| { |
| "metadata": { |
| "version": "1.0", |
| "created": "2025-12-16", |
| "description": "Comprehensive dataset of world language families and evolution" |
| }, |
| "proto_world": { |
| "note": "Hypothetical common ancestor - not scientifically established", |
| "estimated_date": "50000-100000 BCE", |
| "status": "hypothetical" |
| }, |
| "language_families": [ |
| { |
| "id": "japonic", |
| "name": "Japonic", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Japonic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 500, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 700, |
| 300 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "medium", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Korean Peninsula", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 37.0, |
| 127.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [ |
| "Southern China" |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 128000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 12, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Japan" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Old Japanese", |
| "date_bce": -700, |
| "writing_system": "Man'y\u014dgana" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "japanese", |
| "name": "Japanese" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "ryukyuan", |
| "name": "Ryukyuan" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Japonic-Koreanic", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "korean" |
| ], |
| "status": "controversial", |
| "evidence_level": "moderate" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "mongolic", |
| "name": "Mongolic", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Mongolic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": -750, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| -500, |
| -1000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "medium", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Eastern Mongolia", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 48.0, |
| 115.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 6000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 14, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "East Asia", |
| "Central Asia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Middle Mongol", |
| "date_bce": -1200, |
| "writing_system": "Mongolian script" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "eastern-mongolic", |
| "name": "Eastern Mongolic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "western-mongolic", |
| "name": "Western Mongolic" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Altaic", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "turkic", |
| "tungusic", |
| "koreanic", |
| "japonic" |
| ], |
| "status": "rejected", |
| "evidence_level": "weak" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "tungusic", |
| "name": "Tungusic", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Tungusic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 0, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 500, |
| -500 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Manchuria", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 45.0, |
| 125.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 100000, |
| "number_of_languages": 12, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Siberia", |
| "Manchuria" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Jurchen", |
| "date_bce": -1119, |
| "writing_system": "Jurchen script" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "northern-tungusic", |
| "name": "Northern Tungusic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "southern-tungusic", |
| "name": "Southern Tungusic" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Altaic", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "turkic", |
| "mongolic", |
| "koreanic", |
| "japonic" |
| ], |
| "status": "rejected", |
| "evidence_level": "weak" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kartvelian", |
| "name": "Kartvelian", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Kartvelian", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 2500, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 3000, |
| 2000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "medium", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "South Caucasus", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 42.0, |
| 44.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 5000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 4, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Georgia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Old Georgian", |
| "date_bce": -430, |
| "writing_system": "Georgian script" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "svan", |
| "name": "Svan" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "georgian-zan", |
| "name": "Georgian-Zan" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "hmong-mien", |
| "name": "Hmong-Mien", |
| "alternative_names": [ |
| "Miao-Yao" |
| ], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Hmong-Mien", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 2000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 2500, |
| 1500 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "medium", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Southern China", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 28.0, |
| 110.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 10000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 35, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Southern China", |
| "Southeast Asia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "hmongic", |
| "name": "Hmongic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "mienic", |
| "name": "Mienic" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Austric", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "austronesian", |
| "austroasiatic", |
| "kra-dai" |
| ], |
| "status": "controversial", |
| "evidence_level": "weak" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "pama-nyungan", |
| "name": "Pama-Nyungan", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Pama-Nyungan", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 5500, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 6000, |
| 5000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Northeastern Australia", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| -15.0, |
| 145.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 50000, |
| "number_of_languages": 300, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Australia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "indo-european", |
| "name": "Indo-European", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Indo-European", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 4500, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 6400, |
| 3500 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Pontic-Caspian steppe", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 48.0, |
| 40.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [ |
| "Anatolian hypothesis" |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 3400000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 445, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Europe", |
| "South Asia", |
| "Americas", |
| "Oceania" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Hittite", |
| "date_bce": 1700, |
| "writing_system": "Cuneiform" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "anatolian", |
| "name": "Anatolian", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 3500 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "indo-iranian", |
| "name": "Indo-Iranian", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 2200 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "hellenic", |
| "name": "Hellenic", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 2500 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "italic", |
| "name": "Italic", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 3000 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "celtic", |
| "name": "Celtic", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 3000 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "germanic", |
| "name": "Germanic", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 3300 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "balto-slavic", |
