e.g., weakness, paresthesias) that may be signs of food-related illnesses that target the neurologic system [13].
A clinical/epidemiologic evaluation of the patient is essential, and a directed history regarding travel, recent food exposures, and other illness among family and associates can help healthcare practitioners identify an illness as having a foodborne pathogen etiology (
Table 9). A complete description of the patient's symptoms is an important key to diagnosis, and the healthcare practitioner should ask the patient to describe predominant symptoms as well as mild ones. The type of symptoms can help narrow the list of potential pathogens ( Table 10) [13]. Noninfectious causative agents should be suspected for patients with nondescript gastrointestinal symptoms who became ill less than 12 hours after ingestion, especially if the onset of symptoms is within minutes after ingestion [13,26,86]. QUESTIONS TO ASK PATIENTS TO HELP DETERMINE WHETHER ILLNESS IS OF FOODBORNE ETIOLOGY
Domain Suggested Questions Travel Have you traveled recently? If so, where (foreign country, coastal area, mountains, cruise)? Work/activities
Eating habits
Symptom characteristics
Other
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES ACCORDING TO SYMPTOMS ON CLINICAL PRESENTATION
Symptom Possible Diagnosis Gastroenteritis, with vomiting as primary symptom (fever and/or diarrhea may also be present)
Noninflammatory diarrhea (acute watery diarrhea, usually without fever)
Inflammatory diarrhea (grossly bloody stool, fever, invasive gastroenteritis)
Persistent diarrhea (14 days or more)
Neurologic symptoms (paresthesias, respiratory depression, bronchospasm, cranial nerve palsies)
Systemic illness (fever, weakness, arthritis, jaundice)
In addition, the patient's medical history or health record should be reviewed for underlying medical conditions and prescription medication use. Gastrointestinal symptoms may be related to a host of other conditions, such as irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel diseases, gastrointestinal surgery, malabsorption syndromes, and malignant disease, or as a side effect of antibiotics or other medications [13]. Particular attention should be paid to medical conditions that may increase the risk or severity of a foodborne illness.
Careful clinical evaluation of the patient is necessary, and the patient should be examined for signs of fever and abdominal tenderness and for indications of volume depletion, such as decreased skin turgor, thirst, reduced urination, tachycardia, orthostatic pulse, and dry mucous membranes.
Because specific details about the patient's history are crucial to diagnosing a foodborne illness, effective communication is required. Communicating effectively is more challenging when the patient's primary language differs from that of the practitioner. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, more than 59 million Americans speak a language other than English at home, and more than 25 million (nearly 9% of the total population) have limited English proficiency; that is, they speak English less than "very well" [87]. It has been suggested that when patients are first evaluated, they should be asked what language is spoken at home and if they speak English "very well" [88]. In addition, patients should also be asked what language they prefer for their medical care information, as some patients prefer their native language even though they have said they can understand and discuss symptoms in English [88]. Many studies have demonstrated that the lack of an interpreter for patients with limited English proficiency compromises the quality of care and that the use of professional interpreters improves communication (errors and comprehension), utilization, clinical outcomes, and patient satisfaction with care [89,90].
"Ad hoc" interpreters (untrained staff members, family members, friends) are often used instead of professional interpreters for a variety of reasons, including convenience and cost. However, the reliability and specificity of information obtained through ad hoc interpreters is less than with professional interpreters [91]. In addition, individuals with limited English language skills have indicated a preference for professional interpreters rather than family members [92]. A systematic review of the literature has shown that the use of professional interpreters facilitates a broader understanding and leads to better clinical care than the use of ad hoc interpreters [90].
The results of physician surveys have indicated a wide variation in practice with respect to requesting a stool culture from patients with acute diarrhea. The percentage of respondents who say they request this culture ranges from 38% to 71% [19,93,94]. Microbiologic studies should be done on the basis of the results of the clinical evaluation. In particular, testing of stool samples should be done if diarrhea has lasted more than 1 day or if any of the following signs and symptoms occur [13]:
Bloody diarrhea
Weight loss
Diarrhea leading to dehydration
Fever
Prolonged diarrhea (three or more unformed stools per day for several days)
Neurologic involvement (paresthesias, motor weakness, cranial nerve palsies)
Sudden onset of nausea, vomiting, and/or diarrhea
Severe abdominal pain
To better prevent and manage potential outbreaks, fecal studies are also recommended when the patient is a food handler, has contact with a childcare facility or other closed populations, has a compromised immune system, has traveled to a developing country, was recently hospitalized, or has recently taken antibiotics [13]. The appropriate fecal studies depend on the clinical presentation.
Routine stool culture examinations vary according to the particular suspected pathogens, and practitioners should be aware of pathogens that must be specifically requested. Many physicians surveyed have said they do not know whether stool culture examination includes testing for some specific species (e.g., Yersinia, Vibrio, STEC O157) [93]. A routine stool culture usually includes screening for Salmonella and Shigella species and Campylobacter jejuni or coli [13]. As such, if Vibrio, Yersinia, STEC O157, or Campylobacter species other than jejuni/coli is suspected, the practitioner should communicate this to, and consult with, the receiving clinical microbiology laboratory.
Testing for norovirus and rotavirus is not typically done, but the viruses can be detected in stool specimens, if necessary. Hepatitis A virus is confirmed through serologic testing.
Stool specimens should be examined for parasites if a patient has a travel history that suggests parasitic infection, when diarrhea has been chronic or persistent, when diarrhea has not responded to appropriate antimicrobial therapy, and when the incubation period for the diarrhea/illness has been long [13]. Usually, a request for an ova and parasite examination of a stool specimen allows for the identification of Giardia lamblia, whereas examination for Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Toxoplasma gondii must be requested specifically. Because routine procedures for parasite detection vary among laboratories, it is helpful to contact the testing laboratory to confirm the appropriate procedures according to the parasites suspected.
Some bacteria, viruses, and parasites can be identified rapidly with direct antigen detection tests and molecular biology techniques. In some cases, vomitus or food samples should be submitted to the laboratory for testing [13]. Other diagnostic evaluations, such as serum chemistry analysis, urinalysis, complete blood cell count, blood culture, abdominal radiograph, and flexible endoscopy may also be considered when appropriate [9,13]. Consultation with an infectious disease specialist, a clinical microbiologist, or a state public health official can be beneficial in some cases.
If microbiologic testing identifies the causative pathogen as a nationally notifiable disease, the healthcare practitioner should report the illness promptly [37]. Reporting requirements for each state or territory are available on the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists website. Practitioners should also report suspected outbreaks to the local or state health department.
All public health laboratories have resources to serotype Salmonella and Shigella and subtype Listeria and STEC isolates using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, which helps to determine antimicrobial susceptibility [9]. The use of specialized laboratories for diagnostic needs is arranged through the state health department [54].
Diarrhea and vomiting can lead to intravascular volume depletion, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalance. Oral rehydration should be started for patients who have mild or moderate fluid losses. An oral rehydration solution should be used rather than a sports drink, which does not replace fluid and sodium losses correctly. Intravenous therapy should be used for severe dehydration and for debilitated patients. Studies have indicated that for children with mild-to-moderate volume depletion caused by gastroenteritis, oral rehydration is as effective as intravenous therapy [95]. For young children (i.e., 5 to 33 months of age), rice-based oral fluid therapy plus recombinant human lactoferrin and lysozyme has been shown to reduce the duration of diarrhea better than reduced-osmolarity oral hydration therapy [96].
The use of antimicrobial therapy should be limited, as antibiotic resistance has increased for many enteric pathogens [13]. Empirical antimicrobial therapy is usually reserved for patients with severe illness. Antibiotics should not be administered to reduce secondary transmission risk.
The decision to treat and selection of antimicrobial therapy should be based on clinical considerations and epidemiologic clues or positive identification of the causative pathogen, such as [13]:
Clinical signs and symptoms
Organism detected in clinical specimens
Antimicrobial susceptibility tests
The antimicrobial selection for specific foodborne infections will be discussed in detail later in the course.
Healthcare practitioners should educate the patient or parents about what actions he or she should take to prevent secondary transmission, emphasizing the importance of appropriate hand hygiene, the use of disinfectant cleaner to wash surfaces, and the need to remain out of work, school, or daycare until symptoms have resolved. Many educational resources are available, and efforts should be made to provide resources that are language and culture appropriate.
Because healthcare professionals are often the first to identify foodborne illnesses, they are the frontline protection for the public against many foodborne disease outbreaks [13]. Prompt and accurate disease reporting to the local or state health department is necessary for the prevention and control of outbreaks as well as for accurate surveillance [9,13]. Healthcare practitioners should be familiar with the list of nationally notifiable diseases and check with the CDC for the most recent list, as it is updated annually [37].
The CDC recommends that suspected foodborne-illness outbreaks or sporadic illnesses that may be caused by a nationally notifiable disease should be reported as soon as possible [13]. Because early intervention is crucial, definitive diagnoses are unnecessary [9,13]. Links to state health department websites, which include contact information for local health departments, are available on the CDC website. When reporting, the practitioner should provide the following information to the local or state health department [97,98]:
Date of illness(es)
Age, sex, and full residence address and phone number for patient(s)
Symptom complexes (especially unusual symptoms)
Disease patterns
Local or state health departments may communicate additional requests or requirements to practitioners under their jurisdiction.
Many practitioners leave the reporting responsibilities up to the clinical laboratory [97,98]. However, the practitioner should report the illness because he or she is the one who is uniquely able to describe symptomatic clusters and communicate other specific information [97]. Practitioner failure to report foodborne illnesses has led to missed opportunities for the implementation of early prevention measures and postexposure prophylaxis [97].
Misdiagnosing a foodborne illness or beginning empirical treatment to which the responsible pathogen is resistant may prolong illness and lead to complications. Thus, it is important for healthcare practitioners to be familiar with key characteristics of the most common foodborne pathogens and toxins.
The bacterial foodborne pathogens discussed in this section include the 10 agents tracked by FoodNet as well as other bacteria that are significant because of either the incidence or severity of disease they cause.
Salmonella are rod-shaped, non-spore-forming, gram-negative enterobacteria that have become the most common bacterial cause of foodborne illness in the United States [2,3,16,33]. One serotype, Salmonella typhi, causes systemic infections and typhoid fever; many other serotypes cause gastroenteritis and are referred to as nontyphoid Salmonella [56]. Typhoid (or enteric) fever is rare in the United States. Of the more than 6,371 isolate serotypes of Salmonella, 10 are responsible for most cases (73.1%) of Salmonella infection in the United States (
Table 11) [16]. As few as 200 cells may cause infection [56]. TOP 10 SALMONELLA SEROTYPES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2009
Serotype No. of Cases Percent of Reported Infections Enteritidis 1,226 19.2% Typhimurium 1,024 16.1% Newport 772 12.1% Javiana 544 8.5% Heidelberg 230 3.6% Montevideo 206 3.2% I 4,[5],12:i:- 197 3.1% Muenchen 170 2.7% Saintpaul 157 2.5% Oranienburg 132 2.1%
National Salmonella surveillance systems from France, England and Wales, Denmark, and the United States have identified the emergence of multidrug-resistant isolates of Salmonella enterica (serotype Kentucky) with a demonstrated high-level resistance to ciprofloxacin [99]. Between 2000 and 2008, 679 S. enterica serotype Kentucky isolates were reported to the CDC. Poultry flocks have been identified as the primary vector. Samples of spices imported from North Africa are also being investigated [100].
