data/train/batch_000012.jsonl

{"text": "another way make clean use of the abundant coal resource conventional coal - fired electric generating facilities capture just a third of the energy available in the fuel they burn. fuel cells can convert significantly more of the energy, approximately 50 percent. if gas turbines and fuel cells could be combined into hybrid systems, researchers believe they could capture as much as 80 percent of the energy, reducing the amount of coal needed to produce a given amount of energy, potentially cutting carbon emissions.... but that would only be possible if the fuel cells could run for long periods of time on coal gas, which now deactivates the anodes after as little as 30 minutes of operation. the carbon removal system developed by the georgia tech - led team uses a vapor deposition process to apply barium oxide nanoparticles to the nickel - ysz electrode. the particles, which range in size from 10 to 100 nanometers, form \" islands \" on the nickel that do not block the flow of electrons across the electrode surface. when water vapor introduced into the coal gas stream contacts the barium oxide, it is adsorbed and dissociates into protons and hydroxide ( oh ) ions. the hydroxide ions move to the nickel surface, where they combine with the carbon atoms being deposited there, forming the intermediate coh. the coh then dissociates into carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which are oxidized to power the fuel cell, ultimately producing carbon dioxide and water. about half of the carbon dioxide is then recirculated back to gasify the coal to coal gas to continue the process. \" we can continuously operate the fuel cell without the problem of carbon deposition, \" said liu, who is also co - director of georgia tech ' s center for innovative fuel cell and battery technologies. the researchers also evaluated the use of propane to power solid oxide fuel cells using the new anode system. because oxidation of the hydrogen in the propane produces water, no additional water vapor had to be added, and the system operated successfully for a period of time similar to the coal gas system. solid oxide fuel cells operate most efficiently at temperatures above 850 degrees celsius, and much less carbon is deposited at higher temperatures. however, those operating temperatures require fabrication from special materials that are expensive \u2013 and prevent solid oxide fuel cells from being cost - effective for many applications. reducing the operating temperatures is a research goal, because dropping temperatures to 700 or 750 degrees celsius would allow the use of much less expensive components for interconnects", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6139119071432453, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3690b82e-6ed2-423d-abbc-193048761e7b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.342163"}
{"text": "biomolecules and nanotechnology evolution has forced innovative solutions to biomolecular problems. some may inform the growing field of nanotechnology the term \" nanotechnology \" commonly refers to a speculative field that proposes to build machinery so small its components are measured on a scale of billionths of a meter ( nanometers ) using many of the principles of macroscopic engineering. in his books, k. eric drexler has popularized the design and computer modeling of many of these machines, including nano - scale manipulators to build objects atom by atom, bearings and axles built of diamond - like lattices of carbon, waterwheel - like pumps to extract and purify molecules and tiny computers with moving parts whose size is within atomic scale. the goals of these compelling machines are precision, with every structure and action controlled at the level of individual atoms, and parsimony, performing tasks at the minimum size necessary. you might be surprised to learn that nanotechnology was perfected more than three billion years ago. indeed, working examples of each of these machines exist today within living cells. nanoscale manipulators for building molecule - sized objects were discovered by the earliest cells and are now used to build proteins and other molecules atom by atom according to defined instructions. rotating bearings are found in many forms : clamps that encircle dna and slide along its length may be found in the simplest bacteria. our own cells contain a rotary motor used not to power motion but instead to generate energy. cells use a large collection of molecule - selective pumps to import ions, amino acids, sugars, vitamins and all of the other nutrients needed for living. cells also use molecular computers, which, by altering their shapes, \" read \" the concentration of surrounding molecules and compute the proper functional outcome. by evolutionary search and modification over trillions of generations, living organisms have perfected a plethora of molecular machines, structures and processes. figure 2 presents a few examples of the rich bio - nanotechnology that may be found in every modern cell. biological molecules are proven examples of the feasibility, and the utility, of nanotechnology. our lives depend on them. they are foreign, however, to our everyday experience, with unusual organic shapes and unfamiliar properties. bio - nanomachines are often the same size and complexity as the speculative nanomachines being designed today, but they bear little resemblance to the machinery of our macroscopic world. eric drexler ' s nanomanipulators", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6266859466695278, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:292189d9-54fa-43a4-b27e-406c00a1c713>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.359516"}
{"text": "ultraviolet ( uv ) light is electromagnetic radiation in the approximate wavelength range 10 to 400 nm. it has wavelengths shorter than visible light but longer than x - rays and is invisible to the human eye. the ultraviolet wavelength range is broadly divided in order of decreasing wavelength into the near ultraviolet ( nuv ; closest to the wavelength of visible light ), the far ultraviolet ( fuv ) and the extreme ultraviolet ( euv ; closest to the wavelength of xrays ). the sun is a source of ultraviolet radiation which is harmful to human skin. the earth \u2019 s ozone layer blocks the majority of the sun \u2019 s uv - radiation, which is beneficial for us but hampers ground - based ultraviolet astronomy. instead, ultraviolet - wavelength telescopes must be put into space on satellites. astrophysical sources of ultraviolet light are hot objects ( t ~ 106 - 108 k ) including young, massive ob stars, evolved white dwarfs, supernova remnants, the sun \u2019 s corona and gas in galaxy clusters. ultraviolet light was discovered by johann wilhelm ritter in 1801 when he noticed that invisible light beyond the optical region of the electromagnetic spectrum darkened silver chloride. he split sunlight using a prism and then measured the relative darkening of the chemical as a function of wavelength. the region just beyond the optical violet region produced the most darkening, and hence was eventually christened \u2018 ultra \u2019 violet.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6406919287109154, "token_count": 270, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7e00adee-5855-43b3-9ea8-767b6962918c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.389694"}
{"text": "by cameron chai keithley instruments has recently brought out an e - handbook titled, \u2018 ensuring the accuracy of nanoscale electrical measurements \u2019, free copy, of which can be downloaded on request from the company at http : / / www. keithley. com / pr / 087. the handbook has been categorized into different sections, including nanotech testing challenges, electrical measurement considerations, electrical noise, source - measure instruments, pulsing technologies, and avoiding self - heating problems. also included are descriptions on graphene, a single - atom - thick crystal of carbon, which is used in semiconductor manufacture instead of silicon. a chapter on low - level measurement terminology has been included, besides a guide to choosing instruments that are ideal for nanotechnology applications. links to webinars, white papers, and notes application related to each area have also been inserted. keithley instrumentation is developing superior nanotechnology applications. ample experience in designing highly - responsive measurement tools allow keithley to offer university, corporate, and government labs across the globe with solutions for exploring new materials and systems. it collaborates with the institute of electrical and electronics engineers ( ieee ), nanotechnology centers of excellence, customers, and nanotechnology measurement equipment providers and distributors in an endeavor to develop comprehensive nano - test platforms. the handbook also includes inputs from these partners.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6252359169094783, "token_count": 269, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:333eea34-e60a-48cf-ab36-c158f7a10f8a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.391956"}
{"text": "solar neutrino experiments neutrinos are ghostlike particles that were postulated by wolfgang pauli in 1930 on purely theoretical grounds and, until recently, were believed to have zero mass. they are thought to be produced in the nuclear reactions that provide the sun ' s energy. they rain down on each square inch of the earth at the rate of about 400 billion per second. raymond davis jr. started investigating neutrinos that were produced in brookhaven ' s graphite research reactor and at a reactor at the savannah river plant in south carolina, in the 1950s. but these experiments were really the prelude to davisis major triumph, which came in the early 1970s, when he successfully detected solar neutrinos in a new experiment based in lead, south dakota ( image at right ). see more images of the detector. a solar neutrino was expected to produce radioactive argon when it interacts with a nucleus of chlorine. davis developed an experiment based on this idea by placing a 100, 000 - gallon tank of perchloroethylene, a commonly used dry - cleaning chemical and a good source of chlorine, 4, 800 feet underground in the homestake gold mine in south dakota and developing techniques for quantitatively extracting a few atoms of argon from the tank. the chlorine target was located deep underground to protect it from cosmic rays. also, the target had to be big because the probability of chlorine ' s capturing a neutrino was ten quadrillion times smaller than its capturing a neutron in a nuclear reactor. despite these odds, davis ' s experiment confirmed that the sun produces neutrinos, but only about one - third of the number of neutrinos predicted by theory could be detected. this so - called \" solar neutrino puzzle \" gave birth to different experiments by scientists around the world, all working to confirm the solar neutrino deficit. first came kamiokande in japan, then sage in the former soviet union, gallex in italy, and then super kamiokande. finally, in 2001 - 2002, scientists working at sno, the sudbury neutrino observatory in ontario, canada, found strong evidence that the neutrino has the ability to oscillate, or change form, among its three known types : the electron, muon and tau neutrinos. 1967 brookhaven national lab press release, \" solar energy generation theory being tested in brookhaven neutrino experiment \" ( pdf ) 1967 brook", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6118036756993857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5293fcfb-3889-4ffc-a74f-e9824a93e7c9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.409353"}
{"text": "collisions between protons and lead ions at the lhc near geneva, switzerland have resulted in surprising behaviour in some of the particles created by the collisions, massachusetts institute of technology ( mit ) news reported. when beams of particles crash into each other at high speeds, the collisions yield hundreds of new particles, most of which fly away from the collision point at close to the speed of light. however, the compact muon solenoid ( cms ) team at the lhc found that in a sample of 2 million lead - proton collisions, some pairs of particles flew away from each other with their respective directions correlated. \" somehow they fly at the same direction even though it ' s not clear how they can communicate their direction with one another. that has surprised many people, including us, \" said mit physics professor gunther roland, whose group led the analysis of the collision data along with wei li, a former mit postdoc who is now an assistant professor at rice university. the mit heavy - ion group saw the same distinctive pattern in proton - proton collisions about two years ago. the same flight pattern is also seen when ions of lead or other heavy metals, such as gold and copper, collide with each other. those heavy - ion collisions produce a wave of quark gluon plasma, the hot soup of particles that existed for the first few millionths of a second after the big bang. in the collider, this wave sweeps some of the resulting particles in the same direction, accounting for the correlation in their flight paths. it has been theorised that proton - proton collisions may produce a liquid - like wave of gluons, known as colour - glass condensate. this dense swarm of gluons may also produce the unusual collision pattern seen in proton - lead collisions, said raju venugopalan, a senior scientist at brookhaven national laboratory, who was not involved in the current research. venugopalan and colleagues theorised the existence of colour - glass condensate shortly before the particle direction correlation was seen in proton - proton collisions. while protons at normal energy levels consist of three quarks, they tend to gain an accompanying cluster of gluons at higher energy levels. these gluons exist as both particles and waves, and their wave functions can be correlated with each other. this \" quantum entanglement \" explains how the particles that fly away from the collision can share information such as direction of flight path, venugopalan said. the correlation is a very", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.649835208230373, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d84adaf3-23d6-4bcc-834a-04574500676c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.432687"}
{"text": "electroencephalography ( eeg ) is a study of changing electrical potential of the brain. the apparatus used to measure this electric potential of the brain is called electroencephalograph, and the tracing or the printout of the measured brainwave forms is electroencephalogram. frequency is the number of complete repetitive waves that occur in a given unit of time. frequency is measured in hertz ( hz ) or cycles per second ( cps ). according to their frequency brainwaves are divided into 4 main groups, also referred to as \" brain states \" eeg brainwave sample state of consciousness | fully awake and alert generally associated with left - brain thinking activity - conscious mind | 8 - 13 cps | relaxed, daydreaming generally associated with right - brain thinking activity - subconscious mind - a key state for \" relaxation \" | | deeply relaxed, dreaming generally associated with right - brain thinking activity - deeper subconscious to superconscious access to insights, bursts of creative ideas - a key state for \" reality creation \" through vivid imagery | | dreamless generally associated with no thinking - unconscious / superconscious access to non - physical states of existence - a key state for \" regeneration \" and \" rejuvenation \" | some research has been done associated with the activities and benefits of other brainwave frequencies, such as super beta, gamma, etc. the lower your brainwave cps, the more is your awareness turned toward your subjective experience, toward your inner world and the more effectively are you able to use the power of your mind to create changes in your body. with each lower state you become more fully aligned with the source of power within you, with your unconscious, or if you prefer, with that part of you that is greater than you ( your body ). generally in beta state, your attention is focused outward. in alpha it begins to turn inward, and in theta and delta it goes further and further inward. the deeper you go, the more effectively are you able to enter your subconscious. you can imagine that at the borderline between beta and alpha states is a doorway to your subconscious mind, and the doorway consists of what is hypnosis referred to as your \" critical faculty \". and you can imagine that at the borderline between alpha and theta states is a doorway to your superconscious mind, where you begin to gain access to your \" supernatural abilities \", which for most people manifest as bursts of insight. the more time you spend in this state, even if you '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6499358615688041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.630674"}
