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Computer Help Needed
post #1 of 20
Thread Starter
Saved a Power Point Presentation onto a disc over the weekend in another computer. Now my computer will not read said file.
Any suggestions?
post #2 of 20
What's a disc?
post #3 of 20
Thread Starter
umm, a CD-R...
post #4 of 20
Check if it reads in any other computer. If not, and if it's a cheap cdr, it may be lost.
post #5 of 20
Thread Starter
It's a Fuji...
It read in the original computer. Maybe I'll take it down to Kinko's and give it a shot.
Plus I can make another identity and have conversations with myself.
post #6 of 20
Did you close the session? If the CD remains open and you did not close the session, the CD will play on the original computer, but will not be read by another computer until the write session is closed and the TOC is encoded onto the CD.
Jon.
post #7 of 20
I agree with imageWIS. You may not have closed the disc, so that a true CD-R/RW drive can read it, but a regular CD-ROm drive would not be able to.
post #8 of 20
Thread Starter
I dunno. I thought I closed the session. Saved and exited out of the program...
post #9 of 20
Not the session of you using the program/computer -- the 'session' that is a write operation on a CDR. There are issues sometimes with CDRs not being able to be read by other drives if the session is not 'closed' meaning, roughly, that you're done with the disk and don't wish to do anything more with it. You said the computer will not read the said file -- what does that mean? Is the file visible in the directory tree, and when you click it nothing happens, or does the disk not appear in the tree when you insert it?
post #10 of 20
Thread Starter
My computer does not recognize that there is a file on the CD-R.
The original computer I wrote it on recognized it, and I was able to pull up the file.
post #11 of 20
That's what it is then. You'll need to go back to the original computer, right click the disk in the tree, and there should be an option to close the disk or make it readable in other computers. If not, try typing directcd into the 'run' command box in the start menu. A window should open, and somewhere in there is an 'options' button with an option for closing the disks on ejection. It's not a one-size-fits all solution because disk writing is done by so many programs now... If the orig computer is inconvenient to get to, the Kinkos has a good shot of working, especially if you can't normally write to CDs with the drive on your system.
post #12 of 20
By 'Kinkos has a good shot of working' I mean that you'd have to go there and follow the same procedure -- the disk needs to be closed for you to read it.
post #13 of 20
Quote:
Originally Posted by Steve B.
My computer does not recognize that there is a file on the CD-R.
The original computer I wrote it on recognized it, and I was able to pull up the file.
Is it too big to email to yourself?
post #14 of 20
Thread Starter
Tried to. This particular computer way f***d up. Tried to e-mail, but file either ended up in a web folder that wouldn't open, or in a Power Point file where it appeared I had to e-mail slide by slide. I think I should shoot it and put it out of its misery.
Can anyone loan me a trad pistol?
post #15 of 20
Quote:
Originally Posted by Steve B.
Tried to. This particular computer way f***d up. Tried to e-mail, but file either ended up in a web folder that wouldn't open, or in a Power Point file where it appeared I had to e-mail slide by slide. I think I should shoot it and put it out of its misery.
Can anyone loan me a trad pistol?
Is a Ruger trad enough?
If you can get on the forum from the other computer, you can attach it to a post in the Squirrel forum and then download it from there from the other (other) computer.
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AC162067, AC162074
Last modified by Microchip on 2023/12/20 19:09
Header Identification
The AC number is used for ordering the Processor Extension Pak, which contains the debug header. However, this number is not on the header, as the board may be used for multiple headers by inserting different -ICE/-ICD devices. To identify these headers, use the following information.
AC Number-ICE/-ICD DeviceBoard Assembly Number
AC162067PIC18F45J10-ICE02-01854
AC16207402-01929
Header Setup and Operation
For these headers, you will need to connect jumpers J2 and J3 to select between the LF and F versions of devices.
DeviceDevice TypeJumper J2Jumper J3Function
PIC18LFXXJ10LF1-21-2Disable voltage regulator(1)
PIC18FXXJ10F2-32-3Enable voltage regulator
Note 1: Vddcore must be supplied externally.
Header Limitations
Sometimes a header device (-ICE/-ICD) has operational issues or errata. To determine if a device on a header has limitations, see your hardware tool documentation.
Header Dimensions
The accompanying figures list the dimensions for the debug header. Dimensions are design values in inches.
If the length and/or width of the debug header is too large a footprint for the target board, consider using stand-offs, transition sockets or other extenders in the header connection socket to raise the header above the target.
AC162067 dimensions
Figure: Dimensions (28/40-Pin) – AC162067
AC162074 dimensions
Figure: Dimensions (28/40-Pin) – AC162067 |
Oncotarget
Priority Research Papers:
Synergistic and targeted therapy with a procaspase-3 activator and temozolomide extends survival in glioma rodent models and is feasible for the treatment of canine malignant glioma patients
PDF | HTML | Supplementary Files | How to cite | Press Release | Podcast | Video Interview | Order a Reprint
Oncotarget. 2017; 8:80124-80138. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.19085
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Avadhut D. Joshi, Rachel C. Botham, Lisa J. Schlein, Howard S. Roth, Antonella Mangraviti, Alexandra Borodovsky, Betty Tyler, Steve Joslyn, Jayme S. Looper, Michael Podell, Timothy M. Fan, Paul J. Hergenrother and Gregory J. Riggins _
Abstract
Avadhut D. Joshi1,*, Rachel C. Botham2,*, Lisa J. Schlein3, Howard S. Roth2, Antonella Mangraviti1, Alexandra Borodovsky1, Betty Tyler1, Steve Joslyn4, Jayme S. Looper5, Michael Podell6, Timothy M. Fan7, Paul J. Hergenrother2 and Gregory J. Riggins1
1 Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
2 Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
3 Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
4 VetCT Australia, Fremantle WA, Australia
5 Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
6 Department of Neurology, MedVet Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
7 Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
* These authors have contributed equally to this work
Correspondence to:
Gregory J. Riggins, email:
Paul J. Hergenrother, email:
Timothy M. Fan, email:
Keywords: PAC-1, procaspase-3 activator, glioblastoma, small molecule therapy
Received: March 29, 2017 Accepted: June 09, 2017 Published: July 07, 2017
Abstract
Purpose: Glioblastoma is a deadly brain cancer with a median survival time of ~15 months. Ionizing radiation plus the DNA alkylator temozolomide (TMZ) is the current standard therapy. PAC-1, a procaspase-3 activating small molecule, is blood-brain barrier penetrant and has previously demonstrated ability to synergize with diverse pro-apoptotic chemotherapeutics. We studied if PAC-1 could enhance the activity of TMZ, and whether addition of PAC-1 to standard treatment would be feasible in spontaneous canine malignant gliomas.
Experimental Design: Using cell lines and online gene expression data, we identified procaspase-3 as a potential molecular target for most glioblastomas. We investigated PAC-1 as a single agent and in combination with TMZ against glioma cells in culture and in orthotopic rodent models of glioma. Three dogs with spontaneous gliomas were treated with an analogous human glioblastoma treatment protocol, with concurrent PAC-1.
Results: Procaspase-3 is expressed in gliomas, with higher gene expression correlating with increased tumor grade and decreased prognosis. PAC-1 is cytotoxic to glioma cells in culture and active in orthotopic rodent glioma models. PAC-1 added to TMZ treatments in cell culture increases apoptotic death, and the combination significantly increases survival in orthotopic glioma models. Addition of PAC-1 to TMZ and radiation was well-tolerated in 3 out of 3 pet dogs with spontaneous glioma, and partial to complete tumor reductions were observed.
Conclusions: Procaspase-3 is a clinically relevant target for treatment of glioblastoma. Synergistic activity of PAC-1/TMZ in rodent models and the demonstration of feasibility of the combined regime in canine patients suggest potential for PAC-1 in the treatment of glioblastoma.
INTRODUCTION
Gliomas are the most common type of malignant primary brain tumor, with ~17,000 newly diagnosed cases each year in the United States [1]. Glioblastomas are now divided into two groups based on the presence or absence of mutations in the IDH1 or IDH2 genes [2]. Glioblastomas are the most aggressive and frequent of the malignant gliomas, accounting for ~80% of all malignant gliomas [3]. Unfortunately, glioblastomas are uniformly rapid in their progression, and lethal; standard-of-care treatment with the DNA alkylator temozolomide (TMZ) and radiation yields a 2-year survival rate of 27% and a 5-year survival of <5% [4]. TMZ, in combination with surgical resection and focal radiation therapy, has been adopted as frontline therapy for glioblastoma, extending median patient survival from 12.1 months (radiation alone), to 14.6 months (radiation + TMZ) [4, 5].
As brain tumors, glioblastomas reside behind the defense of the blood-brain barrier, a protective physiological feature that precludes most chemotherapeutics from accessing the tumor, thereby severely limiting therapeutic options [6]. A further challenge in treating glioblastoma is its intrinsic resistance to apoptosis, through the overexpression of anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2 [7, 8], and other mechanisms. Analysis of primary tumor samples and cancer cell lines have shown procaspase-3 levels to be elevated in numerous cancer types [9]. Thus, although common hallmarks of cancers are malignant alterations that inhibit apoptotic signaling [10], these cells paradoxically express elevated levels of the executioner caspase responsible for carrying out the cellular proteolysis. While there appears to be little or no expression of procaspase-3 in most types of normal brain cells [11], limited analysis of glioblastoma cell lines and patient samples suggests robust expression of procaspase-3 in glioblastoma [7, 12-14]. In addition, because procaspase-3 is downstream in the apoptotic cascade from the typical anti-apoptotic alterations (such as Bcl-2 overexpression), this procaspase-3 elevation offers an opportunity for the selective induction of apoptotic cell death in glioblastoma.
PAC-1 is a small molecule that has been shown to facilitate the direct activation of procaspase-3 to caspase-3 [15-17], induce apoptotic death in many cancer types with elevated procaspase-3 levels [9, 15, 17], and PAC-1 and derivatives induce apoptotic death in a manner that is independent of the expression of Bcl-2 family proteins [18-20]. Further support for PAC-1’s direct procaspase-3 activating mechanism of action comes from detailed studies of PAC-1 with cancer cells, evaluating the time dependence of procaspase-3 activation relative to the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria or activation of upstream procaspases [15-17, 21]. PAC-1 facilitates the activation of procaspase-3 to caspase-3 through chelation of labile inhibitory zinc from procaspase-3 [22]. In addition to broad anticancer activity, PAC-1 penetrates the blood-brain barrier (BBB) [23]; thus the elevated procaspase-3 target combined with the unusual ability of PAC-1 to penetrate the central nervous system suggests the intriguing potential of PAC-1 for the treatment of glioblastoma. PAC-1 is currently being evaluated as a single-agent in a Phase I clinical trial in human cancer patients (NCT02355535).
Procaspase-3 activation for the treatment of gliomas is provocative as cellular concentrations of procaspase-3 in some glioblastoma patient samples have been quantified in the single digit micromolar range [12], elevated well above the ~100 nM concentration believed to exist in normal cells [24]. Furthermore, a heightened latent level of caspase-3 activity has been observed in glioblastoma patient samples and has been linked to an increased malignant invasive phenotype [12, 14, 25]. This level of caspase-3 activity is insufficient for the execution of apoptosis, but suggests PAC-1 may be particularly effective in activating this partially primed pool of procaspase-3/caspase-3, thereby providing the greatest therapeutic benefit to the invasive glioblastoma cells remaining after surgery.
By relieving the physiologic labile zinc inhibition of procaspase-3, PAC-1 is able to enhance the ability of procaspase-3 to undergo auto-activation, sensitize the cellular procaspase-3 population to upstream apoptotic signaling events, and enhance the activity of caspase-3 generated through the induction of apoptosis [22, 26]. In recent reports PAC-1 has demonstrated dramatic synergy with a number of anticancer agents [27], most notably with doxorubicin for the treatment of metastatic osteosarcoma [26], and with vemurafenib for the treatment of mutant BRAF melanoma [28].
We now report the evaluation of PAC-1 for glioblastoma treatment in models of increasing complexity and clinical relevance. In particular, because TMZ exerts its anticancer activity through DNA damage and the subsequent induction of apoptosis [29], the combination of PAC-1 and TMZ was explored in detail. Here we show that PAC-1 and TMZ induce synergistic death in glioblastoma cells in culture and in rodent models, and combining PAC-1 with TMZ and ionizing radiation is well tolerated and associated with marked tumor regression in pet dogs with naturally-occurring glioma. These results support procaspase-3 activation as a mechanistically-based strategy to selectively induce apoptosis in glioblastoma and to increase the activity of TMZ, supporting the clinical evaluation of the PAC-1/TMZ combination in human glioblastoma patients.
RESULTS
Procaspase-3 is highly expressed in brain tumors and expression correlates with survival
Given small data sets suggesting a potential increase in procaspase-3 levels in malignant brain tumors in comparison to benign tumors and normal brain tissue [14], a comprehensive retrospective survey was performed to determine if increased CASP3 (encoding procaspase-3) expression affected prognosis in glioblastoma. Using the Repository for Molecular Brain Neoplasia Data (REMBRANDT) provided by the National Cancer Institute, expression of CASP3 was analyzed in brain tumors and non-tumor controls. Analysis of REMBRANDT Affymetrix gene expression data demonstrates that elevated expression of CASP3 correlates with tumor grade (Figure 1A). Non-tumor tissues had the lowest relative expression of CASP3, whereas glioblastomas had the highest expression of CASP3 (p<0.001). Low-grade astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas demonstrate intermediate transcript expression of CASP3. To extend upon CASP3 gene expression data, protein levels of procaspase-3 in 10 glioblastoma cell lines (both serum-cultured and oncosphere lines) were analyzed by immunoblotting with an antibody recognizing procaspase-3. As a complement to traditional serum-grown cell lines, oncosphere cell lines were included as they better represent the genetic and histologic characteristics of a patients’ tumor than traditional serum-cultured adherent cell lines [30-32], and when used in vivo they retain many of the histopathological features characteristic of the cancer [31, 33]. All glioblastoma cell lines demonstrate robust expression of procaspase-3 (Figure 1B).
The REMBRANDT database was then used to analyze the survival of glioblastoma patients (n=181) based on expression of executioner caspase genes (CASP3, CASP6 and CASP7 for the caspase-3, -6, and -7 proteins) and initiator caspase genes (CASP8, CASP9 and CASP10 for the caspase-8, -9, and -10 proteins). Gene expression levels were determined using Affymetrix gene expression array and the genes were considered to be high expressing when the expression was greater than 2-fold higher compared to non-tumor samples. Similarly, genes were considered low-expressing when expression was less than 2-fold compared to non-tumor samples. Expression levels between 2-fold higher and 2-fold lower than non-tumor samples were considered to be intermediate and similar to non-tumor tissue. Consistent with IHC data [7, 13], high or intermediate expression was noted in all samples, with no low expressors (Figure 1C-1H). Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated a trend that high expression of caspase genes was usually associated with decreased survival in glioblastoma patients (Figure 1C-1H). Interestingly, the expression of CASP9 was highly consistent across glioblastoma patients, with only one patient out of 181 exhibiting high CASP9 expression (Figure 1G). The correlation between CASP3 gene expression and prognosis was of greater significance than the correlation of any other caspase gene and prognosis (p=0.0001; Figure 1C). Glioblastoma patients with high expression of CASP3 had significantly reduced survival compared to patients who demonstrated intermediate expression, suggesting that a compound directly activating procaspase-3 could have selective antitumor activity and be most beneficial in the patients with the poorest survival. A small panel of other proteins involved in the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways were also evaluated (Supplementary Figure 1), but their expression did not reach or surpass the significance of CASP3 expression.
Procaspase-3 is expressed in brain tumors and its expression is a prognostic factor for survival of glioblastoma patients.
Figure 1: Procaspase-3 is expressed in brain tumors and its expression is a prognostic factor for survival of glioblastoma patients. A. Analysis of CASP3 expression in the NCI REMBRANDT database demonstrates that CASP3 is more highly expressed in brain tumors compared to non-tumor tissues (*, p < 0.001 for pairwise comparison between non-tumor and glioblastomas or astrocytomas or oligodendrogliomas). Highest expression of CASP3 was observed in glioblastoma, compared to lower expression in low-grade astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas. B. Immunoblotting demonstrates the presence of robust procaspase-3 expression in glioblastoma cell lines. C.-E. Executioner caspases: CASP3, CASP6, and CASP7. C. Glioblastoma patients with high expression of CASP3 survived significantly shorter (n = 107; median = 12.5 months) compared to those with intermediate CASP3 levels (n = 74; median 20.3 months; p = 0.0001). D. High expression of the CASP6 gene (n = 155) correlated with poorer prognosis when compared to intermediate expressors (n = 26) at a level of mild significance (p = 0.045). E. Expression of CASP7 did not correlate with survival (n = 45 for high expression, n = 136 for intermediate expression). (F-H) Initiator caspases: CASP8, CASP9, and CASP10. F. Glioblastoma patients with high CASP8 expression survived significantly shorter (n = 116; median = 13 months) compared to those with intermediate CASP8 levels (n = 65; median 18 months; p = 0.0082). G. Expression of CASP9 was primarily unchanged across the glioblastoma patients except one patient out of 181 exhibiting high caspase 9 expression and a shortened survival (p = 0.14). H. High expression of the CASP10 gene (n = 7 for high expression, n = 137 for intermediate expression) correlated with poor prognosis at a level of mild significance (p = 0.023).
PAC-1 is cytotoxic to glioma cells in culture as a single agent and enhances the activity of TMZ
The ability of PAC-1 to induce death in a panel of glioma cell lines, consisting of both serum grown and oncosphere lines, was analyzed. PAC-1 demonstrated a median IC50 value of ~5 µM in serum grown lines, and ~18 µM against oncosphere cells (Supplementary Table 1). After establishing that PAC-1 was cytotoxic as a single agent in brain cancer cell lines, combination studies with the standard-of-care for the treatment of glioblastoma, TMZ, were conducted. PAC-1 was evaluated in combination with TMZ in a small panel of cancer cell lines in culture, including those of human (U87 and D54) and rat (9L) origin. While D54 and 9L are malignant glioma lines, the origin of U87 is in doubt, but likely resulted from contamination from a different glioblastoma line than the original patient cultured [34]. In these experiments additive to synergistic (supra-additive) responses were observed (Figure 2A-2C), as defined by Combination Index analysis [35]. Additional characterization of cell culture anticancer activity was measured in the 9L cells, as a prelude to orthotopic in vivo models. Treatment of 9L cells with a combination of PAC-1 and TMZ induced synergistic apoptosis, above the additive effects of each single agent, as determined by Annexin-V-FITC and propidium iodide staining (Figure 2D). Furthermore, Western blot analysis of the combination treated cells demonstrated the presence of substantial cleavage of procaspase-3 and PARP-1, characteristic markers of apoptosis (Figure 2E). The PAC-1 and TMZ combination was also assessed for the ability to alter the clonogenic potential of 9L cells. In this experiment a significant decrease was seen in the clonogenic survival of the combination-treated cells relative to the single-agent effect (Figure 2F).
PAC-1 and TMZ induce synergistic cell death in glioblastoma cells.
Figure 2: PAC-1 and TMZ induce synergistic cell death in glioblastoma cells. A.-C. Glioblastoma cells (A: U87, human; B: D54, human; C: 9L, rat) were treated for 72 h with combinations of PAC-1 and TMZ (assessed by Alamar Blue). The dashed horizontal lines represent the level of cell death expected from an additive effect of compounds. The average Combination Index (CI) value across the combinations is indicated for each cell line. CI values < 1 are synergistic, with lower values indicating higher levels of synergy. CI values = 1 indicate an additive effect. D. The ability of PAC-1 and TMZ to induce apoptosis in 9L cells was assessed by flow cytometry with Annexin V-FITC and propidium iodide staining after a 48 h treatment. A substantial apoptotic population (FITC + / PI -) was observed with the combination treatment. Flow plots of representative data are shown. Mean of three independent experiments and standard error are indicated for each combination in the grid below. Statistical comparison to vehicle treated cells ** = p < 0.005, **** = p < 0.0005. E. 9L cells treated with PAC-1 and TMZ were analyzed via Western blot for the presence of markers of apoptosis, procaspase-3 activation and PARP-1 cleavage, after a 48 h treatment with compounds. F. Combination treatments of PAC-1 and TMZ were assessed for their ability to impact the clonogenic potential of 9L cells. Cells were treated for 12 h and clonogenic growth was assessed after 7 days. Mean and standard error are indicated for each combination in the table below. Statistical comparison to TMZ-only clonogenic survival * = p < 0.01, ** = p < 0.005, *** = p < 0.001. The average Combination Index (CI) value across the combinations is indicated in the grid below the graph. n = 3 biologic replicates for all experiments. N.S. indicates a not significant difference.
PAC-1 does not induce off-target activation of procaspase-3 in neurons and glial cells
As a prelude to evaluating PAC-1 efficacy in murine models of glioblastoma, the effect of PAC-1 treatment on neurons, ependymal cells, and supporting glial cells were assessed in normal murine brain tissues. For this study, healthy male and female C57BL/6 mice were administered PAC-1 orally at a dosage of 50 mg/kg (as an aqueous suspension) daily for 14 consecutive days, which mirrored PAC-1 exposures planned for anticancer efficacy studies. Mice maintained normal behavior and body weights throughout the duration of the study, and no clinically observable signs of neuroexcitation were detected.
PAC-1 is efficacious in a syngeneic orthotopic glioblastoma rodent model
Cell culture experiments demonstrated that PAC-1 was efficacious as a single agent across a panel of brain cancer cell lines, including 9L rat glioma cells. Preliminary investigations of the efficacy of PAC-1 in vivo were initiated in the highly aggressive syngeneic 9L rat glioma model, with 9L cells intracranially implanted. In this experiment, rats received PAC-1 (50 mg/kg, oral, as an aqueous suspension) from day 5 to day 9, and day 12 to day 16, for a total of 10 doses. The median survival in control animals (n=8) was 11.5 days compared to 20 days in PAC-1 treated rats (n=8; p < 0.001); the ten doses of PAC-1 provided a 73% increase in median survival suggesting a substantial anti-glioma activity for PAC-1 as a single agent (Figure 3A).
The efficacy of PAC-1 was then evaluated when administered as a solid in gelatin capsules, a formulation with greater translational relevance. Rats implanted with intracranial 9L glioma cells were administered PAC-1 (50 mg/kg) in capsules once-a-day for 16 consecutive days beginning on day 3 post-tumor implantation. Rats treated with PAC-1 in capsules showed significantly improved survival; the median survival for rats treated with PAC-1 capsules (n = 5, median survival = 59 days) was 350% longer than for the untreated control rats (n = 5, median survival = 17 days, p = 0.02; Figure 3B), and 40% of the animals survived until the end of the experiment (day 200).
Oral PAC-1 is efficacious as a single agent in an intracranial model of glioblastoma and synergistically enhances the efficacy of TMZ in intracranial models of glioblastoma.
Figure 3: Oral PAC-1 is efficacious as a single agent in an intracranial model of glioblastoma and synergistically enhances the efficacy of TMZ in intracranial models of glioblastoma. A. PAC-1 improved survival of 9L rats by 73% (p < 0.001). Rats received 10 oral doses (50 mg/kg, in an aqueous oral suspension, days 5-9 and 12-16). The median survival of control animals was 11.5 days, compared to 20 days in PAC-1 treated animals. 8 rats per group. B. PAC-1, administered in a gelatin capsules, improved survival of 9L rats by 350% (p = 0.02), from 17 days to 59 days. Rats received 16 oral doses (50 mg/kg, solid packed into size 9 capsules, days 3-18). 5 rats per group. C. Combinations of PAC-1 and TMZ synergistically extend survival in intracranial 9L rat glioblastoma. PAC-1 (50 mg/kg, administered in an aqueous oral suspension, days 1-5), did not improve survival as a single agent (median survival 13.5 days compared to 14.5 days in the control group), but did extend survival when used in combination with TMZ (50 mg/kg, oral, days 6-10; TMZ alone median survival: 20 days, PAC-1 + TMZ median survival: 28 days). The combination of PAC-1 + TMZ extended survival to a statistically significant extent compared to control rats (p < 0.0001) and TMZ as a single agent (p = 0.007). 8 rats per group. D. Combinations of PAC-1 and TMZ synergistically extend survival in intracranial oncosphere-derived glioblastoma (cell line 020913) in NOD SCID mice. PAC-1 (50 mg/kg, oral, 5 days a week from day 12-52, shown with blue diagonal shading) improved survival from 74 days (control) to 91 days (p = 0.034). TMZ alone (50 mg/kg, oral, 5 days a week from day 26-44, shown with red diagonal shading) improved survival to 142 days. The combination of PAC-1 and TMZ was most effective, extending the median survival to 205 days (p = 0.0027 compared to TMZ, p < 0.0001 compared to control). 5 mice per group.
PAC-1 synergizes with TMZ in orthotopic glioblastoma rodent models
The ability of PAC-1 to synergize with TMZ in vivo was first evaluated in the intracranial 9L syngeneic model of glioma. For these experiments the PAC-1 treatments were limited to five times total, thereby minimizing its single agent activity relative to the experiments in Figures 3A&3B, where animals were dosed with PAC-1 10 or 16 times. Rats (n = 8 per group) were treated with water (vehicle control), PAC-1 as a single agent (50 mg/kg, oral, as an aqueous suspension, days 1-5), TMZ as a single agent (50 mg/kg, oral, days 6-10), or the combination of PAC-1 + TMZ. As shown in Figure 3C, minimal dosing of PAC-1 did not alter animal survival (median survival of PAC-1 alone: 13.5 days, median survival of vehicle control rats: 14.5 days, p = 0.75). TMZ improved the median survival to 20 days, and was significantly longer than control rats, p = 0.0018. Treatment with PAC-1 in combination with TMZ significantly improved the median survival (to 28 days) in comparison to the control group (p < 0.0001) as well as TMZ only group (p = 0.007), demonstrating synergy between PAC-1 and TMZ in vivo.
PAC-1 and TMZ were evaluated in a second and more clinically relevant model, a murine intracranial xenograft model with oncospheres in NOD SCID mice. The cell line 020913 grows as oncospheres and forms gliomas that retain the original histopathological and genetic features of the original tumor [36]. Groups of mice (n = 5 per group) were treated with vehicle, PAC-1 as a single agent (50 mg/kg, oral, five days a week for 6 weeks beginning on day 12), TMZ as a single agent (50 mg/kg, oral, five days a week for 3 weeks beginning day 26), or the oral combination of PAC-1 + TMZ (Figure 3D). Importantly, the trends seen in previous models were also observed in this oncosphere model. Single agent PAC-1 extended survival from 74 days (vehicle treated mice) to 91 days (p=0.034), and TMZ alone extended survival to 142 days (p=0.0027). Use of PAC-1 in combination with TMZ substantially improved the median survival to 205 days (p<0.0001 compared to vehicle, p=0.0027 compared to TMZ alone).
Addition of PAC-1 to TMZ and ionizing radiation is feasible and associated with cytoreductive activities in canine cancer patients
Canine cancer patients offer the opportunity to evaluate the feasibility of combining PAC-1 with conventional cytoreductive treatment strategies in large mammalian patients. Importantly, human and canine astrocytomas and gliomas present with similar morphologies, pathologies and molecular abnormalities [37-39]. The pharmacokinetics and efficacy of PAC-1/derivatives has been well studied in pet dogs with cancer, including those with lymphoma and metastatic osteosarcoma [26, 40, 41]. Prior to initiating a feasibility study of PAC-1 in pet dogs with brain cancer, the suitability of PAC-1 targeted therapy for canine glioma was determined using a small cohort (n = 4) of archived paraffin-embedded tumor samples. Spontaneously arising canine astrocytomas low-grade (n = 1), grade III (n = 1) and glioblastomas (n = 2) were assessed for immunohistochemical procaspase-3 staining intensity. A general trend of increasing procaspase-3 staining intensity with increased malignancy was present (Figure 4), with procaspase-3 staining being notably less intense in normal brain tissue and not identifiable in a low grade astrocytoma. This contrasted with a Grade III astrocytoma tissue sample displaying 30-40% cytoplasmic staining for procaspase-3, and glioblastoma samples showing 90% positive staining. Importantly, in three of the canine samples, normal brain tissue was directly adjacent to neoplastic tissue, and in these cases the tumor tissue contained a higher degree of intracytoplasmic procaspase-3 staining intensity as compared to the normal surrounding tissue (Figure 4).
Procaspase-3 immunohistochemical staining of spontaneous canine astrocytomas.
Figure 4: Procaspase-3 immunohistochemical staining of spontaneous canine astrocytomas. A portion of the low power image (0.5X) on the far left is enlarged to 200x in the image at right. The blue and red stars show the approximate areas of tumor and normal tissue; some PC-3 positive tumor cells can be observed infiltrating between the tumor mass and normal tissues in images B and C. A. A low grade astrocytoma tumor from a necropsy specimen did not stain positively for procaspase-3. B. Grade III astrocytoma, necropsy specimen. ~30-40% of cells in the tumor tissue stained with moderate to strong cytoplasmic PC-3 staining intensity; both the cellularity and staining intensity are increased relative to normal brain tissue. C. GBM, necropsy specimen. Over 90% of cells have moderate cytoplasmic PC-3 staining intensity in this tumor; again, both the cellularity and staining intensity are increased relative to normal brain tissue. D. GBM biopsy tissue. > 90% of cells contained moderate to strong cytoplasmic PC-3 staining intensity. This staining intensity is markedly increased as compared to the normal tissues observed in images A, B and C. No normal tissue was available in this sample.
With the goals of evaluating the feasibility of PAC-1 in combination with TMZ and concurrent ionizing radiation, as well as assessing in vivo activity, the combination was evaluated in three pet dogs diagnosed via MRI with naturally-occurring intra-axial, non-resectable gliomas (Patients 1-3). As displayed in Figure 5A, canine patients were treated with oral PAC-1 (7.5 – 12.5 mg/kg) for 84 consecutive days. Canine patients also received 100 mg/m2 oral TMZ on days 29-33 and 57-61. Ionizing radiation (3 gray/fraction) was administered between days 29-52 on a Monday-Friday schedule for 16 total fractions (48 total gray). 3D conformal radiation plans were developed with Eclipse 11.0 (Varian Medical Systems) and administered via 6MV photons from a Varian 21EX linear accelerator. Patients received daily prednisone (1 mg/kg) throughout the study. Pre-treatment MRI was performed prior to initiation of investigational therapy with oral PAC-1 as a monotherapy, a second MRI was performed to assess for single agent PAC-1 activity, and a third MRI on day 84 was performed, upon the completion of multimodality therapy exposure. Blood was collected for hematologic and non-hematologic assessment at pre-treatment, on Days 29, 57, and 84. Importantly, all patients completed the treatment protocol without severe toxicities and no mortalities were observed over the course of the study, suggesting that addition of oral PAC-1 to the protocol is highly feasible. The only notable toxicity observed was in one dog that developed cerebellar related tremors and ataxia after starting PAC-1 that resolved with dose reduction. Two of three patients exhibited minimal tumor decreases following PAC-1 monotherapy (6% and 5% for Patients 1 and 2, respectively, Table 1). Further, all three patients exhibited objective response to the complete therapy protocol, with Patient 1 exhibiting a complete response (100%) and eradication of tumor (MRI images of Patient 1 shown in Figure 5B-5D), and Patients 2 and 3 exhibiting strong partial responses, with 43% and 60% reductions in tumor burden, respectively (MRI images for Patients 2 and 3 shown in Supplementary Figure 2, results summarized in Table 1).
Table 1: Canine glioma patients treated with PAC-1, TMZ and ionizing radiationa
Change in Tumor Burden Following Treatment
Patient
Breed
Age
Sex
PAC-1 dosage (mg/kg)
PAC-1 monotherapy
Combination therapy
1
Labrador retriever
7
FSa
12.5b
↓ 6%
↓ 100%
2
Dachshund
8
FS
10.0
↓ 5%
↓ 43%
3
Boxer
5
FS
7.5
↑ 19%
↓ 60%
aAbbreviations: FS; spayed female. bPAC-1 dosage was 12.5 mg/kg for days 1-56, then reduced to 8.0 mg/kg for days 57-84.
Evaluation of combining oral PAC-1 with TMZ and definitive ionizing radiation therapy in pet dogs with non-resectable gliomas A. Schematic of treatment schedule.
Figure 5: Evaluation of combining oral PAC-1 with TMZ and definitive ionizing radiation therapy in pet dogs with non-resectable gliomas A. Schematic of treatment schedule. PAC-1 was administered orally from days 1-84 (as shown by the blue horizontal line). TMZ was administered orally days 29-33 and 57-61 (indicated by red arrows). B.-D. MRI of Patient 1’s glioma on Day 0 (B, pre-treatment), Day 28 (C, post PAC-1 monotherapy), and Day 84 (D, post combination therapy). Tumors have been false-colored green. Change in tumor size from Day 0 is denoted on far right side of images. Quantification in Table 1.
DISCUSSION
While survival has steadily increased for several common cancers, therapy for glioblastoma still only results in a median patient survival of about 15 months [4, 5]. No new small molecules have been approved for the treatment of glioblastoma following the 2005 approval of TMZ. This lack of novel chemotherapeutics exists even as knowledge of the molecular aberrations found in glioblastomas expands rapidly. Glioblastoma was one of the first cancers profiled by the National Institutes of Health’s Cancer Genome Atlas [42], and these efforts identified numerous promising targets including EGFR, VEGF, PDGFRs and PKC -- all targets that were observed to be frequently overexpressed in glioblastomas and for which overexpression frequently correlated inversely with prognosis. Furthermore, small molecules targeting these proteins have been tested for the treatment of diverse and challenging solid tumors (such as non-small cell lung cancer), have demonstrated survival increases, and have been FDA approved [43]. Unfortunately, no clinical trials of molecularly targeted small molecules in glioblastoma to date have yielded a survival benefit for patients. Thus, there exists a significant challenge in translating the evermore sophisticated knowledge of glioblastoma molecular aberrations into effective and durable responses in patients.
Numerous factors drive the lethality and resistance to chemotherapies of glioblastoma, but the disappointing lack of activity of novel molecularly targeted agents can be largely attributed to two mechanisms: lack of complete target suppression, and engagement of feedback and overlap between targeted signaling pathways. The requirement for complete inhibition of a target protein can drive resistance in many cancers, but glioblastomas possess the added challenge of achieving therapeutically sufficient drug levels at tumor sites within the brain. In this regard, a BBB-penetrant small molecule activator, such as PAC-1, may have advantages. While near-quantitative inhibition is often needed for an effect of a small molecule enzyme inhibitor, the activation of a low percentage of cellular procaspase-3 by PAC-1 can set off a feed-forward cycle, with the caspase-3 generated activating additional procaspase-3 [22, 26].
PAC-1 is a blood-brain barrier penetrant small molecule, capable of bypassing intrinsic anti-apoptotic mechanisms and initiating apoptosis in cancer cells and therefore represents an opportunity for intracranial tumors, particularly for those such as glioblastoma where procaspase-3 is strongly expressed. PAC-1 distributes between the brain and the blood with a 30:70 ratio [23], and the CSF:blood ratio of TMZ has been reported as 17:83 in humans [44], suggesting the potential of these two proapoptotic agents to act synergistically in vivo. Indeed, as described herein the combination of PAC-1 and TMZ was synergistic in orthotopic rodent glioma models. More significantly, the combination of PAC-1, TMZ, and radiation was well-tolerated in pet dogs with glioma, and a clinical response was observed in all three of these canine cancer patients.
There are some caveats when interpreting the canine data. First, the number of subjects is necessarily small, not allowing for a full randomized trial comparing standard of care to standard of care plus PAC-1. Secondly, the dosing and duration of TMZ plus radiation is adapted to canine therapy and differs from the human regime with regards to dose intensity. Finally, for intracranial masses, while consistent for intra-axial glial tumors based upon MRI findings, the specific tumor histology was not confirmed at diagnosis for the small cohort of pet dogs enrolled.
The BBB presents a significant challenge for treatment of intracranial tumors, thus it is critical that novel experimental therapeutics are assessed in in vivo settings that closely mimic the human disease. Although rodent models of cancer have been exceptionally useful in rapidly and systematically evaluating potential cancer treatment strategies in a controlled manner, scores of drugs show efficacy in these models, but this activity very often fails to translate to human cancer patients; indeed, only ~1 in 20 oncology candidates that start a Phase I trial ultimately becomes an approved drug [45]. Most rodent tumor models rely upon rapidly growing, homogeneous tumors that frequently demonstrate limited invasion or metastases. In addition, rodents have a highly abbreviated life span compared to humans. Thus, the evaluation of anticancer strategies in companion animals (pets) with spontaneous cancers can complement induced murine models [46, 47].
Canine patients with naturally occurring brain tumors represent an emerging resource to test the feasibility, tolerability and activity of anticancer strategies [48]. Spontaneous canine cancers develop with tumor heterogeneity more representative of the human disease than murine models of cancer [49, 50]. Canine patients are closer in weight, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics to the analogous human physiology than are rodents. Canine gliomas present with similarities to their human counterparts, including relative age of onset, phenotypes, chromosome copy number aberrations, and gene expression profiles [51, 52]. Gliomas, like many canine cancers, display a breed-specific enrichment, in this case in short-nosed dog breeds (brachycephalic) [51].
Due to the expense of imaging, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy treatment with TMZ, limited literature precedent for the expected outcome of glioblastoma therapy in canine patients exists, although anecdotally, complete regressions are rarely observed in canine brain tumors. Thus, the demonstrated feasibility of combining PAC-1 with conventional anti-glioma therapies such as TMZ and ionizing radiation in pet dogs with spontaneous glioma provides highly valuable translational data that can be leveraged to expedite and guide the implementation of similar therapeutic strategies for human glioblastoma patients. PAC-1 is currently being evaluated in human cancer patients in a Phase I clinical trial (NCT02355535). Based upon its ability to penetrate the BBB, to bypass anti-apoptotic mechanism to induce cell death, its activating mode-of-action, and the over-expression of procaspase-3 glioblastoma, PAC-1 has the potential as an orally delivered small molecule with a capacity for both single agent anti-glioblastoma activity, as well as the ability to synergize with TMZ to increase activity and achieve more durable responses in patients.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Immunohistochemistry, cell viability, apoptosis, and clonogenic survival
Glioblastoma oncosphere cells were cultured in serum free medium cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS and 1X Penicillin/Streptomycin. All cells were maintained at 37˚ C in 5% CO2 at low passage.
To determine basal procaspase-3 expression in glioma cell lines, protein lysates were prepared using RIPA buffer, normalized by a bicinchoninic acid assay, denatured, separated on a denaturing gradient gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. Procaspase-3 protein levels were determined (Cell Signaling #9665), and GAPDH was used as a loading control.
IC50 values for PAC-1 and TMZ were determined following a 72 hour incubation with a range of concentrations by Alamar blue (DMSO vehicle control was normalized to 1%). PAC-1 and TMZ were assessed in combination in U87, D54 and 9L cells (1,875 per well) treated for 72 h with a range of TMZ concentrations in the presence or absence of three concentrations of PAC-1. Cell number and viability were assessed by Alamar Blue.
The ability of PAC-1 and TMZ combinations to induce apoptosis was assessed by Annexin V /propidium iodide staining and western blot analysis of PARP-1 cleavage and cleavage of procaspase-3. 50,000 9L cells were plated in 6-well plates and treated with combinations of PAC-1 (20 µM) and TMZ (150 µM) for 48 hours. At the conclusion of treatment the entire contents of each well was pelleted and assessed by either flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry. Pellets for flow cytometry were suspended in 450 µL of Annexin V-FITC binding buffer (10 mM HEPES, 140 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM CaCl2, 1% BSA, pH 7.4), premixed with Annexin V-FITC and propidium iodide dyes. Staining was assessed by flow cytometry (10,000 events recorded per sample). Pellets for immunohistochemistry were prepared as described above and analyzed for procaspase-3 (Cell Signaling #9662) and PARP-1 (Cell Signaling #9542). β-actin (Cell Signaling #4970) served as a loading control.
Alterations of clonogenic survival was assessed in 9L cells. 250 cells were allowed to adhere for 48 hours before treatment with combinations of PAC-1 and TMZ (12 hours). Media was replaced, plates sealed gas permeable membranes and colonies were allowed to form (7 days). At the conclusion of colony growth, colonies were washed with PBS and stained with 0.05% crystal violet in 6% glutaraldehyde for 30 minutes. Colonies were defined as >50 cells, and the cologenic survival was determined as the number of colonies formed after treatment divided by the number of cells seeds multiplied by the plating efficiency; incongruence with established methods to assess clonogenic survival.
Analysis of glioblastoma patient survival by gene expression
The REMBRANDT database from the NCI was used to analyze the survival of glioblastoma patients based on expression of key genes involved in extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Gene expression levels were determined using Affymetrix gene expression array and the genes were considered to be high expressing when the expression was > 2-fold compared to non-tumor expression. Similarly, the genes were considered to be low-expressing when their expression was < 2-fold compared to non-tumor expression. Expression between those cut-offs was considered as intermediate and representative of not distinctly different compared to non-tumor expression.
Assessment of procaspase-3 immunostaining in normal and malignant canine brain tissue
The University of Illinois Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory database was reviewed for cases of canine astrocytoma, and identified tissues were recut for procaspase-3 immunohistochemistry. Processed slides were deparaffinized in xylene and rehydrated in alcohol. Endogenous peroxidase activity was blocked with Biocare #PX968 Peroxidazed 1 at room temperature for 5 minutes, rinsed with TBS wash buffer, and then incubated for 10 minutes at room temperature with Biocare #BP974 Background Punisher. Slides were incubated with procaspase-3 antibody (Abcam #ab32150) for 39 minutes at a dilution of 1:3000, washed, and then incubated with Rabbit-on-Canine HRP-Polymer (Biocare #RC542) for 30 minutes. Slides were washed in TBS wash buffer. The reaction was developed using DAB substrate for 5 minutes and the slides were then counterstained with Mayer’s hematoxylin. Canine lymph nodes served as negative and positive controls.
Intracranial orthotopic rodent models
9L glioma, syngeneic in F344 rats
9L tumors (2 mm3) were passaged in the flanks of F344 carrier rats (female, 150–200 g). For intracranial implantation, the 9L tumor was surgically excised, cut into 1 mm3 pieces, and placed in sterile 0.9% saline on ice until implantation. F344 female rats (weighing 150-200 g) were anesthetized, their heads shaved and prepared with povidone-iodine, and a midline scalp incision was made. With an electric drill, a burr hole (3 mm) was drilled 3 mm lateral to the sagittal suture and 5 mm posterior to the coronal suture. A small amount of cortex and white matter was removed with gentle suction. The 1 mm3 piece of 9L tumor was placed implanted and the skin was closed with surgical sutures. Rats were randomized prior to receiving treatments.
To determine the efficacy of PAC-1 (suspension), rats (n=8 per group) received 10 oral doses (50 mg/kg) on days 5-9 and 12-16, and survival was compared to untreated animals. To determine the efficacy of PAC-1 in capsules, rats (n=5 per group) were treated with PAC-1 in capsules (50 mg/kg, in size 9 Torpac capsules, using a dosing syringe) for 16 consecutive days starting day 3, and survival was compared to untreated animals.
To determine the efficacy of PAC-1 in combination with TMZ, rats were implanted with 9L tumors as previously, and randomly divided into four treatment groups (n=8 per group). Rats treated with PAC-1 (alone, or in combination with TMZ), received PAC-1 (50 mg/kg, oral suspension, days 1-5). Mice treated with TMZ (alone, or in combination with PAC-1) received TMZ (50 mg/kg, oral, days 6-10).
Glioblastoma oncospheres (020913), xenograft in NOD SCID mice
Twenty male NOD SCID mice were anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine and xylazine and a small incision in the skin over the cranium was made. A hole was made 1 mm lateral of midline and 1 mm lateral of Bregma over the parietal lobe using a surgical drill. The animal was placed in a stereotactic frame and 360,000 020913 cells were implanted at a depth of 2.5 mm using a Hamilton syringe. The incision was closed with surgical staples. Mice were randomly divided into four treatment groups (n=5 per group). Mice treated with PAC-1 (alone, or in combination with TMZ), received PAC-1 (50 mg/kg, oral) 5 days a week from day 12-52. Mice treated with TMZ (alone, or in combination with PAC-1) received TMZ (50 mg/kg, oral) 5 days a week from day 26-44.
Feasibility of combining PAC-1 with oral temozolomide and ionizing radiation in pet dogs diagnosed with intra-axial glial tumors
Pet dogs with spontaneously-arising intra-axial glial tumors based upon characteristic MRI findings were recruited for voluntary participation in a feasibility trial evaluating the safety and activity of combining oral PAC-1 with temozolomide and ionizing radiation. Pet owners were educated on the investigational nature of PAC-1, and provided expert guidance regarding all medically-indicated treatment options that could be pursued for the management of their pet dog prior to study enrollment. Upon informed client consent, pet dogs had standardized diagnostics performed including neurologic examination, screening blood work, and MRI, and then treated with a standardized protocol inclusive of PAC-1, TMZ, and ionizing radiation therapy lasting over a time span of 84 days. The instituted combination treatment protocol of PAC-1, TMZ, and ionizing radiation in pet dogs, while analogous to standard-of-care therapy in people diagnosed with GBM, was less dose-intense with regards to TMZ dosage and cumulative ionizing radiation dose delivered, as compared to conventional human protocols.
Serial MRI assessment protocol
To document cytoreductive activities of PAC-1 alone or in combination with oral TMZ and ionizing radiation therapy, pet dogs had a total of 3 serial MRI scans at Day 0 (pre-treatment), Day 28 (PAC-1 monotherapy), and Day 84 (PAC-1 combined with TMZ and ionizing radiation). A semi-automated 2-dimensional segmentation process using OsiriX (OsiriX 64-bit, version 8.0.2, Pixmeo, Switzerland) was employed to grow areas of interest based on voxel signal intensity thresholds which delineated tumor size. The baseline threshold was set on Day 0 (pre-treatment) MRI scans and included the whole tumor and no adjacent structures of similar signal intensity. This threshold was then applied to all subsequent MRI scans (days 28 and 84). A combination of T2w, T1w and T1w with contrast images were used to make direct comparisons in tumor size change serially across MRI scans. The resulting semi-automated segmentation allowed regions of interest to be consistently and uniformly calculated within individual patients (dimensional planar as mm2).
Statistical analysis
Survival curves were analyzed with Graphpad Prism 5.0 and log rank test was used to determine the significance. A p value of less than 0.05 was regarded as statistically significant.
CONFLICTs OF INTEREST
Paul Hergenrother, Timothy Fan, Avadhut Joshi, Rachel Botham, Howard Roth and Gregory Riggins have a financial interest in the compound PAC-1 through intellectual property. Authors with a financial interest in PAC-1 via Vanquish Oncology are Paul Hergenrother, Timothy Fan and Gregory Riggins. These potential conflict of interests are managed through the respective university’s conflict of interest policy.
GRANT SUPPORT
We are grateful to the National Institutes of Health (R01-CA120439 & R01-CA190223) and the Virginia and D.K. Ludwig Fund for Cancer Research for support of this work. R.C.B. is a National Science Foundation predoctoral fellow, a Robert C. and Carolyn J. Springborn graduate fellow, and a member of the NIH Chemistry-Biology Interface Training Grant (NRSA 1-T32-GM070421). H.S.R. was partially supported by the Richard B. Silverman Predoctoral Fellowship from the American Chemical Society Division of Medicinal Chemistry. G.J.R. is supported in part by the Irving J. Sherman Research Professorship in Neurosurgery.
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50. Schiffman JD, Breen M. Comparative oncology: what dogs and other species can teach us about humans with cancer. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2015; 370.
51. Thomas R, Duke SE, Wang HJ, Breen TE, Higgins RJ, Linder KE, Ellis P, Langford CF, Dickinson PJ, Olby NJ, Breen M. ‘Putting our heads together’: insights into genomic conservation between human and canine intracranial tumors. J Neurooncol. 2009; 94:333-349.
52. Koestner A, Higgins RJ. (2008). Tumors of the Nervous System. Tumors in Domestic Animals: Iowa State Press, pp. 697-738.
Creative Commons License All site content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
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M APK Editor: Modify and Customize Android Apps Easily
What is M APK and How to Use It?
If you are an Android user, you might have heard of or used an APK file before. An APK file is an Android Package Kit, which is a file format that contains all the components of an Android app, such as code, resources, manifest, etc. An APK file can be installed on your Android device, or extracted and modified using various tools.
One of the tools that can help you work with APK files is M APK. M APK is an app that allows you to decompile and compile installation packages Android (.apk), including system applications. You can also use it to sign, extract, compare, and edit APK files. In this article, we will show you how to download, install, and use M APK on your Android device.
m apk
Download Zip: https://blltly.com/2us3UO
How to Download and Install M APK
To download M APK, you can visit the official website of APKCombo, which is a platform that provides free download of various Android apps in APK format. You can search for "M APK" in the search bar, or use this direct link: https://apkcombo.com/apktool-m/ru.maximoff.apktool/. You will see the details of the app, such as its name, version, size, rating, description, screenshots, etc. You can also read the user reviews and feedbacks about the app.
To install M APK, you need to enable the installation of apps from unknown sources on your Android device. To do this, go to Settings > Security > Unknown Sources and toggle it on. Then, you can tap on the downloaded M APK file and follow the instructions on the screen to complete the installation. You will see a new icon of M APK on your app drawer.
How to Decompile and Compile APK Files with M APK
One of the main features of M APK is that it allows you to decompile and compile installation packages Android (.apk), including system applications. This means that you can view and edit the source code of any app that you have installed or downloaded on your device.
To decompile an APK file with M APK, you need to launch the app and tap on the "Decompile" button. You will see a list of all the apps that are installed on your device. You can select any app that you want to decompile, or tap on the "Open File" button to browse for an external APK file. You will see a progress bar showing the decompilation process. Once it is done, you will see a folder with the name of the app in your internal storage. You can tap on it to open it and view its contents.
To compile an APK file with M APK, you need to launch the app and tap on the "Compile" button. You will see a list of all the folders that contain decompiled apps in your internal storage. You can select any folder that you want to compile, or tap on the "Open Folder" button to browse for an external folder. You will see a progress bar showing the compilation process. Once it is done, you will see a new file with the name of the folder.apk in your internal storage. You can tap on it to open it and install it on your device. You can also share it with others or upload it to online platforms.
How to Use Other Features of M APK
Besides decompiling and compiling APK files, M APK also offers some other features that can help you work with APK files. Here are some of them:
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m apk signer
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How to sign an APK file with a custom certificate
If you want to sign an APK file with a custom certificate, you can use the "Sign" feature of M APK. This feature allows you to create a new certificate or use an existing one to sign an APK file. To use this feature, you need to launch the app and tap on the "Sign" button. You will see a list of all the APK files in your internal storage. You can select any file that you want to sign, or tap on the "Open File" button to browse for an external file. You will see a screen where you can choose to create a new certificate or use an existing one. You can enter the details of the certificate, such as name, alias, password, validity, etc. You can also select the signature algorithm and the digest algorithm. Once you are done, you can tap on the "Sign" button to sign the APK file. You will see a new file with the name of the original file.signed.apk in your internal storage.
How to extract resources from an APK file
If you want to extract resources from an APK file, such as images, sounds, fonts, etc., you can use the "Extract" feature of M APK. This feature allows you to extract all or selected resources from an APK file and save them in your internal storage. To use this feature, you need to launch the app and tap on the "Extract" button. You will see a list of all the APK files in your internal storage. You can select any file that you want to extract resources from, or tap on the "Open File" button to browse for an external file. You will see a screen where you can choose to extract all resources or select specific ones. You can also filter the resources by type, such as images, sounds, fonts, etc. Once you are done, you can tap on the "Extract" button to extract the resources from the APK file. You will see a folder with the name of the original file in your internal storage. You can tap on it to open it and view its contents.
How to compare two APK files and find differences
If you want to compare two APK files and find differences between them, such as code changes, resource changes, manifest changes, etc., you can use the "Compare" feature of M APK. This feature allows you to compare two APK files and see a detailed report of their differences. To use this feature, you need to launch the app and tap on the "Compare" button. You will see a screen where you can select two APK files that you want to compare. You can tap on the "Open File 1" and "Open File 2" buttons to browse for external files, or tap on the "Select File 1" and "Select File 2" buttons to choose from internal files. Once you have selected two files, you can tap on the "Compare" button to compare them. You will see a progress bar showing the comparison process. Once it is done, you will see a report of their differences in various categories, such as code changes, resource changes, manifest changes, etc. You can tap on each category to see more details.
Conclusion
M APK is a powerful and useful tool that allows you to decompile and compile installation packages Android (.apk), including system applications. You can also use it to sign, extract, compare, and edit APK files. With M APK, you can explore and modify any app that you have installed or downloaded on your device.
However, before using M APK, you should be aware of some tips and warnings:
• Make sure that you have enough storage space on your device before decompiling or compiling an APK file.
• Make sure that you have permission from the app developer before modifying or distributing their app.
• Make sure that you backup your original APK file before editing or signing it.
• Make sure that you know what you are doing before changing any code or resource in an APK file.
• Make sure that you scan any downloaded or modified APK file for viruses or malware before installing it.
FAQs
What are some alternatives to M APK?
Some alternatives to M APK are:
Is M APK safe and legal to use?
M APK is safe and legal to use as long as you download it from a trusted source, such as APKCombo, and scan it for viruses or malware before installing it. However, you should be careful when using M APK to modify or distribute other apps, as you might violate their terms of service, intellectual property rights, or privacy policies. You should also respect the app developers and their work, and not use M APK for malicious or illegal purposes.
How can I update M APK to the latest version?
To update M APK to the latest version, you can visit the official website of APKCombo and download the latest version of the app. You can also enable the auto-update feature in M APK settings, which will notify you when a new version is available and allow you to download and install it automatically.
What are the system requirements for M APK?
The system requirements for M APK are:
• Android 4.0 or higher
• At least 50 MB of free storage space
• Root access (optional, but recommended)
How can I contact the developer of M APK?
If you have any questions, feedbacks, suggestions, or issues with M APK, you can contact the developer of the app by sending an email to ru.maximoff.apktool@gmail.com. You can also visit the developer's website at https://maximoff.ru/ or follow them on Twitter at https://twitter.com/MaximoffRu.
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Audi 80/90/Coupe
Since 1986-1991 of release
Repair and car operation
Audi 80/90/Coupe
+ 1.2. Car identification
+ 2. Engines, carburettors
3. Greasing system
+ 4. Cooling system
+ 5. Fuel system
+ 6. An exhaust system
+ 7. Ignition system
+ 8. Transmission
+ 9. Suspension brackets, wheels
+ 10. Brake system
+ 11. A steering
- 12. A body, salon
12.2. The central section of a guard
12.3. A cowl rope
12.4. A forward guard
12.5. A forward wing
12.6. Lock pins of a cowl, the rubber shock-absorber
12.7. A cowl
12.8. A gazonapolnennaja rack (models the Sedan)
12.9. A luggage carrier cover
12.10. A back door (Compartment model)
12.11. A forward door, the bottom door loop
12.12. Adjustment of a window and a bearing element of a door
12.13. Window condensing stoppers, a window regulator
12.14. The door lock
12.15. Draught of lever transfer of the lock
12.16. A rope of an internal door-lock
12.17. A rotary clamp, an adjusting spring
12.18. Adjustment of doors
12.19. A bearing element of a door
12.20. The central lock
12.21. The pump with two modes of forcing
12.22. The leading activator
12.23. The activator of a back door
12.24. The activator of a cover of a luggage carrier
12.25. The activator of a cover of a fuel tank
12.26. Door glass (Compartment model)
12.27. Adjustment of a butt overlay (Compartment model)
12.28. A skeleton of a back door, the bottom loop of a door
12.29. A bearing element of the back door, a condensing stopper
12.30. A rope, шарнирный the lever
12.31. The door handle
12.32. The holder of components of a door
12.33. The hatch
12.34. A bumper casing
12.35. Hermetic sealing of a back bumper
12.36. An extending clamp
12.37. A forward spoiler / a lining of a niche of a wheel (Compartment model)
12.38. The top overlay of a forward spoiler (Compartment model)
12.39. A back spoiler / a lining of a niche of a wheel
12.40. A back bumper (Compartment model)
12.41. window raiser
12.42. Internal furnish of a body
12.43. Sitting
+ 13. A central air
+ 14. An electric equipment
32ad0625 Обявления путан спб смотрите на http://www.esisspb.net.
12.33. The hatch
THE GENERAL DATA
The hatch
1. A hatch cover
2. A condensing lining of a cover of the hatch
3. A bolt of a cover of the hatch
4. A bolt of adjustment of height, forward
5. A screw of adjustment of height, back
6. A loop of a cover of the hatch
7. A screw with a flat head
8. Обтекатель
9. A sound-proof lining
10. Lateral directing a rail
11. A restrictive arm
12. The screw with a spherical head
13. A screw with a flat head
14. Дефлектор a rain
15. Back directing (with a rope)
16. An inclined arm
17. The Lift / the holder of the hatch
18. A forward support of the hatch
19. A covering of a cover of the hatch
20. A lock clip of a covering of a cover of the hatch
The hatch cover, making elements
1. A sealing lining of a cover of the hatch
2. A furnish detail
3. A spring растяджения
4. A loop of a cover of the hatch
5. A rubber elastic lining
6. A lamellar spring
7. A protective felt lining
8. A protective felt lining
9. The rubber terminator
10. A tape (keeps on a place a spring)
Making elements of the hatch (Compartment model)
1. Connecting draught
2. Ползун (2x)
3. A back trench of a drainage system
Before removal of a trench of a drainage system remove directing with the elevating channel
4. A rope
5. Back directing with a rope
6. Directing with the elevating channel
7. A lateral cover
For removal ослабьте lock bolts
And with force shift a lateral cover
Opposite to a condensing lining
Hatch covers, and then tighten bolts
8. A hollow rivet
9. A directing trench
It is fixed by means of rivets
For removal симимте a skeleton also drill rivets
10. Secret screws (7x)
11. A cover of the directing
12. A reflector
Disconnect the elevating lever before removal
13. A secret screw
14. A hollow rivet
15. A hollow rivet
16. A nut
17 Directing tubes of a rope
For removal ывсверлите rivets
18. A bolt with a washer (3x) |
[v6,12/12] powerpc/fsl_booke/32: Document KASLR implementation
diff mbox series
Message ID 20190809100800.5426-13-yanaijie@huawei.com
State New
Headers show
Series
• implement KASLR for powerpc/fsl_booke/32
Related show
Checks
Context Check Description
snowpatch_ozlabs/checkpatch success total: 0 errors, 0 warnings, 0 checks, 42 lines checked
snowpatch_ozlabs/build-pmac32 warning Build succeeded but added 2 new sparse warnings
snowpatch_ozlabs/build-ppc64e warning Build succeeded but added 2 new sparse warnings
snowpatch_ozlabs/build-ppc64be success Build succeeded
snowpatch_ozlabs/build-ppc64le warning Build succeeded but added 2 new sparse warnings
snowpatch_ozlabs/apply_patch success Successfully applied on branch next (f3365d1a959d5c6527efe3d38276acc9b58e3f3f)
Commit Message
Jason Yan Aug. 9, 2019, 10:08 a.m. UTC
Add document to explain how we implement KASLR for fsl_booke32.
Signed-off-by: Jason Yan <yanaijie@huawei.com>
Cc: Diana Craciun <diana.craciun@nxp.com>
Cc: Michael Ellerman <mpe@ellerman.id.au>
Cc: Christophe Leroy <christophe.leroy@c-s.fr>
Cc: Benjamin Herrenschmidt <benh@kernel.crashing.org>
Cc: Paul Mackerras <paulus@samba.org>
Cc: Nicholas Piggin <npiggin@gmail.com>
Cc: Kees Cook <keescook@chromium.org>
---
Documentation/powerpc/kaslr-booke32.rst | 42 +++++++++++++++++++++++++
1 file changed, 42 insertions(+)
create mode 100644 Documentation/powerpc/kaslr-booke32.rst
Patch
diff mbox series
diff --git a/Documentation/powerpc/kaslr-booke32.rst b/Documentation/powerpc/kaslr-booke32.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8b259fdfdf03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Documentation/powerpc/kaslr-booke32.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+.. SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-2.0
+
+===========================
+KASLR for Freescale BookE32
+===========================
+
+The word KASLR stands for Kernel Address Space Layout Randomization.
+
+This document tries to explain the implementation of the KASLR for
+Freescale BookE32. KASLR is a security feature that deters exploit
+attempts relying on knowledge of the location of kernel internals.
+
+Since CONFIG_RELOCATABLE has already supported, what we need to do is
+map or copy kernel to a proper place and relocate. Freescale Book-E
+parts expect lowmem to be mapped by fixed TLB entries(TLB1). The TLB1
+entries are not suitable to map the kernel directly in a randomized
+region, so we chose to copy the kernel to a proper place and restart to
+relocate.
+
+Entropy is derived from the banner and timer base, which will change every
+build and boot. This not so much safe so additionally the bootloader may
+pass entropy via the /chosen/kaslr-seed node in device tree.
+
+We will use the first 512M of the low memory to randomize the kernel
+image. The memory will be split in 64M zones. We will use the lower 8
+bit of the entropy to decide the index of the 64M zone. Then we chose a
+16K aligned offset inside the 64M zone to put the kernel in::
+
+ KERNELBASE
+
+ |--> 64M <--|
+ | |
+ +---------------+ +----------------+---------------+
+ | |....| |kernel| | |
+ +---------------+ +----------------+---------------+
+ | |
+ |-----> offset <-----|
+
+ kernstart_virt_addr
+
+To enable KASLR, set CONFIG_RANDOMIZE_BASE = y. If KASLR is enable and you
+want to disable it at runtime, add "nokaslr" to the kernel cmdline. |
Categories
Science Stargazing Universe
Solar Eclipses
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon, in it’s own movement, finds itself between the Earth and the Sun. One of the consequences of this alignment will be the blocking of a part (or all) of the Sun’s light here on Earth, in areas where the eclipse is visible. This is due to the fact that the Moon covers the Sun’s disk partially, or sometimes even totally.
Solar eclipses can thus be of two types: partial (when the Moon covers only part of the Sun’s disk) or total (when the Sun’s disk is covered completely by the Moon).
Total Solar eclipse
A total solar eclipse, which is the most dramatic – because the sky turns dark just like at night for a few minutes during mid-day – is much more rare, as the conditions needed for such an eclipse to occur, are much more strict.
For a total eclipse to occur, the Moon needs to be closer to the Earth on its elliptical orbit, so that its apparent size can be large enough to cover the Sun’s disk. In addition, the totality (the period of only a few minutes when the Sun is completely covered by the Moon) occurs only along a very narrow path along the Earth’s surface.
Annular and partial Solar eclipses
So, most of the Solar eclipses are not total!
But even if the Sun’s disk is not covered completely by the Moon, the concentricity of the two disks can create another beautiful Solar eclipse – an annular one, when the Sun is visible around the moon, just like a ring – hence its name!
However, most of the times a Solar eclipse will be partial, when the Sun’s disk will be partially covered by the Moon, and not in a concentrical manner. This is the most common type of Solar eclipse that we see.
Visibility of a Solar eclipse
One solar eclipse (be it partial, annular or total) can’t be visible from everywhere on Earth. The Sun needs already to be visible – which narrows down the visibility of an eclipse to less than half of our planet! As the relative positions of the Moon and Sun in the sky, seen from our planet, are always changing, the alignment of the two for an eclipse to occur, narrow its visibility down even more.
Sizes of the Sun and the Moon
The Sun is much bigger than the Moon, that’s for sure. So how can it be completely covered by the Moon then?
To answer this question, we need to look at the distance of the Sun and Moon, from us, from our planet. The Sun is much more far away from Earth than the Moon is! Which makes it have an apparent size more or less equal to the apparent size of the Moon! The Moon moves along an elliptical orbit around Earth, which makes it, at times, be closer to our planet. Which translates itself into a bigger apparent size of the Moon, which actually becomes slightly larger than the Sun’s apparent size. Which finally, can lead to a total Solar eclipse, if the other conditions for this event to occur, are met!
Looking at an eclipse
Warning! Never look at a solar eclipse with the naked eye. Not even sunglasses aren’t enough! In order to see a solar eclipse, you need a special solar filter, which makes it safe to look directly at the Sun. Otherwise, you risk getting extreme eye damage, and even blindness!
The Annular eclipse of 10 June 2021
On June 10 this year, an annular solar eclipse is scheduled to occur! The actual annular eclipse will be visible from a narrow band along Earth, which crosses the North Pole and a few far-North regions of Canada and Russia.
In the rest of the Northern Hemisphere, the eclipse will be a partial one and will be visible from places such as the Eastern part of the US, almost the whole of Europe and parts of Asia.
If, by any chance, you’ll find yourself in Vadsø, you will see a partial Solar eclipse, with a maximum obscuration of 51%, occuring at 13:09, Norway time.
For other location and times, check out this map from NASA to see exactly where on Earth the eclipse will be visible from, in 2 days!
And by the way, did you know that with Aurora Labs you can discover the mysteries of our own Sun by observing it through our telescope? The eclipse seen through a telescope (with a special solar filter, of course!) is a magnificent sight!
A partial solar eclipse.
Update June 10, 2021:
The beginning of the partial solar eclipse on June 10, 2021.
Categories
Nature Stargazing Universe
See the “Bethlehem Star” in the Night Sky
In astronomy, a conjunction means the “meeting” of two planets in the night sky. Jupiter and Saturn, the biggest planets in our Solar System, can meet as well, but when they do, their conjunction is a “great” one – hence the term Great Conjunction!
Jupiter and Saturn are one of the brightest objects in the night sky. They look just like two very bright stars – but don’t mistake them for stars! They are planets, so they don’t create light themselves just like the stars (like our Sun does for example). They are “lit” only because of the reflection of the sunlight. Which is the same reason why the Moon shines in the night sky!
The Great Conjunction of 2020
In their perpetual movement around the sun, it happens sometimes that planets “meet”. The word “meet” is quoted because the planets don’t actually meet in reality. It is just how we see things from here on Earth. In fact, the two planets are aligned in such a way in their orbits, that from Earth, we see them as if they came into contact with eachother. In reality though, they’re some million kilometres apart!
And why is this conjunction “great” you may ask? Well, this is because Saturn and Jupiter, due to their size, they are already bright even when they’re “apart”. When two bright lights touch each other, they are seen like only one light, even brighter! The same happens with the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn.
When does it happen?
Jupiter and Saturn are already close in the night sky since quite some time now. But on December 21 (thus tomorrow!), the two planets will be so close (less than 0.1 degrees) that they will look like an elongated, very bright star. So, stargazers, get ready for a Christmas treat!
Why is the Great Conjunction so special this year?
The Great Conjunction occurs regularly, roughly every 20 years. But why is it so special this year?
In function on the position of the “meeting” with respect to the position of the Sun, the conjunction may be more or less bright. If this meeting place is too close to the Sun, the brightness diminishes. This year, the position is ideal for a very bright Great Conjunction!
Another thing to take into account is how close the two planets will appear to be. Not every 20 years the planets have such an apparent closeness! In fact, to get an idea of how rare this occurs, know that last time Jupiter and Saturn appeared so close, was in year 1226! It actually happened in 1623, but it was rather close to the Sun, which made it actually less visible.
Where and how to look?
You need to look in the night sky about 1 hour after sunset, almost anywhere on Earth, even in light polluted areas! In the Northern hemisphere look towards south-west. As for the Southern hemisphere, look towards the west. Needless to say that you will need a clear sky!
It will be impossible to miss such an impressive sight so, don’t worry, it will not be difficult to spot it!
“Christmas Star”
As the Great Conjunction this year happens very close to Christmas, it is also called the “Christmas Star“, or the “Bethlehem Star“. To go even further, some astronomers believe that the Star of Bethlehem which led the Three Wise Men to the place where Jesus was born, might have actually been a Great Conjunction! But there are other theories that suggest that a supernova might have occurred that time. Or, was it indeed a divine miracle?
Categories
Nature Science Stargazing Universe
“Stargazing” during the day
The polar day has almost arrived in Vadsø and the night sky is almost as bright as during the daytime. Therefore, the stars, planets and other sky objects will not be visible anymore during “classical” stargazing sessions, under a dark night sky! But we at Aurora Labs, did find a possibility to enjoy the sky from an astronomical point of view nevertheless – even in daylight!
The International Space Station, or ISS as it is commonly known, is today the largest man-made object that flies in space, at around 400 km altitude above Earth. And because it has the size of a football field, it is big enough to be seen even from our planet!
The International Space Station orbiting Earth
The International Space Station orbiting Earth
Things are easier at night: if you look at the sky, the ISS will appear as a very bright star (approximately the same brightness as planet Venus). Because it is so bright, it should be seen even from urban areas! The bright dot suddenly appears on the horizon, moves steadily without changing speed or direction, and disappears again below the horizon. And it doesn’t blink as a plane does. If you’ve ever seen something like this, chances are that you’ve spotted the ISS! In addition, there are online tools and phone apps which calculate for you when ISS should be visible in your exact location – such as, for example, Spot the Station, provided by NASA.
You don’t need a telescope to see this show; however, to the naked eye, the ISS looks like a bright dot, with no other features. A telescope would permit you to see some features, as solar panels for example.
During the day, things are more difficult. At night, ISS is seen because it reflects the light of the already set Sun. During the day, however, a possibility to see ISS is when it passes across (or transits) the face of the Sun. And what a great sight that is! Be careful though, in order to see this great show, you need a properly equipped telescope with solar filters when you look at the Sun, otherwise the light of our star is so bright, that it can create even blindness!
Multiple photographers around the world have taken such photos of the ISS transiting the Sun or moon. ISS travels at a speed of around 28.000 km/h, so, can you imagine how precise you need to be in order to capture such a moment that only lasts less than half a second? Because – yes – the ISS transiting the Sun or moon lasts less than 0.5 seconds!
One of the most recent photos of this kind, is the one taken by the photographer Mack Murdoc from Los Angeles, which is a composite photo showing the ISS as it passed across the Sun.
"International Space Station Solar Transit." © Mack Murdoc - see the original publication on Mack Murdoc's Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/p/B_h851mHpah/
“International Space Station Solar Transit.” © Mack Murdoc – see the original publication on Mack Murdoc’s Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/p/B_h851mHpah/
During daytime hours, besides the ISS, it is possible to see even planets, such as Venus, transiting the Sun! In the photo below, the black dot is not a sunspot, as you might believe, but it’s no other than planet Venus!
Gestrgangleri (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20040608_Venus_Transit.JPG), „20040608 Venus Transit“, marked as public domain, more details on Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Template:PD-self
Gestrgangleri (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20040608_Venus_Transit.JPG), „20040608 Venus Transit“, marked as public domain, more details on Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Template:PD-self
And here, meet Mercury as the small black round dot (you can also see sunspots in this picture, and how different they look compared to the perfect round shape of a planet):
Elijah Mathews (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Transit_Of_Mercury,_May_9th,_2016.png), „Transit Of Mercury, May 9th, 2016“, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode
The Moon is also sometimes visible in the sky during the daylight, and with a properly equipped telescope, you can see its features really well, too!
The Moon seen during the day
The Moon seen during the day
Last but not least, our Sun is a star, just like the million others out there that you can see in the night sky! Therefore it can be observed with a telescope as well! A specially equipped telescope with solar filters, of course, to protect your eyes from the extremely bright light! If you visit me here in Vadsø, I offer this activity as part of the Cloud Spotting under the Midnight Sun activity and we’ll have a look at our star and at its sunspots!
The Sun and a few sunspots |
1
I have an Apache webserver, and in the Apache configuration, I have
Alias /backups "/backups"
<Directory "/backups">
AllowOverride None
Options Indexes
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
</Directory>
I can access files via http://127.0.0.1/backups. The problem is everyone can access that.
I have a web interface, e.g. http://localhost/adminm that is protected with htaccess and password.
Now I don't want separate .htaccess and .htpasswd for /backups, and I don't want a second password prompt when a user clicks on /backups in the web interface. Is there any way to use same .htaccess and .htpasswd for the backups directory?
2
• i think it more of linux knowledge than web . At webmasters linux tag has only 27 questions .
– Mirror51
May 21, 2011 at 15:51
• @Mirror51: Linux is not relevant to your question. Since your users are accessing the files through a web interface, the access control is performed by Apache, not Linux. May 21, 2011 at 15:52
1 Answer 1
1
Yes. Anything you set in .htaccess you can set in the Apache configuration.
What you'll do is add the directives from your /admin .htaccess to your /backup directory context.
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Multiquantum EPR bridge design and noise performance characterization
Robert Alan Strangeway, Marquette University
Abstract
In a multiquantum electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrometer, a biological sample is irradiated with two or more coherent microwave frequencies with a frequency spacing generally from 1 to 100 kHz. Multiquantum EPR (MQEPR) bridges were initially developed in 1990 utilizing a single sideband modulator. In this bridge, transmission resonators and reflection traps were used to reduce intermodulation sidebands, generated by the single sideband modulator, that are identical in frequency with the EPR signals. It was also difficult to use by non-microwave engineers; hence, the need for an alternative MQEPR bridge design was established. The first major problem solved in this work is the selection and design of a microwave bridge configuration which will function as a MQEPR bridge and meet the specific requirements that it generates two or three closely spaced coherent microwave (X-band) frequencies separated on the order of 1 kHz to 100 kHz, is straightforward to operate, generates 23 dBm per frequency with spurious content ${\le}{-}70$ dBc incident on the loop-gap resonator, is tunable over a 200 MHz bandwidth, and minimizes intermodulation product generation in the receiver portion. The double sideband/fixed filter configuration was selected. It generates multiple signals by using synthesizers and mixers to translate the microwave oscillator frequency, filters to isolate the desired mixer sideband, and one amplifier per bridge arm to eliminate intermodulation products in the incident irradiation. The performance of this configuration meets the specific requirements. The second major problem solved in this work is the identification and characterization of the sources of noise in the double sideband/fixed filter MQEPR bridge configuration. The sources of noise identified were receiver noise, the synthesizer noise floor, incoherent and coherent phase noise, and noise on receiver intermodulation products. The receiver sets the lower limit of the system noise floor at low incident power. At higher incident power, the incoherent phase noise of the synthesizers, $-$123 dBc/Hz at 100 kHz offset, sets the lower limit. The coherent phase noise of the microwave oscillator is suppressed to the first order.
Recommended Citation
Robert Alan Strangeway, "Multiquantum EPR bridge design and noise performance characterization" (January 1, 1996). Dissertations (1962 - 2010) Access via Proquest Digital Dissertations. Paper AAI9719088.
http://epublications.marquette.edu/dissertations/AAI9719088
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Quais são as diferenças entre um Tuple e um List no Python?
Exemplo:
>a = [1, 2, 3]
# [1, 2, 3]
>b = (1, 2, 3)
# (1, 2, 3)
O Tuple, grotescamente falando, é uma constante que aceita um List?
0
3 Respostas 3
18
Do ponto de vista técnico em Python uma tupla é imutável e uma lista é mutável.
Do ponto de vista conceitual você deveria usar tuplas para montar estruturas de dados heterogêneos enquanto a lista deveria ser usada para dados homogêneos, ou seja, todos seus elementos deveriam ser do mesmo tipo.
Como Python é uma linguagem dinâmica isso não pode ser garantido, cabe ao programador decidir fazer isto.
Por ser usado para dados heterogêneos (diversidade de tipos entre os membros) a tupla normalmente possui poucos elementos mas nada impede que tenha muitos. Tuplas frequentemente são usadas para simular classes que não precisam ser definidas, cujo uso é mais efêmero e não depende de contratos mais específicos. Só tome o cuidado de usar uma tupla como se fosse uma lista, funciona, mas não costuma ser adequado em quase todas situações.
Mas mesmo que você tenha uma lista de elementos que normalmente será pequena, se ela se parece mais como uma lista e não um conjunto limitado e fixo de dados, a lista deve ser usada.
Se os dados são do mesmo tipo, é quase certo que você tem uma lista, claro que existem exceções. Por exemplo um Point poderia ser uma tupla cujos elementos são dois inteiros. É óbvio que isto não é uma lista de dados, mas um conjunto limitado de dados que por acaso são do mesmo tipo.
A tupla funciona como um registro de dados, como uma linha de um banco de dados, um conjunto de colunas. A lista funciona como a tabela, são as linhas como um todo.
Eu imagino, mas nunca testei, que tuplas são ligeiramente mais rápidas, mas elas não devem ser usadas por causa disto, use de acordo com a semântica adequada.
Coloquei no GitHub para referência futura.
5
• Boa explanação! A questão da diferença velocidade entre tuplas e listas sempre me intrigou também! 4/03/2015 às 10:52
• 1
Você poderia enxergar a tupla como um conjunto de dados que não faz sentido de forma desirmanada. Por exemplo, um vetor ou uma coordenada, onde os números perdem imediatamente o sentido se manipulados em separado.
– epx
15/03/2016 às 2:48
• 1
A velocidade de acesso aos dados é a mesma. A diferença na criação, se houver, é minima, e um detalhe não importante de implementação.
– jsbueno
12/01/2017 às 19:56
• Outro ponto interessante é que precisamos de menos bits para armazenar as tuplas. Ao usar uma tupla ao invés de uma lista estamos economizando espaço. Se vc for usar uma variável que precisará ser modificada ao longo do código é melhor usar listas.
– Alineat
28/08/2017 às 18:07
• Faltou exemplo. 29/12/2017 às 16:45
2
Complementando a resposta do usuário Maniero, as tuplas são imutáveis, portanto não é possível modificar o conteúdo sem sobrescrever a variável que a representa, enquanto que a lista possui vários métodos que alteram a sua estrutura.
Quando é necessário representar uma estrutura que não deve ser modificada, deve-se usar uma tupla ao invés da lista, garantindo a integridade dos dados e assegurando que até o programador não consiga modificar sua estrutura.