Salmonella infection, or salmonellosis, is the leading cause of bacterial foodborne disease. According to preliminary FoodNet data for 2014, the incidence was 15.5 per 100,000 [2]. Compared with 2011–2013, the 2014 incidence was significantly lower for Salmonella serotype Typhimurium, but overall the rate of foodborne salmonellosis has not declined in recent years [2].
The highest incidence of salmonellosis occurs among children, with a rate of 72.93 cases per 100,000 in children younger than 4 years of age [16]. However, the population affected can vary according to the food source of infection; the 2008 Salmonella (Saintpaul) outbreak caused by contaminated Mexican peppers primarily affected adults 20 to 29 years of age [3]. The incidence of Salmonella infection is highest in the summer and fall [101].
Transmission of Salmonella is generally animal-to-human, caused by human ingestion of food that has been exposed to the gastrointestinal systems or fecal matter of animals (e.g., birds, reptiles, mammals) or contact with pet reptiles (especially turtles), baby chicks, and ducklings [54]. Contaminated foods are typically eggs and raw/processed meats [54]. Although modern disinfection practices render eggshell contamination rare, egg yolks may harbor Salmonella from the ovaries of infected hens [102]. In the northeastern United States, one in 10,000 eggs is contaminated [102]. Raw fruits and vegetables (e.g., cantaloupe, tomatoes, alfalfa sprouts) are usually externally contaminated, although Salmonella can infect the inside of a growing fruit or vegetable [54].
The onset of symptoms is usually 1 to 3 days after ingestion of contaminated food [13]. Salmonellosis is characterized by diarrhea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, and nausea that typically lasts 4 to 7 days [13,54]. Some individuals with infection may be asymptomatic, and others may present with colitis, bacteremia (sustained or intermittent), and/or focal infections (e.g., meningitis, osteomyelitis) [54].
Salmonella infection is diagnosed with a routine stool culture and is a nationally notifiable disease [13]. Antimicrobial treatment is avoided in the usual case of gastrointestinal salmonellosis, as this often leads to antimicrobial resistance and prolongs the carrier state. If the patient is at increased risk for the invasive form of the disease (i.e., not isolated to the gastrointestinal tract), antimicrobial agents such as fluoroquinolones or expanded-spectrum cephalosporins are suggested [9]. In addition, ampicillin, gentamicin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) have been effective [13,54].
The use of fluoroquinolones is not recommended for children if safe and effective alternatives are available; physicians should weigh the benefits of therapy against potential adverse musculoskeletal events, such as tendinitis and tendon rupture [9,54]. In July 2008, the FDA requested the addition of a boxed warning to fluoroquinolone prescribing information emphasizing these risks [103].
Campylobacter jejuni is a spiraled, motile, thermophilic, gram-negative rod considered unique among other foodborne pathogens because of its microaerophilic growth needs (i.e., 5% O
2, 10% CO 2) [54,60]. Campylobacter jejuni are more sensitive to low pH, heat, and arid conditions than other common foodborne pathogens [104]. The infective dose is 400 cells [28].
Campylobacter infection, campylobacteriosis, is the second leading cause of infectious foodborne illness in the United States, with an incidence of 13.6 per 100,000 [2]. Compared with 2006–2008, the incidence of reported Campylobacter foodborne infections increased 13% in 2014 [2]. Most cases of campylobacteriosis are sporadic and not associated with an outbreak. However, in 2008, 25 outbreaks were reported (21 confirmed and 4 suspected), affecting 615 individuals [14]; and in 2013, 27 known or suspected outbreaks were reported, causing 287 illnesses and 23 hospitalizations [3]. In 2012, a multistate outbreak of Campylobacter infections resulting in 147 illnesses was associated with ingestion of unpasteurized milk. The common source traced to a single dairy holding a permit to produce unpasteurized milk [106].
Campylobacter is associated with poultry, livestock, flies on farms, wild and caged animals, and pets [107,108]. Most cases of foodborne Campylobacter infection are caused by the consumption of undercooked poultry or from cross-contamination of other foods by these items. Outbreaks are most often associated with unpasteurized dairy products, poultry, and produce irrigated with contaminated water [106,108].
Symptoms usually occur 2 to 5 days after consumption of contaminated food [13]. The classic symptoms of campylobacteriosis are similar to those associated with acute appendicitis. Symptoms include so-called sticky diarrhea with blood/fecal leukocytes, abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and muscular pain; vomiting is rare [13,54]. Symptoms generally last for 2 to 10 days [13].
Acute Campylobacter infection may cause intestinal hemorrhage, toxic colitis, meningitis, bacteremia, and HUS [54]. HUS is characterized by renal impairment, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, and thrombocytopenia and most frequently affects children with campylobacteriosis [28,54]. Other potential long-term complications of campylobacteriosis include reactive arthritis (1% to 7%), irritable bowel syndrome (25%), and Guillain-Barré syndrome (0.1%) [54,109,110]. The mortality rate associated with campylobacteriosis is 0.1% [28].
Most clinical laboratories can isolate Campylobacter spp. on request. Treatment is recommended only for severe cases of Campylobacter infection or for individuals who have a compromised immune system. When antimicrobial therapy is warranted, macrolides, such as erythromycin, or fluoroquinolones are the preferred drugs; however, resistance to these agents has increased with the use of antibiotics in chickens (as therapeutic agents or growth promoters) [9,111]. In general, Campylobacter is susceptible to chloramphenicol and clindamycin [111].
Shigella spp. are highly infectious, gram-negative, non-spore-forming, facultative anaerobes [28]. Unlike pathogenic Salmonella and Campylobacter, Shigella is nonmotile [28]. Four species (with more than 40 serotypes) have been identified: Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Shigella boydii, and Shigella sonnei [54]. These species are also known as groups A, B, C, and D, respectively [60]. Because Shigella is enteroinvasive in the large intestine, it is commonly mistaken for an enteroinvasive E. coli [60]. In experimental situations, as few as 10 organisms has caused disease in 10% of volunteers, and 500 organisms has routinely caused disease in 50% of volunteers [56].
According to preliminary data from 2014, Shigella is the third leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States, with an incidence of 5.8 per 100,000 [2]. The most prevalent pathogenic species is Shigella sonnei, which has been isolated in 75% to 80% of Shigella infections [112,113,114]. Outbreaks may continue for months in closed populations [115]. The other Shigella spp. isolated in association with outbreaks are Shigella flexneri (18%), Shigella boydii (1%), and Shigella dysenteriae (<1%) [113]. In 2013, Shigella accounted for only four reported outbreaks and 31 illnesses [3].
Typically, only primates harbor Shigella [28,54]. The pathogen is transmitted via the fecal-oral route through person-to-person contact, ingestion of contaminated food/water, and fomite contamination [28,54]. Because incidence rates peak in the late summer, the most common routes of Shigella exposure may differ from Salmonella and Campylobacter [101].
Shigellosis manifests as diarrhea (usually mucoid, possibly bloody), which may be accompanied by abdominal cramps/pain, fever, and tenesmus; symptoms usually occur within 8 to 48 hours after ingestion of the contaminated food and last 4 to 7 days [13,28]. Symptoms vary by Shigella species. For example, Shigella flexneri, Shigella boydii, and Shigella dysenteriae typically present with bloody diarrhea and severe systemic symptoms, whereas Shigella sonnei typically causes watery stools [54].
As with STECs, Shigella dysenteriae type I produces Shiga toxins, which cause HUS [54,28]. However, the development of HUS is delayed with Shigella dysenteriae, with a median of 7 days from the onset of Shigella-induced diarrhea to the development of HUS, compared with the typical 4 days for HUS caused by STEC infections [28,116].
Reactive arthritis will develop in approximately 7% of individuals with shigellosis, and Reiter syndrome will develop in 3% [60,117]. The mortality rate associated with the infection is less than 1% in the United States [16,118].
Stool samples or rectal swabs should be obtained during the acute phase of the disease and cultured for Shigella [54]. Blood samples should be examined for signs of bacteremia in patients who are severely ill, are malnourished, or have a compromised immune system [54]. Shigella infection is a nationally notifiable disease.
Shigella dysenteriae type I Shiga toxins are often identified with use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays [54]. Shigella-induced neutrophilia is typically greater than that caused by STECs; the degree of neutrophilia at the onset of disease may be used to predict the development and potential severity of HUS [118].
Antimicrobial therapy is not advised for most cases of infection with Shigella spp. because of high rates of resistance [28,54]. These resistance rates have been reported to be approximately 78% for ampicillin, 56% for streptomycin, 47% for sulfisoxazole, and 46% for TMP-SMX [113]. In addition, resistance to both ampicillin and TMP-SMX has been found in 38% of cases [113].
For patients with severe disease, most resistant Shigella strains can be treated with azithromycin (oral) or ceftriaxone (intramuscular) [54]. Fluoroquinolones may be effective for adults with suspected shigellosis who have fever, tenesmus, and inflammation [9]. Early and appropriate antimicrobial treatment of Shigella dysenteriae type I infections may prevent HUS [54,60].
E. coli is a motile gram-negative rod common to the human gastrointestinal tract. Although most E. coli are nonpathogenic and beneficial, some are diarrheagenic [60]. Six diarrheagenic virotypes have been identified, of which the primary ones are STEC (Shiga toxin-producing or enterohemorrhagic E. coli) and enterotoxigenic E. coli (traveler's diarrhea). Enteropathogenic E. coli (infantile diarrhea) occurs primarily in developing countries. The remaining three virotypes—enteroaggregative, enteroinvasive, and diffusely adherent E. coli—are not as well-established as the others [112,119]. The incubation period is 1 to 8 days for STEC and 1 to 3 days for enterotoxigenic E. coli [13].
STEC O157 is the most virulent as well as the most commonly identified STEC [32,119]. In 2010, STEC O157 was the fifth leading bacterial cause of foodborne illness in the United States [16]. In 2014, the reported incidence of STEC 0157 was 0.92 cases per 100,000, a 32% decrease over that reported for 2006–2008 [2]. Infection with STEC non-O157 is more frequent than infection with STEC O157 [2]. Non-O157 serogroups in the United States include O26 (22%), O11 (16%), and O103 (12%) [32,54]. In 2013, 28 confirmed outbreaks of STEC O157 were reported, affecting approximately 400 individuals [3].