{"text": "and theta states is a doorway to your superconscious mind, where you begin to gain access to your \" supernatural abilities \", which for most people manifest as bursts of insight. the more time you spend in this state, even if you ' re not intentionally attempting to create a change, the more of these \" abilities \" begin to become part of you - you may simply notice that the time - lag between what you think and it ' s manifestation in your outer world becomes shorter and shorter. and you can imagine that at the borderline that at the borderline between theta and delta, you ' re beginning to say \" good - bye \" to your physical experience of the world, as you ' re getting altogether into experiencing yourself as non - physical being. here your body is only a thought in your mind. if you are able to maintain your consciousness at this level, you can effect instant changes in the outer world. in this state, you can transcend the \" laws of the physical world \" because you ' re not bound by them any more. whenever you think, you expand energy. in deep, dreamless delta state, where your mind is fully resting, your body has the best opportunity to regenerate. with meditative practice and self - hypnosis, you develop ability to remain conscious while getting progressively into deeper and deeper states. for example, a person without any mind training will tend to fall asleep when getting into theta state, while a person who has undergone some form of meditative mind - training will be able to be very deeply relaxed, yet conscious. the more you are able to remain conscious while in deeper states of mind, the less sleep will your require. brainwave entrainment and synchronization | synchronized brainwave patterns enhanced ability | | incoherent brainwave patterns limited ability | brainwave synchronization technology provides a shortcut to experiencing deeper states of mind giving you an opportunity to access higher states of consciousness and extraordinary abilities in very short time through brainwave entrainment. this way you can experience almost immediately the effects that took someone years of meditation to achieve. and the process is effortless. all you need to do is use the headphones. here ' s how the principle of entrainment works. entrainment is the process of synchronization, where vibrations of one object will cause the vibrations of another object to oscillate at the same rate. external rhythms have a direct effect on the psychology and physiology of the individual. you can observe", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6117599804434504, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.631719"}
{"text": "and catecholamine production for up to 24 hours. finally, we have noted that bws even without self - hypnosis leads to enhanced sleep induction, especially at the self - selected low theta rate. and return to sleep is more rapid with bws if one awakens during the night and uses bws to return to sleep. binaural beats are auditory brainstem responses which originate in the superior olivary nucleus of each hemisphere. they result from the interaction of two different auditory impulses, originating in opposite ears, below 1000 hz and which differ in frequency between one and 30 hz ( oster, 1973 ). for example, if a pure tone of 400 hz is presented to the right ear and a pure tone of 410 hz is presented simultaneously to the left ear, an amplitude modulated standing wave of 10 hz, the difference between the two tones, is experienced as the two wave forms mesh in and out of phase within the superior olivary nuclei. this binaural beat is not heard in the ordinary sense of the word ( the human range of hearing is from 20 - 20, 000 hz ). it is perceived as an auditory beat and theoretically can be used to entrain specific neural rhythms through the frequency - following response ( ffr ) - - the tendency for cortical potentials to entrain to or resonate at the frequency of an external stimulus. thus, it is theoretically possible to utilize a specific binaural - beat frequency as a consciousness management technique to entrain a specific cortical rhythm. uses of audio with embedded binaural beats that are mixed with music or various pink or background sound are diverse. they range from relaxation, meditation, stress reduction, pain management, improved sleep quality, decrease in sleep requirements, super learning, enhanced creativity and intuition, remote viewing, telepathy, and out - of - body experience and lucid dreaming. audio embedded with binaural beats is often combined with various meditation techniques, as well as positive affirmations and visualization. when signals of two different frequencies are presented, one to each ear, the brain detects phase differences between these signals. \" under natural circumstances a detected phase difference would provide directional information. the brain processes this anomalous information differently when these phase differences are heard with stereo headphones or speakers. a perceptual integration of the two signals takes place, producing the sensation of a third \" beat \" frequency. the difference between the signals waxes and wanes as the two different input frequencies mesh in and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6009125246776209, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.636879"}
{"text": ") and improved memory ( kennerly, 1994 ). passively listening to binaural beats may not spontaneously propel you into an altered state of consciousness. one \u2019 s subjective experience in response to binaural - beat stimulation may also be influenced by a number of mediating factors. for example, the willingness and ability of the listener to relax and focus attention may contribute to binaural - beat effectiveness in inducing state changes. \" ultradian rhythms in the nervous system are characterized by periodic changes in arousal and states of consciousness ( rossi, 1986 ; shannahoff - khalsa, 1991 ; webb & dube, 1981 ). these naturally occurring shifts may underlie the anecdotal reports of fluctuations in the effectiveness of binaural beats. external factors are also thought to play roles in mediating the effects of binaural beats \" ( owens & atwater, 1995 ). the perception of a binaural beat is, for example, said to be heightened by the addition of white noise to the carrier signal ( oster, 1973 ), so white noise is often used as background. \" music, relaxation exercises, guided imagery, and verbal suggestion have all been used to enhance the state - changing effects of the binaural beat \" ( owens & atwater, 1995 ). other practices such as humming, toning, breathing exercises, autogenic training, and / or biofeedback can also be used to interrupt the homeostasis of resistant subjects ( tart, 1975 ). brain waves and consciousness controversies concerning the brain, mind, and consciousness have existed since the early greek philosophers argued about the nature of the mind - body relationship, and none of these disputes has been resolved. modern neurologists have located the mind in the brain and have said that consciousness is the result of electrochemical neurological activity. there are, however, growing observations to the contrary. there is no neurophysiological research which conclusively shows that the higher levels of mind ( intuition, insight, creativity, imagination, understanding, thought, reasoning, intent, decision, knowing, will, spirit, or soul ) are located in brain tissue ( hunt, 1995 ). a resolution to the controversies surrounding the higher mind and consciousness and the mind - body problem in general may need to involve an epistemological shift to include extra - rational ways of knowing ( de quincey, 1994 ) and cannot be comprehended by neurochemical brain studies alone. we are in the midst of a revolution focusing on the study", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.610867930853624, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.639535"}
{"text": "need to involve an epistemological shift to include extra - rational ways of knowing ( de quincey, 1994 ) and cannot be comprehended by neurochemical brain studies alone. we are in the midst of a revolution focusing on the study of consciousness ( owens, 1995 ). penfield, an eminent contemporary neurophysiologist, found that the human mind continued to work in spite of the brain \u2019 s reduced activity under anesthesia. brain waves were nearly absent while the mind was just as active as in the waking state. the only difference was in the content of the conscious experience. following penfield \u2019 s work, other researchers have reported awareness in comatose patients ( hunt, 1995 ) and there is a growing body of evidence which suggests that reduced cortical arousal while maintaining conscious awareness is possible ( fischer, 1971 ; west 1980 ; delmonte, 1984 ; goleman 1988 ; jevning, wallace, & beidenbach, 1992 ; wallace, 1986 ; mavromatis, 1991 ). these states are variously referred to as meditative, trance, altered, hypnogogic, hypnotic, and twilight - learning states ( budzynski, 1986 ). broadly defined, the various forms of altered states rest on the maintenance of conscious awareness in a physiologically reduced state of arousal marked by parasympathetic dominance ( mavromatis, 1991 ). recent physiological studies of highly hypnotizable subjects and adept meditators indicate that maintaining awareness with reduced cortical arousal is indeed possible in selected individuals as a natural ability or as an acquired skill ( sabourin, cutcomb, crawford, & pribram, 1993 ). more and more scientists are expressing doubts about the neurologists \u2019 brain - mind model because it fails to answer so many questions about our ordinary experiences, as well as evading our mystical and spiritual ones. the scientific evidence supporting the phenomenon of remote viewing alone is sufficient to show that mind - consciousness is not a local phenomenon ( mcmoneagle, 1993 ). if mind - consciousness is not the brain, why then does science relate states of consciousness and mental functioning to brain - wave frequencies? and how is it that audio with embedded binaural beats alters brain waves? the first question can be answered in terms of instrumentation. there is no objective way to measure mind or consciousness with an instrument. mind - consciousness appears to be a field phenomenon which interfaces with the body and the neurological structures of the brain ( hunt, 1995 ). one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6248965320369021, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.640518"}
{"text": "can be answered in terms of instrumentation. there is no objective way to measure mind or consciousness with an instrument. mind - consciousness appears to be a field phenomenon which interfaces with the body and the neurological structures of the brain ( hunt, 1995 ). one cannot measure this field directly with current instrumentation. on the other hand, the electrical potentials of brain waves can be measured and easily quantified. contemporary science likes things that can be measured and quantified. the problem here lies in oversimplification of the observations. eeg patterns measured on the cortex are the result of electroneurological activity of the brain. but the brain \u2019 s electroneurological activity is not mind - consciousness. eeg measurements then are only an indirect means of assessing the mind - consciousness interface with the neurological structures of the brain. as crude as this may seem, the eeg has been a reliable way for researchers to estimate states of consciousness based on the relative proportions of eeg frequencies. stated another way, certain eeg patterns have been historically associated with specific states of consciousness. it is reasonable to assume, given the current eeg literature, that if a specific eeg pattern emerges it is probably accompanied by a particular state of consciousness. as to the second question raised in the above paragraph, audio with embedded binaural beats alters the electrochemical environment of the brain. this allows mind - consciousness to have different experiences. when the brain is entrained to lower frequencies and awareness is maintained, a unique state of consciousness emerges. this state is often referred to as hypnogogia \" mind awake / body asleep. \" slightly higher - frequency entrainment can lead to hyper suggestive states of consciousness. still higher - frequency eeg states are associated with alert and focused mental activity needed for the optimal performance of many tasks. perceived reality changes depending on the state of consciousness of the perceiver ( tart, 1975 ). some states of consciousness provide limited views of reality, while others provide an expanded awareness of reality. for the most part, states of consciousness change in response to the ever - changing internal environment and surrounding stimulation. for example, states of consciousness are subject to influences like drugs and circadian and ultradian rhythms ( rossi, 1986 ; shannahoff - khalsa, 1991 ; webb & dube, 1981 ). specific states of consciousness can also be learned as adaptive behaviors to demanding circumstances ( green and green, 1986 ). synchronized brain waves synchronized brain waves have long been associated with meditative and hypnogogic states", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6115110996085129, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.641543"}
{"text": "webb & dube, 1981 ). specific states of consciousness can also be learned as adaptive behaviors to demanding circumstances ( green and green, 1986 ). synchronized brain waves synchronized brain waves have long been associated with meditative and hypnogogic states, and audio with embedded binaural beats has the ability to induce and improve such states of consciousness. the reason for this is physiological. each ear is \" hardwired \" ( so to speak ) to both hemispheres of the brain ( rosenzweig, 1961 ). each hemisphere has its own olivary nucleus ( sound - processing center ) which receives signals from each ear. in keeping with this physiological structure, when a binaural beat is perceived there are actually two standing waves of equal amplitude and frequency present, one in each hemisphere. so, there are two separate standing waves entraining portions of each hemisphere to the same frequency. the binaural beats appear to contribute to the hemispheric synchronization evidenced in meditative and hypnogogic states of consciousness. brain function is also enhanced through the increase of cross - collosal communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. rhythmic sound and the brain studies have shown that vibrations from rhythmic sounds have a profound effect on brain activity. in shamanic traditions, drums were used in periodic rhythm to transport the shaman into other realms of reality. the vibrations from this constant rhythm affected the brain in a very specific manner, allowing the shaman to achieve an altered state of mind and journey out of his or her body. brain pattern studies conducted by researcher melinda maxfield into the ( ssc ) shamanic state of consciousness found that the steady rhythmic beat of the drum struck four and one half times per second was the key to transporting a shaman into the deepest part of his shamanic state of consciousness. it is no coincidence that 4. 5 beats, or cycles per second corresponds to the trance like state of theta brain wave activity. in direct correlation, we see similar effects brought on by the constant and rhythmic drone of tibetan buddhist chants, which transport the monks and even other listeners into realms of blissful meditation. interesting tidbits - a look at the brain of somnambulist | somnambulist is a person who is sleep - walking. scientists have studied this interesting phenomenon for generations. recent studies have shown a burst of delta waves ( shown in yellow in the graphic to the right ) in the brain of someone who is sleep - walking. they theorize that the somnam", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6019812093300879, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.642619"}
{"text": "process : a theoretical perspective. \" faber, va : monroe institute. bandler, r. ( 1985 ). \" using your brain - - for a change. \" moab, ut : real people press. barber, t. x. ( 1957 ). \" experiments in hypnosis. \" scientific american, 196, 54 - 61. bremer, f. ( 1958a ). \" physiology of the corpus collosum \" proceedings of the association of research on nervous disorders, 36, 424 - 448. bremer, f. ( 1958b ). \" cerebral and cerebellar potentials. \" physiological review, 38, 357 - 388. brackopp, g. w. ( 1984 ). review of research on multi - modal sensory stimulation with clinical implications and research proposals. unpublished manuscript - - see hutchison ( 1986 ). budzynski, t. ( 1973 ). \" some applications of biofeedback - produced twilight states. \" in d. shapiro, et al ( eds. ), biofeedback and self - control : 1972. chicago : aldine - atherton. budzynski, t. h. ( 1976 ). \" biofeedback and the twilight states of consciousness. \" in g. e. schwartz and d. shapiro ( eds. ), consciousness and self - regulation, vol. 1, new york : plenum press. budzynski, t. h. ( 1977 ). \" tuning in on the twilight zone. \" psychology today, august. budzynski, t. h. ( 1979 ). \" brain lateralization and biofeedback. \" in b. shapin & t. coly ( eds. ), brain / mind and parapsychology. new york : parapsychology foundation. budzynski, t. h. ( 1981 ). \" brain lateralization and rescripting. \" somatics, 3, 1 - 10. budzynski, t. h. ( 1986 ). \" clinical applications of non - drug - induced states. \" in b. wolman & m. ullman ( eds. ), handbook of states of consciousness. new york : van nostrand - reinhold. budzynski, t. h. ( 1990 ) \" hemispheric asymmetry and rest. \" in suefeld, p. turner, j. w., jr. & fine, t. h. ( eds. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6344365960387804, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.644349"}