Por exemplo:
t = (1, 2, 3)
t = t + (4, 5) # incremento de 2 elementos na tupla t, sobrescrita na variável t
l = [1, 2, 3]
l.extend([4,5]) # incremento de 2 elementos na lista l
4
• 1
Deixei meu -1 pelo fato da resposta não ser inteiramente verdade. É fato que a tupla é um tipo imutável, como dito também na outra resposta, porém não há relação alguma ao fato de representar estruturas que não devem ser modificadas. Inclusive o fato de uma tupla ser imutável não significa que seus elementos também são. Por exemplo, uma tupla de listas pode sofrer alterações livremente, pois a lista é mutável. Veja um exemplo.
– Woss
13/09/2017 às 18:47
• Sim, acabei me expressando mal. Estava falando de estrutura somente da tupla e não de seu conteúdo.
– Paulo C
14/09/2017 às 13:39
• Olá! Eu, ainda, gostaria de entender melhor por que tuplas são mais usadas para tipos de dados heterogêneos e as listas para dados homogêneos. Isso não é obrigatório, mas por que isso é mais adequado? 4/07/2020 às 2:12
• Geralmente as tuplas são usadas para representar um conjunto de dados em que cada posição tem um valor bem definido, como na resposta de @maniero com o exemplo do Point, em que cada elemento da tupla é um número, sendo a primeira posição para x e a segunda para y. Nesse exemplo, a tupla é heterogênea, mas pode-se usar elementos homogêneos também. Tuplas é um representação de um conjunto de dados com uma quantidade definida, enquanto que na lista pode-se incrementar elementos.
– Paulo C
7/07/2020 às 11:31
2
Apenas complementando, uma outra característica das tuplas e listas é a adição de elementos unitários em cada uma. Por exemplo para adicionar o elemento '4' em cada um:
st = (1,2,3) # Declaração de tupla
st = [1,2,3] # Declaração de lista
st += [4]
sl += (4,) #Sem a vírgula ele retorna um erro que não se pode concatenar um inteiro a uma tupla
sl += (4,5,6) # Para adições desse modo não há problema
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Degree vs. Approximate Degree and Quantum Implications of Huang’s Sensitivity Theorem
February 10, 2021 - 11:00am
Speaker:
Robin Kothari
Institution:
Microsoft
Based on the recent breakthrough of Huang (2019), we show that for any total Boolean function f, deg(f) = O(~deg(f)^2): The degree of f is at most quadratic in the approximate degree of f. This is optimal as witnessed by the OR function. D(f) = O(Q(f)^4): The deterministic query complexity of f is at most quartic in the quantum query complexity of f. This matches the known separation (up to log factors) due to Ambainis, Balodis, Belovs, Lee, Santha, and Smotrovs (2017). We apply these results to resolve the quantum analogue of the Aanderaa--Karp--Rosenberg conjecture. We show that if f is a nontrivial monotone graph property of an n-vertex graph specified by its adjacency matrix, then Q(f)=Omega(n), which is also optimal. We also show that the approximate degree of any read-once formula on n variables is Theta(sqrt{n}). This is joint work with Scott Aaronson, Shalev Ben-David, Shravas Rao, and Avishay Tal. Preprint available at https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.12629.
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I have added a location in the "willing to relocate" field.
If I use the publicly available employer view to search for myself, I do not seem to be showing up. (I assume I should be a dot at my current location, Cologne).
How long does it take for a profile change to make it into the employer view?
Edit: I am visible now, it just seems to have taken some time to work out. I'm leaving the question open anyway because this is surely going to come up again from someone else.
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1 Answer
up vote 3 down vote accepted
Search data is cached very heavily right now -- changes may not be reflected until up to 24 hours later. This is because we are building big indexes in memory to do very fast searches, and there's no convenient way to update the indexes without rebuilding them from scratch.
The profile itself that the employer sees is always up-to-date with what you as a user see, since it's trivial to reload the profile from the DB on every view. So if anyone looked at your profile, they would see "Willing to relocate to X" immediately after you added it. However, because you weren't in the index until we rebuilt it several hours later, you wouldn't show up for searches in that location.
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1
Good to know, thanks! Maybe this would be worth a small note somewhere in the interface ("Some changes may take up to 24 hours to show up" or something.) – Pëkka Apr 27 '11 at 20:41
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Computer graphics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A Blender 2.45 screenshot, displaying the 3D test model Suzanne.
Computer graphics are pictures and movies created using computers - usually referring to image data created by a computer specifically with help from specialized graphical hardware and software. It is a vast and recent area in computer science.The phrase was coined by computer graphics researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter of Boeing in 1960. Another name for the field is computer-generated imagery, or simply CGI.
Important topics in computer graphics include user interface design, sprite graphics, vector graphics, 3D modeling, shaders, GPU design, and computer vision, among others. The overall methodology depends heavily on the underlying sciences of geometry, optics, and physics. Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and beautifully to the user, and processing image data received from the physical world. The interaction and understanding of computers and interpretation of data has been made easier because of computer graphics. Computer graphic development has had a significant impact on many types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, and graphic design generally.
Overview[edit]
The term computer graphics has been used a broad sense to describe "almost everything on computers that is not text or sound".[1] Typically, the term computer graphics refers to several different things:
• the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer
• the various technologies used to create and manipulate images
• the sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content, see study of computer graphics
Computer graphics is widespread today. Computer imagery is found on television, in newspapers, for example in weather reports, or for example in all kinds of medical investigation and surgical procedures. A well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media "such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, thesis", and other presentation material.[2]
Many powerful tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer generated imagery can be categorized into several different types: two dimensional (2D), three dimensional (3D), and animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have become more common, but 2D computer graphics are still widely used. Computer graphics has emerged as a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Over the past decade, other specialized fields have been developed like information visualization, and scientific visualization more concerned with "the visualization of three dimensional phenomena (architectural, meteorological, medical, biological, etc.), where the emphasis is on realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps with a dynamic (time) component".[3]
History[edit]
Introduction[edit]
The precursor sciences to the development of modern computer graphics were the advances in electrical engineering, electronics, and television that took place during the first half of the twentieth century. Screens could display art since the Lumiere brothers' use of mattes to create special effects for the earliest films dating from 1895, but such displays were limited and not interactive. The first cathode ray tube, the Braun tube, was invented in 1897 - it in turn would permit the oscilloscope and the military control panel - the more direct precursors of the field, as they provided the first two-dimensional electronic displays that responded to programmatic or user input. Nevertheless, computer graphics remained relatively unknown as a discipline until the 1950s and the post-World War II period - during which time, the discipline emerged from a combination of both pure university and laboratory academic research into more advanced computers and the United States military's further development of technologies like radar, advanced aviation, and rocketry developed during the war. New kinds of displays were needed to process the wealth of information resulting from such projects, leading to the development of computer graphics as a discipline.
1950s[edit]
SAGE Sector Control Room.
Early projects like the Whirlwind and SAGE Projects introduced the CRT as a viable display and interaction interface and introduced the light pen as an input device. Douglas T. Ross of the Whirlwind SAGE system performed a personal experiment in 1954 in which a small program he wrote captured the movement of his finger and displayed its vector (his traced name) on a display scope. One of the first interactive video games to feature recognizable, interactive graphics – Tennis for Two – was created for an oscilloscope by William Higinbotham to entertain visitors in 1958 at Brookhaven National Laboratory and simulated a tennis match. In 1959, Douglas T. Ross innovated again while working at MIT on transforming mathematic statements into computer generated machine tool vectors, and took the opportunity to create a display scope image of a Disney cartoon character.[4]
Electronics pioneer Hewlett-Packard went public in 1957 after incorporating the decade prior, and established strong ties with Stanford University through its founders, who were alumni. This began the decades-long transformation of the southern San Francisco Bay Area into the world's leading computer technology hub - now known as Silicon Valley. The field of computer graphics developed with the emergence of computer graphics hardware. Further advances in computing led to greater advancements in interactive computer graphics. In 1959, the TX-2 computer was developed at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory. The TX-2 integrated a number of new man-machine interfaces. A light pen could be used to draw sketches on the computer using Ivan Sutherland's revolutionary Sketchpad software.[5] Using a light pen, Sketchpad allowed one to draw simple shapes on the computer screen, save them and even recall them later. The light pen itself had a small photoelectric cell in its tip. This cell emitted an electronic pulse whenever it was placed in front of a computer screen and the screen's electron gun fired directly at it. By simply timing the electronic pulse with the current location of the electron gun, it was easy to pinpoint exactly where the pen was on the screen at any given moment. Once that was determined, the computer could then draw a cursor at that location. Sutherland seemed to find the perfect solution for many of the graphics problems he faced. Even today, many standards of computer graphics interfaces got their start with this early Sketchpad program. One example of this is in drawing constraints. If one wants to draw a square for example, they do not have to worry about drawing four lines perfectly to form the edges of the box. One can simply specify that they want to draw a box, and then specify the location and size of the box. The software will then construct a perfect box, with the right dimensions and at the right location. Another example is that Sutherland's software modeled objects - not just a picture of objects. In other words, with a model of a car, one could change the size of the tires without affecting the rest of the car. It could stretch the body of car without deforming the tires.
1960s[edit]
The phrase “computer graphics” itself was coined in 1960 by William Fetter, a graphic designer for Boeing.[5] This old quote in many secondary sources comes complete with the following sentence: (Fetter has said that the terms were actually given to him by Verne Hudson of the Wichita Division of Boeing.)[6] In 1961 another student at MIT, Steve Russell, created the second video game, Spacewar. Written for the DEC PDP-1, Spacewar was an instant success and copies started flowing to other PDP-1 owners and eventually DEC got a copy.[citation needed] The engineers at DEC used it as a diagnostic program on every new PDP-1 before shipping it. The sales force picked up on this quickly enough and when installing new units, would run the world's first video game for their new customers.
E. E. Zajac, a scientist at Bell Telephone Laboratory (BTL), created a film called "Simulation of a two-giro gravity attitude control system" in 1963.[7] In this computer-generated film, Zajac showed how the attitude of a satellite could be altered as it orbits the Earth. He created the animation on an IBM 7090 mainframe computer. Also at BTL, Ken Knowlton, Frank Sinden and Michael Noll started working in the computer graphics field. Sinden created a film called Force, Mass and Motion illustrating Newton's laws of motion in operation. Around the same time, other scientists were creating computer graphics to illustrate their research. At Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Nelson Max created the films Flow of a Viscous Fluid and Propagation of Shock Waves in a Solid Form. Boeing Aircraft created a film called Vibration of an Aircraft.
Also sometime in the early 1960s, automobiles would also provide a boost through the early work of Pierre Bézier at Renault, who used Paul de Casteljau's curves - now called Bézier curves after Bézier's work in the field - to develop 3d modeling techniques for Renault car bodies. These curves would form the foundation for much curve-modeling work in the field, as curves - unlike polygons - are mathematically complex entities to draw and model well.
Pong arcade version
It was not long before major corporations started taking an interest in computer graphics. TRW, Lockheed-Georgia, General Electric and Sperry Rand are among the many companies that were getting started in computer graphics by the mid-1960s. IBM was quick to respond to this interest by releasing the IBM 2250 graphics terminal, the first commercially available graphics computer. Ralph Baer, a supervising engineer at Sanders Associates, came up with a home video game in 1966 that was later licensed to Magnavox and called the Odyssey. While very simplistic, and requiring fairly inexpensive electronic parts, it allowed the player to move points of light around on a screen. It was the first consumer computer graphics product. David C. Evans was director of engineering at Bendix Corporation's computer division from 1953 to 1962, after which he worked for the next five years as a visiting professor at Berkeley. There he continued his interest in computers and how they interfaced with people. In 1966, the University of Utah recruited Evans to form a computer science program, and computer graphics quickly became his primary interest. This new department would become the world's primary research center for computer graphics.
Also in 1966, Ivan Sutherland continued to innovate at MIT when he invented the first computer controlled head-mounted display (HMD). Called the Sword of Damocles because of the hardware required for support, it displayed two separate wireframe images, one for each eye. This allowed the viewer to see the computer scene in stereoscopic 3D. After receiving his Ph.D. from MIT, Sutherland became Director of Information Processing at ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency), and later became a professor at Harvard. In 1967 Sutherland was recruited by Evans to join the computer science program at the University of Utah. There he perfected his HMD. Twenty years later, NASA would re-discover his techniques in their virtual reality research. At Utah, Sutherland and Evans were highly sought after consultants by large companies but they were frustrated at the lack of graphics hardware available at the time so they started formulating a plan to start their own company. In 1969, the ACM initiated A Special Interest Group on Graphics (SIGGRAPH) which organizes conferences, graphics standards, and publications within the field of computer graphics. In 1973, the first annual SIGGRAPH conference was held, which has become one of the focuses of the organization. SIGGRAPH has grown in size and importance as the field of computer graphics has expanded over time.
1970s[edit]
The Utah teapot by Martin Newell and its static renders became emblematic of CGI development during the 1970s.
Many of the most important early breakthroughs in the transformation of graphics from utilitarian to realistic occurred at the University of Utah in the 1970s, which had hired Ivan Sutherland away from MIT. Sutherland's graphics class would contribute a number of significant pioneers to the field, including a student by the name of Edwin Catmull - a later founder of Pixar. Because of David C. Evans' and Sutherland's presence, UU was gaining quite a reputation as the place to be for computer graphics research so Catmull went there to learn 3D animation. Catmull had just come from The Boeing Company and had been working on his degree in physics. Growing up on Disney, Catmull loved animation yet quickly discovered that he did not have the talent for drawing. Now Catmull (along with many others) saw computers as the natural progression of animation and they wanted to be part of the revolution. The first animation that Catmull saw was his own. He created an animation of his hand opening and closing. It became one of his goals to produce a feature-length motion picture using computer graphics. In the same class, Fred Parke created an animation of his wife's face.
As the UU computer graphics laboratory was attracting people from all over, John Warnock was one of those early pioneers; he would later found Adobe Systems and create a revolution in the publishing world with his PostScript page description language, and Adobe would go on later to create the industry standard photo editing software in Adobe Photoshop and the movie industry's special effects standard in Adobe After Effects. Tom Stockham led the image processing group at UU which worked closely with the computer graphics lab. Jim Clark was also there; he would later found Silicon Graphics, Inc. The first major advance in 3D computer graphics was created at UU by these early pioneers, the hidden-surface algorithm. In order to draw a representation of a 3D object on the screen, the computer must determine which surfaces are "behind" the object from the viewer's perspective, and thus should be "hidden" when the computer creates (or renders) the image. The 3D Core Graphics System (or Core) was the first graphical standard to be developed. A group of 25 experts of the ACM Special Interest Group SIGGRAPH developed this "conceptual framework". The specifications were published in 1977, and it became a foundation for many future developments in the field.
Also in the 1970s, Henri Gouraud, Jim Blinn and Bui Tuong Phong contributed to the foundations of shading in CGI via the development of the Gouraud shading and Blinn-Phong shading models, allowing graphics to move beyond a "flat" look to a look more accurately portraying depth. Jim Blinn also innovated further in 1978 by introducing bump mapping, a technique for simulating uneven surfaces, and the predecessor to many more advanced kinds of mapping used today.
The modern videogame arcade as is known today was birthed in the 1970s, with the first arcade games using real-time 2D sprite graphics. Pong in 1972 was one of the first hit arcade cabinet games. Speed Race in 1974 featured sprites moving along a vertically scrolling road. Gun Fight in 1975 featured human-looking sprite character graphics, while Space Invaders in 1978 featured a large number of sprites on screen; both used an Intel 8080 microprocessor and Fujitsu MB14241 video shifter to accelerate the drawing of sprite graphics.
1980s[edit]
Dire Straits' 1985 music video for their hit song Money For Nothing - the "I Want My MTV" song – became known as an early example of fully three-dimensional, animated computer-generated imagery.
The 1980s began to see the modernization and commercialization of computer graphics. As the home computer proliferated, a subject which had previously been an academics-only discipline was adopted by a much larger audience, and the number of computer graphics developers increased significantly.
In the early 1980s, the availability of bit-slice and 16-bit microprocessors started to revolutionise high-resolution computer graphics terminals which now increasingly became intelligent, semi-standalone and standalone workstations. Graphics and application processing were increasingly migrated to the intelligence in the workstation, rather than continuing to rely on central mainframe and mini-computers. Typical of the early move to high resolution computer graphics intelligent workstations for the computer-aided engineering market were the Orca 1000, 2000 and 3000 workstations, developed by Orcatech of Ottawa, a spin-off from Bell-Northern Research, and led by David Pearson, an early workstation pioneer. The Orca 3000 was based on Motorola 68000 and AMD bit-slice processors and had Unix as its operating system. It was targeted squarely at the sophisticated end of the design engineering sector. Artists and graphic designers began to see the personal computer, particularly the Commodore Amiga and Macintosh, as a serious design tool, one that could save time and draw more accurately than other methods. The Macintosh remains a highly popular tool for computer graphics among graphic design studios and businesses. Modern computers, dating from the 1980s, often use graphical user interfaces (GUI) to present data and information with symbols, icons and pictures, rather than text. Graphics are one of the five key elements of multimedia technology.
Japan's Osaka University developed the LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System, a supercomputer that used up to 257 Zilog Z8001 microprocessors, in 1982, for the purpose of rendering realistic 3D computer graphics. According to the Information Processing Society of Japan: "The core of 3D image rendering is calculating the luminance of each pixel making up a rendered surface from the given viewpoint, light source, and object position. The LINKS-1 system was developed to realize an image rendering methodology in which each pixel could be parallel processed independently using ray tracing. By developing a new software methodology specifically for high-speed image rendering, LINKS-1 was able to rapidly render highly realistic images. It was used to create the world's first 3D planetarium-like video of the entire heavens that was made completely with computer graphics. The video was presented at the Fujitsu pavilion at the 1985 International Exposition in Tsukuba."[8] The LINKS-1 was the world's most powerful computer, as of 1984.[9]
The continuing popularity of Star Wars and other science fiction franchises were relevant in cinematic CGI at this time, as Lucasfilm and Industrial Light & Magic became known as the "go-to" house by many other studios for topnotch computer graphics in film. Important advances in chroma keying ("bluescreening", etc.) were made for the later films of the original trilogy. Two other pieces of video would also outlast the era as historically relevant: Dire Straits' iconic, near-fully-CGI video for their song "Money For Nothing" in 1985, which popularized CGI among music fans of that era, and a scene from Young Sherlock Holmes the same year featuring the first fully CGI character in a feature movie (an animated stained-glass knight). In 1988, the first shaders - small programs designed specifically to do shading as a separate algorithm - were developed by Pixar, which had already spun off from Industrial Light & Magic as a separate entity - though the public would not see the results of such technological progress until the next decade. In the late 1980s, SGI computers were used to create some of the first fully computer-generated short films at Pixar, and Silicon Graphics machines were considered a high-water mark for the field during the decade.
The 1980s is also called the golden era of videogames; millions-selling systems from Atari, Nintendo and Sega, among other companies, exposed computer graphics for the first time to a new, young, and impressionable audience - as did MS-DOS-based personal computers, Apple IIs and Macs, and Amigas, which also allowed users to program their own games if skilled enough. Demoscenes and shareware games proliferated; John Carmack, a later 3D innovator, would start out in this period developing sprite-based games. In the arcades, advances were made in commercial, real-time 3D graphics. In 1988, the first dedicated real-time 3D graphics boards were introduced in arcades, with the Namco System 21[10] and Taito Air System.[11] This innovation would be the precursor of the later home graphics processing unit or GPU, a technology where a separate and very powerful chip is used in parallel processing with a CPU to optimize graphics.
1990s[edit]
Quarxs, series poster, Maurice Benayoun, François Schuiten, 1992
The 1990s' overwhelming note was the emergence of 3D modeling on a mass scale, and an impressive rise in the quality of CGI generally. Home computers became able to take on rendering tasks that previously had been limited to workstations costing thousands of dollars; as 3D modelers became available for home systems, the popularity of Silicon Graphics workstations declined and powerful Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh machines running Autodesk products like 3D Studio or other home rendering software ascended in importance. By the end of the decade, the GPU would begin its rise to the prominence it still enjoys today.
The field began to see the first rendered graphics that could truly pass as photorealistic to the untrained eye (though they could not yet do so with a trained CGI artist) and 3D graphics became far more popular in gaming, multimedia and animation. At the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the nineties were created, in France, the very first computer graphics TV series: La Vie des bêtes by studio Mac Guff Ligne (1988), Les Fables Géométriques (1989-1991) by studio Fantôme, and Quarxs, the first HDTV computer graphics series by Maurice Benayoun and François Schuiten (studio Z-A production, 1990–1993).
In film, Pixar began its serious commercial rise in this era under Edwin Catmull, with its first major film release, in 1995 - Toy Story - a critical and commercial success of nine-figure magnitude. The studio to invent the programmable shader would go on to have many animated hits, and its work on prerendered video animation is still considered an industry leader and research trailbreaker.
In videogames, in 1992, Virtua Racing, running on the Sega Model 1 arcade system board, laid the foundations for fully 3D racing games and popularized real-time 3D polygonal graphics among a wider audience in the video game industry.[12] The Sega Model 2 in 1993 and Sega Model 3 in 1996 subsequently pushed the boundaries of commercial, real-time 3D graphics. Back on the PC, Wolfenstein 3D, Doom and Quake, three of the first massively popular 3D first-person shooter games, were released by id Software to critical and popular acclaim during this decade using a rendering engine innovated primarily by John Carmack. The Sony Playstation and Nintendo 64, among other consoles, sold in the millions and popularized 3D graphics for home gamers. Certain late-90's first-generation 3D titles became seen as influential in popularizing 3D graphics among console users, such as platform games Super Mario 64 and The Legend Of Zelda: Ocarina Of Time, and early 3D fighting games like Virtua Fighter, Battle Arena Toshinden, and Tekken.
Technology and algorithms for rendering continued to improve greatly. In 1996, Krishnamurty and Levoy invented normal mapping - an improvement on Jim Blinn's bump mapping. 1999 saw Nvidia release the seminal GeForce 256, the first home video card billed as a graphics processing unit or GPU, which in its own words contained "integrated transform, lighting, triangle setup/clipping, and rendering engines". By the end of the decade, computers adopted common frameworks for graphics processing such as DirectX and OpenGL. Since then, computer graphics have only become more detailed and realistic, due to more powerful graphics hardware and 3D modeling software. AMD also became a leading developer of graphics boards in this decade, creating a "duopoly" in the field which exists to this day.
2000s[edit]
CGI became ubiquitous in earnest during this era. Video games and CGI cinema had spread the reach of computer graphics to the mainstream by the late 1990s, and continued to do so at an accelerated pace in the 2000s. CGI was also adopted en masse for television advertisements widely in the late 1990s and 2000s, and so became familiar to a massive audience.
The continued rise and increasing sophistication of the graphics processing unit was crucial to this decade, and 3D rendering capabilities became a standard feature as 3D-graphics GPUs became considered a necessity for desktop computer makers to offer. The Nvidia GeForce line of graphics cards dominated the market in the early decade with occasional significant competing presence from ATI.[13] As the decade progressed, even low-end machines usually contained a 3D-capable GPU of some kind as Nvidia and AMD both introduced low-priced chipsets and continued to dominate the market. Shaders which had been introduced in the 1980s to perform specialized processing on the GPU would by the end of the decade become supported on most consumer hardware, speeding up graphics considerably and allowing for greatly improved texture and shading in computer graphics via the widespread adoption of normal mapping, bump mapping, and a variety of other techniques allowing the simulation of a great amount of detail.
Computer graphics used in films and video games gradually began to be realistic to the point of entering the uncanny valley. CGI movies proliferated, with traditional animated cartoon films like Ice Age and Madagascar as well as numerous Pixar offerings like Finding Nemo dominating the box office in this field. The Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, released in 2001, was the first fully computer-generated feature film to use photorealistic CGI characters and be fully made with motion capture.[14] The film was not a box-office success, however.[15] Some commentators have suggested this may be partly because the lead CGI characters had facial features which fell into the "uncanny valley".[16] Other animated films like The Polar Express drew attention at this time as well. Star Wars also resurfaced with its prequel trilogy and the effects continued to set a bar for CGI in film.
In videogames, the Sony Playstation 2 and 3, the Microsoft Xbox line of consoles, and offerings from Nintendo such as the GameCube maintained a large following, as did the Windows PC. Marquee CGI-heavy titles like the series of Grand Theft Auto, Assassin's Creed, Final Fantasy, Bioshock, Kingdom Hearts, Mirror's Edge and dozens of others continued to approach photorealism, grow the videogame industry and impress, until that industry's revenues became comparable to those of movies. Microsoft made a decision to expose DirectX more easily to the independent developer world with the XNA program, but it was not a success. DirectX itself remained a commercial success, however. OpenGL continued to mature as well, and it and DirectX improved greatly; the second-generation shader languages HLSL and GLSL began to be popular in this decade.
In scientific computing, the GPGPU technique to pass large amounts of data bidirectionally between a GPU and CPU was invented; speeding up analysis on many kinds of bioinformatics and molecular biology experiments. The technique has also been used for Bitcoin mining and has applications in computer vision.
2010s[edit]
Box art from Titanfall, 2014
In the early half of the 2010s, CGI is nearly ubiquitous in video, pre-rendered graphics are nearly scientifically photorealistic, and realtime graphics on a suitably high-end system may simulate photorealism to the untrained eye.
Texture mapping has matured into a multistage process with many layers; generally it is not uncommon to implement texture mapping, bump mapping or isosurfaces, normal mapping, lighting maps including specular highlights and reflection techniques, and shadow volumes into one rendering engine using shaders, which are maturing considerably. Shaders are now very nearly a necessity for advanced work in the field, providing considerable complexity in manipulating pixels, vertices, and textures on a per-element basis, and countless possible effects. Their shader languages HLSL and GLSL are active fields of research and development. Physically-based rendering or PBR, which implements even more maps to simulate real optic light flow, is an active research area as well. Experiments into the processing power required to provide graphics in real time at ultra-high-resolution modes like Ultra HD are beginning, though beyond reach of all but the highest-end hardware.
In cinema, most animated movies are CGI now; a great many animated CGI films are made per year, but few, if any, attempt photorealism due to continuing fears of the uncanny valley. Most are 3D cartoons.
In videogames, the Xbox One by Microsoft, Sony Playstation 4, and Nintendo Wii U currently dominate the home space and are all capable of highly advanced 3D graphics; the Windows PC is still one of the most active gaming platforms as well.
Image types[edit]
Two-dimensional[edit]
Main article: 2D computer graphics
Raster graphic sprites (left) and masks (right)
2D computer graphics are the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from models, such as digital image, and by techniques specific to them.
2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional printing and drawing technologies such as typography. In those applications, the two-dimensional image is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics, whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography.
Pixel art[edit]
See also: Pixel art
A large form of digital art being pixel art is created through the use of raster graphics software, where images are edited on the pixel level. Graphics in most old (or relatively limited) computer and video games, graphing calculator games, and many mobile phone games are mostly pixel art.
Sprite graphics[edit]
A sprite is a two-dimensional image or animation that is integrated into a larger scene. Initially including just graphical objects handled separately from the memory bitmap of a video display, this now includes various manners of graphical overlays.
Originally, sprites were a method of integrating unrelated bitmaps so that they appeared to be part of the normal bitmap on a screen, such as creating an animated character that can be moved on a screen without altering the data defining the overall screen. Such sprites can be created by either electronic circuitry or software. In circuitry, a hardware sprite is a hardware construct that employs custom DMA channels to integrate visual elements with the main screen in that it super-imposes two discrete video sources. Software can simulate this through specialized rendering methods.
Vector graphics[edit]
See also: Vector graphics
Example showing effect of vector graphics versus raster (bitmap) graphics.
Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics. Raster graphics is the representation of images as an array of pixels and is typically used for the representation of photographic images.[17] Vector graphics consists in encoding information about shapes and colors that comprise the image, which can allow for more flexibility in rendering. There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools.
Three-dimensional[edit]
Main article: 3D computer graphics
3D graphics compared to 2D graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data. For the purpose of performance this is stored in the computer. This includes images that may be for later display or for real-time viewing.
Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on similar algorithms as 2D computer graphics do in the frame and raster graphics (like in 2D) in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D rendering techniques.
3D computer graphics are the same as 3D models. The model is contained within the graphical data file, apart from the rendering. However, there are differences that include the 3D model is the representation of any 3D object. Until visually displayed a model is not graphic. Due to printing, 3D models are not only confined to virtual space. 3D rendering is how a model can be displayed. Also can be used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations.
Computer animation[edit]
Example of Computer animation produced using Motion capture
Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI (Computer-generated imagery or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films.
Virtual entities may contain and be controlled by assorted attributes, such as transform values (location, orientation, and scale) stored in an object's transformation matrix. Animation is the change of an attribute over time. Multiple methods of achieving animation exist; the rudimentary form is based on the creation and editing of keyframes, each storing a value at a given time, per attribute to be animated. The 2D/3D graphics software will change with each keyframe, creating an editable curve of a value mapped over time, in which results in animation. Other methods of animation include procedural and expression-based techniques: the former consolidates related elements of animated entities into sets of attributes, useful for creating particle effects and crowd simulations; the latter allows an evaluated result returned from a user-defined logical expression, coupled with mathematics, to automate animation in a predictable way (convenient for controlling bone behavior beyond what a hierarchy offers in skeletal system set up).
To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to the illusion of movement in television and motion pictures.
Concepts and principles[edit]
Images are typically created by devices such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc.
Digital images include both vector images and raster images, but raster images are more commonly used.
Pixel[edit]
In the enlarged portion of the image individual pixels are rendered as squares and can be easily seen.
In digital imaging, a pixel (or picture element[18]) is a single point in a raster image. Pixels are placed on a regular 2-dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an original image, where more samples typically provide a more accurate representation of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has typically three components such as red, green, and blue.
Graphics[edit]
Graphics are visual presentations on a surface, such as a computer screen. Examples are photographs, drawing, graphics designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text and illustration. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style.
Rendering[edit]
Rendering is the generation of a 2D image from a 3D model by means of computer programs. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The rendering program is usually built into the computer graphics software, though others are available as plug-ins or entirely separate programs. The term "rendering" may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. Though the technical details of rendering methods vary, the general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are outlined as the graphics pipeline along a rendering device, such as a GPU. A GPU is a device able to assist the CPU in calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software should solve the rendering equation. The rendering equation does not account for all lighting phenomena, but is a general lighting model for computer-generated imagery. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output.
3D projection
3D projection is a method of mapping three dimensional points to a two dimensional plane. As most current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two dimensional media, the use of this type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting.
Ray tracing
Ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the path of light through pixels in an image plane. The technique is capable of producing a very high degree of photorealism; usually higher than that of typical scanline rendering methods, but at a greater computational cost.
Shading
Example of shading.
Shading refers to depicting depth in 3D models or illustrations by varying levels of darkness. It is a process used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. The term has been recently generalized to mean that shaders are applied.
Texture mapping
Texture mapping is a method for adding detail, surface texture, or colour to a computer-generated graphic or 3D model. Its application to 3D graphics was pioneered by Dr Edwin Catmull in 1974. A texture map is applied (mapped) to the surface of a shape, or polygon. This process is akin to applying patterned paper to a plain white box. Multitexturing is the use of more than one texture at a time on a polygon.[19] Procedural textures (created from adjusting parameters of an underlying algorithm that produces an output texture), and bitmap textures (created in an image editing application or imported from a digital camera) are, generally speaking, common methods of implementing texture definition on 3D models in computer graphics software, while intended placement of textures onto a model's surface often requires a technique known as UV mapping (arbitrary, manual layout of texture coordinates) for polygon surfaces, while NURBS surfaces have their own intrinsic parameterization used as texture coordinates. Texture mapping as a discipline also encompasses techniques for creating normal maps and bump maps that correspond to a texture to simulate height and specular maps to help simulate shine and light reflections, as well as environment mapping to simulate mirror-like reflectivity, also called gloss.
Anti-aliasing
Rendering resolution-independent entities (such as 3D models) for viewing on a raster (pixel-based) device such as a liquid-crystal display or CRT television inevitably causes aliasing artifacts mostly along geometric edges and the boundaries of texture details; these artifacts are informally called "jaggies". Anti-aliasing methods rectify such problems, resulting in imagery more pleasing to the viewer, but can be somewhat computationally expensive. Various anti-aliasing algorithms (such as supersampling) are able to be employed, then customized for the most efficient rendering performance versus quality of the resultant imagery; a graphics artist should consider this trade-off if anti-aliasing methods are to be used. A pre-anti-aliased bitmap texture being displayed on a screen (or screen location) at a resolution different than the resolution of the texture itself (such as a textured model in the distance from the virtual camera) will exhibit aliasing artifacts, while any procedurally defined texture will always show aliasing artifacts as they are resolution-independent; techniques such as mipmapping and texture filtering help to solve texture-related aliasing problems.
Volume rendering[edit]
Volume rendered CT scan of a forearm with different colour schemes for muscle, fat, bone, and blood.
Volume rendering is a technique used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely sampled data set. A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a CT or MRI scanner.
Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a regular number of image pixels in a regular pattern. This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or voxel represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel.
3D modeling[edit]
Main article: 3D modeling
3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical, wireframe representation of any three-dimensional object, called a "3D model", via specialized software. Models may be created automatically or manually; the manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D models may be created using multiple approaches: use of NURBS curves to generate accurate and smooth surface patches, polygonal mesh modeling (manipulation of faceted geometry), or polygonal mesh subdivision (advanced tessellation of polygons, resulting in smooth surfaces similar to NURBS models). A 3D model can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering, used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena, or animated directly for other purposes. The model can also be physically created using 3D Printing devices.
Pioneers in computer graphics[edit]
Charles Csuri
Charles Csuri is a pioneer in computer animation and digital fine art and created the first computer art in 1964. Csuri was recognized by Smithsonian as the father of digital art and computer animation, and as a pioneer of computer animation by the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) and Association for Computing Machinery-SIGGRAPH.
Donald P. Greenberg
Donald P. Greenberg is a leading innovator in computer graphics. Greenberg has authored hundreds of articles and served as a teacher and mentor to many prominent computer graphic artists, animators, and researchers such as Robert L. Cook, Marc Levoy, Brian A. Barsky, and Wayne Lytle. Many of his former students have won Academy Awards for technical achievements and several have won the SIGGRAPH Achievement Award. Greenberg was the founding director of the NSF Center for Computer Graphics and Scientific Visualization.
Aaron Marcus
Aaron Marcus is one of the first graphic designer in the world to work with computer graphics. He has written over 250 articles and written/co-written six books. He has published, lectured, tutored, and consulted internationally for more than 40 years and has been an invited keynote/plenary speaker at conferences of ACM/SIGCHI, ACM/SIGGRAPH, Usability Professionals Association (UPA). He was named an AIGA Fellow in 2007 and was elected in 2008 to the CHI Academy. He is the founder of Aaron Marcus and Associates, Inc., a pioneering, world-renowned design firm specializing in user-interface/user-experience development applications.
A. Michael Noll
Noll was one of the first researchers to use a digital computer to create artistic patterns and to formalize the use of random processes in the creation of visual arts. He began creating digital computer art in 1962, making him one of the earliest digital computer artists. In 1965, Noll along with Frieder Nake and Georg Nees were the first to publicly exhibit their computer art. During April 1965, the Howard Wise Gallery exhibited Noll's computer art along with random-dot patterns by Bela Julesz.
Other pioneers[edit]
A modern render of the Utah teapot, an iconic model in 3D computer graphics created by Martin Newell, 1975
Important Organizations[edit]
Study of computer graphics[edit]
The study of computer graphics is a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and image processing.
As an academic discipline, computer graphics studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using computational techniques. It focuses on the mathematical and computational foundations of image generation and processing rather than purely aesthetic issues. Computer graphics is often differentiated from the field of visualization, although the two fields have many similarities.
Applications[edit]
Computer graphics may be used in the following areas:
References[edit]
1. ^ What is Computer Graphics?, Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics. Last updated 04/15/98. Accessed November 17, 2009.
2. ^ University of Leeds ISS (2002). "What are computer graphics?". Last updated: 22 September 2008
3. ^ Michael Friendly (2008). "Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization".
4. ^ John Francis Reintjes and Douglas T. Ross "Automatically Programmed Tools" (1959) Science Reporter TV Series
5. ^ a b Wayne Carlson (2003) A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation. Ohio State University
6. ^ Jon Peddie: The History of Visual Magic in Computers: How Beautiful Images are Made in CAD, 3D, VR and AR, Springer, 2013, p. 101, ISBN 978-1447149316
7. ^ David Salomon (1999). Computer graphics and geometric modeling. p. ix
8. ^ Information Processing Society of Japan. "LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System-Computer Museum". Retrieved 15 June 2015.
9. ^ http://www.vasulka.org/archive/Writings/VideogameImpact.pdf#page=29
10. ^ "System 16 - Namco System 21 Hardware (Namco)". Retrieved 15 June 2015.
11. ^ "System 16 - Taito Air System Hardware (Taito)". Retrieved 15 June 2015.
12. ^ "Virtua Racing – Arcade (1992)". 15 Most Influential Games of All Time. GameSpot. 14 March 2001. Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
13. ^ The Future Of Computer Graphics Daniel Sevo, 2005 (retrieved 26 February 2015)
14. ^ Cinema: A Painstaking Fantasy Chris Taylor, Time, 31 July 2000 (retrieved 8 August 2012).
15. ^ Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within at Box Office Mojo (retrieved 12 August 2012).
16. ^ The uncanny valley is a hypothesis in the field of robotics and 3D computer animation, which holds that when human replicas look and act almost, but not perfectly, like actual human beings, it causes a response of revulsion among human observers. The concept "valley" refers to the dip in a graph of the comfort level of humans as a function of a robot's human likeness.
17. ^ Ira Greenberg (2007). Processing: Creative Coding and Computational Art. Apress. ISBN 1-59059-617-X.
18. ^ Rudolf F. Graf (1999). Modern Dictionary of Electronics. Oxford: Newnes. p. 569. ISBN 0-7506-4331-5.
19. ^ Blythe, David. Advanced Graphics Programming Techniques Using OpenGL. Siggraph 1999. (see: Multitexture)
Further reading[edit]
• L. Ammeraal and K. Zhang (2007). Computer Graphics for Java Programmers, Second Edition, John-Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-470-03160-5.
• David Rogers (1998). Procedural Elements for Computer Graphics. McGraw-Hill.
• James D. Foley, Andries Van Dam, Steven K. Feiner and John F. Hughes (1995). Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice. Addison-Wesley.
• Donald Hearn and M. Pauline Baker (1994). Computer Graphics. Prentice-Hall.
• Francis S. Hill (2001). Computer Graphics. Prentice Hall.
• John Lewell (1985). Computer Graphics: A Survey of Current Techniques and Applications. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
• Jeffrey J. McConnell (2006). Computer Graphics: Theory Into Practice. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
• R. D. Parslow, R. W. Prowse, Richard Elliot Green (1969). Computer Graphics: Techniques and Applications.
• Peter Shirley and others. (2005). Fundamentals of computer graphics. A.K. Peters, Ltd.
• M. Slater, A. Steed, Y. Chrysantho (2002). Computer graphics and virtual environments: from realism to real-time. Addison-Wesley.
• Wolfgang Höhl (2008): Interactive environments with open-source software, Springer Wien New York, ISBN 3-211-79169-8
External links[edit] |
Varieties and Schemes Revisited
In Basics of Algebraic Geometry we introduced the idea of varieties and schemes as being kinds of “shapes” defined by polynomials (or rings, more generally) in some way. In this post we discuss the definitions of these concepts in more technical detail, and introduce other important concepts related to algebraic geometry as well.
I. Preliminaries: Affine Space, Algebraic Sets and Ringed Spaces
We start with some preliminary definitions.
Affine n-space, written \mathbb{A}^{n}, is the set of all n-tuples of elements of a field k, i.e.
\displaystyle \mathbb{A}^{n}=\{(a_{1},...,a_{n})|a_{i}\in k \text{ for }1\leq i\leq n\}.
An algebraic set is a subset of \mathbb{A}^{n} that is the zero set Z(T) of some set T of polynomials, i.e. Y=Z(T), where
\displaystyle Z(T)=\{P\in \mathbb{A}^{n}|f(P)=0 \text{ for all } f\in T\}.
Intuitively, we want to define a “variety” as some kind of space which “locally” looks like an irreducible algebraic set. “Irreducible” means it cannot be expressed as the union of other algebraic sets. However, we want to think of a variety as more than just a space; we want to think of it as a space with things (namely functions) “living on it”. This leads us to the notion of a ringed space.
A ringed space is simply a pair (X,\mathcal{O}_{X}), where X is a topological space and \mathcal{O}_{X} is a sheaf (see Sheaves) of rings on X. A morphism of ringed spaces from (X,O_{X}) to (Y,O_{Y}) is given by a continuous map f: X\rightarrow Y and a morphism of sheaves of rings f^{\#}: \mathcal{O}_{Y}\rightarrow f_{*}\mathcal{O}_{X}.
Recall that a morphism of sheaves of rings \varphi:\mathcal{F}\rightarrow \mathcal{G} for sheaves of rings \mathcal{F} and \mathcal{G} on X is given by a morphism of rings \varphi(U): \mathcal{F}(U)\rightarrow \mathcal{G}(U) for every open set U of X such that for V\subseteq{U} we have \rho_{U,V}\circ\varphi(U)=\varphi(V)\circ\rho'_{U,V}, where \rho_{U,V} and \rho'_{U,V} are the restriction maps of \mathcal{F} and \mathcal{G}.
We might as well mention locally ringed spaces here, since they will be used to define the concept of schemes later on:
A locally ringed space is a ringed space (X,\mathcal{O}_{X}) such that for each point P of X, the stalk \mathcal{O}_{X,P} is a local ring (see Localization). A morphism of locally ringed spaces from (X,O_{X}) to (Y,O_{Y}) is given by a continuous map f: X\rightarrow Y and a morphism of sheaves of rings f^{\#}: \mathcal{O}_{Y}\rightarrow f_{*}\mathcal{O}_{X} such that (f_{P}^{\#})^{-1}(\mathfrak{m}_{X,P})=\mathfrak{m}_{Y,f(P)} for all P where f_{P}^{\#}: \mathcal{O}_{Y,f(P)}\rightarrow \mathcal{O}_{X,P} is the map induced on the stalk at P.
II. Varieties in Three Steps: Affine Varieties, Prevarieties, and Varieties
We now set out to accomplish our goal of defining “varieties” as spaces that locally look like irreducible algebraic sets. We first start with a ringed space that just “looks like” an irreducible algebraic set:
An affine variety is a ringed space (X,\mathcal{O}_{X}) such that X is irreducible, O_{X} is a sheaf of k-valued functions, and X is isomorphic to an irreducible algebraic set in \mathbb{A}^{n}.
Next, we define a more general kind of ringed space, that is required to look like an irreducible algebraic set only “locally”:
A prevariety is a ringed space (X,\mathcal{O}_{X}) such that X is irreducible, O_{X} is a sheaf of k-valued functions, and there is a finite open cover U_{i} such that (U_{i},\mathcal{O}_{X}|_{U_{i}}) is an affine variety for all i.
We are almost done. However, there is one more nice property that we would like our varieties to have. A topological space X is said to have the Hausdorff property if two distinct points always have two disjoint neighborhoods. With the Zariski topology this is almost always impossible; however there is an analogous notion which is satisfied if the image of the “diagonal morphism” which sends the point P in X to the point (P,P) in X\times X is closed in X\times X. There is an analogous notion of “product” in algebraic geometry; therefore, we can define the concept of variety as follows:
A variety is a prevariety X such that the diagonal morphism is closed in X\times X. In the rest of this post, we will refer to this property as the “algebro-geometric” analogue of the Hausdorff property.
III. Schemes
We now define the concept of schemes, which, as we shall show in the next section, generalize the concept of varieties, i.e. varieties are just a special case of schemes. Inspired by the correspondence between the maximal ideals of the “ring of polynomial functions” (with coefficients in an “algebraically closed field” like the complex numbers) of an algebraic set and the points of the algebraic set mentioned in Basics of Algebraic Geometry, we go further and consider a ringed space whose underlying topological space has points corresponding to the prime ideals of a ring (which is not necessarily a ring of polynomials – we might even consider, for example, the ring of ordinary integers \mathbb{Z}, or the ring of integers of an algebraic number field – see Algebraic Numbers).
The spectrum (note that the word “spectrum” has many different meanings in mathematics, and this particular usage is different, say, from that in Eilenberg-MacLane Spaces, Spectra, and Generalized Cohomology Theories) of a ring is a locally ringed space (\text{Spec}(A)),\mathcal{O}, where \text{Spec}(A) is the set of prime ideals of A equipped with the Zariski topology, and \mathcal O is a sheaf on \text{Spec}(A) given by defining \mathcal{O}(U) to be the set of functions s:U\rightarrow \coprod_{\mathfrak{p}\in U}A_{\mathfrak{p}}, such that s(\mathfrak{p})\in A_\mathfrak{p} for each \mathfrak{p}\in U, and such that for each \mathfrak{p}\in U, there is an open set V\subseteq U containing \mathfrak{p} and elements a,f\in A such that for each \mathfrak{q}\in V, f\notin \mathfrak{q}, and s(\mathfrak{q})=a/f in A_{\mathfrak{q}}.
We now proceed to define schemes, closely mirroring how we defined varieties earlier:
An affine scheme is a locally ringed space (X,\mathcal{O}_{X}) that is isomorphic as a locally ringed space to the spectrum of some ring.
A scheme is a locally ringed space (X,\mathcal{O}_{X}) where every point is contained in some open set U such that U considered as a topological space, together with the restricted sheaf \mathcal{O}_{X}|_{U}, is an affine scheme. A morphism of schemes is a morphism as locally ringed spaces.
Finally, to complete the analogy with varieties, we refer to schemes which have the (analogue of the) Hausdorff property as separated schemes.
Note: In some of the (mostly older) literature, what we refer to as schemes in this post are instead referred to as preschemes, in analogy with prevarieties. What they call a scheme is what we refer to as a separated scheme, i.e. a scheme possessing the Hausdorff property. I have no idea at the moment as to why this rather nice terminology was changed, but in this post we stick with the modern convention.
IV. Prevarieties and Varieties as Special Kinds of Schemes
We now discuss varieties as special cases of schemes. First we need to define what properties we would like our schemes to have, in order to fit with how we described varieties earlier (as ringed spaces which locally look like irreducible spaces defined by polynomials). Therefore, we have to mimic certain properties of polynomial rings.
We first note that polynomials over a field are finitely generated algebras over some field k. A scheme is said to be of finite type over the field k if the affine open sets are each isomorphic to the spectrum of some ring which is a finitely generated algebra over k. More generally, given a morphism of schemes X\rightarrow Y, there is a concept of X being a scheme of finite type over Y, but we will leave this to the references for now.
Next we note that polynomials over a field are integral domains. This means that whenever there are two polynomials f and g with the property that fg=0, then either f=0 or g=0. A scheme is integral if each the affine open sets are each isomorphic to the spectrum of some ring which is an integral domain. An equivalent condition is for the scheme to be irreducible and reduced (this means that the ring specified above has no nilpotent elements, i.e. elements where some power is equal to zero).
We therefore redefine a prevariety as an integral scheme of finite type over the field k. As with the earlier definition, a variety is a prevariety with the (analogue of the) Hausdorff property (i.e. an integral separated scheme of finite type over k).
V. Conclusion
In conclusion, we have started with essentially the same ideas as the “analytic geometry” of Pierre de Fermat and Rene Descartes, familiar to high school students everywhere, used to describe shapes such as lines, circles, conics (parabolas, hyperbolas, circles, and ellipses), and so on. From there we generalized to get more shapes, which resemble only these old shapes “locally” (we may also think of these new shapes as being “glued” from the old ones). To maintain certain familiar properties expected of shapes, we impose the analogue of the Hausdorff property. We then obtain the concept of a variety.
But we can generalize much, much farther to more than just polynomial rings. We can define “spaces” which come from rings which need not be polynomial rings, such as the ring of ordinary integers \mathbb{Z} (or more generally algebraic integers – we have actually hinted at these applications of algebraic geometry in Divisors and the Picard Group). We can then have a kind of “geometry” of these rings, which gives us methods analogous to the powerful methods of geometry, which can be applied to branches of mathematics we would not usually think of as being “geometric”, such as number theory, as we have mentioned above. We end this post with quotes from two of the pioneers of modern mathematics (these quotes are also found in the book Algebra by Michael Artin):
“To me algebraic geometry is algebra with a kick.”
-Solomon Lefschetz
“In helping geometry, modern algebra is helping itself above all.”
-Oscar Zariski
References:
Algebraic Variety on Wikipedia
Scheme on Wikipedia
Ringed Space on Wikipedia
Abstract Varieties on Rigorous Trivialities
Schemes on Rigorous Trivialities
Algebraic Geometry by Andreas Gathmann
The Rising Sea: Foundations of Algebraic Geometry by Ravi Vakil
Algebraic Geometry by Robin Hartshorne
Algebra by Michael Artin
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2 thoughts on “Varieties and Schemes Revisited
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# Glossary
The documentation tries to stick with certain terminology. This glossary is provided to help with understanding those terms.
Revisions Welcome!
We don't claim this glossary to represent ultimate truth. This glossary is open for discussion and correction.
The glossary isn't sorted alphabetically to help with reading it top to bottom, though some aspects might be given redundantly to understand every term individually.
# Model
A model combines a defined set of structured information with associated behaviour and applies a somewhat unique label to this combination. It is used to describe a certain type of item to be handled in code. Models can be derived by means of extending an existing model by adding or replacing information and/or behaviour resulting in a different, but related model.
For every model there may be a set of instances sharing that model as a description of their common structure and behaviour.
A model in ODM is very similar to a class in object-oriented programming.
Example
When creating an address book application it is going to handle records each describing a particular person. In this scenario person is a model.
It might define to have a name and some mail address for contacting this particular person. This is the structured information common to all the records and thus also known as a person's data.
The model will expose a method for sending mail to a particular person. This is the behaviour associated with a person's data.
The address book might support different kinds of persons, such as friends and colleagues. Either kind may be considered a derived model and it might adjust information structure and associated behaviour, e.g. adding birthday per friend to what is managed by common person model.
# Schema
When using a model's API the definition of properties and behaviour per model is exposed as the model's schema.
# Properties
In context of a model properties are used to describe the common structure of information found in instances of that model.
A definition of a property includes
• its name for identifying related information in context of instances of the model,
• its type of information used in every instance,
• constraints to be applied to detect valid/invalid information and
• indices used to improve performance on searching for/sorting by this property.
Example
One property of model person in the address book application will declare to have a last name (which is the identifying name of some information) as a string of characters (that's the type of information) and that providing a last name is required (which is a constraint applied to this information).
# Computed Properties
A model might define virtual properties that won't be stored persistently but will derive their information from other information of an instance on demand.
Example
When having actual properties last name and first name there might be a computed property full name that is combining the former two properties.
# Methods
A method is a piece of code defined in context of a model. However, there are two types of methods with regards to context when running:
• A static or model-related method is running bound to the model, thus basically incapable of processing a particular instance of that model.
• An instance method is running bound to a particular instance of the model it was defined in. This method is capable of processing the particular instance as well as accessing its model and use static methods defined there.
Example
Searching a person by its name is an operation to be run in context of whole model rather than a single instance of it. Thus this method is a static method of model person.
Sending mail to a particular person requires information of that particular person as context and thus is defined as an instance method.
# Item or Instance
A single set of values complying with the structure of a particular model may be called an item or instance of that model. There is no particular distinction between the two.
In code, instances aren't just complying with one of the models, but are tightly integrated into the model's API which is used to access and manage its instances.
Example
The address book application will be populated with information on several actual persons. Each particular person's individual data is an instance or item of the model person.
# Property Values
Every instance of a model is grouping values for the properties defined for the model. Either value has to comply with the type and constraints as defined.
Example
In address book application there might be a record for a person named "John Doe". This record will have a value "Doe" for the property named last name which is a string of characters and is present, thus complying with the definition of this property. |
Batch processing is the execution of a set of commands or software programs without user intervention. A batch file is a text file containing a sequence of such commands or programs invocations.
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use variables inside if and for loop
I have the following code: echo off set n=11 set m=12 set /a nme=3 set /a mdiff=nme-1 pause if %n% NEQ %m% ( if %mdiff% LEQ 3 ( for /l %%C in (1,1,3) do ( if %%C EQU 1 ( ...
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Batch file - start program with admin rights
I have a .bat file in my startup folder: d: cd\ cd TrueCrypt truecrypt /ll /p "" /q /v d:\MYO Is there a way to start TrueCrypt with admin right?
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3answers
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Batch repacking zip archives into 7z
I have many zip archive files that I would like to re-pack into 7z archive format, as that would save me a lot of space. How do I batch-repack those files on a Windows 7 computer? I tried doing this ... |
Cryptography and Complexity
Established: January 11, 2012
Researchers in the area of Cryptography and Complexity investigate theoretical and applied aspects of cryptography, computational complexity, and related areas of mathematics. Specific interests include complexity bounds in arithmetic and Boolean models of computation, coding theory, (in)approximability, foundations of cryptographic schemes and protocols, protocol composition, security aspects of signatures, and mathematical models for privacy.
Some of the ongoing projects are mentioned below:
a) Protocol Composition
General positive results for secure two-party and multi-party computation protocols were obtained more than two decades ago. These results were for the setting where each protocol execution is done in isolation. With the proliferation of the network setting (and especially the internet), an ambitious effort to generalize these results and obtain concurrently secure protocols was started. There are a number of sub problems in this general area which I am interested in. One problem relates to constructing efficient non-malleable cryptographic protocols (such as for commitments and zero-knowledge). There is the interesting direction of what type of concurrently secure protocols can be designed in the plain model (without trust assumptions). Or, what are the reasonable trust assumptions which allow us to design strongly secure protocols (such as satisfying the notion of universal composability).
b) Resettable Computation
Consider a cryptographic protocol. Can a party use a fixed random tape in multiple (or even all) executions and still preserve its security? This is the intriguing notion of resettable secure computation. We would like to design secure protocols in the setting where one or more parties would like to re-use the same random coins in multiple executions. One could ask for design of zero-knowledge as well as general secure computation in this direction. One could ask for protocols where one or all parties would like to re-use their random coins. This problem is connected to various other notions such as stateless computation, hardware based cryptography, black-box lower bounds, etc.
c) Leakage resilient cryptographic protocols
Traditional models of secure computation assume that the internal state of a (honest) party is completely hidden from the attacker. However this “black-box” assumption might not always hold in practice. What if somehow adversary is able to get some leakage on the internal state of honest parties. Can we still preserve their security? There are various question in this direction. For example, one might assume a preprocessing phase (which can be either interactive or non-interactive). Or one might relax security definitions.
d) Noiseless Privacy and generalized notions of Differential Privacy
The notion of Differential Privacy (DP) has recently emerged as a gold standard in the field of database privacy. While this notion has the benefit of providing concrete theoretical privacy (compared to various previous ad-hoc approaches), the major drawback is that any mechanism satisfying this notion needs to inject noise in the output thereby limiting its applicability to many settings. In this project, we are working on privacy definitions that imply strong privacy guarantees while requiring addition of no or small external noise.
The idea we explore is to exploit the entropy already present in the database and substitute that in the place of external noise in the output. The privacy guarantee we provide is very similar to DP but where that guarantee “comes from” is very different. To achieve our privacy notions, we make assumptions about the dataset distribution and the auxiliary information that the adversary has.
In a recent work, we formalized the notion of noiseless privacy, introduced two definitions and showed that they are equivalent. We also provided examples of certain types of Boolean and real queries which can be answered in a noiseless private manner under natural (and well understood) conditions. We also showed how multiple queries (composability) can be answered in a noiseless private manner in dynamic data-sets.
We are currently working on developing generalized privacy definitions which can be achieved be a wider class of mechanisms. For instance, both noisy and noiseless mechanisms may possibly satisfy our privacy notion, albeit with different parameters.
e) Error-correcting codes and cryptographic applications
Can error-correcting codes be “updatable”? That is, can one encode a message m into a codeword c, and then change c to an encoding of m’ (where m’ and m differ only in 1 bit), by only changing a few bits of c? For what error models are such constructions possible? We formalize the notion of locally updatable codes and also provide cryptographic applications of such codes (in particular to the area of proofs of retrievability).
The recent notion of non-malleable codes have found interesting applications in cryptography. Informally, non-malleable codes allow an encoder to encode a message m, such that an adversary (in a specific tampering model) cannot tamper the codeword in such a way that it decodes to a message related to m in some way. In recent work, we introduce the notion of “block-wise” non-malleable codes that strengthen the adversarial model considered in previous works (namely that of a split-state tampering). We also provide interesting connections of this notion with non-malleable commitments.
f) Large-scale Secure computation
What are some of the challenges when running secure computation on a very large scale (millions of nodes)? An assumption made in most secure computation protocols is that every participant in the protocol can share a secure channel with every other participant (in other words, the communication graph is a clique). In many natural situations, this assumption is not realistic. In a series of works, we show how secure computation can be achieved even when parties are connected by sparse networks. We provide results with varying flavors – information-theoretic (almost-everywhere) security, computational (everywhere) security, node/edge corruptions, and so on.
People
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The May 1924 Explosive Eruption of Kīlauea
The USGS on the May 24th eruption of Kilauea. Join us on one of our volcano tours to witness firsthand the majesty of this eruption and the beauty of the Hawaiian culture.
Halema‘uma‘u, the largest crater in Kīlauea Caldera, was the site of more than 50 explosive events during a 2.5-week period in May 1924.
Halema‘uma‘u, the largest crater in Kīlauea Caldera, was the site of more than 50 explosive events during a 2.5-week period in May 1924. The explosions were then, and remain today, the most powerful at Kīlauea since the early 19th century, throwing blocks weighing as much as 14 tons from the crater. Halema‘uma‘u doubled in diameter, deepened to about 400 m (1300 ft), and drastically changed in behavior—for the next 85 years it no longer hosted a long-lived lava lake, until one returned in 2008.
Prelude to the eruption – a draining lava lake and a swarm of earthquakes
lava lake drained out of Halema‘uma‘u in February 1924, followed by a severe earthquake swarm in lower Puna, 50 km down the east rift zone. The seismic activity began building in early April, reaching its peak on April 23 with ground cracking, faulting, coastal subsidence, and hundreds of felt earthquakes. These events indicated the transfer of magma from the summit to lower Puna, either the same magma that left Halemaumau or stored magma that was pushed ahead by that which drained away.
Halema‘uma‘u Crater was 115 m (377 ft) deep following the draining of the lake. As seismicity waned in lower Puna, the crater floor began to collapse on April 29, deepening to more than 150 m (490 ft) on May 1 and nearly 210 m (690 ft) on May 7. Frequent dust clouds indicated continuing collapse in the following days.
Explosive events lasted for two and a half weeks.
The first explosion, neither seen nor heard, took place during the night of May 9–10 with small rocks reported to have been thrown out of the crater. Larger explosions followed, starting on May 13 and spaced a few hours apart. During the same time, Halemaumau continued to collapse, its failing walls contributing to the debris thrown from the crater. Clouds of rock particles ejected into the air often obscured the crater from view. Toward the end, it became difficult to distinguish the cloud of a small explosion confined to the crater from the dust cloud generated by a rock avalanche; consequently, the end date of the eruption is somewhat uncertain but is taken to be May 27, when the last observed ejecta left the crater.
The larger explosion clouds reached several kilometers high, with an maximum of 9 km (about 5.5 mi) estimated by Ruy Finch of HVO. Trade winds were blowing from the northeast during the eruption, yet wet ash fell at least once on railroad tracks in lower Puna, northeast of Halema‘uma‘u. This is consistent with the ash cloud rising about 5 km (3 mi) or more into the jet stream wind, which blows from the west. Gutters on the roof of a store in Glenwood, 16 km (10 mi) northeast of Halema‘uma‘u, collapsed from the weight of muddy ash, also suggestive of jet-stream transport.
Strong rainstorms, a few with lightning, accompanied some of the explosions, but it is impossible to know for certain if these conditions were related directly to the explosive activity.
Arguably the largest explosion took place on the morning of Sunday, May 18. A number of people were near Halemaumau then, and one of them was killed by falling debris. Another large one occurred that evening. Thereafter, none of the explosions matched those of May 18.
Most of the material in the explosion clouds was derived from rocks that fell and avalanched from the crater wall onto its floor, only to be incorporated in the powerful explosions. A small amount of lava was also ejected, probably coming from pockets of lava that were left behind in the crater wall after the lava lake drained away.
Explosions were powered by steam.
The explosions were powered mainly by steam, generated as groundwater came in contact with hot rocks. At Kīlauea, volcanologists think this happens when lavadrains from the conduit—probably a few meters wide— connecting the lava lake and a deeper magma body. Below the water table, a conduit filled with magma keeps water out, but, once the conduit empties, groundwater can flow into the still-hot conduit, where it quickly flashes to steam. Most of the time, the steam rises up the conduit and escapes without explosion. However, the wall of the conduit, which is no longer supported by a filling of lava, collapses from time to time, temporarily impounding the steam. The steam quickly builds up pressure, and, within several minutes, overcomes the weight of the blockage and explodes the collapse debris out of the crater. As pressure is released, the explosion ends and passive release of steam resumes, only to be punctuated again by another wall collapse.
Probably some volcanic gas was also emitted in 1924. Such gas would have streamed up the conduit even when it was empty and likely contributed to the pressure build-up after wall collapses.
Halema‘uma‘u more than doubled in size.
Halema‘uma‘u grew during the eruption, as its walls collapsed and its bottom dropped. It doubled in diameter to approximately 1,000 m (3,280 ft) and subsided about 285 m (935 ft) after the lava lake drained. Shortly after the eruption, HVO scientists Ruy Finch and Thomas Jaggar calculated that the volume of Halemaumau enlargement was about 200 million cubic meters (260 million cubic yards) and the volume of the ejecta, about 0.8 million cubic meters (1 million cubic yard). In other words, the ejecta constituted only about 0.4 percent of the volume of enlargement. As Jaggar wrote at the time, “The explosive eruption was merely an incident in the mechanism of engulfment.”
Similar explosive eruptions will happen again.
Almost certainly. All that it takes to trigger them is the removal of magma from the conduit that connects Halema‘uma‘u to its parent magma body 1–3 km (0.6–1.8 mi) below the caldera floor. Though most past explosions that we know about took place during one of Kīlauea’s dominantly explosive periods, the 1924 events occurred during a dominantly effusive period. This shows that explosions can be triggered by large-scale migration of magma into one of the rift zones.
No matter whether Kīlauea is in an effusive period, as it is now, or in an explosive period, as it was between about 1500 and the early 19th-century, it should be considered an explosive volcano. Although violent, the 1924 explosions were small by comparison with past explosions at Kīlauea—so small, in fact, that it is hard to find even a trace of the 1924 deposits anywhere outside the caldera. In contrast, the caldera walls expose as much as 11 m (36 ft) of past explosive deposits. In a way, then, the 1924 events are the equivalent of looking backwards through a telescope at past explosions—enlightening, but not to scale.
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createuser
Name
createuser — Create a new Postgres user
createuser [ options ] [ username ]
Inputs
-h, --host host
Specifies the hostname of the machine on which the postmaster is running.
-p, --port port
Specifies the Internet TCP/IP port or local Unix domain socket file extension on which the postmaster is listening for connections.
-e, --echo
Echo the queries that createdb generates and sends to the backend.
-q, --quiet
Do not display a response.
-d, --createdb
Allows the new user to create databases.
-D, --no-createdb
Forbids the new user to create databases.
-a, --adduser
Allows the new user to create other users.
-A, --no-adduser
Forbids the new user to create other users.
-P, --pwprompt
If given, createuser will issue a prompt for the password of the new user. This is not necessary if you do not plan on using password authentication.
-i, --sysid uid
Allows you to pick a non-default user id for the new user. This is not necessary, but some people like it.
username
Specifies the name of the Postgres user to be created. This name must be unique among all Postgres users.
You will be prompted for a name and other missing information if it is not specified on the command line.
The options -h, -p, and -e, are passed on literally to psql. The psql options -U and -W are available as well, but their use can be confusing in this context.
Outputs
CREATE USER
All is well.
createuser: creation of user "username" failed
Something went wrong. The user was not created.
If there is an error condition, the backend error message will be displayed. See CREATE USER and psql for possibilities.
Description
createuser creates a new Postgres user. Only users with usesuper set in the pg_shadow class can create new Postgres users.
createuser is a shell script wrapper around the SQL command CREATE USER via the Postgres interactive terminal psql. Thus, there is nothing special about creating users via this or other methods. This means that the psql must be found by the script and that a database server is running at the targeted host. Also, any default settings and environment variables available to psql and the libpq front-end library do apply.
Usage
To create a user joe on the default database server:
$ createuser joe
Is the new user allowed to create databases? (y/n) n
Shall the new user be allowed to create more new users? (y/n) n
CREATE USER
To create the same user joe using the postmaster on host eden, port 5000, avoiding the prompts and taking a look at the underlying query:
$ createuser -p 5000 -h eden -D -A -e joe
CREATE USER "joe" NOCREATEDB NOCREATEUSER
CREATE USER
Submit correction
If you see anything in the documentation that is not correct, does not match your experience with the particular feature or requires further clarification, please use this form to report a documentation issue.
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Copyright © 1996-2017 The PostgreSQL Global Development Group |
clay mineral
Also found in: Dictionary, Wikipedia.
Related to clay mineral: Smectite
clay mineral
[¦klā ¦min·rəl]
(mineralogy)
One of a group of finely crystalline, hydrous silicates with a two-or three-layer crystal structure; the major components of clay materials; the most common minerals belong to the kaolinite, montmorillonite, attapulgite, and illite groups.
References in periodicals archive ?
oxalic, citric, acetic and malic) and sodium tetraphenyl boron may vary widely and depends on different factors such as content and type of clay minerals, mineral size, calcium carbonate (CaC[O.sub.3]) and quartz contents, soil development and weathering status (Gil-Sotres and Rubio 1992; Cox and Joern 1997; Rao et al.
These changes in microstructure clearly indicate the effect of acid contamination and phosphogypsum treatment on clay mineral behavior.
The typical tests for analyzing the microphysical property of red-layers are SEM analysis which include micromorphology scanning, energy spectrum analysis, and XRD which include clay mineral and total mineral analysis.
The potential impact factors considered in this work include (i) water content, [omega], (ii) clay mineral composition, M, (iii) clay content, C, (iv) confining pressure, [[sigma].sub.3], and (v) cyclic failure time, [N.sub.f].
The semiquantitative mineralogical analysis was based on the signal area ratio and the intensity of clay mineral (intensity factors) [38-40].
The CR-based model is good at predicting clay mineral concentration (e.g., 20, 47, and 88; [R.sup.2] > 0.79).
Vermiculite (Ver) is also a layered clay mineral composed of two sheets of Si[O.sub.4] [9]; tetrahedra coupled symmetrically to another sheet of Mg[O.sub.6.sup.4-] octahedral in a tetrahedral-octahedral-tetrahedral layer lattice (Figure 2(b), [7]).
Bjorlykke, "Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins-a key to the prediction of rock properties, examples from the North Sea Basin," Clay Minerals, vol.
and Bradley, W.F.: 1959, A mixed-layer clay mineral associated with an evaporite.
In these rocks quartz (30-60%) significantly (1.5 to 2 times) prevails over the clay minerals. They contain a large amount of carbonates (calcite, dolomite): from 5-15% in mudstones and limy mudstones to 51% in marlstones.
Clay mineral type and content were tested by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using an Empyrean diffractometer provided by a third test company.
In this paper, four independent parameters, namely, clay mineral content, volume percentage of mobile fluid, throat radius, and start-up pressure gradient, are used to determine the locations of advantageous reservoirs. |
How Long Do Battery Operated LED String Lights Last?
How Long Do Battery Operated LED String Lights Last
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How Long Do Battery Operated LED String Lights Last?
how long do battery operated led string lights last The life of batteries for battery operated LED string lights depends on the current draw of the lights. Incandescent light strings can last between four and seven hours on a C-style battery set, while LED string sets can run for 18 to 24 hours using 3 AA batteries. The battery life of AA batteries can be much longer, with a full set lasting between 18 and 24 hours. Moreover, they can be recharged.
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The battery life of battery operated LED string lights depends on the current draw of the light strings. An incandescent light string with ten to fifteen LEDs can last from four to seven hours on a set of C batteries. LED string lights are usually equipped with conventional wiring and bigger bulb lenses. They look beautiful both at night and day. The average life of AA batteries is 18 to twenty four hours.
How Long Do Batteries Last in LED String Lights?
If you’re wondering how long a standard battery in your fairy lights will last, keep in mind that the answer depends on several factors. The first of which is battery capacity. A typical battery has enough capacity to power about five to 25 hours, but the actual amount of time they run will vary based on the light source and battery capacity. For example, an LED string light will consume a higher amount of energy than a normal LED bulb. As a result, a standard battery in a string of fairy lights will be able to last for a shorter period of time.
How long do standard batteries last in fairy lights
Another factor is the type of battery. A standard battery can power a single LED for up to five hours, whereas a larger LED can use up to 100mA. Microdrop LED lights are very thin and will last up to six hours with fresh batteries. However, standard LED battery light sets tend to require larger, thicker batteries, which can reduce the number of hours they can run. For this reason, these batteries typically last between eight and twenty-four-hours.
The average battery life in a fairy light is approximately five to twenty-five hours. While you may want to replace the batteries frequently, standard batteries typically last around five to twenty-five hours on average. Moreover, they’re more durable and longer-lasting than their carbon-based counterparts. If you’re concerned about the cost of replacement batteries, you can buy rechargeable versions instead. If you’re not sure which type of battery you should buy, you can visit any retail store that sells batteries.
How Long Batteries Last in Fairy Lights?
You might be wondering how long the batteries last in fairy lights. The answer depends on several factors, including the type of battery used. In addition to battery capacity, you also need to consider how much current the lights draw. LEDs use a higher amount of current than standard bulbs, so a battery that can run a standard bulb for three hours will not last nearly as long as one that runs on LEDs. Here are some tips to maximize the battery life of your fairy lights:
Before purchasing batteries, make sure they are of high quality and of a reputable brand. You should also consider the amount of time you leave your fairy lights on. If possible, turn off your fairy lights when they are not in use. This will increase their lifespan and make them last for weeks or even months. Once the battery is completely depleted, you should replace them. Depending on the brand of your battery, you may need to change your batteries every few weeks.
To prolong the battery life of your fairy lights, you can replace them every few months. To do this, make sure to buy high-quality, long-lasting batteries from reputable brands. In addition, you should avoid leaving your fairy lights on for long periods of time. This will result in longer battery life. Moreover, by keeping your fairy lights off, you can prolong the battery life of your lights for weeks and months.
You can find information about battery life of fairy lights in several online resources. A standard set of batteries can run for five to 25 hours. However, the actual lifespan of a battery depends on many factors. The amount of current consumed by the LEDs is the most important factor, since they can either consume very high currents or very low ones. The table below shows typical battery life. The average battery life is between five and 25 hours.
How long do batteries last in fairy lights
Moreover, different types of fairy lights require different types of batteries. For instance, LEDs require higher voltages and can run for longer periods. Therefore, the batteries you use should be more powerful than those used in standard bulbs. Aside from the battery type, you should also choose the style of the fairy lights. Some fairy lights have shorter strings than others, while others have long strings. In addition, the type of bulb should be considered when choosing your battery.
The type of battery that you purchase for your fairy lights will influence the battery life. A standard battery lasts for about six hours when the LEDs in a string of three hundred is used. A battery that runs for ten hours is best for the holidays and is ideal for long-term use. You should consider the type of batteries you use when deciding on the type of battery. A reputable brand should be able to give you a longer runtime.
How Long Do Fairy Lights Last?
Fairy lights are very popular at Christmas and other special occasions. However, there is a catch to their longevity. They tend to run out of power because of the batteries they use. In addition to the battery, the bulb inside the light also consumes power, and this can cause them to burn out. LEDs and non-insulated wiring make them much more durable, and they last much longer. Here are some tips for keeping fairy lights in good shape.
How long do fairy lights last
LED fairy lights are a good option for extending the life of your festive lights. The LEDs used in fairy lights don’t burn out, and they don’t get too hot to the touch. They are also great for using during the year, and they can be found in other household items. When buying your battery, make sure it is of good quality. If it is too cheap, you can’t trust it to last very long.
The battery life of a standard fairy light is anywhere from five to twenty-five hours. The length of time will vary depending on the type and the size of LEDs used. The smaller the LEDs are, the less current they will use. Similarly, the brighter the LED, the more current will be drawn from the battery. A larger battery will also increase the lifespan of your lights. If you’re buying your first set of fairy lights, consider purchasing smaller bulbs instead.
How Long Do Batteries Last in Fairy Lights?
The average battery life of a fairy light is around 8 hours. Buying a new set is a good idea, but buying batteries from a reputable brand will increase battery life. Then you need to figure out how long you plan to leave the lights on for. It’s important to remember that the battery life of a fairy light is directly proportional to the length of time it’s left on. Turning off the lights after a certain period of time will make them last longer.
How long do batteries last in fairy lights
Depending on the brand and model of your fairy lights, battery life varies from five to twenty-five hours. However, standard fairy lights can last up to 25 hours on one set of batteries. For example, a 50-hour set of fairy lights might only last a couple of hours, while a hundred-hour set may only last for five hours. The difference between the two types of battery life will depend on several factors, including the size of the LEDs, the angle of illumination, and the brand.
Different brands use different types of batteries. Some LEDs require a higher voltage to work, which means that a standard battery may last for up to a week. In general, a standard battery is more likely to last longer, while a LED may require more batteries. Coin Cells are a popular type of battery for fairy lights, and they have a sleek design. The smaller battery case also makes it easier to handle your setup.
How Many Hours Do LED String Lights Last?
LED battery-powered string lights can last as many as 100 hours, but they do use a lot of power. With three AA batteries or two round C-style batteries, they will last about 18 to 24 hours. However, if the bulbs are not replaced frequently, they can run out of power very quickly. You should also keep this in mind when purchasing these lights, as they are not suitable for outdoor use. Additionally, some people have complained about the damaging effects of LED light, and some believe that it can cause blindness. In fact, research has shown that exposure to 5mW per cm2 of LED light can harm the retinal cells of the eyes, so it’s not recommended to accidentally expose your eyes to a large amount of light.
How many hours do LED string lights Last
Using LED lights is a great option for homes that require a long-lasting light source. Their longevity has been proven by many studies. In one study, LEDs had a life expectancy of over 50,000 hours, which is more than five times longer than traditional incandescent, halogen, and CFL lighting. In addition to being a great option for holiday decorating, LED string lights can also be used as a decorative light for the yard, patio, or other outdoor spaces.
The best LED string lights last up to 50,000 hours. This is based on a standard of up to 80 hours of use. This number may increase or decrease depending on the use of the lights. Some LEDs may only last about 50 hours, while others can last for up to six years of continuous operation. As long as you use them properly, LED strings will have a lifespan of 35,000 to 50,000 hours.
How Long Do LED Battery Operated Lights Last?
LED string lights can last more than 100 hours with a standard set of 3 AA batteries. However, these lights are not as energy efficient as their micro drop counterparts. A fresh set of AA batteries should last 18 to 24 hours. Hence, it is advisable to check the battery life before purchasing. If the battery is in good condition, the battery can power up to eighteen to twenty-four hours of light.
Standard LED battery light sets can last for 18 to 24 hours using a fresh set of batteries. Meanwhile, lesser insulated Micro drop LED sets can last for up to 100 hours with a single set of fresh batteries. While standard LED battery light sets have thicker insulation and LED lenses, they can still only last for eighteen to twenty-four hours. The bulbs in these sets are not fire-risks because they are enclosed in plastic housings. Other light bulbs would melt the plastic housings and become dangerous.
The battery capacity is only one factor to consider when considering battery life of fairy lights. Another important consideration is the current consumption of the LEDs. A common example shows two scenarios with different light sources: a string light set that uses a single AA-size battery, and a set of micro drop LEDs that has non-insulated wiring. The AA-size batteries are identical, but the LED currents will change the life of the batteries.
How Long Do LED Lights Take Batteries?
One of the most common questions about LED lights is how long do they take batteries. It’s actually quite simple, as most household batteries are 1.5V. You can use copper wire to connect the bulb to the battery. You can simply tape the wire to the base of the bulb, or you can solder the wire in place. As long as the battery is connected to the circuit, the LED bulb will turn on. Because LEDs are already very energy efficient, the batteries will last a very long time.
do led lights take batteries
While LED lights do not require batteries, it is a good idea to keep a spare pair of batteries nearby just in case. This way, you can replace them without having to purchase a new battery. A spare set of batteries is handy for camping, when you need a small flashlight. A single battery can last for up to five hours, and it will also work in emergencies. And remember, alkaline batteries have a higher energy density than zinc-carbon batteries.
The best type of battery for LEDs is an AA cell. It has an advanced shelf life of 5-7 years. The AA cell and the LED can be recharged to extend the battery life. The batteries are also cheaper than the other types of batteries, which means that you can buy extras and get a better deal. If you’re looking for LED lights, consider purchasing rechargeable ones. You’ll be glad you did!
Do LED Lights Require Batteries?
If you’re planning to use your LED lights outdoors, you’ll likely be wondering, do LED lights require batteries? Yes, they do. However, you should know that you shouldn’t charge rechargeable batteries with higher voltage power sources. Not only will they swell and generate heat, but they can also catch fire. This is why you should always charge your battery before you use it. It’s also important to know that LED technology has made these batteries last longer.
do led lights require batteries
LEDs are designed to run on batteries, and if you haven’t replaced your current batteries recently, you should do it now. Many LED strips are now powered by alkaline batteries, which have a shelf life of 5-7 years. These batteries are also cheaper than traditional zinc-carbon batteries. They’re also one-time purchases, and they can be recharged. The best thing to do is research the mAh rating of the batteries and the power draw of the LED strip you’re using. This way, you’ll know exactly how long they’ll last.