Human STEC infection typically follows consumption of fecally contaminated food/water or person-to-person contact with infected (usually symptomatic) individuals [54,119]. Undercooked ground beef or cattle contact causes most STEC O157 outbreaks; however, contaminated raw milk, dry-cured salami, unpasteurized fruit juice, vegetables, and petting zoos have also been associated with STEC O157 outbreaks [32,119].
Symptoms typically begin 1 to 8 days after consumption of contaminated food [11]. Initially, individuals experience severe abdominal cramping/pain, watery diarrhea, vomiting, and/or low-grade fever [60,119]. Medical attention is usually sought during the second stage, when diarrhea becomes visibly bloody [54]. In most cases, the disease is self-limiting, with symptoms resolving within 5 to 10 days [13,119].
Stool samples for culture should be obtained as close to the onset of symptoms as possible, and testing for STEC O157 must be specifically requested [13,54]. In some clinical laboratories, immunoassays are used to detect Shiga toxins [32,54]. Physicians should request that STEC strains be identified for patients and their contacts who have bloody diarrhea, HUS, and/or thrombotic thrombocytopenia purpura (TTP) [54].
Nonspecific supportive treatment approaches, including hydration, are used for patients with STEC infections. Antimicrobial therapy is not recommended [119]. It was once thought that antimicrobial agents promoted the development of HUS, but a meta-analysis has shown that this is not the case [120]. Nevertheless, STECs cause approximately 90% of all cases of HUS, and the syndrome will develop in 8% of children infected with STEC [118]. Patients should be monitored for potential HUS development with measurements of complete blood cell count with differential and blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels [54]. HUS is unlikely to develop in patients with no indication of hemolysis, nephropathy, and thrombocytopenia 3 days after infection [54]. TTP, which is characterized by HUS, neurologic abnormalities, and fever, typically affects adults, especially individuals older than 65 years of age [54].
Enterotoxigenic E. coli is a major cause of bacteria-related diarrhea in individuals who travel outside the United States, especially to developing countries [112,121]. The infection has become more frequently identified as a cause of foodborne illness in the United States [122].
Symptoms usually occur 1 to 3 days after ingestion of contaminated food or water [13,121]. Symptoms include watery diarrhea for 3 to 7 days, abdominal cramps, nausea, and malaise; low-grade fever is an infrequent symptom [13,54,121]. Manifestation of the infection ranges from minor discomfort to a severe cholera-like syndrome [60].
Distinguishing enterotoxigenic E. coli from nonpathogenic E. coli is difficult for most clinical laboratories, but enterotoxigenic E. coli can be identified in research laboratories accessed through the state health department [54,121]. Testing for the organism must be specifically requested [13,121].
Treatment with antibiotics is not routinely needed for enterotoxigenic E. coli infection [13]. For severe illness, recommended antimicrobial agents are TMP-SMX, ciprofloxacin, and azithromycin [54]. Fluoroquinolones may also decrease the duration of illness caused by enterotoxigenic E. coli and other travel-related bacterial pathogens from 3 to 5 days to 1 to 2 days [9,121].
Listeria monocytogenes is an aerobic, gram-positive, usually pathogenic bacillus [28,54]. Although non-spore-forming, Listeria is resistant to freezing, drying, and heat, and it multiplies in refrigerated foods [28,54]. The organism attacks the gastrointestinal epithelium and then enters the bloodstream to replicate; it can enter the brain and placenta by infecting circulating phagocytes [28,60]. The infective dose is fewer than 1,000 cells [28].
Since 2000, the incidence of listeriosis has decreased considerably, by 34% between 1989 and 1993 and by 36% from 1996 to 2006 [112]. In 2008, 33 individuals were affected by three confirmed outbreaks [14]. In 2013, six reported foodborne listeriosis outbreaks resulted in 34 illnesses, 30 hospitalizations, and 6 deaths [3]. In 2011, health officials in Colorado notified the CDC of seven cases of listeriosis associated with consumption of cantaloupe from the same farm [123].
Pregnant women are at high risk for the disease, but symptoms are nonspecific and diagnosis is difficult [124]. Maternal infection leads to premature birth or spontaneous abortion in many cases [28,125,126]. The mortality rate associated with Listeria infection is approximately 20% to 30% [74,75].
Ubiquitous in the environment, Listeria is found in many species of mammals (particularly herd animals), birds, and marine life [28,54]. Contaminated soil or water can cause contamination of fruits and vegetables or farm animals. Raw (unpasteurized) milk is a primary source. As many as 10% of humans are carriers of the pathogen [28].
Foodborne listeriosis often begins with fever, muscle aches, nausea, and possibly diarrhea; gastrointestinal symptoms usually begin within 9 to 48 hours after ingestion [13]. In pregnant women, infection usually manifests as mild flu-like symptoms [13]. Potential complications include bacteremia and meningitis [13]. Listeriosis-related meningitis is associated with a mortality rate of approximately 70% [28]. Invasive disease typically manifests 2 to 6 weeks after ingestion [13].
Samples of blood, cerebrospinal fluid, gastric washings, meconium, placental tissue, and other infected tissue are appropriate for culture and gram stain [28,54]. Infection with Listeria is a nationally notifiable disease. Since 2004, the CDC has requested that patients with listeriosis be interviewed with use of a standardized Listeria Initiative questionnaire. Use of this tool provides timely exposure information for case-control analyses [126].
Intravenous ampicillin, penicillin, or TMP-SMX is recommended for invasive disease; cephalosporins are ineffective [13,54]. Patients with meningitis should be treated with antibiotics for 14 to 21 days [54].
Vibrio are gram-negative, motile, comma-shaped rods [65,71]. Commonly found in aquatic environments, they are salt-tolerant, facultative anaerobes [71]. Pathogens in this species/class include Vibrio cholerae and noncholera Vibrio spp.
Vibrio cholerae is classified into two serotypes: O1 and non-O1 [127]. O1 is further subdivided into two biotypes: classical and El Tor. El Tor is the major cholera-causing biotype [54,128,129]. Of the non-O1 serotypes, O139 and O141 cause clinical cholera [54,129,130]. The infective dose is 10
7 cells [28].
Cholera is rare in the United States (one outbreak was reported in 2011) as well as in other industrialized nations [131]. However, it is still common in some parts of the world, including the Indian subcontinent and sub-Saharan Africa [112]. Of the 221,226 cholera cases reported to the World Health Organization in 2009, 99% were reported from Africa [129].
Symptom onset is 1 to 3 days after ingestion [13]. Most patients with cholera will experience minimal or no symptoms [112]. However, the disease can be associated with profuse, watery diarrhea that lasts 3 to 7 days; there is usually no abdominal pain or fever [54,129]. Stool is colorless with flecks of mucus—sometimes referred to as "rice water"—and the initial stool may exceed one liter [54,129]. In approximately 5% to 10% of cases, the individual becomes severely dehydrated and metabolic acidosis and hypokalemia may develop within hours [13,54,129]. Vibrio cholerae infection can progress to hypovolemic shock, seizures, coma, and death, particularly in children [54].
Vibrio cholerae can be detected in culture of stool or vomitus, but the test must be specifically requested [13,129]. Isolates should be forwarded to the state health department for serogrouping [54]. Cholera is a nationally notifiable disease.
Rehydration should begin as soon as cholera is suspected and should be aggressive [13,54,129]. If possible, antimicrobial susceptibility testing is recommended because many Vibrio cholerae type O139 strains are resistant to TMP-SMX [54]. Oral doxycycline (single dose) or tetracycline (3-day regimen) is recommended, especially for adults [13]. Although tetracycline stains developing teeth in children younger than 8 years of age, the American Association of Pediatrics has noted that the benefit of tetracycline therapy outweighs the risks for children with severe cholera [54]. Tetracycline-resistant strains may be effectively treated with ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, or TMP-SMX [13,54].
Noncholera Vibrio is commonly found in all seawater [28,54]. The species of noncholera Vibrio that cause gastroenteritis include Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus [13]. Vibrio parahaemolyticus naturally inhabits coastal waters in the United States and Canada and is present in higher concentrations during the summer [112]. Vibrio vulnificus normally inhabits warmer seawater [112,129]. The infective dose is 10
7 cells [28].
According to preliminary data from 2014, the incidence of Vibrio infection is 0.45 per 100,000, and the incidence is highest among individuals 60 years of age and older [2]. The risk for infection is greatest for individuals who consume raw/undercooked seafood (especially oysters, shrimp, and crabs) and individuals who have liver disease [54]. In 2008, one confirmed outbreak of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and one suspected outbreak of another Vibrio species were reported, affecting five individuals [14].
The time from ingestion to onset of symptoms can be as short as 2 to 48 hours (Vibrio parahaemolyticus) or 1 to 7 days (Vibrio vulnificus) [13]. Unlike cholera, noncholera Vibrio infection, or vibriosis, causes abdominal cramps along with watery diarrhea [28,54]. More than half of patients have a fever, chills, and headache, and at least 25% experience vomiting [54]. Bacteremia may develop in individuals with a compromised immune system [54].
Vibriosis can be diagnosed by culture of stool or vomitus samples, and the test must be specifically requested [13,28,54,129]. Vibrio infection became a nationally notifiable disease in January 2007 [112].
Treatment is recommended only for severe disease. Recommended antimicrobial agents include tetracycline and doxycycline, as well as gentamicin and cefotaxime (Vibrio parahaemolyticus) and ceftazidime (Vibrio vulnificus) [13].
Yersinia are pleomorphic, gram-negative rods [54]. Only Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis are associated with gastroenteritis [28]. The infective dose is unknown, but is estimated to be between 10
4 to 10 6 organisms [28].
In 2014, the incidence of yersiniosis was 0.3 per 100,000, a decrease of 22% compared with that reported for 2006–2008 [2]. The incidence is highest among children younger than 5 years of age. Yersinia enterocolitica O:3 is the most frequently identified serotype [28,54].
Pigs are the primary reservoirs for Yersinia [132]. However, humans may be carriers for several months after infection [54,132]. Commonly associated foods are raw/undercooked pork, oysters, fish, unpasteurized milk, and ice cream [28,54]. The organism can grow at 4°C, which means that refrigerated meats can be sources of infection [28,56]. Waterborne infections are rare [54].
Symptoms associated with Yersinia infection usually occur within 24 to 48 hours after ingestion of contaminated food [13]. The clinical presentation of yersiniosis is age-specific. In infants and young children, mucoid diarrhea with blood and leukocytes, as well as fever, is common, whereas in adolescents and adults, an appendicitis-like syndrome (i.e., diarrhea, vomiting, fever, abdominal pain) usually occurs [28,54]. Yersinia enterocolitica may lead to reactive arthritis in 2% to 3% of individuals with infection, even in the absence of obvious symptoms [28,54]. Bacteremia is a potential complication among children with excessive iron storage or who have compromised immune systems [54].
Clostridium perfringens are anaerobic, gram-positive spore-forming rods that are widely distributed in the environment. Spores exist in soil, sediments, and areas subject to human or animal fecal pollution [28]. The infective dose is more than 10
8 vegetative cells [28]. Related disease is caused by toxins excreted by the bacteria rather than infection.