{"text": ". budzynski, t. h. ( 1990 ) \" hemispheric asymmetry and rest. \" in suefeld, p. turner, j. w., jr. & fine, t. h. ( eds. ), restricted environmental stimulation, new york : springer - verlag. cade, c. m. & coxhead, n. ( 1979 ) \" the awakened mind : biofeedback and the development of higher states of consciousness. \" new york : delacorte press. cheek, d. ( 1976 ). \" short - term hypnotherapy for fragility using exploration of early life attitudes. \" the american journal of clinical hypnosis, 18, 75 - 82. davidson, r. j., ekman, p., saron, c. d., senulis, j. a., & friesen, w. v. ( 1990 ). \" approach - withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry : emotional expression and brain physiology. \" journal of personality and social psychology, 58, 330 - 341. deikman, a. ( 1969 ). \" de - automatization and the mystic experience. \" in c. t. tart ( ed. ), altered states of consciousness. new york : john wiley & sons. deikman, a. ( 1971 ). \" bimodal consciousness. \" archives of general psychiatry, 25, 481 - 489. donker, d. n. j., nijo, l., storm van leeuwen, w. & wienke, g. ( 1978 ). \" interhemispheric relationships of responses to sine wave modulated light in normal subjects and patients. \" electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology, 44, 479 - 489. evans, f. j., gustafson, l. a., o ' connell, d. n., orne, m. t. & shor, r. e. ( 1966 ). \" response during sleep with intervening waking amnesia. \" science, 152, 666 - 667. evans, f. j., gustafson, l. a., o ' connell, d. n., orne, m. t. & shor, r. e. ( 1970 ). \" verbally - induced behavioral response during sleep. \" journal of nervous and mental disease, 1, 1 - 26. evans, c.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6144230826515151, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.645058"}
{"text": ". autogenic training : a psychophysiological approach in psychotherapy. new york : grune & stratton. sittenfeld, p., budzynski, t. & stoyva, j. ( 1976 ). \" differential shaping of eeg theta rhythms. \" biofeedback and self - regulation, 1, 31 - 45. stoyva, j. m. ( 1973 ), \" biofeedback techniques and the conditions for hallucinatory activity \" in mcgulgan, f. j. and schoonover, r. ( eds ), the psychophysiology of thinking. new york : academic press. svyandoshch, a. ( 1968 ). \" the assimilation and memorization of speech during natural sleep. \" in f. rubin ( ed. ), current research in hypnopaedia. london : macdonald. swedenborg, e. rational psychology. philadelphia : swedenborg scientific association, 1950. tomarken, a. j., davidson, r. j., & henriques, j. b. ( 1990 ). \" resting frontal brain asymmetry predicts affective responses to films. \" journal of personality and social psychology, 59, 791 - 801. townsend, r. e. ( 1973 ). \" a device for generation and presentation of modulated light stimuli. \" electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology, 34, 97 - 99. tucker, d. m. ( 1981 ). \" lateral brain function, emotion, and conceptualization. \" psychological bulletin, 89, 19 - 46. van der tweel, l. h. & verduyn lunel, h. f. e. ( 1965 ). \" human visual responses to sinusoidally modulated light. \" electroencephalography and clinical neurology, 18, 587 - 598. van dusen, w. ( 1975 ). the presence of other worlds. london : wildwood house. walter, v. j. & walter, w. g. ( 1949 ). \" the central effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation. \" electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology, 1, 57 - 86. wickramasekera, i. e. ( 1988 ). clinical behavioral medicine : some concepts and procedures. new york : plenum press.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6026884800403566, "token_count": 495, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9d6b661b-2663-493f-8488-3bd2b9eab8a2>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:49.648140"}
{"text": "as toroidal, are formed from two dissimilar liquids using a simple rotating stage and an injection needle. about a millimeter in overall size, the droplets are produced individually, their shapes maintained by a surrounding springy material made of polymers. droplets in this toroidal shape made... frauhofer fep will present a novel roll - to - roll manufacturing process for high - barriers and functional films for flexible displays at the sid displayweek 2013 in vancouver \u2013 the international showcase for the display industry. displays that are flexible and paper thin at the same time?! what might still seem like science fiction will be a major topic at the sid display week 2013 that currently takes place in vancouver in canada. high manufacturing cost and a short lifetime are still a major obstacle on... university of wurzburg physicists have succeeded in creating a new type of laser. its operation principle is completely different from conventional devices, which opens up the possibility of a significantly reduced energy input requirement. the researchers report their work in the current issue of nature. it also emits light the waves of which are in phase with one another : the polariton laser, developed... innsbruck physicists led by rainer blatt and peter zoller experimentally gained a deep insight into the nature of quantum mechanical phase transitions. they are the first scientists that simulated the competition between two rival dynamical processes at a novel type of transition between two quantum mechanical orders. they have published the results of their work in the journal nature physics. \u201c when water boils, its molecules are released as vapor. we call this... researchers have shown that, by using global positioning systems ( gps ) to measure ground deformation caused by a large underwater earthquake, they can provide accurate warning of the resulting tsunami in just a few minutes after the earthquake onset. for the devastating japan 2011 event, the team reveals that the analysis of the gps data and issue of a detailed tsunami alert would have taken no more than three minutes. the results are published on 17 may in natural hazards and earth system sciences, an open access journal of... 22. 05. 2013 | ecology, the environment and conservation 22. 05. 2013 | earth sciences 22. 05. 2013 | life sciences 17. 05. 2013 | event news 15. 05. 2013 | event news 08. 05. 2013 | event news", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6387680661159293, "token_count": 477, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5a0db672-75fe-4f31-b345-96c120ea9b3f>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:50.372510"}
{"text": "the word certitude indicates both a state of mind and a quality of a proposition, according as we say, \" i am certain \", or, \" it is certain \". this distinction is expressed in the technical language of philosophy by saying that there is subjective certitude and objective certitude. it is worthy of notice, as regards the use of english terms, that newman reserves the term certitude for the state of mind, and employs the word certainty to describe the condition of the evidence of a proposition. certitude is correlative to truth, for truth is the object of the intellect. knowledge means knowledge of truth ; and hence we are in the habit of saying simply of a proposition that \" it is certain \", to express that it is true, and that its truth is so evident as legitimately to produce certitude. certitude is contrasted with other states of mind in reference to a proposition : the state of ignorance, the state of doubt, and the state of opinion. the last - named signifies, in the strict use of the term, the holding of a proposition as probable, although in common parlance it is loosely used in a wider sense, as in speaking of a man ' s religious opinions, meaning not his speculations or theories about religious questions, but his dogmatic convictions. certitude is such assent to the truth of a proposition as excludes all real doubt. here it is proper to observe a distinction between merely undoubting assent, i. e. the mere absence of doubt, and an assent that positively excludes doubt, an assent with which doubt is incompatible. thus one may give to a statement in the morning newspaper an undoubting assent and credence, yet readily withdraw that assent if the statement be contradicted in the afternoon papers. such assent, though undoubting, is not certitude. but there is a kind of assent from which doubt is not only in fact absent but absent of necessity, because such assent and doubt are incompatible. such is the assent which one gives to the truth that he really exists, and that he feels well or ill, or to the truth of the proposition that it is impossible for a thing in the same respect both to be and not to be, or to the moral law, the existence of god, and the immortality of the soul. of these truths we are certain, and such assent is properly called certitude. certitude differs from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_information_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6042732223057449, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dce3e24b-f77d-4aea-8e01-72f915bfba95>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:50.676448"}
{"text": "tuesday, november 22, 2011 they could lead the way to hi - def displays that are large, almost paper thin, and portable. while everyone is fully cognizant of the more common terms, such as lcd ( liquid crystal display ) and plasma ; which fortunately is not an acronym, but a rather a descriptive term of the weird, futuristic, fourth state of matter science going on behind the flat panel, there continue to be new sets of letters, and the latest seem to end in \u201c ed \u201d. since the attack of the \u201c eds \u201d is all good news for lovers of state - of - the - art technology, i will attempt to elucidate some of the important points in an easy to understand way beginning with oled. surprisingly, oled is already in use in some smaller video applications such as cell phones and digital camera displays. it could have an extremely bright future in fpd ( flat panel display ), but its debut into the world of widespread mass production and sales in television is still a year or two off. samsung has released a prototype 40 - inch hdtv using oled that is extremely thin. in the future, we could see an oled set that is twice as large and only a fraction of an inch thick! it will even be possible to roll up these extremely thin screens and carry them around! oled works by conducting electrons through layers of organic materials that emit light to create the standards of current high definition television. photons ( particles of light ) are emitted as electrons are sent from a cathode layer across two or three layers of organic material ( the \u201c o \u201d in oled ) to the anode layer. the colors of the hdtv are determined by the type of organic material used in the emissive layer and the brightness of the picture seen by the viewer \u2019 s eye is controlled by the level of voltage used. the \u201c o \u201d in oled stands for organic material, which in this case means a carbon based chain of molecules, also known as a polymer. oled promises to give us extremely wide screen, hd televisions that could be only a few millimeters thick and use very little electricity. the tiny amounts of electrical power needed to power this type of display can solve the problem of hot operating temperatures in today \u2019 s lcd and plasma sets. newer generations of hd ( high definition ) technologies are constantly being invented. there are already at least six types of oled technology now in existence. it will be fascinating to view the subsequent forms of flat panel displays using", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6021941470381733, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9bd90462-6d95-4021-878f-1d442556a648>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:50.698797"}
{"text": "residential buildings use approximately 22 % of the total energy consumed in the u. s. the objective of this project is to increase the energy efficiency of the residential building sector by reducing the uncertainties in tools and techniques that are currently used to make energy predictions during three phases of a building \u2019 s lifetime : construction / design, regular operation, and retrofit. objective : to improve estimates of residential whole - building energy consumption by 2014 through characterization of uncertainties of tools used in modeling whole buildings in support of national energy efficiency standards, providing energy feedback to building occupants, and selecting retrofit options to improve the performance of existing buildings. what is the new technical idea? providing measures for residential energy use on a whole building scale is challenging because of the interacting components and systems that come into play. as these building components and systems increase in efficiency, a holistic assessment of energy consumption is necessary to target effective ways to better energy performance in homes. in this project, nist will focus on improving the measurement science utilized by standards developers, designers, occupants, and retrofit professionals to assess the energy performance of a residence by quantifying the uncertainties associated with these assessments. whole building energy simulations often inform the development of next - generation building codes for energy efficiency by using the analyses to understand the implications of proposed code changes. nist will work toward determining the sensitivity of residential building energy simulations to various parameters, such as construction and occupant factors, to make the energy savings predictions of the standards to which the modeled buildings will be compliant more complete. once the building is in operation, real - time energy feedback to occupants is needed to continue to meet and exceed the efficiency goals described in the construction standards ; it is estimated that up to a 20 % energy savings can be achieved through behavioral changes that result from appropriate feedback. nist has been evaluating commercially - available residential energy monitoring systems ( rems ) and will develop a metric and a test method to quantify measurement accuracy and communication performance so commercial products can meet the needs of building occupants. finally, to fully address energy efficiency of residential buildings, it is imperative to identify ways to improve the performance of existing buildings. energy auditing is a process by which retrofits needed to improve the energy performance of a building are determined. nist will enable quantification of the uncertainty in audit recommendations by formalizing a procedure to implement a round - robin program so that building professionals and homeowners have greater confidence in energy efficiency improvements resulting from retrofits. quantifying the uncertainties associated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6142981232529865, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a1e4a84-f88c-4188-8f69-8ca80cdf996a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:50.752972"}
{"text": "enable quantification of the uncertainty in audit recommendations by formalizing a procedure to implement a round - robin program so that building professionals and homeowners have greater confidence in energy efficiency improvements resulting from retrofits. quantifying the uncertainties associated with these modeling tools, sensor systems, and guidelines will provide more confidence to building designers, operators, homeowners, and standards developers to move the nation toward net - zero energy, high performance buildings. what is the research plan? to decrease uncertainty in predictions of energy efficiency improvements of proposed code provisions, nist will assess the sensitivity of computer models used to evaluate those proposals. assessments of prescriptive standards and codes such as ashrae 90. 2 and the international energy conservation code performed by the residential building energy codes community typically utilize single building types to represent the nation \u2019 s residential building stock. in fy13, nist will create energyplus models of multiple prototype buildings using data from the census bureau \u2019 s american housing survey and the doe residential energy consumption survey to expand the representation of the u. s. building stock. nist will then perform a sensitivity study to quantify the uncertainty and variability in modeling results when factors such as location, occupant behavior, construction type, and square footage are varied. these factors can all be examined by changing inputs into the software, with occupant behavior being examined through changes in hot water use, thermostat setpoints, appliance usage, and plug load usage that are documented in the building science literature. to assess the uncertainty in energy use estimates from continuous feedback systems, nist will utilize a testbed to develop metrics and test methods to assess such systems. a hardware test platform for electricity sensors that also possesses the functionality to assess the software included to retrieve sensor data was designed in fy12 to assess the accuracy of commercially available residential energy monitoring systems ( rems ). the platform makes use of individual energy end - uses ( e. g., small and large appliances, and plug loads ) to simulate what would be used in a home. in fy13, nist will expand the test platform to include the measurement of simultaneous household loads and multiple sensors to further represent typical home energy use. current investigations have shown that certain appliances have variable power states, a trend emerging with appliances incorporating more complex electronics. the results of testing end - uses on the platform will allow nist to categorize various household electrical loads and determine which rems are the most appropriate for these categories. fy13 tasks", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6215177465550734, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a1e4a84-f88c-4188-8f69-8ca80cdf996a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:50.753979"}