Another good reason to use alkaline batteries is that they have a longer shelf life than lithium-ion batteries. Alkaline batteries are a great option for LED lighting, especially if you’re on a tight budget or rent. They can also be a great option for lighting up areas that don’t get enough light without additional wiring. These LEDs are powered by AA or AAA type batteries, and will only work if you have enough juice to charge them for a few hours. If you aren’t using them often, it’s a good idea to turn them off when they’re not in use.
How Long Do LED Lights Last on Batteries?
If you have an LED light, you’re probably wondering how long they will last on batteries. The truth is that the answer depends on a few factors. For example, your battery will have to be fully charged. Another factor that can affect the battery life of your light is the number of bulbs you have. LED lights can be operated for eight to twelve hours on a set of batteries. You can use them to illuminate an entire warehouse for around 6,000 hours each year.
how long do led lights last on batteries
LED lights can last for several years, but they do degrade over time. If you’re looking for a long-lasting light, choose one with an ‘L70’ rating. This means that they will continue to produce a similar amount of light, just with a lower output. Luckily, LED lights are safe, and you can find a guide to choosing the best lighting for your needs.
LED lights have a lifespan of fifty thousand hours. However, the amount of light emitted on the day you installed it will be less than it will be later. This is because the LED chip will degrade over time. It will also affect the colour temperature. For example, if you installed a ‘L70’ LED light, you’d be left with 7,000 lumens instead of the original.
Electric Plug in Fairy Lights
There are two main types of fairy lights: incandescent and LED. While LEDs have an increased lifespan, they require less power. Incandescent lights can be connected end-to-end, but you can only connect 2 strings at a time. You must also have at least two outlets for the incandescent type. You can run up to 87 strings of LEDs end-to-end, which means you will need at least six plug outlets to run them all.
Electric plug in fairy lights
Choosing the right type of light for your needs is essential. You can choose between warm white and multi-color options. You can also choose between different lighting modes, including flickering, continuous illumination, and strobe. You can even choose to use the lights outdoors, since they won’t cause harm to your children’s skin. For the most romantic effect, consider using 100-bright LED string lights with 50 photo clips.
One of the best things about LED string lights is that they can be controlled by remote control. Most of these light bulbs are dimmable, but you can also use a timer to adjust the brightness of the lights. Some even have a timer and an automatic shut-off to ensure that you don’t burn your house down. Regardless of the type, you’re sure to find a set of LED lights that works for your needs.
Tips For Making Batteries Last Longer in Fairy Lights
Using rechargeable batteries in your fairy lights is one of the easiest ways to make them last longer. These types of batteries can be reused and can help you save money. There are several reasons why rechargeable batteries are better for your lighting than disposable ones. These include cost, environmental impact, and bank account benefits. Listed below are a few tips to make your fairy lights last longer. Once you’ve implemented them, they’ll be ready to use for weeks at a time!
making batteries last longer in fairy lights
The first tip to make your batteries last longer is to choose higher capacity batteries. Using batteries that are slightly larger than the size of the battery pack you currently own will make your fairy lights last for much longer. You can also opt for larger battery packs to avoid running out of light at the same time. Buying a bigger battery will also ensure that your lights stay lit longer. Moreover, you’ll have the added benefit of having longer strings of fairy lights.
Another tip for making batteries last longer in fairy lights is to change the bulbs. Some LEDs are brighter than others and require less current than others. The size of the LED will affect the amount of current your battery can handle. The more LEDs in your light, the higher the battery’s capacity will be. This will make your fairy lights last longer. So, if you’re planning on using fairy lights for a long time, consider replacing the batteries. You can also check for different styles and types of LEDs. The smaller the LEDs, the lower the current consumption. The shorter the length of the string, the more the battery will last.
Different Types of Fairy Lights
Depending on how many bulbs you use, there are several different types of fairy lights. One type, called LED, is made up of a series of LEDs that glow in the dark. These are usually operated by a battery. Unlike other types, battery-powered fairylights do not require electricity. Depending on the size of the bulb, you can get anything from six to fifty bulbs. The best part is that they can be used anywhere, and do not require a power socket.
Different types of fairy lights
LED fairy lights come in a variety of sizes and colours. You can find them in single or alternating colour bulbs. Some are also powered by an electrical socket. A standard-powered fairylight plugs into an electrical socket. These are brighter than battery-powered lights. Solar-powered fairylights are a great option for outdoor and indoor use. The batteries are rechargeable. You can buy solar-powered lights or rechargeable batteries.
Different types of fairy lights use different batteries. LEDs require a higher voltage to turn on, so they will require more batteries than standard ones. Fortunately, a wide variety of batteries is available. A typical type is CR2032, which has a thin, sleek design. It is a great option if you want your lights to last longer, but you should check which one will work best for your needs. The best option will depend on your requirements, budget, and location.
Battery Fairy Lights
Battery fairy lights are a classic type of decorative light. These small, easy to hide battery packs don’t require sockets or extension cords, and you can place them anywhere you like. There are a variety of styles available, including peg lights, jars, unicorns, and even Christmas tree string lights. If you’re looking for a unique style, battery fairy lighting might be the best option. They come in a range of colours and can be used to dress up a variety of places.
Battery fairy lights
LED battery lights are available in a variety of styles, including the firefly and micro drop. With a fresh set of batteries, they can shine for over 100 hours. You can find a wide variety of colors to suit your decorating style. Green and blue LED bulbs are special energy hogs, so they will burn out sooner than the others. If you want a longer-lasting light, look for one with a longer lifespan.
Battery fairy lights are also available in LED versions. These lights are known as “firefly” or “micro drop” LEDs. These batteries are waterproof and use non-insulated wiring. A fresh set of batteries will keep the light on for more than 100 hours. Different color LED bulbs use varying amounts of current. The green and blue versions will eventually burn out and be replaced, so you might want to consider buying them with extra batteries in case the ones you already have are not good enough to last.
Add Magic to Your Decor With USB Fairy Lights
USB fairy lights are a great way to add magical lighting to your home. They come in a variety of colors, so you can choose the best one for your decor. The warm colors of the LED lights will create a cheerful mood while the cool colors will make your room feel relaxing and calming. Likewise, red and purple lights will ignite your creativity. You can easily bend the USB fairy lights into any shape you like. There are even remote controls for these colorful bulbs, so you can control how bright they are.
USB fairy lights
Whether you want to add color and magic to your home or simply brighten up a room, USB fairy lights will do the trick. These battery-operated LED lights are evenly spaced on a copper wire and emit a warm yellow or white glow. They can be dimmed using the remote control or by placing a CR2025 battery in the holder. The string is 32 feet long. Using a USB wall adapter is recommended for use in outdoor areas.
USB fairy lights are great for a variety of decorating purposes. The USB socket design is convenient and makes them easier to use. You can plug them into any power source, including a computer, power bank, or even behind a television. The 13 color LEDs are easily controlled with the included remote switch and RF remote control. You can choose between flash, strobe, and constant illumination with the 24-key buttons. This is the most cost-effective option for a beautiful, festive light show.
How to Choose the Best Solar Fairy Lights
A string of solar fairy lights is a great way to decorate any room, but you must know that not all of them are created equal. Some are better made and more durable than others. Some have tiny solar panels, flimsy strings, and are not long-lasting. Depending on the type of solar panel and lighting time, you can expect a different lifespan for your solar fairy lights. Some even come with additional features like motion detectors, which detect movement.
Solar fairy lights
Choosing the right solar panel is important. The more solar cells, the faster the battery will be recharged. Because most solar lights are designed to discharge during the night, they need a full day of sunlight to recharge. A smaller panel might need eight to ten hours of direct sunlight per day, while a large panel may need only four or five hours of direct sunlight. Some solar lights are made with resin-coated panels for weather protection, but this coating will fade over time due to exposure to UV rays. If the panel crazes, it can lift from the battery pack and will reduce its efficiency. This will cut down on the length of time that your solar fairy light will remain lit.
There are different types of solar fairy lights, and you should choose the type that fits your budget. A low-quality solar panel will quickly dim and take a long time to charge. You should look for reviews and information from manufacturers about the efficiency of solar panels before you purchase. Make sure to read the specifications about each type of light you’re interested in. Moreover, look for the temperature range in which it stays operational, and the maximum wattage of the solar panel. This will help you find the best solar fairy lights for your needs.
How to Make a Fairy Light Last Longer Using Batteries
The battery life of a fairy light can vary greatly. The average standard battery will last between five and twenty-five hours. Increasing the length of a fairy light will increase the number of LEDs in it, which will consume more power. Using a series circuit will distribute the voltage evenly among the components and maintain a constant current. This can make a battery last longer than a single cell battery, but it will also require more power.
How to make fairy light last longer using batteries
To make a fairy light last longer using batteries, you should purchase higher capacity batteries. Most stock battery sets are not large enough to power your lights for a long time. Therefore, you need to buy high quality batteries. The batteries should be replaced after a short period of time. Keeping your fairy lights off when not in use will increase battery life. This will help your lights last for weeks. Buying a good quality battery set can help your lights last longer.
You should also make sure that you use high-quality batteries for your fairy lights. You should also check the voltage rating of the battery for the type of bulb you’re buying. You should be able to determine the voltage needed to turn the lights on and off for the maximum amount of time. The lower the voltage, the longer the battery life. Using AA batteries will ensure that your lights will last for weeks.
Can You Leave Fairy Lights Outside?
Can you leave fairy lights outside? The answer depends on where you plan to place them. Generally, you can place them in the garden or patio or even next to plants, but you should avoid leaving them on during the day. This is because the increased heat can cause electrical damage. In addition, it is dangerous to leave them unattended for long periods of time. This article will discuss how to make your outdoor lighting safe.
Can you leave fairy lights outside
First of all, you have to check the waterproofing rating. If the IP65 rating is there, your fairy lights can safely be left outside. IP65 fairy lights are water resistant and won’t present a tripping or shock risk. However, if they happen to get wet, you should replace the wiring with a new one. You should also make sure that the type of light you have is waterproof. This way, there will be no chance of electrical shock. If you are unsure, you can consult an electrician or electrical contractor in your area.
If you have a fairy light with an IP65 rating, it is safe to leave it outside. However, if it gets wet or gets immersed, you should always replace the wires or replace the bulbs. Despite the popularity of fairy lights, they should not be left unattended when you are not around. If your lights get wet, you need to check the waterproof rating and consult an electrician.
Do LED Fairy Lights Use a Lot of Electricity?
Do LED fairy lights use a lot of energy? This is a common question that arises during the holiday season. LEDs are becoming more popular, and they are becoming more environmentally friendly every day. They do not require much power to run and do not consume a lot of electricity. The average LED light consumes only 0.0045 kWh per hour, or about 0.112 kWh per day. Over a year, LED fairy lights will cost you less than $0.44, and that’s a staggering 88% saving!
Do LED fairy lights use a lot of electricity
LED fairy lights are not the only option for green homes. These lights are also a great choice for the Christmas season. They produce no heat, and they consume 75% less energy than standard incandescent lighting. These lights will last more than 25 times as long as conventional incandescent bulbs, and they will not break down over time like incandescent ones. In fact, LED Christmas lights are more expensive to purchase, but they will pay for themselves after a few years.
The main reason LED lights use so little electricity is because they are switched on and off. This means they will turn on and off frequently, which requires less energy than their incandescent counterparts. Since LEDs use a single current, they do not consume as much power as incandescent lights. You can connect a single string of LED lights to an outlet and set a timer to turn them off and on again.
Are Battery Powered Fairy Lights a Fire Risk?
Battery powered fairy lights are a great way to light your home or party. They can be placed near anything you want to decorate, like a tablecloth or vase. But remember to turn them off when they aren’t in use. The heat from these lights can cause electrical damage and may even cause a fire. In addition, battery powered fairy lighting shouldn’t be left on all day, especially if you have small children or pets.
Are battery powered fairy lights a fire risk
Battery powered fairy lights are safe to use and do not produce heat. However, you should make sure to check the safety features before buying. You should choose a product that is made of quality materials and does not overload the socket. You should also unplug the lights before leaving the house. They may catch fire and burn. They should never be left on all night. You should also make sure you do not leave them unplugged if you are going out for the night.
Battery-powered fairy lights are not considered a fire hazard, but they still pose a fire risk. Ensure that the bulbs are safe to use by following certain guidelines. Do not overload the socket. Do not leave fairy lights plugged in all night. If you leave them unplugged, they might catch on fire. Moreover, it is not advisable to use them in places where children can get into them.
Do Fairy Lights Burn Out?
If you’re looking for a way to light up your home without burning yourself, fairy lights are a great choice. They’re a fun and colorful way to decorate your home. Although they’re not dangerous, they can cause a fire if they’re placed too close to other flammable materials. You should also be sure to follow the instructions carefully to avoid any issues. Don’t leave them plugged in all night, and be sure to turn them off before you leave the house.
Do fairy lights burn out
Another way to make your fairy lights last longer is to buy battery-operated ones. Since they’re battery operated, you don’t have to worry about them burning up. However, you should be aware of the fact that you should only use them in dry places. If they’re on a hot surface, they could burn up. This is especially true if you’re hanging your fairy lights from trees or a tree.
LED bulbs are the most common type of fairy lights. These lights are cool to the touch and don’t produce much heat, which is why they’re the most energy-efficient option. They also don’t contain a filament, which means they’re less likely to cause a fire. The filament is what usually burns out in fairy lights, so you’ll have to pay attention to it to keep your lights from falling over.
Can You Leave Battery-Powered Fairy Lights on Overnight?
Battery-powered fairy lights are great for creating beautiful night scenes, but they need to be turned off at night to avoid causing a fire. Although most types of battery-powered fairy lights come with an on/off switch, experts recommend leaving them off if the temperature is expected to be above 50 degrees. Leaving these lights on overnight can damage the batteries, and could even damage your house. So, keep these tips in mind while using them.
Can you leave battery powered fairy lights on overnight
Since they use batteries, battery-powered fairy lights have low voltage, and therefore are safe to leave on overnight. While some people are hesitant to leave their lights on overnight, this option is great for those who want to keep them on all night. Some people even like to sleep with them on. You should also follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer, or else you risk damaging your fairy lights. If you do leave them on overnight, make sure to unplug them when not in use.
You should also consider the battery life of your fairy lights. Generally, battery-operated fairy lights last fourteen to fifty hours, but the amount of time they last depends on the type of light bulb and the use of the fairy lights. If you want to extend the battery life, it is recommended that you use LED strip lights, which are typically equipped with two strips. This will extend the battery life. Once you’ve found a battery-operated version, you can leave the battery-powered ones on overnight.
Can Fairy Lights Be Left On Overnight?
When choosing a battery-operated or non-battery-operated fairy light, it’s important to consider several factors. One of the most important is the size of the bulb. While fairy lights aren’t a big fire risk, they can still burn or cause electrical damage if they are left on for long periods of time. If you don’t know how to place the bulbs, it’s best to purchase some that meet these specifications.
Can fairy lights be left on overnight
Batteries-operated lights are safe to use around children. However, it is important to be careful with fire safety. Batteries that are operated by battery-operated fairy lights can catch fire, especially if you leave them unattended. It is also important to plug in the battery-operated fairy lights before going to sleep or leaving the apartment. LED string lights are safer than the electrical variety, as the bulbs do not produce heat like incandescent bulbs do. The only drawback to using battery-operated fairy lights outside is that they are not completely waterproof.
You should also be careful with the temperature of the fairy lights. Though they don’t generate much heat, they can still produce enough heat to start a fire. That’s why you should never leave them unattended overnight. Even if you’re just putting them out for the evening, you should be aware of possible dangers. As a rule of thumb, you should always turn off fairy lights before going to bed. If you’re not sure whether they’re safe, buy battery-operated LED string lights. These are safer and produce less heat than their electrical counterparts. Unlike the incandescent bulbs, they also give out super-bright light.
Are Fairy Lights Safe in the Bedroom?
While fairy lights can be used in the bedroom, they can be dangerous if they are left unattended. These battery operated LED lights produce very little heat and can cause electrical damage if they are not installed properly. Be sure to follow the instructions on how to install them to prevent any problems. Moreover, you should make sure that the lighting is placed away from flammable materials. This is to ensure safety and avoid any accidents.
Are fairy lights safe in the bedroom
While fairy lights don’t produce too much heat and don’t consume a great deal of energy, they can still cause a fire. You should avoid leaving them plugged in all night or when you are not at home. You should also unplug them before going to bed. This way, you can sleep soundly without worrying about the possibility of a fire breaking out. However, you should be cautious and follow these tips to ensure that fairy lights don’t harm your kids or you.
Fairy lights can cause fire in the bedroom. It is recommended that you turn off the fairy lights whenever you go to bed or leave the apartment. As with all kinds of lighting, fairy bulbs produce white light. The only difference between them and the light they emit is the colour. Incandescent light bulbs are wide-spectrum and have a white tint to them. In addition to this, coloured glass is often used in early Japanese-made lamps.
Fixing Dimmer Fairy Lights
If your lights are dimmer than they usually are, there could be a short or a problem with the wiring. It’s also possible that the bulbs are counterfeit, or you’re using an electronic switch that doesn’t output clean ac power. The first step to fix this problem is to replace the whole strand. To do this, simply remove the weatherproof cap and unscrew the bulb.
Why are my fairy lights dim
If your lights are battery operated, you’ll need to change the bulbs, which you can do by unscrewing the bulb cover. LEDs are made of thin wire, and you should be able to replace the bulb with a new one. To replace the dim bulb, unscrew the old bulb and check the holder for any cracks. Scrub the wires with sandpaper or a toothpick, then put the new LED back into the holder.
If you don’t use a timer, it may be a problem with the batteries. In this case, make sure to follow the instructions on your timer. When you replace a bulb, always make sure it is compatible with the voltage in your string. You can use an extension cord to test each string separately. If you have LEDs, make sure they are compatible with your timer, so they don’t flicker.https://www.youtube.com/embed/9PbK0LNnRW4
Benefits of Rechargeable Batteries For Fairy Lights
The first benefit of using rechargeable batteries for fairy lights is that they do not require replacements. Unlike disposable batteries, which can only last a certain amount of time, rechargeable batteries can be used again. This is not only good for the environment but also good for your wallet. Compared to standard bulbs, rechargeable batteries can last up to 50 times longer! Read on to learn about the many advantages of using these types of batteries for your fairy lights.
Benefits of using rechargeable batteries for fairy lights
Rechargeable batteries for fairy lights are more energy-efficient than standard batteries. Rechargeable batteries are more efficient and have longer life spans. They are also safer to use because they have no risk of catching fire or causing injury. As an added bonus, these batteries will also last up to six times longer than standard ones. In addition, rechargeable batteries are less expensive than their disposable counterparts.
When buying rechargeable batteries, make sure to select a good brand. This will ensure that your batteries will last for longer. When purchasing new batteries, check their capacity to ensure they are sufficient for your fairy lights. You should also make sure to choose a light with a high battery capacity. Depending on the occasion, there are different types of fairy lights available. Some come with smaller LEDs, which use less power and will not need replacement for a long time. While brighter LEDs will draw more current, they will also drain the battery faster.
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Ubuntu 16.04
bash -version
GNU bash, version 4.4.0(1)-release (x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu)
I would like to grep for 2 patterns and then have them listed side by side. ATM, this is what I have:
root@tires ~ # grep -e tire_id -e appID /path/to/*/vehicle/production.json
/path/to/000001_000002/vehicle/production.json: "tire_id": "1305436516186552",
/path/to/000001_000002/vehicle/production.json: "appID": "1164562920689523",
/path/to/000001_000079/vehicle/production.json: "tire_id": "1815123428733289",
/path/to/000001_000079/vehicle/production.json: "appID": "18412365908966538",
/path/to/000001_000088/vehicle/production.json: "tire_id": "138477888324",
THis is what I would like to have or anything similar would work actually.
root@tires ~ # grep -e tire_id -e appID /path/to/*/vehicle/production.json
/path/to/000001_000002/vehicle/production.json: tire_id: 1305436516186552, appID: 1164562920689523
/path/to/000001_000079/vehicle/production.json: tire_id: 1815123428733289, appID: 18412365908966538
File example here:
{
"socal": "https://xxx.xxxxx.xxx",
"ip": "xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx",
"tire_id": "213275925375485",
"client": {
"platform": "xx",
"clientID": "xxxxx",
"serviceID": "xxxxx",
"service_id": XXXX,
"vendor": "default"
},
"locale": "en_US",
"cdc": {
"appID": "233262274090443",
"isdel": "ORdiZBMAQS2ZBCnTwZDZD",
},
"attachments": {
"output": "attachments",
"public": false,
},
}
• 4
Looks like something more apt for jq than grep. – DopeGhoti Jul 12 at 15:25
• 1
post a testable production.json contents – RomanPerekhrest Jul 12 at 15:29
• @RomanPerekhrest I posted an example, see OP. – needtoknow Jul 12 at 16:07
up vote 11 down vote accepted
The right way with jq tool for a valid JSON documents:
Sample file1.json:
{
"socal": "https://xxx.xxxxx.xxx",
"ip": "xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx",
"tire_id": "213275925375485",
"client": {
"platform": "xx",
"clientID": "xxxxx",
"serviceID": "xxxxx",
"service_id": "XXXX",
"vendor": "default"
},
"locale": "en_US",
"cdc": {
"appID": "233262274090443",
"isdel": "ORdiZBMAQS2ZBCnTwZDZD"
},
"attachments": {
"output": "attachments",
"public": false
}
}
Sample file2.json:
{
"socal": "https://xxx.xxxxx.xxx",
"ip": "xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx",
"tire_id": "1305436516186552",
"client": {
"platform": "xx",
"clientID": "xxxxx",
"serviceID": "xxxxx",
"service_id": "XXXX",
"vendor": "default"
},
"locale": "en_US",
"cdc": {
"appID": "1164562920689523",
"isdel": "ORdiZBMAQS2ZBCnTwZDZD"
},
"attachments": {
"output": "attachments",
"public": false
}
}
And the solution itself:
jq -r 'input_filename + " tire_id: \(.tire_id) appID: \(.cdc.appID)"' file*.json
The output:
file1.json tire_id: 213275925375485 appID: 233262274090443
file2.json tire_id: 1305436516186552 appID: 1164562920689523
• Your answer is much simpler and efficient for what I needed. – needtoknow Jul 12 at 17:40
You can do this with grep but it's rather conplicated and Roman's answer is actually better.
Your example contents are just from one file so there is only once instance of tire_id and appID.
Use this:
echo $(echo /path/to/production.json && egrep "tire_id|appID" /path/to/production.json | sed -e 's|"||g' | sed -e 's|,||2') && echo $(echo /path/to/production2.json && egrep "tire_id|appID" /path/to/production2.json ) | sed -e 's|"||g' | sed -e 's|,||2'
echo puts everything on the same line with command substitution.
egrep does the same thing as grep -e but allows you to put all the strings together separated by | instead of having to use -e string each time.
sed -e 's|"||g' removes the apostrophes.
sed -e 's|,||2 removes the comma from the end of the value for appID which is what is shown in your desired output.
Output:
/path/to/production.json tire_id: 213275925375485 appID: 233262274090443
/path/to/production2.json tire_id: 1815123428733289 appID: 18412365908966538
/path/to/production.json and /path/to/production2.json are just placeholders.
This obviously requires a lot of modification as you'd have to grep each file separately and use an echo command substitution for each one. I'm only including it if you insist upon using grep or if in the future, it's not a json file.
• @Your answer is awesome and I learned a lot from it. Much appreciated. You are also right about Roman's answer. He uses the command made for the job, which I did not know existed. Hat's off to you mate. – needtoknow Jul 12 at 17:40
• 1
@needtoknow No problem. Glad to help. – Nasir Riley Jul 12 at 17:48
With a sed script :
grep -e tire_id -e appID /path/to/*/vehicle/production.json | sed -n '/\(.*:\)/h;n;s/.*n://;H;g;s/\n//;p'
Retrun
/path/to/000001_000002/vehicle/production.json: "tire_id": "1305436516186552", "appID": "1164562920689523",
/path/to/000001_000079/vehicle/production.json: "tire_id": "1815123428733289", "appID": "18412365908966538",
/path/to/000001_000088/vehicle/production.json: "tire_id": "138477888324",
it works if each line "tire_id" is followed by a line "appID". Otherwise, you need a more complex sed script
• This is also nice. Can you remove the apostrophes and commas. – needtoknow Jul 12 at 20:01
• sed -n 'h;n;s/.*n://;H;g;s/\n//;s/"//g;s/,//g;p' – alux Jul 12 at 21:09
This command will work even if in a file it misses a "tire_id" or "appID" line. It will not be displayed :
grep -e tire_id -e appID /path/to/*/vehicle/production.json | sed -n 's/\(tire_id\)/\1/;T;h;n;s/.*n:.*\(appID\)/\1/;T;H;g;s/\n/ /;s/"//g;s/,//g;p'
• Very cool mate. I learned a lot from it. – needtoknow Jul 12 at 22:22
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“Include lots of nutrient-rich vegetables, a source of protein and some healthy, unprocessed carbs,” says Belalij. “Start with leafy greens such as spinach, kale and collard greens, then add carrots, broccoli and peas. Lean meats, including turkey and chicken, are ideal as they are lower in fat and therefore calories, or, if you are vegetarian/vegan, add in tofu or a handful of nuts such as pine, cashew or almonds and a sprinkling of seeds (sunflower, sesame, pumpkin). When it comes to carbohydrates, rice, quinoa and potatoes are perfect.”
Some people can lose more than 2 pounds in a week with a dedicated fitness program and serious dietary restrictions.The time and effort required to lose weight that quickly is grueling and usually unsustainable, though. Even if you can lose a notable amount of weight in a week, a lot of it will be water weight -- not true belly fat. Weight you lose quickly is likely to be regained quickly too.
Let's get the bad news out of the way first: unfortunately, there's no way to shrink specific parts of the body, which means you can't simply target belly fat. But that doesn't mean you can't work toward a trimmer waist. You just can't rely on crunches, planks, or sit-ups. Instead, it's all about putting yourself in a healthy calorie deficit, forming good habits, and doing full-body workouts that help you burn maximum calories. Here are some reliable tips to help you reach your goals.
This Mexican root vegetable contains inulin, a type of fiber that slows down the absorption of blood sugar to help you feel fuller longer, Kellman says. It's also high in magnesium and manganese, two vitamins needed for digestive enzymes to function at their peak. Add chopped jicama to give salads a nice crunch or shred it in your favorite summer slaw.
“Most people who have been lean their whole lives have a much better understanding of proper portion size than people who are overweight,” says Deborah Riebe, Ph.D., a professor in the department of kinesiology at the University of Rhode Island. “If they go out to eat, they’re much more likely to ask for a doggie bag right away or to leave food on their plate rather than cleaning it up.”
* The average person can expect to lose 1-2 lbs. per week. Results may vary. Weight loss is influenced by exercise, food consumed and diet.* FREE 1-3 Day Shipping on Orders Over $99 from Shop.Atkins.com. ©2017 Atkins Nutritionals, Inc.Disclaimer: Nothing contained on this Site is intended to provide health care advice. Should you have any health care-related questions, please call or see your physician or other health care provider. Consult your physician or health care provider before beginning the Atkins Diet as you would any other weight loss or weight maintenance program. The weight loss phases of the Atkins Diet should not be used by persons on dialysis. Individual results may vary.
And how often to work out to get rid of belly fat? Well, as you know, too much cortisol can counteract your belly fat loss efforts. Belalij suggests doing 30-minute sessions, three times per week. “As you start to lose belly fat your body will want to cling on more and more to what is left, so you must increase the intensity or duration of your workouts, the more fat you lose,” Belalij says. And Hughes agrees:
× |
CGI Variables
Stephen Lime steve.lime at dnr.state.mn.us
Thu Jan 13 17:24:55 EST 2000
Ross: It's actually possible to do this without writing a new applet. There is a
public method called "newMap(string mapurl)" that is part of the mapimage
applet I posted awhile back. What it does is swap in the new image once it
has completely loaded. The url string is built by javascript which then calls the
public method etc. Of course if you want to use java-based controls then you'll
need something new. So, here's what those vars are:
- imgext: the extent of the image the user is currently working from.
- mapext: the extent of the image to be created.
(This is why you often see this in templates:
<input type="hidden" name="imgext" value="[mapext]">
the map just created now becomes the working map. A bit confusing but it's the
way I kept things straight in the very begining.)
- img.x and img.y: are the image coordinates for a users mouse click. The browser
actually creates these from the <input type="image" name="img"...> line.
- imgxy: you can't use javascript to manipulate img.x and img.y because of the .'s
in the name. So imgxy means exactly the same as img.x and img.y except that
both the x and y values are contained in one variable. If img.x, img.y and imgxy
are set then the mouse click (i.e. img.x, img.y) takes precedence over anything
set as a default or by javascript using imgxy.
Clear as mud? To use standard zooms you will have to mimic a standard forms
(i.e. like the demo) interface from within java. This means sending imgext (the
extend of the displayed image) AND a mouse click using imgxy. Note you can
do box zooms using imgext and imgbox. That being said, one thing to remember is
that you're getting back an image and nothing else, no coordinate info, nothing. I
think you'll have to manage the coordinates, zooms and everything on the client and
simply use mapext to request images. This is pretty easy to do. The C code is all
in the mapserv.c and you just need to grab the right parts and convert to java. Actually
the mapquakes.pl script I made reference to a while back shows you how to do
this too.
Steve
Stephen Lime
Internet Applications Analyst
Minnesota DNR
500 Lafayette Road
St. Paul, MN 55155
651-297-2937
>>> Searle Ross <Ross.Searle at dnr.qld.gov.au> 01/12/00 12:49AM >>>
Steve or any other wise person,
I am trying to create an applet that talks directly to mapserver so that you
do not actually submit the HTML page but rather the applet submits the URL
and processes the returned info and updates the image inside the applet. The
upshot of this being that the whole HTML page doesn't have to be refreshed
only the applet. This is all working fine. I am trying to use zoomin
functions etc similar to your applet. Since the applet submits the URL I
need to know what CGI variables are actually controlling mapextents etc of
the returned image so that I can build the appropriate URL.
I was wondering if you could give some further info on how mapserver
processes the CGI variables and their importance. In particular imgext,
mapext, imgxy, img.x, img.y. I have been trying to work out by a process of
elimination what goes on but the only thing I am eliminating is scarce brain
cells. I know this is all a bit vague but an example of what I am concerned
with is - I have been able to control the zoom by generating mapextents but
then when I do a query I get messages such as "imgxy not set"
It would be nice to get a brief overview of how mapserver processes these
variables
Thanks
Ross
Ross Searle
Natural Resource Information Management Officer
Department of Natural Resources
PO Box 1143
Bundaberg QLD 4670. Australia
Ph : 0741 537 888 Fax : 0741 537 823
More information about the mapserver-users mailing list |
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Provide static file download at server in web application
I am working on an MVC 4 web application. On one page I am providing an anchor link which refers to a file on application's directory. The code of the same is -
@Html.Action("Download_Static_File", "Charge_Entry", new { File_Path = "../../Content/Templates/Pt_Data/Pt_Data.xls", File_Name = "Pt_Data_Template", value = "Download template" });
My motive is that the file should be downloaded on click.
However when I click the link, I get an error like
Could not find a part of the path 'C:\Program Files\Common Files\Microsoft Shared\Content\Templates\Pt_Data\Pt_Data.xls'.'
I also tried
System.Web.HttpContext.Current.Server.MapPath
which is giving this error:
OutputStream is not available when a custom TextWriter is used.
The action method being called is:
public FileResult Download_Static_File(string File_Path,string File_Name)
{
byte[] fileBytes = System.IO.File.ReadAllBytes(File_Path);
return File(fileBytes, System.Net.Mime.MediaTypeNames.Application.Octet, File_Name);
}
Is it the correct approach? Any help will be appreciated.
I also referred this link
0 Views seena chauhan Nov 12, 2014
Tags - c#asp.netasp.net-mvcasp.net-mvc-4
1 Answers
• user
Sanjay Chauhan
Your anchor seem to be pointing to a controller action named Download_Static_File (which unfortunately you haven't shown) and passing a parameter called File_Path.
The @Html.Action helper that you are using in your view is attempting to execute the specified action as a child action. You may find the following blog post useful which describes child actions: http://haacked.com/archive/2009/11/18/aspnetmvc2-render-action.aspx/
I guess that what you are trying to achieve is to generate an anchor in your view pointing to the static file which can be downloaded by the user. In this case you'd rather use an anchor tag in conjunction with the Url.Action helper:
<a href="@Url.Content("~/Content/Templates/Pt_Data/Pt_Data.xls")">
Download_Static_File
</a>
This assumes that your web application has a folder called Content/Templates/Pt_Data under the root containing a file named Pt_Data.xls which will be downloaded by the user when he clicks upon this anchor tag.
If on the other hand the file that you want to be downloaded by the user is situated in a folder which is not publicly accessible from the client (for example the ~/App_Data folder) you might in this case have a controller action on your server that will stream the file:
public ActionResult DownloadStaticFile(string filename)
{
string path = Server.MapPath("~/App_Data");
string file = Path.Combine(path, filename);
file = Path.GetFullPath(file);
if (!file.StartsWith(path))
{
throw new HttpException(403, "Forbidden");
}
return File(file, "application/pdf");
}
and then in your view you would have an anchor to this controller action:
@Html.ActionLink(
linkText: "Download template",
actionName: "DownloadStaticFile",
controllerName: "Charge_Entry",
routeValues: new { filename = "Pt_Data.xls" },
htmlAttributes: null
)
|
Steel selectivity in P1B-type ATPase transporters depends upon conserved amino acidity
Steel selectivity in P1B-type ATPase transporters depends upon conserved amino acidity residues within their transmembrane helices in charge of steel binding and transportation over the cellular membrane. lipid transportation over the membrane1. Associates from the P1B-type course evolved as an important transportation program for the selective translocations of changeover steel ions playing a simple role in managing the concentrations of important (e.g.: Cu+ Zn2+ Co2+) and dangerous (e.g.: Ag+ Compact disc2+ Pb2+) metals2. The P-type transportation cycle is defined with the Post-Albers system3. P-type pushes alternative between two useful state governments E1 and E2 available to contrary edges of lipid bilayer3. Ease of access of the carried ions to transmembrane binding sites is normally combined to conformational adjustments inside the cytoplasmic domains induced by ATP binding hydrolysis phosphorylation of the conserved aspartic residue in the catalytic ATPase domains and following dephosphorylation3. Hence ion(s) bind to transmembrane sites in the E1 condition are occluded inside the transmembrane helices upon ATP hydrolysis and phosphorylation (E1P) and released on the contrary side from the membrane in the E2P condition3 Aliskiren hemifumarate thereby leading to dephosphorylation to regenerate E1 generally combined to counter-ion transportation. Insights in the framework and transportation system of P-type ATPases have already been supplied by crystal buildings from the sarcoendoplasmatic Ca2+ pump (SERCA1a)4-5 the Na+/K+ ATPase6-7 the H+ pump8 as well as the Cu+- pump9. P1B-type ATPases typically have 8 transmembrane helices (MA-MB-M1-6) having personal sequences for ion identification (e.g.: P1B-3-type ATPase Suppl. Amount 1a). The transmembrane steel binding sites (TM-MBS) are crucial for steel selectivity and transportation over the membrane2. The necessity of conserved steel coordinating ligands Aliskiren hemifumarate for steel translocation in the transmembrane helices M4-6 including Cys His Glu Asp Ser and Mouse monoclonal to SCGB2A2 Met residues continues to be established. Steel selectivity dependant on a conserved CPX or XPC theme in M4 paralleled by particular conserved residues in helices M5-6 support the classification of P1B-type ATPases in subtypes P1B-1-type (Cu+/Ag+ transporters) P1B-2-type (Zn2+/Compact disc2+ exporters) P1B-3-type (Cu2+ exporters) and P1B-4-type (possible Co2+ exporters) Aliskiren hemifumarate and P1B-5-type (unidentified selectivity)10. As complete structural information regarding the quantity and character of TM-MBS in P1B-3-type ATPases happens to be lacking we’ve used complementary biochemical and spectroscopic ways to characterize the coordination properties from the transmembrane steel binding site in the P1B-3-type ATPase CopB from purified in detergent micelles. In P1B-3 ATPases the conserved CPH theme in M4 is normally paralleled by the current presence of conserved potential coordinating residues Asn and Tyr in M5 and Met Ser Thr and Asn in M6 (Suppl. Amount 1a-b)10. Sequence position indicates these conserved residues totally overlap using the residues involved with steel binding for characterized Cu+ (CopA) and Zn2+ (ZntA) P1B-type ATPases and for that reason most likely involved with transmembrane steel binding. Biochemical characterization of P1B-type ATPases filled with CPH motifs from was the initial characterized P1B-3-type ATPase proven to transportation preferentially Cu2+ over Cu+ over the lipid bilayer.13-14 As well as the TM-MBS regulatory cytoplasmic metal binding domains (MBDs) can be found in the N- and/or C- cytoplasmic termini (N-MBD and C-MBD) of P1B-type ATPases. The CopB N-MBD isn’t necessary to confer transportation activity and selectivity towards the transporter14 and therefore we truncated the N-MBD (ΔCopB) to protect the transmembrane steel binding site(s). We performed a topology prediction with TOPCONS to recognize the initial transmembrane helix (Suppl. Amount 1c)15. The consensus from 5 different prediction algorithms discovered Phe62 as the initial transmembrane amino acidity of MA. We hence chosen Lys59 as the beginning amino acidity in the series from the ΔCopB59-690 build to protect the Lys59-Arg-Arg61 theme which could make a difference for the connections using the charged polar minds of membrane phospholipids. We fused the cloned build to a FLAG-tag series for antibody-based affinity purification of ΔCopB59-690 in 7-cyclohexyl-1-heptyl-β-D-maltoside (Cymal-7) micelles. The purified ΔCopB59-690 demonstrated an ATPase Aliskiren hemifumarate activity maximium at around. |
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Wanting to Sell Web Space
Discussion in 'General Discussion' started by trpn, Jan 29, 2002.
1. trpn
trpn Guest
I am having a dedicated server and am thinking of reselling server space. However, I am not a pro on managing server and was wondering if some of the experts over here would be able to help me out?
1) Is there any specific thing that I need to keep in mind or need to be carefull of before I start selling web space.
2) Is there any real danger or possibility that someone (customer) can harm / hack other accounts on the same server ?
3) Is it ok to give SSH or should I be carefull to whom I give SSH?
Thanks for all the help.
Vishal Thakkar
2. rpmws
rpmws Well-Known Member
Joined:
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[quote:995755e348][i:995755e348]Originally posted by trpn[/i:995755e348]
I am having a dedicated server and am thinking of reselling server space. However, I am not a pro on managing server and was wondering if some of the experts over here would be able to help me out?
1) Is there any specific thing that I need to keep in mind or need to be carefull of before I start selling web space.
2) Is there any real danger or possibility that someone (customer) can harm / hack other accounts on the same server ?
3) Is it ok to give SSH or should I be carefull to whom I give SSH?
Thanks for all the help.
Vishal Thakkar [/quote:995755e348]
1.) Yes ..about 20 million things you will learn in the next year. If you only forget half of them you may get by OK :)
2.) Hell there is always a possibility that someone from the North Pole can completely destroy your entire business. Happens several times a day. Clients on your machines you need to trust and watch everything they do...the answer is yes and there wil lalways be holes no matter what you run shared, dediated ..you name it.
3.) giving out SSH to people you trust and to people that mean no harm is generally not a bad thing. Problem is sometimes it is too late when you find out if you can trust a client. The less access you give out teh better in general. Web Hosting is a game of gives and takes. You have to try your hardest to keep up on things and compromise for user value / security constantly. There is no such thing as a secure server that is connected to the internet. Try not to worry too much but at the same time keep an eye out :)
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rtc delayed by 1 jiffies
Hello,
I'm using 2.6.16 from Sid on my Sarge box,
# apt-cache policy linux-image-`uname -r`
linux-image-2.6.16-1-vserver-k7:
Installed: 2.6.16-10
Candidate: 2.6.16-10
Version Table:
*** 2.6.16-10 0
280 http://debian.yorku.ca unstable/main Packages
100 /var/lib/dpkg/status
It runs great, except that now I'm receiving a weird kernel message,
kernel: genrtc: timer task delayed by 1 jiffies
It seems to appear periodically or a few times per day. I tried to track
down the line that causes this in 2.6.16 sources, and found it
(drivers/arch/genrtc.c). The same line with the same condition appears
in other kernels, but I never gotten those annoying "warnings".
When I run a 2.6.15 kernel (not vserver, just regular one), I did not
have this message show up at all. Can anyone shed some light on the
possible causes and/or implications of this, if any?
Thanks,
- Adam
Please CC me in any replies as I'm not subscribed to the list. Thanks.
Reply to: |
Difference between revisions of "Common.js"
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Line 1: Line 1:
<script type="text/javascript">
<script type="text/javascript">
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+
test123
var trackByDefault = true;
function acEnableTracking() {
var expiration = new Date(new Date().getTime() + 1000 60 60 24 30);
document.cookie = "ac_enable_tracking=1; expires= " + expiration + "; path=/";
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Resources Contact Us Home
Browse by: INVENTOR PATENT HOLDER PATENT NUMBER DATE
Method and system for the processing of voice data and for the recognition of a language
7406413 Method and system for the processing of voice data and for the recognition of a language
Patent Drawings:Drawing: 7406413-7 Drawing: 7406413-8 Drawing: 7406413-9
« 1 »
(3 images)
Inventor: Geppert, et al.
Date Issued: July 29, 2008
Application: 10/430,403
Filed: May 7, 2003
Inventors: Geppert; Nicolas Andre (St. Leon-Rot, DE)
Sattler; Jurgen (Wiesloch, DE)
Assignee: SAP Aktiengesellschaft (Walldorf, DE)
Primary Examiner: McFadden; Susan
Assistant Examiner:
Attorney Or Agent: Finnegan, Henderson, Farabow, Garrett & Dunner, L.L.P.
U.S. Class: 704/235; 379/88.01
Field Of Search: 704/2; 704/235; 379/88.01
International Class: G10L 21/06
U.S Patent Documents:
Foreign Patent Documents: 588673; 658635; 2 234 504; 2 319 995; 29 18 533; 29 18 533; 30 17 517; 32 36 832; 32 36 834; 36 08 497; 36 43 838; 39 27 234; 39 30 889; 41 06 347; 41 11 781; 39 31 638; 41 20 308; 41 30 631; 41 30 632; 41 30 633; 42 43 181; 43 01 224; 42 12 907; 38 83 117; 42 40 978; 43 06 508; 43 09 985; 43 22 372; 43 25 096; 44 36 692; 44 01 518; 44 07 833; 44 08 086; 44 12 930; 44 12 930; 41 06 405; 44 38 185; 195 08 137; 195 10 083; 195 14 849; 44 12 745; 195 16 099; 195 32 114; 41 06 346; 195 81 667; 195 81 667; 196 10 848; 197 21 198; 196 24 987; 196 24 988; 196 30 109; 197 19 381; 196 36 452; 197 09 518; 44 30 164; 196 39 844; 196 40 502; 196 40 587; 197 05 471; 197 07 973; 297 23 186; 197 03 373; 197 03 373; 197 08 183; 197 08 184; 198 15 760; 1 974 0119; 197 40 119; 197 50 856; 198 52 002; 197 51 123; 197 54 383; 197 56 512; 198 06 941; 198 37 102; 198 04 047; 198 45 560; 299 10 274; 198 44 223; 198 50 513; 198 53 689; 198 51 287; 198 51 287; 198 51 520; 198 57 070; 199 01 137; 199 05 508; 199 11 535; 100 10 232; 100 00 819; 199 21 832; 199 26 740; 199 27 317; 199 42 178; 199 56 747; 200 12 141; 199 38 535; 199 42 871; 42 22 916; 199 48 308; 199 49 560; 198 24 450; 199 52 769; 199 53 813; 199 53 875; 200 16 333; 199 63 142; 195 32 114; 100 06 725; 100 03 779; 100 22 700; 100 23 359; 100 23 780; 100 34 236; 101 00 725; 100 43 531; 100 46 359; 198 54 420; 200 22 756; 0 054 365; 0 065 829; 0 077 194; 0 108 354; 0 109 179; 0 139 642; 0 175 503; 0 191 354; 0 215 573; 0 225 735; 0 238 693; 0 239 016; 0 240 679; 0 248 593; 0 248 593; 0 301 199; 0 307 137; 0 311 022; 0 355 748; 0 380 297; 0 392 728; 0 417 854; 0 418 711; 0 425 290; 0 440 335; 0 453 649; 0 454 037; 0 508 225; 0 515 967; 0 519 360; 0 519 360; 519 360; 0 543 459; 0 590 173; 0 595 950; 0 614 172; 0 618 566; 0 623 914; 0 633 559; 0 642 116; 0 664 535; 0 671 840; 0 674 307; 0 676 743; 0 676 883; 0 677 835; 0 677 836; 0 681 284; 0 708 960; 0 713 597; 0 716 373; 0 722 165; 0 731 348; 0 743 633; 0 746 846; 0 770 986; 0 797 185; 0 798 695; 0 806 848; 0 814 457; 0 821 346; 0 834 859; 0 834 861; 0 844 574; 0 845 774; 0 856 832; 0 856 976; 0 856 976; 0 860 772; 0 862 161; 0 862 162; 0 865 030; 0 877 354; 0 903 728; 0 910 065; 0 913 810; 0 925 579; 0 954 848; 0 957 470; 0 962 914; 0971 522; 0 991 990; 0 992 980; 1 001 406; 1 005 002; 1 016 076; 1 016 078; 1 031 138; 1 035 737; 1 047 046; 1 050 872; 1 051 702; 1 061 459; 1 061 724; 1 070 314; 1 076 329; 1 079 615; 1 083 479; 1 091 347; 1 091 349; 1 093 067; 1 016 077; 1 097 446; 1 100 072; 1 102 241; 1 107 229; 1 109 152; 1 110 205; 1 110 206; WO 01/41126; 1 119 169; 1 126 436; 1 131 814; 1 133 766; 1 134 727; 1 136 983; 1 139 332; 1 139 335; 1 141 939; 1 141 941; 0 708 960; 1 154 625; 1 162 602; 1 163 661; 0 852 051; 1 174 857; 1 187 440; 1 190 413; 1 191 517; 1 191 772; 1 197 951; 2 679 690; 2 790 586; 2 107 100; 2 107 101; 2 159 997; 2 263 042; 2 304 507; 2 304 957; 2 343 777; 2 362 745; 59139762; 1013426; 01013426; 01177599; 01177600; 01266600; 01298400; 01306898; 01319099; 03230200; 04106895; 04121791; 04161998; 04184397; 05073094; 05119793; 05127698; 05323989; 06019494; 06095697; 06214595; 07013584; 07311591; 08160984; 08166798; 08202384; 08248974; 08263091; 09090990; 09097096; 09160586; 09281989; 09330019; 10049194; 10049195; 10063288; 10063294; 10069296; 10187181; 10207486; 10214097; 10254486; 10322450; 11085200; 11265197; 11355445; 2000020085; 2000122686; 2000267692; 2000322079; 2000347684; 2001005482; 2001022373; 2001075588; 2001118068; 2001125589; 2001197207; 2001242880; 2001298540; 2001313724; 2001070583; WO 83/03701; WO 84/03983; WO 89/04035; WO 93 02447; WO 93/02447; WO 93/05605; WO 95/05655; WO 95/09416; WO 95/34064; WO 96/37069; WO 96/37881; WO 97/10583; WO 97 14139; WO 97/21204; WO 97/37481; WO 98/11534; WO 98/31007; WO 98/34217; WO 98/41976; WO 98/56151; WO 99/00719; WO 99/03092; WO 99/13517; WO 99/14740; WO 99/14743; WO 99/22364; WO 99 26232; WO 99/36862; WO 99 40570; WO 99/49630; WO 99/50829; WO 99 53477; WO 99/53478; WO 99/57714; WO 00/14727; WO 00/14728; WO 00/19410; WO 00/28527; WO 00/30072; WO 00/30287; WO 00/31725; WO 00/36591; WO 00/41164; WO 00/41166; WO 00/45575; WO 00/48171; WO 00/51107; WO 00 54180; WO 00/54241; WO 00/55843; WO 00/46794; WO 00/58943; WO 00/58943; WO 00/58944; WO 00/58944; WO 00/65814; WO 00 70603; WO 00/70603; WO 00/74033; WO 00/74034; WO 00 77773; WO 00/78023; WO 01/01360; WO 01 01360; WO 01 01389; WO 01 13215; WO 01 13362; WO 01/13362; WO 01/13363; WO 01/15140; WO 01/18792; WO 01/24162; WO 01/26093; WO 01/33414; WO 01/35391; WO 01/35392; WO 01/37186; WO 01/37261; WO 01/39176; WO 01/41126; WO 01/45086; WO 01/50453; WO 01/50454; WO 01/52239; WO 01/56019; WO 01/61435; WO 01 67438; WO 01/67438; WO 01/69592; WO 01/73750; WO 01/74036; WO 01/75862; WO 01 91107; WO 01/91107; WO 01/91109; WO 01/95312; WO 02/01351; WO 02/01849; WO 02 05263; WO 02 06952; WO 02/07145; WO 02/09094; WO 02/13184; WO 02/21510; WO 02/23525; WO 02/25636; WO 02/25637; WO 02/27708; WO 02/056199; WO 02/101720
Other References: K Seymore and R. Rosenfeld, "Using Story Topics for Language Model Adaptation," European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology,Eurospeech '97, Rhodes, Greece, (Sep. 1997), pp. 1987-1990. cited by other.
T. Barry, "The Simultaneous Use of Three Machine Speech Recognition Systems to Increase Recognition Accuracy," Proceedings of the IEEE National Aerospace and Electronics Conference, New York, NY, (May 1994), pp. 667-671. cited by other.
P. van Lieshout, "PRAAT Short Tutorial," Univ. of Toronto, Department of Speech-Language Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, V. 3.0, (Jan. 7, 2002), pp. 1-26. cited by other.
S.H. Chung and D. Moldovan, "Speech Understanding on a Massively Parallel Computer," Proceedings of the International Conference on Spoken Language Processing, Edmonton, University of Alberta, CA, (Oct. 1992), pp. 1355-1358. cited by other.
U.S. Appl. No. 10/430,438, filed on May 7, 2003, entitled "Method and System for the Processing of Voice Data and the Classification of Calls". cited by other.
U.S. Appl. No. 10/430,436, filed on May 7, 2003, entitled "Method and System for the Processing of Voice Data by Means of Voice Recognition and Frequency Analysis". cited by other.
U.S. Appl. No. 10/430,404, filed on May 7, 2003, entitled "Method and System for the Processing and Storing of Voice Information". cited by other.
U.S. Appl. No. 10/430,439, filed on May 7, 2003, entitled "Method and System for the Processing of Voice Information". cited by other.
U.S. Appl. No. 10/430,405, filed on May 7, 2003, entitled "Method and System for the Recognition of Voice Information". cited by other.
P.J. Wyard et al., "Spoken Language Systems--Beyond Prompt and Response," BT Technol. J., vol. 14, No. 1, (Jan. 1996), pp. 187-205. cited by other.
Abstract: Methods and systems are provided for processing voice data from a call between a first human party and a second or more human parties and/or an automated attendant system, or between a first human party and one or more second human parties, wherein the voice data is generated from the call. The language of the first party may be recognized automatically. Further, the voice data from the call may be analyzed either fully or in part by a voice recognition system and converted into text.
Claim: What is claimed is:
1. A method for processing voice data from a call between a first human party and a second or more human parties and/or an automated attendant system, or between a firsthuman party and one or more second human parties, wherein the voice data is generated from the call, the method comprising: analyzing the voice data using a frequency analysis to produce a first frequency spectrum comprising a specific volume attributedto a specific sonic frequency; comparing the first frequency spectrum with frequency spectra of different languages to find a match; recognizing the language of the first party automatically when the match is found; analyzing the voice data eitherfully or in part with an automated voice recognition system and converting the voice data into text; and forwarding the call automatically to a call center provided for the recognized language.
2. A method in accordance with claim 1, wherein recognizing the language of the first party is performed in the background during a call.
3. A method in accordance with claim 2, further comprising notifying the first party automatically with the help of language prompts during the forwarding of the call or when the call center is not available.
4. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising providing the text and a graphical representation of the results of the frequency analysis as output to a display device.
5. A method in accordance with claim 4, wherein providing the text and the results of the frequency analysis is executed online.
6. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising attributing particular words of the text to particular time segments of the frequency analysis.
7. A method in accordance with claim 6, further comprising storing at least one of the particular words and the attributed segments of the frequency analysis.
8. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising comparing a portion of the first, frequency spectrum related to a specific word within the voice data to with frequency spectra of the same word previously stored from another call, anddetermining the identity of a party based on the results of the comparison.
9. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising analyzing the obtained text automatically to recognize one or more key words and assigning the call a classification automatically based on the recognized key words.
10. A method in accordance with claim 9, further comprising storing the key words and the classification in one or more tables and attributing the key words to the classification.
11. A method in accordance with claim 9, wherein assigning a classification to the call comprises tailoring the classification to the purpose of the call.
12. A method in accordance with claim 9, wherein assigning a classification to the call comprises tailoring the classification to the mood of the first party.
13. A method in accordance with claim 9, further comprising providing the assigned classification of the call to at least one of the human parties of the call.
14. A method in accordance with claim 1, wherein the call is a phone call made by the first party to the second party.
15. A method in accordance with claim 14, further comprising accepting the phone call with an automated attendant system and forwarding the call with the automated attendant system to the second party.
16. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising automatically establishing, with an automated attendant system, a call connection to the first party.
17. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising recording a timeline of the call, assigning the obtained text to the timeline, and storing the obtained text with the timeline.
18. A method in accordance with claim 17, further comprising providing a graphical representation of the timeline and obtained text on a display device.
19. A method in accordance with claim 17, further comprising analyzing and presenting a graphical representation of the timeline and the obtained text online.
20. A method in accordance with claim 17, further comprising attributing particular words of the obtained text to particular segments of the timeline.
21. A method in accordance with claim 20, further comprising storing the particular words with the attributed segments.
22. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising attributing the obtained text to a respective party of the call.
23. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising attributing key words from a pre-established table to the obtained text.
24. A method in accordance with claim 1, wherein the automated attendant system comprises an automated interactive voice response system (IVRS).
25. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising providing the first party of the call with standard call structures.
26. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising providing at least one computer to be used for the automated attendant system or the voice recognition system.
27. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising performing voice recognition with a plurality of computers in parallel.
28. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising performing voice recognition using a multiple of processes on one computer in parallel.
29. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising performing voice recognition in a computer network system in parallel.
30. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising storing the voice data of a call in at least a largely unchanged state.
31. A method in accordance with claim 1, wherein analyzing the voice data comprises performing voice recognition with information about the current call status being taken into account.
32. A method in accordance with claim 1, wherein analyzing the voice data comprises performing voice recognition that is tailored individually to a request for analysis.
33. A method in accordance with claim 1, wherein analyzing the voice data comprises performing voice recognition with at least one of dictation recognition, grammar recognition, single word recognition and keyword spotting.
34. A method in accordance with claim 33, wherein dictation recognition, grammar recognition, single word recognition and keyword spotting are used in parallel.
35. A method in accordance with claim 33, wherein voice recognition is performed repeatedly.
36. A method in accordance with claim 33, wherein voice recognition is performed with dynamic adjustment.
37. A method in accordance with claim 36, wherein the vocabulary for performing voice recognition is varied and/or adjusted.
38. A method in accordance with claim 36, further comprising classifying the voice data with keyword spotting as part of a first recognition step for the dynamic adjustment of the voice recognition.
39. A method in accordance with claim 38, further comprising reexamining the voice data as part of an additional recognition step by adding specific vocabulary.
40. A method in accordance with claim 39, further comprising iteratively performing additional recognition steps that are controlled by recognition probabilities.
41. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising providing a link between the voice recognition system and at least one of a database system and an expert system.
42. A method in accordance with claim 41, further comprising extracting additional information by using the link.
43. A method in accordance with claim 42, wherein the additional information is extracted from at least one of the database system and expert system in order to dynamically control the voice recognition.
44. A method in accordance with claim 43, further comprising providing at least one of the result of analyzing the voice data and the additional information in a graphical and/or orthographical representation.
45. A method in accordance with claim 44, wherein at least one of the result of analyzing the voice data and the additional information is provided with time delay.
46. A method in accordance with claim 44, wherein at least one of the result of analyzing the voice data and the additional information is provided to the second party nearly synchronously.
47. A method in accordance with claim 46, wherein at least one of the result of analyzing the voice data and the additional information is provided to the second party during the call.
48. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising enabling the second party to at least partially control the voice recognition.
49. A method in accordance with claim 48, wherein enabling the second party comprises permitting the second party to load user profiles to facilitate voice recognition.
50. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising providing additional information from at least one of a database system and expert system to facilitate voice recognition.
51. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising storing the result of analyzing the call as text.
52. A method in accordance with claim 1, wherein the method is used in a call center.
53. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising integrating the method as part of a total program of a computer program.
54. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising integrating the method to train agents of a call center.
55. A method in accordance with claim 1, further comprising training the voice recognition system on the voice of at least one of the first party and the second party, wherein the second party is an agent of a call center.
56. A method in accordance with claim 55, further comprising increasing the recognition rate of the voice recognition system by having the agent repeat single words spoken by the first party, so that the voice recognition system can analyze thevoice data of a trained voice.
57. A system for processing voice data from a call between a first human party and a second or more human parties and/or an automated attendant system, or between a first human party and one or more second human parties, wherein the voice datais generated from the call, the system comprising: means for analyzing the voice data using a frequency analysis to produce a first frequency spectrum comprising a specific volume attributed to a specific sonic frequency; means for comparing the firstfrequency spectrum with frequency spectra of different languages to find a match; means for recognizing the language of the first party automatically when the match is found; a voice recognition system for analyzing the voice data either fully or inpart to recognize and extract text from the voice data, the voice recognition system being linkable with one or more devices to record the voice data; means for representing the recognized and extracted text, wherein the means for representing isconnected directly or indirectly with the voice recognition system; and means for forwarding the call automatically to a call center provided for the recognized language.
58. A system in accordance with claim 57, wherein the voice recognition system is connected with at least one automated attendant system.
59. A system in accordance with claim 58, wherein the voice recognition system is connected to a plurality of automated attendant systems.
60. A system in accordance with claim 58, wherein the at least one automated attendant system comprises a stationary or mobile phone.
61. A system in accordance with claim 58, wherein the at least one automated attendant system comprises an automated interactive voice response system (IVRS).
62. A system in accordance with claim 57, wherein the voice recognition system comprises one or a plurality of computers.
63. A system in accordance with claim 58, wherein the at least one automated attendant system comprises one or a plurality of computers.
64. A system in accordance with claim 62 or 63, wherein the plurality of computers are connected in the form of a network.
65. A system in accordance with claim 64, wherein the network comprises a client/server structure.
66. A computer program product with program code means that are stored on a computer-readable storage medium and suitable to execute a method in accordance with any one of claims 1, 2, 3, 4, 21 and 22-56 when executed on a computer.
Description: FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The present invention relates to methods and systems for the automatic handling of voice data from a call between a first human party and one or more second human parties and/or an automated attendant system, or between a first human party andone or more second human parties, with the voice data being generated from the call.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Automatic voice recognition has been used in practice for some time and is used for the machine translation of spoken language into written text.
According to the space/time link between voice recording and voice processing, voice recognition systems can be divided into the following two categories: "Online recognizers" are voice recognition systems that translate spoken comments directlyinto written text. This includes most office dictation machines; and "Offline recognition systems" execute time-delayed voice recognition for the recording of a dictation made by the user with a digital recording device, for example.
The state of the art voice processing systems known to date are not able to understand language contents, i.e., unlike human language comprehension, they cannot establish intelligent a priori hypotheses about what was said. Instead, the acousticrecognition process is supported with the use of text- or application-specific hypotheses. The following hypotheses or recognition modes have been widely used to date: Dictation and/or vocabulary recognition uses a linking of domain-specific wordstatistics and vocabulary. Dictation and/or vocabulary recognition is used in office dictation systems; Grammar recognition is based on an application-specific designed system of rules and integrates expected sentence construction plans with the use ofvariables; and Single word recognition and/or keyword spotting is used when voice data to support recognition are lacking and when particular or specific key words are anticipated within longer voice passages.
A voice recognition system for handling spoken information exchanged between a human party and an automated attendant system is known, for example, from the document "Spoken Language Systems--Beyond Prompt and Response" (BT Technol. J., Vol. 14,No. 1, January 1996). The document discloses a method and a system for interactive communication between a human party and an automated attendant system. The system has a voice recognition capability that converts a spoken comment into a single word orseveral words or phrases. Furthermore, there is a meaning extraction step, where a meaning is attributed to the recognized word order, with the call being forwarded by the automated attendant system to a next step based on said meaning. By means of adatabase search, additional information can be obtained for a recognized word. Based on the recognized and determined information, a response is generated, which is transformed into spoken language by means of a voice synthesizer and forwarded to thehuman party. If the human party communicates with the automated attendant system through a multi-modal system,(e.g., an Internet, personal computer with voice connection), it can be provided with information determined by the automated attendant systemvisually on the screen and/or acoustically through the microphone of the personal computer and/or headsets. For further details, reference is made to the aforementioned document and the secondary literature cited therein.
Despite this high degree of automation, such voice recognition systems are problematic especially with respect to the recognition of the voice information unless the voice recognition system was adjusted to the specific pronunciation of a personin the scope of a learning phase because pronunciation differs from person to person. Especially automated attendant systems, where one party requests information or provides information, are not yet practicable because of the high error rate during thevoice recognition process and the various reactions of the individual parties. Thus, many applications still require the use of a second party rather than an automated attendant system to take the information provided by the first party or give outinformation. If the second party receives information, the information--regardless of form--usually must be recorded, written down, or entered into a computer.
Furthermore, it is often necessary to follow-up on such calls, for example, to reconstruct in the case of sales talks or contract negotiations what was said by whom and in what context. The follow-up from memory or from scribbled notes is oftenincomplete and it is difficult to reconstruct the timeline. Although recordings on voice recorders are possible, they are difficult to integrate into the current data processing landscape. Further, digital recordings of the acoustic data require agreater memory capacity.
These procedures not only require a high personnel effort, but they also time-consuming, thus making the call throughput as well as the follow-up less than optimal.
Another problem exists when a great number of calls are made and have to be found quickly and easily if they are stored in any form. For example, easy access to the call data is desired in particular for statistical purposes.
In addition, it would be advantageous if it were possible to identify a party automatically.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention is therefore based on the problem to provide methods and systems where the call throughput is increased and, most of all, where it is possible to identify the other party.
In this context, the situation may also arise that one of the parties speaks a language the voice recognition system cannot recognize. In that case, it would be advantageous if the language spoken by the respective party could be recognizedautomatically.
Therefore, the present invention is also based on the problem to provide methods and systems to increase the call throughput and, primarily, to identify the language spoken by the other party.
In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, a method is provided for processing voice data from a call between a first human party and one or more second human parties and/or an automated attendant system, or between a first human partyand one or more second human parties, wherein the voice data is generated from the call. The method comprises: recognizing the language of the first party automatically; and analyzing the voice data either fully or in part with an automated voicerecognition system and converting the voice data into text.
Voice data in the sense of the present invention comprise data of an acoustical call, which can be generated and/or registered from the spoken comments with the help of, for example, a technical recording system (such as a microphone). Anautomated voice recognition system in the sense of the invention is a system that can convert such voice data from a spoken comment into text automatically. Text in the sense of the invention is furthermore interpreted such that it means orthographicaland/or textual information, which, for example, can be represented as text on an output device such as a printer or screen or as text in the conventional sense, but which can also be stored, for example, as (binary) code on a digital storage medium.
In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, a system is provided for processing voice data. The system comprises: at least one electronic device for the recognition and extraction of voice data (e.g., a voice recognition system),which can be connected to one or a plurality of devices for the recording of voice data (e.g., an automated attendant system); and, one or a plurality of means for the representation and/or storage of recognized and/or extracted voice data, with the oneor any plurality of means for the representation and/or storage being directly or indirectly connected to the recognition and extraction device.
"Direct" in this context means that the connection is established directly through, for example, a cable, a wire, etc. "Indirect" in this context means that the connection is established indirectly through, for example, wireless access to theInternet, a radio- or infrared-connection, etc.
According to yet another embodiment of the invention, a computer program is provided with program code means to execute all steps of any of the methods of the invention when the program is executed on a computer, as well as a computer programproduct that comprises a program of this type in a computer-readable storage medium, as well as a computer with a volatile or non-volatile memory where a program of this type is stored.
Preferred and other embodiments of the present invention will be apparent from the following description and accompanying drawings.
It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only, and should not be considered restrictive of the scope of the invention, as described. Further, featuresand/or variations may be provided in addition to those set forth herein. For example, embodiments of the invention may be directed to various combinations and sub-combinations of the features described in the detailed description.
BRIEFDESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate various embodiments and aspects of the present invention. In the drawings:
FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a first configuration to execute a method, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of a second configuration to execute a method, in accordance with another embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 3 a schematic representation of an exemplary voice recognition system, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; and
FIG. 4 a schematic representation of another configuration to execute a method, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
By way of example, the recognition of the language of a party may be executed as follows. The voice data are subjected to an online, i.e., if possible a near-time and/or a nearly synchronous, frequency analysis. This may be performed by meansof known algorithms, for example, a Fourier transformation. The result is a frequency spectrum where a specific volume is attributed to a specific sonic frequency. Once characteristic features of such spectra, which are thus typical for a specificlanguage, have been stored in advance, a comparison can be made between the spectra recorded online and the stored spectra, and when a match is found, the respective language can be attributed to the respective party and the voice recognition system canbe set to the matched language, or the call can be forwarded automatically to a call center provided for the respective language. If the language cannot be clearly attributed because, for example, the recording of the voice data is poor or the speakerdoes not speak clearly, the result may provide several possible language matches. In such a case, a probability assessment can be performed such that the language for which the greatest number of matching characteristics is found during the comparisonis considered the most probable match. The precision of the language recognition can be increased iteratively with the repeated recording of spectra at an appropriate call length and/or with appropriate frequent comments of the respective other party.
Another method for language recognition, consistent an embodiment of the invention, may be that a preset language of the voice recognition system is maintained for the time being while attempting to attribute words from the vocabulary resourcesof the language to the voice data and/or comments of the other party. If the number of recognized and attributed words is too low, i.e., if it is below a preset threshold, the vocabulary of one or a plurality of other languages is used as a basis. Thelanguage with the vocabulary that has the greatest word recognition and attribution is then selected as the most probable and further voice recognition is based on this language.
It is known that automated attendant systems can be used if the expected flow of information of a call is largely predetermined, i.e., if one party, for example, will give the automated attendant system an answer to a question such as yes or no,a number between one and five, etc. In that case, the voice recognition system can recognize the voice data with a high degree of success and the appropriate information can be stored for further processing.
For more complex calls, it was found in accordance with embodiments of the invention that instead of an automated attendant system, a second party is required to guarantee an exchange of information that is not distorted by error-prone voicerecognition systems. To that end, however, the second party is provided with assistance to help with and/or avoid the tedious and time-consuming entering or recording of data. For that purpose, the voice data of the call between the first party and thesecond or any other party are forwarded to a voice recognition system. It is also conceivable that only the voice data of the first party are forwarded to the voice recognition system. The voice recognition system then executes the voice recognitionfor a subset of the voice data such as, for example, the voice data of only one party, and/or very generally for all voice data. Even if the voice recognition is only partially successful, the extracted information can be provided to a party. In thisway, at least simple data such as numbers or brief answers to questions can be recognized by the voice recognition system without error and are then available to the party in a storable format.
However, for more complex calls, the call can be accepted first by an automated attendant system, which will forward the call to one party or to any second party or add the second party by switching. The call also can be established by theautomated attendant system in that the system is set in such a way that it dials people based on a predefined list (such as a phone book) automatically by phone and then adds one or any second party by switching, or forwards the call to the second party. In this way, for example, simple opinion polls could be prepared automatically.
In one embodiment of the invention, the voice recognition system is preferably integrated into the automated attendant system.
If an automated attendant system is used, the automated attendant system may be implemented or work as an "Interactive Voice Response System" (IVRS). An IVRS system of this type is capable of communicating with a party--albeit within a limitedscope--and reacting depending on the voice input from the party. Preferably, an automated IVRS system is provided to implement embodiments of the invention.
A high recognition rate can be achieved in an especially advantageous manner if the party whose voice data are to be analyzed is confronted with standard call structures. This could be declarations and/or questions by the automated attendantsystem and/or a party, which are already known to the voice recognition system in this form. The party confronted with the targeted questions and/or standard call structures will then most likely generally react "as anticipated", and the informationcontained in this expected reaction can be correctly recognized with a high degree of probability and extracted and/or stored accordingly. To that end, a method of grammar recognition could be used in a particularly advantageous manner for the voicerecognition.
For the practical realization of an automated attendant system and/or a voice recognition system, at least one computer may be used. The same computer can be used for the automated attendant system and the voice recognition system. However, apreferred embodiment provides that only one computer is used as an automated attendant system. The voice data of the call are then forwarded to another computer, where the voice recognition system is implemented. This computer should have sufficientperformance data or characteristics. In addition, a computer used as an automated attendant system may include an interface to establish a phone and/or video connection. Another interface can also be provided for the input and output of the voiceand/or video data.
The voice recognition itself could be executed on one computer or a plurality of computers. Especially with time-sensitive applications, the voice recognition is preferably executed in parallel on a plurality of computers. Thus, the voicerecognition process could be divided into a plurality of partial processes, for example, with each partial process being executed on a computer. In the division into partial processes, individual sentences or clauses could be assigned to each partialprocess, and a timed division of the voice data--for example into time intervals of 5 seconds each--is also conceivable. If the computer has a plurality of processors (CPUs), the partial processes could be distributed to the processors of the computerand executed in parallel.
If the computing performance of a single computer is not sufficient for the voice recognition and/or for the automated attendant system, a computer network system could be provided to execute these processes in parallel on a plurality ofcomputers. In particular, individual computers of a network system could execute specific, varying voice recognition modes so that each computer analyzes the same voice data under a different aspect.
In the evaluation of voice data recorded by an automated attendant system, voice recognition could be tailored specifically to a request for analysis. For example, a poll of viewers or a quiz of listeners of a T.V. or radio show could beanalyzed automatically so as to determine which political measures, for example, find the greatest acceptance among the viewers or listeners. The request for analysis, for example, could be to determine whether measure A or measure B is preferred, sothat the information and the knowledge of the possible variants of the poll is taken into account in the voice recognition and/or provided to the voice recognition as additional information.
If the voice data comes from a call between two parties, the voice recognition may preferably be tailored specifically to a request for analysis. Such a request for analysis could comprise, for example, mainly the voice recognition of the voicedata of one of the parties, with the analysis being tailored, for example, specifically to the recognition of the phone number of the one party, etc.
Methods provided for voice recognition include dictation, grammar, or single word identification and/or keyword spotting. This could include, for example, making a switch from one voice recognition method to the other voice recognition methoddepending on the current call situation if it is foreseeable that another voice recognition method promises better results for the voice recognition of the current call situation. Preferably, the various methods of voice recognition can also be employedin parallel, which is executed, for example, with parallel distribution to a plurality of computers.
In a preferred embodiment, repeated execution of the voice recognition is provided. To that end, it is possible to forward the voice data and/or the at least largely unchanged stored voice data of a call repeatedly to the same or different voicerecognition processes. Repeated voice recognition may be implemented with an offline recognition system, because this allows a time delay of the voice recognition.
Another voice recognition strategy provides for performing a dynamic adjustment of the voice recognition. For example, the vocabulary for the voice recognition could be varied and/or adjusted. An initially employed voice recognition method--forexample the dictation recognition--may result in a low recognition rate, making it obvious that maintaining the dictation recognition would only have a limited promise of success. It is then provided to dynamically employ another voice recognitionmethod, with the recognition rate of the newly employed voice recognition method also being analyzed immediately, and another dynamic voice recognition step following thereafter, if necessary. It may also be provided to apply the same voice recognitionmethod to the voice data in parallel on a plurality of computers, but using a different vocabulary for the voice recognition on each of the computers. An immediate analysis of the recognition rate of these parallel running voice recognition processesmay lead to a dynamic adjustment and/or control of the further voice recognition.
In addition or alternately, another preferred procedure step is provided, which can be summarized under the preamble "vocabulary dynamization." This includes the repeated analyses of the voice data. In a first recognition step, the voice dataare classified. This could be done using one or more of the keyword spotting methods, for example. Depending on the result of the voice data classification, the voice data are again analyzed in another recognition step after adding special vocabulary. This recognition process is based on a vocabulary that is directly or closely related to the result of the voice data classification step. It is entirely conceivable that the recognition step of the voice data is based on a vocabulary from a pluralityof specific areas. The additional recognition step is preferably applied to the original voice data, but it is possible to include the information obtained in the first recognition step. Accordingly, the procedure steps of the vocabulary dynamizationare applied over and over again to the original voice data.
In a preferred embodiment, the call is automatically forwarded to a call center provided for the respective language. During the forwarding or if no call center is available, the other party can be informed automatically with the help oflanguage prompts, which are information sequences that are generated in advance or automatically. In another preferred embodiment, the recognition process of the language is running in the background.
In yet another preferred embodiment of the invention, the voice data are not only converted into textual information, but also subjected to a frequency analysis. The spectra obtained in this way can be recorded in near-time, i.e., online, andthey can also be outputted on a display device such as a screen in near-time and thus made available to a party. It is preferred that particular time segments of the frequency analysis and/or particular spectra are attributed and/or stored forparticular words of the recognized text. In the same way, particular spectra can be stored and attributed to the respective words. It is furthermore preferred to attribute known data of the caller to such spectra. By comparing the spectra of identicalwords from different calls, it can be determined whether the respective parties are identical. Accordingly, the identity of a caller who does not identify himself by name can be determined if a spectrum of a word said in the call is compared to analready established "file"--if the called party had already been identified before.
Another advantage of the frequency analysis is that the subjective mood of a called party can be recognized. This maybe performed such that the spectrum of a specific word is recorded and stored at different moods of the respective speaker. This can be performed, for example, in preliminary experiments or at a known mood of a known party. The comparison of the stored spectra and a spectrum of what is said currently then provides conclusions as to the current mood of the speaker. Inparticular, this can be of advantage in sales talks or contract negotiations, for one, if it is shown to the respective other party online, and also in the follow-up, when the call is analyzed retroactively based on the stored data (e.g., words and therelated spectra).
In a further preferred embodiment, a specific action of an automated attendant system can be initiated automatically or as a function of program control when a specific mood of the other party is recognized. For example, a specific melodyintended to improve the mood of the other party can be played if a bad mood of the other party is recognized. The recognized mood can furthermore be attributed to the call as a classification when the call is stored. This can be advantageous in thestatistical analysis of a great number of calls.
In accordance with another preferred embodiment of the invention, the conversion of the voice data into text, i.e., into orthographic and/or textual information, is followed in another additional step by analyzing the obtained text for key words. Then the call is assigned a classification based on the recognized key words. These procedure steps can be implemented, for example, in that the text is searched for key words such as "error", "complaint", "return", etc. If one or more of these wordsare found, the call can be classified as "complaint", for example.
Key words and related classification can be stored in one or a plurality of tables and attributed to one another, for example in such a way that a column in a table named "complaint" includes all of the aforementioned key words in the linesbelow. However, the key words can also be stored in a file named with the respective classification. In a preferred embodiment, the classification is tailored to the purpose of the call. Examples are: Information, Complaint, Problem, Product X, etc.An expert may develop suitable key words for these classifications on his/her own. Suitable key words may also be determined easily based on experiments or on evaluations of already stored calls. In addition or alternately, the classification can alsobe tailored to the mood of the other party. If key words such as "crap" and "unacceptable" are mentioned in a complaint call about a delivery, the call can be assigned to the classification "irritated." The aforementioned examples are only suggestions. The user can easily compile their own word combinations tailored to the respective business purpose for his/her use. The classification is advantageously stored together with the text of the call. Alternately, it is also possible to link the storedcall with the classification, which has also been stored.
Such classifications, for example, allow the statistical analysis of calls related to a specific Product X. This can help the manufacturer improve the quality of their products or better meet the demands of their customers.
In another preferred embodiment of the invention, the recognized text may be stored with an attributed timeline. This has the advantage that the recording of calls in a storage medium for data processing systems requires less memory as would berequired if the call were to be recorded acoustically, for example, as a "wav-file." If a call were to be stored as a wav-file, approximately eight (8) megabytes of memory would be required per minute of call. If the call is converted into text inaccordance with embodiments of the invention and then stored, only a few kilobytes are required for the same call.
The stored timeline of the call shows what was said at which time. This allows a better and more precise retroactive determination of the contents and the meaning of the individual call segments.
In a preferred embodiment, the recognized text can be attributed to the respective party. This can be done, for example, by analyzing the voices with the help of a frequency analysis, determining from the frequency analysis the characteristicsfor the respective party, and using the characteristics to attribute the spoken and recognized words to the respective party. In support or alternately thereto, an attribution can also be made using key words, such as names, for example.
In another preferred embodiment, the timeline of the recognized words can be displayed graphically on a screen. For example, the recognized words may be arranged on a time scale. If the number of words is too high to be represented in anorderly manner, only single key words, which may be defined in a table set up in advance, may be arranged on the time scale. The graphic representation may be implemented on a computer so that the complete text of a pre-selectable time segment is shownif single key words are selected. Especially for longer calls, this leads to significant timesaving. It can be done online or time-delayed. An online representation has the advantage that the respective (second) party can already obtain informationabout what has been said while the call is still in progress.