The CDC has attributed nearly 1 million domestically acquired foodborne illnesses to Clostridium perfringens [133]. In 2008, Clostridium perfringens accounted for the second greatest number of illnesses (1,409) in 40 reported outbreaks (21 confirmed and 19 suspected) of foodborne disease [14]. More recently, these numbers have declined somewhat. In 2013, 27 known or suspected outbreaks of Clostridium perfringens were reported, causing 601 illnesses [3].
Small numbers of Clostridium perfringens are present in some foods after cooking and multiply to the level of an infective dose if cooked foods are cooled or stored at inappropriate temperatures [28,133]. Common sources for the bacteria are meat, meat products, and gravy [38,133].
Symptoms of Clostridium perfringens poisoning include watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and nausea; fever is rare [13,28]. The onset of symptoms is usually 8 to 22 hours after ingestion of contaminated food. Illness is usually relatively mild and rarely leads to hospitalization. Symptoms usually resolve within 24 to 48 hours, although less severe symptoms may last for 1 to 2 weeks in some patients (i.e., older individuals, individuals with compromised immune systems) [13,28,133].
Perfringens poisoning is diagnosed primarily by the clinical presentation, but the toxin can be detected in stool samples. A stool culture can also be done to detect Clostridium perfringens, but because these bacteria are normally found in stool, a quantitative analysis should be done [13,133]. Food can also be cultured, and an exceptionally high number of the bacteria indicates contamination [28]. Antimicrobial therapy is not indicated for perfringens poisoning, as it is ineffective against the toxin [13,133].
Clostridium botulinum is ubiquitous in soil, and under anaerobic conditions, the rod-shaped bacteria form spores that allow them to survive in a dormant state until they are exposed to conditions that support their growth [112]. The bacteria produce neurotoxins; human disease is typically caused by neurotoxins A, B, and E; F rarely causes disease in humans [28,54]. The infective dose is an extremely small amount (i.e., several nanograms) [28].
Foodborne botulism is relatively rare, primarily due to the improvements in commercial canning processes, which have reduced the incidence of botulism. However, outbreaks do occur. A small outbreak (eight cases) in 2007 involved a commercial brand of canned chili sauce [43]. During 2008 and 2009, the CDC and state and local health departments in Ohio and Washington investigated three outbreaks of botulism caused by unsafe home canning of vegetables [134]. In 2011, consumption of commercially produced (and then improperly stored) potato soup was associated with toxin type A botulism in two individuals in separate states [135]. There were no reported foodborne outbreaks of Clostridium botulinum in 2013 [3].
The incidence of foodborne botulism in Alaska remains more than 800 times the overall U.S. rate [136]. Approximately 27% of all foodborne botulism cases in the United States have occurred in that state [137]. Between 1950 and 2000, 114 outbreaks (226 cases) of foodborne botulism were recorded in Alaska and involved Alaska Natives [137,138]. In 2010, 112 confirmed cases of botulism were reported to the CDC, with foodborne botulism accounting for nine of the cases (8%) [139]. Infant botulism was more common than foodborne botulism, with 85 cases (76%) reported in 2010 [139]. Most cases of infant botulism have occurred in breastfed babies when nonhuman-milk foods were introduced [54,56]. The rate of mortality associated with the disease is approximately 5% [112].
Botulism is caused by ingestion of Clostridium botulinum toxin produced in food [112]. The most common source is home-canned foods that have been prepared in an unsafe manner. Infant botulism occurs when Clostridium botulinum spores germinate and produce toxin in the gastrointestinal tract of infants. The risk of infant botulism is high among infants who eat honey before the age of 1 year, as honey is a source of the spores that produce Clostridium botulinum [54].
Symptoms of foodborne botulism typically occur within 12 to 72 hours after ingestion of contaminated food but may occur as late as 10 days following ingestion [13,140]. Characteristic symptoms include weakness with disproportionate involvement of cranial nerves (diplopia, dysarthria, dysphagia) and symmetric descending flaccid paralysis in the absence of sensory changes that usually accompany other disorders with similar symptoms, such as stroke or Guillain-Barré syndrome [28,54,56]. If symptoms of muscle paralysis are left untreated, they may progress to cause permanent paralysis of the arms, legs, trunk, and respiratory muscles.
Infant botulism is characterized by constipation, lethargy, lack of appetite, drooling, and weakness, which begin 1 to 30 days after ingestion of contaminated food [13]. Subsequent symptoms include descending symmetrical paralysis manifested as bulbar palsies (e.g., poor head and muscle control, flat affect, ptosis, impaired swallow reflexes, sluggish pupillary reaction) [13]. Intubation and ventilatory support are necessary in the vast majority of cases [54].
Serum, stool, gastric fluid, vomitus, or food samples can be used to detect botulism neurotoxins [112]. Because its clinical presentation is similar to neurologic conditions, diagnostic testing should be done to rule out these conditions [112,140]. For example, the incremental increase of evoked muscle potentials at high frequency 20–50 Hz nerve stimulation may distinguish botulism from Guillain-Barré syndrome or myasthenia gravis [54,56]. Clostridium botulinum is a category A bioterrorism agent, and infection is a nationally notifiable disease [112].
Treatment should begin when botulism is suspected on the basis of symptoms and should not be delayed while waiting for confirmation from laboratory results [54]. If diagnosed early, foodborne botulism can be treated with an equine antitoxin that will prevent worsening of the disease. Antitoxins can be obtained from the CDC Drug Service [140]. Induced vomiting, gastric lavage, rapid purgation, or high enema can remove contaminated food in the gut [13,54]. A respirator is often needed, and complete recovery can take many weeks to months.
Infant botulism can be treated with botulism immune globulin, which can be obtained from the Infant Botulism Prevention Program, California Department of Public Health [140].
Bacillus cereus are gram-positive, aerobic spore-forming rods [28]. A large-molecular-weight protein is the cause of the diarrheal type illness, and a low-molecular-weight, heat-stable peptide is the cause of the emetic type illness [28]. The infective dose is thought to be greater than 10
6 organisms per gram of food [28].
Infection with Bacillus cereus is infrequent. In 2008, 15 outbreaks of the illness were reported (three confirmed and 12 suspected), affecting a total of 73 individuals [14]. By 2013, this number had declined to five reported foodborne outbreaks and 25 illnesses [3].
Bacillus cereus food poisoning is transmitted through ingestion of contaminated food, and there is a broad range of potential food sources, including meats, milk, vegetables, and fish (diarrheal-type illness) and rice products and other starchy foods, such as potato, pasta, and cheese products (emetic-type illness) [28]. Outbreaks have often involved food mixtures, such as sauces, puddings, soups, casseroles, and pastries. Bacillus cereus is heat resistant and can survive cooking (even at recommended temperatures). In addition to contaminated food, transmission of infection can also occur with improper food handling or storage; person-to-person transmission is rare [28].
The symptoms caused by the diarrheal type of Bacillus cereus food poisoning are similar to those of Clostridium perfringens infection. Symptoms include watery diarrhea and abdominal cramps that may be accompanied by nausea but usually not vomiting. The onset of symptoms is typically 6 to 16 hours after ingestion of contaminated food [13,28]. Symptoms usually resolve within 24 to 48 hours [13].
The enteric type of Bacillus cereus food poisoning causes symptoms similar to those associated with foodborne Staphylococcus aureus infection. The onset of nausea and vomiting occurs within 1 to 6 hours after ingestion of contaminated food and may be accompanied by diarrhea and/or abdominal cramps [13,28]. Symptoms usually resolve within 24 hours.
The diagnosis of either type of Bacillus cereus food poisoning is based primarily on the clinical presentation. Laboratories do not routinely identify the enteric type of Bacillus cereus; testing for the toxin in food and stool samples should be considered if an outbreak is suspected [13]. Antimicrobial therapy is not indicated for Bacillus cereus food poisoning [13].
Brucella spp. are gram-negative, nonmotile coccobacilli [54]. Brucella melitensis and Brucella ovis are found in sheep and goats, Brucella abortus is found in cattle, and Brucella suis is found in pigs [112]. The infective dose for aerosolized infection is 10–100 organisms [56].
Brucellosis is rare in the United States, with an incidence of less than 0.5 per 100,000 [105,141]. Most cases are caused by Brucella melitensis, the majority of which are reported from California, Florida, Texas, and Virginia [112]. In 2013, there were no reported outbreaks [3,14].
In the United States, milk or dairy products from contaminated animals are the most common sources of infection with Brucella [112,141]. Transmission through person-to-person contact is extremely rare.
Symptoms typically occur 7 to 21 days after ingestion of contaminated food [13]. The clinical presentation of brucellosis is nonspecific and includes fever with chills, sweating, malaise, headache, and myalgia as well as diarrhea, which may be bloody during the acute stage of disease [13]. Symptoms may last for weeks. Meninges, bone, and/or the heart may be involved, which can lead to such complications as meningitis, osteomyelitis, and endocarditis [54,141]. Disease is usually more severe in adults than in children [54].
Samples of blood, bone marrow, or other tissues are tested for the bacteria and must be incubated for 4 weeks before testing [54,141]. The CDC has designated Brucella as a category B bioterrorism agent, and infections are nationally notifiable [112].
Recommended therapy for brucellosis is doxycycline and rifampin for at least 6 weeks [141]. Individuals who have complications should be treated with the combination of rifampin, tetracycline, and an aminoglycoside [13].
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive, catalase-positive coccus that grows in grape-like clusters or chains when cultured [28]. Pathogenicity is caused by eight heat-stable enterotoxins (A, B, C1, C2, C3, D, E, and F) [28,54]. Of these, staphylococcal enterotoxin A is usually responsible for foodborne-illness outbreaks [54]. The infective dose is 1.0 mcg of toxin [28].
In 2013, Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin was implicated in six reported outbreaks involving 263 illnesses and 27 hospitalizations [3].
Staphylococcus aureus is transmitted through person-to-person contact, usually as a result of a food handler who is infected with the bacteria [112]. The bacteria will multiply on improperly stored foods, especially pastries, custards, salad dressings, cheeses, meat products, and expressed human milk [54,112]. Staphylococcal toxins are resistant to heat and cannot be destroyed by cooking [112].
Staphylococcal food poisoning is characterized by the rapid onset of nausea and vomiting, which may occur within 30 minutes of ingestion (range: 1 to 6 hours) [13,112,142]. Other symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fever [13,142]. The disease is usually mild, with recovery within 1 to 3 days [13,112].
Staphylococcus aureus toxins can be identified from stool, vomitus, and food, but microbiologic testing is not usually done [13,142]. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B is classified as a category B bioterrorism agent and is nationally notifiable [112].
Antimicrobial agents should not be used to treat foodborne Staphylococcus aureus infection, as they are not effective against the toxins [142].
As noted previously, the three viruses associated with foodborne illness are caliciviruses (e.g., norovirus), hepatitis A virus, and rotavirus. Astroviruses and enteric adenoviruses have been implicated in isolated cases and outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis but are much less common. Treatment of viral foodborne illnesses consists primarily of rehydration and supportive therapy.