{"text": "eventually, we ' ll build a solar cell where the photoanode is made from the material that we ' re synthesizing today. by templating the assembly of the nanotubes - tio2 nanocrystal with the m13 phage, the electronic properties of the photoanode are improved. \" improved \" here means a few things. engineers trying to optimize photovoltaic devices want lots of high mobility electrons inside their devices since these can more efficiently convert the photo - energy input to electrical power output. single - walled nanotubes made from carbon are one kind of material that ranks pretty high for this property. engineers would also like to optimize the \" sink \" for these mobile electrons since the very best photovoltaic devices will also efficiently collect them where they ' re needed. in our experiment, we are relying on m13 to facilitate electron paths by arranging the swnts into a higher - order architecture, thereby improving their properties. not only can m13 bundle the swnts so they don ' t clump together ( see how the p8 proteins allow the swnts to associate in parallel to the phage in the photo ), but the viruses also position parts of the swnts to the surrounding solution, allowing for a more complete coating with tio2. the tio2 nanocrystal shell ( like its more expensive silicon cousin ) is needed to pass the electrons from the photo - excited dye... which we ' ll be adding later. phage : swnts : tio2 nanocomposite, image from mit news 04. 52. 11 note, however, that swnts aren ' t the perfect material, even when arranged by m13. the swnts aren ' t homogeneous and the metallic contaminants can short circuit the electron ' s paths. for this reason, you are testing different ratios of swnts to phage and building solar cells from these variants. you will identify the most useful ratio at the end of the module when you measure the photon - to - current conversion efficiency ( ipce ) for the 1 : 1, 2. 5 : 1 and 5 : 1 ratio ( swnts : phage ), and we compare across groups. today in lab you will react your swnt : phage with titanium isopropoxide, harvest a small aliquot to visualize with tem next time, then wash the remainder of the nanowires several times, first with ethanol, then with water. you will have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6265813038610277, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c5cdc4d5-c94a-4a0f-8519-bab1988f9d49>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:50.790629"}
{"text": "university of manchester and national university of singapore researchers have shown how building multi - layered heterostructures in a three - dimensional stack can produce an exciting physical phenomenon exploring new electronic devices. the breakthrough, published in science, could lead to electric energy that runs entire buildings generated by sunlight absorbed by its exposed walls ; the energy can be used at will to change the transparency and reflectivity of fixtures and windows depending on environmental conditions, such as temperature and brightness. collectively, such 2d crystals demonstrate a vast range of superlative properties : from conductive to insulating, from opaque to transparent. every new layer in these stacks adds exciting new functions, so the heterostructures are ideal for creating novel, multifunctional devices. the manchester and singapore researchers expanded the functionality of these heterostructures to optoelectronics and photonics. by combining graphene with monolayers of transition metal dichalcogenides ( tmdc ), the researchers were able to created extremely sensitive and efficient photovoltaic devices. such devices could potentially be used as ultrasensitive photodetectors or very efficient solar cells. in these devices, layers of tmdc were sandwiched between two layers of graphene, combining the exciting properties of both 2d crystals. tmdc layers act as very efficient light absorbers and graphene as a transparent conductive layer. this allows for further integration of such photovoltaic devices into more complex, more multifunctional heterostructures. a shattered windshield has a story to tell. the key to hearing it is counting the cracks. the number of cracks that emerge in a plate of glass or plexiglas relates to the speed of the object that broke it, researchers demonstrate in physical review letters. this simple relationship could prove useful for forensic scientists, archaeologists and even astronomers. over the past century, most research into cracks has focused on parameters that determine whether a material remains intact when struck. nicolas vandenberghe and his colleagues at aix - marseille university in france decided to try something different : they wanted to push glass and other materials past their breaking points and study the resulting fractures. they wondered if they could connect the patterns of cracks to the properties of the impact that created them, something no one had done before, vandenberghe says. so he and his team set up a shooting gallery. knowing that cracks emerge within a matter of microseconds of impact, vandenberghe employed a high - speed camera to capture the instant of collision. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6853411456801036, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.889179"}
{"text": "of talks from queen mary academics and internationally - acclaimed experts, who presented recent developments in the area of materials research. the talks were followed by a reception held in the queens \u2019 building senior common room, and provided an opportunity for informal discussion and networking. the launch was a success, which received excellent feedback from visitors and colleagues. in kanpur, india, defense materials and stores research and development ( dmsrde ), a unit of defense research and development organization ( drdo ), has been working in frontier area of non - matellic materials. to celebrate drdo technology day, dmsrde organised an open house for the students to show their products and technologies abilities. around 500 students, along with their teachers from different schools, came to dmsrde on this occasion to see the exhibition. the students therein saw different defense - related product, such as bullet proof jackets, coils used in the bofors gun, camouflage and stealth materials etc. dmsrde is working in very important area of material development for high temperature structural applications. it has developed capabilities to produce the polycorbosilane precursor materials which are used in production of silicon carbide based strategic products. this material in turn can also be converted to high heat resistance silicon carbide fibers for composite development which have enormous applications in defence, atomic energy, and aerospace industries. it can withstand temperature between 1, 500 \u2013 2, 000\u00b0c. these materials were displayed in the exhibition. the possible future restrictions to the supply of critical materials have been the subject of debate for several years. in response to these an international consortium has been brought together to develop new solutions to the european requirement for rare earth metals. remanence is an ambitious program designed to dramatically increase the amount of rare earth materials recovered and remanufactured from existing waste streams. the project brings together european industry and academia across the supply chain to develop the innovative technologies, business models and market information required to exploit this valuable resource reducing dependence on primary sources. the partners will develop new and innovative processes for the recovery and recycling of neodymium iron boron magnets ( ndfeb ) from a range of waste electronic and electrical equipment ( weee ). advanced sensing and mechanical separation techniques will be developed in combination with innovative processes to recover the rare earth magnets in the weee. remanence brings together europe \u2019 s leading experts in sensing, disassembly, recycling technology and materials processing in a multi - disciplinary project able to deliver significant technical advances. c - tech", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6327994895716051, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.891309"}
{"text": "the rare earth magnets in the weee. remanence brings together europe \u2019 s leading experts in sensing, disassembly, recycling technology and materials processing in a multi - disciplinary project able to deliver significant technical advances. c - tech innovation ltd will lead a consortium including university of birmingham, stena technoworld ab, acreo swedish ict ab, leitat technological centre, optisort ab, chalmers industriteknik, magneti ljubljana and kolektor magnet technology gmbh. ( mit technology review ) a new generation of engines being developed by the world \u2019 s largest jet engine maker, cfm ( a partnership between ge and snecma of france ), will allow aircraft to use about 15 percent less fuel - enough to save about $ 1 million per year per airplane and significantly reduce carbon emissions. the first of these new engine, called leap, will feature a technology that has never been used in a large - scale production jet engines before : ceramic composite materials that weigh far less than the metal alloys they \u2019 ll replace and can endure far higher temperatures. the engine will also make use of parts produced through 3d printing, a new kind of manufacturing that can produce complex shapes that would be difficult or impossible to make with conventional manufacturing techniques. these technologies could eventually be used to make more parts of the engine, leading to further advances in efficiency, says gareth richards, leap program manager for ge aviation. recent innovations in leds have improved the energy efficiency of streetlights, but, until now, their glow still wastefully radiated beyond the intended area. a team of researchers from taiwan and mexico has developed a new lighting system design that harnesses high - efficiency leds and ensures they shine only where they \u2019 re needed, sparing surrounding homes and the evening sky from unwanted illumination. the team reported their findings in the open - access journal optics express. the proposed lamp is based on a novel three - part lighting fixture. the first part contains a cluster of leds, each of which is fitted with a special lens, called a total internal reflection lens, that focuses the light so the rays are parallel to one another instead of intersecting. these lens - covered leds are mounted inside a reflecting cavity, which \u201c recycles \u201d the light and ensures that as much of it as possible is used to illuminate the target. finally, as the light leaves the lamp it passes through a diffuser or filter that cuts down on unwanted glare. the combination of collimation and filtering also allows researchers to control the beam \u2019 s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6178964955305818, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.892304"}
{"text": "possible is used to illuminate the target. finally, as the light leaves the lamp it passes through a diffuser or filter that cuts down on unwanted glare. the combination of collimation and filtering also allows researchers to control the beam \u2019 s shape : the present design yields a rectangular light pattern ideally suited for street lighting, the researchers say. in addition to cutting light pollution and glare, the new model could also save energy. a general led street light could reduce power consumption by 40 to 60 percent. the increased efficiency of the proposed design would likely save an additional 10 to 50 percent. furthermore, the module would be simple to fabricate, since it comprises just four parts, including a type of led bulb commonly used in the lighting industry. the union of theory and practice makes broadband, low - loss optical devices practical, which is why two groups of penn state engineers collaborated to design optical metamaterials that have custom applications that are easily manufactured. in the past, to control the optics of metamaterials, researchers used complicated structures including 3 - dimensional rings and spirals that are difficult if not impossible to manufacture in large numbers and small sizes at optical wavelengths. from a practical perspective, simple and manufacturable nanostructures are necessary for creating high - performance devices. \u201d we must design nanostructures that can be fabricated, \u201d says theresa s. mayer, distinguished professor of electrical engineering and co - director of penn state \u2019 s nanofabrication laboratory. designing materials that can allow a range of wavelengths to pass through while blocking other wavelengths is far more difficult than simply creating something that will transmit a single frequency. minimizing the time domain distortion of the signal over a range of wavelengths is necessary, and the material also must be low loss. the design team looked at existing fishnet structured metamaterials and applied nature - inspired optimization techniques based on genetic algorithms. they optimized the dimensions of features such as the size of the fishnet and the thicknesses of the materials. one of the transformative innovations made by the researchers was the inclusion of nanonotches in the corners of the fishnet holes, creating a pattern that could be tuned to shape the dispersion over large bandwidths. university of nebraska - lincoln materials engineers have developed a structural nanofiber that is both strong and tough, a discovery that could transform everything from airplanes and bridges to body armor and bicycles. their findings are featured on the cover of the american chemical society \u2019 s journal, acs nano. \u201c our", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6014890297060806, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.893802"}
{"text": "a structural nanofiber that is both strong and tough, a discovery that could transform everything from airplanes and bridges to body armor and bicycles. their findings are featured on the cover of the american chemical society \u2019 s journal, acs nano. \u201c our discovery adds a new material class to the very select current family of materials with demonstrated simultaneously high strength and toughness, \u201d says the team \u2019 s leader, yuris dzenis, mcbroom professor of mechanical and materials engineering and a member of unl \u2019 s nebraska center for materials and nanoscience. dzenis and colleagues developed an exceptionally thin polyacrilonitrile nanofiber, a type of synthetic polymer related to acrylic, using electrospinning. dzenis suggests that toughness comes from the nanofibers \u2019 low crystallinity. in other words, it has many areas that are structurally unorganized. these amorphous regions allow the molecular chains to slip around more, giving them the ability to absorb more energy. resistive memory cells ( reram ) are regarded as a promising solution for future generations of computer memories. they will dramatically reduce the energy consumption of modern it systems while significantly increasing their performance. unlike the building blocks of conventional hard disk drives and memories, these novel memory cells are not purely passive components but must be regarded as tiny batteries. this has been demonstrated by researchers of julich aachen research alliance. the new finding radically revises the current theory and opens up possibilities for further applications. the research group has already filed a patent application for their first idea on how to improve data readout with the aid of battery voltage. in complex experiments, the scientists from forschungszentrum julich and rwth aachen university determined the battery voltage of typical representatives of reram cells and compared them with theoretical values. this comparison revealed other properties ( such as ionic resistance ) that were previously neither known nor accessible. \u201d the demonstrated internal battery voltage of reram elements clearly violates the mathematical construct of the memristor theory. this theory must be expanded to a whole new theory \u2013 to properly describe the reram elements, \u201d says eike linn, a specialist for circuit concepts. ( berkeley national lab / youtube ) a worldwide race is on for scientists to develop ever more powerful x - ray microscopes. with ultra - high resolution x - ray optics at ultra - bright synchrotrons \u2014 such as the 120 - meter - long hard x - ray nanoprobe ( hxn ) being developed for the national", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6514483987439943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.895382"}