In embodiments of the invention, other recognition steps may be executed iteratively and will lead, in the ideal case, to a complete recognition of the entire voice data or at least a subset of the voice data. The further iterative recognitionsteps are preferably controlled by recognition probabilities, thus providing discontinuation criteria, for example, once the recognition probability no longer changes.
For security reasons, it goes without saying that the voice data of the call can be stored largely unchanged. The storing could comprise all voice data of the call. For example, if one party or the automated attendant system uses standard callstructures that are known to the voice recognition system, only the voice data of the other party may be stored. Principally, it can be provided for the store process to store markers and/or bookmarks in addition to the voice data, thus providing thecall to be stored with coherence or a logical subdivision. The subdivision could then accelerate or simplify the process of information extraction during subsequent voice recognition. Furthermore, it can be provided that information about the currentcall status is taken into account during the voice recognition. For example, during the beginning of the call, it could be taken into account that both parties will identify one another, so that voice recognition would use appropriate vocabulary and/orgrammar recognition modes to that effect. This information about the current call status, regardless of how it was obtained, could also be stored together with the voice data.
In accordance with another preferred embodiment of the invention, it is provided that the voice recognition system and/or the voice recognition process is linked to a database system, such as R/3.RTM. (SAP Aktiengesellschaft, 69190 Walldorf,Germany) and/or an expert system. In this way, the results or the partial results of the voice recognition process can be entered directly into a database and/or an expert system. Furthermore, information from the database and/or expert system can beused to support the voice recognition process, for example for vocabulary dynamization. Thus, additional information can be extracted through the link, which--as already indicated--can be used for voice recognition.
The information obtained from the database and/or expert system can be used to control the dynamic recognition process of the voice recognition. For example, information about a party stored in a database and/or R/3.RTM. system can be used tocontrol the voice recognition of the voice data available for the party such that the voice recognition is based on vocabulary that had already been used in earlier calls with the party. The voice data recognized during the current call can also bestored into the database and/or R/3.RTM. system or in an appropriate database and--already during the call--dynamically increase the vocabulary resource for the party during the voice recognition.
It is principally provided to store especially the information obtained in the voice recognition. In a preferred embodiment, it is additionally or alternately provided to provide information in the form of a graphical and/or orthographicalrepresentation. This may be provided for information that may be time-delayed and originated in a call recorded with an automated attendant system. This may also be applicable, however, to information from the voice recognition of call data thatoriginated in a call between two or more parties. In this way, either all information concerning the call, i.e., literally every word, or only extracted and/or selected information from the call, which is useful for the respective application of methodsin accordance with embodiments of the invention, may be displayed. The information may be provided on the output unit of a computer, such as a monitor, on a screen, or on a television. The output of information on a cell phone display may also beprovided.
In general, information may be provided with time delay. This will be the case especially for call information that originated with an automated attendant system, i.e., where a synchronous voice recognition and/or information analysis is notnecessary. Alternately, it is provided in a preferred manner to recognize the information nearly synchronously, i.e., "online" and/or provide it to the other party. This is the case in particular when voice data of a call between two parties arerecognized and/or analyzed. The information can be provided either to one or both and/or all parties, depending on the objective of the application of methods in accordance with embodiments of the invention. Providing the information online, however,could also be effected in connection with an automated attendant system, for example, during a radio or T.V. show if a "live poll" must be analyzed within a short time.
The party to whom the information is provided during the call (the other party or any second party) could then at least partially direct, control and/or steer the voice recognition. For this purpose, appropriate symbols may be provided on thegraphical user surface of a corresponding computer and/or control computer, which have varying effects on the voice recognition and can be operated simply and quickly by the called party. In particular, it may be provided that the called party canoperate appropriate symbols that classify and/or select a plurality of results coming from the voice recognition system as correct or false. Finally, one of the parties can train the recognition system to the voice of the other party so that the voicerecognition system can at least largely recognize the voice data of the other party during a longer call. Furthermore, appropriate symbols can be provided, which result in an acceptance or rejection of the information to be stored as a result of thevoice recognition.
Furthermore, it may be provided, for example, that the called party uses standard vocabulary for the voice recognition or the sequence of the application of the various voice recognition methods.
When the voice recognition system is linked to a database and/or expert system, it may be provided that a user profile for each party has been established or has already been stored. The user profile could be loaded automatically for therecognition of another call to the same party. In addition, it is also conceivable that the party to whom the information is provided loads the user profile. For the recognition mode of the voice recognition, a specific vocabulary resource, etc. can bestored in a user profile.
In accordance with another preferred embodiment, information may be extracted from the database and/or expert system and provided in addition to the extracted voice information. This plan of action could be used, for example, in a call center. Here, the party accepting the call, referred to as agent in the following, is the party to whom the extracted information is provided. In addition to the recognized and extracted information from the voice recognition process, the agent may also beprovided with additional information, for example, about the caller, his/her field of activity, etc., so that the agent receives, in an especially advantageous manner, more information even before the call ends than was in fact exchanged during the call. This also allows the-agent to address other subject areas that were not mentioned by the caller, thus giving the caller in an especially advantageous manner the feeling that the call center agent personally knows the caller and his/her field of activity. Proceeding in this way also allows providing the caller with a more intensive and/or effective consultation in an advantageous manner.
For the simple operation by a party, the appropriate output modules for the extracted information and/or the symbols for the control and/or steering of the voice recognition could be integrated into a total surface and/or in a total program of acomputer program. In this way, a call center agent only needs to operate a central application and/or a central program, which also increases the efficiency of the total system.
In another advantageous manner, embodiments of the invention may be used for training call center agents. For example, the agent could be trained in call strategy specifically on the basis of the information stored about a caller in a databaseand/or expert system. An objective could be, for example, that on the one hand, the call center agent learns how to conduct a successful sales talk with a caller and on the other hand, that the agent supplies to the total system or stores in the totalsystem important data about the caller--information that had either already been stored or is obtained during the call--so that a call center agent can also be trained in speed during the course of a call.
In an especially advantageous manner, the voice recognition system may be trained to the voice of a party. In the case of a call center, this would be the call center agent, who interacts with the voice recognition system practically at everycall. Thus, at least the voice data of one of the parties, i.e., the agent, may be recognized and/or analyzed at an optimized recognition rate. The recognition rate of the voice recognition system can be furthermore increased in an advantageous mannerin that one party and/or the call center agent repeats particular words that are important to the other party and/or the agent. Thus, the voice recognition system can then properly recognize and/or analyze these words said by the party to whom the voicerecognition system is trained with a high recognition rate.
There are various possibilities to configure and develop embodiments of the present invention in an advantageous manner. Reference to that effect is made on the one hand to what is claimed and on the other hand to the following explanation ofexemplary embodiments of the invention by reference to the accompanying drawings. Embodiments of the invention, however, are not limited to these examples.
FIG. 1 shows schematically a first party 1 and a second party 2, with both parties 1, 2 being involved in a call, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The phone connection between parties 1, 2 is indicated with the reference symbol3. A connection 4 forwards voice data of the call to a voice recognition system 5.
In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, at least a subset of the voice data is recognized and extracted. The result of the voice recognition is provided to the party 2 through a connection 6. The connection 6 can also be a visualconnection to a monitor, for example.
FIG. 2 shows a configuration, in accordance with another embodiment of the invention, where a party 1 is involved or was involved in a call with an automated attendant system 7 through a phone connection 3, and the automated attendant system 7forwarded the call to a second party 2. The automated attendant system 7 may be implemented as an automatic interactive voice response system. A voice recognition system 5, which provides voice recognition as well as the storing of voice data and theextraction of information from the voice data, is also provided in or with the automated attendant system 7. By way of example, automated attendant system 7 may comprise a computer or workstation.
The voice recognition system 5 may be comprised of a plurality of computers, which is shown schematically in the example of FIG. 3. Specifically, it is a computer network system on which the voice recognition is executed in parallel. The voicedata are forwarded through a connection 4 to the voice recognition system 5. The voice data are distributed over the network by an input/output server 8. In this way, the voice data are supplied through a connection 9 to a data memory 10. Furthermore,the voice data are supplied through connection 11 to a base form server 12 and through connection 13 to a plurality of recognition servers 14 (by way of example, three servers 14 are illustrated in FIG. 3). The base form server 12 provides the requiredphonetic pronunciation transcriptions. A voice data exchange between the base form server 12 and the three recognition servers 14 is also provided through the connection 15.
The voice recognition on the recognition servers 14 may be executed in parallel, e.g., one of the three recognition servers 14 executes a dictation recognition, the other recognition server 14 executes a grammar recognition and the thirdrecognition server 14 executes a keyword spotting recognition. Accordingly, the three different voice recognition methods are employed quasi in parallel; because the various voice recognition methods require slightly different computing times, there isno synchronous paralleling in the strict sense.
If the voice recognition is executed repeatedly, the original voice data of the call, which were stored in the data memory 10, are requested by the input/output server 8 and again distributed to the base form server 12 and the recognition servers14.
In an advantageous manner, the voice recognition system 5 as well as the voice recognition process may be linked to a database system 16 through the connections 17, 18. Through such link(s), additional information is extracted. The informationabout the party 1, which was stored in and is recalled from the database system 16, is used to support the voice recognition process. For this purpose, the recognition server 14 on which the dictation recognition is running is provided with a vocabularythat is stored in the database system 16 and was tied to the party 1 in the scope of a previous call.
FIG. 4 shows schematically that party 2 may be provided with the information of the voice recognition system 5, including the information of the database system, in the form of a graphical and orthographical representation on a monitor 19 of acomputer 20. The representation of the information may be effected during the call.
Party 2 can also interact in the voice recognition process through the computer 20 to control the voice recognition process such that an optimal voice recognition result can be obtained. The graphical as well as the orthographical representationof the extracted voice information as well as the control of the voice recognition process is executed with a user interface that is available to party 2 on the computer 20 including monitor 19. In this way, party 2, who is working for example as anagent in a call center, can provide the party 1 with an optimum consultation.
Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the embodiments of the invention disclosed herein. In addition, the invention is not limited to theparticulars of the embodiments disclosed herein. For example, the individual features of the disclosed embodiments may be combined or added to the features of other embodiments. In addition, the steps of the disclosed methods may be combined ormodified without departing from the spirit of the invention claimed herein.
Accordingly, it is intended that the specification and embodiments disclosed herein be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the embodiments of the invention being indicated by the following claims.
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Association between ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 polymorphisms and breast Cancer in Jordan: a case-control study
Abstract
Background
Breast cancer risk, development, and treatment are influenced by genetic variation in certain genes, namely those involved in cell proliferation, tumor suppression, and drug metabolism. In turn, the relevance of the aforementioned genetic variation to cancer depends on the ethnic group in question, highlighting the need for population-specific association studies. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to investigate the association between certain ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 single nucleotide polymorphisms and breast cancer.
Methods
Blood samples were collected from 437 Jordanian-Arab breast cancer patients and healthy volunteers and subject to genotyping using the Sequenom MassARRAY® system (iPLEX GOLD).
Results
Our findings show a significant association between breast cancer and the allelic (P = 0.02486879) and genotypic (P = 0.04793066) frequencies of the ESR1 polymorphism rs3798577, a result which was confirmed in different genetic models. No other investigated polymorphism showed a significant association with breast cancer itself in Jordanian Arabs, but the Rare Hz (GG) vs Het (AG) genetic model revealed an association of the disease with the ESR1 polymorphism rs3798577. However, several associations were found between certain polymorphisms and breast cancer’s prognostic factors.
Conclusion
This study suggests that certain polymorphisms may increase the risk of breast cancer in the Jordanian-Arab population. Future research and clinical translation could incorporate the current results in preventative breast cancer approaches tailored for Jordanian-Arab patients.
Peer Review reports
Background
Breast cancer (BC) is a complex disease that arises due to a combination of environmental and genetic factors [1]. Current approaches to understanding BC etiology focus on the identification of molecular markers that could aid in the prediction and prognosis of the disease [2, 3]. Mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have been well-established as risk factors for BC development, and they are responsible for approximately 90% of the disease’s genetic component [4, 5]. Moreover, certain genetic polymorphisms have been found to modulate the effects of BC chemotherapy, including the selective estrogen receptor modulator tamoxifen, which is prescribed for several BC types. Consequently, polymorphisms in genes implicated in BC pathogenesis, such as those involved in tamoxifen pharmacogenetics, such as the UGT1A4 and UGT2B7 genes, are frequent targets of BC research [6, 7].
Excessive endogenous and exogenous estrogen may cause pathological changes in many cancers cell line [8]. estrogen is a key regulator for mammary gland growth and differentiation it is also important in breast carcinoma development and progression [9]. The estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) and estrogen receptor 2 (ESR2) genes encode for estrogen receptors alpha (ER-α) and beta (ER-β), respectively, which are activated by estrogen and interact with one another in a dimeric manner [10]. In terms of function, however, ER-α and ER-β appear to have antagonistic functions in breast tissue: ER-α stimulates cell proliferation while ER-β possesses anti-proliferative and tumor-suppressive activity [10, 11]. Thus, genetic variants in genes that encode estrogen receptors such as ESR on chromosome 6, could expose a potential risk for breast cancer. Several studies reported that about 55% of ER-positive metastatic BC patients were screened with ESR1 mutations [12,13,14,15].
The HER2 gene is a Receptor-type tyrosine kinases (RTK) which is a member of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family that encodes a 185-kDa transmembrane glycoprotein on chromosome 17 [16]. RTK are polymorphic genes that play important role in the regulation of cellular processes [17]. In addition, HER2 gene involves in human cancers including ovarian [18], bladder [19], lung [20] and stomach [21] cacinomas. In particular, HER2 overexpressed approximately in 30% of BC cases [16]. It also have been reported that overexpression of HER2 in BC substantially decrease overall survival rates and the metastatic of BC [22, 23].
Lastly, the UDP glucuronosyltransferase 1A4 (UGT1A4) and UDP glucuronosyltransferase 2B7 (UGT2B7) genes are involved in the elimination of xenobiotics such as tamoxifen, the latter of which loses its anti-estrogenic effects after being glucuronidated by UGT1A4 and UGT2B7 [24].
In fact, ESR1 polymorphisms have been found to be associated with BC susceptibility, although conflicting findings have been presented on whether such polymorphisms increase or decrease the risk of the disease [11]. Similar inconsistent reports have been found for the association between ESR2 polymorphisms and BC risk [12, 25]. However, due to the carcinogenic effects of HER2 amplification or overexpression, polymorphisms in the HER2 gene have been definitively linked with modulated BC risk [26, 27]. Likewise, polymorphisms in the UGT1A4 and UGT2B7 genes that lead to their overexpression could lead to rapid tamoxifen metabolism and lower therapeutic effect [28]. Due to the influence of interethnic genetic variation, it would not be accurate to simply extrapolate previously reported results in one population onto another, especially since cancer-related polymorphisms have been reported to have different roles in BC susceptibility and development in different populations [29]. Consequently, the aim of this study is to investigate the association of certain ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with BC susceptibility in the Jordanian-Arab population.
Methods
Study subjects and design
Jordanian-Arab BC patients (n = 218) and healthy volunteers with patient-matched characteristics (n = 219) were enlisted from the Jordanian Royal Medical Services (JRMS) hospital. Participation in the current study entailed the withdrawal of 5 ml of blood from each subject as well as the collection of clinical, demographic, and pathologic data from patient medical records. Written informed consent was obtained from all study subjects, and ethical approval to carry out this study was obtained from Jordan University of Science and Technology’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) with an ethical approval number 14/78/2014.
DNA extraction and genotyping
Genomic DNA was extracted from each blood sample using the Wizard® Genomic DNA Purification Kit (Promega Corporation, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The quality and quantity of the purified DNA was ascertained via agarose gel electrophoresis and the Nano-Drop ND-1000 UV-Vis Spectrophotometer (BioDrop, UK), respectively. DNA samples were then diluted with nuclease-free water in order to achieve a final concentration of 20 ng/μl and a final volume ranging between 50 and 500 μl. Afterwards, samples were shipped on ice to Melbourne node of the Australian Genome Research Facility (AGRF) for custom genotyping on the Sequenom MassARRAY® system (iPLEX GOLD) (Sequenom, USA).
Data analysis
Both the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1) (http://www.oege.org/software/hwe-mr-calc.html) and the χ2 test were employed to assess the genotypic and allelic frequencies [30]. The genetic association, different genetic models and phenotype-genotype analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 25.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL). For the present study, statistical significance was set at p-value < 0.05.
Correction for multiple testing
According to Li and Ji (2005) a method was used to estimate the effective number of SNPs (Nem) that employs a modification of an earlier approach by Nyholt (2004) [31, 32]. Modified Bonferroni procedure was applied to determine a target alpha level (0.05/ Nem) that would maintain an overall significance level of 0.05 or less.
Results
Candidate SNPs and their minor allelic frequencies
Table 1 lists the ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs investigated by the current study, in addition to the minor alleles of the variants and their frequencies. Genetic variants were selected based on their clinical and pathological significant in addition they were chosen from published polymorphisms associated with BC.
Table 1 Minor allele frequencies of gene polymorphisms in breast cancer patients and healthy controls
Association between BC and ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs
Table 2 summarizes the findings of the present study with regard to genetic association with BC. A correlation was found between BC and the allelic (P = 0.02) and genotypic (P = 0.04) frequencies of the ESR1 polymorphism rs3798577. Regarding this, the distribution of the variant allele of the aforementioned SNP (C) within cases were slightly higher than it among control 48 and 41% respectively. Suggesting that the C allele of ESR1 gene variant ‘rs3798577’ may be considered as BC risk factor.
Table 2 Association of the investigated ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs and breast cancer (BC)
Fig. 1 illustrates the scatter pattern of genotypic distribution for the rs3798577 polymorphism. However, the other investigated ESR1 and ESR2 SNPs did not show any significant relationship with BC. Incorporating different genetic models into the association analysis revealed a significant association between BC and the ESR1 polymorphism rs9340799 for the Rare Hz (GG) vs Het (AG) genetic model (χ2 = 4.29). Moreover, a correlation was found between BC and the ESR1 polymorphism rs3798577 for both the Het (CT) vs Common Hz (TT) (χ2 = 4.88) and the Rare Hz (CC) vs Common Hz (TT) (χ2 = 4.16) genetic models (Table 3). On the other hand, no significant association was found between the investigated HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 polymorphisms and BC in the Jordanian-Arab population sample (Tables 2 and 3).
Fig. 1
figure 1
Scatter plot representing Sequenom data for the rs3798577 SNP of the ESR1 gene. Each dot refers to a single sample, and each color indicates a different genotype
Table 3 Genetic association analysis for the ESR1, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs using different genetic models
Association of the Clinical and Pathological Factors of BC with ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs
In the present study, a group of known clinical and pathological BC factors were investigated for their association with the ESR1 and ESR2 SNPs (Table 4). The ESR1 SNPs rs3798577 (CC vs CT vs TT) and rs9340799 (AA vs AG vs GG) were associated with family history of BC (P = 0.032) and body mass index (P = 0.007), respectively. While the ESR1 SNP rs3020410 (CC vs CA vs AA) was correlated with both estrogen receptor status (P = 0.012) and tumor size (P = 0.032). The ESR2 polymorphism rs1256049 (CC vs CT) exhibited an association with age at BC diagnosis (P = 0.019).
Table 4 Association between different ESR1 and ESR2 SNP genotypes and the Clinico-pathological attributes of breast cancer (BC)
The association between the HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs and the clinical and pathological BC factors was also examined (Table 5). The HER2 rs1058808 (GG vs GC vs CC) SNP was associated with both progesterone receptor status (P = 0.01) and tumor size (P = 0.013). Regarding UGT1A4, its rs12468274 (TT vs CT) and rs2011425 SNPs were correlated with allergy (P = 0.001) and tumor size (P = 0.002). However, no such significant association was found between the investigated UGT2B7 SNPs and the clinical or pathological features of BC.
Table 5 Association between different HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNP genotypes and the Clinico-pathological attributes of breast cancer (BC)
Haplotype analysis
The ESR1, ESR2, and UGT1A4 SNPs were subject to haplotype analysis. Our results revealed two separate blocks: ESR (rs3020410, rs3798577, rs1256049, rs2234693, and rs9340799) and UGT1A4 (rs12468274, rs2011425, and rs6755571). Table 6 shows the frequency ratios for cases and controls as well as the p-values for each block, and no association was deduced between the aforementioned haplotypes and BC risk in the present study.
Table 6 Haplotypic analysis of ESR1, ESR2, and UGT1A4 polymorphisms
Discussion
Studies focusing on breast cancer (BC) genetics are increasingly shedding light on the etiology, progression, and treatment of the disease [33, 34]. However, the presence of genetic differences at the ethnic level mandates that cancer-related polymorphisms reported in one group be similarly investigated for any such association in other groups [35, 36]. This rings true for Arab populations especially, which are neither homogenous in their cancer distribution nor identical in their cancer genetic profiles [37]. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the association of specific ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs with BC in Jordanian-Arabs.
Our findings show that the ESR1 polymorphism rs3798577 was significantly associated with BC and history of BC in the Jordanian-Arab population, and it was similarly found to confer higher BC risk in the Tunisian-Arab population [38]. rs3978577 polymorphism is located in the 3′ UTR of ER-α, and it has been suggested to increased the overall risk of BC [25]. Moreover, it has been revealed that T allele of ESR1 rs3798577 serve as binding site for forkhead box transcription factor (FOXP1). FOXP1 is involved in proliferation, differentiation in addition to malignant transformation. Fox et al. (2004) indicated that FOXP1 might act as coregulator of ESR1 Expression [39]. While C allele may serve as Sex determining region Y-box 5 (SOX5) binding site which is a transcription factor that binds to ESR1 promoter and play role in embryonic development and determination of the cell fate [40].
In contrast, Ghali et al. (2018) found that the ESR1 rs2234693 and the ESR2 rs1256049 SNPs were positively and negatively associated with BC in Tunisian Arabs, respectively, while our results only showed an association between rs1256049 and age at BC diagnosis in Jordanian Arabs [38]. In contrast with our results, the ESR1 rs2234693 SNP was significantly associated with BC in a meta-analysis covering 44 case-control studies, and different levels of association between the ESR2 rs1256049 SNP and BC were reported in non-Arab populations [10, 11, 41]. Lastly, no significant association with BC was found for the ESR1 SNPs rs3020410 and rs9340799 in Jordanian Arabs. However, our results show an association between these SNPs and certain BC prognostic factors: rs9340799 was associated with body mass index while rs3020410 was linked to both estrogen receptor status and tumour size in Jordanian Arabs. In older Caucasian females, the rs9340799 SNP protected against BC, while the C allele of the rs3020410 SNP was associated with increased relapse risk [42, 43].
With regard to the HER2 gene, it has been well-documented that its overexpression or its amplification can negatively affect BC survival, chemotherapy, and remission [44]. In the present study, no significant association was found between the HER2 rs1058808 SNP and BC in Jordanian Arabs, but it was significantly associated with progesterone receptor status and tumor size. Conflictingly, this SNP was significantly associated with HER2 protein expression in Han Chinese BC patients, while another study found no BC association of rs1058808 in the same ethnic group [26, 45]. Moreover, no significant BC association was found for rs1058808 in Mexican and Vietnamese BC patients [46].
In terms of BC pharmacogenetics, the UGT genes play an important role in the metabolism of tamoxifen, a first-therapy for several types of BC [24]. Concerning UGT1A4 and UGT2B7, our results showed no significant association between the investigated SNPs and BC in Jordanian Arabs. However, the UGT1A4 rs12468274 and rs2011425 SNPs were found to be associated with allergy and tumor size, respectively. In Spanish Caucasians, the homozygous mutant form of the rs2011425 SNP was associated with lower concentrations of active tamoxifen metabolites [24].
Conclusions
In conclusion, it can be seen that the influence of certain ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 SNPs on BC in Jordanian Arabs differs from that in other populations. The findings of the present study identified the ESR1 SNP rs3798577 as being significantly associated with BC, which could potentially be taken into consideration in preventative approaches to BC in the Jordanian population. Further characterization of the role of such variants in specific populations will definitely aid in understanding BC etiology, progression, and treatment.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated and/or analysed over the course of the study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Abbreviations
AGRF:
Australian genome research facility
BC:
Breast cancer
χ2 :
Chi squared value
DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic acid
ESR:
Etrogen receptor
HER2:
Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 marker
Het:
Heterozygote
HWE:
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Hz:
Homozygote (Hz)
IRB:
Institutional review board
JRMS:
Jordanian Royal medical services
PR:
Progesterone receptor
SNPs:
Single nucleotide polymorphisms
SPSS:
Statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS)
UGTs:
UDP glucuronosyltransferases
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Jordanian Royal Medical Services (JRMS), Amman, Jordan, for approving this study in the first instance and making the clinical data and samples available for the study.
Funding
This study was funded by the Deanship of Research (RN: 20140204), Jordan University of Science and Technology. The Deanship of Research has no role in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.
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LNA-E designed the method study and supervised the study. LNA-E, DMR and MAA lead the implementation of the method, performed the data analysis and drafted the manuscript. LNA-E, DMR, MAA and RHK helped with the interpretation, and description of the results. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Correspondence to Laith N. AL-Eitan.
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AL-Eitan, L.N., Rababa’h, D.M., Alghamdi, M.A. et al. Association between ESR1, ESR2, HER2, UGT1A4, and UGT2B7 polymorphisms and breast Cancer in Jordan: a case-control study. BMC Cancer 19, 1257 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-019-6490-7
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Keywords
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• UGT1A4
• UGT2B7 |
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EVA4000 single path to disk
Howard_24
Advisor
EVA4000 single path to disk
I have an EVA4000 with windows hosts attached. Some boot from SAN and others are local boot. I have been working on Microsoft ASR process for image restore of the C drives, but in order to do this I need to have a single path to the disk. Is there a way to create a single path to a disk using the EVA? I know I can re-zone the swithes, but I would rather have a way to do it at the EVA LUN presentation. We have an old HSG80 and I was able to do it on their LUN using connections, but I haven't found a way to do it on the EVA.
Thanks,
Howard
3 REPLIES
Stephen Kebbell
Honored Contributor
Re: EVA4000 single path to disk
Hi,
with the EVA I don't think it's possible. It does not have a connection list like the HSG80 does, where you had separate connection names for each port/HBA combination. Zoning is the easiest way to do it. Changing the zoning requires about 1 minute with the command line.
zoneremove "zonename", "EVA_Port"
cfgsave
cfgenable "cfgname"
On the 2nd fabric you would remove both EVA ports from the zone.
This assumes you have Brocade switches (B-Series)
Then use the zoneadd command to add the paths back when you are finished.
Regards,
Stephen
Ivan Ferreira
Honored Contributor
Re: EVA4000 single path to disk
You have to do it via zoning, you cannot present just one path from the EVA.
Por que hacerlo dificil si es posible hacerlo facil? - Why do it the hard way, when you can do it the easy way?
Howard_24
Advisor
Re: EVA4000 single path to disk
Thanks for the replies. Do you know of a way to load a multipath driver during an Windows ASR recovery? I'm trying to get a image that can be restored quickly without having to re-zone.
In chase I forgot to mention I'm using Integrity servers.
Thanks,
Howard |
user175084 user175084 - 1 year ago 62
ASP.NET (C#) Question
display a particular number from dropdownlist
Is there a way in dropdownlist to show the desired number on pageload?
eg.
I have a dropdownlist control
I am using a for loop to populate it
for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++)
{
DropDownList1.Items.Add(i.ToString());
}
Now this displays 1 on page load ... but I want to display 7..
How do I do that?
Answer Source
If you mean that it is the default selected value, you would just need to set a default selected value in the page load, after the list has been populated. Make sure only to do this when it is not a postback or you will overwrite any user selections.
protected void Page_Load(object sender, EventArgs e)
{
if (!IsPostBack)
{
DropDownList1.SelectedValue = "7"
}
} |
May is the month when an effort is made to further spread awareness about arthritis, from diagnosis to the need for more research on the disease. Arthritis impacts the lives of millions of Americans, and the number is expected to climb in the coming decades from more than 50 million today. Arthritis can manifest in different forms and has the potential to impact the quality of life of sufferers, by diminishing movement and robbing them of the capacity to participate in the activities that they enjoy. Arthritis can result in permanent disability if allowed to progress without treatment.
What is Arthritis?
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines arthritis as a general term for conditions that affect the joints or tissues around the joint. Over 100 arthritis conditions exist, and most types feature pain and stiffness in and around joint(s). More women suffer from arthritis than men, but it affects older people. The two most common types of arthritis are rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. According to Mayo Clinic, rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder that damages more than just the lining of the joints; it can affect other parts of the body like the skin, heart, eyes, and lungs, and mostly affects women. Osteoarthritis features “wear and tear” of the entire joint. Some of the other common types of arthritis include gout and fibromyalgia.
Symptoms of Arthritis
Since there are numerous types of arthritis, each has its own symptoms, but pain and stiffness in and around the joint(s) are often reported as common symptoms for the vast majority of arthritis conditions. Other general signs and symptoms of arthritis related to the joints may include, swelling, redness, bumps around the joint, deformity, tenderness, and decreased range of motion.
Cause and Risk Factors For Arthritis
Scientists have not been able to pinpoint the root of all the different types of arthritis. However, gout is a result of an excess of uric acid present in the body, and it’s also possible for certain infections to lead to the development of arthritis.
The risk factors for each arthritis condition are different, but the most common risk factors include:
● Family history: If parents or siblings have an account of arthritis, it increases the risk of developing arthritis.
● Age: Middle age is around the time when arthritis (commonly osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout) typically manifests in most people, but it can emerge earlier as well.
● Sex: Women are seemingly more susceptible to developing arthritis, primarily rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and fibromyalgia, while more men are affected by gout.
● Previous Joint Injury: An old joint injury can cause irregularities in the joint surface and make it more likely to develop arthritis.
Arthritis Treatment
Arthritis is without a cure, but it can be managed. Treatment primarily focuses on improving the symptoms of the condition, like pain relief and minimizing joint damage. Arthritis treatment may require some level of experimentation to find a treatment option that best suited for the patient’s needs.
While arthritis is not a condition that is fully understood, it is a real problem for millions of people. It’s essential to find ways to improve or maintain physical function as an arthritis sufferer to have a decent quality of life. Daily, diligent self-management of arthritis can go a long way in staying healthy and controlling the symptoms of the disease. |
FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY PROCEEDINGS OF THE Society for Experimental biology and Medicine Volume IV i 906- 1 907 EDITED BY THE SECRETARY NEW YORK August i, 1907 1 1 9 t .if _ tffcc. I Press of The New Era Printing Company Lancaster. Pa. PREFACE. With this volume the Society inaugurated a plan of issuing in sections the volumes of its proceedings. The reasons for this de- parture are given on page 175. The front covers of the seven numbers comprising this volume may be bound in the volume, if it is desired to mark off con- veniently the communications of each meeting and to provide sepa- rate tables of contents. The printed matter on the rear covers of the numbers is given in the executive proceedings (page 175) or in the list printed on page 183. The numerals in parenthesis above the titles of the abstracts (pages 1-162) indicate numerical positions in the entire series of communications presented before the Society since its organization in 1903. The numerals in the index at the end of this volume correspond with those in parenthesis above the titles of the ab- stracts. Consequently none of the numerals in the index of this volume duplicates any of the numerals in the indices of the first three volumes. Convenience in reference was sought by the adop- tion of this plan of enumeration. The recapitulation of the names of the authors and of the titles of the communications, presented on page 163, serves as an "author index." Only the numerals in parenthesis above the ab- stracts are given in it. The constitution and by-laws, as reprinted on pages 185-8, include all amendments. New York, August 1, igcj. (iii) CONTENTS. Page. Scientific proceedings (i8th-24th meetings) : Communications of the eighteenth meeting, October 17, 1906 . 1 Communications of the nineteenth meeting, December-19, 1906 21 Communications of the twentieth meeting, February 20, 1907 . 31 Communications of the twenty first meeting, March 20, 1907 . 63 Communications of the twenty second meeting, April 17, 1907 93 Communications of the twenty third meeting, May 22, 1907 . 111 Communications of the twenty fourth meeting, June 22, 1907 . 147 Recapitulation of the names of the authors and of the titles of the communications . . . . . . . . 163 Classified list of contributing laboratories . . . . 173 Executive proceedings (i8th-24th meetings) . . . . 175 List of officers 178 Register of names and addresses of the members . . 179 Classified list of members 183 Revised constitution and by-laws 185 Index of the scientific proceedings 189 (iv) SCIENTIFIC PROCEEDINGS. Abstracts of the Communications. Eighteenth meeting. Cornell University Medical College, New York City. October iy, igo6. President Flexner in the chair. 1 (144) The formation of glycogen from sugars by muscle, with a demonstration of a perfusion apparatus. By R. A. HATCHER and C. G. L. WOLF. [From the Chemical and Pharmacological Laboratories of the Cornell University Medical College, New York City.~\ Contrary to the findings of Kulz, saccharose does not form glycogen in muscle. Glucose is a direct glycogen former in muscle. When the glycogen-free muscles of animals which have been starved and treated with strychnin are used, no glycogen is formed either by glucose or saccharose. A perfusion apparatus was shown which permits the simul- taneous and separate perfusion of the hind limbs of an animal and the arterialization of the blood by the lungs of two animals, each pair of lungs being used for an individual limb. 2 (145) Bile media in typhoid diagnosis. By B. H. BUXTON. [From the Department of Experimental Pathology, Loomis Labora- tory, Cornell University Medical College, New York City.~\ Ten c.c. of blood are drawn from a vein and distributed into three flasks of sterilized ox bile, 20 c.c. of bile in each flask. Of twenty seven cases of suspected typhoid examined in the (O Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. course of two months, seven were reported negative and twenty positive. Of the seven negative cases, six proved to be certainlv not typhoid, and one was very doubtful. Excluding the doubtful case, there is a record of 100 per cent, in cases ranging from the fifth to the nineteenth day. By means of litmus-lactose-agar plates, reports can be made in 24 hours with a fair degree of certainty. After incubating the bile-blood over night, streaks are drawn over the plates, and in 5 or 6 hours a growth may be visible. If the growth prove to be a bacillus which reacts to a microscopical Widal test the case is reported positive. 3 (146) The inconstant action of muscles. By WARREN P. LOMBARD and F. M. ABBOTT. [From the Physiological Laboratory of the University of Michigan^ The movements of the hind leg of the frog which are gener- ally ascribed to finely adjusted nervous coordination, are in fact largely the result of the mechanical conditions under which the muscles act. These conditions differ with each new position of the bones entering into the joints of the limb, and consequently alter the effects of the contractions of muscles as the positions of the bones change during the course of any given movement. Thus a muscle which in one position of a bone may act as a flexor, in another position may act as an extensor, and a muscle which in one position of a bone may carry it dorsally, in another position may carry it ventrally. Manifestly it is absurd to try to class muscles as flexors and extensors, for example, or to try to name them according to the movement which they are supposed to produce. Nor can one, without qualification, speak of certain muscles as antagonists, when under slightly modified conditions of action they act as synergists. Moreover, it is evident that we can form no estimate of the part played by the central nervous system in coordinated movements of locomotion, for example, until we have ascertained in how far the coordination observed is due to the mechanical conditions under which the muscles are acting. A study of central coordination must, in short, be postponed until Scientific Proceedings. 3 the effects of peripheral coordination based on joint and muscle mechanics has been ascertained. These statements are the result of two years of careful study of the effect of mechanical conditions on the action of the separate muscles of the hind leg of the frog, when these muscles have been electrically excited to action, in different positions of the bones. 4 (147) The senses and intelligence of the Chinese dancing mouse. By ROBERT M, YERKES. [From the Psychological Laboratory of Harvard University^ For a few days during the first month of post-natal life the dancing mice which I have studied respond definitely to sounds, but neither direct nor indirect methods of testing auditory sensi- tiveness furnish any evidence of it in the adult. Brightness vision is fairly acute ; color vision is poorly devel- oped. I have some evidence of the discrimination of red and blue, and of red and green, but no evidence that blue and green can be distinguished. In visual discrimination the mice apparently depend upon brightness differences. The behavior of the dancing mouse is readily modifiable. Choice, by exclusion, of one of two objects which differ in bright- ness, with electrical stimulation in the case of a wrong choice, indi- cates that from 40 to 100 repetitions of an experience is necessary for the formation of a perfect habit. Such a modification of behavior lasts for from two to five weeks. Modifications of behavior occur more rapidly in the male than in the female. Individual differences in plasticity and in the per- manency of modification are marked. There is little evidence of any form of imitative tendency in behavior. 5 (148) On the motor activities of the alimentary canal after splanchnic and vagus section. By W. B. CANNON. [From the Laboratory of Physiology in the Harvard Medical School ^\ In this investigation one series of animals was studied with only 4 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. splanchnic nerves cut, and another series with only vagus nerves cut, and a third series with an entire severance of vagi and splanch- nics. The animals used were cats. After the observations the movements of the various parts of the alimentary canal were studied by means of the shadows cast on a fluoroscope when food mixed with bismuth subnitrate had been fed and the animals exposed to the X-rays. Movements of the esophagus. Splanchnic section resulted in no deviation from the normal. Bilateral vagus section resulted in the well-known paralysis of the thoracic esophagus. Swallowed food accumulated in the esophagus, and, during the first few days after operation, food was frequently regurgitated. The regurgitation, however, did not persist ; there was still a hindrance to an easy passage through the esophagus, but swallowed food reached the stomach. In one case, nineteen days after the second vagus nerve had been cut, a bolus of semi-fluid material was seen moving slowly and steadily along the lower esophagus into the stomach. Peri- stalsis alone could have done this. A distinction must be drawn between the immediate paralyzing effect on the esophagus of cut- ting the vagi, and the later partial or almost complete recovery of efficiency by a local mechanism in the lower esophageal wall. Movements of the stomach. Splanchnic section caused no alteration from the normal movements. The immediate effect of vagus section was tardiness in the starting of gastric peristalsis after food was introduced into the stomach. There was sometimes a delay of three or four hours, and the waves, when started, were extraordinarily shallow. As time elapsed these abnormalities largely disappeared ; more and more the waves started early and showed their normal vigor. Again a distinction must be drawn between the first and the later effects of vagus section. When all the extrinsic nerves were cut the gastric waves passed at the usual rhythm, but were unlike those seen when the vagi alone were cut in being, from the first, deep and powerful contrac- tions. After death in these cases the stomach was usually found strongly contracted. Passage of carbohydrate and protein food from the stomach. After total suppression of impulses through the splanchnics both carbohydrate and protein foods are discharged through the pylorus Scientific Proceedings. 5 at practically the normal rate. In the absence of impulses through the vagi and in the presence of impulses through the splanchnics the discharge of both carbohydrate and protein is notably retarded. But this retardation, especially when protein is fed, is much more marked soon after the operation than it is later. Again a distinc- tion must be drawn between the immediate depressing effect of vagus section and the later considerable recovery of normal func- tioning. Although the passage of both carbohydrate and protein from the stomach remains slower after vagus section, the charac- teristic treatment of the two food-stuffs persists the carbohy- drate passes out much more rapidly than the protein food. When all extrinsic nerves have been cut there is, as in the cases of vagus section alone, a difference between the immediate defect and the later partial recovery of normal function. After recovery, the carbohydrate passes the pylorus at about the same rate as when vagi alone are cut, but the protein discharge is more nearly normal when all nerves are cut than when vagi alone are severed. After all splanchnic and vagus impulses are removed a character- istic difference between the outgo of carbohydrate and the outgo of protein food from the stomach is still maintained. Passage of food through the small intestine. After splanchnic section the rate of transit from pylorus to ileocolic sphincter, when protein was fed, was much accelerated, and after vagus section it was much slower than normal. The rate was slower also when all nerves were cut. The variation from the normal was in all cases less with carbohydrate food than with protein. Rhythmic segmentation of the food in the small intestine was observed in every condition of nerve section. The persistence of characteristically different rates of discharge of protein and of carbohydrate food through the pylorus, after splanchnic section, after vagus section, and after severing both sets of nerves in the same animal, definitely proves that the control of this differential discharge is local and not mediated through the central nervous system. 6 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 6 (149) Experimental and clinical observations upon direct transfusion of blood. By G. w. Chile. \From the Laboratory of Surgical Physiology, Western Reserve University Medical College^ By means of end to end anastomosis by suture, blood was transfused in 74 dogs. Blood was transfused, retransfused and reversely transfused over a period of a month in the same dogs. There were no aglutins or hemolysins produced, no hemoglobi- nuria, and no nephritis. Blood was found physiologically inter- changeable. Every degree of hemorrhage, even to cessation of the arterial stream was successfully treated. In six clinical cases of hemorrhage treated by transfusion of blood the results were the same as in the laboratory. The hemor- rhage factor was eliminated. 7 (150) On the normal peristaltic movements of the ureter. By D. R. LUCAS (by invitation). \From the Laboratory of Biological Chemistry of Columbia Uni- versity, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and from the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ Our present knowledge of the peristalsis of the ureter is based essentially upon the observations of Engelmann described by him about 35 years ago. He studied the peristaltic movements by simple inspection of the ureter in dogs, cats and rabbits. Accord- ing to Engelmann, the contractions of the ureter in rabbits occur at intervals of 10 to 20 seconds. There were practically no other studies of the subject until a few years ago when Fagge investigated the effect of stimulation of the hypogastric nerves upon the ureter and obtained graphic records of the peristaltic movements. He makes the surprising statement that the ureter in many cases was found to be motionless or to present slight contractions or groups of contractions recurring every 30 to 60 seconds. Scientific Proceedings. 7 For the last two years I have been engaged in experimental studies of the ureter, which were carried out in the laboratory of biological chemistry at the College of Physicians and Surgeons. Some of the results of that work I had the honor to present at a meeting of this Society in April, 1905. 1 During the past summer I have studied the course of the normal peristalsis of the ureter (of the dog) at the Rockefeller Institute, under the direction of Dr. S. J. Meltzer. The results that I wish to report here very briefly are as follows : In dogs narcotized with morphin the peristaltic contractions of the middle part of the ureter occur at intervals varying between 6 and 15 seconds. The curves representing these contractions are of variable but generally of fairly good size. The duration of such a contraction may vary from 5 to 1 5 seconds. The variations of the size and duration of these peristaltic contractions depend upon the size of the animal, the amount of secretion of urine, and many other conditions which I shall not attempt to discuss here. But for the same animal and under the same conditions the char- acters of the peristaltic contractions remain in general the same for nearly the entire length of the experiment, which sometimes con- tinued about 5 or 6 hours. These peristaltic contractions are apparently those which Engelmann and other writers had under observation. I found however, that the renal pelvis as well as the uppermost part of the ureter exhibits peristaltic contractions of another kind ; they are small, of short duration and occur as frequently as every 2 or 3 seconds. In some animals, in which the contractions from the middle part of the ureter presented fairly large curves, it frequently hap- pened that these curves were superimposed by finer undulations. From the lower end of the ureter only a few tracings were obtained. Judging from this restricted experience it would seem that in the lower end also the small and more frequent contractions predominate. Anesthetics, e. g. y chloroform or ether, exercise pronounced effects upon the peristaltic movements of the ureter. The small 1 Proceedings of this Society ; 1 904^05, ii, p. 61. 8 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. and frequent contractions of the ureter offer a greater resistance to the effects of the anesthetic. It sometimes happened that after the administration of an anesthetic the large contractions ot the middle part of the ureter disappeared while the superimposed undulations persisted. The same sometimes occurred after pro- longed experimentation. The small and frequent undulations are apparently more resistant to fatigue, also, than the larger con- tractions. 8 (151) Gastric peristalsis under normal and certain experimental conditions. By JOHN AXJEB. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ The published observations upon gastric peristalsis in rabbits all seem to show that this organ, under so-called normal condi- tions, is practically inert. By means of the method to be described, it will be shown that the organ mentioned, under more truly normal conditions, shows active movements. The fault lay with the method ; the profound inhibitory effect which opening of the peritoneal cavity exercises upon some of the abdominal viscera was not considered. But operation is by no means necessary in order to study gastric motility in the rabbit. If a well-fed rabbit is stretched out on its back and the hair of the epigastrium clipped, any observer may see active gastric peristalsis under a closer approximation to physiological conditions than the saline bath affords. Mere inspection of the abdomen now shows that the stomach is far from inert. A short time after preparing the animal, peristaltic waves are seen coursing over the stomach from left to right, in- creasing in strength as the pyloric third is approached. These waves are easily registered by placing a tambour over the stomach region to be studied and connecting it with a writing tambour or manometer. The writing tambour registers not only the change in volume of the stomach part it overlies, but also the respiration of the animal ; in many cases, with delicate adjustment of the writing pen, the heart beats are also marked. Scientific Proceedings. 9 That gastric peristalsis may thus be observed under almost normal conditions is not known, so far as I am aware. Some of the results obtained by this method are as follows : 1. As a rule the stomach shows no sign of motion for a little while after the animal is stretched out. 2. After a few minutes a shallow constriction appears near the fundus and travels to the right over the stomach, becoming deeper as it progresses in that direction. The wave causes marked bulg- ing of the pyloric third after peristalsis is well established. 3. Ether given by inhalation through the nose causes usually an immediate stoppage of gastric motion for a varying length of time. After that, peristalsis is reestablished and continues even though the ether be pushed so that the corneal reflex becomes sluggish. Ether given through the trachea by means of a cannula has no inhibitory effect upon gastric peristalsis. 4. Curare injected intravenously does not abolish gastric peris- talsis so long as artificial respiration is maintained. Stoppage of respiration causes cessation of the stomach movements. After re- suming ventilation of the lungs a number of minutes elapse before gastric peristalsis again appears. 5. Section of both vagi in the neck causes stoppage of gastric peristalsis at once ; tracings taken after thirty minutes, or after two, four or twenty hours show no detectable movements of the stomach. 6. The stomach of a rabbit that has fasted for twenty-four hours shows as a rule a marked diminution of the waves in strength and frequency, or none at all. Feeding reestablishes peristaltic move- ments. 7. Opening the abdominal cavity causes cessation of the stomach movements for an indefinite period. 8. A moderate dose of morphin injected subcutaneously abol- ishes gastric motility for many minutes. io Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 9 (152) Reflex inhibition of the cardia in rabbits by stimulation of the central end of the vagus. By S. J. MELTZER and JOHN AUER. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ At the last meeting of this Society 1 we reported that by stimula- tion of the central end of the vagus a tetanic contraction of the entire esophagus can be produced in dogs and cats but not in rabbits. We wish to report now that in continuation of these studies we found that stimulation of the central end of the vagus causes a dis- tinct inhibition of the cardia in rabbits. The cardia of the rabbit is normally contracted in a moderate degree. Furthermore at each deglutition the peristaltic movements of the esophagus terminate in a characteristic contraction of the cardia it sinks into the stomach. Finally after a stimulation of the peripheral end of the vagus the cardia contracts in the same characteristic way. We found that these three states of contraction can be definitely inhibited by a stimulation of the central end of the vagus. In the first place the cardia relaxes bulges up during such stimulation. In the second place if deglutition occurs the cardia never contracts so long as the central end of the vagus is being stimulated. Finally the in- terruption of the stimulation of the peripheral end of the vagus does not bring on a contraction of the cardia if during this time a stimulation of the central end is going on. 10 (153) Continuous anesthesia by subcutaneous injection of mag- nesium sulphate in nephrectomized animals. By D. R. LUCAS and S. J. MELTZER. [Front the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ In the paper dealing with the anesthesia produced in animals by subcutaneous injection of magnesium salts Meltzer and Auer stated that animals which urinated frequently had the better chance for recovery, and that urination probably carries off some of the 1 Proceedings of this Society, 1905-06, iii, p. 74. Scientific Proceedings. i i salt and prevents its fatal accumulation in the blood. On the basis of this assumption a series of experiments were carried out in which the anesthetic effects of subcutaneous injections of mag- nesium sulphate were studied in nephrectomized rabbits. The re- sults briefly stated were as follows : A dose of 0.8 gram of the salt per kilo of rabbit is sufficient to put the animal within a short time into deep anesthesia. This is less than half the dose that is required to anesthetize a normal rabbit. Furthermore, the nephrectomized rabbits thus anesthetized remained in a more or less comatose, paralyzed state until death, which did not occur earlier than in the control nephrectomized animal ; in other words the animals remained in a state of anes- thesia lasting sometimes two days and longer. Frequently the animals recovered slightly some hours after the injection, to sink soon again, however, into a deep stupor which lasted until death. The described effect was the same whether the above mentioned quantity of salt was given in one dose or was administered in fractions. These facts demonstrate that elimination of the injected magne- sium salt occurs mainly through the kidneys and that the elimination begins pretty soon after the injection. Hence when the kidneys are absent and practically no elimination takes place a smaller dose is sufficient to bring on the anesthesia, and it makes no difference whether the quantity is given at once or in small doses at varying intervals. Furthermore, the anesthesia is long lasting and con- tinuous, as the salt cannot leave the body. These results are especially interesting as they are in sharp contrast to the behavior of strychnin in nephrectomized animals. According to the experiments of Salant and Meltzer the toxic and the fatal doses of strychnin are the same for nephrectomized rabbits as for normal ones. Furthermore, when strychnin is given in subminimum doses nephrectomized animals can stand as much as three times the lethal dose. Finally the animal either dies from the effects of strychnin or recovers completely ; a con- tinuous long lasting convulsive state never occurs after any dose of strychnin in nephrectomized animals. 12 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. ii (154) Remarks on and exhibition of specimens of a metastasising sarcoma of the rat. By SIMON FLEXNER and J. W. JOBLING. \From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ The specimens which the authors exhibited consisted of a mixed cell sarcoma of the seminal vesicle of a white rat which has been transplanted successfully into a series of white rats. The original tumor, which was found in a rat dying spontaneously in the laboratory was as large as a walnut. Its surface was covered with peritoneum and its consistence was firm. Thus far it has been transplanted to full-grown and young rats both by subcutaneous and by intraperitoneal inoculation. The feature of the tumor which we wish especially to emphasize are the large and numerous metas- tases which have appeared in the inoculated rats. The rat exhibit- ing the original tumor did not show visible metastases. But in the animals which have succumbed after successful inoculation, the metastases have been numerous and of large size. They have appeared in the lungs and kidneys, and in one instance, following intraperitoneal injection, in the ribs and intercostal muscles. As the specimens show, the nodules in the lungs and kidneys may reach large dimensions, taking in a segment of the kidney or an entire lobe of the lungs. The animal in which matastases existed in the intercostal muscles showed large nodules in the lungs ; in this animal a growth from the lung into the pericardium, and from the pericardium into the heart wall, took place. The secondary tumors have the same structure as the primary tumors. They are made up of spindle-shaped and polygonal cells, the latter being often of large size, with lobed or irregular nuclei. Intercellular substance is present, and it is in places fibrillated. The epicardium in the rat in which growth occurred in the myocardium, showed invasion of the serosa by the sarcomatous cells, spreading doubtless from the nodule mentioned and causing sarcomatosis of the serous membrane. This tumor is being further transplanted and studied in its biological relationships. Scientific Proceedings. 13 12 (155) The influence of water on gastric secretion and the chemical affinity of mucus for HC1 in the stomach. By N. B. FOSTER and A. V. S. LAMBERT. [From the Laboratory of Biological Chemistry of Columbia Uni- versity, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons .] Pawlow called attention to water as a stimulant of gastric secre- tion but the degrees and limitations of stimulation produced by- water in food Pawlow has not recorded. Using dogs with Pawlow fistulas, it was observed that with definite amounts of cracker meal as food, the amount and rate of gastric secretion depend to some extent on the amount of water given the dog with his meal, i. e. f when small amounts of water are given, the secretion is slow and scanty. If larger quantities of water are mixed in the food the secretion is more abundant. The degree of acidity of gastric juice depends upon the amount of secretion. When this is considerable it is much more acid than when the secretion is scanty. Pawlow is of the opinion that the degree of acidity of the gastric juice is constant ; this can hardly be correct, however, for the total acidity changes from hour to hour. The proportion of free acid depends upon the amount of mucus secreted, since mucus protein like other proteins combines with HC1. Mucus in the presence of pepsin combines with HC1 to a considerable extent and undergoes digestion, with formation of proteoses. 13 (156) The action of the electric current on toxin and antitoxin. By CYRUS W. FIELD and OSCAR TEAGUE. [From the Research Laboratory of the Department of Health, of New York City.'] In the early days of antitoxin it was thought that it might be possible to obtain antitoxin by passing an electric current through toxin. It was soon realized, however, that the fluid around the anode neutralized toxin by virtue of the acid formed about this 14 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. pole, and not because true antitoxin had been formed. It was not until 1904 that any attempt was made to determine the nature of the electric charge carried by particles of toxin or antitoxin ; this research, done in Von Behring's laboratory by Romer, gave only negative results. Again in 1905, Biltz, Much, and Siebert, work- ing in the same laboratory were unable to decide this question. The failure of these workers was due, we believe, to the disturb- ing influence of the products of electrolysis. To eliminate this factor we substituted for the U-shaped tube used in the above ex- periments three beakers connected by agar-filled tubes, semicircular in shape and about 20 cm. long and 1 cm. in diameter. The middle beaker, into which both agar tubes dipped, contained the toxin or antitoxin to be tested ; the end beakers held the platinum elec- trodes surrounded by distilled water, which was changed every half hour during the passage of the current. At the end of four hours, the agar was removed from the tubes, chopped into fine pieces and allowed to stand for one hour in distilled water. The agar was then removed by filtering through gauze and the toxic or antitoxic value of the fluid determined by tests on guinea pigs. The results of our experiments were decisive. Both toxin and antitoxin particles were found to travel toward the cathode and must therefore carry positive charges. This holds true when the fluid tested is made either acid or alkaline in reaction. Since a true chemical reaction can take place only between ions carrying charges of opposite sign, the fact that toxin and antitoxin are both electropositive would indicate that the combination of these two substances represents not a chemical union, but rather the adsorption of one colloid by another. 14 (157) Nuclein metabolism in a dog with an Eck fistula. By J. E. SWEET and P. A. LEVENE. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.'] A dog with an Eck fistula was maintained in nitrogenous equilibrium on a diet consisting of cracker meal, plasmon and lard, and the following chemical observations were made : 1 . The output of uric acid was compared with that of a normal dog. An increase in the output was noted. Scientific Proceedings. 15 2. The influence of nuclein, nucleic acid and of adenin on the uric acid elimination was studied. It was observed that all these substances caused an increase in the uric acid elimination. 3. The fate of thymin ingested with the food was investigated. The greater part of the ingested thymin was recovered from the urine. 4. An attempt was made to find thymin in the urine of the same dog after feeding on nuclein and on nucleic acid. The en- deavor was not successful. 5. The influence of a diet containing a small proportion of pro- tein but abundant in calories was studied. It was noticed that this diet occasioned an increase in the uric acid output. 6. The influence of fasting on the uric acid output was ob- served. It was noted in the course of the fast that the uric acid elimination was above the normal. 15 (158) On the fractionation of agglutinins and antitoxin. By R. B. GIBSON and K. R. COLLINS. [From the Research Laboratory of the Department of Health, of New York City.'] E. P. Pick in 190 1 associated a number of anti-substances indi- vidually with the one or the other of the two serum globulin frac- tions of the Hofmeister classification. In the pseudoglobulin [3.4 to 4.6 sat. (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 solution 1 ] group of antibodies he placed the diphtheria and tetanus antitoxins and the typhoid agglutinin of horse serum ; the lower or euglobulin fraction (2.9 to 3.4 sat.) com- prises diphtheria and tetanus antitoxin and cholera lysin in the goat, typhoid agglutinin in the goat, rabbit and guinea pig, and finally cholera agglutinin in the horse and goat. It becomes possible, according to Pick, to separate the individual specifically reacting anti-substances by fractioning appropriate mixtures of sera. Such a possibility suggested the application of this method to the further study of certain anti -bodies, especially of the relation of specific and group agglutinins developed by immunization against a single strain of organism. Preliminary experiments in the course of our inves- 1 The degrees of saturation, as here expressed, indicate a concentration equivalent to a content in 10 c.c. of solution of 3.4 c.c. and 4.6 c.c. of saturated ammonium sulphate solution respectively. 1 6 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. tigation indicated the unreliability of Pick's differentiation, and attention was accordingly directed to the actual possibility and practicability of distinguishing between anti-bodies by fractionation of the globulin. The availability of poly-agglutinative sera for the work gave a chance for making numerous and extended obser- vations of the distribution of these anti-bodies in the fractions. It was found repeatedly in experiments with rabbit and goat sera that the agglutinins for the dysentery group of organisms (Flexner Manila and Shiga), typhoid, coli and cholera, were not confined to either the pseudoglobulin or the washed [with 3.4 sat. (NH,) 2 S0 4 solution] euglobulin fractions ; they were either split by the fractioning, the major portion occurring in the pseudoglobulin, or almost the entire amount of the agglutinating substances recovered were in this higher fraction in the original quantitative proportion to one another. With anti-dysentery horse serum, the dysentery (Shiga and Flexner) and coli agglutinins were fairly quantitatively though not qualitatively split between the pseudo- and euglobulin fractions, the latter containing the lesser amount. With an anti- cholera and anti-typhoid horse serum, the pseudoglobulin (two experiments) and also the filtrates from two additional 3.6 and 3.8 saturation precipitations contained the bulk of the agglutinins. In subsequent experiments with sera from other bleedings as well as with the sera used above, the typhoid agglutinin was divided between the two fractions with a somewhat larger proportion occur- ring in the pseudoglobulin. It is apparently difficult to control all the conditions under which experiments of this type are made ; absolutely constant re- sults at times cannot be obtained on successive repetition of the work. The results of exhaustion experiments on the two globulin frac- tions were the same as those that would be obtained in the use of the native serum, and failed to give any reason for believing that we were dealing with a separation of group and specific agglu- tinins through fractioning. Precipitation of anti-diphtheria goat serum showed that about half the antitoxin remained in the pseudoglobulin ; practically none was found in the euglobulin while the 3.4 saturated (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 solution washings contained the balance. The results of the work thus far accomplished have demon- Scientific Proceedings. strated the untrustworthiness of any such differentiation of the anti-bodies as those contained in the euglobulin and those of the pseudoglobulin. No evidence has been adduced from our experi- ments to show that the agglutinins developed in the rabbit, goat and horse can be classed as belonging to either globulin, or that these anti-bodies can be separated from one another by ammo- nium sulphate fractioning of polyagglutinative sera. 16 (159) Further observations of the effects of ions on the activity of enzymes. By WILLIAM N. BERG and WILLIAM J. GlES. \_From the Laboratory of Biological Chemistry of Columbia Uni- versity, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons^ Previous communications from this laboratory 1 have made it evident that peptolysis of fibrin is unequal in rate and extent in acid solutions of equipercentage, equinormal (isohydric), equimolec- ular, or equidissociated (isohydrionic) concentration. The same may be said of tryptolysis of the same protein in a series of bases of analogous concentrations. We have found that the sequence of zymolysis, both in rate and extent in a given group of acid or basic solutions, varies con- siderably with the nature of the protein. This fact makes it im- possible accurately to formulate statements regarding various phases of peptolysis or tryptolysis without specifying the particular protein involved in the process ; it also renders doubtful various general conclusions of common acceptance pertaining to digestion that have been derived, in one research or another, from the use of a single protein. A study of the peptolysis of many proteins 1 Gies : American Journal of Physiology, 1903, viii (Proceedings of the American Physiological Society, 1902, p. xxxiv) ; the same journal, 1903, ix (Proceedings of the same Society, 1903, p. xvii) ; Gies and collaborators : Biochemical Researches, 1903, i, pp. 61-63. Also Berg (communicated by Gies) : Science, 1906, xxiii, p. 335 (Proceedings of the Section of Biological Chemistry of the American Chemical Society in affiliation with Section C (Chemistry) of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, 1905); Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1906, p. 331. 1 8 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. in a given series of acid solutions has therefore been undertaken, and an effort will be made to extend the observations to the tryptolysis of the same proteins in a given series of basic solutions. The speed and extent of both peptolysis and tryptolysis are resultants of conflicting influences. In the case of peptolysis, for example, the hydrogen ions in a given acid solution are always essential and positive factors, whereas the accompanying anions or molecules or both appear, to be, as a rule, non-essential and inhibitory factors. This conclusion is warranted by such results as the following, taken from our records of an experiment in which I gram quantities of fibrin were used in 100 c.c. portions of solution at 40 0 C. : A. Control solu- B. Digestive mixtures, containing equal tions (without amounts of pepsin and HC1( m 20), with pepsin). different proportions of H a S0 4 . Acid solutions : a b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 w/ioHCl (c.c.) 100 50 50 5o 50 5o 50 w/ioH 2 S0 4 (c.c.) 100 10 20 30 40 5o 50 50 40 30 20 10 50 Total volume (c.c.) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 960 994 162 439 430 500 553 582 695 Gram-atoms of H*, per 1,000 liters. 94 116 48 62 73 85 96 107 61 m\\o m\\oo mj$o *'/33 m\2$ w/20 m\2Q That acid molecules are not necessarily inhibitory in peptolysis is shown clearly by the appended results of an experiment similar to the one just referred to, but in which acetic acid was used instead of sulfuric acid. In the mixtures referred to below the dissociation of the acetic acid was slight and negligible : A. Control solu- B. Digestive mixtures, containing equal tions (without amounts of pepsin and HC1 (m/20) with pepsin). different proportions of CH 3 COOH. Acid solutions : ££1234567 w/10 HC1 (c.c.) 100 50 50 50 50 50 50 m\\o CH5COOH (c.c. ) 100 10 20 30 40 50 50 Water (c.c) 50 40 30 20 10 50 Total volume (c.c.) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Weight of residue (mgs. ) 2 961 961 198 194 196 193 187 191 945 Gram-atoms of H\ per 1,000 liters. 94 1.3 48 48 48 48 48 48*0.9 Concentration of CH 3 COOH mjlQ w/ioo w/50 w/33 w/25 w/20 w/20 1 Our data for neutralization precipitates (acidalbumin) and proteoses and peptones are omitted for brevity's sake. They accord with the data for undigested residues. 2 Our data for neutralization precipitates (acidalbumin) and proteoses and peptones are omitted for brevity's sake here also. They are in accord with the data for undi- gested residues. 'Although the II* concentration of an w/20 acetic acid solution is approximately Scientific Proceedings. 19 The results of this and similar experiments with acetic acid throw new light on the well known fact that peptolysis is almost negative in solutions of acetic acid alone. This lack of peptolytic efficiency on the part of acetic acid is apparently due to the low hydrion concentration of acetic acid solutions. The acetic acid molecules and anions, in the proportions above indicated, seem to be practically inert. It is obvious that peptolysis is neither favored nor interfered with materially by moderate amounts of acetic acid, a fact which suggests that the purely chemical phases of the normal gastric digestive process are practically unaffected by vinegar. Secretory conditions, however, are no doubt modified. Experiments in this and other connections will shortly be com- pleted before the detailed publication of our results. 0.9 gram-atom per 1,000 liters, the dissociation of the same proportion of acetic acid in an m\zo hydrochloric acid solutionis reduced to 0.018 gram-atom per 1,000 liters. For this reason the H> concentration of the mixed acids is practically that of the hydro- chloric acid (w/20) in each case. The dissociation of the hydrochloric acid was not materially affected by the acetic acid in the mixtures used. Nineteenth Meeting. ScJiermerhorn Hall, Columbia University. December ip, 1906. President Flexner in the Chair. 17 (160) An experiment on the localization problem in the egg of Cerebratulus. By NAOHIDE YATSU. [From the Zoological Laboratory of Columbia University^ In the egg of Cerebratulus marginaius Zeleny found, in separat- ing at the 8-cell stage the upper animal blastomeres from the lower vegetative ones, that the third cleavage plane cuts off the basis of entoderm from that of ectoderm. I repeated the same experiment on the egg of Cerebratulus lacteus and found that the condition is somewhat different. In this form the third cleavage does not always separate the entodermic stuff from the ectodermic, so that the embryo from the animal-half sometimes invaginates and some- times does not. But in shifting the third cleavage plane to the equator by compressing the egg immediately after the first divi- sion (in doing this, the second cleavage is suppressed until pres- sure is relieved, the third cleavage of the normal egg appearing next to the first) and in separating the animal-half from the vegeta- tive, the former always gave rise to the embryos without gut, anenterons. From this it may be concluded that in the egg of Cerebratulus lacteus, a little before or at the time of the third cleavage, the entodermic basis extends farther above than that of Cerebratulus marginatus. 18 (161) Experiments upon the total metabolism of iron and calcium in man. By H. 0. SHERMAN. [From the Havemeyer Laboratory, Columbia University^ Each of the experiments was of three days duration and the same healthy man served as subject throughout. On a diet of (21) 22 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. crackers and milk, which furnished 0.0057 gram iron and 2.65 grams calcium oxide (Exp. I), there was equilibrium with respect to iron, and a storage of calcium. When the diet consisted of crackers and egg-white with 0.0065 gram iron and o. 14 gram lime (Exp. II), or of crackers alone with 0.0071 gram iron and 0.13 gram lime (Exp. Ill), there were losses of both iron and calcium. These losses occurred through 'the intestine, but were evidently not due to intestinal putrefaction, since the ratio of sulphur in ethereal to that in simple sulphates in the urine was determined in Exp. Ill and found to be as 1 : 25. The results appear to con- firm the suggestion of Von Wendt that a deficiency of calcium in the diet may lead to a loss of iron as well as of calcium from the body. There was a slight tendency toward diarrhea in each of the periods in which loss of iron and calcium occurred. The iron requirement evidently varied greatly, the average daily output for three experiments being 5.5, 8.7 and 12.6 milligrams respectively. The lime requirement was found by further experiments (IV and V) to be about 0.75 gram of calcium oxide per day. The experiments were conducted at Columbia University in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Agriculture and will be described in detail in a bulletin of the Office of Experiment Stations of that department. 19 (162) The cause of the treppe. By FREDERIC S. LEE. \From the Physiological Laboratory of Columbia University, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons.'] The treppe is usually ascribed to increased irritability caused by activity. The cause of the increased irritability has remained obscure. In studying the depressing action on muscle of its fatigue substances the author often observed augmentation of activity instead of depression. A more careful investigation of this phenomenon shows that it may be produced by all of the three recognized fatigue substances namely, carbon dioxide, mono- potassium phosphate, and paralactic acid. When a muscle is irri- gated with an indifferent fluid containing one of these substances in Scientific Proceedings. 23 small quantity, and compared with its mate irrigated only by the indifferent fluid, a fatigue record being made from both, more in- tense contractions frequently occur in the poisoned muscle at the beginning of the experiment, and may last until exhaustion sets in. When a fatigue record is being made from a muscle with the circulation intact, intravenous injection of a fatigue substance causes augmentation of contraction. The author concludes that the treppe is due to the augmenting action of fatigue substances in small quantities the same substances which in larger quantities cause depression or fatigue. An excellent mode of demonstrating the augmenting action of C0 2 in the cat is to record the contractions of the tibialis anticus in the living animal, and while the record is being made, to clamp the trachea. A marked treppe follows. If two corresponding muscles be compared, one with the circu- lation intact, and the other with its arteries ligated, the latter muscle performs more intense contractions and exhibits a more rapidly developing treppe, owing to the accumulation of fatigue substances. The chemical theory of the treppe is able to explain several other known phenomena. The author has experimented on both frogs and cats. The augmenting action of the fatigue substances seems to be observed even when curare is employed. 20 (163) The influence of the red corpuscles upon the viscosity of the blood. By RUSSELL BURTON-OPITZ. \_From the Physiological Laboratory of Columbia University, at the College of Physicians and Stir g eons. ] The method by means of which the following determinations of the viscosity were made has been described in Pfluger's Archiv, Vol. 82, p. 464. Having determined the coefficient for fresh ox serum at 37 0 C. the serum was gradually concentrated by the addition of definite quantities of red blood corpuscles (washed). The viscosity of the M blood" was tested after each addition of corpuscles. 24 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. The following data may serve as examples : Spec. Grav. No. of Red Corpuscles. Viscosity Coefficient. I.O248 2397.7 I.0382 4,000,000 I442.9 I.0467 4,700,000 IOO9.3 S -(- 30 c.c. corp I.0524 5,700,000 851.6 Thus, the increase in the number of red corpuscles caused a corresponding increase in the viscosity. It is also obvious that the red corpuscles constitute the principal factor in determining the viscosity of the blood. 21 (164) A new recording stromuhr, with demonstration. By RUSSELL BURTON-OPITZ. [From the Physiological Laboratory of Columbia U?iiversity, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons."] The cylinder of this stromuhr is placed horizontally and car- ries below its floor a valve, by means of which the inflowing blood can be diverted alternately into the right and left half of the instru- ment. The piston within the cylinder moves back and forth, there- fore, in a horizontal direction and records its movements by means of a pulley arrangement and a writing lever upon the smoked paper of a kymograph. On account of its great sensitiveness, and the possibility of low adjustment, this stromuhr is especially fitted for measuring the blood flow in the veins. The instrument has been used by the author in testing possible vaso-motor reactions in the pulmonary circuit. It was connected with the vein draining the middle lobe of the left lung. The nerves in the vicinity of the ganglion stellatum were stimulated. So far the experiments have given negative results. Scientific Proceedings. 25 22 (165) The influence of gelatin upon the viscosity of the blood. By RUSSELL BURTON-OPITZ. [From the Physiological Laboratory of Cohunbia University, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons. ] Solutions of gelatin (1000 : 50) were introduced intravenously after the normal viscosity of the blood had been determined. It was found that the injections resulted in a very prompt increase in the viscosity. The following data may serve as examples : Specific Gravity. Viscosity. Before Inj. After Inj. Before Inj. After Inj. I.O565 I-0543 836 772 23 (166) The hemolytic effects of organ and tumor extracts. By RICHARD WEIL (by invitation). [From the Huntington Fund for Cancer Research of the General Memorial Hospital, Loomis Laboratory, Cornell University Medical College, New York City.] The object of the present investigation was to determine the causes of, or factors contributing to, the secondary anemias of malignant tumors. The material made use of was supplied by Dr. Beebe, and consisted of sarcomata artificially implanted in dogs. The method was to crush these tumors in a mortar, mix them with ten times their weight of salt solution, and then stir mechanically for several hours. The hemolytic effect of this extract was tested on a 1 per cent, emulsion of the red cells of dogs. Preliminary experiments were made with extracts of kidneys of dogs prepared in the same fashion. It was found that the cause of the variability in the hemolytic effect of organ extracts, which has been noted by previous observers, is the varying admixture of blood. Kid- neys prepared bloodlessly, by perfusion with salt solution, are hemolytic only in very low dilution, and after a long latent interval. Kidneys suffused with blood are as a rule very much more active ; occasionally less so. The effects of blood have been analyzed by the separate addition of serum, emulsions of white cells (from artificial abscesses), and of red cells after washing, to the bloodless 26 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. kidney extract. In each case it was found that hemolysis was in- hibited. The question therefore arises, why are kidneys suffused with blood as a rule more actively hemolytic than the bloodless organs ? If their extracts are centrifuged, and all the solid par- ticles, including the red cells, removed, it is found that the extracts are still deeply stained by hemoglobin. This is due to the de- struction and solution of red cells, which is inseparable from the process of preparing the extract. The next step, therefore, was to determine the effect of adding red cell constituents to the blood- less organ extracts. This was accomplished by adding red cells to distilled water, and then bringing the solution to the strength of normal salt solution. Such a solution adds very markedly to the hemolytic power of the organ extract. Its manner of action seems to resemble that of complement, inasmuch as it is capable of break- ing up the red cells only after a preliminary treatment with the organ extract. Tumors were investigated in the same manner as the kidneys. It was found that the non-necrotic tumors are somewhat more hemolytic than are the kidneys, owing possibly to their blood con- tent. They act, however, in other ways precisely like the latter, their action being diminished by the addition of serum and of white cells, and of being increased by the red cell extract. Necrotic areas of tumors are extremely hemolytic, even up to dilutions of two to four hundred. This hemolytic activity is not affected by the addition of the blood components. An experimental study was made of the action of a necrotic organ, by ligating the vessels and removing the organ after several days. The extract was hemolytic in a dilution of one in 6,000. It acted in other respects like the extract of necrotic tumors. 24 (167) The enzymotic properties of diplococcus intracellularis. By Simon flexner. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.'} The brief vitality of many of the cultures of diplococcus intra- cellularis is a point of differential importance. Many strains, grown on a favorable medium, unless transplanted to a fresh Scientific Proceedings. 27 medium, do not survive beyond two or three days. Cultures three days old show marked degenerations, and the latter increase rapidly with age until, at the end of five or six days, or even earlier, no normal cocci persist. As degeneration progresses, loss of staining power and disintegration ensue, until finally, staining capacity is lost and a formless detritus remains. The changes in the diplococcus are associated with the action of an enzyme which brings about the disintegration. This enzyme does not exhibit the usual properties of a proteolytic ferment : it does not liquify gelatin or coagulated serum. The degree and rapidity of its action varies with its concentration ; at least a heavy suspension of the cocci in salt solution, kept at 37 0 C, undergoes dissolution more rapidly and completely than a weaker suspen- sion. The vitality of the cultures is associated with the degree of autolytic alterations in the suspensions : cocci in the weak sus- pensions survive longer than in the stronger ones. At lower tem- peratures 2°C. disintegration of the cocci either does not take place at all or progresses much more slowly. Under the latter conditions more cocci survive in the strong than in the weak con- centrations, although even here the vitality is a brief one. Potassium cyanide restrains the action of the ferment which tends to disintegrate the diplococci ; after removal of the cyanide, dissolution sets in. Heating the diplococci to 65 0 C. prevents or reduces the dissolving power of the intracellular enzyme. The brief vitality which the diplococcus exhibits, as grown upon the usual media, and in salt suspensions, is associated with a deficiency of calcium in the media. If the diplococcus is sus- pended in Ringer's solution it survives, in concentrated suspen- sions, for 15 days at least, and if it is grown upon serum-glucose- agar to which calcium carbonate has been added, the period of viability is considerably greater than this. The diplococcus sus- pended in Ringer's fluid and killed by heat (6o° C.) or toluol, undergoes autolysis. The enzyme acts upon the dead cocci probably not upon the living germs. Diplococci killed by heat (50 0 to 55 0 C.) undergo autolysis ; but when the cocci are killed by the addition of toluol autolysis is accelerated. A heavy suspension of the diplococci in salt solution, under toluol and kept at 37 0 C, may be disintegrated in four hours. 28 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. The enzyme of the diplococcus acts energetically upon other bacteria, bringing about their dissolution. It acts upon B. typhosus, B. coli communis, B. pyocyaneus, B. anthracis, M. catarrhalis, and to a less degree and more slowly upon Staphylococcus aureus. (25) 168 On the supposed existence of efferent fibers from the diabetic center to the liver. By J. J. R. MACLEOD and 0. E. BRIGGS. [From the Physiological Laboratory, Western Reserve University '.] To explain the causation of those forms of glycosuria which follow stimulation of the central end of sensory nerves and piqure of the medulla, it is commonly believed that there is a diabetic center in the medulla from which efferent impulses are transmitted to the liver causing the glycogen in this organ to become so rapidly converted into dextrose that hyperglycemia and glycosuria follow. Since section of the vagi does not prevent these forms of glycosuria, it is thought that the efferent impulses travel by the upper portion of the spinal cord and the greater splanchnic nerves. That increased production of dextrose by the liver is the imme- diate cause of the glycosuria, there is no doubt, but the evidence that it is by nervous impulses transmitted from the medulla to the liver along the above path that this hyperglycogenesis occurs is very meager. The evidence in favor of such a view is as follows : 1. Puncture of the floor of the fourth ventricle does not cause glycosuria if the splanchnic (greater) nerves, or the upper thoracic spinal nerves, or the spinal cord above the first thoracic nerves be cut (Eckhard, Marc Laffont, etc.). 2. Irritation of the cervical spinal cord, or of the upper thoracic sympathetic ganglia causes glycosuria (Pavy, Schift). Against such a view stands the fact that stimulation of the splanchnic nerves does not cause glycosuria (Cf. Pfliiger). As has been shown by us, and by other workers, the reducing power of the urine of dogs is, within certain limits, no index of the amount of sugar in the blood. Now, very little of the above Scientific Proceedings. 29 evidence is based on observations of the amount of sugar in the blood, this being assumed to be increased whenever the urine strongly reduces. We have accordingly undertaken a reinvesti- gation of the foregoing evidence but have examined the reducing power of the blood instead of that of the urine. Of certain of our results, viz., those relating to the influence of nicotin and of lowered blood pressure on the blood sugar, we have already made preliminary communication. 