Caliciviruses are nonenveloped ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses [56]. The two caliciviruses most likely to cause foodborne illness are norovirus and sapovirus. There are six recognized norovirus genogroups divided into 25 different genotypes. Three of the genogroups (GI, GII, and GIV) affect humans [143]. Sapovirus also consists of five genogroups (GI–GV), and all except GIII cause infection in humans [144,145]. The infective dose for both types of viruses is 10–100 viral particles [56,143,147].
Norovirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis and foodborne disease outbreaks in the United States. According to estimates derived from surveillance data, norovirus causes 2 million illnesses, 56,000 to 71,000 hospitalizations, and 570 to 800 deaths annually [105,143]. In 2013, norovirus was the most common cause of confirmed single-etiology foodborne outbreaks, accounting for 154 (35%) outbreaks and 3,758 (40%) illnesses; moreover, it was the suspect etiologic agent for an additional 103 outbreaks and 1,241 food-related illnesses [3]. The incidence of norovirus infection increases during the winter months, and periodic outbreaks tend to occur in association with the emergence of new GII strains that evade population immunity [147].
In 2009, the CDC launched CaliciNet, an outbreak surveillance network for noroviruses in the United States [148,149]. The CDC uses the information to link norovirus outbreaks, monitor trends, and identify emerging strains. As of 2012, 25 state public health laboratories have been certified by the CDC to participate in CaliciNet [149].
Between 2009 and 2012, norovirus was the etiologic pathogen identified in 1,008 foodborne outbreaks, accounting for 48% of all reported outbreaks with a single known cause [146]. Eating in restaurants was the most common setting (65%), and food handlers were implicated as the source in 70% of outbreaks in which factors contributing to contamination could be identified. Other factors included contamination of food during preparation (92%) and consumption of raw food (75%) [146]. Specific food categories were implicated in only 67 outbreaks, the most frequent being leafy vegetables (30%), fruits (21%), and mollusks (19%) [146].
Foodborne infection with either norovirus or sapovirus is transmitted via the fecal-oral route through infected food handlers, exposure to contaminated surfaces, consumption of contaminated food, or rarely, ingestion of contaminated water [143,146,147]. Aerosolized norovirus particles in vomitus can also contribute to spread of the disease, and these particles can travel a distance of up to 3 feet [143,150,151]. The most common sources are prepared foods (e.g., sandwiches, salads) and raw produce [68].
The symptoms associated with infection with either norovirus or sapovirus are nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea (usually watery), fever, myalgia, and headache [13,143]. Diarrhea is more common among adults, and vomiting is more common among children [13,143]. The onset of disease is 24 to 48 hours but may be as few as 12 hours [13,143]. Symptoms usually resolve within 24 to 72 hours [143]. Viral shedding lasts 2 weeks in otherwise healthy individuals and longer in individuals with compromised immune systems [56,147].
The diagnosis of norovirus or sapovirus is usually made on the basis of the clinical presentation and the lack of positive results on stool cultures for bacteria [13]. The absence of white blood cells in the stool is also an indicator of the virus [13]. Reference/research laboratories can identify norovirus or sapovirus in stool with reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunoassays, or electron microscopy [56,143,147].
Hepatitis A is an RNA virus with only one serotype, and seven genotypes (I–VII); genotypes I, II, III, and VII cause disease in humans [54]. In North America, most hepatitis A infections are caused by subtype IA [56]. The infective dose is believed to be 10–100 viral particles [28]. The virus replicates in the liver and is shed (in high concentrations) in the stool [152]. Unlike other forms of hepatitis, hepatitis A infection is self-limited and does not cause chronic infection or chronic liver disease [152].
The hepatitis A vaccine, which became available in 1995, has led to a 92% decrease in the incidence of the disease [152]. In 2009, the incidence of hepatitis A was 1.0 per 100,000 [152]. The highest incidence is found among young adults, especially those in lower socioeconomic classes [54]. Four confirmed outbreaks of foodborne hepatitis A (172 individuals) were reported in 2013 [3]. Outbreaks of hepatitis A have been caused by fruits (strawberries) and vegetables (green onions) that were contaminated during packing or shipping from farms outside the United States; one of these outbreaks involved 601 individuals who had consumed green onions at a single restaurant in Pennsylvania [44].
Foodborne hepatitis A is transmitted via person-to-person contact (fecal-oral); waterborne transmission is rare in the United States and other developed countries [152]. The virus is destroyed if heated to 185°F for 1 minute; however, the virus may be spread from cooked food if it is contaminated after cooking [54]. Because children with hepatitis A are often asymptomatic, they play a key role in transmission [56].
The incubation period of hepatitis A is 2 to 5 weeks (average: 4 weeks) [153]. Jaundice occurs in most infected older children and adults [13]. In children younger than 6 years of age, jaundice is uncommon; only 30% of children are symptomatic at this age [13]. Other common symptoms among children and adults are dark urine, fever, malaise, and loss of appetite [13,54].
Symptoms persist for several days to months [13,54]. Communicability extends from 1 to 2 weeks before the onset of disease to about 1 week after the development of jaundice [56]. The risk for severe illness is higher for individuals with chronic liver disease or clotting-factor disorders [54,152]. Hepatitis A-induced acute liver failure is uncommon (0.4%) and is most likely to manifest in people with chronic liver disease [54].
The presence of anti-hepatitis A immunoglobulin (Ig) M in serum represents current or recent infection; anti-hepatitis IgG in the absence of IgM indicates past infection [54]. Increases in serum levels of bilirubin and alanine aminotransferase are also indicators of infection [13].
"Rota" (Latin for wheel) describes the wheel-like structure of these viruses, which is made up of 11 double-stranded RNA segments surrounded by a distinctive two-layered protein capsid [28]. Six serologic groups have been identified, three of which (groups A, B, and C) infect humans [28]. The infective dose is believed to be 10–100 viral particles [13].
In the United States, annual epidemics of rotavirus spread from the Southwest to the Northeast between fall and spring [54]. Prior to introduction of the rotavirus vaccine in 2006, almost all children in the United States had been infected by 5 years of age [154]. By extension, the virus affects approximately 20% of adults having close contact with an infant [54].
Rotavirus is transmitted via the fecal-oral route through person-to-person contact or fomites. Rotavirus is stable in the environment [154].
The primary symptoms of rotavirus infection are vomiting, watery diarrhea, and low-grade fever, all of which occur 1 to 3 days after infection [13]. Temporary lactose intolerance may occur [28]. Symptoms typically last 4 to 8 days and are milder in adults than in children [13]. Infection can become persistent in individuals who have compromised immune systems [54].
Diagnosis of rotavirus infection is made primarily on the basis of the clinical presentation and the nondetection of bacteria in stool cultures. The virus can be detected in a stool sample with use of a radioimmunoassay [154].
Astroviruses are nonenveloped single-stranded RNA viruses with a star-like morphology; eight antigenic types cause human disease [28,54]. Adenoviruses, which contain double-stranded DNA, usually cause respiratory infection, but serotypes 40 and 41 are enteric [28]. Adenoviruses are unusually stable, allowing them to survive outside the body for prolonged periods [155]. The infective doses are not known but are thought to be low [28].
Astroviruses and adenoviruses infect children more often than adults, and the incidence is highest among children younger than 4 years of age [54,155]. According to the most recent data, no outbreaks of astrovirus have occurred in the United States [14].
Astroviruses and adenoviruses are transmitted via the fecal-oral route through an infected food handler or exposure to a contaminated surface [54]. Enteric adenovirus may also be transmitted via respiratory secretions [28].
The incubation period for these viruses ranges from 10 to 70 hours [13]. Associated symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, fever, malaise, and headache [13,54]. Symptoms typically resolve within 2 to 9 days, and the virus is shed for a median of 5 days after the onset of symptoms [13,54]. In individuals with a compromised immune system, viral shedding is often persistent [54].
Commercial assays are available to detect astroviruses and adenoviruses in stool samples, although testing is uncommon [13].
As with bacterial and viral infections, most parasitic infections are self-limiting. Treatment with only rehydration is often adequate.
Cryptosporidium are obligate intracellular coccidia with an infective oocyst stage [56]. Oocysts are excreted by an infected host through feces and possibly other routes (e.g., respiratory secretions) [156]. Human disease is caused by Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum[156]. The infective dose for healthy adults is 30 oocysts; the dose is greater (100–1,000 oocysts) for reinfection after 1 year [56]. Cryptosporidium targets the jejunum and terminal ileum [56].
The prevalence of cryptosporidiosis in North America is estimated to be 2% of the population; serologic surveys have indicated that 80% of the population has had the infection [28]. Three confirmed outbreaks of foodborne infection with Cryptosporidium were reported in 2013, affecting 29 individuals [3]. The incidence of Cryptosporidium was 2.4 per 100,000 in 2014, ranking it fourth among the infectious foodborne pathogens monitored in the FoodNet program [2]. Rates of cryptosporidiosis peak strongly in the late summer [101].
Acquisition of cryptosporidiosis usually occurs by way of food contamination by an infected food handler [13]. Animals raised for food may also serve as vehicles for transmission, and the parasite most commonly infects herd animals (e.g., cows, goats, sheep) [28]. Fresh produce may also become contaminated [28].
Infection with Cryptosporidium causes noninflammatory, profuse watery diarrhea, and stomach cramps, upset stomach, and slight fever may also be present [13,56,157]. Some individuals may be asymptomatic [54,56,157]. The onset of symptoms is usually within 2 to 10 days [13,157]. Although infection is self-limiting in otherwise healthy individuals (10 to 14 days), it can become chronic in individuals with compromised immune systems [56,157].
Acid-fast staining of stool samples is a common means of testing [56]. Four commercial enzyme immunoassays are available for detecting oocyst antigens in stool specimens [54,56]. These tests must be ordered specifically [13]. Because shedding may be intermittent, three stool samples collected on different days should be tested before suspected cryptosporidiosis can be ruled out [54]. Cryptosporidium infection is a nationally notifiable disease.
Cyclospora cayetanensis is an oocyst-forming, unicellular coccidium [54,156,158]. This species is the cause of all cyclosporiasis in humans [156,158]. Unlike Cryptosporidium, the oocyst of Cyclospora shed in stools is not infective [156].
Cyclosporiasis occurs most commonly in tropical and subtropical areas [77,156]. The disease is not known to be endemic in the United States; however, since 1990, at least 11 foodborne outbreaks of cyclosporiasis, affecting approximately 3,600 persons, have been documented in the United States and Canada [156,158]. In 2009, 141 cases of Cyclospora were reported to the CDC [158]. In 2014, FoodNet surveillance identified 26 cases of Cyclospora foodborne disease, an incidence rate of 0.05 per 100,000 persons [2]. During the period of 1997–2008, the CDC was notified of 1,110 laboratory-confirmed cases of sporadic cyclosporiasis, occurring in 37 states, including seven in which cyclosporiasis is not an explicitly reportable disease. More than one-third of the case-patients had a documented history of international travel [77].