{"text": "powerful x - ray microscopes. with ultra - high resolution x - ray optics at ultra - bright synchrotrons \u2014 such as the 120 - meter - long hard x - ray nanoprobe ( hxn ) being developed for the national synchrotron light source ii ( nsls - ii ) at brookhaven lab \u2014 researchers will see structure and chemistry deep inside natural and engineered materials as they address some of the biggest questions in materials science, physics, chemistry, environmental sciences, and biology. unprecedented capabilities, however, bring critical technical challenges, but scientists at brookhaven lab are on the job. in this video of the 486th brookhaven lecture, yong chu illustrates unique challenges and innovative approaches for x - ray microscopy at the nanoscale. he also discusses measurement capabilities for the first science experiments at nsls - ii. chu joined the photon sciences directorate at brookhaven lab as group leader for the hxn beamline at nsls - ii in 2009. the innovative research of a montana state university student, neerja zambare, a senior from pune, india, majoring in both chemical engineering and biological engineering, was selected as one of the country \u2019 s undergraduate researchers for her poster about a bio - cement that effectively plugs cracks near wells and drilling sites. zambare exhibited her research poster, \u201c biofilm induced biomineralization in a radial flow reactor, \u201d at the council on undergraduate research \u2019 s posters on the hill exhibition april 23 - 24 in washington, d. c., one of the country \u2019 s most prestigious undergraduate research fairs. zambare was accompanied by robin gerlach, msu professor of chemical and biological engineering and zambare \u2019 s research mentor. gerlach said zambare convinced him that she would be the right person to join his lab group in the center for biofilm engineering. the group trained her and then asked her to join a project that the lab had been working on for some time \u2014 a bacterium that makes calcium carbonate and has potential applications in sealing ponds, plugging cracks emitting carbon dioxide near carbon sequestration wells as well as abandoned wells. ( arxiv ) two modifications have been made to a miniature ceramic anvil high pressure cell ( mcac ) designed for magnetic measurements at pressures up to 12. 6 gpa in a commercial superconducting quantum interference ( squid ) magnetometer. replacing the cu - be piston in the former mcac with a composite piston composed of the cu - be and ceramic cylinders reduces the background", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6326425047093445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.896359"}
{"text": "pressures up to 12. 6 gpa in a commercial superconducting quantum interference ( squid ) magnetometer. replacing the cu - be piston in the former mcac with a composite piston composed of the cu - be and ceramic cylinders reduces the background magnetization significantly smaller at low temperatures, enabling more precise magnetic measurements at low temperatures. a second modification to the mcac is the utilization of a ceramic anvil with a hollow in the center of the culet surface. high pressures up to 5 gpa were generated with the \u201c cupped ceramic anvil \u201d with the culet size of 1. 0 mm. ( gigaom ) it \u2019 s all very well talking about the evolution of wearable computing and the internet of things, but something has to power these thin and / or tiny devices. for that reason, it \u2019 s a good thing that so many ideas are popping up in the field of energy harvesting and storage. some of these ideas were on display this week at the printed electronics europe 2013 event in berlin, which took in a variety of sub - events including the energy harvesting & storage europe show. the concepts ranged from the practical to the experimental, so let \u2019 s start with the practical. finding a way to exponentially double the hydrogen atoms to create a sustainable amount of hydrogen regeneration so that a new form of energy can be harvested is the ultimate goal of researchers at the south dakota school of mines & technology. rajesh shende, phd, and jan puszynski, phd, of the department of chemical and biological engineering, have been awarded a $ 299, 975 nsf three - year grant to test high - temperature water splitting in multiple thermochemical cycles. using thermally - stabilized redox materials, particularly ferrites, already the team has documented reliable multiple - cycle results, sparking hope that sustainable hydrogen energy through the use of thermal hydro - splitting will one day be feasible, says shende. just two other us. locations, and possibly a third, are conducting similar research, according to shende. one of the aspects that makes the mines experiments unique is that the group has successfully split water molecules during multiple cycles at significantly lower temperatures than other documented research efforts. while others have demonstrated thermochemical splitting at 800 - 1, 500\u00b0c, the school of mines has documented multiple cycles at 700 - 1, 100\u00b0c, which could potentially lead to a more affordable large - scale effort. ( youtube ) scientists at johannes gutenberg university mainz and the max planck institute for polymer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6448741584055214, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.897490"}
{"text": "to produce. ( mit technology review ) buyers considering an electric car must bear in mind that using battery - powered heating and air conditioning can decrease the car \u2019 s range by a third or more. but, a heating and cooling system being developed by researchers at mit almost eliminates the drain on the battery. the researchers are working with ford on a system that they hope to test in ford \u2019 s focus ev within the next two years. the work is being funded with a $ 2. 7 million grant from the arpa - e. the researchers describe their new device as a thermal battery. it uses materials that can store large amounts of coolant in a small volume. as the coolant moves through the system, it can be used for either heating or cooling. in the system, water is pumped into a low - pressure container, evaporating and absorbing heat in the process. the water vapor is then exposed to an adsorbant \u2014 a material with microscopic pores that have an affinity for water molecules. this material pulls the vapor out of the container, keeping the pressure low so more water can be pumped in and evaporated. this evaporative cooling process can be used to cool off the passenger compartment. as the material adsorbs water molecules, heat is released ; it can be run through a radiator and dissipated into the atmosphere when the system is used for cooling, or it can be used to warm up the passenger compartment. the system requires very little electricity - just enough to run a small pump and fans to blow cool or warm air. eventually the adsorbant can \u2019 t take in any more water, but the system can be \u201c recharged \u201d by heating the adsorbant above 200\u00b0c. this causes it to release the water, which is condensed and returned to a reservoir. in honor of doe secretary chu \u2019 s last day at the department, here \u2019 s a look back at his time overseeing important investments in science, innovation, and clean energy technologies that are making america more competitive and helping us win the race for a clean energy future. for more than four years, he has provided remarkable leadership in pursuing both president obama \u2019 s nuclear security agenda as well as an all - of - the - above approach to energy that invests in clean energy, reduces our dependence on foreign oil, addresses the global climate crisis, and supports the clean energy jobs of the future. the same material that formed the first primitive transistors more than 60 years ago can be modified in a new way to advance future electronics", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6088202645780482, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.900994"}
{"text": "reduces our dependence on foreign oil, addresses the global climate crisis, and supports the clean energy jobs of the future. the same material that formed the first primitive transistors more than 60 years ago can be modified in a new way to advance future electronics, according to a new study. chemists at ohio state university have developed the technology for making a one - atom - thick sheet of germanium, and found that it conducts electrons more than ten times faster than silicon and five times faster than conventional germanium. the material \u2019 s structure is closely related to that of graphene \u2014 a much - touted two - dimensional material comprised of single layers of carbon atoms. as such, graphene shows unique properties compared to its more common multilayered counterpart, graphite. graphene has yet to be used commercially, but experts have suggested that it could one day form faster computer chips, and maybe even function as a superconductor, so many labs are working to develop it. joshua goldberger, assistant professor of chemistry at ohio state, decided to take a different direction and focus on more traditional materials. in a paper published online in acs nano, he and his colleagues describe how they were able to create a stable, single layer of germanium atoms. in this form, the crystalline material is called germanane. researchers have tried to create germanane before. this is the first time anyone has succeeded at growing sufficient quantities of it to measure the material \u2019 s properties in detail, and demonstrate that it is stable when exposed to air and water. here is what we are hearing : morgan technical ceramics, a market leader in the design and manufacture of high - quality ceramic solutions, is extending its material portfolio with the launch of a new piezoelectric material. pzt5k1 is suitable for applications in the fields of scientific instrumentation, maritime, medical, energy harvesting. and general industry. pzt5k1 is just one of a range of pzt materials supplied by the company. the new material \u2019 s high density and low porosity mean the material can be used for machining 1 - 3 composite structures in highly sensitive sonar and medical ultrasonic transducers, as well as high - performance actuators, specialist sensors, and energy harvesting devices. using an innovative new core process, morgan manufactures the material to offer optimised voltage charge coefficients. its high d33 rating improves the electrical charge generated in energy harvesting applications, while its high d31 coefficient enhances the levels of displacement in actuators.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6670629893990723, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.902576"}
{"text": "new software for x - ray fluorescence ( xrf ) systems. panalytical developed stratos, a brand new software package, for both the epsilon 3 and axios spectrometer ranges. the company will also be releasing an upgrade of the fingerprint software for the epsilon 3 range. stratos features built - in intelligence and can quickly and accurately analyze the thickness and composition of coatings, surface layers and layered structures. multi - layer samples can be analyzed with bulk standards, without the need for in - type standards that are sometimes hard to source. another significant advantage of the software is its flexibility and the ease of use provided by the \u2018 virtual analyst \u2019. this unique tool is a consultant for advanced method development and provides optimum measurement settings for analysis, which can be time - consuming for complex stack structures. stratos is able to analyze more than 16 layers, depending on their thickness and composition. it is also easily combined with panalytical \u2019 s omnian semi - quantitative software. morgan thermal ceramics announced the availability of cerox fired refractory shapes, offered in a range of material compositions, including many specifically used for the manufacture of rotating and non - rotating airplane components and automotive turbochargers. dense, hard, and chemically stable, cerox fired refractory shapes offer resistance to chemical attack from acids, slags, and gases to produce the cleaner, contaminant - free metal desired by end users in aerospace and automotive steel foundries. fired shapes manufactured from sillimanite cerox 200 are composed of 74 percent alumina and fired mullite, which are prized for their chemical attack resistance, good thermal shock, and excellent non - wetting characteristics at temperatures as high as 2, 850\u00b0f. other materials available include cerox 700 which has a high alumina content as well as versatile shape capability, making it ideal for products with complex shapes, including crucibles, tundishes, and launder systems. for complex shapes, cerox 720 which also features a high alumina content, is particularly adapted to developing shapes with thin walls, due to its fine grain and high strength. to provide clean and green energy alternatives at an affordable cost, mayur renergy solution ( a pune - & boston - based corporation ) has signed a contract with the fraunhofer institute for ceramic technologies and systems ( ikts ), germany, to develop solid oxide fuel cell products for the markets in developing countries. the main goal is the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6006412474063039, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87892c5d-135d-4306-9b11-8d245eec80aa>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.905481"}
{"text": "everyday situations ; develop strategies applicable to a wide range of problems ; verify and interpret results ; build student confidence ; identify and solve problems that are developmentally appropriate - content specific pedagogy \u2013 for example, theories necessary for implementing a sound instructional program such as accessing prior knowledge, constructing knowledge, modeling, informal reasoning, graphic organizers - addition and subtraction of whole numbers \u2013 for example, computational procedures ; relationships between addition and subtraction ; relationship between subtraction and division ; regrouping ; modeling the operations ; story problems - multiplication and division \u2013 for example, modeling the operations, interpretations for the operations ; computational procedures ; skill development ; story problems - concepts related to number theory \u2013 for example, factors, multiples, primes and composites, remainders, odd and even - rational numbers \u2013 for example, fraction and decimal equivalence ; computation ; modeling demonstrate number sense and operation sense, that is, an understanding of the foundational ideas of numbers, number properties, and operations defined on numbers. formal mathematical reasoning - order : demonstrate an understanding of order among whole numbers, fractions, and decimals - equivalence : demonstrate an understanding that a number can be represented in more than one way - numeration and place value : demonstrate an understanding of how numbers are named, place value, and order of magnitude of numbers - number properties : demonstrate an understanding of the properties of whole numbers without necessarily knowing the names of the properties - computation : perform computations ; adjust the result of a computation to fit the context of a problem ; identify numbers or information or operations needed to solve a problem - equations : solve simple equations and inequalities ; predict the outcome of changing some number or condition in a problem - estimation : estimate the result of a calculation ; determine the reasonableness of an estimate - algorithmic thinking : demonstrate an understanding of the algorithmic point of view \u2014 that is, follow a given procedure ; recognize various ways to solve a problem ; identify, complete, or analyze a procedure ; discover patterns in a procedure demonstrate an ability to use the basics of logic in a quantitative context. - logical connectives and quantifiers : interpret statements that use logical connectives ( and, or, if \u2013 then ) as well as quantifiers ( some, all, none ) - validity of arguments : use deductive reasoning to determine whether an argument ( a series of statements leading to a conclusion ) is valid or invalid - generalization : identify an appropriate generalization, an example that disproves an inappropriate generalization", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6165415833896903, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb4afe04-7af4-4584-84e4-6a3507175b1e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.946545"}