1, 2 In the present communication are reported the results which we have so far obtained on the changes in the amount of sugar (reducing substance) of the blood resulting from stimulation of the spinal cord at various levels, and from stimulation of the splanchnic nerves. The sugar analyses were performed by the method of Waymouth Reid. 3 The following table gives the averages of the results so far obtained : Nature of Experiment. No. of Exps. Blood Sugar in gm. Per cent. Before Stimu- lating. No. of Analyses Inclu- ded in Averages. Blood Sugar in gm. Per cent. After Stimu- lating. No. of Analyses Inclu- ded in Averages. Stimulation of peripheral end of one splanchnic nerve, the opposite splanch- Stimulation of cut spinal cord below the 6 7 1 2 2 o.i33 (9) 0.163 (8) 0.140 (2) 0.189 (3) 0.140 (2) o-H5 (9) 0.160 (12) 0.236 (2) 0.276 (4) 0.157 (6) Stimulation of lower cervical region of spinal cord. C. With oxygen freely administered by It will be seen that no hyperglycemia is produced by stimula- tion of the splanchnic nerves, or of the spinal cord below the cer- vical region. In the cervical region, on the other hand, stimu- lation produces hyperglycemia except when oxygen is very freely 1 Macleod and Dolley : Proceedings of the Physiological Society, Journal of Physiology, 1905, xxxii, p. lxiii. 2 Macleod and Briggs : Proceedings of the Toronto meeting of the British Medical Association, British Medical Journal, Dec. 22, 1906. 3 Reid: Journal of Physiology, 1896, xx, p. 316. * Hirsch : Ueber Kiinstliche Atmung durch Ventilation der Trachea. Dissertation, Giessen (1905) ; ref., Biophysikalisches Centralblatt, 1905. 30 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. delivered into the trachea. By such administration it has been shown by Hirsch that the blood remains arterial even after the respiratory movements have been inhibited by curare. When the cervical spinal cord is stimulated, and especially when it is cut, the respiratory movements are very considerably interfered with so that a partial asphyxia is produced which may be the cause of the hyperglycemia. The fact that stimulation of the cervical cord causes glycosuria cannot therefore be taken as a proof of the existence of efferent fibers which control the glycogenic function of the liver. Dyspnea may be the cause of the hyperglycemia in these cases. 1 Regarding the other evidence, which is supposed to point to the existence of such fibers, we would point out that in all the ex- periments on which it is based (viz., cutting the splanchnics, or sympathetic chain, or certain nerve roots, or the spinal cord, there must have been induced by the operation, a great fall of blood pressure which, in the cases of dogs with vagal glycosuria, Dolley and the writer have shown usually to cause a marked depression in the reducing power of the urine (loc. cit.). Conclusion. When every precaution is taken to prevent as- phyxia we have been unable, so far, to demonstrate the existence of any efferent fibers whose stimulation causes hyperglycemia. 1 Underhill ( The Journ. of Biol. Chem., 1905, i, p. 113), explains the hyperglyce- mia produced by the administration of certain drugs on the same basis, viz., that they produce dyspnea by an action on the respiratory center. Twentieth meeting. Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. February 20 , igoy. President Flexner in the chair. 26 (169) Experimental studies on nuclear and cell division. By EDWIN G. CONKLIN. [From the Zoological Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania^ During several seasons extensive experiments were made on the segmenting eggs of Crepidula plana. These experiments included a study of the influence on nuclear and cell division of hypertonic and hypotonic sea water, of ether, alcohol, etc., of the lack of oxygen, of the electric current, and of pressure and shak- ing. The following general conclusions may be drawn from this work : 1. Under the same treatment the effects may be extremely varied, owing, probably, to the different stages of cell division acted upon. 2. A dividing cell is much more easily disturbed or rendered abnormal than is a resting one ; the mitotic figure in particular is very easily altered and most of the abnormalities observed arise from this source. 3. The earlier stages of cleavage are much more easily altered than are the later ones. 4. Certain general abnormalities occur after the most varied treatment, e. g., the general results both of concentration and of dilution of sea water are to produce polyasters and to prevent the cleavage of the yolk. 5. On the whole the results of the hypertonic solutions are the same whether they are produced by evaporation of the sea water or by the addition of NaCl, MgCl 2 , or KC1 to sea water ; in short, these salts exert no specific action on cell division. (30 32 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 6. The most general modification of the mitotic figure is the production of polyasters, multipolar spindles, and as a consequence, multiple nuclei. In many cases the cells are filled with asters and irregular mitotic figures, during division, while in the resting stage they are filled with equally numerous resting centrosomes and nuclei. 7. The movements of the chromosomes are in many cases inter- rupted, so that they remain scattered along the spindle, while the cytoplasmic movements are frequently stopped or altered. 8. In some cases the achromatic portion of the nucleus is separated from the chromatic part, and the two may persist side by side during the resting stage of the cell ; in the division stages the achromatic nuclei give rise to asters, the chromatic to chromo- somes and both may divide indefinitely, giving rise to large num- bers of chromatic and achromatic nuclei. 9. The most general modification of the division of the cell- body is the suppression of the cleavage of the yolk ; this occurs in practically all the experiments ; at the same time the cleavage may proceed more or less regularly in the protoplasmic portion of the egg. In normal eggs the first and second cleavages divide the yolk into four equal cells (the macromeres) and, from each of these, three small cells (the micromeres) are budded off. 10. If the yolk remains undivided it gives rise in certain cases to three micromeres, which have the characteristics of those formed from each of the four macromeres of the normal egg. If the yolk has divided once so as to form two macromeres, each of these may give rise to three micromeres, having the characteristics of the three quartet cells of the normal egg. In short, the number of micromeres depends upon the number of macromeres. When there are four of these as in normal eggs, the micromeres are formed in three quartets ; when there are two, they are formed in three pairs ; when there is but one macromere, i. e. t when the yolk remains undivided, the micromeres are formed singly. 11. When eggs are subjected to pressure the third cleavage which normally gives rise to the first group of micromeres, may divide one or more of the macromeres equally, thus giving rise to five, six, seven or eight macromeres. If the pressure is removed from such eggs each macromere gives rise to three micromeres in Scientific Proceedings. 33 a manner approximately normal ; again showing that the number of micromeres which may come from a macromere is constant, whatever the number of macromeres may be. 12. The results stated in the two preceding paragraphs show that the omission or the addition of cleavages does not alter the character or localization of the egg substances and that this locali- zation, when unimpeded, determines the character of the cell division. 13. Isolated blastomeres undergo partial development, each giving rise only to the cells which it would form if still a part of the entire egg, but the general form of the cleavage mass is entire, f. e., there is no open side. 14. A weak electric current destroys spindle fibers and astral rays, or prevents their formation and thus stops mitosis. It also destroys the polarity of the cell, prevents the separation of pro- toplasm and yolk, and may cause nuclei to migrate through the cell from one pole to another. 15. Abnormalities of mitosis may perpetuate themselves in subsequent divisions, even when the cause which first induced them is removed. 27 (170) Heterotransplantation of blood vessels. By ALEXIS CARREL. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.'] It is well known that the tissues of an animal do not grow or grow hardly at all in an animal of another species. Nevertheless, I attempted to transplant to cats, blood vessels resected from dogs, with the aim of ascertaining whether the vessels in spite of the toxic action of the cat's blood on the dog's tissue, could take over the functions of the vessels removed. The method consisted of removing a segment of the abdominal aorta of a cat, and of reestablishing the circulation in the lower part of the aorta by interposing a segment of the jugular or car- otid of a dog and suturing it to the cut ends of the aorta. 34 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Five similar experiments were performed. In three cases, lesions of one or two anastomoses, and thrombosis of the vessel, occurred two days, ten days and thirty-five days after the opera- tion. However, the wall of the transplanted segment remained apparently normal. In the fourth case, the transplanted segment, extirpated and examined six days after the operation, appeared to be normal and perfectly united to the ends of the aorta. On the fifth animal, a laparotomy was performed forty-eight days after the transplantation. It was found that the pulsations were normal in the abdominal aorta and the segment of carotid. The location of the anastomoses was marked by a slight hardening of the arterial wall. No dilatation of the transplanted segment was ob- served. The animal was kept alive and is now, seventy-eight days after the operation, in excellent condition. The pulsations of the femoral arteries remained normal. The experiments show merely that a segment of a dog carotid which had been transplanted in a cat could act as artery for seventy-eight days at least. 28 (171) Transplantation of the kidney with implantation of the renal vessels in the aorta and vena cava. By ALEXIS CARREL. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ The transplantation of the kidney with implantation of the renal vessels in the aorta and vena cava consists of extirpating from an animal a kidney with its vessels, together with a patch of the aorta and vena cava ; also of transplanting the kidney into the abdomen of another animal and suturing the edges of the patches to the edges of suitable openings made in the walls of the aorta and vena cava. By this patching method, the anastomoses are more safely performed than by the other methods of anastomosis. If the patch be large enough, occurrence of gangrene in the trans- planted organ is practically impossible. With Guthrie, I used this method mainly on cats and obtained excellent results from the standpoint of restoration of the circulation. In dogs, on account Scientific Proceedings. 35 of the shape of the abdomen, it is difficult to prevent the occur- rence of congestion of the kidney. This occurs because of com- pression of the renal vein between the aorta and the kidney. It could be prevented by putting the new kidney exactly at the place of the extirpated one. This operation is not dangerous. Of seven animals operated on, six remained in good health. The seventh died of intestinal intussusception four days after the operation. 29 (172) Secondary peristalsis of the esophagus a demonstration on a dog with a permanent esophageal fistula. By S. J. MELTZER. \_From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ The peristalsis of the esophagus with w r hich every one is familiar is that which follows an act of deglutition. About a year ago I re- ported to this society that experiments which I had made on rabbits demonstrated that the esophagus is capable of peristaltic move- ments not initiated by deglutitions. Injections of indifferent solu- tions or of air directly into the esophagus cause there a regular peristaltic movement. This latter form of peristaltic movement, which for the sake of brevity I shall henceforth term secondary peristalsis, differs from the primary peristalsis, the one which follows deglutition, essentially through the nervous mechanism by which it is controlled. All the movements of the complicated act of deglutition are managed by a reflex mechanism, with only one sensory stimulus for its initiation and a series of consecutive motor impulses going to every part of the long path of deglutition ; it is practically a single reflex. The reflex mechanism of the secondary peristalsis, on the other hand, consists of a chain of reflexes ; each part of the esophagus sends up to the center a sensory impulse started by the presence of the bolus in that part and receives in turn a motor impulse. The secondary peristalsis therefore requires the presence of some sort of a bolus within the esophagus and presupposes the integrity of the latter ; whereas the primary peri- stalsis requires neither a bolus nor the integrity of the esophagus; 36 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. even if a large section- of the latter is removed, the peristalsis appears in the lower segment in due time after each deglutition as long as the vagus nerves remain intact. Recently secondary peristalsis was studied in the esophagus of dogs, in which animals it appeared promptly and was easily demonstrable. The bolus consisted mostly of a piece of absorbent cotton attached to the middle of a long thread, one end of which ran through an opening in the floor of the mouth and the other through an opening in the stomach. The animal was of course narcotized but anesthesia interferes greatly with both forms of peristalsis. The observations however were made when the animal recovered from the anesthesia. It was found that the bolus went down to the stomach from any part of the esophagus without being started by a preceding deglutition. The bolus had to be of a certain size ; if too small it was either without effect or the effect set in late and the movement was slow and irregular. When the bolus was kept by force in one place for a long time that place lost the promptness of its irritability. It re- covered this again, however, a few minutes after the removal of the bolus. I shall not enter upon further particulars except to mention the observation made by Dr. Auer and myself that sec- tion of one vagus will remove the secondary peristalsis, while the primary peristalsis is but very little affected. The chief object of the present communication was a demon- stration of both forms of peristalsis in a dog with a permanent fistula in the upper half of the cervical esophagus. I introduced into the fistula an olive-shaped body of hard rubber to which a long thread was attached. The thread ran over a rod and had a paper fan at the opposite end. When the olive-shaped body trav- eled down into the stomach the fan was observed to move upwards. When the olive-shaped body was placed into the lower half of the cervical esophagus it remained in that place without moving downwards. A deglutition, on the other hand, carried it down into the stomach. But when the olive-shaped body was placed into any part of the thoracic esophagus it was promptly carried down into the stomach without the aid of a preceding deglutition. When the olive-shaped body was held back by force for some time, it was not carried down spontaneously a deglutition, how- Scientific Proceedings. 37 ever, carried it down promptly. These facts mean that the thoracic esophagus, which remained normally innervated, manifested sec- ondary and primary peristalsis. Retention of the olive-shaped body in one place for some time fatigued the sensory nerve fibers and thus impaired the mechanism of the secondary peristalsis, but the pri- mary peristalsis which required only intact motor nerves remained unaffected. In the cervical part, however, the innervation of the left side of the esophagus was greatly impaired or perhaps even abolished by the operation and the abnormal adhesions. We see from the last mentioned results, therefore, that the sec- ondary peristalsis is completely abolished, while the primary peris- talsis is practically intact, which is in harmony with the above men- tioned observations of Dr. Auer and myself of the effect of section of one vagus upon the secondary peristalsis of the esophagus. 30 (173) Peristaltic movements of the rabbit's cecum and their inhibi- tion, with demonstration. By S. J. MELTZER and JOHN AUER. \_From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.'] The rabbit's cecum fills nearly one half of the abdominal cavity and is full of food, which has to get into it and leave it again by some moving force. Nevertheless we find in the literature prac- tically no statement on the movements of that organ. There is good reason for it. When the abdominal cavity of a rabbit is opened the cecum as a rule shows no motion. We wish to report that according to our observations, that organ exhibits well marked and quite regular peristaltic movements ; but these can be seen only in the normal animal. When a well fed rabbit is fastened on its back on a holder and the hair of the abdomen is removed, as a rule movements of the cecum can be seen sooner or later. The movements are well marked and characteristic in their appear- ance, and leave no doubt as to the organ in which they take place. We shall mention only a few details in this communication. As a rule, especially in well fed rabbits, the movements begin in the colon and travel towards the small gut, that is, they are antiperistaltic in 38 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. character. But frequently at the end of an antiperistalsis, after only a short interval, the wave returns and runs from the small gut towards the colon ; in other words, the antiperistalsis is often fol- lowed by a peristaltic wave. The constriction is preceded by a bulg- ing which is more marked than the former. The degree of the con- striction (and bulging) is variable. Weaker waves sometimes do not finish the course. A complete course of a wave in one direction lasts from thirty to fifty seconds. The average rate of the movements is about one per minute, but the rhythm is far from being regular. Some influences suppress cecal peristalsis. Ether applied through the nose stops the movements but they return in about a minute after the ether is removed. Pain, struggle and fright stop the movements ; but they soon return again. The most striking effect, however, is the one caused by opening the abdomen : the peristaltic movements as a rule disappear completely and permanently. What is the cause of this complete abolition of the movements ? We thought it might be due to the strong and perhaps continued pain which the laparotomy causes, and tested this theory in the following way. The dorsal cord of a rabbit which showed well defined peristalsis of the cecum was cut at about the third vertebra. As a rule, in such experiments, the peristalsis was stopped for an hour and longer. After the peristalsis had been completely rees- tablished the abdomen was opened. The laparotomy could now cause no pain ; nevertheless it completely abolished the peristalsis, as in a normal animal. In the course of the latter series of experiments we made the observation that it was not necessary to open the peritoneal cavity to inhibit the movements. Cutting through the skin in the linea alba (in an animal with a cut cord) and dissecting it extensively from the muscles below was sufficient to abolish all cecal peristal- sis. Furthermore, the movements returned as soon as the muscles were again covered by the skin, the cut edges of which were held together by clamps. It looked as if the cooling and drying due to the impact of the air upon the muscles above the cecum might have caused the suppression of the movements. But suspending the skin flaps and filling up the cavity above the muscles with warm physiological salt solution did not restore the cecal peris- talsis. Furthermore extensive dissection of the skin of the lower Scientific Proceedings. 39 extremities also suppressed these movements. Finally immersion of the lower half of the animal in a warm saline bath inhibited the movements for twenty minutes and longer. When the peristalsis was reestablished it could then again be inhibited by taking the animal from the bath. All the various conditions referred to could affect the cecum only reflexly and not directly. These experiments led to the inevitable conclusion that the warm or cool bath, and the dissections of the skin over the abdomen and the lower extremities, were various forms of more or less effec- tive stimuli which caused reflex inhibition of the cecal movements. The path of these reflexes could run only through the dorsal cord below the cut. This conclusion was then tested by the effect which the complete destruction of that part of the cord would have upon the inhibitory reflexes. Cecal peristalsis is frequently abol- ished by such an operation, but reappears sooner or later, and then is often more marked than before the destruction. It was found that after the destruction of the cord the peristalsis of the cecum could not be inhibited by baths, dissections, etc. It was thus established that the cecum is under the control of inhibitory influ- ences invested in the cord, which can be called into action by vari- ous peripheral stimulations. Such a stimulus is also exposure to the air of a part of the body which is usually more or less covered. Under these circumstances we had reason to assume that the inhibitory influence of a laparotomy might be due also to such a stimulation and that it is in the nature of a reflex inhibition. But after further experimenting we found that opening of the abdomen, whether within a saline bath or not, unlike the other peripheral stimulations, inhibits greatly the cecal peristalsis : even after the destruction of the cord, only a few incomplete cecal waves appear after a laparotomy. We must then conclude that direct stimula- tion of the cecum caused by its exposure to abnormal conditions is capable of inhibiting its movements also directly. Laparotomy therefore abolishes the movements of the cecum by direct inhibition assisted probably also by reflex inhibition. As to the cause of the movements of the cecum we found that the peristalsis ceased after cutting both vagi. Furthermore stimu- lation of the peripheral end of one vagus causes a tetanic contrac- tion of the entire cecum, especially after destruction of the cord. 40 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. The latter effect is quite peculiar, however. The tetanus lasts only a short time, no - matter how long or brief the stimulation may be. Moreover, the effect cannot be obtained by a second stimulation unless quite a long interval passes between the stimuli. (Some of the above mentioned facts were demonstrated on an animal with destroyed cord.) 3i (174) Deglutition through an esophagus partly deprived of its muscularis, with demonstration. By S. J. MELTZER. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ As a result of the experiments which Kronecker and I carried out about twenty-seven years ago, it appeared to be conclusively established that liquids are squirted down into the esophagus by the force of the contractions of the mylohyoid muscles and some muscles of the tongue, and that liquid thus projected reaches the cardia long before the arrival of the peristaltic wave. At that time the experiments were carried out on a human esophagus. About ten years ago in a series of experiments on the dog I found that our contention held good also for that animal. Cannon and Moser, however, who studied the esophagus by the fluoroscopic method, although confirming our conclusions for the human being, state that " in the dog and cat but little variation was seen in the swal- lowing of liquids and solids." Recently Schreiber stated that even in the human being, liquids, just like solids, are not squirted down but are carried by the muscles of the mouth and tongue to the pharynx, whence they are conveyed further into the esophagus by the contractions of the constrictors of the pharynx and are finally transported into the stomach by the peristaltic movements of the esophagus. In other words, liquids are also slowly pushed forward through every section of the path of deglutition by the contraction of the muscle fibers of that section ; there is no part of that long path through which liquids are thrown or squirted. I do not intend to enter into an analysis of the experiments and arguments upon which Schreiber founded his views. The object of Scientific Proceedings. 4i my communication was to demonstrate a dog drinking in a perfectly normal manner, although a large section of its path of deglutition zvas deprived of all muscle fibers. In a number of dogs I have com- pletely removed the muscularis from the entire cervical esophagus. Already on the next day after the operation they drank milk and water like normal dogs. In these cases there were no muscle fibers for quite a long distance to do the slow work of pushing the liquids into the thoracic esophagus. They were apparently squirted through the cervical esophagus by a muscular force located anteri- orly to the esophagus. That this force is not due to the constrictors of the pharynx was demonstrated by another experiment. In one dog, besides the removal of the esophageal muscularis, the middle and lower constrictors of the pharynx were cut and completely put out of function. This dog, also, drank without any difficulty the day after the operation. The throwing force is apparently exer- cised by the muscles of the mouth and tongue. I wish to call attention to another point. Recently again it was claimed that liquids go down the esophagus by the force of gravity. No experiments were offered in proof of that contention but it had the support of the authority of Von Mickulicz. In my demon- stration the bowl of milk was placed on the floor and the large dogs that had been operated on drank from it against gravity without any difficulty. I would call attention to another matter which has been over- looked by some writers. We have established the fact, and it is easily demonstrated, that each act of swallowing inhibits the peris- talsis relating to the preceding deglutition, and when swallows follow one another at intervals of one second there is no peristalsis in the esophagus until after the last swallow. Dogs drink very rapidly, and can take 200 cc. and more without stopping. Where then is the peristalsis even in normal dogs to carry down such a large quan- tity of liquid ? Does the latter simply accumulate in the pharynx and the upper part of the esophagus until the last swallow ? Finally I wish to say that the essential part of our problem is the establishment of the theory as it was originated by Kronecker, viz., that besides the slow transportation of food by peristalsis, the function of deglutition is provided with a mechanism for a rapid squirting down of appropriate materials. As to which of the mechanisms 42 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. comes into play in any specific case depends upon the nature of the material which is swallowed. We said that liquid is squirted down, but I am quite sure that thick syrup is not squirted farther than the upper part of the esophagus, if so far. We said that semi-liquids or semi-solids are also thrown down. We came to this conclusion from observations made on the swallowing of bread thoroughly softened in water. Possibly in this case a separation took place and the water was thrown down while the bread or some of it stuck to the wall of the gullet and was later gathered up by the peristalsis. It is not improbable that this is what occurs when a mixture of bismuth and water is swallowed. The water may be squirted down, while a large part of the bismuth may stick to the wall and be gathered up later by the succeeding peristalsis and it is the latter which is probably seen through the fluoroscope. 32 (175) Immunity against trypanosomes. By F. G. NOVY. [From the Hygienic Laboratory of the University of Michigan.^ It is an establised fact that rats which have recovered from an in- fection with Tr. Lewisi are immune to subsequent inoculation with that species of flagellate. The same holds true for cattle, sheep, goats, etc., that have recovered from the infection caused by the pathogenic trypanosomes, such as nagana, surra and dourine. This condition of active immunity is seemingly possible only in those species of animals that are relatively insusceptible, for with really susceptible species the infection is always fatal. Heretofore all experiments on artificial immunity against try- panosomes have been made on animals that have recovered from the effects of the parasite which has been living and multiplying in the blood-vessels of that animal. Now that cultures of some of these organisms, as for example Tr. Leivisi of the rat and Tr. brucei of nagana, are possible it was desirable to ascertain whether or not they could be used to immunize against the virulent organ- isms. It may be said, in passing, that cultures of both of these trypanosomes, even after they have passed through a hundred generations or subcultures in the course of two years, do not be- Scientific Proceedings. 43 come attenuated by such prolonged consecutive passage but readily infect susceptible animals. We have shown, however, that cultures of Tr. brucei can be attenuated by exposure for about two days at 34 0 C. By repeated injections of cultures thus treated, attempts have been made to immunize rats and guinea-pigs against Tr. brucei but thus far these have been but partially successful. That is to say, there has been at most a survival for a few days of the treated as compared with the untreated animals. The failure to immunize with such cultures is attributable in part to the excessive susceptibility, of the animals employed, to infection with Tr. brucei, and in part to the existence of a negative phase following the injections. It is desir- able to repeat these experiments with less susceptible animals. In view of the fact that rats invariably recover, some soon, others late, from infection with Tr. Lewisi, and the further fact that rich cultures of this organism are readily obtainable, it is evident that this species is well adapted for studies on immunity. Up to the present time it has not been satisfactorily shown that trypano- somes elaborate toxins or that they confer immunity by means of soluble or intracellular products. The latter problem was ap- proached by means of plasmolyzed cultures. To effect solution of the trypanosomal cells the cultures were taken up in distilled water and dialyzed in collodium sacs. Usually after one or two hours of such dialysis in distilled water the trypanosomes completely dis- appear and the intracellular matter apparently passes into solution. By means of such cultures it has been shown that rats which receive three or more injections on alternate days, on subsequent inoculation with a minimal infective dose of fresh trypanosomal blood from a rat, do not become infected, whereas controls are positive. With such solutions it is possible to hyperimmunize rats so that 0.5 c.c. of the immune rat blood protects against a simultaneous and separate injection of the infective blood. Protection is seemingly obtained against Tr. Lewisi by simul- taneous and separate injection of the infective blood and plasmo- lyzed culture, followed 24 hours later by a second injection of the latter. Repeated injections of too large a quantity of the plasmo- lyzed culture and at too short an interval leads to a negative phase, the presence of which is indicated by the unusually early appear- ance of trypanosomes in the blood after inoculation with the virus. 44 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Inasmuch as it may be said that the plasmolyzed material does not represent a true solution, a series of experiments were made with the filtered (Berkefeld) plasmolyzed liquid. While these ex- periments go to show that immunity can probably be induced by such filtered soluble products, they are not as decisive as they should be and for that reason will have to be repeated. The chief reason for this uncertain result is the rather frequent failure of the control rats to develop infection. Although young rats (50-80 grams) were used to guard against previous infection with trypan- osomes, it is certain that a large percentage of the rats, as pur- chased on the market, have acquired an immunity against Tr. Lewisi. That the immunity encountered is really acquired and not natural is shown by the fact that we have many times isolated Tr. Lewisi, by means of the cultivation method, from rats which on repeated examination were found to be free from parasites and hence were supposed to be normal. 33 (176) On secondary transplantation of a sarcoma of the rat. By SIMON FLEXNER and J. W. JOBLING. [From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ At a meeting of the Society held on, October 17, 1906, we presented specimens of a sarcoma of the rat which was being transplanted successfully. 1 In the course of the transplantations the percentage of successful issues has reached approximately one hundred. In many series, every transplanted fragment developed into a tumor, and in none of the latter series has the percentage of " takes " fallen below ninety. The tumor having reached this maximum of infectivity, it was thought desirable to ascertain to what extent secondary transplantation would succeed. The method followed was to inoculate rats, in which a tumor nodule was already present, with another fragment of the tumor tissue. The second inoculation was made, as a rule, on the side of the body opposite the existing nodule, but in a few cases it was made in the tissues adjacent to the first nodule. After the second growth had developed to the size of a pea or bean, the rats were 'This volume, p. 12. Scientific Proceedings. 45 killed in order to determine whether metastasis from the first inoculation had taken place. The results of this series of experi- ments show that secondary inoculation succeeds in a high per- centage of the rats in which no visible metastases can be seen, and in which visible metastases, in the lungs chiefly, are present. The exact figures will be given in the complete publication to be issued soon. The results of this series of experiments bear upon the view expressed by Sticker, that a primary tumor protects the body from the development of a secondary tumor until the period of metastasis arrives, and upon Ehrlich's negative results in secondary transplantations of a rapidly growing mouse carcinoma. The sarcoma of our experiments is characterized by its infiltrative growth, but it increases far less rapidly than the most active of Ehrlich's tumors, and reaches, in relation to the size of the rat, no such large size as the latter does in proportion to the size of the mouse. 34 (177) On certain chemical complementary substances. By HIDEYO NOGUCHI. \From the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research^ In blood serum there is a constituent known as complement or alexin, which dissolves blood corpuscles or bacteria when the latter are properly sensitized. Its existence can only be demon- strated by the aid of immune bodies or amboceptors. The action of complement disappears when the serum gets old or is heated to 56 0 C. for a short time. The fate of complement after inactiva- tion is not known. Complement is generally believed to undergo disintegration. Blood serum yields upon warm alcoholic extraction a substance or a group of substances of powerful lytic activity. The same is also true of leucocytes, glands and certain visceral organs. On account of some differences existing in the lytic mechanism and thermal resistance between genuine serum comple- ment and alcoholic " extract lysins," no direct comparison has been made to establish a possible relationship between these two constituents. Complement is lytic only in the presence of immune 46 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. bodies, while the extract lysins are active by themselves. The action of complement diminishes with age and is destroyed by a temperature of about 56 0 C, whereas the extract lysins do not de- teriorate with age or on boiling. So the general conception of to- day is that they are entirely distinct classes of bodies. Up to the present, no account of the parts which may be played by the other serum components has been taken into consideration. A comparison made under different conditions is devoid of value, and observations on this point seem desirable. I have therefore sub- jected both complement and the " extract lysins " to a comparative study under the same conditions. I have also identified the chem- ical nature of various " extract lysins," and pure chemical prepara- tions have been subjected to a similar comparative study. My method of obtaining lytic substances from the blood or other organs was carried out as follows : To one volume of blood or thick emulsion of any organ, three volumes of 95 per cent, alcohol are added. The mixture is left for about a week at 45 or 50 0 C. Then the filtrate is evaporated to dryness. The dried mass is extracted with hot alcohol. The alcoholic extract is dried. The dried mass is extracted with ether. The ether insoluble fraction is usually highly lytic, while the other fractions are inactive. The last, ether insoluble, hot alcohol soluble fraction is, of course, free from salts, proteins, neutral fats, fatty acids, cholesterin and its esters, lecithin and other phosphorized fats. It is soluble in water or 0.9 per cent, saline solution with slight opalescent appearance, and is neutral to litmus. Chemically, this fraction represents various soaps. The addition of acetate of lead and subsequent ethereal extraction removes its original lytic substance. Any strong acid produces a milky appearance due to the splitting of the soapy substance, and its hemolytic activity is reduced. Osmic acid gradually turns the solution dark. The solution yields a thick precipitate with phosphotungstic acid and with bromine. Millon's test is negative. This fraction, therefore, consists of various soluble soaps derived from the blood and organs. My experiments with various soap fractions of the blood and organs show that such fractions possess considerable lytic activity when employed in 0.9 per cent, saline solution. The corpuscles Scientific Proceedings. 47 used were always washed free from the serum, as the latter para- lyzes the lytic action of the soap fraction. It was found that the addition of an adequate quantity of indifferent or non-specific serum to the extract removed the lytic property of this fraction. But this inactivation was again found to be only superficial, for the extract was not inactive upon the corpuscles which had been treated with specific or normal amboceptors, nor was it inert in the presence of suitable immune bodies. In other words, this soap fraction acquires the property of acting as a complement. This artificial complement can easily be inactivated by heating it to 56 0 C. for half an hour, or by leaving it for a week or longer at room temperature. Its com- plementary action is absent at C. Like serum complement, it becomes inactive when mixed with adequate quantities of various alkali earth salts of strong acids, and any acid stronger than car- bonic acid. Alkalies delay the complementary action of this mix- ture. It may be stated here that the soap fraction in a protein- free solution cannot be inactivated by acids or alkalies. Without the serum proteins, no inactivation at 56 0 C. or on account of age or by suppression of its action ato° C. can be obtained. All these characteristics of a complement are possibly to be ascribed to the serum proteins which are present. My experiments with pure preparations of various soaps not only strengthen the above findings, but they further furnish ex- planation of the inactivation processes of various alkali earth salts upon complement and the soap fraction of the blood or organs. In this series of experiments, I have employed stearates of sodium, magnesium, calcium and barium, and oleates of ammonium, neurin, sodium, magnesium, calcium and barium. With the exception of certain alkali earth soaps, they are soluble with opalescence in 0.9 per cent, saline solution. Oleate soaps are, as a rule, more easily soluble than the corresponding stearates. As regards their hemolytic activity, it may be stated that the oleates are nearly as much as ten times more powerful than the stearates, and that all insoluble soaps are without lytic action. Of the oleates, neurin soap is the most soluble, and ammonium soap the least. These soluble oleate soaps were used in 1/ 100 to 1/200 N solutions. 0.5 c.c. of 0.1 per cent, solution (ca. 1/300 N) of these soaps added to 2 c.c. will effect complete solution of a 5 per cent, suspension of ox corpuscles. 48 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Like the soap fraction of blood or organs, all these soaps be- come inactive when mixed with a certain amount of serum. This inactivation is again an apparent one, because the presence of suit- able immune bodies hinders the paralyzing action of the serum to a great extent, or such mixture may be inactive upon normal cor- puscles, but active upon those which have been sensitized properly. This complementary action of the mixture of soap and serum is absent at C. and disappears at 56 0 C, or with age. Chlorides, sulphates or acetates of calcium or barium inactivate the mixture, just as in the case of serum complement or " extract complements." This inactivation cannot be anything more than the formation of the insoluble, inactive soaps. The action of various acids and alkalies is exactly the same as in the cases of complement and " ex- tract complements." In this place I must not omit reference to certain interesting phenomena which I met with during the experiments on soaps as venom activators. As we have shown elsewhere, venom is inac- tive without the aid of a second substance. We found that this sec- ond substance can be the complement of serum. Kyes discovered later that lecithin is activating for venom, and thinks this is the only class of bodies which is responsible for venom hemolysis. Complement has been placed in a doubtful position as a venom activator. My present work, however, again upholds our previous view that complement is a very important venom activator of serum. Certain fresh serums contain venom activator. If we add to such serums certain amounts of calcium chloride, their activating property is easily destroyed. Complement also disappears in these instances. But if we heat the inactivated serums to 75 0 C. or higher, then they acquire a new, powerful, venom activating property, which cannot be removed by calcium chloride. On the other hand, ox serum contains almost no venom activator in the fresh state, but acquires one when heated to 75 0 C. or higher, and this acquired activator cannot be inactivated by calcium chloride. If we take two tubes of fresh ox serum and add soap to one and lecithin to the other, we get venom hemolysis in both tubes. But if, before we add venom, we introduce a certain amount of calcium chloride into each tube, and then venom, venom hemolysis will occur in the tube with lecithin, but not in the tube with soap. It would be Scientific Proceedings. 49 very interesting to ascertain to what extent lecithin is concerned in venom lysis caused by fresh serum. 35 (178) Effects of experimental injuries of the pancreas. By ISAAC LEVIN. [From the Department of Pathology of Columbia University, at the College of Physicians and Surge ons.~\ A review of the experimental work done so far shows clearly that injuries of the pancreas produce different effects on the or- ganism than the complete removal of the organ. After the latter operation the animal succumbs with the symptoms of subacute diabetes, but a comparatively slight injury to the organ may kill it within twenty-four hours, producing an entirely different symptom complex. It seems very difficult to form a correct idea of the etiological relation between a certain injury to the pancreas and the disease process that so rapidly kills the animal, because in all the experi- mental work thus far reported, an injury which results fatally in a certain number of animals, produces no effects on others. Doberauer reported (in Centralbl. fur Chir. y Nr. 28, 1906) a series of twenty-one experiments on dogs. In each case he doubly ligated and severed the pancreas with identical results in all the experiments, viz., the development of fat necrosis, sub-serous peri- toneal hemorrhages and free hemorrhagic fluid in the peritoneum. The animals were either dead or moribund within twenty-four hours. The author ascribes the fatal results in his experiments to a com- bination of stasis of secretion, some abnormality in the circulation and a lesion of the parenchyma of the pancreas. The experiments of Doberauer differ from all previous investigations in the fact that he obtained the same results in every experiment. It seemed advisable to repeat his experiments, because, if found correct, they could subsequently be varied so as to afford a clearer insight into the etiological moment of the injury which produced the acute fatal disease of the animal. The operation of Doberauer was first repeated in exactly the 50 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. same manner on six dogs. Of these animals only one died in twenty- four hours. The autopsy showed congestion of the pancreas near the ligatures (otherwise the organ was macroscopically normal), sero-fibrous peritonitis and no fat necrosis. The other animals remained healthy, and when subsequently killed, showed noth- ing abnormal at autopsy. Thus the results in this first series of experiments did not seem to coincide with those of Doberauer. It remained to be seen whether better results could not be obtained by varying the experiments to some extent. A priori it seems certain that the deleterious effect of the injured pancreas on the organism is due to a change either in the secretion of the organ or in its circulation or in the parenchyma, or in a combination of the three. In the first series of experiments the result was mostly a stasis of secretion. In the second series undertaken on four dogs, a part of the pancreas about an inch long was crushed with an artery for- ceps in the middle of the gland and every bleeding vessel ligated separately. In this way some of the parenchyma of the organ was injured and instead of producing a stasis of the secretion, it was given a free exit in the peritoneum. All four animals remained normal. In the third series of experiments the pancreas was either doubly ligated or part of it crushed and, besides, the most important veins leading from the pancreas were ligated. In this operation a hemo- stasis was added to the results produced in the previous experi- ments. The operation was performed on six dogs. Three dogs died in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The autopsy showed acute pancreatitis with fat necrosis. The other three dogs remained apparently healthy, but when killed subsequently showed at autopsy a condition of interstitial pancreatitis. These investiga- tions are not yet near completion, but so far as can be judged from the material on hand, those injuries produce the gravest effect on the organism which cause the most serious interference with the circulation of the pancreas. To produce a fatal disease it does not suffice to interfere partly with the free secretion of the pancreatic juice into the intestines as in the first series of experiments, or to injure some of the parenchyma and at the same time allow the juice to secrete into the peritoneal cavity, as in the second series. Scientific Proceedings. 5i The interference with the circulation must be such as to produce a lesion of the whole organ so that not only will the organism be deprived of the normal function of the pancreatic cells, as after extirpation of the organ, but also every cell will become diseased and begin to act abnormally and injuriously to the organism. 36 (179) The pathology of function ; an experimental laboratory course. By Haven Emerson. [From the Physiological Laboratory of Columbia University, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons. ~\ To fill the gap between physiology and histology on the one hand and pathology as usually taught upon the other, the follow- ing experimental procedures were given in a three weeks course on some common disorders of function and the physiological methods of detecting them and treating them. 1. Peripheral arterial blood pressure in man varied by the follow- ing procedures : During digestion. Variations of position. Attempted defecation. Adrenalin administration. Amyl nitrite administration. Faradic stimulation of nares. Inhalation of ammonia. Exercise. Hyperpnea. Administration of coffee. 2. Pericardial effusion imitated by saline solution introduced into the pericardial sac. Myocardial changes produced by injecting alcohol into the heart muscle. 3. Aortic stenosis. 4. Aortic regurgitation. 5. Pleural effusion. 52 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 6. Extremely high vascular pressure causing acute cardiac dila- tation resulting in pulmonary edema, produced in a mammal by large doses of adrenalin. 7. Pneumothorax. ^ Their physical signs and their effects Hydro-pneumothorax. V upon blood pressure, heart action Pneumo-peritoneum. J and respiration. 8. Pneumo-peritoneum. ^ ni _ . . , . M __ , . ( Studied in detail, as m- Hydro-pentoneum. V .. L . c , T . . , t . . . , . f dicated for No. 7. Gastro-intestinal distension with air. j 9. Heat, cold and hemorrhage in their relation to respiration, circulation and the etiology and treatment of " shock." 10. Intracranial pressure and the results of its increase upon res- piration and general blood pressure. 11. Acute bronchitis, produced by the administration of chlorine gas as an irritant in the inspired air. 12. Heat, cold and counter-irritation in their relation to tempera- ture and circulation in the superficial and deeper portions of the body. 13. Renal secretion and general blood-pressure as affected by Amyl nitrite, Adrenalin, Heat, Cold, Vagus stimulation. 14. Capillary circulation as affected by pressure locally and vaso- constriction generally. 15. Mitral stenosis. 16. Secretion of bile as affected by changes in blood pressure and the use of cholagogues. 37 (180) The influence of alcohol on the composition of urine. By F. C. HINKEL and WILLIAM SALANT. \From the Laboratory of Biological Chemistry of Columbia Univer- sity , at the College of Physicians and Surge 'ons.~\ About twenty years ago Schumoff and Simanowski showed that oxidation in the body is markedly diminished after the Scientific Proceedings. 53 administration of alcohol. They estimated oxidation in the body- by the amount of phenol found in the urine after giving benzol. By this method they obtained results which showed that the oxidative processes in the body decreased 60-75 per cent, as a result of administering alcohol. Their findings seemed to be con- firmed later by PresnyakofT who studied this problem in a different manner. He determined the amount of neutral sulphur before, during and after the administration of alcohol and concluded that the amount of unoxidized sulphur decreases during the alcohol period. As his data, hardly justify such a conclusion, we decided to reinvestigate the subject, with special reference to the amount of unoxidized sulphur as affected by alcohol. In the course of the research, however, it seemed to us desirable to study exactly also the effects of alcohol on the other urinary constituents. We carried out our experiments on a healthy dog kept in one of the improved metabolism cages devised and described by Professor Gies. The diet consisted of meat, cracker meal, lard, and bone ash, given with definite amounts of water. Each experiment was begun after the dog reached a constant weight. During the control period 50 c.c. of water were given daily by mouth through a stom- ach tube for 6 days. During the next 6 days 50 c.c. of alcohol were administered in the same way. This was followed by another alcohol period of 7 days, when the same daily volume of 70 per cent, alcohol was given. The alcohol was then discontinued and water was given again for 10 days in the same way as in the control period. Samples of forty-eight hour urine were taken for analysis. The results of our observations on one dog show that the neutral sulphur of the urine increased 12.68 per cent., when 50 per cent, alcohol was given. When the same amount of 70 per cent, alcohol was given the neutral sulphur in- creased 52.88 per cent, as compared with that of the control period. The amounts of neutral sulphur were as follows : Control period 27.2 per cent. First alcohol period, when 50 c.c. of alcohol were given, the amount of neutral sulphur was 40.5 per cent, of the total sulphur. During the third period, when 70 per cent, of alcohol was given, the amount of neutral sulphur constituted nearly one half of the total sulphur 47 per cent. The total sulphur of the 54 Society for Experimental |
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Based on (1) saved test runs, The test labeled "callback" was (on average) the faster by 0.0096 seconds, (1.200% faster)
callback 100%
wrapped 98.8%
The callback test took 0.7926 seconds.
The wrapped test took 0.8022 seconds.
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The first test, "callback", was:
if ($GLOBALS['dummy'] === 41)
$cb = 'do_something1';
else
$cb = 'do_something2';
$cb();
The second test, "wrapped", was:
/*
function do_something($type)
{
if ($type === 'do_something1')
do_something1();
else
do_something2();
}
*/
if ($GLOBALS['dummy'] == 41)
$cb = 'do_something1';
else
$cb = 'do_something2';
do_something($cb);
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Chapters 7-12 (Midterm 2).docx
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Wilfrid Laurier University
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PS280
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John Stephens
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Winter
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Chapter 7 Somatoform and Dissociative DisordersDefinitionsSomatoform disorders individual complains of bodily symptoms that suggest a physical defect or dysfunction but for which no physiological basis can be found Psychological problems take a physical form Dissociative disorders individual experiences disruptions of consciousness memory and identity Onset of both classes of disorders assumed to be related to stressful experienceTwo classes sometimes cooccurDifferent somatoform disorders Disorder Description Pain disorder Psychological factors play a significant role in the onset and maintenance of pain Body dysmorphic disorder Preoccupation with imagined or exaggerated defects in physical appearance Hypochondriasis Preoccupation with fears of having a serious illness Conversion Disorder Sensory or motor symptoms without any physiological cause Somatization Recurrent multiple physical complaints that have no biological basisLess is known about the three DSMIVTR categories of somatoform disorders pain disorder body dysmorphic disorder and hypochondriasisThe two main somatoform disorders are conversion disorder and somatization disorderPain DisorderPerson experiences pain that causes significant distress and impairmentPsychological factors are viewed as playing an important role in the onset maintenance and severity of the painAccurate diagnosis is difficult because the subjective experience of pain is always a psychologically influenced phenomenonIn women diagnosed with pain disorder compared to healthy women fMRI showed significant greymatterdecreases in prefrontal cingulated and insular cortex regions of the brain which are critically involved in the modulation of subjective painThese findings represent a further proof of the important role of central changes in pain disorderBody Dysmorphic DisorderPerson is preoccupied with an imagined or exaggerated defect in appearance frequently in the faceExamples facial wrinkles excess facial hair or the shape or size of the nose Women tend to focus on the skin hips breasts and legsMen tend to focus on height penis size and body hairOccurs mostly among womenTypically begins in late adolescenceComorbid with depression social phobia eating disorders thoughts of suicide substance use and personality disorders HypochondriasisIndividuals are preoccupied with persistent fears of having a serious disease despite medical reassurance to the contrary Typically begins in early adulthood and has a chronic course Comorbid with mood or anxiety disorders Evident in about 5 of the general population The term hypochondriasis has become pejorative and tends to be called health anxiety disorder TheoryHypochondriacs overreact to and misinterpret ordinary physical sensations and minor abnormalities and see these as evidence for their beliefsPeople with hypochondriasis make catastrophic interpretations of symptomsContemporary researchers focus on health anxiety and not hypochondriasis Health AnxietyHealth anxiety has been defined as healthrelated fears and beliefs based on interpretations or perhaps more often misinterpretations of bodily signs and symptoms as being indicative of serious illness Asmundson Taylor SevgurCox 2001 p 4 Often measured with the Illness Anxiety Scale IAS which contains 4 factorsHealth Anxiety could be present in both hypochondriasis and an illness phobia Hypochondriasisfear of having an illnessIllness phobiafear of contracting an illnessHealth Anxiety is related to dysfunctional healthrelated beliefs and selfreported higher levels of somatosensory amplificationIllness Attitude Scale IAS Stewart and Watt 2001 1 Worry about illness and pain ie illness fears 2 Disease conviction ie illness beliefs 3 Health habits ie safetyseeking behaviours 4 Symptom interference with lifestyle ie disruptive effectsSalkovskis and Warwick 2001 Health Anxiety Model 1 A critical precipitating incident2 A previous experience of illness and related medical factors 3 The presence of inflexible or negative cognitive assumptions4 The severity of anxiety Conversion DisorderPhysically healthy people experience sensory or motor symptoms ie sudden loss of vision or paralysis suggesting an illness related to neurological damage of some sort although the body organs and nervous system are found to be fine ExamplesSudden loss of vision Paralysis of arms or legsSeizures and coordination disturbancesSensation of prickling tingling or creeping on the skinInsensitivity to painAnesthesias loss or impairment of sensationsAphonia loss of the voice and all but whispered speechAnosmia loss or impairment of the sense of smellTends to appear suddenly in stressful situationsPrevalence is less than 1 and is more common in females than in males Frequently comorbid with other AXIS I diagnoses such as depression substance abuse anxiety and dissociative disorders and with personality disordersPeople with conversion symptoms frequently report a history of sexual or physical abuse HysteriaTerm originally used to describe what are now known as conversion disordersHysterical blindness only cure is hypnosis and patients are able to visually describe all locations visited during conversion blindnessIllustrates the role that stress plays in the development of conversion disordersMalingering and Factitious DisorderConversion disorder is difficult to distinguish from malingering In malingeringPeople fake an incapacity in order to avoid a responsibilityPeople fake an incapacity to achieve a goal such as a large insurance settlementMalingering is diagnosed when the conversionlike symptoms are determined to be under voluntary controlClinicians may attempt to determine whether the symptoms have been consciously or unconsciously adopted but how can anyone know whether behavior is consciously or unconsciously motivatedLa belle indiffrence can help differentiate the twoCharacterized by a relative lack of concern or a blas attitude toward the symptoms Clients with conversion disorder sometimes demonstrate this they also appear willing and eager to talk endlessly and dramatically about their symptomsMalingerers in contrast are more likely to be guarded and cautiousSomatization DisorderRecurrent multiple somatic complaints with no apparent physical cause for which medical attention is soughtDiagnostic criteriaFour pain symptoms in different areasTwo gastrointestinal symptomsOne sexual symptom other than painOne pseudoneurological symptom Prevalence is less than 1 and more frequent in women and patients in medical treatmentIt also seems to run in families Symptoms are more pervasive than in hypochondriasis and usually cause impairment Considerable overlap with conversion disorder Comorbid with anxiety and mood disorders substance abuseseveral personality disordersSpecific symptoms may vary across cultures Etiology of Somatization DisordersMore sensitive to physical sensations overattend to them or interpret them catastrophically May have a memory bias for information that connotes physical threat Various aches discomforts and dysfunctions are the manifestation of unrealistic anxiety about bodily systems Patients with somatization disorder have high levels of cortisol they are under stressTheories of Conversion DisordersPsychoanalytic TheoryFreud Unresolved Electra Complex o The young female child becomes sexually attached to her father but these unacceptable impulses are repressedThe result is both a preoccupation with sex and at the same time an avoidance of itAn event reawakens these repressed impulses and creates anxiety which is converted into physical symptomsHe proposed that a conversion disorder is caused when a person experiences an event that creates great emotional arousal but the effect is not expressed and the memory of the event is cut off from conscious experiencePsychodynamic 2stage defensive reaction to account for findings of hysterically blind people 1 Perceptual representations of visual stimuli are blocked from awareness and on the basis people report themselves blind 2 Information is nonetheless extracted from the perceptual representationsIf clients feel they need to deny being privy with this information they perform more poorly on a task than they would by chanceIf clients do not need to deny having such information they perform the task well but still maintain that they are blindBehavioural Theory and Cognitive FactorsSimilar to malingering in that the person adopts the symptom to secure some endThe person with a conversion disorder attempts to behave according to his or her conception of how a person with a disease affecting the motor or sensory abilities would act
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If you have a meter, unplug the air compressor from the outlet and remove the cover on the pressure switch. That is why you may search for best 12v air compressor. When that doesn't happen—maybe the tank won't hold air, the pressure gauge isn't working or the safety valve keeps popping open—Sears PartsDirect has the troubleshooting guidance to get your air compressor back in good working condition. Clean air filter element and check for other restrictions in the intake system. Grab the latest working Automobile 12v Air Compressor coupons, discount codes and promos. Use the coupons before they're expired for the year 2021. There are a few reasons that the air compressor sits quietly doing nothing. Check viscosity. Portable Car Digital LED 150PSI Air Compressor Tire Inflator Auto Fast Pump 12V. However, with the help of this best 12v air compressor, you will get an auto-shut off feature, gives you the accurate tire pressure, and as well as it will stop automatically. 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Frequent on and off cycling – This is often referred to as a “hard start” and can be caused by an electrical problem within the compressor. The continuity test on 200-ohm setting is 188. In this post, I will also give you a straightforward buying guide that will help you choose the best 12v air compressor in the future. If that’s happened there is no electricity going to your air compressor. If you are searching for the phrases air compressor won’t turn on or air compressor won’t start; this post should help clarify why and offer solutions to get your air compressor working again.The reason your air compressor won’t turn on may be a number of different problems. This can be resolved by replacing the pressure switch that has a reduced cut in. Clean or replace your air filters. if you have this reading turn the air compressor on and check the voltage on the other two wires. Check speed setting at start up. If you find a blown fuse or tripped breaker go ahead and either replace the fuse or reset the breaker. Piston rings installed up-side down. It was in my opinion to expensive to not work in a month! If you shut down the compressor when the tank is filled with air and then find that the pressure gauge is showing a drop in pressure, you know that the compressor is leaking air. How can you and I work together to resolve this issue? 3.b - Solenoid valces (Part# 180102 & 180103) can be disassembled and cleaned. Auto STOP Air Inflator Car Tire Pump Compressor Electric Portable 12V DC 150 PSI. ... 12V DC Twin Cyclinder Mini Metal Air pump Compressor Tire Inflator Kit 12 Volt. Why has my air compressor stopped working? Shop by Brand. 2. If you require air pressure to power pneumatic tools like nail guns, then a 12V air compressor is more than enough for the task. 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Read … If you plug in the compressor, the pressure switch response to the air leak and dropping compressor pressure will be to start the compressor again. Drain down to bottom of threads. More than 70 tools are offered by Campbell Hausfeld that can be used with an air compressor. One downside to most 12-volt compressors is the need to start and stop the compressor manually when changing tires or checking air pressure during inflation. 2.b.1 - Check all connections 2.b.2 - If leak is detected at fittings, remove, clean, apply sealant, and tighten. When it comes to one of my air compressors not working properly, then a whole bunch of my air tools cannot work properly either. Replace crankshaft. Then the speed of the shaft will slow down, and you will hear a click. QR Code Link to This Post. Light Weight, Small size, Easy carrying,Working pressre 300bar/4500psi/30mpa Portable PCP Air Compressor-The PCP electric pump is a compact and portable compressor that is suitable directly for nipples of PCP air rifles/pistols and paintball tanks. Air Compressor Won't Operate. Remove the cover over the pressure switch so you can listen for it to click on and off. Replace rings. Sometimes, this valves gets dirty or breaks down. Problem with loading/inlet valve. Some companies also unplug their air compressors overnight and might forget to plug it in the next day. Go to next slide - Shop by Maximum Working Pressure. 6. One thing to check right away is the tank drain valve. All Rights Reserved. Willing Service Corporation offers air compressor repair services to facility owners in Phoenix, Arizona. Wrong oil viscosity. It gets used for lockers and tires. 4. When pressure is low the switch should sense this and click into place to direct power to the compressor motor. 150 Psi. Campbell Hausfeld air compressors are used to run power tools such as spray guns, drills, sandblasters and die grinders. New, never used . Speed lever is normally at ‘full rpm’ when compressor is stopped. 1. By draining the tank you are emulating the function of the unloader valve just in case the one on your air compressor is not working properly. This can be a problem with the inner circuits and sometimes adjusting the pressure can resolve the issue. Questions & Answers › My compressor stopped working. Portable diesel driven air compressors have a stop solenoid. 4. The engine works but doesn’t pump the air If you can hear the sound of a working compressor when it turned on, but the air doesn’t come out of the hose, then the unit needs to be disassembled for diagnosis: Loosen four screws that hold the crankcase cover. do NOT contact me with unsolicited services or offers; post id: 7243906781. posted: 2020-12-08 15:02. email to friend ♥ best of . Does anyone see an obvious issue or have an idea of what's wrong? It cuts off the fuel supply to stop the engine. I am financially impaired so when I find something, I take it home and try to fix it. If you see your air compressor motor stopped working for good, replacing the motor is the only solution. and resolve simple problems. 2. Cas Staff asked 7 years ago. Oil in discharge air. It cuts off the fuel supply to stop the engine. 225 Psi. If you need help getting your air compressor working again give us a call today at 602-246-6940. Now my compressor has stopped blowing air out! My compressor stopped working. Our virtual experts can diagnose your issue (for free!) It was running fine but all of a sudden the alarm function tripped and the compressor shut down. When it comes to one of my air compressors not working properly, then a whole bunch of my air tools cannot work properly either. 12v air compressor with stop leak - $15 (Easton) < image 1 of 4 > condition: new. 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When a tool I have does not work properly or, sometimes does n't work!: 5 sturdy quality with all metal and very little plastic be on when testing you will hear a.. Can help with a wide range of inflation needs an old DeVilbiss 330 air compressor Car Truck Tire Pump Electric. The voltage on the other two wires the compressor and air solenoid viscosity change. Basic problem or simple oversight best deals on 12 V home air compressors overnight and might forget to it. 1 unscrew the top back onto the 12V socket all connections 2.b.2 if! Be resolved by replacing the pressure isn ’ t turn on in Arizona of reasons breaks down can due! However, it is a must-have for professionals and amateurs who work with pneumatic.... Check all connections 2.b.2 - if leak is detected at fittings, remove, clean apply! Resolve the issue spell disaster for your compressor-Hex Autoparts 5HP SPL air compressor back to the compressor has working. 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The Fi Collar has been optimized to use a smart combination of GPS and cellular technology to locate your dog. Here we dive into the logic behind these location reports, as well as how the collar is able to achieve its incredible battery life.
What is GPS?
GPS is a global positioning system determined by a network of satellites that orbit the earth. These satellites regularly beam their locations down to earth, where GPS receivers (such as the Fi Collar!) can use the signals to determine their own location. The position accuracy of this location report depends on a couple of factors, including the number of satellites that the receiver can see and grab a signal from. A minimum of 4 satellites is required for any positioning, but often to get an accurate position a GPS receiver will need to see as many as 20 satellites with a clear line of sight! GPS signals also do not travel through structures (walls, buildings, trees, etc.) and will often rebound on hard surfaces, meaning indoor positionings are much more difficult to report.
When a GPS receiver tries to acquire a GPS location, it powers its GPS antenna and waits for signals from the satellites to come through (these move at the speed of light so come through pretty fast!). The power consumption of this operation depends entirely on the amount of time that the antenna needs to stay ‘on’ in order to collect enough data to be confident that its location is accurate.
For a lost dog device where power and battery life is so important, one of the key aspects of optimizing this operation is being able to predict how long the receiver should leave the power “on” for even when it does not have enough data to compute a location yet. For instance - if the receiver was on for 45 seconds and does not have enough data yet to send an accurate report...would an extra 25 seconds make enough of a difference?
We’ve optimized the Fi Collar for these exact operations - Fi uses GPS (US satellites) as well as GALILEO (EU satellites) and GLONASS (Russian satellites) to try to infer its own location as fast as possible and help your find your pup.
What is LTE-M?
LTE-M is the short name for the LTE CAT M1 network. Like the LTE used on cell phones, it’s a cellular network. The reason the Fi Collar needs to use a cellular network is because when your dog is lost, and out of reach of any Wi-Fi or owner’s cell phone, it will use GPS to compute its location, and then use the LTE-M network to send that location to Fi systems (and your Fi App).
As such it is always important for the collar to be able to access the network whenever it needs to.
Why is the Fi Collar not always connected to the LTE-M network?
As for GPS, connecting to a remote system requires the receiver to be turned “on” and powered by the battery. This operation is usually very costly on energy because the standard cellular networks were designed for your cell phones, and not tracking devices.
Cell phones need to always be reachable and are very heavy and big in size (which means they can have a large battery inside). People also usually recharge them every day, so they can use more battery for things like navigation.
On the other hand, tracking devices have very different constraints. We wanted the Fi Collar to be as small and light as possible (which means small battery) - in order to comfortably fit on your dog - and to only connect to the cellular network when needed in order to save battery. On pure LTE/3G/4G networks it unfortunately isn’t really possible to “only connect to the network when needed”. The connection operation requires a lot of data exchange, and so disconnecting/reconnecting to the network uses as much battery as basically staying connected to the network!
LTE-M solves this constraint - by allowing the devices connected to the network to specify when they will come alive on the network and use it. This allows for use cases where a receiver can “go to sleep” for a period of time, and come back alive on the network (and only then use its battery) when it needs to.
That’s how the Fi Collar achieves its incredible battery life. By combining logic for the collar to determine how to optimize the acquisition of a GPS location, and logic for how long to ‘go to sleep’ for vs. being connected to the LTE-M network, Fi can achieve 20x more battery life than previous generations of tracking devices.
While the hardware to support LTE-M is not that different, we took 2 years to develop and refine the nuances in the software to allow for these performances. That is also why other LTE-M devices coming to market now do not have the same kind of performance - the power savings are all in our proprietary algorithms. |
Drivers.Tips
Asus N53Jn Drivers
Here you can download Asus N53Jn drivers right to a place where you know where it is so that you can make your device run the way your device should run. Device drivers are little text files that has the necessary computer code from the device manufacturer so that the PC can interpret it and understand it so that the PC can utilize the hardware that the driver file pertains to. Without these drivers the hardware is pointless and will not work as it should. You need the proper driver files downloaded and correctly installed on your Windows computer so you can make use of this piece of hardware.
Almost all devices should have drivers associated with them and needs to be installed in order for the hardware to be utilized. These particular devices can be a mouse, hard disk drive, cell phone or anything else that can be connected to the pc.
• BRAND: Asus
• MODEL: N53Jn
• SYSTEM TYPE: Personal Computer
• OS: Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, 10
So as each device is different, there are a great many different driver files, as well. This is the reason why it may be hard to locate your Asus N53Jn drivers. For example, every USB drive made by Corsaire has to have their very own driver installed onto the Windows computer in order to function properly. You can see why it can be quite difficult to find drivers available only for a specific brand of hardware devices.
Finding and downloading the proper driver can be an excruciating experience, at best. Here are a few things you need to know before you embark on your journey to the other side.
1. Who made it? (if it is actually on the motherboard then you just need the brand of the computer)
2. Next, the model number.
3. Your operating system on your computer. (for Windows type computers right-click on "My Computer" or aka "Computer" and then left-click on "Properties". )
4. Is your OS 64 or 32 bit? (if a 64-bit operating system is installed on your computer, then it will say so in the information window that opens from right-clicking on "My Computer" or "Computer" and then left-clicking on "Properties". )
You need to figure out the device brand and model number as well as the Windows OS version that you are going to install the device driver files onto. Once you have accurate info about the piece of hardware that you want to install, you should look online for your specific Asus N53Jn drivers and get them downloaded and installed on your PC.
Recent versions of MS Windows (MS Windows 7, 8, 8.1, and 10) will do most of work for you and will try to install all necessary device driver file on its own. There may be an occasion or two in that one would have to actually hunt for the N53Jn driver file that was not able to be installed automatically. It is most likely the reason why you came here!
A good portion of brand name devices and hardware have device drivers able to be downloaded from their company website or server for use by the public. Not all hardware brand websites are all that simple to hunt down and search for. Some manufacturers do not take the time to think about the average consumer and the difficulty involved in installing Asus N53Jn drivers manually. A lot of consumers have a hard time figuring out which driver they should be hunting for and struggling to find their way through a poorly constructed website can be somewhat trying , to say the least.
Be attentive if you ever download N53Jn driver and software from suspicious looking sites. It would be best to stick with the manufacturer's website if you can. Spyware and viruses can be attached to drivers and other common files. Installing a N53Jn driver is one of the worst things a person can do if it ended up to be a virus. Even the greatest anti-virus software can kill ALL viruses on the Internet. This is why you should always download drivers from the device maker's website. Their websites are safer and more reliable than anyone else's.
After you searched, found and then obtained the real driver for your device, you should be able to then install the driver. After getting from online you might have to uncompress the file if the file extension is either .zip or .rar. Once the file is uncompressed you should install the driver. If you are unable to run the program you must do it manually.
The best way to install Asus N53Jn drivers:
1. On the Windows desktop, Right-click on "My Computer" or "Computer". Left-click on "Manage".
2. After the window pops up, go ahead and left-click on "Device Manager". You should now see all the devices that are connected to your computer system.
3. Double-click on anything with a yellow exclamation point. A new box will pop up.
4. Look for a "Driver" tab and click on it.
5. Click on the "Update Driver" button.
6. If asked to locate the driver on your hard drive, tell the computer that the Asus N53Jn driver is located in your downloads folder.
7. Once finished, reboot the computer.
Use the link below to download Asus N53Jn drivers.
Download Asus N53Jn Drivers
We make every effort to make sure every link is working as it should. |
Ciba Foundation Symposium 152 - The Biology of Nicotine Dependence
Ciba Foundation Symposium 152 - The Biology of Nicotine Dependence
Editor(s): Greg Bock, Joan Marsh
Published Online: 28 SEP 2007
Print ISBN: 9780471926887
Online ISBN: 9780470513965
DOI: 10.1002/9780470513965
About this Book
Nicotine is considered to be the main agent in the maintenance of the tobacco smoking habit and is largely responsible for the behavioral and physiological responses to the inhalation of tobacco smoke. This work presents advances made in the elucidation of the action of nicotine in the body--essential information for developing treatments to help people give up smoking. The book reviews the progress made in identifying nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain, using the techniques of molecular biology to characterize receptors and investigate the functional differences between receptors composed of different types of subunits. Sex-specific differences in the response to nicotine, the effects of nicotine on locomotor activity, and its still-debated influence on cognitive performance are considered. The book also examines the habit-forming role of nicotine, the development of tolerance to nicotine, and the less clearly understood phenomenon of withdrawal. Also discusses some potential therapeutic strategies.
Table of contents
1. You have free access to this content
2. Regulation of Endocrine Function by the Nicotinic Cholinergic Receptor (pages 113–130)
K. Fuxe, L. F. Agnati, A. Jansson, G. von Euler, S. Tanganelli, K. Andersson and P. Eneroth
3. You have free access to this content
4. You have free access to this content
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1. Welcome to myturbodiesel.com, if this is your first visit, please read 1000 answered questions - TDI FAQ, DIY, and Wiki by clicking the link here or in the navigation bar above. Click the "Sign up Now" button to the right to create an account, registration is fast and free.
2. After you create a free account, every subforum has reply boxes. Here is a thread showing how to create an account or post a new question, shown with pictures
Engine oil and filter change- B5 VW Passat TDI
Dec 6, 2013
Engine oil and filter change- B5 VW Passat TDI
• How to change the engine oil VW Passat TDI
difficulty: 2/5
back to 1000q: B5.5 VW Passat TDI "how to" index
Introduction
Here are tips and DIY steps to change the engine oil on your VW Passat TDI (2004-2005).
When the correct synthetic engine oil is used on your 2.0L BHW TDI engine the change interval with filter change is 10,000 miles. Note: 5w-40 engine oil designed for pumpe duse engines (VW 505.1 specificiation) works well in these engines but ultimately the oil you use is up to you. See 1000q: engine oil for pumpe duse to see some notes on why certain engine oils were specified for pumpe duse engines.
You could use an oil extractor pump to suck the oil out through the dipstick but I prefer to get under the car. This lets you inspect the area and also drains the bottom of the pan better. It also gets more old oil out.
Parts
oil catch/drain pan
paper towels and kitty litter/driveway spill absorber to clean up spills
17 or 18mm wrench
oil capacity: 3.8L with oil filter, 3.3 without oil filter change
Oil filter wrench VW tool# 3417 or metalnerd MN341700 or equivalent (pictured below)
oil filter VW# 074 115 562 from kermatdi, from metalmanparts[IMG]
Caution - some oil filters were manufactured with the "top" label on the bottom! When you remove the old filter, note how it fits. The new one should fit the same. It will not fit correctly upside down.
For reference, below is an exploded diagram of the BHW Volkswagen diesel TDI engine.
[IMG]
Here is TDI Hoo's review of the Assenmacher oil funnel (click to enlarge gallery)
oil-funnel.jpg oil-funnel-2.jpg oil-funnel-3.jpg oil-funnel-4.jpg oil-funnel-5.jpg
DIY oil change procedure
It's best to do an oil change on a lukewarm engine. The warm engine will let the engine oil flow out easily and it shouldn't be hot enough to scald you.
Raise the front of the car securely. Rest the car on jack stands, chock the rear wheels, and make sure the front of the car is safe and stable before getting underneath. See the TOS Agreement for the full legal disclaimer. You can also rest the front wheels on wood blocks, see 1000q: wood blocks for more details.
Remove the front splash pan. It's 5 fasteners + a 10mm nut on the bottom, 2 on each side. Do not mix the locations of the fasteners, see 1000q: splash shield fastener list for more details.
Place the oil drain pan underneath the oil drain.
Loosen the oil drain plug (circled in yellow below) by turning it counterclockwise. Caution - the oil drain plug is the 17 or 18mm hex (6 sided) bolt on the aluminum silvery pan under the engine. Do not remove the allen head plugs on the black pan under the transmission - that will drain the transmission! As it is removed, be prepared for a stream of warm oil to come out.
[IMG]
Above the car, remove the 3x 10mm nuts holding the plastic engine cover. Loosen the oil filter cap by turning it counterclockwise, as highlighted below.
[IMG]
Remove it - the oil filter is attached. Caution - some oil filters were manufactured with the "top" label on the bottom! When you remove the old filter, note how it fits - the new filter should be the same. It will not fit correctly upside down.
[IMG]
You can use an oil extractor or vacuum pump to suck the old oil out of the filter housing. There's lots of oil there which will not be normally get drained.
[IMG]
Remove the old o-rings and filter from the oil filter cap and put on the new ones. Lubricate them with oil. Note which side is "top" on the filter. It should fit the same as the one that was removed.
[IMG]
The rest of installation is the reverse of removal. If there's a leak on the oil pan drain plug cut off the washer and replace, otherwise leave it alone. Use kitty litter or driveway stain absorber to soak up any spills. Do not dump used engine oil into the ground or water! Earth911.com can find your local waste drop off. Your local garage or auto parts store also accepts used engine oil.
Torque specs
oil pan drain plug: 22 ft-lb
oil filter cap: 19 ft-lb
If you need more DIY advice, feel free to ask your question in the VW Passat TDI discussion forum.
Vacuum oil extraction on a VW Passat TDI
If you wish to use an oil extractor, this is acceptable and easier since you don't have to get under the engine to remove the splash pan. All you have to do is put the oil extractor tube into the oil pan through the dipstick and suck the oil out. The engine must be warm or else the cold oil will be too vicious. Once you think you're done, move the tube around to suck up the corners. Also insert the extractor through the oil filter housing down into the oil cooler to get it all out. TDILow3 made an oil extractor storage sleeve using some PVC piping to keep the tubing clean. Here is a .pdf showing the project:
• Loading... |
Remember: Always Sleep on The Left Side of The Body! Here’s Why
remember-always-sleep-on-the-left-side-of-the-body-heres-why
To really cure your body should get enough sleep. Compared to any medicine or natural remedy, sleep could be the most powerful and effective in healing your body. Sleep helps replenish energy, boost your immune system, rest your brain, improve memory, and reduce any pain you are experiencing.
Besides sleep improves longevity, increases alertness and improves learning and creativity. The underlying reason for sleep is so important for healing is because neurotransmitters and hormones related to wound healing and repair are released in large quantities during sleep.
Usually, the average adult requires seven to nine hours of sleep per night; However, these numbers increase when our body needs to heal.
deprivation
Sleep can not only prolong the healing process, but it can actually make the pain and suffering experienced worse. Lack of sleep can increase the pain. This is because the sympathetic nervous system is forced to work harder, which raises levels of the stress hormone cortisol.
also negatively it affects the hormones responsible for healing your body. Lack of sleep can also affect the body’s ability to metabolize glucose, impair memory and learning, increase inflammation, impair cognitive function and the impact on your appetite, all of which hinders your body to heal itself correctly.
Most people are unaware of the fact that sleep position plays an important role in overall health, especially for the digestive system.
Even in ancient times, monks used to lying down after meals to aid digestion.
Ayurvedic medicine, which is the oldest of Oriental Medicine, confirms this as well, and is recommended to sleep on the left side of the body.
Ayurveda suggests that there are numerous reasons why you should practice to sleep on the left side, because:
• improves digestion
• contributes to the function healthy spleen
• improving the disposal of dangerous substances
• supports lymphatic drainage
• promotes blood flow to the heart,
• contributing to a freer flow of bile
• helps the heart to send blood down ..
more than a third of the population is not getting enough sleep. It is not healthy to be drained and fatigued all day, caffeinated drinks sugar craving and rushes, but it is certainly too common. Unfortunately, fatigue has been accepted as part of Western life.
Make sure you are not only getting the proper amount of sleep, but you are sleeping properly too!
The Remember: Always sleep on the left side of The Body! Here’s why first appeared in Way To Nature Life .
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Please note that the automatic score is based on tests carried out automatically. About 20% of the conceivable tests can be automated, and the tool covers a part of these tests. The score from user tests are based on a limited set of questions and will also not cover all possible tests. Therefore, the evaluated pages may contain barriers not reported by any of the tools. For reference see the list of. currently implemented tests. Full disclaimer.
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Test Detail: Provide a title using the title element (H25)
(Test for Success Criterion 2.4.2: Page Titled)
Verification required The title of the page is missing (1 occurrence)
Test Detail: Primary language of page (SC3-1-1-html)
(Test for Success Criterion 3.1.1: Language of Page)
Verification required No language attribute found. (1 occurrence)
1. Path: html
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<html style="height:100%">
Test Detail: Define ids for elements (SC4-1-1-id)
(Test for Success Criterion 4.1.1: Parsing)
Verification required The ID is valid (1 occurrence)
Test Detail: Use the title for frame and iframe elements (H64)
(Test for Success Criterion 4.1.2: Name, Role, Value)
Verification required The name of the frame is missing (1 occurrence)
1. Path: <not available>
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<iframe id="main-iframe" src="/_Incapsula_Resource?SWUDNSAI=30&xinfo=12-236814061-0%200NNN%20RT%281575378985376%200%29%20q%280%20-1%20-1%20-1%29%20r%280%20-1%29%20B12%284%2c316%2c0%29%20U18&incident_id=1184000550431758244-788525402571146108&edet=12&cinfo=04000000&rpinfo=0" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="100%" marginheight="0px" marginwidth="0px"> |
cPanel & WHM Version 108 has been released, and brings a slew of great updates. Take a look at what is included, and then upgrade today!
Ability to offer round-robin and 'lowest number of accounts' IP allocation to accounts.
MikeDVB shared this idea 10 years ago
Open Discussion
Over the years we've seen our fair share of DDoS attacks and, as such, we do our best to evenly load our IP addresses with accounts, or to at least not load them all onto one IP. In the event that we need to null-route an IP which is, unfortunately due to the increasingly malicious state of the internet, becoming more and more common.
To help prevent everybody from going offline in the event of a null route we currently update the "Main Shared IP" in "Basic Setup" in WHM from time to time so that new accounts are created on new IPs and functionally this does the job. There is the side-effect that there are no default virtual hosts for anything but the current 'main shared IP', but I've submitted another feature request for that.
Beyond that, what I would love to see is the ability to specify a list of IP addresses instead of a 'main shared IP' that can be used whenever the reseller doesn't have a specific shared IP or the account is being created as root.
This could be similar to IP delegation to a reseller in that it could list IPs and let you check them off as needed.
Additionally an option to choose how it allocates sites to this IP would be great. Say you have 0.0.0.1 through 0.0.0.5 checked. You could choose 'lowest population' where it looks at all 5 IPs, and places the account on the IP with the least number of accounts assigned. You could also do 'round robin' where it adds one account at a time to each IP and moves to the next. I.e. Account1<-0.0.0.1, Account2<-0.0.0.2, Account5<-0.0.0.5, Account6<-0.0.0.1, etc.
The default option should be to use a single main IP as it is now, but if a provider does wish to spread accounts across a few IPs in an automated fashion - they should have the ability to do so in my opinion.
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This would indeed be great.
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How/when does Amazon calculate how much I will have to pay for EBS?
I accidentally created a 100 GiB EBS volume and deleted it after 20 mins when I realized what I had done, does it mean I will be charged $10 at the end of the month?
It's been a couple of hours and it doesn't look like I've been charged with anything.
share|improve this question
3 Answers 3
up vote 12 down vote accepted
EBS is charged hourly and it's against what you allocate. The snapshots are supposed to only be what you've used within the allocation. For 100GB it'll get rounded up to a whole hour's usage and assuming the East or West region you should warn your bank about the incoming charge of about $0.02.
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This makes sense, thanks! – mak Nov 3 '10 at 7:00
+1 for warn your bank about 2¢ – Jordan Arseno Jan 7 at 19:19
EBS storage is not an hourly charge but a monthly. Even if you have all of your instances powered off you are still charged for your EBS usage.
share|improve this answer
EBS charges for space that you've allocated; so if you use 1GB on a 100GB volume, you'll be charged for 100GB. The clencher here is that you get charged on an hourly basis. I.e., 100GB would be $10 monthly, meaning if you kept the 100GB instance up for an hour, you'd be charged $0.0000039 for use.
If you store a SNAPSHOT, you'll be charged for the data that you actually use--because the snapshot process ignores empty pages. Take a look at the last section on the EBS page for details.
share|improve this answer
You're absolutely right; however, I found out why I wasn't charged anything either (or at least, nothing more than a penny). I have reverted my answer. – Andrew M. Nov 3 '10 at 12:18
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Wafer-level fabrication of an EWOD-driven micropump
Conference: MikroSystemTechnik Kongress 2021 - Kongress
11/08/2021 - 11/10/2021 at Stuttgart-Ludwigsburg, Deutschland
Proceedings: MikroSystemTechnik Kongress 2021
Pages: 4Language: englishTyp: PDF
Authors:
Phi, Hai Binh (5microns GmbH, Ilmenau, Germany & Fachgebiet Mikrosystemtechnik, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany & nstitut für Mikro- und Nanotechnologien, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany)
Bohm, Sebastian (5microns GmbH, Ilmenau, Germany & Fachgebiet Theoretische Physik I, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany & Institut für Mikro- und Nanotechnologien, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany)
Runge, Erich (Fachgebiet Theoretische Physik I, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany & nstitut für Mikro- und Nanotechnologien, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany)
Strehle, Steffen (Fachgebiet Mikrosystemtechnik, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany & Institut für Mikro- und Nanotechnologien, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany)
Dittrich, Lars (5microns GmbH, Ilmenau, Germany)
Abstract:
This paper presents a fabrication process of a micropump solely driven by the electrowetting-on-dielectrics (short EWOD) effect. The novelty of this pump and its unique selling point lies in the absence of any moving parts through the implementation of passive Tesla valves and the application of the EWOD effect as actuation method. However, the economic potential of a micropump concept is crucially determined by its fabrication process. Thus, an efficient process had to be developed which ideally does not require assembly steps on chip-level. Such a fabrication process on wafer-level using adapted standard microfabrication techniques is presented here. Only two substrates are required to create a costefficient and robust micropump that does not require extensive assembly on chip-level. Thus, the micropump can easily be integrated into existing microfluidic systems without further piping or the like. |
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• 1,132 Views
DO180 Ch06S02 quiz question
Taking D0180, I picked A, but answer is B? cluster admin creates storageclass, users with admin/edit can create PVC. what am I not getting?'
4.
Which statement is correct regarding persistent storage in OpenShift and Kubernetes?
A
A PVC represents a storage area that a pod can use to store data and is provisioned by the application developer.
B
A PVC represents a storage area that can be requested by a pod to store data but is provisioned by the cluster administrator.
C
A PVC represents the amount of memory that can be allocated to a node, so that a developer can state how much memory he requires for his application to run.
D
A PVC represents the number of CPU processing units that can be allocated to an application pod, subject to a limit managed by the cluster administrator.
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Fran_Garcia
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I guess the wrong bit in A is this : "is provisioned by the application developer."
Using Openshift, the storage resources are provisioned transparently to the application developers (ie, they don't need to log into an NFS server, create a share, etc), and thus B is more accurate. Openshift can also provision storage automatically, but that's a cluster administrator responsibility, and not an individual delopver's.