Individuals become infected with Cyclospora by ingesting oocysts that have become environmentally contaminated [158]. Direct person-to-person transmission of Cyclospora is unlikely because shed oocysts are noninfectious [156]. Washing of contaminated produce decreases, but does not eliminate, the risk of transmission [54]. A large outbreak of Cyclospora on imported raspberries demonstrates the potential risk for transmission from contaminated water or infected food handlers [45].
The onset of symptoms of cyclosporiasis is typically at least 1 week after ingestion of contaminated food (range: 2 to 14 days) [13,158]. Symptoms include profuse, usually watery diarrhea, loss of appetite with resultant weight loss, stomach cramps, nausea and vomiting, and fatigue [13,158]. Illness may become persistent (10 to 12 weeks) and relapsing if left untreated [13,158].
Giardiasis affects approximately 2% of the U.S. adult population [28,159]. In 2008, one outbreak of laboratory-confirmed giardiasis affected eight individuals [14]. Similar to cryptosporidiosis, the incidence of giardiasis peaks in late summer [101].
The onset of symptoms is usually 1 week after ingestion of contaminated food [13,159]. Symptoms of giardiasis include watery diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, and vomiting, which usually last for 1 to 3 weeks or longer [156]. However, many individuals with giardiasis are asymptomatic [54,159]. Disaccharide intolerance develops in approximately 40% of individuals [28]. Lasting immunity after infection is common [28]. Chronic, debilitating giardiasis may occur and affects more adults than children [28,54].
Diagnosis can be determined through the identification of cysts in stained fecal smears, of trophozoites in a smear of stool or duodenal fluid, or of antigens in stool samples [28,54]. The sensitivity of diagnostic testing is higher when samples of diarrhea are tested and when testing is done on specimens obtained on alternating days [54]. At least three stool specimens may be needed for accurate results [13]. Giardiasis is a nationally notifiable disease.
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects most species of warm-blooded animals, including humans [156]. The parasite forms tissue cysts, most commonly in skeletal muscle, myocardium, and brain, and these cysts may remain throughout the life of the host [156].
Toxoplasmosis is one of the most common human infections worldwide. An estimated 22.5% of the population 12 years of age and older has been infected with the parasite [160]. It is more common in warm climates and at lower altitudes [156].
Cats are the main reservoirs of Toxoplasma gondii, and they become infected through carnivorism [56,156,160]. Although cats shed oocysts for only 1 to 2 weeks, large numbers may be shed, and they can survive in the environment for several months, with considerable resistance to disinfectants, freezing, and drying [156]. Humans become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked, cyst-contaminated meat (primarily pork) or by ingesting oocysts from fecally contaminated hands or food [54,156,160,161]. Congenital toxoplasmosis develops as a result of maternal infection during pregnancy [156,160].
The incubation period for Toxoplasma gondii is 5 to 23 days [13]. Infected individuals are usually asymptomatic or have nonspecific symptoms [56,160]. Lymphadenopathy, with or without flu-like symptoms, will develop in approximately 10% to 20% of affected individuals [156]. Symptoms usually resolve within a few months to a year. Fetuses (infected through maternal transmission) and individuals with AIDS are the most susceptible to complications [54,160]. Although not evident at birth, mental retardation, visual impairment, and learning disabilities are likely to develop in children born with congenital toxoplasmosis [54,56,160].
Serologic testing for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies is the most commonly used diagnostic test [54,56,160]. It is important to note that chronic Toxoplasma gondii is difficult to diagnose in patients with HIV, as serologic tests are considered unreliable in this population [54].
Treatment is not necessary for individuals with healthy immune systems who are not pregnant. Pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine has been used to treat central nervous system toxoplasmosis in individuals with HIV infection [156].
The natural toxins most associated with foodborne illness are marine toxins and mushroom toxins.
Ocean and gulf algal blooms that occur along coastal areas are capable of producing many marine toxins that lead to foodborne "shellfish poisoning." These blooms were previously known as "red tides" because of the red discoloration they cause in the ocean. Contrary to common belief, however, red tides are not well correlated to outbreaks of shellfish poisoning. Red tide refers to the phenomenon by which pigmented phytoplankton reproduce to such a high concentration that it turns the water red or dark brown. However, nontoxic algae can also cause red tides. With the hope of clarifying this, the scientific community has adopted the term harmful algae bloom (HAB) for toxic red tides. It should also be noted that most production of toxic algae is not accompanied by the red coloration of seawater [162].
Different types of blooms occur in various geographic locations in the United States, and the toxins produced differ according to the bloom (
Table 12) [163]. Pyrodinium bahamense from harmful algal blooms have caused toxic pufferfish exclusively in the waters off the coast of Florida. Another toxin, tetrodotoxin, is also found in pufferfish, but in species that inhabit the shallow waters of the temperate and tropical zones [164]. These fish (e.g., ocean sunfishes, porcupine fishes, pufferfish [fugu]) are considered to be a delicacy in some cultures but are the most poisonous of all marine life [165]. Tetrodotoxin is among the most potent poisons known [166; 167]. HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS THAT PRODUCE MARINE TOXINS RESPONSIBLE FOR HUMAN ILLNESS
Region of the United States Harmful Algal Bloom Organism Toxin Human Illness Gulf of Mexico (Florida, Texas), Hawaii, Pacific Islands, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands Gambierdiscus spp., Prorocentrum spp.,Ostreopsis spp. Ciguatoxin, gambiertoxin, maitotoxin Ciguatera fish poisoning Northeast, Pacific Coast, Alaska Alexandrium spp. Saxitoxins Paralytic shellfish poisoning New England, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Coast Dinophysis spp. Okadaic acid Diarrheic shellfish poisoning Gulf of Mexico, South-Atlantic Coast Karenia spp. Brevetoxins Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning Pacific Coast, Alaska, Gulf of Mexico, Northeast, Mid-Atlantic Coast Pseudo-nitzschia spp. Domoic acid Amnesic shellfish poisoning South-Atlantic Coast (Florida) Pyrodinium bahamense Saxitoxins Pufferfish poisoning
An additional toxin, scombroid, is caused by an elevated level of histamine in fish, most frequently tuna, albacore, and mackerel. The growth of certain bacteria and their decarboxylase enzyme activity causes this histamine formation [12]. The CDC has also identified non-scombroid fish (e.g., mahi-mahi) as a source of scombroid toxicity. Scombroid poisoning is the principal chemical agent type of foodborne disease found in the United States [168,169].
Some mouse bioassays are available as diagnostic tools to identify marine toxins [167,170]. However, testing with these assays is usually available only in specialized laboratories. Tetrodotoxin may be detected by fluorescent spectrometry [167]. Diagnosis of marine toxin poisoning is typically based on the clinical presentation and a history of recent ingestion of a particular type of seafood. If a portion of the type of seafood eaten is still available, it can be tested for the presence of the toxin. However, treatment does not depend on the type of toxin, so such testing is not essential.
Ciguatera fish poisoning is endemic in tropical and subtropical regions of the Pacific basin, Indian Ocean, and Caribbean [46,171]. The illness occurs much less frequently in the United States, with 178 single exposures reported in 2010 [171]. However, the CDC estimates that 2% to 10% of poisonings may not be reported [170]. Worldwide, an estimated 50,000 cases of ciguatera poisoning occur each year [46,172].
Gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain) occur in more than 50% of individuals within 2 to 6 hours after ingestion of the toxin and may last 1 to 2 days; neurologic symptoms, which include reversal of temperature sensations, distal and perioral numbness and/or tingling, and dizziness, usually occur within a few hours to 3 days and can be persistent, lasting weeks to several months [13,170,171]. Within 2 to 5 days, cardiovascular symptoms (less common but potentially severe), such as bradycardia, hypotension, and T wave abnormalities, may appear [13,171].
Muscular weakness, paresthesias, and fatigue may last for weeks to months [170,171]. Women of childbearing age may have increased pain during menses, and intercourse may be painful for both men and women [46,173]. Among individuals with chronic symptoms, relapse may occur after stressful conditions or ingestion of fish (any type), alcohol, caffeine, or nuts, 3 to 6 months after the initial poisoning [170,174].
Serious illness may involve severe hypotension with bradycardia, respiratory difficulties, and paralysis [171,174]. Death as a result of respiratory and cardiovascular failure occurs in approximately 2% of infected individuals [175]. Children are most vulnerable to severe illness [176].
Intravenous mannitol should be given within 24 to 48 hours to relieve neurologic symptoms [13,170,176]. Gut emptying and charcoal decontamination is recommended acutely; however, gastrointestinal symptoms may prohibit this measure [170]. Atropine may be necessary for bradycardia, and dopamine or calcium gluconate may be administered for shock [171]. Amitriptyline (and similar medications) may be effective in relieving chronic symptoms of fatigue and paresthesias [170]. Opiates and barbiturates should be avoided, as they may interact with the toxin and cause hypotension [170].
Seven outbreaks of foodborne disease attributed to shellfish poisoning (three neurotoxic, four paralytic) were reported in 2007 [172]. In 2011, health officials in Alaska identified a total of eight confirmed and 13 probable cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning from consumption of noncommercially harvested Alaskan shellfish [177]. Children are particularly sensitive to paralytic shellfish toxins, and the mortality rate is particularly high in children [178]. Individuals older than 65 years of age are predisposed to the severe neurologic effects of amnesic shellfish poisoning [13]. The incidence of shellfish poisoning has been declining as a result of careful monitoring, beach closures, and improved public awareness [162].
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is the most severe type of illness. It has a mortality rate of 6% worldwide (higher in developing countries) [162]. This toxin (e.g., saxitoxin) causes tingling, burning, numbness, drowsiness, incoherent speech, and respiratory paralysis within 15 minutes to 3 hours after ingestion [162,170]. Other symptoms may include headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, rapid-onset pain, and anuria [170]. With severe illness, respiratory paralysis is common, occurring within 2 to 12 hours in severe poisoning, and persisting for as long as 72 hours to one week. Death may occur if respiratory support is not provided [162,170]. Patients surviving 9 hours usually recover, and recovery begins 12 hours after the onset of symptoms and may take a few days to resolve completely [170].
With diarrheic shellfish poisoning, symptoms occur 30 minutes to 12 hours after ingestion of the toxin [162,170]. Diarrhea occurs in almost all affected individuals (92%), and nausea and vomiting are also common (80% and 79%, respectively) [170]. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, chills, headache, and fever [13]. Illness usually resolves within 2 to 3 days, and recovery is complete, with no aftereffects [13,170]. No cases of death from diarrheic shellfish poisoning have been reported [162].