{"text": "| an extraordinary or unusual thing, person, or event ; an exceptional example or instance. | | a gadget ; dingus ; thingumbob. | | 1. | | meat from the back and sides of a pig, dried, salted, and usually smoked | | 2. | | informal bring home the bacon | | a. to achieve success | | b. to provide material support | | 3. | | informal ( brit ) save someone ' s bacon to help someone to escape from danger | | [ c12 : from old french bacon, from old high german bahho ; related to old saxon baco ; see | | 1. | | francis, baron verulam, viscount st albans. 1561 - - 1626, english philosopher, statesman, and essayist ; described the inductive method of reasoning : his works include essays ( 1625 ), the advancement of learning ( 1605 ), and novum organum ( 1620 ) | | 2. | | francis. 1909 - - 92, british painter, born in dublin, noted for his distorted, richly coloured human figures, dogs, and carcasses | | 3. | | roger.? 1214 - - 92, english franciscan monk, scholar, and scientist : stressed the importance of experiment, demonstrated that air is required for combustion, and first used lenses to correct vision. his opus majus ( 1266 ) is a compendium of all the sciences of his age | | bacon ( ba ' k\u0259n ) pronunciation key english scientist and philosopher who is noted for the wide range of his knowledge and writing on scientific topics. bacon pioneered the idea that mathematics is fundamental to science and that experimentation is essential to test scientific theories. our living language : roger bacon was something of a renaissance man before there was a renaissance. over the course of his long life, his energetic research would lead him to study everything from languages to mathematics to optics. he is most remembered for his insistence on the importance of pursuing fruitful lines of scientific research through experimentation. his writings describe countless experiments ; while the majority were probably never performed by him, the profusion alone of experimental ideas is nothing short of astounding. his own laboratory work dealt primarily with alchemy, optics, and mechanics. he was among the first to apply geometric and mathematical principles to problems in optics and the behavior of light, allowing him to make important observations on reflection and refraction. his interest in mechanics led him to describe flying machines and other devices that had not yet been invented.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6230987318834185, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f69ebb4-1335-46b2-a35d-35e8469422ee>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:51.950342"}
{"text": "aug 1, 2006 nanoetching makes leds brighter researchers in the us claim to have made a resonant cavity led ( rcled ) seven times brighter over a 130 nm bandwidth by etching circular bragg gratings into the device structure ( applied physics letters 89 033105 ). the technique could have applications in displays as well as medical imaging - in particular, say the researchers, optical coherence tomography ( oct ). \" we have demonstrated a 7. 5x enhancement of light extraction from a rcled, which in turn has an enhancement factor of 2. 7x over a conventional led, \" mark su, lead author of the paper, told optics. org. \" whereas only around 2 % of the light generated within a conventional led can be collected, we estimate that we harvested 41 % of the light generated within the led. \" a resonant cavity is a way to improve the light extraction of a regular led by placing a mirror below the active layer. however, even in this configuration, most of the emitted light is waveguided below the semiconductor surface and lost. \" we used a cavity defined by a circular bragg grating to diffract the guided waves into waves which can be extracted - resulting in the improved light extraction, \" explained su. the team, based at the national institute for standards and technology ( nist ), made an infrared - emitting led composed of gallium arsenide packed with quantum dots of indium gallium arsenide. the grating was etched by electron - beam lithography. according to the researchers, the technique is immediately applicable to infrared leds and could have applications in areas such as biomedical imaging ; in particular, oct that requires bright sources with a wide bandwidth. \" present - day broadband oct sources have many undesirable properties, such as cost, bulkiness, and problems with the shape of the spectrum they output. so there is room for improvement, \" said su. the team believes that nanophotonic structures could also benefit high performance leds for applications such as projectors and displays. \" for the visible part of the spectrum, bright leds incorporating design features such as circular bragg gratings could enable energy - efficient projection tvs, or even a new generation of miniature portable projectors, \" said su. su adds that the present - day visible sources that could be replaced by led technology are devices like mercury arc lamps and halogen bulbs, which are power - hungry, hot, bulky, burn out and are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6255171161134475, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:35bd716e-b056-4b30-8d42-dddae698610f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:52.922286"}
{"text": "scan is a collective algorithm that performs partial reductions on data provided by each process in the communicator. scan combines the arrays stored by each process into partial results delivered to each process. the arrays are combined in a user - defined way, specified via a delegate that will be applied elementwise to the values in each arrays. if array ( 0 ), array ( 1 ),..., array ( n - 1 ) are the arrays provided by the n processes in the communicator, the resulting array for the process with rank p will be array ( 0 ) op array ( 1 ) op... op array ( p ). the processor with rank n - 1 will receive the same result as if one had performed a reduce < ( of < ( t > ) > ) ( array < t > ( ), reductionoperation < ( of < ( t > ) > ), int32, array < t > ( ) % ) operation with root n - 1. scan is sometimes called an \" inclusive \" scan, because the result returned to each process includes the contribution of that process. for an \" exclusive \" scan ( that does not include the contribution of the calling process in its result ), use exclusivescan < ( of < ( t > ) > ) ( array < t > ( ), reductionoperation < ( of < ( t > ) > ), array < t > ( ) % ). namespace : mpi assembly : mpi ( in mpi. dll ) version : 188. 8. 131. 52 ( 184. 108. 40. 206 ) public void scan < t > ( t invalues, reductionoperation < t > op, ref t outvalues ) | visual basic ( declaration ) | public sub scan ( of t ) ( _ invalues as t ( ), _ op as reductionoperation ( of t ), _ byref outvalues as t ( ) _ ) public : generic < typename t > void scan ( array < t > ^ invalues, reductionoperation < t > ^ op, array < t > ^ % outvalues ) - type : array < the array contributed by the calling process. the arrays provided by each process must have the same length. - type : mpi.. : :. reductionoperation < ( of < ( > ) > ) operation used to combine two values from different processes. the array array ( 0 ) op array ( 1 ) op... op", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6179165969085422, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ee43273a-eb5a-4035-ad9d-6fde737b0523>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.057353"}
{"text": "ibm researchers have discovered a way to use graphite effectively in building nanoelectonic circuits vastly smaller than those in silicon - based computer chips. ibm researchers today announced a discovery that combats one of the industry ' s most perplexing problems in using graphite - - the same material found inside pencils - - as a material for building nanoelectonic circuits vastly smaller than those found in today ' s silicon based computer chips. for the first time anywhere, ibm scientists have found a way to suppress unwanted interference of electrical signals created when shrinking graphene, a two - dimensional, single - atomic layer thick form of graphite, to dimensions just a few atoms long. scientists around the world are exploring the use of graphene as a much smaller replacement for today ' s silicon transistors. graphene is a two - dimensional honeycomb lattice of carbon atoms, similar to atomic - scale chicken - wire, which has attracted strong scientific and technological interest because it exhibits promising electrical properties and could be used in transistors and circuits at scales vastly smaller than components inside of today ' s tiniest computer chips. one problem in using these nano - devices is the inverse relationship between the size of the device and the amount of uncontrolled electrical noise that is generated : as they are made smaller and smaller, the noise - - electrical charges that bounce around the material causing all sorts of interference that impede their usefulness - - grows larger and larger. this trend is known as hooge ' s rule, and occurs in traditional silicon based devices as well as in graphene nano - ribbons and carbon nanotube based devices. \" the effect of noise from hooge ' s rule is exaggerated at the nanoscale because the dimensions are approaching the nearly smallest limits, down to only a handful of atoms, and the noise that is created can overwhelm the electrical signal that needs to be achieved to be useful, \" said ibm researcher dr. phaedon avouris, who leads ibm ' s exploration into carbon nanotubes and graphene. \" to quote the famous physicist rolf landauer, at the nanoscale ' the noise is your signal ' ; in other words, you cannot produce any useful electronic device at the nanoscale if the noise is comparable to the signal you are trying to switch on and off. \" now, ibm scientists have found that the noise in graphene - based semiconductor devices can, in fact, be suppressed and report the results today in the journal nano letters. in their experiments, the ibm researchers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6616912895075051, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e6a0c9d0-1ae2-4fc4-b023-9e81c3683c03>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.146229"}
{"text": "are trying to switch on and off. \" now, ibm scientists have found that the noise in graphene - based semiconductor devices can, in fact, be suppressed and report the results today in the journal nano letters. in their experiments, the ibm researchers first used a single layer, or sheet, of graphene to build a transistor and noted that the device does in fact follow hooge ' s rule : as they are made smaller and smaller, there is an increase in the noise that is created. two layers are better than one however, when the ibm researchers built the same device with two sheets of graphene instead of one - - one stacked on top of the other - - they noted that the noise is suppressed, and is weak enough that these so - called bilayer graphene ribbons could prove useful for building future semiconductor devices for use in sensors, communications devices, computing systems and more. the noise is inhibited because of the strong electronic coupling between the two graphene layers that counteracts the influence of the noise sources : the system acts as a noise insulator. while further detailed analysis and studies are required to better understand these phenomena, the findings provide exciting opportunities for graphene bilayers in a variety of applications. the report on this work, entitled \" strong suppression of electrical noise in bilayer graphene nanoribbons \" by yu - ming lin and phaedon avouris of ibm ' s t. j. watson research center in yorktown heights, n. y. is available online at the journal nano letters : pubs. acs. org / cgi - bin / abstract. cgi / nalefd / asap / abs / nl080241l. html explore further : scientists develop cheaper, more efficient fuel cells", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6700951201709049, "token_count": 359, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e6a0c9d0-1ae2-4fc4-b023-9e81c3683c03>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.146928"}
{"text": "\" everything flows. everything is movement. \" from the makers of dimensions comes a great free online movie exploring dynamical systems, the butterfly effect and chaos theory by means of stunning visuals accompanied by a beautiful musical score. the dynamics of the weather, the three - body problem, smale ' s horseshoe \u2014 it ' s all there, including cute lego athletes whizzing around a lorenz attractor. \" the film is for everybody, \" says the mathematician etienne ghys, one of its creators. \" it is split into nine chapters. the level [ of the mathematics ] continuously increases from chapter one to chapter nine and, in principle, one should not be frustrated if one does not watch the film until the very end. \" so whatever your level of maths there is something in it for you. the field of dynamical systems was created by henri poincare some 125 years ago. \" its purpose is to understand the motion of mechanical systems, like celestial bodies for instance, without solving any equations, \" says ghys. \" the trick is to use pictures to prove theorems : this is just what is needed for a movie. \" poincare was indeed something of a pioneer in the use of pictures. \" during the nineteenth century, especially in france, there was a period in maths during which pictures were considered a taboo, \" says ghys. \" they were supposed to be evil : the origin of mistakes. under the influence of mathematicians like poincare mathematics, or at least some parts of maths, has become more visual and movies are indeed a wonderful tool to explain things. one picture is worth a thousand words! \" so just imagine how many words a whole movie can replace! watch chaos : a mathematical adventure.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6012060035077653, "token_count": 356, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fe1a7f3e-0a1f-41c8-990d-66aaa208957b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.148658"}
{"text": "8. 1 irreducible ( minimal ) realizations the internal structure of a system may allow some of the integrators ( or delay elements ) to be shared by several input - output pairs and still result in the same transfer matrix. the system that realizes the maximum possible degree of sharing ( and, consequently, the smallest possible dimension of the associated state space ) is called the irreducible ( or minimal ) realization ( see, e. g., brogan ( 1991 ), section 12. 4 ). the function minimalrealization tries to find such a realization. finding the irreducible ( minimal ) realization. the input system for minimalrealization can be in either state - space or transfer function form ; the resultant system is always a state - space one. for siso transfer function systems, minimalrealization constructs a state - space realization after an attempt to cancel common pole - zero pairs ( the underlying function, polezerocancel, can also be accessed directly, see section 8. 6 ). otherwise, minimalrealization constructs a state - space realization first and then uses the functions controllablesubsystem and observablesubsystem consecutively to select first the controllable and then the observable subspaces. the result is therefore a subsystem that is both completely observable and controllable. see section 8. 2 for more on the definitions of the controllable and observable subspaces. in contrast, dominantsubsystem eliminates weakly controllable and observable modes ( see section 8. 5 ). selecting controllable and observable subspaces. load the application. consider a third - order state - space system with two inputs and two outputs. the first mode is uncontrollable, and the second one is unobservable. these modes, then, have no effect on the input - output relations and so can be dropped without changing the transfer function matrix. we can verify that this system is not controllable. neither is it observable. this selects the controllable subspace. this selects the observable subspace. by selecting the observable subspace of the controllable subspace, we arrive at a minimal realization. the same result can be obtained directly. the minimal realization is both controllable and observable. the method that controllablesubsystem and observablesubsystem use to reduce the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6474325881377461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:193cb023-45fe-4c9d-b7ce-41564b1d8b2a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.261023"}