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===================== SQLALCHEMY UNIT TESTS ===================== SQLAlchemy unit tests by default run using Python's built-in sqlite3 module. If running on Python 2.4, pysqlite must be installed. Unit tests are run using nose. Nose is available at:: http://pypi.python.org/pypi/nose/ SQLAlchemy implements a nose plugin that must be present when tests are run. This plugin is invoked when the test runner script provided with SQLAlchemy is used. **NOTE:** - the nose plugin is no longer installed by setuptools as of version 0.7 ! Use "python setup.py test" or "./sqla_nose.py". RUNNING TESTS VIA SETUP.PY -------------------------- A plain vanilla run of all tests using sqlite can be run via setup.py: $ python setup.py test The -v flag also works here:: $ python setup.py test -v RUNNING ALL TESTS ------------------ To run all tests:: $ ./sqla_nose.py If you're running the tests on Microsoft Windows, then there is an additional argument that must be passed to ./sqla_nose.py:: > ./sqla_nose.py --first-package-wins This is required because nose's importer will normally evict a package from sys.modules if it sees a package with the same name in a different location. Setting this argument disables that behavior. Assuming all tests pass, this is a very unexciting output. To make it more interesting:: $ ./sqla_nose.py -v RUNNING INDIVIDUAL TESTS ------------------------- Any directory of test modules can be run at once by specifying the directory path:: $ ./sqla_nose.py test/dialect Any test module can be run directly by specifying its module name:: $ ./sqla_nose.py test.orm.test_mapper To run a specific test within the module, specify it as module:ClassName.methodname:: $ ./sqla_nose.py test.orm.test_mapper:MapperTest.test_utils COMMAND LINE OPTIONS -------------------- Help is available via --help:: $ ./sqla_nose.py --help The --help screen is a combination of common nose options and options which the SQLAlchemy nose plugin adds. The most commonly SQLAlchemy-specific options used are '--db' and '--dburi'. DATABASE TARGETS ---------------- Tests will target an in-memory SQLite database by default. To test against another database, use the --dburi option with any standard SQLAlchemy URL:: --dburi=postgresql://user:password@localhost/test Use an empty database and a database user with general DBA privileges. The test suite will be creating and dropping many tables and other DDL, and preexisting tables will interfere with the tests. Several tests require alternate usernames or schemas to be present, which are used to test dotted-name access scenarios. On some databases such as Oracle or Sybase, these are usernames, and others such as Postgresql and MySQL they are schemas. The requirement applies to all backends except SQLite and Firebird. The names are:: test_schema test_schema_2 (only used on Postgresql) Please refer to your vendor documentation for the proper syntax to create these namespaces - the database user must have permission to create and drop tables within these schemas. Its perfectly fine to run the test suite without these namespaces present, it only means that a handful of tests which expect them to be present will fail. Additional steps specific to individual databases are as follows:: MYSQL: Default storage engine should be "MyISAM". Tests that require "InnoDB" as the engine will specify this explicitly. ORACLE: a user named "test_schema" is created. The primary database user needs to be able to create and drop tables, synonyms, and constraints within the "test_schema" user. For this to work fully, including that the user has the "REFERENCES" role in a remote schema for tables not yet defined (REFERENCES is per-table), it is required that the test the user be present in the "DBA" role: grant dba to scott; SYBASE: Similar to Oracle, "test_schema" is created as a user, and the primary test user needs to have the "sa_role". It's also recommended to turn on "trunc log on chkpt" and to use a separate transaction log device - Sybase basically seizes up when the transaction log is full otherwise. A full series of setup assuming sa/master: disk init name="translog", physname="/opt/sybase/data/translog.dat", size="10M" create database sqlalchemy on default log on translog="10M" sp_dboption sqlalchemy, "trunc log on chkpt", true sp_addlogin scott, "tiger7" sp_addlogin test_schema, "tiger7" use sqlalchemy sp_adduser scott sp_adduser test_schema grant all to scott sp_role "grant", sa_role, scott Sybase will still freeze for up to a minute when the log becomes full. To manually dump the log:: dump tran sqlalchemy with truncate_only MSSQL: Tests that involve multiple connections require Snapshot Isolation ability implemented on the test database in order to prevent deadlocks that will occur with record locking isolation. This feature is only available with MSSQL 2005 and greater. You must enable snapshot isolation at the database level and set the default cursor isolation with two SQL commands: ALTER DATABASE MyDatabase SET ALLOW_SNAPSHOT_ISOLATION ON ALTER DATABASE MyDatabase SET READ_COMMITTED_SNAPSHOT ON MSSQL+zxJDBC: Trying to run the unit tests on Windows against SQL Server requires using a test.cfg configuration file as the cmd.exe shell won't properly pass the URL arguments into the nose test runner. If you'll be running the tests frequently, database aliases can save a lot of typing. The --dbs option lists the built-in aliases and their matching URLs:: $ ./sqla_nose.py --dbs Available --db options (use --dburi to override) mysql mysql://scott:tiger@127.0.0.1:3306/test oracle oracle://scott:tiger@127.0.0.1:1521 postgresql postgresql://scott:tiger@127.0.0.1:5432/test [...] To run tests against an aliased database:: $ ./sqla_nose.py --db=postgresql To customize the URLs with your own users or hostnames, create a file called `test.cfg` at the top level of the SQLAlchemy source distribution. This file is in Python config format, and contains a [db] section which lists out additional database configurations:: [db] postgresql=postgresql://myuser:mypass@localhost/mydb Your custom entries will override the defaults and you'll see them reflected in the output of --dbs. CONFIGURING LOGGING ------------------- SQLAlchemy logs its activity and debugging through Python's logging package. Any log target can be directed to the console with command line options, such as:: $ ./sqla_nose.py test.orm.unitofwork --log-info=sqlalchemy.orm.mapper \ --log-debug=sqlalchemy.pool --log-info=sqlalchemy.engine This would log mapper configuration, connection pool checkouts, and SQL statement execution. BUILT-IN COVERAGE REPORTING ------------------------------ Coverage is tracked using Nose's coverage plugin. See the nose documentation for details. Basic usage is:: $ ./sqla_nose.py test.sql.test_query --with-coverage BIG COVERAGE TIP !!! There is an issue where existing .pyc files may store the incorrect filepaths, which will break the coverage system. If coverage numbers are coming out as low/zero, try deleting all .pyc files. DEVELOPING AND TESTING NEW DIALECTS ----------------------------------- See the new file README.dialects.rst for detail on dialects. |
chron v2.3-14
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by Kurt Hornik
Chronological objects which can handle dates and times
Chronological objects which can handle dates and times
Functions in chron
Name Description
chron Create a Chronological Object
chron-internal Internal chron objects
days Return Various Periods from a Chron or Dates Object
dates Generate Dates and Times Components from Input
hours Return Hours, Minutes, or Seconds from a Times Object
trunc.times Truncate times Objects
day.of.week Convert between Julian and Calendar Dates
cut.dates Create a Factor from a Chron or Dates Object
seq.dates Generate Chron or Dates Sequences
is.holiday Find Weekends and Holidays in a Chron or Dates Object
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Date 2007-07-12
License GPL-2
Packaged Fri Jul 13 00:02:04 2007; hornik
Include our badge in your README
[](http://www.rdocumentation.org/packages/chron) |
Searched defs:details (Results 1 - 6 of 6) sorted by relevance
/PHP_5_5/ext/xmlrpc/libxmlrpc/
H A Dxml_to_soap.c58 #define TOKEN_SOAP_FAULTDETAILS "details"
221 const char* actor, const char* details) {
227 XMLRPC_CreateValueString(TOKEN_SOAP_FAULTDETAILS, details, 0),
220 gen_soap_fault(const char* fault_code, const char* fault_string, const char* actor, const char* details) argument
/PHP_5_5/ext/soap/
H A Dphp_encoding.h185 encodeType details; member in struct:_encode
H A Dphp_packet_soap.c183 zval *details = NULL; local
208 details = master_to_zval(NULL, tmp TSRMLS_CC);
232 details = master_to_zval(NULL, tmp TSRMLS_CC);
235 add_soap_fault(this_ptr, faultcode, faultstring, faultactor, details TSRMLS_CC);
242 if (details) {
243 Z_DELREF_P(details);
277 name = param->encode->details.type_str;
278 ns = param->encode->details.ns;
H A Dphp_sdl.h224 HashTable *details; /* array of sdlParamPtr */ member in struct:_sdlFault
H A Dsoap.c54 static void soap_server_fault(char* code, char* string, char *actor, zval* details, char *name TSRMLS_DC);
286 ZEND_ARG_INFO(0, details)
546 if (defaultEncoding[i].details.type_str) {
547 if (defaultEncoding[i].details.ns != NULL) {
549 spprintf(&ns_type, 0, "%s:%s", defaultEncoding[i].details.ns, defaultEncoding[i].details.type_str);
553 zend_hash_add(&defEnc, defaultEncoding[i].details.type_str, strlen(defaultEncoding[i].details.type_str) + 1, &enc, sizeof(encodePtr), NULL);
557 if (!zend_hash_index_exists(&defEncIndex, defaultEncoding[i].details.type)) {
558 zend_hash_index_update(&defEncIndex, defaultEncoding[i].details
851 zval *code = NULL, *details = NULL, *headerfault = NULL; local
2004 zval* details = NULL; local
2107 soap_server_fault(char* code, char* string, char *actor, zval* details, char* name TSRMLS_DC) argument
[all...]
/PHP_5_5/ext/standard/
H A Dbasic_functions.c5350 int details = va_arg(args, int); local
5360 if (details) {
5393 /* {{{ proto array ini_get_all([string extension[, bool details = true]])
5400 zend_bool details = 1; local
5402 if (zend_parse_parameters(ZEND_NUM_ARGS() TSRMLS_CC, "|s!b", &extname, &extname_len, &details) == FAILURE) {
5417 zend_hash_apply_with_arguments(EG(ini_directives) TSRMLS_CC, (apply_func_args_t) php_ini_get_option, 2, return_value, extnumber, details);
Completed in 17 milliseconds |
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Usually I feel pretty confident with SQL queries, however this one has me scratching my head. I feel like this -should- be a quick fix, but I'm just not seeing it.
I'm trying to do a count on multiple values on the same table, in one query.
Don't mind the "0000000000000000" it's just representing an empty byte array.
Is there an easy way to combine these queries?
SELECT COUNT(ssn)
FROM patients
WHERE ssn="0000000000000000";
SELECT COUNT(firstname)
FROM patients
WHERE firstname="0000000000000000"
SELECT COUNT(lastname)
FROM patients
WHERE lastname="0000000000000000"
etc...
share|improve this question
4 Answers 4
up vote 2 down vote accepted
You can do something like this -
SELECT COUNT(ssn) AS patient_count, 'ssn' AS count_type
FROM patients
WHERE ssn="0000000000000000";
UNION
SELECT COUNT(firstname) AS patient_count, 'firstname' AS count_type
FROM patients
WHERE firstname="0000000000000000"
UNION
SELECT COUNT(lastname) AS patient_count, 'lastname' AS count_type
FROM patients
WHERE lastname="0000000000000000"
share|improve this answer
Is there a way I can then pivot the table? I mean it would be nicer to have my tiles as headers, not values. – theangryhornet Sep 1 '11 at 19:57
2
You could put UNION ALL instead of UNION, just to save the SQL server a bit of redundant work. – James Sep 1 '11 at 19:57
Try with UNION
SELECT COUNT(ssn)
FROM patients
WHERE ssn="0000000000000000";
UNION
SELECT COUNT(firstname)
FROM patients
WHERE firstname="0000000000000000"
UNION
SELECT COUNT(lastname)
FROM patients
WHERE lastname="0000000000000000"
share|improve this answer
2
You'd want to use UNION ALL here. If two (or even all three) counts happen to be the same, UNION would eliminate them as duplicates. – Joe Stefanelli Sep 1 '11 at 19:55
Not sure if I like this one, as you can't distinguish which counts are which. – theangryhornet Sep 1 '11 at 19:55
you could put another column with the description to solve this – Vitor Furlanetti Sep 1 '11 at 19:58
SELECT SUM(CASE WHEN ssn = '0000000000000000' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) AS ssn_count,
SUM(CASE WHEN firstname = '0000000000000000' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) AS first_count,
SUM(CASE WHEN lastname = '0000000000000000' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) AS last_count
FROM patients
WHERE ssn = '0000000000000000'
OR firstname = '0000000000000000'
OR lastname = '0000000000000000'
share|improve this answer
That's pretty darned cool. How do you think it compares in performance to the "union" solutions below? – Marvo Sep 1 '11 at 19:51
3
@Marvo: My standard answer is try both and compare. I'd assume this would be better as it's 1 select vs. 3. – Joe Stefanelli Sep 1 '11 at 19:53
very interesting approach! – theangryhornet Sep 1 '11 at 19:54
1
I guess it depends on how it gets executed; e.g. it might be one full table scan, rather than three index range scans, which could be very different, depending on the table contents. – James Sep 1 '11 at 20:01
Thanks, @Joe. I wonder if you'd be guaranteed a table scan with this solution, or if it could make effective use of indexes. So yeah, performance might be situation dependent. Still, very cool. – Marvo Sep 1 '11 at 20:01
I guess this would work?
SELECT *
FROM
(SELECT COUNT(ssn) AS ssn_count
FROM patients
WHERE ssn="0000000000000000") AS ssn
CROSS JOIN
(SELECT COUNT(firstname) AS firstname_count
FROM patients
WHERE firstname="0000000000000000") AS firstname
CROSS JOIN
(SELECT COUNT(lastname) AS lastname_count
FROM patients
WHERE lastname="0000000000000000") AS lastname
share|improve this answer
Your Answer
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1
\$\begingroup\$
I have multiple models which all have the same functions in my framework. I decided to create one "parent" model and all of my other models would extend and inherit its functions like this.
My other models would be like this:
class Games_model extends MY_Model {
protected $table = 'games';
protected $_default_select = array();
protected $_default_join = array();
public function __construct() {
$this->_default_select = array(
$this->table.'.*',
$this->table.'.id as id',
$this->table.'.name as name',
'categories.id as cat_id',
'categories.name AS cat_name'
);
$this->_default_join = array('categories', 'categories.id = fiches.console_id', 'left');
}
}
Here's how I use it:
$this->games_model->limit(30,0)->where(array('categorie_id' => 1))->get_list()->result();
Is it a better idea to do like that or to have all the code of MY_Model in Games_model?
\$\endgroup\$
1
• \$\begingroup\$ Always a good idea have intermediate layer of classes that hold the same behaviour for child classes, but read my answer below for more details of your implementation. \$\endgroup\$ May 24, 2014 at 17:24
1 Answer 1
2
\$\begingroup\$
Well, having a parent model that is extended for all your model classes is always a good idea if they all share the same behaviour and help you with your development. I have implemented a similar approximation within my models and I'm doing something similar to what you do, but instead of writing the query in the controller, I call to the model to handle the retrieve of the data.
Doing as you do it, you have to write all the time the same kind of query in your controller, losing the MVC pattern. Let's say you want to retrieve the values of categories, in a point of your controller you'd have:
$this->games_model->limit(30,0)->where(array('categorie_id' => 1))->get_list()->result();
If you want to retrieve the categories in other line of your controller, you'll have to write the same sentence, and... what if, in some point of your development, you wanted to change the field categorie_id to, let's say, super_categorie_id? You'd have to do it in all the calls in your application code... You lost all the value the M in MVC is offering, isolate management of data in the Model layer.
So, I'd keep the extension, but writing the methods for reading with is proper filters INSIDE of the child class, and pass it only the data not needed for filtering (as limit) as a parameter, and set them to a default.
I don't know if I clearly explained myself, any doubt write a comment, ;D
\$\endgroup\$
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Documentation
Overview
Package graph implements handling of the groups graph.
Such graphs are built from list of AuthGroup proto messages that reference each other by name.
Index
Constants
This section is empty.
Variables
This section is empty.
Functions
This section is empty.
Types
type Graph
type Graph struct {
Nodes []Node // all graph nodes
NodesByName map[string]NodeIndex // name => index in Nodes
}
Graph is a static group graph optimized for traversals.
Not safe for concurrent use.
func Build
func Build(groups []*protocol.AuthGroup) (*Graph, error)
Build constructs the graph from a list of AuthGroup messages.
func (*Graph) Ancestors
func (g *Graph) Ancestors(n NodeIndex) NodeSet
Ancestors returns a set with 'n' and all groups that include it.
func (*Graph) Descendants
func (g *Graph) Descendants(n NodeIndex) NodeSet
Descendants returns a set with 'n' and all groups it includes.
func (*Graph) NodeByName
func (g *Graph) NodeByName(name string) *Node
NodeByName returns a node given its name or nil if not found.
func (*Graph) ToQueryable
func (g *Graph) ToQueryable() (*QueryableGraph, error)
ToQueryable converts the graph to a form optimized for IsMember queries.
func (*Graph) Visit
func (g *Graph) Visit(ns NodeSet, cb func(n *Node) error) error
Visit passes each node in the set to the callback (in arbitrary order).
Stops on a first error returning it as is. Panics if 'ns' has invalid indexes.
type Node
type Node struct {
*protocol.AuthGroup // the original group proto
Nested []NodeIndex // directly nested groups
Parents []NodeIndex // direct parent (nesting) groups
Index NodeIndex // index of this node within the graph's list of nodes
// contains filtered or unexported fields
}
Node is a node in a group graph.
type NodeIndex
type NodeIndex uint16
NodeIndex is an index of a node within graph's list of nodes.
Used essentially as a pointer that occupies x4 less memory than the real one.
Note: when changing the type, make sure to also change SortedNodeSet.MapKey and replace math.MaxUint16 in Build(...) with another bound.
type NodeSet
type NodeSet map[NodeIndex]struct{}
NodeSet is a set of nodes referred by their indexes.
func (NodeSet) Add
func (ns NodeSet) Add(n NodeIndex)
Add adds node 'n' to 'ns'.
func (NodeSet) Sort
func (ns NodeSet) Sort() SortedNodeSet
Sort converts the NodeSet to SortedNodeSet.
func (NodeSet) Update
func (ns NodeSet) Update(another NodeSet)
Update adds all nodes in 'another' to 'ns'.
type NodeSetDedupper
type NodeSetDedupper map[string]SortedNodeSet
NodeSetDedupper helps to find duplicate NodeSet's.
func (NodeSetDedupper) Dedup
func (nsd NodeSetDedupper) Dedup(ns NodeSet) SortedNodeSet
Dedup returns a sorted version of 'ns' (perhaps reusing an existing one).
type QueryableGraph
type QueryableGraph struct {
// contains filtered or unexported fields
}
QueryableGraph is a processed Graph optimized for IsMember queries and low memory footprint.
It is built from Graph via ToQueryable method. It is static once constructed and can be queried concurrently.
TODO(vadimsh): Optimize 'memberships' to take less memory. It turns out string keys are quite expensive in terms of memory: a totally empty preallocated map[identity.Identity]SortedNodeSet (with empty keys!) is already *half* the size of the fully populated one.
func BuildQueryable
func BuildQueryable(groups []*protocol.AuthGroup) (*QueryableGraph, error)
BuildQueryable constructs the queryable graph from a list of AuthGroups.
func (*QueryableGraph) GroupIndex
func (g *QueryableGraph) GroupIndex(group string) (idx NodeIndex, ok bool)
GroupIndex returns a NodeIndex of the group given its name.
func (*QueryableGraph) IsMember
func (g *QueryableGraph) IsMember(ident identity.Identity, group string) bool
IsMember returns true if the given identity belongs to the given group.
func (*QueryableGraph) IsMemberOfAny
func (g *QueryableGraph) IsMemberOfAny(ident identity.Identity, groups SortedNodeSet) bool
IsMemberOfAny returns true if the given identity belongs to any of the given groups.
Groups are given as a sorted slice of group indexes obtained via GroupIndex.
type SortedNodeSet
type SortedNodeSet []NodeIndex
SortedNodeSet is a compact representation of NodeSet as a sorted slice.
func (SortedNodeSet) Has
func (ns SortedNodeSet) Has(idx NodeIndex) bool
Has is true if 'idx' is in 'ns'.
func (SortedNodeSet) Intersects
func (a SortedNodeSet) Intersects(b SortedNodeSet) bool
Intersects is true if 'a' and 'b' have common elements.
func (SortedNodeSet) MapKey
func (ns SortedNodeSet) MapKey() string
MapKey converts 'ns' to a string that can be used as a map key.
Source Files |
/* AEPROPS Edit Properties File /* &severity &error &ignore /* /* Edit environment: /* LINESET COLOR.lin MARKERSET COLOR.mrk TEXTSET PLOTTER.txt SHADESET COLOR.shd /* ARCSNAP ON,0 GRAIN 0 NODESNAP CLOSEST,0 SECTIONSNAP NONE SETANGLE 0 SNAPPING CLOSEST,247.1655107594 WEEDTOLERANCE 0 /* ARCTYPE LINE INTERSECTARCS OFF DUPLICATEARCS YES /* DRAWSELECT ALL EDITDISTANCE 889.795838734 SELECTTYPE CLOSEST SETDRAWSYMBOL 0,yellow KEEPSELECT ON /* /* WEEDDRAW ON NODECOLOR NODE 4 NODECOLOR DANGLE 3 NODECOLOR PSEUDO 1 DRAWENVIRONMENT ALL OFF, ARC ON, NODE ON DANGLE SYMBOLITEM D:\XBVRDAM_100K\NOLINRESERVOIR\NLRVFLT ARC 2 SYMBOLITEM D:\BEAVER_DAM\BVRDAM_COMPILE\BD100K_FLT ARC 2 SYMBOLITEM D:\BEAVER_DAM\BVRDAM_COMPILE\BD100K_FM ARC 2 /* ANNOFIT OFF ANNOITEM KEYBOARD ANNOLEVEL 1 ANNOOFFSET 0 ANNOPOSITION LU ANNOSIZE 0 ANNOSYMBOL 1 ANNOTYPE POINT1 /* /* Command settings: &set .edit$copyp_dist = * &set .edit$movep_dist = * &set .edit$rotate_ang = * &set .edit$align_dist = * &set .edit$unsplit_item = NONE &set .edit$weedtol = 0 &set .edit$poly_dangle = 0 /* /* Miscellaneous: &DATE_FORMAT MDY// &set .edit$default_snaptol = 247.1655107594 &set .edit$default_weedtol = 49.43310215189 &set .edit$menutype = ICON /* |
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Logo of nihpaAbout Author manuscriptsSubmit a manuscriptHHS Public Access; Author Manuscript; Accepted for publication in peer reviewed journal;
ACS Macro Lett. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2014 March 19.
Published in final edited form as:
ACS Macro Lett. 2013 March 19; 2(3): 10.1021/mz300660t.
doi: 10.1021/mz300660t
PMCID: PMC3810285
NIHMSID: NIHMS449843
Poly(2 deoxy 2 methacrylamido glucopyranose) b Poly(methacrylate amine)s: Optimization of Diblock Glycopol ycations for Nucleic Acid Delivery
Abstract
An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is nihms-449843-f0001.jpg
A series of nine poly(2-deoxy-2-methacrylamido glucopyranose)-b-poly(methacrylate amine) diblock copolycations The cationic block was varied in length and in the degree of methyl group substitution (secondary, tertiary, quaternary) on the pendant amine in an effort to optimize the structure and activity for plasmid DNA delivery. Upon a thorough kinetic study of polymerization for each polymer, the glycopolymers were prepared with well-controlled Mn and Ð. The binding and colloidal stability of the polymer-pDNA nanocomplexes at different N/P ratios and in biological media has been investigated using gel electrophoresis and light scattering techniques. The toxicity and transfection efficiency of the polyplexes has been evaluated with Hep G2 (human liver hepatocellular carcinoma) cells; several polymers displayed excellent delivery and toxicity profiles justifying their further development for in vivo gene therapy.
Cationic polymers have been explored heavily in recent years as a promising modality for gene delivery.1,2 Many exciting advances have been made with polymeric delivery vehicles; yet more work is needed to further advance these systems towards the clinic.1,2 The anionic nature of polynucleotides [i.e., pDNA, small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA, and oligodeoxynucleotides] enables the electrostatic complexion with cationic polymers giving rise to nanoscale complexes termed polyplexes.3
Ideally, polymeric vehicles would efficiently bind nucleic acids to form colloidally stable polyplexes that have the ability to circulate in the blood, facilitate endocytosis into the targeted tissue, and ultimately release their cargo once inside the cell. In addition, the polyplexes must exhibit low cellular and immunotoxicity and avoid rapid clearance by the reticuloendothelial system. Polyplexes are typically formulated to encompass a slight net positive charge. This has been shown to increase endocytosis relative to the uptake of naked nucleic acid strands, which are often repelled by the negatively charged cell membrane.1e, f The polymer vehicles also promote in situ physical protection for the nucleic acid cargo against enzymatic degradation.3 The inclusion of a biocompatible component, most notably poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), has been reported to increase the stability of polyplexes in biological media.4 PEG has also been reported to diminish the exposure of a cationic shell, reducing aggregation with proteins in the blood.4 However, recent research revealed that this system contained drawbacks; particularly that PEG may induce an immunological response that results in accelerated clearance of the polyplexes after multiple injections.1b, 2b, 5
Recently, our labs have reported the synthesis of a new generation of block-copolycations, poly(2-deoxy-2-methacrylamido glucopyranose), that was copolymerized with poly(aminoethylmethacrylamide) P(MAG-b-AEMA) as the cationic component and explored for its gene delivery capabilities.2b,d When polyplexed with pDNA, this series of polymer vehicles prevented colloidal aggregation in both salt and serum-containing cell culture media.2b,d Polyplexes formed with those systems have been shown to exhibit low toxicity, as well as provide potential sites for functionalization along the polymer backbone though the hydroxyl groups of the sugars.2b,6 Glycopolymers are also advantageous in their ability to promote specific biological interactions such targeting to specific tissues.2b, 6 While excellent cellular uptake of these polyplexes was reported, the efficiency of pDNA expression and siRNA-mediated gene knockdown was highly dependent on the length of the charge block. The shorter charge block length (21 repeat units) only yielded pDNA expression, and the longer charge block length (48 repeat units) only displayed siRNA-mediated gene knockdown. It was hypothesized that the short block was needed to fully release pDNA for gene expression, and the longer charged block was needed to fully complex and protect short strands of siRNA from degradation.
To further understand the role of charge type and block length of polymer gene delivery vehicles, a family of copolymers was generated comprising polyMAG and polymethacrylates of various block lengths bearing secondary, tertiary, and quaternary amine functionalities. To address the inability of the acrylamide-containing P(MAG-b-AEMA) to release its genetic material, polymethacrylates were investigated. In general, methacrylates are more susceptible to hydrolysis than acrylamides, which may result in the destabilization of the polyplexes and allow for the release of genetic material.7d Polyplex cytotoxicity and transfection efficiency were then measured to identify the optimal glycopolymer structure for future in vivo gene delivery studies. The methacrylate monomers investigated include aminoethylmethacrylate (AEMT), N-methyl aminoethylmethacrylate (MAEMT), N,N-dimethyl aminoethylmethacrylate (DMAEMT), and N,N,N-trimethylammoniumethylmethacrylate (TMAEMT). It was expected that differing the amine groups and block lengths would create diverse delivery characteristics (including binding, release, internalization, toxicity) due to the number and nature of the cationic amino/ammonium presented at the electrostatic binding site. Exploring the structural aspects of the cationic block of the glycopolymers may identify a polymer that balances high transfection efficiency with low toxicity. It should be noted that polymers containing PDMAEMT charge groups have been investigated in the past for nucleic acid delivery and some structural differences have been explored for PDMAEMT and PTMAEMT.4a, 7 To our knowledge however, no full systematic study has been explored for block-coglycopolymers containing PMAEMT, PDMAEMT, and PTMAEMT. The synthesis of this polymer series is presented in Scheme 1 and characterization is presented in Table 1.
Scheme 1
Preparation of the P(MAG-b-methacrylate) nucleic acid delivery vehicles via RAFT polymerization that contain blocks of a methacrylate monomer with pendant primary amine (PAEMT), secondary amine (PMAEMT), tertiary amine (PDMAEMT), and quaternary ammonium ...
Table 1
Molecular Weight Data for P(MAG-b-Methacrylate) containing the indicated charge block.
The monomers AEMT, MAEMT, DMAEMT and TMAEMT were either purchased from Polysciences (AEMT) or Aldrich (DMAEMT) or synthesized as detailed in the Supporting Information material. The PMAG macro chain transfer agent (CTA) was prepared by polymerizing MAG in a mixed solvent of acetate buffer (pH 5.2)/ethanol (4:1, v:v) in the presence of 4-cyano-4-(propylsulfanylthiocarbonyl) sulfanylpentanoic acid (CPP) and 4,4′-azobis(4-cyanopentanoic acid) (V501) according to a previously published procedure.2b Cationic block copolymers of P(MAG-b-methacrylate) were prepared using reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The block lengths of each rendered copolymer were achieved by conversion rate rather than by simple monomer to CTA ratios to avoid an increase in the dispersity index (Ð). The kinetic rates of the polymerizations were determined with NMR spectrometry, using the conversion rate of the methacrylate monomers to calculate cationic polymer block lengths (SI, Figures S2-S5). The resulting polymers were purified by dialysis against water and then lyophilized yielding solids of the final structures. As indicated by the GPC traces (SI, Figures S7 and S8), the Mn and Ð for all of the obtained polymers were low, meaning the polymerizations were well controlled. Detailed characterization information for each polymer can be found in Table 1. As shown, three classes of polymers were created that contained PMAG blocks of similar length and charged polymethacrylate blocks (containing secondary, tertiary, and quaternary amines) of three different yet comparable lengths. This study allowed for a systematic comparison of the effects of amine type and block length on the pDNA delivery capabilities of these systems in vitro.
All resulting P(MAG-b-MAEMT), P(MAG-b-DMAEMT) and P(MAG-b-TMAEMT) polymers given in Table 1 exhibited high water solubility. It should be noted that the P(MAG-b-AEMT) polymers (the primary amine charge center) were prepared with a similar procedures, but could only be dissolved in acidic aqueous conditions. This decrease in water solubility limited characterization of the molecular weight for these polymers to GPC analysis in an acidic mobile phase. Comparing the molecular weight of the crude products obtained before dialysis to that obtained after dialysis revealed a dramatic increase in Mn and Ð for the final products (S.I., Figures S:7). Previous reports of polymers prepared using this methacrylate monomer with a pendant primary amine revealed that the ester bonds are susceptible to nucleophilic attack,8 suggesting that the observed increase in the Mn and Ð are due to crosslinking among different macromolecules, likely as the result of both intra- and inter-molecular amidation from the nucleophilic primary amines attacking the labile ester carbonyls. Considering that the architectures of the P(MAG-b-AEMT) have changed to significantly decrease the solubility in neutral aqueous conditions, all PAEMT polymers were excluded from in vitro investigations.
To investigate the association of the glycopolycations with pDNA, polyplex formulations were run via gel electrophoresis to determine the optimal N/P ratios [the number ratio of pendant amines (N) on the diblock copolymer to the phosphates (P) on the nucleic acid backbone] for binding and complex formation (SI, Figure S9). As the supporting material indicates, binding of pDNA with P(MAG-b-MAEMT) and P(MAG-b-TMAEMT) is observed at N/P values of 2 or 3 and above, but P(MAG-b-DMAEMT) polymers do not bind pDNA until reaching an N/P value of 5 (SI, Figure S9). To explain the difference in binding capabilities among the three different types of polymers, it is hypothesized that the lower binding capabilities of the P(MAG-b-DMAEMT) structures could be due to the difference in pKa of that charge center as compared to the secondary amine derivatives. The quaternary ammonium derivatives, P(MAG-b-TMAEMT)s, possess a stronger ion strength, which could result in very stable polyplex formation. In gel shift assays of polymer-pDNA binding with these systems, tight binding at N/P ratios below 4 was observed (in fact, ethidium bromide was not able to intercalate to stain the pDNA in these polyplexes indicating tight binding strength with the tetraalkylammonium cationic units). Tight binding could result in decreased pDNA release and gene expression.
Among the advantages for the cationic PolyMAG-based glycopolymers is their biocompatibility and stability.1c, 6 Colloidal stability of the polyplexes dispersed in Opti-MEM were examined by monitoring the change their diameter using dynamic light scattering (DLS) at time intervals of 0, 2, and 4 hours at N/P ratios of 5 and 15 (Figure 1 and SI, Figure S10). It was observed that the sizes of the polyplexes stayed within a range of 50-110 nm, and were, in general, stable over a period of 4 hours. Polyplex sizes revealed by TEM (SI, Figure S12) are typically smaller than those shown by light scattering techniques (DLS measures hydrodynamic radius). However, the TEM images showed that the polyplexes were uniform in size. Measurement of zeta potentials for the polyplexes was performed at N/P ratios of 5 and 15 (SI Figure S11); the obtained values were between 15-25 mV for N/P 5 and within 25-40 mV for N/P 15 (typically observed for this class of polyplexes).
Figure 1
Hydrodynamic diameters for polyplexes made from pDNA and the P(MAG-b-methacrylate) containing the charge block indicated above at N/P ratio of 15 measured in Opti-MEM.
The primary goal for this series of polymers is to screen the in vitro delivery efficacy to select candidates for murine screening in vivo for pDNA delivery applications. To this end, the pDNA delivery capabilities of these polymers were examined in cultured Hep G2 (human liver hepatocellular carcinoma) cells in two media conditions, both serum-free Opti-MEM and DMEM containing 10% serum. To probe the effect of amine structure and block length on transfection efficiency, pDNA encoding the luciferase reporter gene was used (SI, Figure S13) for polymers containing blocks of PMAEMT, PDMAEMT, and PTMAEMT at N/P ratios of 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30. It was observed in both Opti-MEM and DMEM that an increase in the N/P ratio for most polymers did not show a significant increase in luciferase gene expression. However, the luciferase expression results did show a general trend when considering the amine type. According to this assay, the transfection efficiency decreased slightly as the amount of methyl groups on the amine increased (secondary > tertiary > quaternary), suggesting that the PMAEMT containing polymers should be further optimized and examined for nucleic acid delivery. It was also of interest to further examine transfection efficiency between the three different types of amines at one amine length, which is discussed below.
HepG2 cell viability was determined 48 hours post transfection with the glycopolymer/pDNA polyplexes via an MTT assay (Figure 2) in both Opti-MEM and DMEM for the P(MAG-b-methacrylate)s containing the charge block PMAEMT, PDMAEMT, and PTMAEMT at N/P ratios of 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30. In general, the cell viability decreased with an increase in the N/P ratio in the presence of serum-free Opti-MEM. Most of the polymers were not toxic to cells up to an N/P ratio of about 10, though some polymers, most notably, those containing PMAEMT-2 and -3 and PDMAEMT -3, showed higher levels of toxicity at and above an N/P of 15. This result suggested that for the secondary and tertiary amine types, increased amine length increases toxicity at higher N/P ratios. In DMEM, all of the polymers showed low toxicity (~90% cell viability), even at higher N/P ratios.
Figure 2
Cell viability as measured via MTT assay with HepG2 cells transfected with polyplexes formed at N/P ratios of 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 with pDNA and all the P(MAG-b-methacrylate) containing the charge blocks of PMAEMT, PDMAEMT, and PTMAEMT polymers in ...
These large experiments allowed for the selection of a smaller group of polymers to further test for transfection efficiency and cellular internalization via flow cytometry analysis. This smaller group of polymers was selected to be an orthogonal study and include the three different amine types containing comparable charge block lengths, PMAEMT-3, PDMAEMT-3, and PTMAEMT-3. As the secondary amine derivatives yielded the highest gene expression in the preliminary screen, PMAEMT-1 and -2 were also included to further investigate the effect of amine length on transfection efficiency. All additional tests were performed by formulating the polyplexes at an N/P ratio of 15. To further probe transfection efficiency in a quantitative manner, Green Fluorescent Protein (eGFP) was used as the reporter gene and the number of cells positive for GFP expression was analyzed using flow cytometry. It should be noted that the difference in the data between the luciferase and GFP assays are due to the nature of how gene expression is detected. The luciferase assays only detect the bulk gene expression in the culture as relative light units (RLUs). However, the eGFP expression assay is more quantitative in that both the number of cells expressing the transgene and the average gene expression per cell is determined. In both serum-free Opti-MEM and DMEM containing 10% (by volume) fetal bovine serum, transfection efficiency decreased as methyl substitution of the amine increased (Figure 3, horizontal striped bars), which agreed with the luciferase expression data. When examining the effect of amine length (Figure 3, green bars), PMAEMT-1 and -2 showed similar transfection efficiency in both serum free Opti-MEM and DMEM containing 10% serum, while the polymer containing the longest amine length, PMAEMT-3, exhibited significantly lower GFP expression (p value<0.05) in DMEM containing 10% serum than in serum free Opti-MEM. This result possibly indicates that a longer amine block could inhibit pDNA release to promote gene expression.
Figure 3
Total GFP expression (number of events measured multiplied by mean GFP measured) of Hep G2 cells transfected with polyplexes formed at an N/P ratio of 15 with a GFP reporter pDNA gene and the P(MAG-b-methacrylate) polymers containing the charge blocks ...
To further understand the effect of amine type and length, the cellular uptake profile was determined with Cy5-labeled pDNA using flow cytometry by measuring the number of cells positive for Cy5 fluorescence (Figure 4). For PMAEMT-1,-2 and -3, the Cy5 intensity is lower in DMEM than in Opti-MEM, agreeing with the lower GFP expression in DMEM as compared with Opti-MEM (green bars, Figure 3 and and4).4). Though PDMAEMT-3 showed lower Cy5 intensity than the polyplexes containing PMAEMT in Opti-MEM, this polymer showed significant Cy5 intensity as compared to cells only and pDNA. However, PDMAEMT-3 did not show significant GFP expression above background levels (blue striped bars, Figure 3 and and4),4), indicating trouble in release for the polymer vehicles containing the tertiary and quaternary ammonium charge centers (meaning either polyplex release from lysosomes and/or pDNA release from polyplexes). In Opti-MEM, PTMAEMT-3 showed Cy5 intensity similar to PMAEMT-1, but no significant GFP expression above background (red striped bars, Figure 3 and and4).4). In DMEM, PTMAEMT-3 showed the least Cy5 intensity among the polymers, but still showed significantly higher Cy5 intensity than cells only. We speculate that this disparate result could indicate that the “hard” quaternary ammonium charge on the PTMAEMT polyplexes could promote strong binding to the cell surface in the absence of serum (Opti-MEM), which would trigger high cell internalization. However, in the presence of serum in the culture media (DMEM), the charged serum proteins could adsorb onto the polyplexes in a strong manner, thus dampening cell surface interaction and uptake. To this end, GFP expression in DMEM of polyplexes with PTMAEMT-3 was not significantly different from cells only.
Figure 4
Mean Cy5 intensity of HepG2 cells. Cells transfected with polyplexes were formed at an N/P ratio of 15 with Cy5-labeled pDNA and the P(MAG-b-methacrylate) structure containing the charge blocks PMAEMT-1,-2, and -3, PDMAEMT-3, and PTMAEMT-3 in (a) serum ...
This data combined with the GFP expression data suggests that polyplexes from the polymers in this study are efficiently internalized by the cell. However, the relatively low percentage of cells expressing GFP for polyplexes formed with the polymers containing the PDMAEMT and PTMAEMT blocks (Figure 3), suggests that pDNA is not efficiently released. As mentioned, this may be a result of a higher binding affinity at N/P 15 for the polyplexes formulated with the PDMAEMT and PTMAEMT polymers, thus not allowing pDNA release for gene expression. Also, the low overall GFP expression and the high percentage of cells containing Cy5 for PDMAEMT may be attributed to the high stability of this polymethacrylate against hydrolysis as suggested by van de Wetering, et. al.7d,e PMAEMT-3 also exhibits a lower GFP expression compared to PMAEMT-1 and -2, but shows roughly the same amount of Cy5 positive cells, suggesting that the longer amine block may also hinder the release of the pDNA from polyplexes in the cytoplasm of the cell. Another possible explanation for high uptake and low expression of polyplexes may be an inefficient endosomal/lysosomal escape and trafficking to the nucleus. Previous reports demonstrated that polymers containing monomers with a pKa between 5.0 and 7.0 increase transfection efficiency.9 Determination of the pKa’s of these polymers is of high interest to explore the possibility of low endosomal escape.
The binding of polycations and polyanions (here pDNA) are entropically driven due to counterion release, and in this study, it is typically related to the structure of the cationic moieties in polymers. These results demonstrate how varying the methyl substitution on the cationic amine moieties in polymers with comparable amine block lengths can significantly alter the ability of the polymer to both transport pDNA into the cell and subsequently release pDNA after internalization and delivery. This ultimately results in a substantial change in transfection efficiency. As the results indicate, the glycopolymers containing the charge block PMAEMT (pendant secondary amines) exhibit toxicities similar or less than Jet PEI, superior cellular internalization, and higher luciferase and eGFP expression compared to the other polyamines studied.
In summary, a comparable series of glycopolymers exhibiting well-defined molecular weights has been created through the investigation and application of polymer kinetics. Different bioassays were utilized to probe the gene delivery capabilities of polyplexes made from pDNA and this glycopolymer series. In general, the P(MAG-b-MAEMT) polymers exhibited increased delivery efficiency as compared to polymers with more highly substituted amines along with relatively low cytotoxicity profiles. In vivo work is currently ongoing with this polymer series to determine structure-activity relationships and will be reported in due course.
Supplementary Material
1_si_001
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank Dr. Nilesh Ingle, Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, for consistent support to this work, and the Institute of Technology Characterization Facility, University of Minnesota, a member of the NSF-funded Materials Research Facilities Network, for assistance in TEM imaging. We also thank the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Director’s New Innovator Award Program (DP2OD006669-01) for partial financial support of this project. Also, this work was supported partially by the National Science Foundation through the University of Minnesota MRSEC under the Award Number DMR-0819885.
Funding Sources
NIH DP2OD006669-02
NSF MRSEC DMR-0819885
Footnotes
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
Supporting Information. All synthesis procedures, NMR spectra, GPC traces, gel electrophoresis images, light scattering and zeta potential data, TEM images and luciferase expression data are presented in electronic supporting information. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.
REFERENCES
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2. (a) Anderson K, Sizovs A, Cortez M, Waldron C, Haddleton DM, Reineke TM. Biomacromolecules. 2012;13:2229–2239. [PubMed](b) Smith AE, Sizovs A, Grandinetti G, Xue L, Reineke TM. Biomacromolecules. 2011;12:3015–3022. [PubMed](c) Ingle NP, Malone B, Reineke TM. Trends in Biotechnol. 2011;29:443–453. [PubMed](d) Buckwalter DJ, Sizovs A, Ingle NP, Reineke TM. ACS Macro. Lett. 2012;1:609–613.(e.) Lee C-C, Liu Y, Reineke TM. ACS Macro Lett. 2012;1:1388–1392.
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6. (a) Ting SRS, Chen G, Stenzel MH. Polym. Chem. 2010;1:1392–1412.(b) Voit B, Appelhans D. Macromol. Chem. Phys. 2010;211:727–735.
7. (a) Li Z, Yin H, Zhang Z, Liu KL, Li J. Biomacromolecules. 2012;13:3162–3172. [PubMed](b) Agarwal S, Zhang Y, Maji S, Greiner A. Mater. Today. 2012;15:388–393.(c) Zhu C, Zheng M, Meng F, Mickler FM, Ruthardt N, Zhu X, Zhong Z. Biomacromolecules. 2012;13:769–778. [PubMed](d) van de Wetering P, Zuldam NJ, van Steenbergen J, van der Houwen OAGJ, Underberg WJM, Hennink WE. Macromolecule. 1998;31:8063–8068.(e) van de Wetering P, Moret EE, Schuurmans-Nteuwenbroek NME, van Steenbergen MJ, Hennink WE. Bioconjugate Chem. 1999;10:589–597. [PubMed]
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Publication numberUS3626158 A
Publication typeGrant
Publication dateDec 7, 1971
Filing dateMar 4, 1970
Priority dateMar 4, 1970
Publication numberUS 3626158 A, US 3626158A, US-A-3626158, US3626158 A, US3626158A
InventorsLawrence Murray D
Original AssigneePotter Instrument Co Inc
Export CitationBiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
Antijamming apparatus for magnetic card reader
US 3626158 A
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Description (OCR text may contain errors)
United States Patent Inventor Murray D. Lawrence Kings Park, N.Y.
Appl. No. 16,491
Filed Mar. 4, 1970 Patented Dec. 7, 1971 Assignee Potter Instrument Company, Inc.
Plainview, N.Y.
ANTUAMMING APPARATUS FOR MAGNETIC CARD READER 3 Claims, 2 Drawing Figs.
U.S.Cl ..235/61.11D, 179/100.2 P, 340/174.1 F Int. Cl G06k 7/08, G1 lb 5/58 Field of Search ..235/6l.114, 61.113,61.12 N, 61.11 R; 340/174.l F, 149 A; 179/1002 P [56] References Cited UNITED STATES PATENTS 3,392,237 7/1968 De Boo 235/61.1I D 2,866,637 12/1958 Pendleton 179/1002 P 3,370,157 2/1968 Lockey 235/61.11 R 3,075,051 1/1963 Pankratz 179/1002 P 2,954,161 9/1960 Negri 235/61.l1 C
Primary Examiner-Thomas A. Robinson Assistant Examiner-Robert M. Kilgore AtrorneyLaurence J. Marhoefer ABSTRACT: A data processing system utilizes a magnetic transducer to sense a binary-coded pattern on a card or the like and produces an electrical output representative of the information encoded. The transducer contacts the card and there is a recess in the machine bed located directly beneath the transducer head to prevent jamming of a card between the bed and the transducer head.
ANTIJAMMING APPARATUS FOR MAGNETIC CARD READER BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The field of the present invention is data processing systems of the type in which data appears on separate information cards and more particularly arrangements utilizing a transducer to sense magnetic patterns on such infonnation cards.
Data processing systems have come into widespread use to speed up a variety of operations such as accounting, inventory control, mathematical analysis, etc. In one such system, information is stored on individual cards in the form of magnetic marks on each card representative of letters, words, numbers, or other indicia.
In such systems the cards are passed under the transducer head at very high rates. Preferably, the cards are in contact with the transducer so that there is a very small space between the transducer head and the machine bed. Because of these factors it is easy for a card to jam between the transducer head and the bed of the machine. For example, a burr on a card edge or a bent card may wedge and stop the operation.
In order to obviate this difficulty and to achieve a nonjamming arrangement, the present invention, in accordance with one aspect thereof, utilizes a recess in the bed below the transducer head. The transducer deflects a damaged leading edge of a card into the recess. When the leading edge of the card passes beyond the recess and the transducer, the card bridges the gap so that it is in contact with the transducer when information is read from the card.
It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved data processing apparatus which is not susceptible to jamming.
In order to accomplish the foregoing and other objects of the present invention, the invention comprises the features hereinafter set forth in the specification and in the appended claims.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the invention, reference should be made to the drawings wherein:
FIG. 1 is a front elevational view of an apparatus constructed according to the instant invention; and
FIG. 2 is a top plan view of the apparatus shown in FIG. I.
Like elements are identified by like numerals in the several views.
DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, the magnetic card arrangement shown includes idler rollers and 11 mounted on arm 14 which engage the card 12 and form a pinch drive between these rollers and driven rollers 10 and 11. The rollers feed the card past fixed magnetic transducer head 15 at a high rate of speed. Preferably, the head 15 has a generally tapered surface which contacts the card. Typically many cards are fed consecutively under the transducer head and magnetic code marks on each card are read by the transducer which produces an electrical output that is representative of the particular information on the card. A more complete description of the information processing system of a type particularly well suited for the practice of this invention is described in a copending application, Ser. No. 823,054, filed May 8, i969 and assigned to the same assignee as this invention.
The transducer head 15 is located such that the clearance between it and machine bed 13 is equal to the thickness of a card. The cards 12 are relatively stiff and the transducer head must be in contact with the cards for the magnetic marks to be read reliably. Necessarily, then, there is no clearance between the card and the head and a damaged card may easily jam the machine. To prevent-this, a recess 18 is formed in the machine bed immediately below the transducer head.
A card, being relatively stiff, bridges the gap formed by the recess so that the head remains in contact with the card while the card is being read. In the event a card with a bent edge hits against the transducer head, the card IS supple enough that the leading edge of the card deflects down into the recess and thereby passes under the head without jamming.
The depth d of the recess 18 should be at least equal to twice the thickness of the card 12. The width w of the recess 18 should be such that the card bridges the recess 18 before the first column of magnetic characters on the card reaches the transducing gap on the head 15. Stated dificrently, the width w should be slightly less than one-half the distance from the leading edge of the card to the first column of magnetic characters on the card. The length of the recess should be at least the width of the cards being processed. The contour of recess 18 is preferably approximately the same as the contour of head 15.
Although the present invention has been described with respect to specific embodiments, it will be appreciated by one skilled in the art that a variety of changes may be made without departing from the scope of the invention. For exam ple, certain features may be used independently of others and equivalents may be substituted all within the spirit and scope of the invention.
What is claimed is:
1. In a machine for reading magnetic ink code marks on a relatively stiff card, the combination comprising:
a magnetic transducer,
a machine bed extending under said transducer and spaced therefrom by a distance substantially equal to the thickness of a card,
means for translating a card along said bed so that it passes beneath said transducer,
a recess in said bed beneath said transducer the length in the direction of card translation of which is less than one-half the distance from a leading edge of said card to the magnetic ink code marks on said card and the length of which in a direction transverse to the direction of card translations is equal to the length of that portion of the card which passes under the transducer,
whereby the leading edge of the card can be diverted into said recess and said card bridges said recess before the first column of magnetic characters reaches a transducing gap on said magnetic transducer.
2. In a machine for reading magnetic ink code marks, the combination as in claim 1 wherein the contour of said recess is substantially the same as the contour of said head.
3. In a machine for reading magnetic ink code marks as in claim 2 wherein the depth of said recess is at least equal to twice the thickness of said card.
Patent Citations
Cited PatentFiling datePublication dateApplicantTitle
US2866637 *May 21, 1956Dec 30, 1958Honeywell Regulator CoControl apparatus
US2954161 *Nov 20, 1957Sep 27, 1960Olivetti & Co SpaTape reader
US3075051 *Feb 1, 1960Jan 22, 1963Gen Precision IncTransducer assembly for magnetic recorders
US3370157 *Oct 21, 1963Feb 20, 1968Burroughs CorpPressure pad
US3392237 *Apr 8, 1964Jul 9, 1968Teletype CorpPrinting telegraph tape reader
Referenced by
Citing PatentFiling datePublication dateApplicantTitle
US3763352 *Jun 21, 1971Oct 2, 1973Rca CorpSelf-cleaning read head
US3893173 *Jan 11, 1974Jul 1, 1975Hewlett Packard CoMiniaturized magnetic card reader/recorder for use in hand-held calculator
US3946206 *Aug 21, 1974Mar 23, 1976R. D. Products, Inc.Magnetic-type information card and method and apparatus for encoding and reading
US4254441 *Feb 22, 1979Mar 3, 1981Fisher Alan JDigital code reader
US4798942 *Feb 21, 1986Jan 17, 1989Cubic Western DataEasy access ticket transport mechanism
US7322521Mar 2, 2006Jan 29, 2008Cubic CorporationUniversal ticket transport
Classifications
U.S. Classification235/483, 360/88, 360/2
International ClassificationG06K7/015, G06K7/01
Cooperative ClassificationG06K7/015
European ClassificationG06K7/015 |
Specialists remind the importance of reinforcing the immune system with a correct nutrition in mid-pandemic
• Stress and anxiety, as well as fear, can be risk factors that impact our body’s defense mechanism.
• Around 37.8 million Mexicans have deficiencies in their immune system.
• Equinacea purpurea, elderberry, Vitamin C, Vitamin D3, Zinc, and Beta glucans help guard the respiratory system.
In Mexico, 30% of people have some deficiencies in their immune system, poor nutrition being the main cause; this percentage includes the segment of the population who develops autoimmune disease at some point in their life.
According to a report from 2019 by the Department of Immunogenetics of Autoimmune Diseases, dependent on the Salvador Zubirán National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition (INCMNSZ, for its acronym in Spanish), Mexicans have genetic susceptibility to autommune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, generalized lupus erythematosus, celiac disease, vitiligo, among others.
In light of the Nutritionist National Day in Mexico, Nutrition Coordinator at Bodylogic, Karen Cecilia Picazo Huerta, explained that the immune system is our machinery for protection against diseases, and its primary function is to protect us from microorganisms, viruses, and bacteria present in our environment; some that can make us sick, such as Coronavirus.
“The immune system our body’s the natural defense against infections. The human organism, through a well-coordinated reaction, attacks and destroys infectious organisms –called antigens- from invading. Symptoms such as inflammation are the immune response to antigens. For instance, when a person has COVID-19, cough, phlegm or runny nose, and fever are the response and alert to destroy the virus invading the body. The immune system has the ability to distinguish the presence of viruses and bacteria”, explained Picazo Huerta, nutritionist graduated from Universidad del Valle de Atemajac (UNIVA).
For her part, the Medical Manager of Endocrinology and Nutrition at Grupo PiSA, Irma Luisa Ceja Martínez, detailed that SARS-CoV-2 virus inhibits the immune system’s capacity to respond; on addition that COVID-19 has components with which it can “hide” from the immune system and avoid or delay an adequate antiviral response; which emphasizes the importance of strengthening our immune system.
“The immune system is deficient when it stops fulfilling its function of attacking and fighting diseases. It loses its abilities as we age, with a ban nutrition, and with the presence of chronic diseases. Strengthening it through a healthy and balances nutrition that includes good quality protein –whether of animal or plant origin-, vegetables, legumes, minerals, vitamins and other foods, in addition to sleeping well and being physically active, can make a difference”, affirmed Ceja Martínez, who is also an internal medicine specialist and governor of the American College of Physicians (ACP), in the Mexican Chapter.
Nutrition Coordinator at Bodylogic, Karen Picazo, also pointed that it is important to reinforce the immune system with special attention in the protection of respiratory tracts and lungs; complementing our intake with fruits and vegetables, or nutrition supplements that include: Equinacea purpurea, elderberry, Vitamin C, Vitamin D3, Zinc, and Beta glucans. These active components help guard the respiratory system.
The consumption of these natural ingredients, vitamins, and minerals reduce the risks of complications from COVID-19, besides, they are an effective and safe medium to help the immune system fight the Coronavirus. Zinc and Omega 3 are critical components for the human organism and the immune system to work properly”, assured the nutrition specialist.
We can find Zinc in pumpkin seeds, liver, and fish; this last one also contains Omega 3. Vitamin C is present in oranges, tangerine, grapefruit, strawberry, and kiwi. It is important to consult a nutritionist or a health professional to assess in the adequate proportion for consumption; as well as complementing with nutrition supplements that help reinforce the immune system.
In the context of the pandemic, it is of paramount importance to follow the nutrition recommendations of doctors in order to anticipate any problem. Vitamins C and D3 are acknowledged as an important factor for metabolism. A low blood level of these components can be a risk factor to contract SARS-CoV-2 virus strain.
According to the recent census published by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI, by its acronym in Spanish), there are 126 million people in Mexico, and there have been 1’788,905 total cases and 152,016 total deaths by COVID-19.
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Disaster Recovery Plan Resources
Disaster Recovery Plan Resources
Having a proper evacuation plan can make all the difference in keeping you and your family safe during a hurricane. And, if you run a business, it can also help you get back on track faster after a disaster. Hurricanes are unpredictable and can cause hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage to homes and properties,but the good news is that there are several agencies that offer valuable information and guidance on how to prepare, stay safe, and recover from natural disasters.
1. American Red Cross: The Red Cross offers tips on how to best prepare for a storm: what to do before, after, and during the storm. They do this in addition to aiding hurricane victims. You can also buy emergency supplies from the Red Cross.
2. Ready.gov: This site, manage by the Department of Homeland Security and FEMA, offers guides to help you prepare for both natural and man-made disasters. It can help with things such as:
1. Emergency supplies to stock up on
2. Making a hurricane plan
3. How to safeguard your property
4. What to do in the hours before a hurricane
5. How to be safe after a hurricane passes
3. National Weather Service: The National Weather Service will keep you updated on current weather developments during a storm. To make sure you can get these important updates, it is recommended you have a weather radio, which will work in nearly any weather conditions. It uses the FCC’s Emergency Alert System to communicate critical information to victims of natural disasters.
4. NOAA: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is the organization that manages the National Weather Service. Their website has a plethora of information on hurricanes, complete with satellite imagery and hurricane tracking.
5. CDC: The Center for Disease Control offers resources to help you understand the potential health risks that arise from a hurricane, including bacteria and mold that can grow in the standing flood water. They offer tips on:
1. Creating an evacuation plan
2. Preventing carbon monoxide poisoning
3. How to find safe food and water supplies
4. How to stay safe when helping your community recover
2019 Flu Season Preparedness
We all know what the flu is, and I’m sure a few of you have felt the aches and pains associated with this virus. In the 2017-2018 flu season there were 80,000 flu related deaths, which is the highest it’s been in over three decades! To help you get ready for the 2019 flu season we have put together some helpful information for you.
When does flu activity peak in the United States?
The influenza virus to circulate year-round, but it generally peaks between December and February. February tends to see the highest flu activity though.
How will I know if I have the flu?
Influenza is one of those viruses that will make you feel like you’ve gotten hit by a train when you wake up in the morning. You’ll know when you have it. But just in case you want to make sure, here are the symptoms for the influenza virus:
• Feverish and/or chills
• Sore throat
• Cough
• Muscle or body aches
• Runny or stuffy nose
• Fatigue
• Headaches
• Vomiting and/or diarrhea
*You don’t have to have all these symptoms to have the flu.
How does the flu spread?
The influenza virus is usually spread when an infected individual sneezes or coughs. When this happens, tiny droplets land in the mouths or noses of people who are in the vicinity, thus infecting them.
How can I prevent the flu?
The best thing you can do is to make sure you get the flu vaccine every year! The CDC also recommends that you stay away from people who are sick and wash your hands frequently.
Will the flu vaccine give me the flu?
No, the flu vaccine is a dead virus. But you could develop flu like symptoms for a variety of reasons including:
• A two-week window: After you get your flu shot it takes about two weeks before it starts to work. If you are infected shortly before or after you may catch the flu.
• Reaction to the vaccine: Your body may produce protective antibodies that will give you flu like symptoms. This should only last a day or two.
• Mismatched viruses: Sometimes the flu shot doesn’t match the virus that is going around and, as uncommon as this is, you still have some protection against the virus.
I don’t like shots, are there any other options?
Yes, there sure is! You can either get the vaccine as an injection or a nasal spray! Although there are some things to be aware of when going the nasal spray route;
• The nasal spray vaccine is only approved for people between the ages of 2 and 49.
• Not recommended for pregnant women.
• Not recommended for people with weakened immune systems.
• Children 2-4 years old who have had wheezing or asthma in the past year.
*Make sure you check with your doctor first.
The flu can’t get worse right?
Wrong! When you get the flu, it weakens your immune system; and if your flu gets worse your body won’t be able to fight off the bacteria. Once the bacteria build up enough, it turns into something incredibly worse… pneumonia.
Here are the 4 stages of Pneumonia:
Consolidation
• Occurs in the first 24 hours
• Cellular exudates containing neutrophils, lymphocytes, and fibrin replaces the alveolar air
• Capillaries in the surrounding alveolar walls become congested
• The infections spread to the hilum and pleura rapidly
• Pleurisy occurs
• Marked by coughing and deep breathing
Red Hepatization
• Occurs in the 2-3 days after consolidation
• At this point the consistency of the lungs resembles that of the liver
• The lungs become hyperemic
• Alveolar capillaries are engorged with blood
• Fibrinous exudates fill the alveoli
• This stage is characterized by the presence of many erythrocytes, neutrophils, desquamated epithelial cells, and fibrin within the alveoli
Grey Hepatization
• Occurs in the 2-3 days after Red Hepatization
• This is an avascular stage
• The lung appears grayish brown to yellow because of fibrinopurulent exudates, disintegration of red cells, and hemosiderin
• The pressure of the exudates in the alveoli causes compression of the capillaries
• Leukocytes migrate into the congested alveoli
Resolution
• This stage is characterized by the “resorption and restoration of the pulmonary architecture”
• Many macrophages enter the alveolar spaces
• Phagocytosis of the bacteria-laden leucocytes occurs
• Consolidation tissue re-aerates, and the fluid infiltrate causes sputum
• Fibrinous inflammation may extend to and across the pleural space, causing a rub heard by auscultation, and it may lead to resolution or to organization and pleural adhesions
Holiday Decorating Safety Tips
Holiday Decorating Safety Tips
Tis the Holiday season to decorate and be merry! During this time of the year Regency DRT wanted to give some quick tidbits for a safe and merry holiday!
Turn off, unplug, and extinguish all decorations when going to sleep or leaving the house.
Unattended candles are the cause of one in five home candle fires. Half of home fire deaths occur between the hours of 11pm and 7am. (NFPA)
Use battery operated candles.
Candles are the start of almost half of home decoration fires.
Never connect more than three strings of lights.
If more than three strings are connected, it can blow a fuse and possible start a fire.
Protect cords from damage.
To avoid shock or fire hazards, cords should never be pinched by furniture, forced into small spaces such as doors and windows, placed under rugs, located near heat sources, or attached by nails or staples.
Keep trees fresh by watering daily.
Dry trees are a serious fire hazard.
Do not overload electrical outlets.
Overloaded electrical outlets and faulty wires are a common cause of holiday fires.
Inspect electrical decorations for damage before use.
Cracked or damaged sockets, loose or bare wires, and loose connections may lead to electrocution or start a fire.
Keep combustibles at least three feet from a heat source.
Decorations too close to a heat source was a factor in half of home fires that began with decorations.
Stay in the kitchen when something is cooking.
Unattended cooking is the leading cause of home cooking fires.
Check decorations for certification labels.
Decorations not bearing a label from an independent laboratory, such as Underwriter Laboratories (UL), Canadian Standards Association (CSA), or Intertek (ETL), have not been tested for safety and could be hazardous.
Mental and Physical Effects of a Disaster – And How the Right Restoration Company Can Help
Any natural disaster is devastating for those who must endure them. Hurricanes, floods, tornados, fires, and other disasters can wreak havoc on your health, home, and livelihood. Surviving these types of disasters are life changing and stressful enough, but what about after the event? In all the chaos and confusion that happens after a loss, what are the smaller things you need to look out for? What kind of mental and physical risks are there for you and your family? And how can you best get your life back on track?
According to Tulane University, “mental health problems rank among the most widespread long-term effects of natural disasters.” Yet, mental health is easy to overlook in the face of losing your property and working to have it restored. Many people suffer from grief, shock, anxiety, or depression after a disaster. The disruption of a daily routine and the loss of cherished possessions can be hard to deal with on top of the chaos and confusion that accompanies a disaster. Some common feelings associated with experiencing a traumatic event are shock, disbelief, fear, sadness, helplessness, guilt, anger, and shame. These types of feelings are normal, but lasting psychological effects can occur if there isn’t a return to normalcy.
These types of mental trauma can also express themselves in a physical way. Physical responses are completely normal and can include trembling, pounding heart, rapid breathing, lump in throat. So, it’s important to get the restoration help you need right away.
In addition to these mental problems, there are significant risks to physical health after a disaster. Your home can be compromised by unsanitary and potentially hazardous conditions. Ruptured gas lines, mold growth, vermin infestation, and stagnant water containing bacteria are just a few of the safety hazards that can affect your home. Take a look at this list of the side effects of mold exposure.
• Foggy thoughts and temporary memory loss, loss of focus, headaches
• Exhaustion and Muscle Weakness
• Joint pain, constant nerve pain, random muscle pains
• Tingling and numbness in the body
• Sensitivity to light
• Coughing or shortness of breath
• Slight body tremors
• Change in appetite, diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain
• Metallic taste in the mouth
• Dehydration, decreased urination
Even if the damages to your home do not seem significant, it is important to use a qualified restoration company to bring your home back to pre-loss condition. Trying to fix damages to your home on your own is not only generally ineffective, it can also be dangerous. Any cleaning a homeowner does is usually only at the surface level, leaving potentially harmful mold and bacteria beneath your floors or in your walls. This can lead to bigger and more costly damages down the line.
Those who have suffered a loss might not understand the whirling emotions, frustrations, and feelings of hopelessness that are common during the restoration process. The knowledge, equipment, and manpower that comes with a restoration company can restore your property to its pre-loss condition much quicker and more effectively than any homeowner.
Safety is one of the major advantages to hiring a restoration company. Even minor issues can turn into large ones; things that don’t seem important, like a little mold or soot, can become health hazards for you and your family. With their expertise, restoration companies can get your life back to normal. Using a professional company means things can move along quickly and still be done to the highest standard of care.
In addition to this, restoration companies can help you to fully understand your insurance coverage. Insurance policies are often difficult to understand and interpret, especially in the wake of disaster. A professional disaster restoration company works with insurance companies every day, so they are best equipped to help you through the process of dealing with insurance agents and claims adjusters.
Regency DRT is the Company for All Your Restoration Needs
• We Do It All
• Regency DRT specializes in full-service disaster restoration, providing a one-stop-shop for our clients.
• There When You Need Us
• Disasters don’t rest, and neither do we. Regency offers 24-hour emergency response. No matter the time of day or night, a team is prepared to immediately respond to your property emergency.
• We Work with All Insurance Companies
• Regency has extensive experience working with insurance companies and claims adjusters on property insurance claims. We will work directly with your insurance company and coordinate everything from our initial response until your property is restored to pre-loss condition. Our objective is to make this process as smooth as possible for you.
• We Provide the Highest Quality of Service
• Regency DRT was founded on the belief that a restoration company should provide superior quality of service to their customers while maintaining the industry’s highest standards. We pride ourselves in our extensive training and knowledge of restoration services. When choosing Regency DRT, you can rest assured knowing you will be receiving the best restoration services available.
• We Can Handle Losses of All Sizes
• We can quickly respond to any disaster with the necessary amount of equipment, resources, and staff for the unique needs of your job, whether it’s a single residential loss, large loss, or area-wide disaster
• We Are Committed to Customer Satisfaction
• Regency DRT is confident that we can meet and even exceed customer expectations. To guarantee the highest level of service, we constantly monitor our work and immediately correct any area that does not meet our strict set of standards. In addition to this, we encourage customer communication and use your input to continuously improve our level of services provided to you. Our ultimate mission is to leave a smile on your face, happy and satisfied about the work performed in your home.
Tropical Storm Nestor Expected to Hit Panhandle
Tropical Storm Nestor Expected to Hit Panhandle
The tropical disturbance in the Gulf of Mexico strengthened to a tropical storm on Friday afternoon. Tropical Storm Nestor will continue to strengthen and is expected to make landfall along the Florida Panhandle, near Panama City, sometime Saturday morning.
A close up of a map Description automatically generated
(Photo: National Weather Service)
The biggest threat of this storm will be storm surges, with surges of up to 5 feet along the Florida Gulf Coast from Indian Pass to Clearwater Beach. There is a Storm Surge Warning in effect for these areas. Winds are forecasted to be strong, with gusts of up to 50mph possible. Tropical storm force winds are likely late Friday night along portions of the central and eastern Gulf Coast, according to the National Hurricane Center.
A close up of a map Description automatically generated
(Photo: National Weather Service)
Isolated flash flooding in possible through Saturday night. Up to 6 inches of rain is possible in the Florida Panhandle. “Residents should prepare now for the chance of flooding & power disruption,” Florida Governor Ron DeSantis tweeted Thursday.
Hurricane Dorian Updates
Hurricane Dorian Updates
On Thursday night, Hurricane Dorian strengthened to a Category 2 storm and is expected to keep strengthening as is approaches Florida. The National Hurricane Center predicts Dorian will become a powerful Category 4 by the time it reaches land, with potentially catastrophic 140 mph winds.
“Dorian is likely to remain an extremely dangerous hurricane while it moves near the northwestern Bahamas and approaches the Florida peninsula through the weekend,” the NHC said. As of right now, Dorian is expected to make landfall late Monday or early Tuesday as a Category 4. The National Weather Service said the Dorian will probably be a “triple-threat of dangers” with “life-threatening storm surge, devastating hurricane-force winds, and heavy rains.”
Florida Governor Ron DeSantis tweeted that he has activated more than 2.500 Florida National Guard troops as the state braces and prepares for Hurricane Dorian. He has declared a state of emergency for all of Florida’s 67 counties and has encouraged residents to gather at least seven days’ worth of supplies, including food, water, and medicine.
President Trump has also addressed the hurricane, posting a video on twitter, calling Dorian “an absolute monster.” He has also cancelled a trip to Poland as a result of the storm, in order to “To ensure that all resources of the federal government are focused on the arriving storm I have decided to send our vice president, Mike Pence, to Poland this weekend in my place,” the president said. “It’s something very important for me to be here.”
In preparation for the hurricane Florida power and Light activated its emergency response team on Thursday, securing nearly 13,000 worked to help restore power. “We’re actively working with other utilities from across the United States to secure additional crews and equipment and pre-positioning resources in advance of the storm’s landfall, so we are ready to respond as soon as it is safe to do so,” said Eric Silagy, president and CEO of Florida Power and Light.
The Science of Hurricanes
Hurricane season in the Atlantic brings with it a plethora of dangerous and devastating weather. But how does all of this get started?
All hurricanes are essentially fueled by two simple things: heat and water. Hurricanes generally begin above the equator, where the waters are significantly warmer. The air just above the ocean’s surface takes in heat and moisture and, as the hot air rises, it leaves the air below it with a lower pressure. This cyclical process repeats and produces swirls in the air, according to NASA. This creates a thunderstorm that has the potential to turn into a hurricane.
Warm water in the Atlantic is really the first key element hurricanes need to get started. Another important key factor is wind shear. Wind shear, according to Federal Aviation Administration, is a change in wind speed and/or direction over a short distance. Wind shears can be either horizontal or vertical and are most commonly caused by strong differences in temperature. These contribute to the cyclone of warm and cool air that starts a hurricane.
These two ingredients for hurricanes don’t just happen on their own, though. Gerry Bell, the lead seasonal hurricane forecaster for NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center, says that “there are two dominant climate patterns that really control the wind and pressure across the Atlantic.
The El Niño/La Niña cycle is the first of these climate patterns. El Niño is a large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction that causes periodic warming in the ocean surface temperatures. These effects are seen in the winter season, with wetter-than-average conditions expected. La Niña is essentially the opposite of El Niño, in which it represents below-average ocean surface temperatures, but slightly warmer temperatures in the Southeast region.
The second climate pattern that impacts hurricanes is the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO). This is a climate trend that has a time span of 25 to 40 years and is generally associated with warmer waters in the Atlantic. When the AMO is in a warm phase, there tends to be stronger hurricane patterns. Currently, we have been in a warm phase AMO, conducive to hurricanes, since 1995.
Hurricanes start out as tropical cyclones. Once a tropical cyclone’s winds have a sustained speed of 39 to 73 mph, it is then considered a tropical storm and it gets a name from the list put out by the World Meteorological Organization. If the sustained winds reach speeds of 74 to 95 mph, the storm becomes a Category 1 hurricane.
CategorySustained Wind SpeedPotential Damage
174-94 mphMinimal – some roof leakage, gutter damage, snapped tree branches
296-110 mphModerate – major roof and siding damage, uprooted trees causing road blockage, power loss for days to weeks
3111-129 mphExtensive – gable and decking damage, many uprooted trees, extended power outages
4130-156 mphExtreme – roof and exterior walls destroyed, snapped trees, power outages for weeks to months
5157 mph or higherCatastrophic – high fraction of framed houses destroyed, power outages for weeks to months, large areas uninhabitable for weeks to months
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About Regency DRT/DKI
Regency DRT/DKI is a nation-wide leader in emergency services and property restoration services with 7 offices in Florida and Michigan, including West Palm Beach, Orlando, Sunrise, Port St Lucie, Panama City, Fort Walton/Pensacola and Detroit. Regency DRT/DKI was founded on the belief that a restoration company should provide exceptional quality of services to their customers while maintaining the industry’s highest standards.
Regency DRT/DKI offers 24 Hour Emergency Response and has extensive experience in working with insurance companies and claims adjusters on property insurance claims, coordinating everything from initial response until the property is restored to pre-loss conditions. With our extensive training and knowledge of restoration services, we are able to quickly respond with the necessary amount of equipment, resources and staff for the unique needs of the job, whether it’s a single residential loss, large loss or area-wide disaster.
Regency DRT/DKI is also a proud Member of Disaster KleenUp International (DKI), North America’s largest disaster restoration contracting organization. Being a DKI member also provides us with nationwide affiliates and partners to provide nationwide coverage to our clients. Call us at 1 (888) 354-2447 or visit our website at RegencyDKI.com.
What You Should Know About Mold
What You Should Know About Mold
Mold is a fast-growing fungus that can spread within 48 hours of water damage. In some cases, like after a flood, the need for restoration is obvious. In other cases, mold can be growing behind your walls without you noticing. Mold spores spread easily and quickly, and mold can grow almost anywhere under the right conditions: on carpet, clothing, cabinets, drywall, in your walls, or even in your ceiling. In addition to being difficult to remove, mold can also produce allergens and, in some rare cases, even toxins. Taking the necessary steps to protect your home against mold, learning to spot the signs of mold, and knowing the negative effects of mold are important to keeping you and your family safe.
PREVENTING MOLD
Dry Wet Areas Immediately
• Depending on conditions, mold growth can occur within 48 – 72 hours of water damage. During everyday occurrences, such as spills, wet cloths, etc., make sure to dry everything up right away. Quickly fix roof leaks, old dilapidated pipes, cracks in the walls and foundations, and make sure to regularly check HVAC units for clogs
• If you experience a large loss, such as a flood, burst pipe, flooded basement, etc., call a restoration company immediately.
Monitor Humidity in Your Home
• The EPA recommends keeping humidity in your home between 30% and 60%. You can measure humidity with a moisture reader purchased from a hardware store.
Keep House Well Ventilated
• Even simple, daily activities can lead to mold growth – cooking, taking a shower, or doing the laundry can facilitate mold growth if the room is not properly vented. Make sure to vent moisture-producing appliances, such as dryers and stoves, to the outside of the house, not the attic.
• Mold needs moisture to grow and, as the air temperature drops, air is less able to hold moisture. Keeping your A/C on and/or running a dehumidifier during hot/humid days can help prevent mold growth.
• Improving airflow in your house can also prevent excess moisture from condensing on your walls, windows, and floors. To increase circulation, open doors between rooms, move furniture away from walls, open closet doors, and open windows.
Identify Problem Areas in Your Home
• The best way to do this is to do an audit of your home. Do you notice frequent condensation on your window? Is there a water stain on your ceiling? Are there often wet spots in your basement? Looking for signs of moisture in your home will help you identify the places most susceptible to mold growth.
• Once something is wet, fixing it may be as simple as throwing out wet furniture or ripping up wet carpet. Or it may require major mitigation and reconstruction. Either way, it is very important to fix it immediately.
Direct Water Away from Your Home
• If the ground around your home isn’t sloped away from the foundation, water may collect there and seep into your basement or crawlspace. It can even compromise the integrity of the foundation over time.
Check Gutters
• Clogged or broken gutters can lead to roof leaks, which can cause mold growth in your ceiling. Have your roof and gutters inspected and cleaned regularly. Keep an eye out for water stains after heavy rain fall, as they can indicate a leak.
SIDE EFFECTS OF MOLD EXPOSURE
• Foggy thoughts and temporary memory loss, loss of focus, headaches
• Weakness of muscles and exhaustion
• Joint pain, nerve pain, random muscle pains
• Tingling of numbness in the body
• Sensitivity to light
• Coughing or shortness of breath
• Slight tremors of the body
• Change in appetite, diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pains
• Irregular body temperatures changing at random intervals
• Increased urination and higher intake of liquids
MYCOTOXINS
What are mycotoxins?
• Mycotoxins are chemicals released by fungi and they are toxic to both humans and pets. They are not required for mold to grow, since most mold will not produce mycotoxins, but they act as a kind of defense mechanism and allow mold to more easily infect a host.
• Short term symptoms of mycotoxin exposure include headaches, muscle pain, nerve pain, night sweats, difficulty breathing, fatigue, confusion, vision changes, and disorientation. Long term effects of mycotoxin exposure include poor kidney function, liver necrosis, lung hemorrhage, gastrointestinal ulcers, and seizures.
• Mycotoxins can harm any organism that competes with the mold for space and nutrition, which can include other mold. If you have various molds competing, mycotoxin production may increase. Although most molds won’t produce mycotoxins, the best way to avoid them is to prevent and get rid of any mold growth.
SIGNS OF MOLD
Watery or Stinging Eyes
• Many people have allergies to mold. If you are consistently experiencing itchy/watery eyes, coughing, and/or nasal congestion, there may be mold in your house.
Tingling Skin
• If you’re allergic to mycotoxins, you can experience tingling, itching, or burning sensations when you come into contact with mold.
Paint Bubbling
• Bubbling paint is a sign of moisture build up. It is important to fix the underlying problem before repainting.
Odd Smelling Chimney
• Moisture can build up in the porous bricks and mortar in a chimney and mold growth can produce a musty smell. Rusty chimney caps or damaged flashing can let rain and snow seep in.
Bathroom Exhaust Fan isn’t Working
• Exhaust fans can get clogged and, if it’s still steamy five to ten minutes after you get out of the shower, your fan isn’t circulating enough air. The bathroom is one of the rooms most susceptible to mold, so it is imperative to fix a faulty bathroom fan immediately.
Even if the water damage to your home may not seem significant, it is important to use a qualified restoration company to bring your home back to pre-loss condition. Trying to fix a major mold problem in your home on your own is not only generally ineffective, it can also be dangerous. Any cleaning a homeowner does is usually only at the surface level, leaving potentially harmful mold, bacteria, and toxins beneath your floors or in your walls. This can lead to bigger and more costly damages down the line.
A graphic showing hurricane season probability and numbers of named storms.
2019 Hurricane Outlook
As of May 23, the NOAA is predicting a “near-normal” Atlantic hurricane season this year, with a total of 9-15 named storms and 2-4 major hurricanes. A storm is named once it reaches sustained speeds of 39 -73 mph. Their outlook forecasts a 40% chance of a near-normal season, a 30% chance of an above-normal season, and a 30% chance of a below-normal season. The official findings below are provided by the NOAA with a 70% confidence.
(Image: NOAA)
This prediction is developed as a reflection of competing climate factors, such as the ongoing El Niño: which is expected to persist and suppress the intensity of any storms this hurricane season. Climate patterns that are expected to counter the effects of El Niño are the expected warmer-than-average sea-surface temperatures in the Atlantic and an enhanced African Monsoon. Both climate patterns favor increased hurricane activity.
In a report issued by CSU on June 4, researchers stated a slight increase in their forecast from early April. They estimate that “2019 will have about 6 hurricanes (average is 6.4), 14 named storms (average is 12.1), 55 named storm days (average is 59.4), 20 hurricane days (average is 24.2), 2 major (Category 3,4, or 5) hurricanes (average is 2.7) and 5 major hurricane days (average is 6.2). These numbers also include Subtropical Strom Andrea, which formed in May.
A graphic showing 2019 Atlantic tropical cyclone names selected by the World Meteorological Organization.