Symptoms of neurotoxic shellfish poisoning occur within a few minutes to 3 hours. The toxin (e.g., brevetoxin) causes both gastrointestinal and neurologic symptoms, generally mild and self-limited [162,179]. Gastrointestinal symptoms may include diarrhea and vomiting. Neurologic symptoms may include tingling and/or numbness of the lips, tongue, and throat; muscle aches; dizziness; and reversal of temperature sensations [13,162,180]. Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning is the least common of the shellfish poisonings and is less severe than ciguatera poisoning. Recovery is complete within hours to 2 to 3 days [13,170]. No fatalities have been reported [179].
Amnesic shellfish poisoning (e.g., domoic acid poisoning) causes symptoms of gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea) within 24 hours after ingestion [170]. Although a potentially serious poisoning, only one human outbreak has been reported [181]. The primary symptom was vomiting, occurring in approximately 76% of infected individuals; abdominal cramps occurred in about half of those affected [170,181]. In cases of severe poisoning, neurologic symptoms (i.e., dizziness, headache, seizures, disorientation, short-term memory loss, respiratory difficulty, coma) occur within 48 hours [170]. Cognitive dysfunction is most likely to be permanent in individuals who have neurologic symptoms within 48 hours after ingestion of the toxin, in men older than 60 years of age, and in individuals who have pre-existing conditions such as renal disease, diabetes, and hypertension with a history of transient ischemic attacks [170]. All reported fatalities associated with this toxin have involved individuals older than 65 years of age [170].
Gut decontamination and administration of activated charcoal or dilute bicarbonate solution is recommended when shellfish poisoning is diagnosed during the early stage of illness [170]. Treatment should include oral rehydration therapy, as it may enhance renal excretion of the toxin [170]. Respiratory support is recommended for individuals with moderately severe cases [13]. Anticholinesterase agents are not advised and may be harmful [170,182]. If seizures occur, intravenous diazepam or phenobarbital is recommended; the seizures may be resistant to phenytoin [170,183].
Foodborne illness caused by ingestion of pufferfish (tetrodotoxin [TTX]) is rare in the United States [162]. Most reports of pufferfish poisoning occur due to unskilled preparation by unlicensed cooks. The FDA allows importation into the United States through a single certified Japanese importer, but illegal importation continues and has resulted in multiple poisonings [184; 185]. The minimum lethal dose of TTX is estimated to be 2 mg but can vary depending on age and existing comorbidities. Reports of toxicity with consumption of 0.25–1.5 ounces of incorrectly prepared pufferfish has been reported by the CDC [162].
Symptoms typically occur 5 to 45 minutes after ingestion of the toxin but may be observed as late as several hours later [13,28,162]. Higher toxin ingestion is associated with a more rapid onset of symptoms [162]. Pufferfish poisoning is characterized by slight numbness of the lips and tongue, followed by increasing paraesthesia in the face and extremities and sensations of lightness or floating [28,180]. Gastrointestinal symptoms (vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain) and difficulty walking may occur. As paralysis increases, patients are unable to move and have respiratory distress. Decreased levels of consciousness, seizures, and death have occurred in as few as 17 minutes [162]. Without treatment, death occurs in 4 to 8 hours [13,28]. Patients are conscious and often lucid until shortly before death [180]. The mortality rate has been reported to be nearly 60% [186]. If treatment is begun before poisoning becomes severe, life-threatening effects are highly unlikely after 24 hours [166].
There is no known antidote for pufferfish poisoning [180]. Intravenous therapy, gastric lavage, and activated charcoal are recommended to reduce absorption of the toxin [165]. Individuals who have moderate-to-severe reactions to tetrodotoxin should be admitted to an intensive care unit, and respiratory support may be needed for 24 to 72 hours [162,166,180]. Atropine can be used to treat bradycardia in severe cases [187].
Scombroid toxin was the causative agent in 25 foodborne outbreaks reported in the United States in 2013 (22 confirmed and 3 suspected), affecting a total of 68 individuals [14].
Symptoms are immediate, usually occurring within 1 minute to 3 hours [13,188]. Symptoms include flushing, rash on the upper body, dizziness, and burning sensation of the skin, mouth, and throat [13,188]. Other symptoms may include throbbing headache and an unusual taste in the mouth, frequently described as peppery or pungent, but in some cases bitter or metallic [188]. Symptoms usually last about 3 to 6 hours but may persist for several days [13,189]. Patients with comorbidities such as coronary artery disease may experience acute coronary syndrome caused by scombroid-associated tachycardia and hypotension [28]. Death is rare.
Mushrooms can contain one or more of several toxins, including amanitin, gyromitrin, orellanine, muscarine, ibotenic acid/muscimol, and psilocybin, which are produced by the mushrooms themselves [28,190]. Poisonous mushrooms are referred to as toadstools.
Mushroom poisoning is caused by the ingestion of raw or cooked toadstools. Most mushrooms that cause human poisoning cannot be made nontoxic by cooking, canning, freezing, or any other means of processing [28,190]. The chemical composition of most mushroom toxins is unknown, and poisonings are therefore categorized according to their physiologic effects: protoplasmic poisons (amanitin, gyromitrin, orellanine), neurotoxins (muscarine, ibotenic acid/muscimol, psilocybin), gastrointestinal irritants, and disulfiram-like toxins.
As with marine toxins, the diagnosis of mushroom poisoning is based on the clinical presentation and a history of mushroom ingestion. A commercial radioimmunoassay is available to detect mushroom toxin in urine and plasma, but the time needed for incubation and testing may not be warranted. Identification of the mushroom species ingested is important; however, this it is not often possible. Other food sources should be ruled out before the mushroom is definitively determined to be the cause [28].
The American Association of Poison Control Centers reported 5,644 mushroom exposures in 2008, with 39 major outcomes and four deaths [191]. Poisonings usually result from a novice misidentifying a wild mushroom, a non-native of the United States picking (and consuming) a mushroom that appears similar to one in his or her native country, or a person seeking to consume a mushroom with psychoactive compounds [28,191]. Children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities are at highest risk for the development of serious complications from mushroom poisoning [190].
The clinical presentation and disease course vary according to the toxin. Diagnosis relies on the timing between ingestion, the onset of symptoms, and the amount of mushrooms ingested (
Table 13) [28,190]. DIAGNOSIS OF MUSHROOM POISONINGS ACCORDING TO SYMPTOMS AND THEIR ONSET
Symptoms Onset Cause Disease Course Nausea, abdominal discomfort (sometimes with diarrhea and vomiting) 15 minutes to 2 hours Unknown toxins (from numerous genera) Rapid and complete recovery; severe illness may cause symptoms to last 2 to 3 days and require fluid replacement Excessive sweating, lacrimation, salivation 15 to 30 minutes Muscarine Complete recovery within approximately 2 hours; death is rare but may result from cardiac or respiratory failure Inebriation or hallucinations without drowsiness or sleep 15 minutes to 2 hours Psilocybin Complete and spontaneous recovery occurs within 5 to 10 hours; if large amount of toxin ingested, recovery may take up to 24 hours; more severe in children Delirium with sleepiness or coma 1 to 2 hours Ibotenic acid/ muscimol Alternating periods of drowsiness and excitement occur for several hours, followed by total recovery Feeling of abdominal fullness, severe headache, vomiting (no diarrhea) 6 to 10 hours Gyromitrin Complete recovery occurs within 2 to 6 days; correction of metabolic acidosis may be required; some deaths have occurred as a result of liver failure Persistent and intense vomiting; abdominal pain; profuse, watery diarrhea 6 to 12 hours Amanitin Apparent recovery occurs a few hours after onset of symptoms, followed by a symptom-free period of 3 to 5 days, and subsequently by a period of jaundice, loss of strength, coma, and often death Intense, burning thirst and frequent urination, followed by gastrointestinal disturbances, headache, pain in the limbs, spasms, and loss of consciousness 3 to 21 days Orellanine Recovery (including recovery of renal function) may require several months in cases of less severe poisoning; death from kidney failure may occur in cases of severe poisoning Flushing; palpitations; rapid heartbeat; rapid, labored breathing within 30 minutes to 2 hours after consuming alcohol Within 72 hours Coprine Recovery is spontaneous and complete within a few to several hours after onset of symptoms
The treatment of most mushroom poisonings consists primarily of supportive care. For severe cases (as with ingestion of amanitin), life-support measures may be necessary [190].
The prevention of foodborne illness is essential to maintaining the health of individuals as well as protecting overall public health. Although infectious foodborne diseases usually produce mild symptoms and are self-limited in most people, the course of disease can be complicated in many, especially young children, older individuals, and people with a compromised immune system. The ease with which many foodborne pathogens can be transmitted heightens the need to prevent secondary transmission. Preventive measures are also important to avoid illness from natural toxins. The prevention of foodborne illness involves three main features: food safety, vaccination, and education.
Prevention of foodborne illness requires a focus on food safety at every point on the farm-to-table continuum. Several government agencies, including the USDA, the FDA, and the CDC, collaborate to ensure the safety of all foods for human consumption and to investigate and analyze foodborne-illness outbreaks.
Food safety depends on safeguards at several key points on the continuum, including:
Pre-harvest
Slaughter and processing
Food distribution
Food preparation/consumption
Both the USDA and the FDA regulate the safety of the food supply. These government agencies inspect food products, develop and enforce food safety regulations, test suspect foods, and work with industry to improve safety practices. The USDA oversees meat, poultry, and processed egg products, and the FDA is responsible for nonmeat products such as seafood, fruits, vegetables, and shell eggs. Initiatives and research efforts regarding food safety can be found at the Food Safety website, which provides links to news and research reports from these agencies and the state and local regulatory departments with which they collaborate.
In mid-2009, the House Energy and Commerce Committee passed legislation to reform the U.S. food safety system, granting the FDA more authority and funding. The bill also calls for a new focus on prevention, with a shared responsibility between the FDA and food manufacturers. The FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), which was enacted in January 2011, is intended to help reduce foodborne illness by means of a paradigm shift from responding to contamination of the U.S. food supply to preventing contamination. The law establishes new prevention measures for food regulated by the FDA [192,193].
State and local health departments collaborate with federal organizations to prevent the transmission of infectious and noninfectious foodborne illnesses. These departments have issued requirements about food handlers in a variety of settings (e.g., farm work, food distribution, food service), the primary source of viral foodborne illnesses. For example, many state and local health departments require that food handlers who have gastroenteritis refrain from working until 2 or 3 days after symptoms have resolved [146]. State and local health departments also issue policies and guidelines regarding such preventive measures as proper food storage and heating temperatures, appropriate hand hygiene, the cleaning and disinfection of food preparation surfaces, and the disposal of any food or nonfood items that may have been contaminated. Routine inspections are carried out to ensure compliance with these guidelines.
Prevention of infection with marine toxins is a major concern. To ensure that commercially available shellfish are safe for consumption, rigorous shellfish monitoring programs are established in all states. When harmful algal blooms (the source of shellfish poisoning) become high, state alerts are given to ban shellfish harvesting. Monitoring of blooms also helps to reduce the likelihood of ciguatera poisoning. In addition, the Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms Program and the Monitoring and Event Response for Harmful Algal Blooms Program have funded approximately $100 million in marine research to gain a better understanding of harmful algae blooms [163].