{"text": "may mean you have knowledge, but knowledge hardly depends on a degree. fallacy of composition : the idea that a property shared by a number of individual items, is also shared by a collection of those items ; or that a property of the parts of an object, must also be a property of the whole thing. \" this new truck is made entirely of lightweight aluminum components, and is therefore very lightweight. \" in fact, a truck is composed of so many \u201c lightweight \u201d parts, it is bound to be far from lightweight itself! \" a ton of feathers should weigh less than a ton of lead! \" no : in fact, they weigh the same - a ton. hope you didn ' t fall for that one! \" since neurons are either excitatory or inhibitory, the brain itself must have excitatory or inhibitory states. \" a variation of composition is the genetic fallacy : a conclusion about the goodness or badness of something on the basis of the goodness or badness of the thing \u2019 s origin. ( not actually ad hominem - - see below - - but often listed there ) \" the medicine made from that plant must be poisonous, because that plant is poisonous. \" \" the humanitarian work we do may well come out of our need to look good in front of our fellow man. so humanitarian work is basically egotistical! \" the opposite of the fallacy of composition is the fallacy of division : assuming that a property of some thing must apply to its parts ; or that a property of a collection of items is shared by each item. \u201c humans are conscious and are made of cells ; therefore, each cell has consciousness \u201d \" you are studying at a rich college. therefore you must be rich. \" \" since the team could solve the problem so easily, i assume that each member of the team could do it just as well alone. \" and a fallacy that totally confuses parts and wholes : the fallacy of the undistributed middle : suggesting that things are in some way similar, but not actually specifing how. a is a kind of c, b is a kind of c, therefore, a is b \" cats are a form of animal based on carbon chemistry, dogs are a form of animal based on carbon chemistry, so aren ' t dogs and cats basically identical? \" \u201c they \u2019 re both students, so i can expect the same from both. \u201d \" since they are both schizophrenics, they should both have the same reaction to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6141258253140157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6ca363c7-39ae-4b94-b556-f1b6ae2bb902>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.667023"}
{"text": "describes a direction, not a measurable entity. \u201c does anything really exist? \u201d \" how can we experience the collective unconscious directly? \" a really tricky version of missing the point is the appeal to logic ( argumentum ad logicam ) : this is the \" fallacy fallacy \" of arguing that a proposition is false because it has been presented as the conclusion of a fallacious argument. remember that fallacious arguments can arrive at true conclusions. yes it does, even though the math is wrong. very common are half truths ( suppressed evidence ) : an statement usually intended to deceive that omits some of the facts necessary for an accurate description. and one of the worst versions of missing the point is false an analogy or metaphor illustrates or elaborates ; it doesn ' t prove \" the american indian had to make way for western civilization ; after you can ' t make an omelette without breaking a few eggs. \" are the lives and cultures of millions comparable to eggs? what does making omelettes have to do with history and morality? \" since the mind is essentially a wet computer, our task is to figure out how we can best program it! \" there are many fallacies that involve the misuse of words. very common is special pleading : here, we use a double - standard of words. \" the ruthless tactics of the enemy, his fanatical, suicidal attacks have been foiled by the stern measures of our commanders and the self - sacrifice of our troops. \" are ruthless tactics different stern measures? fanatical, suicidal attacks from devoted self - sacrifice? journalists do this all the time! \" ellis \u2019 s therapy is authoritarian and aggressive! \" \" rogers \u2019 s therapy is laissez faire, even lazy! \" this is not far from the fallacy of equivocation : use of ambiguous words. a key word is used with two or more different meanings in the same argument. shifting the meaning of the words. \" what could be more affordable than free software? but to make sure that it remains free, that users can do what they like with it, we must place a license on it to make sure that will always be freely redistributable. \" one way to avoid this fallacy is to choose your terminology carefully before beginning the argument, and avoid words like \" free \" which have many meanings. the \" no true scotsman... \" fallacy : suppose i assert no scotsman puts sugar on his porridge. you counter this by pointing that your friend angus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6113672648487313, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6ca363c7-39ae-4b94-b556-f1b6ae2bb902>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.674383"}
{"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( n ) front, front end, forepart ( the side that is forward or prominent ) - s : ( n ) battlefront, front, front line ( the line along which opposing armies face each other ) - s : ( n ) front ( the outward appearance of a person ) \" he put up a bold front \" - s : ( n ) front ( the side that is seen or that goes first ) - s : ( n ) front man, front, figurehead, nominal head, straw man, strawman ( a person used as a cover for some questionable activity ) - s : ( n ) front ( a sphere of activity involving effort ) \" the japanese were active last week on the diplomatic front \" ; \" they advertise on many different fronts \" - s : ( n ) front ( ( meteorology ) the atmospheric phenomenon created at the boundary between two different air masses ) - s : ( n ) presence, front ( the immediate proximity of someone or something ) \" she blushed in his presence \" ; \" he sensed the presence of danger \" ; \" he was well behaved in front of company \" - s : ( n ) front ( the part of something that is nearest to the normal viewer ) \" he walked to the front of the stage \" - s : ( n ) movement, social movement, front ( a group of people with a common ideology who try together to achieve certain general goals ) \" he was a charter member of the movement \" ; \" politicians have to respect a mass movement \" ; \" he led the national liberation front \" - s : ( v ) front, look, face ( be oriented in a certain direction, often with respect to another reference point ; be opposite to ) \" the house looks north \" ; \" my backyard look onto the pond \" ; \" the building faces the park \" - s : ( v ) front, breast ( confront bodily ) \" breast the storm \" - s : ( adj ) front ( relating to or located in the front ) \" the front lines \" ; \" the front porch \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6207999411705438, "token_count": 459, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2af7eec7-bcef-4fa2-acb1-881667e33891>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:53.723983"}
{"text": "lori matassa and max domeika are the authors of break away with intel atom processors : a guide to architecture migration good software design seeks a balance between simplicity and efficiency. performance of the application is an aspect of software design ; however correctness and stability are typically prerequisite to extensive performance tuning efforts. a typical development cycle is depicted in figure 1 and consists of four phases : design, implementation, debugging, and tuning. the development cycle is iterative and concludes when performance and stability requirements are met. figure 1 further depicts a more detailed look inside of the tuning phase, which consists of single processor core optimization, multi - core processor optimization, and power optimization. one key fact to highlight about the optimization process is that changes made during this phase can require another round of design, implementation, and debug. it is hoped that a candidate optimization would require minimal changes, but there are no guarantees. each proposed change required as a result of a possible optimization should be evaluated in terms of stability risk, implementation effort, and performance benefit. similarly, the tune step is also iterative with the goal of reaching a satisfactory equilibrium between single core, multi - core, and power performance. the components of the tune step are summarized as follows : - single processor core tuning. optimization of the application assuming execution on one intel atom processor core. this step focuses on increasing performance, which is typically the reduction of execution time. - multi - core tuning. optimization of the application taking advantage of parallel technology including intel hyper - threading technology and multiple processor cores. this step focuses on increasing performance, which is typically the reduction of execution time. - power tuning. optimization of the application focusing on power utilization. this step focuses on reducing the amount of power used in accomplishing the same amount of work. single processor core tuning single processor core tuning focuses on improving the behavior of the application executing on one physical intel atom processor core. intel hyper - threading technology is not considered during this phase ; it enables one physical processor core to appear as two cores and introduces issues more related to multi - core processing. this tuning step isolates the behavior of the application from more complicated interactions with other threads or processes on the system. this step is not entirely focused on what traditionally is called serial tuning because parallelism in the form of vector processing or acceleration technology can be considered. the foundation of performance tuning is built upon complementary assertions that of the pareto principle and amdahl ' s law. the pareto principle, colloquially known as the 80 / 20 rule, states", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6159136450024975, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:348807d2-c785-4271-8c9b-6dda5b3ae3c4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:54.963096"}
{"text": "of vector processing or acceleration technology can be considered. the foundation of performance tuning is built upon complementary assertions that of the pareto principle and amdahl ' s law. the pareto principle, colloquially known as the 80 / 20 rule, states that 80 percent of the time spent in an application is in 20 percent of the code. this observation helps prioritize optimization efforts to the areas of highest impact, namely the most frequently executed portions of the code. amdahl ' s law provides guidance on the limits of optimization. for example, if your optimization can only be applied to 75 percent of the application, the maximum theoretical speedup is 4 times. single processor core tuning is itself comprised of multiple steps, which are characterized as first gaining an understanding of the application and then tuning based upon general performance analysis and tuning and then analysis and tuning specific to the intel atom processor. the single processor core tuning process is summarized by the following steps : - benchmark. develop a benchmark that represents typical application usage. - profile. analyze and understand the architecture of the application. - compiler optimization. use aggressive optimizations if possible. - general microarchitecture tuning. tune based upon insight from general performance analysis statistics. these statistics, such as clock cycles per instruction retired, are generally accepted performance analysis statistics that can be employed regardless of the underlying architecture. - intel atom processor tuning. tune based on insight about known processor \" glass jaws. \" these include statistics and techniques to isolate performance issues specific to the intel atom processor. multi - core processor tuning the focus of multi - core processor tuning is on the effective use of parallelism that takes advantage of more than one processor core. this step pertains to both intel hyper - threading technology and true multi - core processing. there are some issues specific to each ; where appropriate these differences are highlighted. second, at the application level, two techniques allow you to take advantage of multiple processor cores, multitasking and multithreading. multitasking is the execution of multiple operating system processes on a system. in the context of one application, multitasking requires the division of work between distinct processes and special effort is required to share data between processes. multithreading is the execution of multiple threads and by default assumes memory is shared, which introduces its own set of concerns. this article limits itself to discussion of multithreading because multitasking is a more mature technology and one where the operating system governs much of the policy of execution. multithreading in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6309708419612292, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:348807d2-c785-4271-8c9b-6dda5b3ae3c4>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:54.964236"}
{"text": "plug load \" power. a measure of power drawn from an outlet as the embedded system executes. plug load power is typically measured in watts. - battery power draw. a estimate of power drawn from a battery as the embedded system executes. typically, battery power draw is stated in watts and is based upon estimates from acpi. your project requirements will guide which of these power measurements to employ and what goals will be set with regard to them. the intel atom processor enables a number of power states, which are classified into c - states and p - states. c - states are different levels of processor activity and range from c0, where the processor is fully active down to c6 where the processor is completely idle and many portions of the processor are powered down. p - states, known as performance states, are different levels of processor frequency and voltage. to determine if optimizations improve power utilization, a tool is required to measure power utilization. there are two categories of tools to measure power on an embedded system. the first category provides a direct measurement and employs physical probes to measure the amount of power used. these probes could be as simple as a plug load power probe between the device and the electrical outlet. they could require more extensive probes placed on the system board monitoring various power rails such as those required to execute the eembc energybench benchmark. the second category, power state profiling tools, employs an indirect method of measuring power utilization. instead of directly measuring power, this class of tool measures and reports on the amount of time spent in different power states. the objective when using these tools is to understand what activities are causing the processor to enter c0 and to minimize them. the goal of power tuning is two - fold : - minimize time in active state. - maximize time in inactive state. on the surface it may seem like these goals are redundant ; however in practice both are required. power is expended in transitioning into and out of idle modes. a processor that is repeatedly waking up and then going back to sleep may consume more power than a processor that has longer periods in an active state. in general, the end result is for the system to be in idle mode 90 percent of the time. of course, this end result depends on the specific workload and application. techniques to meet this goal follow one of two tuning strategies, which are summarized as follows : - race to idle. the tasks are executed as quickly as possible to enable the system to idle. this approach typically entails aggressive performance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6031655717516411, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:348807d2-c785-4271-8c9b-6dda5b3ae3c4>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:54.972647"}
{"text": "these are poly - aromatic compounds, insoluble in n - heptane, with a number of carbon atoms greater than 50. the asphalthene content of a crude may be the cause of deposits in inter - changers and / or lines. in fact, the mix of a crude having a high asphalthene content with a paraffinic crude can displace the balance of the asphalthenes, precipitating them. a high asphalthene content ensures that the vacuum pitch will be suitable for producing asphalt. astm d86 distillation is a test that measures the volatility of gasoline, kerosene and diesel. basic sediment and water ( bsw ) the bsw relates to the content of free water ( not dissolved ) and sediments ( mud, sand ) in the crude. it is important that its reading is low in order to avoid dirtiness and difficulties during the crude processing, in which the steam produced by the free water can damage the oven. it is reported as a percentage in volume over the crude. this is the weight of the residue remaining after the combustion of a fuel sample. it represents the facility of a heavy fuel to produce particles during combustion. this is the measurement of the mass of a volume. it is expressed in kilograms per liter, or grams per cubic centimeter. density depends on the temperature as this affects the volume of the substances. temperature at which a liquid stops flowing when cooled, through the precipitation of crystals of solid paraffin. the draining temperature is very important as, in the unloading of paraffinic crudes using sea terminals with underwater pipelines of a certain length, the temperature of the crude can fall below the draining point, creating deposits of wax or solid paraffin in the pipelines, thus obstructing the flow. this is the minimum temperature at which the vapors of a product flash or detonate momentarily when a flame is applied in controlled conditions. it represents the maximum temperature at which a product can be stored or transported in safe conditions. this is the temperature at which the crystals formed during the cooling of a product sample disappear completely when the temperature rises in a controlled way the metals content of a crude, vanadium and nickel, gives us an indication of their content in the heaviest products obtained in the refining. this is important because, for example, the metals in gas oil in vacuum are poison for the catalytic and hydro - cracking catalysts. a high vanadium content or metals in the combustible oil may cause oven and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6126158369348791, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:af7864c1-8a24-425f-8b7a-b3fc220bcc94>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:55.110579"}