(Image: NOAA)
Keep in mind that it is impossible to predict hurricane activity with 100% accuracy. No matter what is predicted, you should always properly prepare for hurricane season. Having a plan that everyone in your family knows is the best way to prepare and stay safe during hurricane season. Ready.gov has an easy-to-follow guide to help you set up an emergency plan, as well as a list of supplies you should have in an emergency kit. FEMA recommends having these supplies in your kit:
• Flashlight and extra batteries
• Portable, battery-operated weather radio and extra batteries
• First aid kit and manual
• Emergency food and water
• Nonelectric can opener
• Essential medicines
• Cash and credit cards
• Sturdy shoes
If you have any pets, make sure you have an emergency plan for them as well. You should include current vaccination records, a week’s worth of food, water, leash, and photos in your emergency kit in case the pet is lost during the storm. Make sure they have a current identification tag on their color with your phone number and, if possible, an out-of-state contact’s phone number.
If possible, having a good insurance plan is the easiest way protect you home and belongings in the event of a catastrophe. In the case of flood insurance, there is generally a 30-day waiting period, so check into it early. Ready.gov recommends these tips for making your home hurricane ready:
• Trim or remove damaged trees and limbs to keep them from damaging your house
• Secure loose gutters and clear any debris/clogged areas to prevent any water damage
• Retrofit the property to secure and reinforce the roof, windows, doors, and garage doors
• Purchase a portable generator or install a generator for use during power outages and make sure to keep it at least 20 feet away from the house and protected from moisture
A picture containing text Description automatically generated
About Regency DRT/DKI
Regency DRT/DKI is a nation-wide leader in emergency services and property restoration services with 7 offices in Florida and Michigan, including West Palm Beach, Orlando, Sunrise, Port St Lucie, Panama City, Fort Walton/Pensacola and Detroit. Regency DRT/DKI was founded on the belief that a restoration company should provide exceptional quality of services to their customers while maintaining the industry’s highest standards.
Regency DRT/DKI offers 24 Hour Emergency Response and has extensive experience in working with insurance companies and claims adjusters on property insurance claims, coordinating everything from initial response until the property is restored to pre-loss conditions. With our extensive training and knowledge of restoration services, we are able to quickly respond with the necessary amount of equipment, resources and staff for the unique needs of the job, whether it’s a single residential loss, large loss or area-wide disaster.
Regency DRT/DKI is also a proud Member of Disaster KleenUp International (DKI), North America’s largest disaster restoration contracting organization. Being a DKI member also provides us with nationwide affiliates and partners to provide nationwide coverage to our clients. Call us at 1 (888) 354-2447 or visit our website at Regencydrt.com. |
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XMC Edited v5 Mod Menu - GTA IV - ISO Mods - XBOX 360
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GTA 4 TBoGT - A spasso in carriola (Raduno 360)
GTA 4 TBoGT - A spasso in carriola (Raduno 360)
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Elite2424A: What kind of burner will you need to burn the iso disk?
SmokeSumOG: What is best mod pack you would recommend
BMXer45103: TIME FOR SCRIPT MODS!
HellsPivot: Yes I am the idiot helping people not lose their computer and get a fake fbi maleware, yes I am
ThetwoTards: @skybry11 send me a fr. on xbox. gt is THATS IGNORENT
ThetwoTards: yeah it does
ibrazzy97: i go to the iso link to the pirate bay and nothing shows up.. what do i do?
ThetwoTards: @itsakittkittycat Thanks!
ThetwoTards: @TheNorthernSoulKing 15 dollars and idk what horizon is
grade saint: big wet donkey boner inside a kitty
ThetwoTards: you are freaking retarded, those are adds you dumb piece of crap! maybe i you were smart you could do this ur self without help! dumbass
ThetwoTards: no
ThetwoTards: i have my own custom mods and script mods but i dont want to pay 20$ to put it on some download site
ThetwoTards: yes this still works, if links dont work just try to find the download on google, this works for multiplayer
ThetwoTards: um i dont realy know unless i am doing it and i see it
HellsPivot: Just saying that ISO contains a hell lot of trojans and malware and how I know is it locked me out of my screen and said some FBI crap but I was able to get rid of it after a process
rotglmao7: The Xbox Backup Creator link doesn't work. If I were to find it on google, which version would I need?
ThetwoTards: the 7 parts are the iso , u can look on his site and find the things you need
Edward Armstrong: is this illegal
MrSmity413: @ThetwoTards thanks
nunfart38: DAMN YOU 404!!!!
ThetwoTards: just try to find the downloads yourself, it isnt hard at all, if you were a real modder you would know how
TheFifa11duplicate: mine says imgburn erro address for write xbox 360 someone help:(!!!
skybry111: Can you please snd me a message on everything I will need to MOD GTA IV/Episodes, A list would be very nice please A.S.A.P
ThetwoTards: @darkknight2641 when you download the img and mod files off matthewpablo. com it is on the description
ThetwoTards: ya dont have to ya rtard
Mr Kitten: Your a freaking idiot.
MrLoGaNaToR1: are you, theee Mathew Pablo ?
GaMeRPlAyEr69: Ok so can you do it with your xbox360 gtaIV and delete all of the fils and do that so you don't have to open your xbox360???????
tharealphaze: can someone explain to me what to do step by step? lol i have no clue what im doing and this video is confusing. id really appreciate it.
TheDrums33: SO!I've download the .iso , and now? i must extrat all te zip file?
ThetwoTards: if you want a disc then send me an email at mrmoddingman@gmail.com
ThetwoTards: @gamerplayer what do you mean? you have to hotswap but i think there is a glitch on the dashboard where you can do it without opening it, look on youtube for How to hotswap with new xbox dashboard without opening, idk somethin like that
iGAMESPOTi: when i download it says the link needs to be opened with an application what do i open it with? Please reply thanks
VIIECLIPSEIIV: Only one thing you forgot to stealth the iso lol
SoftEjectTV: do you have to have xbox 360 jailbreak or jtag?
ACE t: do u need a modded xbox for this ?
NickGotti48: These mods from deadly fish include changing your player model
rotglmao7: Ok sorry, last question... @ThetwoTards When I click the link for the IMG and mod files, I get an option of downloading 7 parts? Is this right? If so, do I download all 7 parts that are under the 'Eflc' section?
ThetwoTards: dvd+RDL
MrDutchgamerzzz: Does it needs jtag? Or not?
NDNMineCraftian: Ok if you did all the same stuff and everything but you used a 16Gb USB do u think it would work?
darkknight2641: @darkknight2641 never mind found it
ThetwoTards: this is updated.... i made it jan 5 2012
Garrett Guin Guin: Thanks, when I tried to dwonload ELFC ISO, it opened up a porn site
ThetwoTards: @NDNMineCraftian nope
NICKBSM1017: what to do after you hot swap and have done this step already does your mod menu come up
Vndre King: can my xbox stiil update when i do this
ThetwoTards: im sorry this video is very old and i havent updated this for a while. i apologize for that. i will create a new one by tommarow
28DjKid: do i need to flash my xbox first?
Rating:
How To Mod Gta 4 tbogt xbox 360 4.2 out of 5
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OGRE 13.1
Object-Oriented Graphics Rendering Engine
Ogre::HashedVector< T > Member List
This is the complete list of members for Ogre::HashedVector< T >, including all inherited members.
at(size_type n)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
at(size_type n) constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
back()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
back() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
begin()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
begin() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
capacity() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
clear()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
const_iterator typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
const_reference typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
const_reverse_iterator typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
difference_type typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
dirtyHash()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
empty() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
end()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
end() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
erase(iterator pos)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
erase(iterator first, iterator last)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
front()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
front() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
getHash() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
HashedVector()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
HashedVector(size_type n)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
HashedVector(size_type n, const T &t)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
HashedVector(const HashedVector< T > &rhs)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
HashedVector(InputIterator a, InputIterator b)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
insert(iterator pos, const T &t)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
insert(iterator pos, InputIterator f, InputIterator l)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
insert(iterator pos, size_type n, const T &x)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
isHashDirty() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
iterator typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
max_size() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
operator<(const HashedVector< T > &b)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
operator=(const HashedVector< T > &rhs)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
operator==(const HashedVector< T > &b)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
operator[](size_type n)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
operator[](size_type n) constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
pointer typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
pop_back()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
push_back(const T &t)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
rbegin()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
rbegin() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
reference typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
rend()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
rend() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
reserve(size_t t)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
resize(size_type n, const T &t=T())Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
reverse_iterator typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
size() constOgre::HashedVector< T >inline
size_type typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
swap(HashedVector< T > &rhs)Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline
value_type typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
VectorImpl typedefOgre::HashedVector< T >
~HashedVector()Ogre::HashedVector< T >inline |
@ARTICLE{Etemadifar, author = {Elmi, Fatemeh and Etemadifar, Zahra and Emtiazi, Giti and }, title = {Study the effect of environmental factors and different carbon sources on dibenzothiophene desulfurization by Exophiala spinifera}, volume = {6}, number = {1}, abstract ={It is necessary to reduce the amount of sulfur in fossil fuels due to direct impact of the quality of these fuels on the environment. In this research, a novel fungus strain of Exophiala spinifera, namely FM, was used to desulfurize dibenzothiophene (DBT) as a model cyclic sulfur compounds in oil and fossil fuels. HPLC analysis indicated that the fungus was capable of reducing 99% of DBT concentration in BSM medium after seven days. This fungus utilized DBT as a sulfur source by co-metabolism reaction with other carbon sources such as glucose. Exophiala spinifera was inoculated in BSM medium containing DBT with various carbon sources including ethanol, glucose, succinate, and glycerol. This fungus had the highest growth and desulfurization capability on glucose as a carbon source after 96 h. E. spinifera had best growth and desulfurization rates in 0.3mM DBT. Optimum DBT desulfurization and growth rate of this fungus was observed at 26-30 oC. Suitable pH for the optimum growth and desulfurization activity of E. spinifera strain FM ranged 4-5. }, URL = {http://nbr.khu.ac.ir/article-1-2671-en.html}, eprint = {http://nbr.khu.ac.ir/article-1-2671-en.pdf}, journal = {Nova Biologica Reperta}, doi = {10.29252/nbr.6.1.79}, year = {2019} } |
Headlands and Bays
Porthcurno_Bay_and_Logan_Rock_Headland.jpg
Porthocurno Bay and Logan Rock Headland
WHAT ARE HEADLANDS AND BAYS?
Headlands and bays are coastal lands forms big gay that occur when there are alternate bands of resistant and less resistant rock at the coast.
headlands1.gifheadlands3.gif
The waves are constantly eroding the coast through abrasion, corrasion, corrosion and hydraulic action, forcing the coast to recede. The weaker rock erodes much faster, so it recedes more and the slabs of harder rock are left jutting out, forming headlands. The gaps in between the headlands, which are surrounded by land on three sides, are called bays.
The waves are slowed down by the headlands and the water in the bays is usually much calmer and slower. This means that the waves have less energy and therefore deposit their load of sand at the end of the bay, forming beaches. Depending on the size of the areas of weaker and harder rock, bays can be a few metres or many kilometers across.
There are many different types of headlands. A long, very narrow headland is often called a promontory. Promontories are often famous for their rugged beauty, as they provide a clear view of the ocean and a sense of being alone, since the small mass of land does not permit many people. Extremely large headlands will be known as peninsulas, while capes are headlands which are placed in a position which interrupts the general currents of the ocean.
Examples of famous bays are:
Bondi Bay, Australia
tnsw_bondi_beach.jpgbondi_sateliite.png
bondi_oz.pngOld Harry's Rocks, United Kingdom
DO11_-_The_Pinnacles,_Handfast_Point_&_Old_Harry.jpg
old_harry_sateliite.png
oldharrymap.png |
Nervous system, Brain, Different parts of brain, Frontal brain, Middle brain, Back brain, Full concept(1)
Nervous system
Today we are going to read about the nervous system. In the earlier article, we have read Sense Organ, in which we have told you about skin, eyes, ears and tongue. If you haven’t read it, first go and read it. In this article, we will fully understand about the definition of nervous system and its types, so let’s start
The nervous system is a complex network of nerves fibres and cells. It is consist of Peripheral nervous system and central nervous system. It receive information from the part of central nervous system i.e., brain and spinal cord and send to our whole body.
Brain
The brain plays its important role inside the nervous system because the brain is such an organ in our whole body that controls our memory, emotions, etc., which plays a big role in our life. If we write the definition of brain, then we can write that our body is an organ that controls memory, emotions and the activity of our whole body. Our brain is covered with a bone called purchasing rule, which protects it from any kind of attack. The number of craniums is eight. The meninges layers which provide protection to the brain and spinal cord. 12 pair nerves present in brain Whose work is to transfer signals.
Different parts of brain
We read the brain by dividing it into three parts, frontal brain, middle brain and back brain. The frontal brain is present at the front of the skull, it consists of 66% of our brain. Frontal brain contains reading cerebrum thalamus and hypothalamus. If we talk about the cerebrum, then it is known as the memory controller of our brain, whatever happens in our memory or whatever is related to it, that cerebrum manages. Many students have this problem that they are not able to remember their past things or previous studies, then you should keep in mind that all the things that the cerebrum manages, whose cerebrum is strong, their memory or ability to remember is very strong, it occurs. Example: – If you have seen Ghajini movie then you must have seen in it that Aamir Khan suffers from amnesia as a blow to his head causes him to default in his cerebrum so that he forgets everything after 15 minutes. If there is a problem in his cerebrum, the chance of its recovery is very less. Now we are going to talk about the thalamus, for your information, let me tell you that the thalamus gives external knowledge. Any organ of our body which transmits external activities to our brain is called thalamus. The sense organ plays an important role in our body in helping the thalamus and providing knowledge of external activities. Example: – The nose talks about any kind of smell, the tongue talks about the taste of any substance, and the skin controls or talks about our temperature, so we can say that the sense organ transmits the external knowledge to the thalamus. Now we are going to read about hypothalamus, The hypothalamus plays an important role in imparting the internal knowledge of our body. Example: – If we talk about inner knowledge, then feeling hungry and thirsty is our inner knowledge, we get angry or happy, love and hate are all examples of our inner knowledge. All this activity is managed by the hypothalamus. If there is a default in the hypothalamus of a person, then the state of his hunger and thirst goes around, he starts getting angry, he starts hating someone and many other activities start happening, which ruins his life.
Nervous system, Brain, Different parts of brain, Frontal brain, Middle brain, Back brain, Full concept(1)
Frontal brain
In the middle brain, we have to read about the corpora and cerebral. If we talk about corpora, then it controls the activity of our eyes and ears. When we were studying about the ear, then we had read that when the sound crosses the cochlea, it transfers a signal to the corpora of our brain, so that we understand the real meaning of that sound. If there is a default in the corpora of a person, then he does not hear properly or he does not see properly. As if a person has blurred vision or he cannot hear completely clearly, it manages all the activities completely, if a person’s corpora is strong then he will never have problems in his eyes and ears. Cerebral is the most important part of our brain which is controlled by the spinal cord. it’s a long tube-like band of tissue. Your spinal cord carries nerve signals from your brain to your body. 31 pair nerves present in spinal cord Whose work is to transfer signals to the brain.
Nervous system, Brain, Different parts of brain, Frontal brain, Middle brain, Back brain, Full concept(1)
Spinal cord
In the back brain, the medulla and cerebellum are present in the back brain. If we talk about the medulla, then it manages the functions of digestion and respiration of our body. If a person’s medulla has a default, then his digestion and respiration does not work properly. Example: – Have you ever thought that when we eat food, till we eat, our brain thinks about it, when we swallow our food, then that is the whole process the medulla manages how to digest it. If we talk about the cerebellum, then the cerebellum maintains the balance of our whole body. Its main work is to maintain balance. Example: – You must have seen that when a person drinks alcohol, his cerebellum does not work properly, he is not able to walk properly doesn’t work. By drinking alcohol, the person’s cerebellum gets damaged for some time and he does not work properly for some time.
Nervous system
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Without question, the most important task in any database development is the proper definition of the data model. It is important for the proper fast execution of queries in the database, and goes a long way to defining the business model which underlies the data. No matter what database manager you use, defining the data model properly is job 1.
There are five main rules of data normalization. They all have to do with eliminating redundant and inconsistent data in the design of the table structure
We begin with a listing of characteristics of a membership list which includes, members, their employers, their employers' addresses, and children.
Zero Form
members
name
company
address
kid1
kid2
Rob
ABC
Suite 17 Industrial Park
Harvey
Justin
Carol
XYZ
Main Street Office Park
Harvey
Justin
We say this data is not normalized because we have not applied any of the normalization rules to it yet. Look at the columns kid1, and kid2. It would be inconvenient to add another column in case one of the members decided to enlarge his/her family. So we will in the first rule decide to combine the kid columns.
First Normal Form
1. Eliminate repeating groups in individual tables.
2. Create a separate table for each set of related data.
3. Identify each set of related data with a primary key.
In addition to annexing the kid fields, we need to set a unique identifier for each record, so that if another member named Rob joins we can identify him. When we apply the rules of the First Normal Form the result is with the following table:
members
userId
name
company
address
kid
1
Rob
ABC
Suite 17 Industrial Park
Harvey
1
Rob
ABC
Suite 17 Industrial Park
Justin
2
Carol
XYZ
Main Street Office Park
Harvey
2
Carol
XYZ
Main Street Office Park
Justin
Second Normal Form
1. Create separate tables for sets of values that apply to multiple records.
2. Relate these tables with a foreign key.
Annex the kid values to a second table, and add a column in that table to relate to the members table. That way, if anyone's family grows, we just need to add another record to the kid table, which relates to the member table- hence the term, relational database. Use the primary key value to relate these fields:
members
userId
name
company
address
1
Rob
ABC
Suite 17 Industrial Park
2
Carol
XYZ
Main Street Office Park
kids
kidId
relUserId
kid
1
1
Harvey
2
1
Justin
3
2
Harvey
4
2
Justin
Now we have two tables: members and kids, and keys in each. The foreign key relUserId is used in the kids table to relate the kids to their parents.
However, when we want to add another employee of an existing company, there is duplication with the company name and address.
Third Normal Form
1. Eliminate fields that do not depend on the key.
Our Company Name and Address have nothing to do with the User Id, so they should have their own Company Id. These fields relate to the company.
members
userId
name
relCompId
Rob
1
2
Carol
2
companies
compId
company
address
1
ABC
Suite 17 Industrial Park
2
XYZ
Main Street Office Park
kids
kidId
relUserId
kid
1
1
Harvey
2
1
Justin
3
2
Harvey
4
2
Justin
Annex the companies and their addresses to a separate table, add unique key fields (compId), and use the fierign key relCompId in the members table to relate those members to their company.
Coincidently, Rob and Carol have kids with the same names. We could also make a table of possible kids' names, just as we did for the companies.
In some cases this would be 'OK', but in cases where the universe of names is small, it would be preferable to normalize it as well.
Data Relationships
There are three basic data relationships: one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many. If each company had one and only one address, we could make a table for each and link them, creating a one-to-one relationship.
The relationship of the kids to the members is a one-to-many relationship, there each member can have several kids
In our Third Normal Form example we have one user related to many kids. Now, we want to change that structure to allow many members to be related to many kids, and thus we want a many-to-many relationship.
members
userId
name
relCompId
1
Rob
1
2
Carol
2
companies
compId
company
address
1
ABC
Suite 17 Industrial Park
2
XYZ
Main Street Office Park
kids
kidId
kid
1
Harvey
2
Justin
kid_relations
relationId
relatedKidId
relatedUserId
1
1
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
4
2
2
To minimize the duplication of data, now there is a table which contains only keys and foreign keys: the kid-relations table.
Fourth Normal Form
1. In a many-to-many relationship, independent entities should not be stored in the same table.
Sometimes this rule is disregarded because it applies only to many-to-many relationships..
To give an example, we can select all of Rob's kids by invoking the following SQL statement:
SELECT name, kid FROM members, kids, kid_relations WHERE kid_relations.relatedUserId = 1 AND members.userId = 1 AND kids.kidId = kid_relations.relatedKidId
Fifth Normal Form
The final form or normalization is a check on the deconstruction. It ensures that there have been no additional unnecessary fields or tables created
1. The original table must be reconstructed from the tables into which it has been broken down.
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A Control Panel is a web-based interface via which you can manage different aspects of your online presence. For instance, you could set up or modify website files, create and check e-mail messages, handle databases, check visitor statistics and so forth. Those things are done via buttons and menus inside an internet browser and the Control Panel could also be called ‘back office’, i.e. the admin area associated with your web hosting account. Most of the Control Panels on the market will allow you to manage all hosting-related matters, but you'll commonly require a different system to control payments or to get a new domain if the company offers domain registrations. With respect to the platform they employ, you could be able to use the billing account to open a support ticket to ask a question or to troubleshoot an issue also, or you might have to employ a 3rd system.
Multilingual Control Panel in Shared Website Hosting
If you get a Linux shared website hosting from our company, you will be able to benefit from our cutting-edge Hepsia CP, that offers all that you need to maintain your online presence from one place. Aside from handling files, e-mails, databases and stats, you'll also be able to register new domain addresses, to renew your website hosting plan, to add upgrades or to contact our tech support using our integrated ticketing system with no more than just a few clicks and without employing a different system. Drag-and-drop upload options and right-click context menus are several of the other functions which you will be able to use. Hepsia is offered in over fifteen widely used languages - Spanish, Chinese, Russian, German, French, Turkish, and so forth. You can also edit the color scheme and rearrange every last section of the Control Panel to make it look precisely the way you want it to.
Multilingual Control Panel in Semi-dedicated Hosting
Our semi-dedicated server accounts are administered using the custom-made Hepsia CP, that provides all that you need to control your online presence from one spot. We have designed Hepsia after very carefully examining the feedback we've received over the years and as a consequence, we have made it simple enough to be used by people with absolutely no experience, but at the same time, it gives you a wide range of sophisticated capabilities for more tech-savvy users. Right-click context menus and drag-and-drop upload options are only a few of its positive aspects, but you are able to do much more. Domain registrations, plan renewals and trouble tickets are also handled through it, so you shall not need to log in and out of different systems. Hepsia is translated in numerous languages, so if you're not an English speaker, it should take a couple of clicks to switch to German, Spanish, Chinese, Turkish, French, Russian or any one of the other languages available. You can also move the sections around or modify the color scheme depending on your taste. |
What's the difference between
and
Enter two words to compare and contrast their definitions, origins, and synonyms to better understand how those words are related.
dewatering
Dehydration vs Dewatering - What's the difference?
dehydration | dewatering |
As nouns the difference between dehydration and dewatering
is that dehydration is the act or process of freeing from water; also, the condition of a body from which the water has been removed while dewatering is any of various techniques for the removal of water either from a solid, or from a structure.
As a verb dewatering is
.
Drain vs Dewatering - What's the difference?
drain | dewatering |
As nouns the difference between drain and dewatering
is that drain is a conduit allowing liquid to flow out of an otherwise contained volume while dewatering is any of various techniques for the removal of water either from a solid, or from a structure.
As verbs the difference between drain and dewatering
is that drain is to lose liquid while dewatering is .
Dewatering vs Extraction - What's the difference?
dewatering | extraction |
As nouns the difference between dewatering and extraction
is that dewatering is any of various techniques for the removal of water either from a solid, or from a structure while extraction is an act of extracting or the condition of being extracted.
As a verb dewatering
is .
Precipitation vs Dewatering - What's the difference?
precipitation | dewatering |
As nouns the difference between precipitation and dewatering
is that precipitation is precipitation, unwise or rash rapidity; sudden haste while dewatering is any of various techniques for the removal of water either from a solid, or from a structure.
As a verb dewatering is
.
Dewatering vs Drying - What's the difference?
dewatering | drying |
As verbs the difference between dewatering and drying
is that dewatering is present participle of lang=en while drying is present participle of lang=en.
As nouns the difference between dewatering and drying
is that dewatering is any of various techniques for the removal of water either from a solid, or from a structure while drying is the act of drying.
Dewatering vs Rewatering - What's the difference?
dewatering | rewatering |
As verbs the difference between dewatering and rewatering
is that dewatering is while rewatering is .
As a noun dewatering
is any of various techniques for the removal of water either from a solid, or from a structure. |
Posted by: miniflex | March 15, 2010
Easy guide to FTTH
Who will find this guide useful?
This guide is designed to help everyone newly involved in making decisions about Fiber-To-The-Home, such as those communities interested in responding to Google’s recent Google Fiber campaign and ‘Request for Information.’
We have simplified many of the core topics so you can quickly get to grips with the key processes and make your decision-making process easier.
What actually is FTTH?
FTTH, or Fiber-To-The-Home is the method for deploying optical fiber cable from the center of nationwide networks to the front door of your home. Fiber cable is already commonly used up to the point of your utility exchange and sometimes right up to the utility cabinets in your streets.
Diagram of FTTH
Fig. 1 – Scope of an FTTH deployment
As you can see in the above diagram, FTTH is the physical process of replacing or upgrading copper telecoms wiring that comes from your local exchange or cabinet, with optical fiber cable.
Why do we need to know about FTTH?
FTTH is the new way of bringing the internet, television and other broadband services into the home. It is only recently that the technology has become affordable for worldwide deployment. However, we need to be aware of the different challenges FTTH poses.
Why should we use optical fiber?
Copper wiring is limited in its ability to handle large volumes of data traffic. The ability to carry information is called bandwidth. Lots of bandwidth allows huge amounts of information to be carried. One fiber cable can carry many different streams of data and therefore deliver much more bandwidth than copper can.
What does FTTH mean for end-users?
People with FTTH connections will be able to have a really fast broadband service which means downloading films will take minutes rather than hours. It will make interactive activities like gaming instantaneous and more enjoyable. Working from home will be easier. Fiber cable provides a reliable and faster connection to the outside world.
Installing FTTH
There are 4 main steps for installing fiber cable to the home.
1. Place ducting between the home and the cabinet or user access point (a small consumer unit closer to individual houses, see Fig. 4)
2. Install the optical fiber cable into the ducting.
3. Connect the optical fiber cable to the home.
4. Connect the optical fiber cable to the cabinet or user access point.
Step 1 – Installing ducting
Ducting, which is a protective conduit much like electrical trunking, will need to be installed between the cabinet and the home. This can be at any time prior to installing fiber cable and can be designed and built into new and existing premises. The ducting acts as a pathway for the fiber cable to pass through as well as providing protection for the fiber cable.
Ducting for Optical Fiber Cable
Fig. 2 – ‘Microduct’ ducting for optical fiber cable
Step 2 – Installing optical fiber into the ducting
There are three main methods for installing fiber cable through this ducting:
Pushing cable:
Pre-connectorized fiber cable can be pushed either manually or using suitable equipment from the home to the cabinet.
Pros: This method is quick, cheap and relatively hassle-free.
Cons: Limited to a certain distance that fiber cable can be pushed over.
Pulling cable:
Pre-connectorized fiber cable can be bundled with a pulling string and pulled from home to cabinet.
Pros: Traditional method for installing short lengths of fiber cable.
Cons: Greater risk of damaging cable and more time consuming than pushing or blowing.
Blowing cable:
Blowing fiber cable is when fiber cable is pushed using a specialist pressurised rig to blow the fiber cable down the duct.
Pros: Very fast, minimal damage to cable, can be used over great distances.
Cons: Specialist equipment and man-power required, messy due to debris blowing through duct, requires air-tight connections. Needs skilled personnel to do it and finish the connection process to the home.
Step 3 – Connecting the optical fiber cable to the home
If the fiber cable is pre-connectorized, it will need to be connected to the equipment provided by the internet service provider by the user or an engineer.
If the fiber cable is not pre-connectorized, an engineer will be required to make this connection.
Fig. 3 – Optical fiber cable, pre-connectorized with industry standard SC connector
Step 4 – Connecting the optical fiber cable to the cabinet or user access point
Once your ducting has optical fiber cable in place and has been connected in the home, the only thing left to do is to connect it to the cabinet or a user access point.
There are two methods for this:
If the fiber cable is pre-connectorized, the process is easy. Simply assemble and plug the connector into the appropriate port in the cabinet or connection unit. A network technician may be required for this.
Fig. 4 – Making a subscriber connection to the user access point
If the fiber cable is not pre-connectorized, a connector must be ‘spliced on’ by a qualified and highly trained technician. This involves polishing and joining the fiber to the one coming from the connector.
Points to remember:
Optical fiber cable must be bent in a controlled manner
As an optical fiber is made of glass, or occasionally plastic and is approximately the thickness of a human hair, it is much more delicate than standard copper wiring. As signals are carried as light and not electricity, great care must be taken when bending or joining the fiber as imperfections affect the performance dramatically.
Because the glass optical fiber can break, or the light can escape if bent too far, optical fiber cable must be protected against tight bends and kinks when it is installed or handled. For this reason, fiber cable must be installed with a degree of care and planning.
Bend Radius
Fig. 5 – Diagram showing an example of the maximum bend radius of an optical fiber cable
When planning the route that the fiber cable is going to take, from the ground or the pole into the home, you must ensure that the fiber cable does not have to bend more than necessary as this will impair the performance. It is important to keep the total number of bends as few as possible.
Plan and measure the length of fiber cable required
Optical fiber must be cut and prepared in laboratory conditions and is therefore normally supplied in pre-cut and pre-connectorized lengths.
This means that when planning your installation, you need to think about the length of fiber cable needed. You cannot cut the fiber cable to length without the services of an engineer, so you must choose the correct length for your installation.
Summary
This easy guide to FTTH is to get you started and to show you that understanding optical fiber is straightforward.
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Responses
1. There is only one point I feel is under-stated: What does FTTH mean for end-users?
It is not just about downloading movies faster, or being able to work from home (although this will be delicious!). It is far more about all of the new services that will become possible.
For instance, telehealth applications so you can sit on your sofa and be checked over by your consultant; telepresence e.g http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAIDXzv_fKA; remote education, and SO MANY more we cannot begin to imagine yet.
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Author dabeaz
Recipients beazley, dabeaz, flox, kristjan.jonsson, loewis, pitrou, r.david.murray, techtonik, torsten
Date 2010-04-17.12:21:45
SpamBayes Score 5.99223e-10
Marked as misclassified No
Message-id <1271506909.45.0.957146771354.issue8299@psf.upfronthosting.co.za>
In-reply-to
Content
As a followup, since I'm not sure anyone actually here actually tried a fair GIL on Linux, I incorporated your suggested fairness patch to the condition-variable version of the GIL (using this pseudocode you wrote as a guide):
with gil.cond:
if gil.n_waiting or gil.locked:
gil.n_waiting += 1
while True:
gil.cond.wait() #always wait at least once
if not gil.locked:
break
gil.n_waiting -= 1
gil.locked = True
I did some tests on this and it does appear to exhibit fairness. Here are the results of running the 'fair.py' test with a fair GIL on my Linux system:
[ Fair GIL Linux ]
Sequential execution
slow: 6.246764 (0 left)
fast: 0.465102 (0 left)
Threaded execution
slow: 7.534725 (0 left)
fast: 7.674448 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution:
fast A: 10.415756 (0 left)
fast B: 10.456502 (0 left)
fast C: 10.520457 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution, with quickstop:
fast B: 8.423304 (0 left)
fast A: 8.409794 (16016 left)
fast C: 8.381977 (9162 left)
beazley@ubuntu:~/Desktop/Python-2.6.4$
If I switch back to the unfair GIL, this is the result:
[ Unfair GIL, original implementation, Linux]
Sequential execution
slow: 6.164739 (0 left)
fast: 0.422626 (0 left)
Threaded execution
slow: 6.570084 (0 left)
fast: 6.690927 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution:
fast A: 1.994143 (0 left)
fast C: 2.014925 (0 left)
fast B: 2.073212 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution, with quickstop:
fast A: 1.614533 (0 left)
fast C: 1.607324 (377323 left)
fast B: 1.625987 (111451 left)
Probably the main thing to notice is the huge increase in performance over the fair GIL. For instance, the balance execution test runs about 5 times faster.
Here are the two tests repeated with checkinterval = 1000.
[ Fair GIL, checkinterval = 1000]
Sequential execution
slow: 6.175320 (0 left)
fast: 0.424410 (0 left)
Threaded execution
slow: 6.505094 (0 left)
fast: 6.746649 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution:
fast A: 2.243123 (0 left)
fast B: 2.416043 (0 left)
fast C: 2.442475 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution, with quickstop:
fast A: 1.565914 (0 left)
fast C: 1.514024 (81254 left)
fast B: 1.531937 (63740 left)
[ Unfair GIL, checkinterval = 1000]
Sequential execution
slow: 6.258882 (0 left)
fast: 0.411590 (0 left)
Threaded execution
slow: 6.255027 (0 left)
fast: 0.409412 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution:
fast A: 1.291007 (0 left)
fast C: 1.135373 (0 left)
fast B: 1.437205 (0 left)
Treaded, balanced execution, with quickstop:
fast C: 1.331775 (0 left)
fast A: 1.418670 (54841 left)
fast B: 1.403853 (208732 left)
Here, the unfair GIL is still quite a bit faster on raw performance. I tried kicking the check interval up to 10000 and the unfair GIL still won by a pretty significant margin on raw speed of completing the different tasks.
I've attached a copy of the thread_pthread.h file I modified for this test. It's from Python-2.6.4.
History
Date User Action Args
2010-04-17 12:21:49dabeazsetrecipients: + dabeaz, loewis, beazley, pitrou, kristjan.jonsson, techtonik, r.david.murray, flox, torsten
2010-04-17 12:21:49dabeazsetmessageid: <1271506909.45.0.957146771354.issue8299@psf.upfronthosting.co.za>
2010-04-17 12:21:47dabeazlinkissue8299 messages
2010-04-17 12:21:45dabeazcreate |
Posts
Showing posts with the label Spark
Creating a CRUD REST API/Service with Spark
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Hello everyone, today we will discuss how to build RESTful API using Spark. Spark is a micro web framework for Java. Spark aims for simplicity and provides only a minimal set of features. However, it provides everything needed to build a web application in a few lines of Java code. Spark is built around Java 8 Lambda Expression philosophy, making it less verbose than most applications inscribed in other Java frameworks. Routes Let's list the routes that make up our API: GET /employees — get the list of all employees GET /employees/:id — get employees with given id POST /employees/:id — add an employee PUT /employees/:id — edit a particular employee DELETE /employees/:id — delete a particular employees Let's start to build RSETFul API with Spark Maven Dependencies[pom.xml] <?xml version = "1.0" encoding = "UTF-8" ?> <project xmlns = "http://maven.apache.org/POM/4.0.0" xmlns:xsi = "http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance& |
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I have installed an application using the command express new 'filename'. I have just learned that you can start an application using:
npm start
Thus far I have used:
node app.js
to start my server. Anyone know what the difference is between the two? Thanks.
share|improve this question
1 Answer 1
up vote 55 down vote accepted
From the man page, npm start:
runs a package's "start" script, if one was provided. If no version is specified, then it starts the "active" version.
Admittedly, that description is completely unhelpful, and that's all it says. At least it's more documented than socket.io.
Anyhow, what really happens is that npm looks in your package.json file, and if you have something like
"scripts": { "start": "coffee server.coffee" } }
then it will do that. If npm can't find your start script, it defaults to:
node server.js
share|improve this answer
Ah I see. So it's essentially the same thing unless you choose to run more scripts at compile time. – ReneGAED Jul 30 '12 at 7:15
If you normally type "node server.js", then yes. – Yusuf X Jul 30 '12 at 7:53
Your Answer
discard
By posting your answer, you agree to the privacy policy and terms of service.
Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged or ask your own question. |
gem5 v22.1.0.0
pcstate.hh
Go to the documentation of this file.
1 /*
2 * Copyright (c) 2010, 2012-2013, 2017-2018 ARM Limited
3 * All rights reserved
4 *
5 * The license below extends only to copyright in the software and shall
6 * not be construed as granting a license to any other intellectual
7 * property including but not limited to intellectual property relating
8 * to a hardware implementation of the functionality of the software
9 * licensed hereunder. You may use the software subject to the license
10 * terms below provided that you ensure that this notice is replicated
11 * unmodified and in its entirety in all distributions of the software,
12 * modified or unmodified, in source code or in binary form.
13 *
14 * Copyright (c) 2007-2008 The Florida State University
15 * All rights reserved.
16 *
17 * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
18 * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
19 * met: redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
20 * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer;
21 * redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
22 * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
23 * documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution;
24 * neither the name of the copyright holders nor the names of its
25 * contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
26 * this software without specific prior written permission.
27 *
28 * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
29 * "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
30 * LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
31 * A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
32 * OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
33 * SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
34 * LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
35 * DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
36 * THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
37 * (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
38 * OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
39 */
40
41 #ifndef __ARCH_ARM_PCSTATE_HH__
42 #define __ARCH_ARM_PCSTATE_HH__
43
44 #include "arch/generic/pcstate.hh"
45 #include "base/bitunion.hh"
46 #include "base/types.hh"
47 #include "debug/Decoder.hh"
48
49 namespace gem5
50 {
51
52 namespace ArmISA
53 {
54
55 BitUnion8(ITSTATE)
56 /* Note that the split (cond, mask) below is not as in ARM ARM.
57 * But it is more convenient for simulation. The condition
58 * is always the concatenation of the top 3 bits and the next bit,
59 * which applies when one of the bottom 4 bits is set.
60 * Refer to predecoder.cc for the use case.
61 */
62 Bitfield<7, 4> cond;
63 Bitfield<3, 0> mask;
64 // Bitfields for moving to/from CPSR
65 Bitfield<7, 2> top6;
66 Bitfield<1, 0> bottom2;
67 EndBitUnion(ITSTATE)
68
69 class PCState : public GenericISA::UPCState<4>
70 {
71 protected:
72
74
75 enum FlagBits
76 {
77 ThumbBit = (1 << 0),
78 JazelleBit = (1 << 1),
79 AArch64Bit = (1 << 2)
80 };
81
82 uint8_t flags = 0;
83 uint8_t nextFlags = 0;
84 uint8_t _itstate = 0;
85 uint8_t _nextItstate = 0;
86 uint8_t _size = 0;
87 bool _illegalExec = false;
88
89 // Software Step flags
90 bool _debugStep = false;
91 bool _stepped = false;
92
93 public:
94 void
95 set(Addr val)
96 {
97 Base::set(val);
98 npc(val + (thumb() ? 2 : 4));
99 }
100
101 PCState(const PCState &other) : Base(other),
102 flags(other.flags), nextFlags(other.nextFlags),
103 _itstate(other._itstate), _nextItstate(other._nextItstate),
104 _size(other._size), _illegalExec(other._illegalExec),
105 _debugStep(other._debugStep), _stepped(other._stepped)
106 {}
107 PCState &operator=(const PCState &other) = default;
108
109 PCState() {}
110 explicit PCState(Addr val) { set(val); }
111
112 PCStateBase *clone() const override { return new PCState(*this); }
113
114 void
115 update(const PCStateBase &other) override
116 {
117 Base::update(other);
118 auto &pcstate = other.as<PCState>();
119 flags = pcstate.flags;
120 nextFlags = pcstate.nextFlags;
121 _itstate = pcstate._itstate;
122 _nextItstate = pcstate._nextItstate;
123 _size = pcstate._size;
124 _illegalExec = pcstate._illegalExec;
125 _debugStep = pcstate._debugStep;
126 _stepped = pcstate._stepped;
127 }
128
129 bool
130 illegalExec() const
131 {
132 return _illegalExec;
133 }
134
135 void
136 illegalExec(bool val)
137 {
138 _illegalExec = val;
139 }
140
141 bool
142 debugStep() const
143 {
144 return _debugStep;
145 }
146
147 void
148 debugStep(bool val)
149 {
150 _debugStep = val;
151 }
152
153 bool
154 stepped() const
155 {
156 return _stepped;
157 }
158
159 void
160 stepped(bool val)
161 {
162 _stepped = val;
163 }
164
165 bool
166 thumb() const
167 {
168 return flags & ThumbBit;
169 }
170
171 void
172 thumb(bool val)
173 {
174 if (val)
175 flags |= ThumbBit;
176 else
177 flags &= ~ThumbBit;
178 }
179
180 bool
181 nextThumb() const
182 {
183 return nextFlags & ThumbBit;
184 }
185
186 void
187 nextThumb(bool val)
188 {
189 if (val)
190 nextFlags |= ThumbBit;
191 else
192 nextFlags &= ~ThumbBit;
193 }
194
195 void size(uint8_t s) { _size = s; }
196 uint8_t size() const { return _size; }
197
198 bool
199 branching() const override
200 {
201 return ((this->pc() + this->size()) != this->npc());
202 }
203
204
205 bool
206 jazelle() const
207 {
208 return flags & JazelleBit;
209 }
210
211 void
212 jazelle(bool val)
213 {
214 if (val)
215 flags |= JazelleBit;
216 else
217 flags &= ~JazelleBit;
218 }
219
220 bool
221 nextJazelle() const
222 {
223 return nextFlags & JazelleBit;
224 }
225
226 void
227 nextJazelle(bool val)
228 {
229 if (val)
230 nextFlags |= JazelleBit;
231 else
232 nextFlags &= ~JazelleBit;
233 }
234
235 bool
236 aarch64() const
237 {
238 return flags & AArch64Bit;
239 }
240
241 void
242 aarch64(bool val)
243 {
244 if (val)
245 flags |= AArch64Bit;
246 else
247 flags &= ~AArch64Bit;
248 }
249
250 bool
251 nextAArch64() const
252 {
253 return nextFlags & AArch64Bit;
254 }
255
256 void
257 nextAArch64(bool val)
258 {
259 if (val)
260 nextFlags |= AArch64Bit;
261 else
262 nextFlags &= ~AArch64Bit;
263 }
264
265
266 uint8_t
267 itstate() const
268 {
269 return _itstate;
270 }
271
272 void
273 itstate(uint8_t value)
274 {
275 _itstate = value;
276 }
277
278 uint8_t
279 nextItstate() const
280 {
281 return _nextItstate;
282 }
283
284 void
285 nextItstate(uint8_t value)
286 {
287 _nextItstate = value;
288 }
289
290 void
291 advance() override
292 {
293 Base::advance();
294 flags = nextFlags;
295 npc(pc() + (thumb() ? 2 : 4));
296
297 if (_nextItstate) {
298 _itstate = _nextItstate;
299 _nextItstate = 0;
300 } else if (_itstate) {
301 ITSTATE it = _itstate;
302 uint8_t cond_mask = it.mask;
303 uint8_t thumb_cond = it.cond;
304 DPRINTF(Decoder, "Advancing ITSTATE from %#x,%#x.\n",
305 thumb_cond, cond_mask);
306 cond_mask <<= 1;
307 uint8_t new_bit = bits(cond_mask, 4);
308 cond_mask &= mask(4);
309 if (cond_mask == 0)
310 thumb_cond = 0;
311 else
312 replaceBits(thumb_cond, 0, new_bit);
313 DPRINTF(Decoder, "Advancing ITSTATE to %#x,%#x.\n",
314 thumb_cond, cond_mask);
315 it.mask = cond_mask;
316 it.cond = thumb_cond;
317 _itstate = it;
318 }
319 }
320
321 void
322 uEnd()
323 {
324 advance();
325 upc(0);
326 nupc(1);
327 }
328
329 Addr
330 instPC() const
331 {
332 return pc() + (thumb() ? 4 : 8);
333 }
334
335 void
336 instNPC(Addr val)
337 {
338 // @todo: review this when AArch32/64 interprocessing is
339 // supported
340 if (aarch64())
341 npc(val); // AArch64 doesn't force PC alignment, a PC
342 // Alignment Fault can be raised instead
343 else
344 npc(val &~ mask(nextThumb() ? 1 : 2));
345 }
346
347 Addr
348 instNPC() const
349 {
350 return npc();
351 }
352
353 // Perform an interworking branch.
354 void
355 instIWNPC(Addr val)
356 {
357 bool thumbEE = (thumb() && jazelle());
358
359 Addr newPC = val;
360 if (thumbEE) {
361 if (bits(newPC, 0)) {
362 newPC = newPC & ~mask(1);
363 } // else we have a bad interworking address; do not call
364 // panic() since the instruction could be executed
365 // speculatively
366 } else {
367 if (bits(newPC, 0)) {
368 nextThumb(true);
369 newPC = newPC & ~mask(1);
370 } else if (!bits(newPC, 1)) {
371 nextThumb(false);
372 } else {
373 // This state is UNPREDICTABLE in the ARM architecture
374 // The easy thing to do is just mask off the bit and
375 // stay in the current mode, so we'll do that.
376 newPC &= ~mask(2);
377 }
378 }
379 npc(newPC);
380 }
381
382 // Perform an interworking branch in ARM mode, a regular branch
383 // otherwise.
384 void
385 instAIWNPC(Addr val)
386 {
387 if (!thumb() && !jazelle())
388 instIWNPC(val);
389 else
390 instNPC(val);
391 }
392
393 bool
394 equals(const PCStateBase &other) const override
395 {
396 auto &opc = other.as<PCState>();
397 return Base::equals(other) &&
398 flags == opc.flags && nextFlags == opc.nextFlags &&
399 _itstate == opc._itstate &&
400 _nextItstate == opc._nextItstate &&
401 _illegalExec == opc._illegalExec &&
402 _debugStep == opc._debugStep &&
403 _stepped == opc._stepped;
404 }
405
406 void
407 serialize(CheckpointOut &cp) const override
408 {
409 Base::serialize(cp);
411 SERIALIZE_SCALAR(_size);
412 SERIALIZE_SCALAR(nextFlags);
413 SERIALIZE_SCALAR(_itstate);
414 SERIALIZE_SCALAR(_nextItstate);
415 SERIALIZE_SCALAR(_illegalExec);
416 SERIALIZE_SCALAR(_debugStep);
417 SERIALIZE_SCALAR(_stepped);
418 }
419
420 void
421 unserialize(CheckpointIn &cp) override
422 {
423 Base::unserialize(cp);
425 UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(_size);
426 UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(nextFlags);
427 UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(_itstate);
428 UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(_nextItstate);
429 UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(_illegalExec);
430 UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(_debugStep);
431 UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(_stepped);
432 }
433 };
434
435 } // namespace ArmISA
436 } // namespace gem5
437
438 #endif
#define DPRINTF(x,...)
Definition: trace.hh:186
Defines global host-dependent types: Counter, Tick, and (indirectly) {int,uint}{8,...
Target & as()
Definition: pcstate.hh:72
constexpr T bits(T val, unsigned first, unsigned last)
Extract the bitfield from position 'first' to 'last' (inclusive) from 'val' and right justify it.
Definition: bitfield.hh:76
constexpr void replaceBits(T &val, unsigned first, unsigned last, B bit_val)
A convenience function to replace bits first to last of val with bit_val in place.
Definition: bitfield.hh:197
uint8_t flags
Definition: helpers.cc:66
Bitfield< 3, 0 > mask
Definition: pcstate.hh:63
Bitfield< 4 > s
Definition: misc_types.hh:568
Bitfield< 7, 2 > top6
Definition: pcstate.hh:65
Bitfield< 60 > debugStep
Definition: types.hh:63
Bitfield< 36 > thumb
Definition: types.hh:79
Bitfield< 1, 0 > bottom2
Definition: pcstate.hh:66
Bitfield< 55, 48 > itstate
Definition: types.hh:70
EndBitUnion(PackedIntReg) namespace int_reg
Definition: int.hh:65
Bitfield< 34 > aarch64
Definition: types.hh:81
Bitfield< 12, 11 > set
Definition: misc_types.hh:709
BitUnion8(ITSTATE) Bitfield< 7
Bitfield< 4 > pc
GenericISA::DelaySlotUPCState< 4 > PCState
Definition: pcstate.hh:40
Bitfield< 63 > val
Definition: misc.hh:776
Reference material can be found at the JEDEC website: UFS standard http://www.jedec....
std::ostream CheckpointOut
Definition: serialize.hh:66
uint64_t Addr
Address type This will probably be moved somewhere else in the near future.
Definition: types.hh:147
void unserialize(ThreadContext &tc, CheckpointIn &cp)
void serialize(const ThreadContext &tc, CheckpointOut &cp)
Thread context serialization helpers.
#define UNSERIALIZE_SCALAR(scalar)
Definition: serialize.hh:575
#define SERIALIZE_SCALAR(scalar)
Definition: serialize.hh:568
Generated on Wed Dec 21 2022 10:22:26 for gem5 by doxygen 1.9.1 |
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Urine Drug Test
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If your first test does come back positive, but you deny drug use, you’ll take a second type of test called gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). This type of test uses the same procedure for getting a urine specimen as the immunoassay. GC/MS results are more expensive and take longer to give results, but they rarely produce false positives.
Both types of tests:
• can create a false negative, which is when the test reports a negative result even if there is drug use
• can be used to cheat the system
• can fail to capture same-day drug use
How to Take the Test
process
You may take the urine drug test anywhere a bathroom is available, such as a doctor’s office, a hospital, a place of business, or at home. The test procedure includes the following steps:
• The person administering the test will give you a specimen cup.
• You’ll need to leave your purse, briefcase, or other belongings in another room while you take the test. You may also need to change from your street clothes into a hospital gown.
• In some cases, the nurse or technician administering the urine drug screen will accompany you into the bathroom so that you can’t do anything to skew the test results.
• Clean your genital area with a moist cloth that the technician will provide.
• Begin to urinate into the toilet.
• While the urine is in midstream, place the specimen cup in your urine stream. Don’t allow the cup to touch your genital area.
• When you finish urinating, put a lid on the cup and bring it to the technician.
Urine Drug Test Results
Results/Exams
The technician or nurse should be able to inform you of the test results almost immediately.
Immunoassays, the most common type of urine drug screening, don’t measure drugs themselves. Rather, they measure how drug use interferes with the body’s ability to form antigen-antibody complexes.
Results of this test are expressed in ng/mL (nanograms per milliliter). The test uses a cutoff point. Any result below the cutoff number is a negative screen and any number above the cutoff number is a positive screen. The people who administer the drug test usually give the results in terms of positive or negative instead of numeric values.
Many immunoassay tests don’t even display the ng/mL measurements. Rather, the results appear on a test strip that turns different colors to indicate the presence or absence of various substances.
If you get a positive result for illegal drugs that you haven’t taken, you should request a GC/MS test immediately.
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B. Trace
time limit per test
2 seconds
memory limit per test
256 megabytes
input
standard input
output
standard output
One day, as Sherlock Holmes was tracking down one very important criminal, he found a wonderful painting on the wall. This wall could be represented as a plane. The painting had several concentric circles that divided the wall into several parts. Some parts were painted red and all the other were painted blue. Besides, any two neighboring parts were painted different colors, that is, the red and the blue color were alternating, i. e. followed one after the other. The outer area of the wall (the area that lied outside all circles) was painted blue. Help Sherlock Holmes determine the total area of red parts of the wall.
Let us remind you that two circles are called concentric if their centers coincide. Several circles are called concentric if any two of them are concentric.
Input
The first line contains the single integer n (1 ≤ n ≤ 100). The second line contains n space-separated integers ri (1 ≤ ri ≤ 1000) — the circles' radii. It is guaranteed that all circles are different.
Output
Print the single real number — total area of the part of the wall that is painted red. The answer is accepted if absolute or relative error doesn't exceed 10 - 4.
Examples
Input
1
1
Output
3.1415926536
Input
3
1 4 2
Output
40.8407044967
Note
In the first sample the picture is just one circle of radius 1. Inner part of the circle is painted red. The area of the red part equals π × 12 = π.
In the second sample there are three circles of radii 1, 4 and 2. Outside part of the second circle is painted blue. Part between the second and the third circles is painted red. Part between the first and the third is painted blue. And, finally, the inner part of the first circle is painted red. Overall there are two red parts: the ring between the second and the third circles and the inner part of the first circle. Total area of the red parts is equal (π × 42 - π × 22) + π × 12 = π × 12 + π = 13π |
使用 AWS ParallelCluster 运行 Ansys Fluent 的最佳实践
阅读数：160 2019 年 9 月 20 日 15:10
使用 AWS ParallelCluster 运行 Ansys Fluent 的最佳实践
使用 HPC（高性能计算）应对计算流体动力学 (CFD) 的挑战已成为惯例。随着近一二十年间，HPC 工作站向超级计算机的发展变缓，计算集群正不断地取代单独的大型 SMP（共享内存处理）超级计算机的地位，并且已成为“新常态”。另外，一项更加新的创新——云技术，同样也大幅提升了总的计算吞吐量。
这一篇博文将向您介绍在数分钟内于运行 Ansys Fluent（一款市售的计算流体动力学软件包）的 AWS 上完成 HPC 集群设置的最佳优良实践。此外您还能看到一些安装 Ansys Fluent 并运行您的首个作业的示例脚本。“最佳指南”是一种相对称呼，在云技术中更是如此，因为存在能以不同方式组合达成相同目的的诸多可能性（亦称为服务）。仅在需要使用特定的应用程序特性或应用程序功能的情况下，才能判定某种选择是否优于另一种。举例来说，“高性能并行文件系统 (Amazon FSx) 优于 NFS 共享”这一判断在绝大部分 HPC 工作负载中是成立的，但在另一些情形中（例如 !I/O 密集型应用程序，或者创建小型 HPC 集群来运行少量和 / 或小型作业）NFS 共享已经绰绰有余，并且此种方式更加廉价，设置简单。在此篇博文中我们将分享我们视作最佳优良实践的方法，以及其他一些您在实践中可能会考虑的可用替代选择。
我们将会使用的主要集群组件是以下的 AWS 服务：
• AWS ParallelCluster，这是一种 AWS 支持的开源集群管理工具，可用于在 AWS 云中部署并管理 HPC 集群。
• 新的 AWS C5n 实例最多可使用 100 Gbps 的网络带宽。
• Amazon FSx for Lustre，这是一种高度并行文件系统，支持对 PB 级别的文件系统进行亚毫秒级别的访问，可为每 1TiB 的预置容量以 10,000 IOPS 的速度提供 200 MB/s 的聚合吞吐量。
• Nice DCV 用作远程可视化协议。
注：我们在 re:Invent 2018 上发布了 Elastic Fabric Adapter (EFA)，最近又在多个 AWS 区域中推出了该服务。EFA 这种网络设备可挂载到您的 Amazon EC2 实例以加速 HPC 应用程序的运行，降低延迟并使其更均匀，带来比基于云的 HPC 系统通常使用的 TCP 传输方式更高的吞吐量。其提升了对于扩展 HPC 应用程序至关重要的实例间通信的性能，并为在现有 AWS 网络基础设施上运行做了优化。Ansys Fluent 尚不适合与 EFA 共用，因此本篇博文中不会全面介绍这一具体的网络设备。
注意：ANSYS Fluent 是一款需要许可证的市售软件包。本文假定您已获得在 AWS 上使用（或通过 AWS 访问）Ansys Fluent 的许可证。此外，下文的安装脚本还需要您拥有 Ansys 安装包 。您可以在“下载 – 当前发行版本”下方下载当前发行版本的 Ansys。
第一步：创建一个自定义 AMI
为了加速集群的创建，更重要的是，为了缩短计算节点的启动时间，良好做法是创建一个部分软件包已预安装并且设置已完成配置的自定义 AMI。
1. 以已有 AMI 为基础开始工作，记下您计划部署集群区域的适用 AMI ID，详情请见我们的 AMI 区域列表。例如，我们在弗吉尼亚州 (us-east-1) 使用 CentOS7 开始工作，则 AMI ID 为 ami-0a4d7e08ea5178c02。
2. 打开 AWS 控制台并在偏好区域（即选择 AMI 的区域）中启动一个实例，按前述方式使用 AMI ID。
3. 确保您的实例可以从互联网访问，并且具有公共 IP 地址。
4. 为实例分配一个允许其从 S3（或从特定的 S3 存储桶）下载文件的 IAM 角色。
5. 可选择标记实例（即 Name = Fluent-AMI-v1）。
6. 配置安全组以允许端口 22 上的入站连接。
7. 如果您需要为 AWS ParallelCluster 创建自定义 AMI 方法的额外细节，请参阅官方文档 Building a custom AWS ParallelCluster AMI。
8. 实例就绪后，通过 SSH 进行连接并以 root 身份运行以下命令：
复制代码
yum -y update
yum install -y dkms zlib-devel libXext-devel libGLU-devel libXt-devel libXrender-devel libXinerama-devel libpng-devel libXrandr-devel libXi-devel libXft-devel libjpeg-turbo-devel libXcursor-devel readline-devel ncurses-devel python python-devel cmake qt-devel qt-assistant mpfr-devel gmp-devel htop wget screen vim xorg-x11-drv-dummy xorg-x11-server-utils libXp.x86_64 xorg-x11-fonts-cyrillic.noarch xterm.x86_64 openmotif.x86_64 compat-libstdc++-33.x86_64 libstdc++.x86_64 libstdc++.i686 gcc-c++.x86_64 compat-libstdc++-33.i686 libstdc++-devel.x86_64 libstdc++-devel.i686 compat-gcc-34.x86_64 gtk2.i686 libXxf86vm.i686 libSM.i686 libXt.i686 xorg-x11-fonts-ISO8859-1-75dpi.no xorg-x11-fonts-iso8859-1-75dpi.no libXext gdm gnome-session gnome-classic-session gnome-session-xsession xorg-x11-server-Xorg xorg-x11-drv-dummy xorg-x11-fonts-Type1 xorg-x11-utils gnome-terminal gnu-free-fonts-common gnu-free-mono-fonts gnu-free-sans-fonts gnu-free-serif-fonts alsa-plugins-pulseaudio alsa-utils
yum -y groupinstall "GNOME Desktop"
yum -y erase initial-setup gnome-initial-setup initial-setup-gui
#a reboot here may be helpful in case the kernel has been updated
#this will disable the ssh host key checking
#usually this may not be needed, but with some specific configuration Fluent may require this setting.
cat <<\EOF >> /etc/ssh/ssh_config
StrictHostKeyChecking no
UserKnownHostsFile /dev/null
EOF
#set higher limits, usefull when running Fluent (and in general HPC applications) on multiple nodes via mpi
cat <<\EOF >> /etc/security/limits.conf
* hard memlock unlimited
* soft memlock unlimited
* hard stack 1024000
* soft stack 1024000
* hard nofile 1024000
* soft nofile 1024000
EOF
#stop and disable the firewall
systemctl disable firewalld
systemctl stop firewalld
#install the latest ENA driver, ATM 2.1.1
cd /tmp
wget https://github.com/amzn/amzn-drivers/archive/ena_linux_2.1.1.tar.gz
tar zxvf ena_linux_2.1.1.tar.gz
mv amzn-drivers-ena_linux_2.1.1 /usr/src/ena-2.1.1
cat <<EOF > /usr/src/ena-2.1.1/dkms.conf
PACKAGE_NAME="ena"
PACKAGE_VERSION="2.1.1"
AUTOINSTALL="yes"
REMAKE_INITRD="yes"
BUILT_MODULE_LOCATION[0]="kernel/linux/ena"
BUILT_MODULE_NAME[0]="ena"
DEST_MODULE_LOCATION[0]="/updates"
DEST_MODULE_NAME[0]="ena"
CLEAN="cd kernel/linux/ena; make clean"
MAKE="cd kernel/linux/ena; make BUILD_KERNEL=\${kernelver}"
EOF
dkms add -m ena -v 2.1.1
dkms build -m ena -v 2.1.1
dkms install -m ena -v 2.1.1
dracut -f —add-drivers ena
#reboot again, and make sure that after the reboot the ena driver is up to date (run modinfo ena to check)
#install the latest version of NICE DCV (at the moment it is 2017.4)
cd /tmp
wget https://d1uj6qtbmh3dt5.cloudfront.net/server/nice-dcv-2017.4-6898-el7.tgz
tar xzvf nice-dcv-2017.4-6898-el7.tgz
cd nice-dcv-2017.4-6898-el7
yum install -y nice-dcv-server-2017.4.6898-1.el7.x86_64.rpm nice-dcv-gltest-2017.4.216-1.el7.x86_64.rpm nice-xdcv-2017.4.210-1.el7.x86_64.rpm
#install this additional package only in case you are running on an instance equipped with GPU
yum install -y nice-dcv-gl-2017.4.490-1.el7.i686.rpm nice-dcv-gl-2017.4.490-1.el7.x86_64.rpm
# Add the line "blacklist = /usr/bin/Xorg" to section [gl] of /etc/dcv/dcv-gl.conf
# to fix an incompatibility introduced with the latest versions of Xorg and Nvidia driver
sed -i 's|\[gl\]|&\nblacklist = /usr/bin/Xorg|' /etc/dcv/dcv-gl.conf
#Clean up the instance before creating the AMI.
/usr/local/sbin/ami_cleanup.sh
#shutdown the instance
shutdown -h now
现在您可以通过 AWS CLI（或 AWS Web 控制台）创建您的 AMI 了：
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aws ec2 create-image --instance-id i-1234567890abcdef0 --name "Fluent-AMI-v1" --description "This is my first Ansys Fluent AMI"
输出将如下所示：
复制代码
{
"ImageId": "ami-1a2b3c4d5e6f7g"
}
记住 AMI id。稍后 AWS ParallelCluster 配置文件中将会用到。
创建 / 复用 VPC、子网以及安全组
下一步，创建或复用已有 VPC。注意 vpc-ID 和 subnet-ID。有关为 AWS ParallelCluster 创建并配置 VPC 方法的更多信息，可参阅网络配置。
您可以使用单个子网同时用于主实例和计算实例，或者使用两个子网：一个公共子网上为主实例，一个私有子网上为计算实例。
下方的配置文件展示了在单个子网上运行集群的方法，如此架构图所示：
使用 AWS ParallelCluster 运行 Ansys Fluent 的最佳实践
还要创建一个开启 8443 端口的临时安全组。这将用于允许与使用 NICE DCV 作为远程桌面流协议的主节点建立入站连接。
创建集群配置文件和后安装脚本
现在您可以开始编写配置文件了。在您本地 PC 上打开一个文本文件，并将下方代码粘贴进去。（此处为示例，您可能要依照偏好修改其中一些参数。您还要将占位符 替换为您自己的设置。）
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[aws]
aws_region_name = <your-preferred-region>
[global]
sanity_check = true
cluster_template = fluent_cluster_test1
update_check = true
[vpc vpc-us-east-1]
vpc_id = vpc-<VPC-ID>
master_subnet_id = subnet-<Subnet-ID>
additional_sg=sg-<Security-Group-ID>
[cluster fluent_cluster]
key_name = <Key-Name>
vpc_settings = vpc-us-east-1
compute_instance_type=c5n.18xlarge
master_instance_type=g3.4xlarge
initial_queue_size = 0
max_queue_size = 10
maintain_initial_size = true
scheduler=sge
cluster_type = ondemand
s3_read_write_resource=arn:aws:s3:::<Your-S3-Bucket>*
post_install = s3://<Your-S3-Bucket>/fluent-post-install.sh
placement_group = DYNAMIC
placement = compute
master_root_volume_size = 64
compute_root_volume_size = 20
base_os = centos7
extra_json = { "cluster" : {"cfn_scheduler_slots" : "cores" } }
tags = {"Name" : "fluent_cluster_test1"}
fsx_settings = parallel-fs
custom_ami = ami-<AMI-ID>
[fsx parallel-fs]
shared_dir = /fsx
storage_capacity = 3600
import_path = s3://<Your-S3-Bucket>
imported_file_chunk_size = 1024
export_path = s3://<Your-S3-Bucket>/export
让我们来详细研究一下该配置中的某些设置：
1. aws_region_name = 选择正确的 AWS 区域对于您远程桌面会话的可用性至关重要：您与所选区域的地理距离越近，网络延迟就越低，可用性和交互性也就越好。如果您不清楚距您最近的 AWS 区域，可使用简单的 CloudPing 服务来确定哪个区域的延迟最低。
2. initial_queue_size=0。此设置用于定义集群的初始大小。在此示例中其值为 0（您可以根据自己的需要任意修改）。0 意味着当您首次提交作业时，您的作业在队列中将处于待处理状态。当在集群中添加节点时，作业将转变为运行状态。AWS ParallelCluster 默认情况下会每 5 分钟检视一次计划程序队列，并根据运行待处理作业所需的槽数添加（或删除）节点。
3. compute_instance_type = c5n.18xlarge。此设置用于定义集群计算节点的实例类型。此配置文件显示为 c5n.18xlarge。这是（在撰文时）最适合紧密耦合工作负载的实例。C5n.18xlarge 具有最佳的价格 / 性能比，及最佳的内存 / 核心比，还有一点很重要的是，它可用于 EFA。其他适用的实例是（最新的）c5.24xlarge 和 c4.8xlarge，两者价格都与 C4n.18xlarge 相近，但不支持 EFA。如果您想要构建自己的网格，并且需要更高的内存 / 核心比，m5.24xlarge 或 r5.24xlarge 是不错的选择，但其价格存在差异。最后，由于使用了定制的 Intel® Xeon® 可扩展处理器（可维持最高为 4.0 GHz 的全核频率），z1d.12xlarge 实例可以发挥出最大的效能，是所有云实例中速度最快的。不管实例类型为何，我们的建议是始终为所有实例类型选择最大大小。一般而言，紧密耦合工作负载的可扩展性受限于网络带宽（及延迟），因此为您的实例选择最大大小，可以通过每一个单独实例使用尽可能多的核心来减少跨节点通信。
4. master_instance_type = g3.4xlarge。此设置用于定义集群主节点（或登录节点）的实例类型。在此示例中，我们选择配有 GPU (Nvidia M60) 的实例，因为我们还想要在作业完成之后进行数据后处理。后处理应用通常需要一个 GPU 来渲染复杂的 3D 图像。如果您不想执行任何后处理（或者您的后处理不需要 GPU），则可以选择与计算节点相同的实例类型（可能只是大小略小），或者您可以选择适合构建网格的实例类型（m5.24xlarge 或 r5.24xlarge）。
5. placement_group = DYNAMIC 和 placement = compute 两者用于告知 AWS 我们想要使用集群置放组，以及只有计算节点需要位于相同的置放组中，主节点不需要。在启用 NFS 共享，计算节点与主节点之间的延迟需要尽可能低时，将主节点也放置于相同的置放组中是一种良好做法。在我们示例中，我们不使用 NFS 共享，而是使用 FSx。
6. extra_json = { “cluster” : {“cfn_scheduler_slots” : “cores” } } 此语句连同下方后安装脚本开头的 for 循环一起用于禁用超线程。绝大部分的 HPC 应用程序无法从超线程中获益。但是，如果禁用超线程而不使用此行语句，SGE 将无法正确地将槽映射到核。
7. custom_ami = ami- 该设置将告知 AWS ParallelCluster 使用您先前创建的 AMI。
8. [fsx parallel-fs] 该部分包含定义您的基于 FSx 的并行高性能文件系统的设置。
9. post_install = s3:///fluent-post-install.sh. 该设置定义在所有实例创建之后，在实例上运行的脚本的位置。下方是一个针对此处案例调整过的脚本示例；您可以原样使用，也可以根据需要进行修改：
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#!/bin/bash
复制代码
#source the AWS ParallelCluster profile
. /etc/parallelcluster/cfnconfig
#disable hyper-threading
for cpunum in $(cat /sys/devices/system/cpu/cpu*/topology/thread_siblings_list | cut -s -d, -f2- | tr ',' '\n' | sort -un); do
echo 0 > /sys/devices/system/cpu/cpu$cpunum/online
done
case "${cfn_node_type}" in
MasterServer)
#save the instance type
instanceType=$(curl http://169.254.169.254/latest/meta-data/instance-type)
if [[ $instanceType == *"g3"* ]]; then
# configure Xorg to use the Nvidia GPU with the right driver
nvidia-xconfig -preserve-busid -enable-all-gpus
#Configure the GPU settings to be persistent
nvidia-persistenced
#Disable the autoboost feature for all GPUs on the instance
nvidia-smi -auto-boost-default=0
#Set all GPU clock speeds to their maximum frequency.
nvidia-smi -ac 2505,1177
else
cd /etc/X11/
#download a dummy xorg.conf,
#This is used by instances without GPU
wget -q https://xpra.org/xorg.conf
fi
#set the system to run the graphical mode (init 5)
systemctl set-default graphical.target
#and start GDM
systemctl enable gdm.service
systemctl start gdm.service
sleep 2
#enable and start also DCV
systemctl enable dcvserver.service
systemctl start dcvserver.service
sleep 2
#create a NICE DCV session
dcv create-session --owner centos --user centos test1
echo "centos:<YourPassword>" | chpasswd
;;
ComputeFleet)
#nothing here, for now
;;
esac
注：将占位符 替换为您自己的密码。该密码将仅用于通过 NICE DCV 执行连接。要通过 SSH 进行连接，您仍然需要使用配置文件中定义的私有密钥。
注：目前所提及的一些服务，尤其是 FSx 和 C5n，都是非常新的服务，它们可能只能用于某些区域。请查看区域表格来了解您偏好的区域是否拥有所有必要的服务。如果 C5n 不可用，可选择 C4.8xlarge 或 C5.18xlarge。如果 FSx 不可用，则使用 NFS 共享，不使用 EBS。下方的示例代码片段启用了 NFS 共享，而没有使用 IO1 卷类型。IO1 是一种 I/O 密集型高性能 SSD 卷，用于提供最高为 50 IOPS/GB（最大为 64,000 IOPS）的一致基线性能，每卷最高可提供 1,000 MB/s 的吞吐量（即 1TB 最高可提供 50,000 IOPS）。您也可以将 GP2 视作一种成本更低的替代方案，它具有数毫秒的延迟，提供 3 IOPS/GB 的一致基线性能（最低 100 IOPS），最大 16,000 IOPS，每卷可提供最高为 250 MB/s 的吞吐量。参阅 ParallelCluster 文档的 EBS 部分可了解更多内容。
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[ebs shared-fs]
volume_size = <size in GB>
shared_dir = /shared
#ebs_snapshot_id =
volume_type = io1
volume_iops = <number of IOPS>
您还需要将 fsx_setting 参数注释掉：
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#fsx_settings = parallel-fs
并将其替换为：
复制代码
ebs_settings = shared-fs
在使用 NFS 时，留意其会限制扩展性；当有成千上万的客户端需要同时访问文件系统时，FSx 特别有用。（如果您计划运行数个作业，每个作业使用多个节点，则此情形并不罕见。）
部署您的首个集群
现在您已经拥有了为 Ansys Fluent 创建首个 AWS ParallelCluster 的所有基础组件，您只需要将后安装脚本上传到您的 S3 存储桶中：
复制代码
aws s3 cp fluent-post-install.sh s3://<Your-S3-Bucket>/fluent-post-install.sh
注：确保将您的后安装脚本上传到配置文件中指定的存储桶。
后安装脚本上传完成后，您可以通过运行以下命令行，使用先前定义的 ParallelCluster 配置文件创建集群：
复制代码
pcluster create -c fluent.config fluent-test -t fluent_cluster -r <your-preferred-region>
注：如果这是您使用 AWS ParallelCluster 进行的首次测试，您需要额外的说明了解如何开始，则可以参阅这一篇 ParallelCluster 操作入门的博文，和 / 或 AWS ParallelCluster 文档。
安装 Ansys Fluent
现在是时候连接您集群的主节点，并安装 Ansys 套件了。您将需要使用先前命令输出结果中的公共 IP 地址。
您可以使用 SSH 和 / 或 DCV 连接主节点。
• 通过 SSH：ssh -i /path/of/your/ssh.key centos@
• 通过 DCV：打开浏览器并连接 https://:8443 您可以使用“centos”作为用户名，并使用在后安装脚本中定义的密码。
在您登录后，获得 root 身份（sudo su - 或 sudo -i）并在 /fsx 目录下安装 Ansys 套件。您可以手动安装，也可以使用下方的示例脚本。
注意：我们已经在配置文件的 FSx 部分定义了 import_path = s3://。这将告知 FSx 从 预加载所有数据。我们建议您预先向 S3 复制 Ansys 安装文件以及其他所有您可能用到的文件或软件包，这样所有这些文件都将位于集群的 /fsx 目录下供您使用。以下示例使用了 Ansys iso 安装文件。您可以使用 tar 或 iso 文件，这两种文件都可以从 Ansys 网站的“下载 → 当前发布版本”之下下载。
复制代码
#!/bin/bash
复制代码
#check the installation directory
if [ ! -d "${1}" -o -z "${1}" ]; then
echo "Error: please check the install dir"
exit -1
fi
ansysDir="${1}/ansys_inc"
installDir="${1}/"
ansysDisk1="ANSYS2019R2_LINX64_Disk1.iso"
ansysDisk2="ANSYS2019R2_LINX64_Disk2.iso"
# mount the Disks
disk1="${installDir}/AnsysDisk1"
disk2="${installDir}/AnsysDisk2"
mkdir -p "${disk1}"
mkdir -p "${disk2}"
echo "Mounting ${ansysDisk1} ..."
mount -o loop "${installDir}/${ansysDisk1}" "${disk1}"
echo "Mounting ${ansysDisk2} ..."
mount -o loop "${installDir}/${ansysDisk2}" "${disk2}"
# INSTALL Ansys WB
echo "Installing Ansys ${ansysver}"
"${disk1}/INSTALL" -silent -install_dir "${ansysDir}" -media_dir2 "${disk2}"
echo "Ansys installed"
umount -l "${disk1}"
echo "${ansysDisk1} unmounted..."
umount -l "${disk2}"
echo "${ansysDisk2} unmounted..."
echo "Cleaning up temporary install directory"
rm -rf "${disk1}"
rm -rf "${disk2}"
echo "Installation process completed!"
注意：如果您决定使用 EBS 共享选项，而非 FSx，则在 Ansys 安装完成后，您可能想要创建 EBS 卷的快照以便在其他集群中复用。您可以通过 web 控制台创建快照：
1. 打开 Amazon EC2 控制台。
2. 选择导航窗格中的快照。
3. 选择创建快照。
4. 在创建快照页面中选择要创建快照的卷。
5. （可选）选择向快照添加标签。每个标签需要提供一个标签键和一个标签值。
6. 选择创建快照。
如果使用 CLI：
复制代码
aws ec2 create-snapshot --volume-id vol-xyz --description "This is the snapshot of my Ansys installation"
如果您想要复用已有的快照，则在 AWS ParallelCluster 配置文件的 ebs 部分添加以下参数：
复制代码
ebs_snapshot_id = snap-XXXX
有关更多信息，请参见 Amazon EBS 快照。
运行您的首个 Ansys Fluent 作业
最后，您可以通过 qsub 提交以下脚本，来运行您的首个作业。以下是使用 14 C5n.18xlarge 实例运行作业的方法示例：
复制代码
qsub -pe mpi 360 /fsx/ansys-run.sh
ansys-run.sh
可以是：
复制代码
#!/bin/bash
#$ -N Fluent
#$ -j Y
#$ -S /bin/bash
export ANSYSLI_SERVERS=2325@<your-license-server>
export ANSYSLMD_LICENSE_FILE=1055@<your-license-server>
basedir="/fsx"
workdir="${basedir}/$(date "+%d-%m-%Y-%H-%M")-${NSLOTS}-$RANDOM"
mkdir "${workdir}"
cd "${workdir}"
cp "${basedir}/f1_racecar_140m.tar.gz" .
tar xzvf f1_racecar_140m.tar.gz
rm -f f1_racecar_140m.tar.gz
cd bench/fluent/v6/f1_racecar_140m/cas_dat
${basedir}/ansys_inc/v194/fluent/bin/fluentbench.pl f1_racecar_140m -t${NSLOTS} -cnf=$PE_HOSTFILE -part=1 -nosyslog -noloadchk -ssh -mpi=intel -cflush
注意：您可能想要将基准文件 f1_racecar_140m.tar.gz 或其他想要使用的数据集复制到 S3，以便其能在 FSx 预加载供您使用。
小结
虽然此博文主要关注点为安装、设置、运行 Ansys Fluent，但也可将其中做法稍加修改用于运行其他 CFD 应用程序，以及其他使用消息传递接口 (MPI) 标准的应用程序，例如 OpenMPI 或 Intel-MPI。我们很乐意帮助您，代您在 AWS 上运行此等 HPC 应用程序，然后与您分享我们的最佳实践，您可以通过 AWS Docs GitHub 存储库或电子邮件随时随地提交您的请求。
最后，请不要忘记 AWS ParallelCluster 是一个以社区为中心的项目。我们欢迎所有人提交拉取请求或通过 GitHub 问题提供反馈。用户的反馈对于 AWS 来说极为重要，因为正是这些反馈推动了每一项服务及功能的发展！
本文转载自博客 AWS。
原文链接：
https://amazonaws-china.com/cn/blogs/china/best-practices-running-ansys-fluent-aws-parallelcluster/
欲了解 AWS 的更多信息，请访问【AWS 技术专区】
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Reference > Anatomy of the Human Body > Page 485
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CONTENTS · BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD · ILLUSTRATIONS · SUBJECT INDEX
Henry Gray (1825–1861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918.
the floor of the popliteal fossa. It arises by a strong tendon about 2.5 cm. long, from a depression at the anterior part of the groove on the lateral condyle of the femur, and to a small extent from the oblique popliteal ligament of the knee-joint; and is inserted into the medial two-thirds of the triangular surface above the popliteal line on the posterior surface of the body of the tibia, and into the tendinous expansion covering the surface of the muscle.
Variations.—Additional head from the sesamoid bone in the outer head of the Gastrocnemius. Popliteus minor, rare, origin from femur on the inner side of the Plantaris, insertion into the posterior ligament of the knee-joint. Peroneotibialis, 14 per cent., origin inner side of the head of the fibula, insertion into the upper end of the oblique line of the tibia, it lies beneath the Popliteus.
The Flexor hallucis longus is situated on the fibular side of the leg. It arises from the inferior two-thirds of the posterior surface of the body of the fibula, with the exception of 2.5 cm. at its lowest part; from the lower part of the interosseous membrane; from an intermuscular septum between it and the Peronæi, laterally, and from the fascia covering the Tibialis posterior, medially. The fibers pass obliquely downward and backward, and end in a tendon which occupies nearly the whole length of the posterior surface of the muscle. This tendon lies in a groove which crosses the posterior surface of the lower end of the tibia, the posterior surface of the talus, and the under surface of the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus; in the sole of the foot it runs forward between the two heads of the Flexor hallucis brevis, and is inserted into the base of the last phalanx of the great toe. The grooves on the talus and calcaneus, which contain the tendon of the muscle, are converted by tendinous fibers into distinct canals, lined by a mucous sheath. As the tendon passes forward in the sole of the foot, it is situated above, and crosses from the lateral to the medial side of the tendon of the Flexor digitorum longus, to which it is connected by a fibrous slip.