The commercial and personal importation of pufferfish into the United States is heavily restricted to avoid tetrodotoxin poisoning, and the state of Florida bans commercial and recreational harvesting of pufferfish from the waters of most counties on the East Coast because of persistent saxitoxin toxicity [194]. The FDA advises that tetrodotoxin has not been found in northern pufferfish from the mid-Atlantic coastal waters (typically between Virginia and New York), but potential risk still exists without routine toxin screening [194].
Vaccines have been developed for two viruses that can be transmitted through food: rotavirus and hepatitis A. Two vaccines are now available for rotavirus: RV5 (RotaTeq) was approved for use in 2006, and RV1 (Rotarix) was approved in 2008. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends routine vaccination with either vaccine, without noting a preference for either one [195]. RV5 is given orally in a three-dose series, at 2, 4, and 6 months of age. RV1 is given orally in a two-dose series, at 2 and 4 months of age [195]. Studies have shown that the vaccines provide 85% to 95% protection against severe rotavirus and 74% to 87% protection against any rotavirus illness [195,196].
Vaccines are also available for hepatitis A virus. The CDC and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend that vaccination against hepatitis A be included in the early childhood immunization schedule [197]. The vaccine is given (intramuscularly) in a two-dose series, with the first dose given at 12 months and the second dose given 6 to 18 months later, depending on the vaccine. The rate of hepatitis A in the United States was 88% lower in 2003 than the rate in 1996 before immunization was initiated [198].
Among individuals who were not vaccinated in childhood, those at increased risk of the virus should receive the vaccine. This includes individuals traveling to or living in areas with an intermediate or high endemicity for the infection, men who have sex with men, users of either injectable or noninjectable illicit drugs, individuals treated with clotting factors, and individuals who work with hepatitis A virus in the laboratory setting [198].
Education about preventing foodborne illness requires a multifaceted approach that includes heightening awareness and enhancing knowledge about foodborne illnesses at the individual level and supporting broad public education campaigns. In addition, physicians and other healthcare professionals are encouraged to remain up-to-date on foodborne illnesses and their diagnosis and management.
Healthcare practitioners should take every available opportunity to provide their patients with information about the prevention of foodborne illnesses in the home and while traveling, focusing on the specific needs of certain populations. For example, pregnant women should be cautioned about the potential risks of infection with Listeria and Toxoplasma gondii. Parents should be advised of the need to avoid secondary transmission of viruses by keeping children with gastroenteritis out of daycare or school until symptoms have resolved. Individuals preparing for international travel (especially to developing countries) should receive appropriate immunizations and will benefit from a description of ways to prevent traveler's diarrhea.
Educational resources for patients are available online, and some websites offer downloadable fact sheets and posters. The USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service website offers fact sheets on food safety for the general population as well for as a wide range of target populations, including ethnic minorities, older individuals, pregnant women, and individuals with cancer, diabetes, or HIV. Fact sheets are also available for preparing food for large groups, such as church suppers and other community meals. Consumer brochures and posters are commonly available in English and Spanish, and some are tailored to consumers' cultural food practices.
Individuals in high-risk groups are often confused about proper safe handling processes and are resistant to many food safety recommendations [199]. The findings of studies suggest that the primary barrier to accepting recommendations is the lack of understanding about the importance of the precautions [199,200]. Cultural and economic factors as well as simple food hygiene habits have also been shown to be barriers [201,202]. When discussing foodborne illnesses with high-risk individuals, healthcare professionals should emphasize why certain foods should be avoided or be prepared in a designated manner [199,203]. Providing consistent information in a patient-friendly form is key to patient compliance [204].
It has been suggested that education on food safety is most effective when it is targeted to changing behaviors that most likely result in foodborne illness [22]. The following behaviors have been recommended as the primary focus of education on food safety [22,205]:
Handwashing
Use of a thermometer to cook foods adequately
Avoidance of cross-contamination
Also recommended (of secondary importance) are keeping foods at safe temperatures and avoidance of foods likely to be contaminated [22]. These behaviors were also emphasized by food experts who were asked to identify and rank food-handling and consumption behaviors as being of primary or secondary importance in preventing infection with 13 foodborne pathogens [21]. According to these experts, the following are of primary importance [21]:
Keeping foods at safe temperatures (Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens)
Use of a thermometer to cook foods adequately (Campylobacter jejuni,Salmonella, STEC O157, Toxoplasmagondii, and Yersinia)
Hand washing (Shigella)
Avoidance of certain foods that are likely to be contaminated (Listeria, noroviruses, and Vibrio)
In addition, the experts indicated that keeping foods at safe temperatures were of secondary importance in preventing foodborne infection with Staphylococcus aureus, and avoidance of cross-contamination was of secondary importance in preventing infection with most pathogens [21].
The key messages identified as being of primary importance for education form the core of public health education campaigns on food safety. The most prominent campaigns have included "BAC Down!," "Be Safe," and "Ounce of Prevention."
"BAC Down!" is a collaborative initiative of the FDA and the Partnership for Food Safety Education. Its primary objective is to urge consumers to keep their refrigerators at 40°F or below to prevent foodborne illness such as listeriosis. "BAC Down!" uses the media, the Partnership's website, and eye-catching strategies for information dissemination at grocery stores. The Partnership also manages "Be Safe," which emphasizes four basic safe food-handling behaviors: Clean, Separate, Cook, and Chill. In addition, education on six steps to safer fresh fruits and vegetables and other topics are available in Spanish on the website.
The popular and successful "Ounce of Prevention" campaign is led by the National Center for Infectious Diseases, the CDC's coordinating center for infectious diseases, in partnership with Reckitt Benckiser, Inc. This campaign provides health educators and consumers with information and tips to prevent infectious diseases, including how to handle, store, and cook foods safely.
Practitioners are urged to seek supplemental information regarding foodborne agents, particularly agents that are prevalent in their geographic location. There is a variety of print and Internet information available on infectious foodborne agents (
Resources). Many cases of foodborne illness affect individuals in the community, but outbreaks, especially of viral etiology, often occur in hospitals and long-term care facilities. Nevertheless, no foodborne illness risk management guidelines exist specifically for U.S. hospitals [206]. Because of this, healthcare professionals should also be familiar with the evidence-based isolation and control guidelines for infectious diseases developed by the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee [61].
A variety of infectious and noninfectious foodborne diseases cause substantial morbidity and mortality in the United States each year. In addition to the high number of sporadic cases and cases related to outbreaks, researchers estimate that thousands of cases are unreported or undiagnosed annually. Although a steady decline in the incidence of several foodborne infections was observed between 1996 and 2007, the composite annual rate of foodborne disease has remained stable since that time [207]. Several foodborne-illness outbreaks in the last several decades are continued evidence of the threat to public health and the need for improved food safety.
Bacteria (especially Salmonella) and viruses (especially norovirus) are the primary causes of most foodborne illness and outbreaks. Parasitic causes are rare in the United States. Noninfectious agents, especially natural toxins, are also important causes of foodborne disease. Among natural toxins, marine toxins and mushroom toxins are responsible for most cases and outbreaks of foodborne disease. Although uncommon, these toxin-related illnesses can be severe and life-threatening.
The diagnosis of foodborne disease can be challenging because the symptoms are often similar to those associated with other conditions. The patient history is key to the identification of an illness with a foodborne etiology, and practitioners should know the appropriate questions to elicit the information essential to making an accurate diagnosis. Physicians and other healthcare practitioners should also be familiar with the mechanisms of contamination and transmission of foodborne pathogens and toxins, the characteristic symptoms of food-related illnesses, and the appropriate reporting procedures. Healthcare professionals play a key role in preventing foodborne disease by providing education and resources on food safety and secondary transmission.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "An Ounce of Prevention" Campaign http://www.cdc.gov/ounceofprevention Provides information and tips on preventing infectious diseases.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Epidemic Information Exchange (Epi-X) http://www.cdc.gov/epix Portal through which state and local health departments, poison control centers, and other public health professionals can access and share preliminary health surveillance information.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Food Safety http://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety Information on food safety, prevention of illness for high-risk populations, and outbreaks.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Outbreak Response Team http://www.cdc.gov/outbreaknet Collaborates with network of epidemiologists and other public health officials who investigate outbreaks of foodborne, waterborne, and other enteric illnesses in the United States.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Traveler's Health http://www.cdc.gov/travel Current information regarding outbreaks in worldwide destinations.
Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists http://www.cste.org Represents public health epidemiologists.
Fight BAC! Partnership for Food Safety Education http://www.fightbac.org Provides information about protecting health through safe food handling and hygiene.
FoodSafety.gov http://www.foodsafety.gov Consumer advice, information on foodborne pathogens, news on outbreaks and recalls.
Pathogen Portal: The Bioinformatics Resource Centers Portal http://pathogenportal.org Sponsored by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Provides resources to members of the scientific community conducting research on organisms causing emerging or re-emerging diseases.
American Academy of Pediatrics Red Book: 2012 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases http://redbook.solutions.aap.org
U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Bad Bug Book (2nd Edition) http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/CausesOfIllnessBadBugBook/ Provides current information about the major known agents that cause foodborne illness.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Foods http://www.fda.gov/Food Information on foodborne illness, news on outbreaks, alerts and recalls.
USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) http://www.fsis.usda.gov Variety of downloadable fact sheets on food safety, with some targeted to specific populations and others describing appropriate preparation of specific foods.
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1. American Medical Association, American Nurses Association, American Nurses Foundation, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Diagnosis and management of foodborne illnesses: a primer for physicians and other health care professionals.
MMWR Recomm Rep. 2004;53(RR4):1-33.Summary retrieved from National Guideline Clearinghouse at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5304a1.htm. Last accessed December 18, 2015. Copyright © 2016 NetCE, P.O. Box 997571, Sacramento, CA 95899-7571 Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement.
Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement. | 194,595 | 66,186 | 0.000015 |
warc | 201704 | The number of people using heroin and crack cocaine in England has fallen below 300,000 for the first time, new figures show.
Estimates from the National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse (NTA) indicate that 298,752 people used these most harmful drugs in 2010-11, down from a peak of 332,090 in 2005-06.
There has also been a fall in the number of people injecting drugs, from 129,977 in 2005-06 to 93,401 in 2010-11.
Figures also suggest that both the under-25 and under-35 age groups have experienced significant declines in the use of harmful drugs over the past 12 months.
Paul Hayes, chief executive of the NTA, said: 'Since 2006, 104,879 people have been helped to overcome their drug dependency.
'The benefits have spread far beyond the individuals themselves, to their families, their communities and the wider economy.'
Older people still pose a challenge, however, as many have been using heroin and crack for a long time and are particularly hard to treat.
Martin Barnes, chief executive of the charity DrugScope, observed that the health and support needs of these more entrenched drug users 'present particular challenges for treatment and other services'. | 1,183 | 689 | 0.001463 |
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