{"text": "fundamentals of thermal - fluid sciences rrp us $ 123 us $ 69. 97 save us $ 53. 03 ( 43 % ) free shipping worldwide ships from uk supplier | format : | | paperback, 1152 pages, international studen edition | | published in : | | united states, 01 january 2012 | the fourth edition in si units of \" fundamentals of thermal - fluid sciences \" presents a balanced coverage of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer packaged in a manner suitable for use in introductory thermal sciences courses. by emphasizing the physics and underlying physical phenomena involved, the text gives students practical examples that allow development of an understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of thermal sciences. all the popular features of the previous edition are retained in this edition while new ones are added. this edition features : a new chapter on power and refrigeration cycles ; the new chapter 9 exposes students to the foundations of power generation and refrigeration in a well - ordered and compact manner. an early introduction to the first law of thermodynamics ( chapter 3 ) : this chapter establishes a general understanding of energy, mechanisms of energy transfer, and the concept of energy balance, thermo - economics, and conversion efficiency. learning objectives : each chapter begins with an overview of the material to be covered and chapter - specific learning objectives to introduce the material and to set goals. developing physical intuition : a special effort is made to help students develop an intuitive feel for underlying physical mechanisms of natural phenomena and to gain a mastery of solving practical problems that an engineer is likely to face in the real world. new problems : a large number of problems in the text are modified and many problems are replaced by new ones. some of the solved examples are also replaced by new ones. upgraded artwork : much of the line artwork in the text is upgraded to figures that appear more three - dimensional and realistic. media resources : limited academic version of ees with selected text solutions packaged with the text on the student dvd. the online learning center offers online resources for instructors including powerpoint [ registered ] lecture slides, and complete solutions to homework problems. mcgraw - hill ' s complete online solutions manual organization system allows instructors to streamline the creation of assignments, quizzes, and tests by using problems and solutions from the textbook, as well as their own custom material. table of contents chapter 1 introduction and overview part i thermodynamics chapter 2 basic concepts of thermodynamics chapter 3 energy, energy transfer & general energy analysis chapter 4", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6290955941906189, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5d4540c5-5ab4-449f-ac34-50fc1d0a6217>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:55.239400"}
{"text": "- c14n # \" / >, identifies the canonicalization algorithm that is used to create a canonicalized form of the information being signed - - in this case, the digest. this step is needed because of the nature of xml documents and the programming tools that work with them. xml documents, in some cases, can have slight textual differences, yet be essentially the same logical document. small variations in the way comments are represented or in the way an xml parser handles line delimiters when serializing / deserializing an xml data structure can create slightly different binary representations of the same content. if the algorithm that verifies the digital signature were to be run against a slightly different serialized version of the data, the result could be a fail when indeed it should be a pass. to avoid this problem, the document is first transformed into its canonicalized form through the use of a canonicalization algorithm. this algorithm, an implementation of the w3c exclusive xml canonicalization version 1. 0 specification ( see resources ), a w3c recommendation, transforms the document into its basic canonicalized form. this allows us to get a consistent binary representation that can be correctly compared and thus yield the correct result. < signaturemethod algorithm = \" http : / / www. w3. org / 2000 / 09 / xmldsig # rsa - sha1 \" / >, indicates the signature method algorithm. this is the algorithm that is used to convert the output of the canonicalization algorithm into the signature value. our signature algorithm is a combination of a key dependent algorithm ( rsa ) and a hash algorithm ( sha1 ). this algorithm is an implementation of the rsassa - pkcs1 - v1 _ 5 specification described in w3c rfc 2437 ( see resources ). < reference uri = \" # sign _ content _ 1043176028580 \" >, indicates the reference element. the optional uri attribute of reference identifies the data object that was signed. the reference block includes the algorithm that is used to compute the digest, the digest value that was computed, and the final transform that is performed prior to computing the digest value. lines 8 - 10, < transforms > < transform algorithm = \" http : / / www. w3. org / 2001 / 10 / xml - exc - c14n # \" / > < / transforms >, indicate the transformation algorithm, while lines 11 and 12 specify the digest algorithm and the computed digest value, in our application, the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.600345322110579, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b07593f4-40b1-4064-9161-240e36eeeb13>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:55.701094"}
{"text": "february 18, 2011, 12 : 38 pm \u2014 yale university scientists have built what they call the first anti - laser, a device that can cancel out beams of light generated by a laser. such a device could be an integral element in optical computers, a long promised successor to today ' s computers that would use light instead of electrons to process information. while scientists have long known of different ways to absorb light, this work is unique in that can absorb light of a particular wavelength, the researchers claim. \" after some research, we found that several physicists had hinted at the concept in books and scientific papers, but no one had ever developed the idea, \" said yale university physicist a. douglas stone, who along with fellow researcher hui cao led a team of researchers to build the anti - laser. the device was based on the theoretical work stone published last summer. a summary of their work appears in the feb. 18 issue of science. lasers, short for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, generate coherent light, which is to say a stream of light photons that all have the same frequency, amplitude and wave pattern. the researchers built what they call a coherent perfect absorber ( cpa ), a silicon wafer that traps and dissipates incoming coherent light of a predefined wavelength. in other words, just as a laser generates coherent light, the cpa absorbs coherent light. the light ' s energy is dissipated as heat. such an anti - laser switch could help solve one of the toughest challenges in building an optical computer, namely the management and manipulation of the light used to encode information. for instance, a cpa could be used in an optical switch, one that would absorb light of a particular wavelength while letting light with other wavelengths pass. it could also be used to detect incoming light, or as a waveguide to direct beams of light along certain routes. that could lead to optical switches replacing transistors in future computers. optical computers could potentially be much more powerful than today ' s computers, given that the size of components could be shrunk beyond the limits of today ' s electron - based technologies. as with any prototype, the cpa has some limitations, which the researchers feel can be overcome with more work. the current cpa absorbs 99. 4 of all light it receives, but they would like to get that number up to 99. 999 percent. also the current cpa is one centimeter wide, which they say can be shrunk to a much", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6804944436611273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:89341d6c-4890-49de-8a69-28cb0f44182d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:55.823989"}
{"text": "that definition is trying to say. thus, it seems likely that something else is going on to cause so much difficulty, something to do with what the definition means. but what, exactly? let ' s start with the intuitive idea of continuity that we started out with, the idea of a function that has no gaps, interruptions, or sudden changes. this is essentially the conception newton and leibniz worked with. so too did euler, who wrote of \" a curve described by freely leading the hand. \" notice that this conception of continuity is fundamentally dynamic. either we think of the curve as being drawn in a continuous ( sic ) fashion, or else we view the curve as already drawn and imagine what it is like to travel along it. this means that our mental conception has the following features : 1. the continuous function is formed by motion, which takes place over time. aspects of this dynamic view are still present when we start to develop a more formal definition : we speak about the values f ( x ) approaching the value f ( a ) as x approaches a. the mental picture here is one of preserving closeness near a point. 2. the function has directionality. 3. the continuity arises from the motion. 4. the motion results in a static line with no gaps or jumps. 5. the static line has no directionality. notice that the formal definition of a limit implicitly assumes that the real line is continuous ( i. e., gapless, or a continuum ). for, if it were not, then talk about x approaching a would not capture the conception we need. in this conception, a line or a continuum is a fundamental object in its own right. points are simply locations on lines. when we formulate the final cauchy - weierstrass definition, however, by making precise the notion of a limit, we abandon the dynamic view, based on the idea of a gapless real continuum, and replace it by an entirely static conception that speaks about the existence of real numbers having certain properties. the conception of a line that underlies this definition is that a line is a set of points. the points are now the fundamental objects, not the line. this, of course, is a highly abstract conception of a line that was only introduced in the late nineteenth century, and then only in response to difficulties encountered dealing with some pathological examples of functions. when you think about it, that ' s quite a major shift in conceptual model, from the highly natural and intuitive idea of motion (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6394712900695535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e2eb610e-c438-47b2-8e1c-169ba4f55805>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:55.989457"}
{"text": "in the late nineteenth century, and then only in response to difficulties encountered dealing with some pathological examples of functions. when you think about it, that ' s quite a major shift in conceptual model, from the highly natural and intuitive idea of motion ( in time ) along a continuum to a contrived statement about the existence of numbers, based on the highly artificial view of a line as being a set of points. when we ( i. e., mathematics instructors ) introduce our students to the \" formal \" definition of continuity, we are not, as we claim, making a loose, intuitive notion more formal and rigorous. rather, we are changing the conception of continuity in almost every respect. no wonder our students don ' t see how the formal definition captures their intuitions. it doesn ' t. it attempts to replace their intuitive picture with something quite different. perhaps our students would have less trouble trying to understand the cauchy - weierstrass definition if we told them in advance that it was not a formalization of their intuitive conception - - that the mathematician ' s formal notion of a continuous function is in fact something quite different from the intuitive picture. indeed, that might help. but if we are getting into the business of open disclosure, we had better go the whole way and point out that the new definition does not explicitly capture continuity at all. that famous - - indeed, infamous - - epsilon - delta statement that causes everyone so much trouble does not eliminate ( all ) the vagueness inherent in the intuitive notion of continuity. indeed, it doesn ' t address continuity at all. rather, it simply formalizes the notion of \" correspondingly \" in the relation \" correspondingly close. \" in fact, the cauchy - weierstrass definition only manages to provide a definition of continuity of a function by assuming continuity of the real line! it is perhaps worth mentioning, if only because some students may have come to terms with the idea that a line is a set of points, that in terms of that conception of a line - - which is not something that someone or something can move along - - the original, intuitive idea of continuity reduces simply to gaplessness. in short, however you approach it, the step from the intuitive notion of continuity to the formal, cauchy - weierstrass definition, involves a huge mental discontinuity.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6196180308888077, "token_count": 480, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e2eb610e-c438-47b2-8e1c-169ba4f55805>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:55.990355"}
{"text": "graphene membranes may lead to enhanced natural gas production, less co2 pollution, says cu study engineering faculty and students at the university of colorado boulder have produced the first experimental results showing that atomically thin graphene membranes with tiny pores can effectively and efficiently separate gas molecules through size - selective sieving. the findings are a significant step toward the realization of more energy - efficient membranes for natural gas production and for reducing carbon dioxide emissions from power plant exhaust pipes. mechanical engineering professors scott bunch and john pellegrino co - authored a paper in nature nanotechnology with graduate students steven koenig and luda wang detailing the experiments. the paper was published oct. 7 in the journal \u2019 s online edition. the research team introduced nanoscale pores into graphene sheets through ultraviolet light - induced oxidative \u201c etching, \u201d and then measured the permeability of various gases across the porous graphene membranes. experiments were done with a range of gases including hydrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, methane and sulphur hexaflouride - - which range in size from 0. 29 to 0. 49 nanometers - - to demonstrate the potential for separation based on molecular size. one nanometer is one billionth of a meter. \u201c these atomically thin, porous graphene membranes represent a new class of ideal molecular sieves, where gas transport occurs through pores which have a thickness and diameter on the atomic scale, \u201d said bunch. graphene, a single layer of graphite, represents the first truly two - dimensional atomic crystal. it consists of a single layer of carbon atoms chemically bonded in a hexagonal \u201c chicken wire \u201d lattice - - a unique atomic structure that gives it remarkable electrical, mechanical and thermal properties. \u201c the mechanical properties of this wonder material fascinate our group the most, \u201d bunch said. \u201c it is the thinnest and strongest material in the world, as well as being impermeable to all standard gases. \u201d those characteristics make graphene an ideal material for creating a separation membrane because it is durable and yet doesn \u2019 t require a lot of energy to push molecules through it, he said. other technical challenges will need to be overcome before the technology can be fully realized. for example, creating large enough sheets of graphene to perform separations on an industrial scale, and developing a process for producing precisely defined nanopores of the required sizes are areas that need further development. the cu - boulder experiments were done on a relatively small scale", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6473464141938119, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3b25753a-7497-4795-9e82-d31a0a8014b9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T22:40:56.228565"}