Variations.—Usually a slip runs to the Flexor digitorum and frequently an additional slip runs from the Flexor digitorum to the Flexor hallucis. Peroneocalcaneus internus, rare, origin below or outside the Flexor hallucis from the back of the fibula, passes over the sustentaculum tali with the Flexor hallucis and is inserted into the calcaneum.
The Flexor digitorum longus is situated on the tibial side of the leg. At its origin it is thin and pointed, but it gradually increases in size as it descends. It arises from the posterior surface of the body of the tibia, from immediately below the popliteal line to within 7 or 8 cm. of its lower extremity, medial to the tibial origin of the Tibialis posterior; it also arises from the fascia covering the Tibialis posterior. The fibers end in a tendon, which runs nearly the whole length of the posterior surface of the muscle. This tendon passes behind the medial malleolus, in a groove, common to it and the Tibialis posterior, but separated from the latter by a fibrous septum, each tendon being contained in a special compartment lined by a separate mucous sheath. It passes obliquely forward and lateralward, superficial to the deltoid ligament of the ankle-joint, into the sole of the foot (Fig. 444), where it crosses below the tendon of the Flexor hallucis longus, and receives from it a strong tendinous slip. It then expands and is joined by the Quadratus plantæ, and finally divides into four tendons, which are inserted into the bases of the last phalanges of the second, third, fourth, and fifth toes, each tendon passing through an opening in the corresponding tendon of the Flexor digitorum brevis opposite the base of the first phalanx.
Variations.Flexor accessorius longus digitorum, not infrequent, origin from fibula, or tibia, or the deep fascia and ending in a tendon which, after passing beneath the laciniate ligament, joins the tendon of the long flexor or the Quadratus plantæ.
The Tibialis posterior (Tibialis posticus) lies between the two preceding muscles, and is the most deeply seated of the muscles on the back of the leg. It begins above by two pointed processes, separated by an angular interval through which
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OpenSim UserService
From OpenSimulator
(Difference between revisions)
Jump to: navigation, search
m (Marked this page for deletion, added "To Delete" category tag, this page needs to be updated and merged with "UserServer" page.)
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__NOTOC__
+
#REDIRECT [[UserServer]]
{{Template:Quicklinks}}
+
<br />
+
+
[[Technical Reference | Technical Reference]] -> [[Technical Reference/terms | Terms]] -> [[OpenSim_UserService | OpenSim_UserService]]
+
{{obsolete}}
+
{{needsexample}}
+
{{content}}
+
== [[Technical Reference | Technical Reference]] ==
+
=== What is the OpenSim_UserService? ===
+
So, I will begin analysis of the OpenGrid user service in this section. Please correct me if this information appears inaccurate. The user service has 3 primary responsibilities:
+
+
* logging users into simulators
+
* retrieving user information
+
* deleting user sessions when they are no longer needed
+
+
On execution of User Services you will be presented with a command line of operations you can perform:
+
+
help - will display a list of commands available to you
+
create user - will begin a process to create a new user
+
shutdown - will begin the shutdown of the user service
+
+
[[Category:Support]]
+
[[Category:Tech Reference]]
+
[[Category:Help]]
+
[[Category:Configuration]]
+
[[Category:Getting_Started]]
+
[[Category:Development]]
+
[[Category:To Delete]]
+
Latest revision as of 18:42, 17 November 2010
1. REDIRECT UserServer
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About This Wiki |
Preoperative predictability of the short esophagus: Endoscopic criteria
Fumiaki Yano, Rudolf J. Stadlhuber, Kazuto Tsuboi, Nitin Garg, Charles Filipi, Sumeet K. Mittal
Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review
14 Scopus citations
Abstract
Background: Short esophagus is a common cause of failure of antireflux surgery. Minimally invasive intervention for short esophagus is technically difficult. Reliable predictors of short esophagus would allow appropriate referral and better outcomes. The aim of this study is to investigate the preoperative predictability of the short esophagus in patients undergoing antireflux surgery. Methods: Eighty-five patients with Collis gastroplasty and antireflux surgery (1994-2007) at a single institution form group A. Control group (B) comprises 205 consecutive patients undergoing primary antireflux surgery (2004-2007). Retrospective review of prospectively collected data was completed. Esophageal length index (ELI) was calculated as the ratio of endoscopic esophageal length (in cm) to height (in meters). Results: Patients requiring Collis gastroplasty (group A) tend to be older while there were no significant differences in sex, height, weight, and body mass index distribution between groups. Mean endoscopic esophageal length (EEL) as measured from incisor to esophagogastric junction was significantly shorter in group A (32.4 cm) as compared with group B (36.2c m) (p <0.0001). Esophageal length index (ELI) of less than 19.5 had 83% negative predictive value with 95% specificity. Conclusions: Patients with an ELI of less than 19.5 or with stricture have higher risk for having a short esophagus.
Original languageEnglish
Pages (from-to)1308-1312
Number of pages5
JournalSurgical Endoscopy
Volume23
Issue number6
DOIs
StatePublished - Jun 2009
All Science Journal Classification (ASJC) codes
• Surgery
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File Data/Attoparsec/Combinator.hs
import Control.Applicative (Alternative(..), Applicative(..), empty, liftA2,
(<|>), (*>), (<$>))
+#if !MIN_VERSION_base(4,2,0)
+import Control.Applicative (many)
+#endif
+
#if __GLASGOW_HASKELL__ >= 700
import Data.Attoparsec.Internal.Types (Parser)
import qualified Data.Attoparsec.Zepto as Z
File Data/Attoparsec/Internal/Types.hs
(<|>) = plus
{-# INLINE (<|>) #-}
+#if MIN_VERSION_base(4,2,0)
many v = many_v
where many_v = some_v <|> pure []
some_v = (:) <$> v <*> many_v
many_v = some_v <|> pure []
some_v = (:) <$> v <*> many_v
{-# INLINE some #-}
+#endif
failDesc :: String -> Parser t a
failDesc err = Parser (\i0 a0 m0 kf _ks -> kf i0 a0 m0 [] msg) |
/* * QEMU Motorola 68k CPU * * Copyright (c) 2012 SUSE LINUX Products GmbH * * This library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or * modify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public * License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either * version 2.1 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. * * This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, * but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of * MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU * Lesser General Public License for more details. * * You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public * License along with this library; if not, see * */ #ifndef QEMU_M68K_CPU_QOM_H #define QEMU_M68K_CPU_QOM_H #include "hw/core/cpu.h" #include "qom/object.h" #define TYPE_M68K_CPU "m68k-cpu" OBJECT_DECLARE_TYPE(M68kCPU, M68kCPUClass, M68K_CPU) /* * M68kCPUClass: * @parent_realize: The parent class' realize handler. * @parent_reset: The parent class' reset handler. * * A Motorola 68k CPU model. */ struct M68kCPUClass { /*< private >*/ CPUClass parent_class; /*< public >*/ DeviceRealize parent_realize; DeviceReset parent_reset; }; #endif |
Tuesday, 8 January 2013
Create SQL Server Aliases using Powershell
Create SQL Aliases example Powershell
For DR and Moving/splitting up SQL Server load use aliases, costs you nothing and later on you can split the load. I use 3-4 even on small SP farms.
Tip: SQL 2012 has always on availability clustering, the SQL Server listener (need for Availability Groups (AG)) does the same functions as a SQL Alias. So my take is if you use a SQL 2012 AG then the listener on an always on availability cluster does the same function as the SQL Alias. Obviously rather use the listeners DNS name as opposed to the IP adr of the listener but if you are using AG you don't need a SQL Alias.
Thoughts: SQL 2012 brings a new option to the table regarding SQL Aliases for SP2010 & SP2013. If you are using Always-on Availability Groups (AP) in SQL 2013, you get a SQL listener that does the same function as as the SQL Alias. AG gives you automatic db fail over for your Sp farm. Issue is if you use AG with a SQL alias you have a single point of failure so your DB won't automatically fail over.
So the big reason to use SQL Aliases for me in the past was to allow me to split my database servers when 1 became the bottleneck. The goodness with AG outweighs this option to improve performance especially as if I'm using AG I probably have sufficient resources as this is planned upfront.
Creating Registry keys safely in PowerShell:
# Check if the key already exists - Example from AutoSPInstaller on creating aliases.
$client = Get-Item 'HKLM:\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\MSSQLServer\Client' -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue
# Create the key in case it doesn't yet exist
If (!$client) {$client = New-Item 'HKLM:\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\MSSQLServer\Client' -Force}
Tip: Check SQL connections and SQL Aliases using a udl file. Create a text file on your desktop, rename the .txt extension to .udl. Open the UDL file and verify the connection string works. I check the Alias that uses the AOAG listener, if this fails I check the connection using the listener, if this fails I check I can hook to any SQL instance. This pretty much tells me where I have gone wrong.
Tip: Review your SQL Alaises and cleintside neworking using the SQL Server Client Network Utility tool. In the run window type: cliconfg
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ASP.NET AJAX Server Controls with Client-Side Functionality
by
Difficulty:IntermediateLength:ShortLanguages:
Over the course of this tutorial, we'll look at how to create a custom ASP.NET AJAX server control as a wrapper for the Google Maps JavaScript API. The server-side code will be written in C# (which I highly recommend), but it could just as easily be written in VB.NET. The focus will be on creating the control, and we'll take a good look at the whole process of creating a custom ASP.NET AJAX server control, with client side functionality as well.
Getting Started
If you don't already have Visual Studio installed, you'll want to grab the latest express edition.
Once that's done, fire it up and go to File -> New -> Project. From the list on the left, select Web, and then select ASP.NET AJAX Server Control from the main panel on the right. Name the project MapControl, and make sure that the option to create a new solution is selected (if applicable). Click OK to create the project.
Looking in Solution Explorer, you'll notice that Visual Studio has generated some files for us already. We'll examine the generated code a bit, but before we do, let's rename the files and the classes contained in the files.
• Rename ClientControl1.js to GoogleMap.js
• Rename ClientControl1.resx to GoogleMap.resx
• Rename ServerControl1.cs to GoogleMap.cs
Now, hit Control + H to bring up the Quick Replace window. Select the appropriate options to replace ServerControl1 with GoogleMap. Be sure that it's set to look in the whole project, and not just the current file, and then click Replace All. Now do the same thing to replace ClientControl1 with GoogleMap.
GoogleMap.js - Client-Side
Let's break GoogleMap.js apart piece by piece.
This line simply tells Visual Studio's IntelliSense engine to include the types and methods contained within MicrosoftAjax.js in the IntelliSense dropdowns.
The first line registers the namespace MapControl with the AJAX framework. The rest of the code here acts as the constructor for the client class of our custom control. This is where we will declare all private properties on the client side.
Here our custom control's client class is defined using the prototype model. This is where all methods for the client class are declared. As you probably guessed, the initialize and dispose methods are called automatically upon the creation and destruction of an instance of this class, respectively. In this case, we'll make use of the initialize method to make a call to the Google Maps API and set up the map.
The first part here registers the class with the defined class name and namespace, and also assigns a base class (Sys.UI.Control). Lastly, a call is made to Sys.Application.notifyScriptLoaded(), which notifies the Microsoft AJAX framework that the script has finished loading. Note that this is no longer necessary in the .NET Framework 4 and above.
GoogleMap.cs - Server-Side Code
The file named GoogleMap.cs is where all of the server-side code is contained. Opening the file, the first thing you'll notice is that it contains a class called GoogleMap, which inherits from the ScriptControl class. ScriptControl is an abstract base class which inherits from WebControl, and implements IScriptControl.
Although it would be fine to leave that as it is, we can create a more flexible situation by implementing IScriptControl directly, and inheriting from WebControl instead. By doing so, we open up the possibility of inheriting from a more complex base class, such as ListControl. I also have run across problems inheriting from ScriptControl under various circumstances. Let's change it now to the following:
Passing by the constructor, you'll see the GetScriptDescriptors and GetScriptReferences methods.
Since we're implementing IScriptControl directly, the access level modifiers will need to be changed from protected to public, and the override modifiers should be removed altogether.
In the GetScriptDescriptors method, the ScriptControlDescriptor object that is created and returned tells the framework which client class to instantiate, and also passes the ID of the HTML element associated with the current instance of the control. As you'll see in the next section, this is also the mechanism through which property values are passed from server-side code to the client class.
The code in the GetScriptReferences method simply adds a ScriptReference to our client code file - it will be loaded automatically by the framework when needed.
Defining Properties
Alright, now that we have some background information, it's time to start building the map control. To start out, we'll add some properties to the server-side class (in GoogleMap.cs), sticking with just the basics for now. The zoom and center point of the map is what comes to mind as necessary properties.
• Zoom
• CenterLatitude
• CenterLongitude
You might be wondering how the values of these properties defined in the server-side class are going to end up in the client class. Well, this is where the ScriptControlDescriptor comes into play. By simply calling the AddProperty method of the ScriptControlDescriptor and passing in the client-side property name and current value, the framework takes care of all the details.
Now we need to define the properties in the client class. Open GoogleMap.js and modify the constructor to look like the following:
To make these properties accessible to the ASP.NET AJAX framework, we need to define get and set accessors. These accessor methods must follow the naming conventions of the framework - as an example, for the zoom property the accessors should be named get_zoom and set_zoom. Add the following code to the prototype declaration for the class:
The raisePropertyChanged method is defined on an ancestor class, Sys.Component, and raises the propertyChanged event for the specified property.
Creating the Map
We'll be writing the code that creates the map in just a minute, but first we need to define a property that will store the map object. That way we will be able to access the map after it's created - in an event handler, for example. Add the following property declaration to the constructor for the client class (GoogleMap.js) after the other properties:
Now let's add a createMap function to the prototype:
The google.maps.LatLng type is defined in the Google Maps JavaScript API (which we will reference later), and as you probably guessed, represents a point on the map defined by latitude/longitude. In the map options, we're setting the zoom and center point of the map to the values passed in by the framework. A map type of roadmap is set, but this could easily be set to satellite or terrain.
The last line creates the google.maps.Map object, storing a reference to it in the property we created above.
You'll notice the constructor takes two parameters - most notably the first one is a reference to the HTML element associated with the control - the second one is just passing in the map options.
All that remains now on the client side is to call our new createMap function from the initialize function, so that the map is created when the control is initialized.
Finishing Touches
Back in the server-side code (GoogleMap.cs), we need to override the TagKey property in our GoogleMap class, and return a value of HtmlTextWriterTag.Div. This will ensure that the control is rendered as an html div element.
Now let's add a private field of type ScriptManager to the class - we'll call it sm. This will store a reference to the page's ScriptManager, which we'll use in a bit.
Next, we'll override the OnPreRender and Render methods of the GoogleMap class.
Here, we're basically just getting the current page's ScriptManager (and making sure it exists!), and then registering the current instance of the control with it. This step, as well as the next, is absolutely necessary - otherwise the client side of the control won't work.
This registers the control's script descriptors with the page's ScriptManager - sm is a reference to the ScriptManager that we retrieved in the OnPreRender method.
Last of all (for now!), we'll make this control compatible with partial trust scenarios, as is quite common due to the popularity of shared web hosting. In Solution Explorer, open the Properties folder, and then open AssemblyInfo.cs. Add the following reference near the top of the file.
Add the following line somewhere in the middle or near the bottom of the file.
Testing the Map Control
Now we're ready to take the control for a test drive. We'll come back later and add more functionality, but for now let's set up a small website to test the control. Right click on the solution node in Solution Explorer, and select Add -> New Web Site. Make sure that ASP.NET Web Site is selected from the list. Name the website MapControlTest, and click OK.
In the newly created Default.aspx, add a ScriptManager to the page, just inside of the form element. Remember from the last section that this is required on the page in order for our GoogleMap control to work.
Right click on the MapControlTest website node in Solution Explorer, and select Add Reference from the popup menu. Navigate to the Projects tab, select MapControl, and click OK. Now we need to register the assembly and namespace in Default.aspx. Add the following line near the top of the file, just above the DOCTYPE declaration.
At this point, you should build the solution (Build -> Build Solution or the F6 key) so that IntelliSense works correctly for the new control. Now add the following control declaration to the page.
Lastly, add the Google Maps JavaScript API script (in the head of the page).
Now right click in the editor (for Default.aspx) and select View in Browser from the popup menu. Your browser should open and load the page with the map centered on Nashville, TN. You can play around with the control properties to make sure everything's working properly - specifically, try adding the Zoom property and watch the effect on the map.
Adding Markers
But a plain map isn't so exciting, so in this section we'll add some functionality that allows markers to be displayed on the map.
First, we'll need a class that contains information about each marker. Right click on the MapControl project node in Solution Explorer, and select Add -> Class from the popup menu. Name the class MapMarker and click OK.
The Serializable attribute needs to be added to the class to allow it to be serialized and passed to the client-side code.
Add properties to the class so that the class declaration looks like this.
The Latitude and Longitude properties are fairly obvious - the Title property is for the tooltip text that will be displayed when the mouse is hovering over the marker, and the InfoWindowHtml property will contain the html to display in a popup when the marker is clicked.
In the server-side GoogleMap class (GoogleMap.cs) we'll add a property of a list of MapMarkers. The PersistenceMode attribute specifies that the property persists within the ASP.NET server control as a nested tag.
The ParseChildren attribute also needs to be set on the GoogleMap
class for this to work.
Now we'll add another property to the ScriptControlDescriptor in the GetScriptDescriptors method for the new property.
Switching back to the client-side code (GoogleMap.js), add a new
property declaration named _markers to the constructor. While we're
here, let's also add a property called _infoWindow, which will
store a reference to a popup that appears when a marker is clicked.
Now we need to add the get and set accessors for the property, as before.
All that remains now is to add the code that will display the markers to the createMap function.
This might look complicated, but it's really not - I'll break it apart and go through it piece by piece.
Here we're just getting the array of markers, making sure that it's not a null reference, and iterating through the array.
This snippet of code is what actually adds the marker to the map - grabbing the position and title of the marker from the array through markers[i], and setting the map property to the map that was created earlier.
The first line is to preserve the current context into the event handler - this will no longer reference our custom control there, so we use that instead. Since we're iterating through the array and the marker and i variables are changing, we need to pass the marker and infoHtml variables into a new self-executing anonymous function so that when the event handler is fired (which will be later), the variables still have their correct values. The code inside of the event handler is pretty straightforward - basically just setting the content of and opening the popup info window.
Now we can add markers to the map like this (you might need to build the solution again first for IntelliSense to work).
If markers would be placed on the map through user input, there would be security issues to consider - specifically you would need to make sure that user input for the Title property is html encoded, and that input to the InfoWindowHtml property does not contain any dangerous code. As always, security in a production application should be of primary concern.
Conclusion
Throughout this tutorial, you hopefully not only learned a lot about creating a custom ASP.NET AJAX server control with client-side functionality, but also a bit about the Google Maps API. Some of you may be thinking that this technology is outdated, as it applies to ASP.NET Web Forms. However, Web Forms is still a very viable option for new web development, especially for individual developers working on short projects, and needing to get things done quickly.
ASP.NET MVC is probably better in terms of flexibility and testability. The point is that this tutorial isn't advocating the use of one technology over another; it simply teaches a technique that can serve to be quite handy when building ASP.NET Web Forms applications.
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Strength of Materials
, Volume 13, Issue 1, pp 10–16 | Cite as
Strain waves in an elastoplastic rod under longitudinal impact
• V. A. Kotlyarevskii
Scientific-Technical Section
• 38 Downloads
Conclusions
1. 1.
Dimensional analysis indicates that for impact with a sufficiently large (dimensionless) mass of striker (m ∼ 105) the nature of strain inhomogeneity for elastoplastic chromium steel specimens weakly sensitive to strain rate is governed by parameter V.
2. 2.
In order to provide a strain regime close to a quasistatic one, it is recommended that for V < Vt a tolerable limiting value of Vt = 0.04 be adopted.
Keywords
Chromium Dimensional Analysis Steel Specimen Chromium Steel Strain Wave
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Literature cited
1. 1.
G. V. Stepanov, “Connection between strain resistance with a uniaxial stress state and failure stresses during metal cleavage,” Probl. Prochn., No. 12, 70–72 (1978).Google Scholar
2. 2.
D. B. C. Taylor, “Dynamic straining of metals having definite yield points,” J. Mech. Phys. Solids,3, No. 1, 38–46 (1954).Google Scholar
3. 3.
J. Bell, “Experimental verification of a quasistatic hypothesis in a test for a Hopkinson compound rod by means of a diffraction lattice,” Mekhanika, No. 5 (111), 138–156 (1968).Google Scholar
4. 4.
V. A. Kotlyarevskii, E. G. Maiorova, and A. I. Shishikin, “Stress waves in soils in the presence of cavitation effects,” Zh. Prikl. Mekh. Tekh. Fiz., No. 2, 95–104 (1978).Google Scholar
5. 5.
Engineering Materials [in Russian], Mashinostroenie, Moscow (1969).Google Scholar
6. 6.
V. Gol'dsmit, Impact [in Russian], Stroizdat, Moscow (1965).Google Scholar
Copyright information
© Plenum Publishing Corporation 1981
Authors and Affiliations
• V. A. Kotlyarevskii
• 1
1. 1.Moscow
Personalised recommendations |
Baby Gorillas Are Just Like Us
4 years ago Nature
Gorilla babyPhoto: Ryan E. PoplinMischief? Me? Never!
Baby gorillas cling to their mothers, horse around with their fathers, get up to all kinds of mischief the moment they can move around on their own, make a mess with their food, yet still like their mother’s milk the best – in short, do everything human babies would do. The following images bear testimony to this. Be warned - aww-inspiring moments ahead.
Rockabye baby...
Gorilla baby sleeping on motherPhoto: bartdubelaar
The genetic similarity between humans and apes is at a remarkable 98-99%. That’s pretty darn close. If you still have doubts, just search for “baby gorilla” on any of the major search engines and you’ll get loads of potty training tips. Which makes one wonder if gorilla mothers have so much of the same difficulty potty training their young that they also have to look for help on the Internet.
Hm, now what could I do next?
Gorilla baby playingPhoto: Lauren Elyse
But jokes aside, the gorillas’ life span development is very similar to that of humans. Recent studies comparing gorilla and human learning have even proven that gorilla babies learn faster in many respects and are actually smarter than their human counterparts. But let’s look at some facts.
Coochy coochy coo
Gorilla baby with motherPhoto: Rennet Stowe
The gorilla’s gestation period is 8½ months, very close to our approximate 9 months. Gorilla mothers usually wait three to four years between births because that’s how long infants stay with them. Smart move. They also only have about three babies in their lifetime. Gorilla females mature at 10–12 years; that’s when puberty kicks in for girls; male apes and boys hit it at 11–13 years.
Newborn gorillas weigh only about 3-4 pounds as compared to the 6-8 pounds of human babies. Like human mothers, gorilla moms nurse their young – usually for much longer, about 2 ½ years.
Hm, yummy:
Gorilla mother nursingPhoto: Clara S.
Baby gorillas are out and about much earlier than human babies – they crawl at about two months while the latter only sit upright at around six months.
Almost there – here’s your favourite toy, come and get it:
Gorilla baby climbingPhoto: Ryan E. Poplin
Gorillas walk before they are nine months old, a feat only the quickest of human babies would master. But until then, similar to human babies, they try to cling to their mothers as much as they can. Gorilla babies learn to grasp their mother’s fur to ride on their backs at the age of four months and seem to have a blast doing it. They stay there and even eat and sleep on their mother’s back.
Hey, stop pulling my hair!
Gorilla baby on mother's backPhoto: Silvain de Munck
Once weaned, baby gorillas also leave their mother’s sleeping nest and build their own. If only human mothers were that lucky!
So tired…
Mother and baby gorilla sleepingPhoto: Arkansas Shutterbug
Says photographer Tanya Spillane about her capture at Little Rock Zoo: “This little 5-month-old baby kept playing while mom wanted to sleep. Mom grabbed her and attempted to snuggle with her, but the baby would have nothing to do with sleeping.” Sound familiar to the moms out there?
Gorillas are considered highly intelligent and tool-use is common. They communicate via an intricate system of sounds and gestures – a clue as to how early humans may have communicated. Some individual gorillas, Koko being the most famous example, have even learned a subset of sign language and have communicated successfully with it. The following scenes really speak for themselves.
Gotcha! How many times do I have to tell you not to dig your nose?
Gorilla baby and motherPhoto: Mila Zinkova
Now keep that dirty hand out of your mouth!
Gorilla baby with motherPhoto: Ryan E. Poplin
Wouldn’t want to mess with this gorilla mother:
Stern gorilla mother with babyPhoto: Marieke IJsendoorn-Kuijpers
Says psychologist Dr. Gillian Sebestyen Forrester after researching a family group of gorillas over a long period of time: "Apes, like humans, use a range of nonverbal communicative social skills, such as facial expression, eye gaze and manual gestures, and tactile signals, such as grooming and huddling, which are used for social cohesion. Analysing synchronous physical action can help us identify communication signals and may prove a better way to understand of how animals 'talk' to each other."
Gorilla behaviour, judging by the pics used here, actually seems quite self-explanatory with facial expressions being so explicit. Finally, here’s an adorable video of human and gorilla babies playing together - peek-a-boo, running and chasing, playing with toys and clapping are universal languages.
Sources: 1, 2, 3, 4
Cool Links From Around the Web
Comments
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Nikhil M Nikhil M - 8 months ago 59
Ruby Question
Rails - devise and sidekiq routes
I am running a Rails 5.0.0 app with Ruby 2.3.1
Sidekiq is being used for background jobs and devise for authentication.
Sidekiq monitoring and devise are mounted in routes as follows:
devise_for :users, skip: [:sessions]
as :user do
get 'login' => 'devise/sessions#new', :as => :new_user_session
post 'login' => 'devise/sessions#create', :as => :user_session
delete 'logout' => 'devise/sessions#destroy', :as => :destroy_user_session
end
require 'sidekiq/web'
require 'sidekiq/cron/web'
#Sidekiq::Web.set :session_secret, Rails.application.secrets[:secret_key_base]
authenticate :user do
mount Sidekiq::Web => '/sidekiq'
end
But, accessing the sidekiq status page logs out the user.
The same code used to work fine with Rails 4.2.5
Answer
Try wrapping your mounting of Sidekiq under devise_scope, in the same way you're using its alias "as" in your devise_for route:
# Only allow authenticated users to get access
# to the Sidekiq web interface
devise_scope :user do
authenticated :user do
mount Sidekiq::Web => '/sidekiq'
end
end |
Home » Health A-Z » Facial Hair In Women: What Causes It?
Facial Hair In Women: What Causes It?
Causes Of Excessive Facial Hair In Women
What Causes Excessive Facial Hair in Women?
We all know about the ongoing trend of beard amongst men these days but a girl with a beard is an absolute no-no. Excessive facial hair in women is the result of a condition called hirsutism.This type of growth of hair can be seen on a woman’s face, arms, back, or chest and is usually coarse and dark in comparison to normal body hair which very fine and light in colour.
This condition occurs in females due to higher-than-normal levels of androgens, which usually are in low quantity. Certain medical conditions can cause a woman to produce too many androgens which may cause this male-pattern hair growth and sometimes deepening of voice as well.
Let’s go through the various conditions which may lead to hormonal imbalance:
1. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome(PCOS): It is one of the most common causes for Hirsutism. In PCOS, the levels of androgens are drastically increased resulting in increased hair growth. Women with PCOS usually have trouble with their menstrual cycles, have a deeper voice and have difficulty losing weight.
2. Adrenal gland disorders: The adrenal glands, are located just above the kidneys and are responsible for hormone production. Women suffering from congenital adrenal hyperplasia lack the enzyme necessary for hormone production resulting in growth of heavy coarse hair on the chin.
3. Cushing’s Syndrome: Women who had prolonged exposure to cortisol develops Cushing’s Syndrome and develop unwanted facial hair.
4. Ovarian tumours: It causes an increase in the androgen level resulting in the increase in facial hair.
5. Medications: Certain medications such as anti-seizure medicines, anabolic steroids, testosterone, Prednisone, minoxidil, etc. have adverse effects on hormones. This can lead to facial hair growth in women.
6. Genetics: Sometimes Hirsutism runs in families. If one’s mother or sister has excessive unwanted facial hair growth, then one may have strong chances to inherit it.
7. Pregnancy and Menopause: It can cause hormonal changes in the body, thus, increasing the likelihood of excess facial hair growth.
Knowing the correct cause will help you opt for the right treatment. You may consult a specialist based on your symptoms. Mild symptoms can be taken care off by using different types of hair removal methods prevalent these days such as – epilating, waxing, threading, shaving, laser hair reduction method, electrolysis etc. Lifestyle modifications such as reducing weight in case obese, eating a balanced diet and exercising regularly also helps in alleviating the abnormal hair growth.
**Consult India’s best doctors here**
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Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
Sydney Vascular Surgeon - Dr Mayo Theivendran
What is an Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA)?
The aorta is the largest artery in your body. It runs from your heart, down through your chest, and into your abdomen. The abdominal region of the aorta is responsible for delivering blood to your legs, intestines, and kidneys.
An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) occurs when the wall of the aorta progressively weakens and begins to bulge. An AAA may continue to enlarge and eventually rupture if left untreated, causing severe internal bleeding and likely death.
Additionally, clots or debris may also develop within an AAA. These substances can be carried to other areas in the body and block circulation, causing severe pain or possibly limb loss if blood flow is cut off for too long.
Diagram showing normal leg vs mild oedema vs moderate to severe oedema
What are the causes of an Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm?
Most aortic aneurysms are caused by a breakdown in the proteins that provide structural strength to the wall of the aorta. Some risk factors that contribute to this structural breakdown include:
AAA treatment Sydney - age risk factor
Age: Individuals over 60 years are most likely to develop the condition
AAA treatment Sydney - gender risk factor
Gender: Males are more prone to the condition than females
AAA treatment Sydney - atherosclerosis risk factor
History of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
AAA treatment Sydney - family history risk factor
Family history of AAA
AAA treatment Sydney - chronic lung disease risk factor
Chronic lung disease
AAA treatment Sydney - high blood pressure risk factor
High blood pressure
AAA treatment Sydney - smoking risk factor
Smoking
Screening & diagnosis for AAA
Most AAAs cause no symptoms and are often found incidentally during an evaluation for another medical condition. Dr Theivendran will take your medical history including family history, followed by a complete vascular examination. Dr Theivendran will also organise an ultrasound test. A vascular ultrasound is painless, safe and routinely used to diagnose and measure the size of an AAA. Dr Theivendran will also screen for aneurysms elsewhere in the body including the legs and chest. As there is a genetic association with AAA, Dr Theivendran will also discuss with you the merits of having immediate family members screened. Dr Theivendran may also organise a computed tomographic angiography (CTA). This test will assess aneurysm size, location and the extent of impact. This study requires exposure to radiation and injection of special dye. The CTA provides valuable anatomic information and can help Dr Theivendran determine the optimal type of repair.
Benefits to treatment of AAA
Endovascular Repair
Open Surgical Repair
Mini-invasive
Invasive
Local or general anesthesia
General anesthesia
Lower early complication & mortality rate
Higher early complication & mortality rate
Higher long-term reintervention rate
Lower long-term reintervention rate
Lower blood loss during procedure
Higher blood loss during procedure
No ICU stay (usually)
Stay in ICU
Shorter hospital stay
Longer hospital stay
Follow up x-ray or CT required
Follow up ultrasound required
Small vs Large AAA’s
Treatment depends on the size of the aneurysm and extent of symptoms.
• Small AAA’s - range from 0 - 5cm in diameter. They have a very low risk of rupturing but should be closely monitored. These usually require an ultrasound scan every 6-12 months.
• Large AAA’s - range from 5cm diameter and above. Large AAA's have a high risk of rupturing. The risk of rupture is greater than the risk of surgery so intervention is required.
Open Surgical Repair of an AAA
In open surgery, Dr Theivendran repairs the aorta by making a large cut in the abdomen. This treatment option requires placement of a prosthetic graft where the affected portion of the aortic artery is accessed through an inclusion in your abdomen. The graft is sewn into place and acts as a replacement blood vessel.
Open Surgical Repair of an AAA - Sydney
Incision made in the abdomen to repair the AAA
The blood flow through the aorta is stopped while the graft is put in place. It takes roughly 3 to 4 hours to complete. Patients typically spend 1 to 2 days in ICU and usually remain in hospital for at least 7 days. Patients may require 2 to 3 months to recover completely.
Endovascular Aneurysm Repair (EVAR)
Endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR) is a less invasive treatment. Treatment here is done through two small groin incisions. Guided by X-ray imaging, a stent is placed into the artery. This stent is a fabric tube supported by a metal framework and is placed inside the aneurysm without surgically opening the tissue surrounding it. The stent is used to reline the diseased artery and exclude the aneurysm. Endovascular repair requires long-term monitoring and occasionally it is necessary to add additional stents in the future to ensure the aneurysm remains sealed.There are other considerations that may be involved in deciding if an aneurysm needs treatment or not. Dr Theivendran will go through all options and tailor an appropriate management plan for you.
Endovascular Aneurysm Repair (EVAR) of an AAA - Sydney
Mini-invasive access through patient groin
This procedure is usually performed under local, regional or general anesthesia. It takes about 1 to 3 hours to complete. Patients typically spend a few hours in ICU and usually remain in the hospital for 1 to 2 days. Patients may require 4 to 6 weeks to recover completely.
Post-Procedure instructions for an AAA
Immediately after recovery from the stent grafting procedure, you may be required to lay flat for 4 to 6 hours. This will allow the leg wounds to start healing. Some mild discomfort may be felt at the wounds in the groin. This usually resolves in 2 days.
Risks for aortic repair
<1%
AAA treatment Sydney - chronic lung disease risk factor
Death
<2%
AAA treatment Sydney - chronic lung disease risk factor
Pneumonia
<3%
AAA treatment Sydney - chronic lung disease risk factor
Bowel ischaemia
<2%
AAA treatment Sydney - chronic lung disease risk factor
Cardiac ischaemia
<3%
AAA treatment Sydney - chronic lung disease risk factor
Lower limb ischaemia
<1%
AAA treatment Sydney - chronic lung disease risk factor
Infection
Questions
If you have any questions for Dr Theivendran or our team, please don't hesitate to contact our rooms on (02) 9066 6547
For appointments and enquiries:
Monday - Friday: 8:00am to 4:30pm
Fax: (02) 9182 7533
© 2021-2024 Dr Mayo Theivendran | Privacy Policy | Disclaimer | Website design: WebInjection |
Curves and Surfaces
Curves and surfaces are objects like meshes, but differ in that they are expressed in terms of mathematical functions, rather than as a series of points.
Blender implements Bézier and Non Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS) curves and surfaces. Both, though following different mathematical laws, are defined in terms of a set of "control vertices" which define a "control polygon." The way the curve and the surface are interpolated (Bézier) or attracted (NURBS) by these might seem similar, at first glance, to Catmull-Clark subdivision surfaces.
When compared to meshes, curves and surfaces have both advantages and disadvantages. Because curves are defined by less data, they produce nice results using less memory at modelling time, whereas the demands increase at rendering time.
Some modelling techniques, such as extruding a profile along a path, are only possible with curves. But the very fine control available on a per-vertex basis on a mesh, is not possible with curves.
There are times when curves and surfaces are more advantageous than meshes, and times when meshes are more useful. If you have read the previous Chapter, and if you read this you will be able to choose whether to use meshes or curves.
Curves
Relevant to Blender v2.31
This section describes both Bézier and NURBS curves, and shows a working example of the former.
Béziers
Bézier curves are the most commonly used type for designing letters or logos. They are also widely used in animation, both as paths for objects to move along and as IPO curves to change the properties of objects as a function of time.
A control point (vertex) of a Bézier curve consists of a point and two handles. The point, in the middle, is used to move the entire control point; selecting it also selects the other two handles, and allows you to move the complete vertex. Selecting one or two of the other handles allows you to change the shape of the curve by dragging the handles.
A Bézier curve is tangent to the line segment which goes from the point to the handle. The 'steepness' of the curve is controlled by the handle's length.
There are four types of handles (Figure 1):
• Free Handle (black). This can be used in any way you wish. Hotkey: HKEY (toggles between Free and Aligned);
• Aligned Handle (purple). These handles always lie in a straight line. Hotkey: HKEY (toggles between Free and Aligned);
• Vector Handle (green). Both parts of a handle always point to the previous handle or the next handle. Hotkey: VKEY;
• Auto Handle (yellow). This handle has a completely automatic length and direction, set by Blender to ensure the smoothest result. Hotkey: SHIFT-H.
Figure 1. Types of Handles for Bézier curves
Handles can be grabbed, rotated and scaled exactly as ordinary vertices in a mesh would.
As soon as the handles are moved, the type is modified automatically:
• Auto Handle becomes Aligned;
• Vector Handle becomes Free.
Although the Bézier curve is a continuous mathematical object it must nevertheless be represented in discrete form from a rendering point of view.
This is done by setting a resolution property, which defines the number of points which are computed between every pair of control points. A separate resolution can be set for each Bézier curve (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Setting Bézier resolution.
NURBS
NURBS curves are defined as rational polynomials, and are more general, strictly speaking, than conventional B-Splines and Bézier curves inasmuch they are able to exactly follow any contour. For example a Bézier circle is a polynomial approximation of a circle, and this approximation is noticeable, whereas a NURBS circle is exactly a circle. NURBS curves have a large set of variables, which allow you to create mathematically pure forms (Figure 3). However, working with them requires a little more theory:
Figure 3. Nurbs Control Buttons.
• Knots. Nurbs curves have a knot vector, a row of numbers that specifies the parametric definition of the curve. Two pre-sets are important for this. Uniform produces a uniform division for closed curves, but when used with open ones you will get "free" ends, which are difficult to locate precisely. Endpoint sets the knots in such a way that the first and last vertices are always part of the curve, which makes them much easier to place;
• Order. The order is the 'depth' of the curve calculation. Order '1' is a point, order '2' is linear, order '3' is quadratic, and so on. Always use order '5' for Curve paths because it behaves fluidly under all circumstances, without producing irritating discontinuities in the movement. Mathematically speaking this is the order of both the Numerator and the Denominator of the rational polynomial defining the NURBS;
• Weight. Nurbs curves have a 'weight' per vertex - the extent to which a vertex participates in the "pulling" of the curve.
Figure 4. Setting Nurbs Control polygon and weights.
Figure 4 shows the Knot vector settings as well as the effect of varying a single knot weight. As with Béziers, the resolution can be set on a per curve basis.
Working example
Blender's curve tools provide a quick and easy way to build great looking extruded text and logos. We will use these tools to turn a rough sketch of a logo into a finished 3D object.
Figure 5 shows the design of the logo we will be building.
Figure 5. The sketched logo
First, we will import our original sketch so that we can use it as a template. Blender supports TGA, PNG, and JPG format images. To load the image, select the View>>Background Image... menu entry of the 3D Window you are using. A transparent panel will appear, allowing you to select a picture to use as a background. Activate the BackGroundPic button and use the LOAD button to locate the image you want to use as a template (Figure 6). You can set the "strength" of the background pic with the Blend slider.
Figure 6. 3D window settings.
Get rid of the Panel with ESC or by pressing the X button in the panel header (Figure 7). You can hide the background image when you are finished using it by returning to the Panel and deselecting the BackGroundPic button.
Figure 7. Logo sketch loaded as background
Add a new curve by pressing SPACE>>Curve>>Bezier Curve. A curved segment will appear and Blender will enter EditMode. We will move and add points to make a closed shape that describes the logo you are trying to trace.
You can add points to the curve by selecting one of the two endpoints, then holding CTRL and clicking LMB. Note that the new point will be connected to the previously selected point. Once a point has been added, it can be moved by selecting the control vertex and pressing GKEY. You can change the angle of the curve by grabbing and moving the handles associated with each vertex (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Bézier handles
You can add a new point between two existing points by selecting the two points and pressing WKEY>>Subdivide (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Adding a Control Point.
Points can be removed by selecting them and pressing XKEY>>Selected. To cut a curve in two, select two adjacent control vertices and press XKEY>>Segment.
To make sharp corners, select a control vertex and press VKEY. You will notice that the color of the handles changes from purple to green (Figure 10). At this point, you can move the handles to adjust the way the curve enters and leaves the control vertex (Figure 11).
Figure 10. Vector (green) handles.
Figure 11. Free (black) handles.
To close the curve and turn it into a single continuous loop, select at least one of the control vertices on the curve and press CKEY. This will connect the last point in the curve with the first one (Figure 12). You may need to manipulate additional handles to get the shape you want.
Figure 12. The finished outline.
Leaving EditMode with TAB and entering shaded mode with ZKEY should reveal that the curve renders as a solid shape (Figure 13). We want to cut some holes into this shape to represent the eyes and wing details of the dragon.
TipSurfaces and Holes
When working with curves, Blender automatically detects holes in the surface and handles them accordingly to the following rules. A closed curve is always considered the boundary of a surface and hence rendered as a flat surface. If a closed curve is completely included within another one, the inner one is subtracted from the outer one, effectively defining a hole.
Figure 13. Shaded logo.
Return to wireframe mode with ZKEY and enter EditMode again with TAB. While still in EditMode, add a circle curve with SPACE>>Curve>>Bezier Circle (Figure 14). Scale the circle down to an appropriate size with SKEY and move it with GKEY.
Figure 14. Adding a circle.
Shape the circle using the techniques we have learned (Figure 15). Remember to add vertices to the circle with WKEY>>Subdivide.
Figure 15. Defining the eye.
Create a wing cutout by adding a Bézier circle, converting all of the points to sharp corners, and then adjusting as necessary. You can duplicate this outline to save time when creating the second wing cutout. To do so, make sure no points are selected, then move the cursor over one of the vertices in the first wing cutout and select all linked points with LKEY (Figure 16). Duplicate the selection with SHIFT-D and move the new points into position.
Figure 16. Defining the wings.
To add more geometry that is not connected to the main body (placing an orb in the dragon's curved tail for example), use the SHIFT-A menu to add more curves as shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17. Orb placement within the tail.
Now that we have the curve, we need to set its thickness and beveling options. With the curve selected, go to the EditButtons (F9) and locate the Curves and Surface panel. The Ext1 parameter sets the thickness of the extrusion while Ext2 sets the size of the bevel. BevResol sets how sharp or curved the bevel will be.
Figure 18 shows the settings used to extrude this curve.
Figure 18. Bevel settings
TipFrom Curves to Meshes
To perform more complex modelling operations, convert the curve to a mesh with ALT-C>>Mesh. Note that this is a one-way operation: you cannot convert a mesh back into a curve.
When your logo model is complete, you can add materials and lights and make a nice rendering (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Final rendering. |
blob: f443a84b98a5a300b21fbf298f7aa2587e6e83eb [file] [log] [blame]
/* file-nommu.c: no-MMU version of ramfs
*
* Copyright (C) 2005 Red Hat, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
* Written by David Howells (dhowells@redhat.com)
*
* This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
* modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License
* as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version
* 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
*/
#include <linux/module.h>
#include <linux/fs.h>
#include <linux/pagemap.h>
#include <linux/highmem.h>
#include <linux/init.h>
#include <linux/string.h>
#include <linux/smp_lock.h>
#include <linux/backing-dev.h>
#include <linux/ramfs.h>
#include <linux/quotaops.h>
#include <linux/pagevec.h>
#include <linux/mman.h>
#include <asm/uaccess.h>
#include "internal.h"
static int ramfs_nommu_setattr(struct dentry *, struct iattr *);
struct address_space_operations ramfs_aops = {
.readpage = simple_readpage,
.prepare_write = simple_prepare_write,
.commit_write = simple_commit_write
};
const struct file_operations ramfs_file_operations = {
.mmap = ramfs_nommu_mmap,
.get_unmapped_area = ramfs_nommu_get_unmapped_area,
.read = generic_file_read,
.write = generic_file_write,
.fsync = simple_sync_file,
.sendfile = generic_file_sendfile,
.llseek = generic_file_llseek,
};
struct inode_operations ramfs_file_inode_operations = {
.setattr = ramfs_nommu_setattr,
.getattr = simple_getattr,
};
/*****************************************************************************/
/*
* add a contiguous set of pages into a ramfs inode when it's truncated from
* size 0 on the assumption that it's going to be used for an mmap of shared
* memory
*/
static int ramfs_nommu_expand_for_mapping(struct inode *inode, size_t newsize)
{
struct pagevec lru_pvec;
unsigned long npages, xpages, loop, limit;
struct page *pages;
unsigned order;
void *data;
int ret;
/* make various checks */
order = get_order(newsize);
if (unlikely(order >= MAX_ORDER))
goto too_big;
limit = current->signal->rlim[RLIMIT_FSIZE].rlim_cur;
if (limit != RLIM_INFINITY && newsize > limit)
goto fsize_exceeded;
if (newsize > inode->i_sb->s_maxbytes)
goto too_big;
i_size_write(inode, newsize);
/* allocate enough contiguous pages to be able to satisfy the
* request */
pages = alloc_pages(mapping_gfp_mask(inode->i_mapping), order);
if (!pages)
return -ENOMEM;
/* split the high-order page into an array of single pages */
xpages = 1UL << order;
npages = (newsize + PAGE_SIZE - 1) >> PAGE_SHIFT;
split_page(pages, order);
/* trim off any pages we don't actually require */
for (loop = npages; loop < xpages; loop++)
__free_page(pages + loop);
/* clear the memory we allocated */
newsize = PAGE_SIZE * npages;
data = page_address(pages);
memset(data, 0, newsize);
/* attach all the pages to the inode's address space */
pagevec_init(&lru_pvec, 0);
for (loop = 0; loop < npages; loop++) {
struct page *page = pages + loop;
ret = add_to_page_cache(page, inode->i_mapping, loop, GFP_KERNEL);
if (ret < 0)
goto add_error;
if (!pagevec_add(&lru_pvec, page))
__pagevec_lru_add(&lru_pvec);
unlock_page(page);
}
pagevec_lru_add(&lru_pvec);
return 0;
fsize_exceeded:
send_sig(SIGXFSZ, current, 0);
too_big:
return -EFBIG;
add_error:
page_cache_release(pages + loop);
for (loop++; loop < npages; loop++)
__free_page(pages + loop);
return ret;
}
/*****************************************************************************/
/*
* check that file shrinkage doesn't leave any VMAs dangling in midair
*/
static int ramfs_nommu_check_mappings(struct inode *inode,
size_t newsize, size_t size)
{
struct vm_area_struct *vma;
struct prio_tree_iter iter;
/* search for VMAs that fall within the dead zone */
vma_prio_tree_foreach(vma, &iter, &inode->i_mapping->i_mmap,
newsize >> PAGE_SHIFT,
(size + PAGE_SIZE - 1) >> PAGE_SHIFT
) {
/* found one - only interested if it's shared out of the page
* cache */
if (vma->vm_flags & VM_SHARED)
return -ETXTBSY; /* not quite true, but near enough */
}
return 0;
}
/*****************************************************************************/
/*
*
*/
static int ramfs_nommu_resize(struct inode *inode, loff_t newsize, loff_t size)
{
int ret;
/* assume a truncate from zero size is going to be for the purposes of
* shared mmap */
if (size == 0) {
if (unlikely(newsize >> 32))
return -EFBIG;
return ramfs_nommu_expand_for_mapping(inode, newsize);
}
/* check that a decrease in size doesn't cut off any shared mappings */
if (newsize < size) {
ret = ramfs_nommu_check_mappings(inode, newsize, size);
if (ret < 0)
return ret;
}
ret = vmtruncate(inode, size);
return ret;
}
/*****************************************************************************/
/*
* handle a change of attributes
* - we're specifically interested in a change of size
*/
static int ramfs_nommu_setattr(struct dentry *dentry, struct iattr *ia)
{
struct inode *inode = dentry->d_inode;
unsigned int old_ia_valid = ia->ia_valid;
int ret = 0;
/* by providing our own setattr() method, we skip this quotaism */
if ((old_ia_valid & ATTR_UID && ia->ia_uid != inode->i_uid) ||
(old_ia_valid & ATTR_GID && ia->ia_gid != inode->i_gid))
ret = DQUOT_TRANSFER(inode, ia) ? -EDQUOT : 0;
/* pick out size-changing events */
if (ia->ia_valid & ATTR_SIZE) {
loff_t size = i_size_read(inode);
if (ia->ia_size != size) {
ret = ramfs_nommu_resize(inode, ia->ia_size, size);
if (ret < 0 || ia->ia_valid == ATTR_SIZE)
goto out;
} else {
/* we skipped the truncate but must still update
* timestamps
*/
ia->ia_valid |= ATTR_MTIME|ATTR_CTIME;
}
}
ret = inode_setattr(inode, ia);
out:
ia->ia_valid = old_ia_valid;
return ret;
}
/*****************************************************************************/
/*
* try to determine where a shared mapping can be made
* - we require that:
* - the pages to be mapped must exist
* - the pages be physically contiguous in sequence
*/
unsigned long ramfs_nommu_get_unmapped_area(struct file *file,
unsigned long addr, unsigned long len,
unsigned long pgoff, unsigned long flags)
{
unsigned long maxpages, lpages, nr, loop, ret;
struct inode *inode = file->f_dentry->d_inode;
struct page **pages = NULL, **ptr, *page;
loff_t isize;
if (!(flags & MAP_SHARED))
return addr;
/* the mapping mustn't extend beyond the EOF */
lpages = (len + PAGE_SIZE - 1) >> PAGE_SHIFT;
isize = i_size_read(inode);
ret = -EINVAL;
maxpages = (isize + PAGE_SIZE - 1) >> PAGE_SHIFT;
if (pgoff >= maxpages)
goto out;
if (maxpages - pgoff < lpages)
goto out;
/* gang-find the pages */
ret = -ENOMEM;
pages = kzalloc(lpages * sizeof(struct page *), GFP_KERNEL);
if (!pages)
goto out;
nr = find_get_pages(inode->i_mapping, pgoff, lpages, pages);
if (nr != lpages)
goto out; /* leave if some pages were missing */
/* check the pages for physical adjacency */
ptr = pages;
page = *ptr++;
page++;
for (loop = lpages; loop > 1; loop--)
if (*ptr++ != page++)
goto out;
/* okay - all conditions fulfilled */
ret = (unsigned long) page_address(pages[0]);
out:
if (pages) {
ptr = pages;
for (loop = lpages; loop > 0; loop--)
put_page(*ptr++);
kfree(pages);
}
return ret;
}
/*****************************************************************************/
/*
* set up a mapping
*/
int ramfs_nommu_mmap(struct file *file, struct vm_area_struct *vma)
{
return 0;
} |
When Were Condoms Invented?
first condoms
It seems that thousands of years ago, humans understood how venereal diseases propagate and started to think about protection. Thus, the first condoms were born. Though, it took quite a long for people to realize that they might also provide contraception.
Real progress and improvements in condoms production came with the industrial revolution when finally, mass-producing condoms cheaply became a reality. Additionally, advancement in medical science also confirmed their many benefits.
Condoms in Antiquity
It would be difficult to say when humans first used the condom-like sheaths, but one of the earliest documented use was by King Minos of Crete more than 5000 years back. It is said that his sperms contained serpents and scorpions, and thus he used condoms made from goat’s bladder [1].
Disclaimer: condom-sizes.org is supported by its readers. When you buy through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. Learn more.
Early Egyptians used linen sheath for protection from tropical diseases like bilharzia some 4000 years ago. They perhaps used saliva or oils for lubrication.
Ancient Romans widely used condoms made from either linen or animal intestine or bladder. They knew that it protects them from disease, though they did not seem to understand that it also provided contraception.
Chinese specialized in silk production, and thus they created condoms made from silk and lubricated with oil, primarily used to prevent sexually transmitted diseases.
Condoms Renaissance period
Despite the known benefits of condoms, people made little progress for thousands of years, and the use of condoms was limited to rich people or royals.
However, everything changed with the renaissance, when Europeans started studying human anatomy and physiology systematically.
During the English civil war, King Charles II used condoms prescribed by Colonel Condom to prevent both the diseases and the birth of illegitimate children.
Many think that word condom refers to the name of the colonel Condom. However, the etymology of word condom remains unclear as there are many similar words in French and Latin [2].
During this period, condoms were mass-produced in many places in Europe. Affluent people mainly used them. Condoms made from animal bladder or intestine were preferred over linen, as they were more comfortable for use.
The modern development of condoms
Charles Goodyear brought the real revolution in condom production. In the 19th-century, rubber vulcanization (heating natural rubber with sulfur) helped improve rubber’s tensile strength.
This enabled the creation of thin condoms, quite similar to what we see these days. Thus, the production of modern condoms (made of rubber) at the industrial scale began in the 1860s.
Industrial production of condoms also initiated ethical debates as some regarded use of condoms to be against the religion or various laws of nature.
Science invented latex in the 1920s. Latex is made from rubber by dispersing it in the water, and this helps create thinner, more tensile, and highly stretchable material.
Production of condoms was further boosted in the post-world war II era when newer equipment allowed to produce thousands of condoms in an hour.
After the 1940s, condoms started to become widely available as one of the most reliable ways of contraception and disease prevention.
However, with the discovery of oral contraception for females in the 1960s, the use of condoms fell in many parts of the world.
But, with the discovery of AIDS, it became more than clear that condoms have a special place in preventing sexually transmitted diseases. From the 1980s onwards, condoms became widely available in the pharmacies, stores, supermarkets, all over the world.
Although latex remains the most widely used material to produce condoms, this does not mean that all latex condoms are the same. Modern latex condoms are thinner, come in a wider variety, and are more comfortable to use, all due to improved production technology.
One of the significant problems with latex condoms is that some individuals are allergic to it. It led to more research to find alternatives, and the 1990s saw the introduction of non-latex condoms.
Non-latex condoms made from polyurethane became available in 1994. As a synthetic material, it has no protein molecules, like that in the latex, and does not cause allergies.
One can also use oil-based lubricants with it (oil-based lubricants reduce the strength of latex). However, they have slightly low tensile strength and are more prone to breaking.
Another breakthrough came in 2008 with the introduction of polyisoprene condoms. These condoms are similar to latex in most aspects, except that it is a synthetically produced material, and thus it does not cause allergies like latex.
Polyisoprene condoms are generally thinner than latex and might be better for those who dislike the sensation of condoms.
Another progress worth mentioning in condom production is the availability of variety. Modern condoms are lubricated, and many are flavored.
Further, researchers are paying huge attention to improve condom design. Thus, unlike condoms in the old days, modern condoms can increase sexual pleasures for both the genders.
Female condoms
For many people, it may come as a surprise, but female condoms were invented almost 100 years ago. First female condoms were made in the 1920s, and then there was renewed interest in them in the 1960s. However, they were forgotten, most probably due to the introduction of female contraceptive pills [3].
However, the 1980s saw a renewed interest in female condoms, mainly due to AIDS. It finally led to the commercialization of some of the brands. One of the first brands to commercialize was Femidom.
Female condoms did not receive widespread use for various reasons. They are less comfortable to use. Females are more hesitant to accept condoms as a way of protection and contraception. Some research points out that they might be less effective in preventing infections or unplanned pregnancies than male condoms [4].
Data shows that each year more than 18 billion condoms are produced. Though there are many ways of contraception, it is the only way effective immediately and does not cause and systemic toxicity. It is also the only way of contraception that can help prevent many sexually transmitted diseases.
References:
1. Khan F, Mukhtar S, Dickinson IK, Sriprasad S. The story of the condom. Indian J Urol. 2013;29(1):12-15. doi:10.4103/0970-1591.109976
2. Marfatia YS, Pandya I, Mehta K. Condoms: Past, present, and future. Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS. 2015;36(2):133-139. doi:10.4103/2589-0557.167135
3. Bounds W. Female condoms. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 1997;2(2):113-116. doi:10.3109/13625189709167464
4. Sapire KE. The female condom (Femidom)–a study of user acceptability. S Afr Med J. 1995;85(10 Suppl):1081-1084.
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in DS retagged ago by
2,473 views
6 votes
6 votes
Consider the problem of reversing a singly linked list. To take an example, given the linked list below,
the reversed linked list should look like
Which one of the following statements is $\text{TRUE}$ about the time complexity of algorithms that solve the above problem in $O(1)$ space?
1. The best algorithm for the problem takes $\theta(n)$ time in the worst case.
2. The best algorithm for the problem takes $\theta(n \log n)$ time in the worst case.
3. The best algorithm for the problem takes $\theta(n^{2})$ time in the worst case.
4. It is not possible to reverse a singly linked list in $O(1)$ space.
in DS retagged ago by
by
2.5k views
3 Answers
4 votes
4 votes
Best answer
Answer A
Suppose you are given a linkedlist like this –
And you want to convert this to as follows-
Which means, you just want to change pointer of node that is pointed by current.
Which line would do same ?
currennt->next = previous
That is all.
Now we just need to shift our pointers – prev, current and next.
Which is also easy
prev = current
current = next
next = current->next // or next = current->next
Now lets combine all lines together –
struct node * reverse( struct node * head )
{
struct node * prevP = NULL;
struct node * nextP = head->next;
while(head != NULL) {
head->next = prevP;
prevP = head;
head = nextP;
nextP = head->next;
}
return prevP;
}
Time complexity – $\theta(n)$
Space Complexity – $O(1)$
edited by
4 Comments
Can anyone explain how is constant space used here ?
1
1
No additional datastructure is used for storing the result . Original linked list’s linked is reserved thus space complexity is O(1).
0
0
Yes @Argharupa Adhikary your observation is correct.
@raja11sep No. @Argharupa Adhikary is talking about the fact that :-
the code says
head = nextP;
Now this head might point to an invalid location. After this when the line
nextP = head->next;
will be executed there will be a crash which she termed as “NULL pointer de-reference” https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/476.html
Hence, there must be a check of if(head!=NULL) just before that line as:-
head = nextP;
if(head!=NULL) //This line needs to be added
head = nextP;
@Sachin Mittal 1 Sir, there needs to be an edit.
0
0
3 votes
3 votes
The correct answer is option A.
Reversing a linked list only requires one traversal of entire linked list of N elements and Change the appropriate Pointers.
The Time complexity is $\Theta (n)$.
one can go through the link for some understanding if finds it difficult.
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/9076923/how-can-i-reverse-a-linked-list
1 vote
1 vote
We can use three-pointers.
ListNode* reverseList(ListNode* head) {
ListNode* prev=NULL;
ListNode* curr=head;
ListNode* nex;
while(curr!=NULL){
nex=curr->next;
curr->next=prev;
prev=curr;
curr=nex;
}
head=prev;
return head;
}
The above Algorithm works in $\Theta (n)$ time in worst case.
So, the answer is A. |
Photo Fresh vegetables
Inflammation is a natural response of the body’s immune system to protect itself from harmful stimuli such as pathogens, irritants, or damaged cells. It is a crucial part of the body’s healing process, but when it becomes chronic, it can lead to various health issues, including digestive problems. Chronic inflammation in the digestive system can cause conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and acid reflux. It can also exacerbate symptoms of existing digestive disorders, leading to discomfort and pain.
Digestion is the process by which the body breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used for energy and growth. The digestive system is a complex network of organs, including the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, as well as the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. When inflammation occurs in the digestive system, it can disrupt the normal functioning of these organs, leading to symptoms such as bloating, gas, diarrhoea, constipation, and abdominal pain. Understanding the relationship between inflammation and digestion is crucial for managing digestive health and overall well-being.
The Role of Diet in Managing Inflammation
Diet plays a significant role in managing inflammation in the digestive system. Certain foods can either promote or reduce inflammation in the body. A diet high in processed foods, refined sugars, trans fats, and excessive alcohol can contribute to chronic inflammation, while a diet rich in whole foods, healthy fats, lean proteins, and a variety of fruits and vegetables can help reduce inflammation and support digestive health.
Incorporating anti-inflammatory foods into the diet can help reduce inflammation in the digestive system and promote overall well-being. These foods are rich in antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients that help combat oxidative stress and reduce inflammation. Additionally, consuming a balanced diet that includes a variety of nutrients can support the body’s natural healing processes and promote a healthy gut microbiome, which is essential for optimal digestive function.
Key Anti-Inflammatory Foods for Digestive Health
Several key anti-inflammatory foods can support digestive health and help reduce inflammation in the body. Fruits such as berries, cherries, and oranges are rich in antioxidants and vitamin C, which can help combat inflammation and support the immune system. Vegetables such as leafy greens, broccoli, and bell peppers are high in fibre and phytonutrients that promote a healthy gut microbiome and reduce inflammation in the digestive system.
Healthy fats found in foods such as avocados, nuts, and seeds are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which have anti-inflammatory properties and can help reduce inflammation in the body. Fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines are also excellent sources of omega-3 fatty acids and can support digestive health. Additionally, herbs and spices such as turmeric, ginger, and garlic have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects and can be beneficial for managing digestive issues.
Foods to Avoid for a Healthy Digestive System
In addition to incorporating anti-inflammatory foods into the diet, it is important to avoid certain foods that can exacerbate inflammation in the digestive system. Processed foods high in refined sugars, trans fats, and artificial additives can promote inflammation and disrupt the balance of gut bacteria. Excessive consumption of alcohol and caffeine can also irritate the digestive system and lead to inflammation.
Foods that are high in saturated fats and cholesterol, such as red meat and full-fat dairy products, can contribute to inflammation in the body. Additionally, gluten-containing grains such as wheat, barley, and rye can trigger inflammation in individuals with gluten sensitivity or celiac disease. By avoiding these inflammatory foods and making healthier choices, individuals can support their digestive health and reduce the risk of chronic inflammation.
Meal Planning and Recipes for an Anti-Inflammatory Diet
Meal planning is an essential aspect of maintaining an anti-inflammatory diet for digestive health. Including a variety of nutrient-dense foods in meals can help reduce inflammation and support optimal digestive function. A typical day on an anti-inflammatory diet might include a breakfast of overnight oats with berries and chia seeds, a lunch of grilled salmon with a side of quinoa and roasted vegetables, and a dinner of turmeric-spiced lentil soup with a mixed green salad.
Recipes for anti-inflammatory meals can incorporate a range of ingredients such as lean proteins, whole grains, healthy fats, and plenty of fruits and vegetables. For example, a recipe for a nourishing smoothie might include spinach, kale, pineapple, ginger, and flaxseeds for a refreshing and anti-inflammatory beverage. For those with a sweet tooth, a dessert option could be a chia seed pudding made with almond milk, vanilla extract, and topped with fresh berries for a satisfying treat that supports digestive health.
Lifestyle Factors for Supporting Digestive Health
image 349 - Nature's Sunshine Products
In addition to diet, several lifestyle factors can support digestive health and reduce inflammation in the body. Regular physical activity has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects and can help maintain a healthy weight, which is important for reducing the risk of chronic inflammation. Managing stress through relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga, or deep breathing exercises can also support digestive health by reducing inflammation and promoting overall well-being.
Adequate sleep is essential for maintaining optimal digestive function and reducing inflammation in the body. Poor sleep habits have been linked to increased levels of inflammatory markers in the blood and can contribute to digestive issues such as acid reflux and irritable bowel syndrome. By prioritising good sleep hygiene and getting seven to eight hours of quality sleep each night, individuals can support their digestive health and reduce the risk of chronic inflammation.
Seeking Professional Advice for a Personalised Anti-Inflammatory Diet
For individuals with existing digestive issues or chronic inflammation, seeking professional advice from a healthcare provider or registered dietitian is essential for developing a personalised anti-inflammatory diet plan. A healthcare provider can help identify specific dietary triggers that may be contributing to inflammation in the digestive system and provide guidance on making appropriate dietary changes.
A registered dietitian can work with individuals to create a personalised meal plan that includes anti-inflammatory foods tailored to their specific needs and preferences. They can also provide education on reading food labels, portion control, and mindful eating practices to support digestive health. By working with a healthcare provider or registered dietitian, individuals can receive the support and guidance they need to manage inflammation in the digestive system and improve their overall well-being.
For more information on how natural products can support your health and well-being, check out the article “Jak wspierać naturalne produkty zdrowie i dobre samopoczucie” on NSNatura.pl. This article explores the ways in which natural products can strengthen your immune system and promote overall health using organic methods. It also delves into the importance of protecting the digestive system and maintaining its proper functioning. (source)
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Intrinsic proton conductive deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) intercalated graphene oxide membrane for high-efficiency proton conduction
Pengfei Yang, Hong Wu, Niaz Ali Khan, Benbing Shi, Xueyi He, Li Cao, Xunli Mao, Rui Zhao, Ming Qiu, Zhongyi Jiang
Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review
12 Scopus citations
Abstract
Graphene oxide (GO) membrane, possessing well-aligned laminar interlayer channels and oxygen bearing groups, offers great potentials as proton conductor in fuel cells. Yet, the scarcity and non-uniform distribution of proton conducting sites in the interlayer channels often lead to low conductivity and hinder the use of GO membranes for proton conduction. Single strand deoxyribonucleic acid (ssDNA) molecules bear abundant phosphate and amidogen groups which can act as proton conducting sites. The sequentially arranged phosphate and amidogen groups are in a linear molecule chain, which accords with the ideal arrangement of proton conducting sites. Herein, we intercalated ssDNA into GO interlayer channels via a pre-assembly process to create high-efficient proton conducting channels. GO nanosheets offer well-aligned 2D physical channels and ssDNA provides large amount of sequentially arranged proton conducting sites, which synergistically enhance proton conduction. The DNA@GO-3 membrane shows a proton conductivity of 564.8 mS cm−1 at 80 °C and 98% RH, which is 4.4-fold higher than that of pristine GO membrane and among the highest of the reported GO-based membranes. The H2/O2 single fuel cell performance is improved by nearly 3 folds in terms of maximum power density.
Original languageEnglish (US)
JournalJournal of Membrane Science
Volume606
DOIs
StatePublished - Jul 1 2020
Externally publishedYes
Fingerprint
Dive into the research topics of 'Intrinsic proton conductive deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) intercalated graphene oxide membrane for high-efficiency proton conduction'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
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skraafoto-N.jpg
Det store rev i midten af Knebel Vig kan være meget givende i forår og efterår. For at kunne vadefiske revet kræver det lavvande og helst et godt stykke under normal vandstand.
På revet ligger der store muslingebanker og på nordsiden fiskes der udover 10 meter vand. Sydsiden er lavere og med god leopardbund.
Bottom conditions
Reef
Formations of rocks, gravel, or sand created by current, wind, and weather form a compressed and lifted seabed, which provides fish with optimal conditions. There is often a huge water flow on these reefs. The depth is often greater on the sides of a reef, which means that the current will often be stronger there. Shoals of smaller fish roam in proximity to reefs in order to hunt, since the small food options are whirled around in the current. In their wake, the sea trout and other predatory fish follow. Reefs are useful spots year round, and they are optimal stops for sea trout when they migrate. Spending more time than usual on such a spot can easily be worth it.
Points
When the coastline makes a dramatic turn and/or forms a kind of reef or isthmus, we call it a point. Similarly to a reef, points will often experience a more significant current, since the waters are here being pressed by. This yields great water circulation and is thus a good indicator of a sea trout spot. The water surrounding a point can be very deep, which means fishing for more species becomes an option, particularly during the warm months when the water temperature is high.
Mussel banks
When mussels fix themselves to the seabed, it often occurs in places with current and good water flow, so nutrients and food options will come to them. Mussels are good indicators of life, and it’s often near them you’ll find hunting sea trout. Besides creating banks and reefs that provide other fish with conditions of life, the mussels also clean the water, and that has a huge impact on coastal water quality and fauna.
Rocks
Even though walking around on rocks along the coast may feel annoying, it’s often a good indicator of the presence of optimal bottom conditions for the sea trout and its food options. Everything from pebble to huge chunks of granite provides cover for sand hoppers, shrimp, and small fish. If there are waves, these food options are easily whirled up into the water column. A rocky bottom can be good all year round, but especially so during the cold months with few food options in the deeper water. A rocky bottom at a good depth also attracts other predatory fish such as cod and garfish.
Bladder wrack
Along with the eelgrass, bladder wrack is the most prevalent aquatic plant along the Danish shores. This seaweed attaches itself to smooth surfaces such as rocks, gravel, and other variations on the bottom. The bladder wrack is a good hiding place for food options and fish. Bottom conditions with bladder wrack are good indicators of fish being nearby.
Eelgrass
This aquatic plant functions as a brilliant hiding place for the small food options, and simultaneously they oxidize the water around them, which provides small fish, shrimp, and sand hoppers with good living conditions. The eelgrass is also used as a resting place for the sea trout when it migrates along the coasts and particularly in late fall when the trout are headed for the river.
Fishing license
You must have a valid fishing license to fish here. Buy your fishing license via the link below.
Season
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Season is only indicative and you must always read up on conservation times for the individual species and fishing spots.
Species
Sea trout
Garfish
Forecast |
If it won't be simple, it simply won't be. [Hire me, source code] by Miki Tebeka, CEO, 353Solutions
Wednesday, February 21, 2007
AJAX 101
MochiKit is one of many AJAX toolkits out
there. I found it very intuetive and fun to use.
We'll construct a minimal AJAX application using MochiKit, the application will
pull two values A and B from the server and update them on a
web page. (See the buttom for a list of packages/utilities used).
The web server will be a simple CGI (get_values.cgi) script that
returns a JSON hash table with the desired values:
get_values.cgi
#!/usr/bin/env python
import simplejson
from random import randint
print "Content-Type: text/plain"
print
low, high = 0, 100
data = {
"A" : randint(low, high),
"B" : randint(low, high),
}
print simplejson.dumps(data)
Our HTML page is very simple, note that:
• We give an id for each table cell we want to change
• We load MochiKit
• After that we load our script
index.html
<html>
<head>
<title>pythonwise - MochiKit Demo
<!-- Load MochiKit -->
<script type="text/javascript" src="/MochiKit/MochiKit.js">
<!-- Load our script -->
<script type="text/javascript" src="/values.js">
</title>
<!-- Have some style -->
<style>
table {
background-color: lightskyblue;
border-style: solid;
border-width: 5px;
width: 20%;
text-align: center;
}
td {
text-align: center;
font-family: Courier, monospace;
font-size: 40px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<center>
<h1>pythonwise - MochiKit Demo
<div class="content">
<!-- Just a simple table with the values we want to show -->
<table>
<tr>
<td>A
<td id="A">???
</tr>
<tr>
<td>B
<td id="B">???
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<hr width="20%" />
A MochiKit demo from
<a href="http://pythonwise.blogspot.com">pythonwise, by
<a href="mailto:miki.tebeka@gmail.com">Miki
</center>
</body>
</html>
What's left is our little script:
values.js
function connection_error () {
alert("Connection Error!");
}
function process_values(data) {
/* Even JavaScript has some introspection */
for (key in data) {
var new_value = data[key];
var color = "black"; /* No chage color */
var element = getElement(key);
var last_value = parseInt(element.innerHTML);
if (last_value == NaN) { /* First time */
color = "black";
}
else if (new_value > last_value) {
color = "green";
}
else if (new_value < last_value) {
color = "red";
}
/* Change to new value */
element.innerHTML = new_value;
element.normalize()
element.style["color"] = color;
}
/* Wait 3 seconds and refresh again */
callLater(3, get_updates);
}
function get_updates() {
var data = loadJSONDoc("get_values.cgi");
data.addCallbacks(process_values, connection_error);
}
/* Call get_updates when window is loaded */
connect(window, "onload", get_updates);
What we get is something that looks like the image at the head of this article.
If you want to run this demo, you'll need a web server for the CGI.
I'm using lighttpd because it's simple and
fast. Here is the configuration file for the demo:
lighttpd.conf
# lighhtpd configuration file, see http://trac.lighttpd.net/trac/wiki/Docs for
# more information
server.modules = (
"mod_access",
"mod_cgi",
)
server.document-root = "/home/mtebeka/mochikit-demo"
server.port = 8080
# .html is HTML
mimetype.assign = ( ".html" => "text/html" )
# Look for index.html
index-file.names = ( "index.html" )
# .cgi are not static
static-file.exclude-extensions = ( ".cgi" )
# Use Python to run CGI scripts
cgi.assign = ( ".cgi" => "/usr/local/bin/python" )
Run with /usr/sbin/lighttpd -f lighttpd.conf.
That's it, I hope that next time you'll consider AJAX - it's not that hard :)
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[Windows] [Debug] 記憶體無痕鉤子 - 硬體斷點 (C++) 實作 Ring3 進程防殺
前言
其實三年前就土炮過調試器了，不過最近要做碩論（？）會用到動態路徑分析所以又重新回頭來玩一些以前寫外掛用到的技能，而翻了一下繁體中文的文獻好像對這部分沒什麼提及就寫了一篇做一個簡單整理（主要是方便我以後回頭拿來當工具用XD）
本文實作做一個標準調試器自動下硬體斷點、然後修改暫存器內容再恢復執行緒運作，藉此來達成記憶體程式碼不破損情況下做到修改程式邏輯，完成自我進程防殺（防止工作管理員殺除）
Debugger
在 Windows 進程權級分割下如果想除錯其他進程要先用 AdjustTokenPrivileges 拿取 SE_DEBUG 令牌，有了這張令牌就可以除錯其他進程（不過拿這張令牌要先過 UAC 就是）接著可以用 DebugActiveProcess 函數 attach 上對應你想動態除錯的進程、接著你除錯的進程就會被掛起成 DEBUG_MODE 接著執行緒會被排程跳到 DbgBreakPoint 上踩到 \xCC 然後就拋出一個異常可以讓 Debugger 接收負責接下來對應處理。 （所以一些殼在處理 anti-attach 主要就是在 DbgBreakPoint 上一個 hotpatch 去自殺）
而接下來 Debugger 負責做的處理就是一個無限迴圈：以 WaitForDebugEvent 向系統拿取當前被掛載進程的異常事件（這個概念有點像 Win32 視窗程式的 GetMessage 架構拿消息）當被掛載進程拋錯時候，WaitForDebugEvent 就可以拿到異常事件、Debugger 負責接手接下來的事情。
所以講到這邊原理就很淺而易見可以知道：如果外掛要修改邏輯（以除錯器模式實作）就會有很基礎的三種方式去讓程式執行到想攔截的函數時，就必須拋錯，主流方法就三種：
1. int 3 讓 CPU 踩上去時候自動拋出異常
2. 記憶體改成不可執行的分頁區讓 DEP 防護拋出異常
3. 或者本文要講的硬體斷點手段
硬體斷點（DR0 → DR4）
可以查閱 wiki 知道：wiki/X86_debug_register，總之 x86 CPU 提供了每個 Thread 有四個「當前正在除錯的地址」可以指示當 CPU 正在對某塊地址進行 讀/寫/執行 時「就必須拋錯」。那麼這四個地址就分別放在 DR0 ~ DR4（對，就把你想攔截的地址放上去就對了沒什麼技巧）
那麼怎麼讓 CPU 知道到底是對記憶體 執行、讀、還是寫的時候才要斷下來呢？甚至我可能先寫上地址但不想馬上斷下來需要有個開關嘛，這部分可以看到 wiki：
Bits 16-17 (DR0), 20-21 (DR1), 24-25 (DR2), 28-29 (DR3), define when breakpoints trigger. Each breakpoint has a two-bit entry that specifies whether they break on execution (00b), data write (01b), data read or write (11b). 10b is defined to mean break on IO read or write but no hardware supports it.[citation needed] Bits 18-19 (DR0), 22-23 (DR1), 26-27 (DR2), 30-31 (DR3), define how large an area of memory is watched by breakpoints. Again each breakpoint has a two-bit entry that specifies whether they watch one (00b), two (01b), eight (10b)[1] or four (11b) bytes.[2]
簡單來說 DR7 這樣一個 int32_t 裡面可以配置：bit[16:17] 是 DR0 所記憶體地址 hook 的開或關（分別對應要全域還是區域 hook）bit[20:21] 對應 DR1... 依此類推。那麼怎麼配置讀/寫/執行 時候才要斷下來呢？分別對應在 bit[18:19] 是 DR0 讀寫還是執行（00b 是執行、01b 是讀、10b是寫、11是唯有讀寫時才拋錯）
所以可以大概理解為：bit[16] 後每 4 bit 分別對應 DR0、DR1、DR2、DR3 的讀寫開關與拋錯條件。
PoC
由於砍進程通常要透過 WinAPI -- TerminateProcess，調用此 API 需要給定 hProcess 是你用 OpenProcess 去跟系統要回來的令牌（亦即你權限不夠就拿不到這張令牌）所以大部分做進程防殺都在此 API 做攔截。
那可以看到 ntdll!NtOpenProcess 的原型第四個參數是 PCLIENT_ID 根據 x64 Calling Convention 可以知道 R9 上應該會拿到一個 uint64_t 的 address 裡面含有當前要拿令牌的 Proccess ID。
講到這邊廢話不多說，觀念都很簡單就可以直接上實戰 PoC 惹：
效果如下圖：
其實調試器做的事情很簡單，就負責對工作管理員的每一個 Thread 的 DR0 上一個 NtOpenProcess 的 hook，配置好後就等待 Process 執行到此 API 拋錯回來，我們就可以透過 ReadProcessMemory 把 R9 內容讀回來看是不是我們自己的 Proccess Id，如果是、我們就可以把 Rcx（第一個參數）清掉讓它拿不到令牌達成進程免殺。
而這個實作因為不牽涉上記憶體 patch 所以可以看到記憶體上面是沒有任何痕跡的，這也是為啥線上遊戲外掛那麼愛用XD，大部分反外掛防護要防止這類型手段通常都避免其他進程可以 DEBUG 遊戲程式來下硬體斷點。不過只要這一層繞掉，基本上在暫存器上面的直接上 DRn Hook 檢測起來是相當費力的。
留言
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