| "name": "Balto-Slavic", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 2800 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "armenian", |
| "name": "Armenian", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 2800 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "albanian", |
| "name": "Albanian", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 1000 |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "tocharian", |
| "name": "Tocharian", |
| "estimated_divergence_bce": 3700 |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Indo-Hittite hypothesis", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Anatolian as first branch", |
| "Anatolian as sister to PIE" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Indo-Uralic", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "uralic" |
| ], |
| "status": "controversial", |
| "evidence_level": "moderate" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "sino-tibetan", |
| "name": "Sino-Tibetan", |
| "alternative_names": [ |
| "Trans-Himalayan" |
| ], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Sino-Tibetan", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 5000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 6000, |
| 4000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Yellow River valley, North China", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 34.9, |
| 108.9 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [ |
| "Southwest China" |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 1400000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 460, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "East Asia", |
| "Southeast Asia", |
| "South Asia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Old Chinese", |
| "date_bce": 1250, |
| "writing_system": "Oracle bone script" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "sinitic", |
| "name": "Sinitic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "tibeto-burman", |
| "name": "Tibeto-Burman" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Unity of Sino-Tibetan", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Valid family", |
| "Not a valid family" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "afro-asiatic", |
| "name": "Afro-Asiatic", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Afro-Asiatic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 12000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 15000, |
| 10000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Horn of Africa", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 10.0, |
| 49.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [ |
| "North Africa" |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 495000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 375, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "North Africa", |
| "Horn of Africa", |
| "West Asia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Ancient Egyptian", |
| "date_bce": 3300, |
| "writing_system": "Hieroglyphics" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "semitic", |
| "name": "Semitic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "berber", |
| "name": "Berber" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "chadic", |
| "name": "Chadic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "cushitic", |
| "name": "Cushitic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "omotic", |
| "name": "Omotic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "egyptian", |
| "name": "Egyptian" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Omotic branch membership", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Omotic is a branch of Afro-Asiatic", |
| "Omotic is a separate family" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "niger-congo", |
| "name": "Niger-Congo", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Niger-Congo", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 12000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 15000, |
| 10000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "West Africa", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 10.0, |
| 0.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 700000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 1500, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Sub-Saharan Africa" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "mande", |
| "name": "Mande" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "atlantic", |
| "name": "Atlantic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "ijoid", |
| "name": "Ijoid" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kru", |
| "name": "Kru" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "gur", |
| "name": "Gur" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "adamawa-ubangi", |
| "name": "Adamawa-Ubangi" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kwa", |
| "name": "Kwa" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "benue-congo", |
| "name": "Benue-Congo" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kordofanian", |
| "name": "Kordofanian" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Unity of Niger-Congo", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Valid family", |
| "Not a valid family" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "austronesian", |
| "name": "Austronesian", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Austronesian", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 3500, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 4000, |
| 3000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "medium", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Taiwan", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 23.5, |
| 121.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 386000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 1200, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Maritime Southeast Asia", |
| "Madagascar", |
| "Pacific Islands" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "formosan", |
| "name": "Formosan" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "malayo-polynesian", |
| "name": "Malayo-Polynesian" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Austro-Tai", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "kra-dai" |
| ], |
| "status": "controversial", |
| "evidence_level": "moderate" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "dravidian", |
| "name": "Dravidian", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Dravidian", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 3500, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 4500, |
| 2500 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "medium", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "South India", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 13.0, |
| 77.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [ |
| "Indus Valley" |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 250000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 80, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "South India", |
| "Sri Lanka", |
| "Pakistan" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Tamil", |
| "date_bce": 300, |
| "writing_system": "Tamil-Brahmi" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "south-dravidian", |
| "name": "South Dravidian" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "south-central-dravidian", |
| "name": "South-Central Dravidian" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "central-dravidian", |
| "name": "Central Dravidian" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "north-dravidian", |
| "name": "North Dravidian" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Relationship to Indus Valley Civilization", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Dravidian languages were spoken by the Indus Valley Civilization", |
| "No connection" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "uralic", |
| "name": "Uralic", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Uralic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 5000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 6000, |
| 4000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Ural Mountains region", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 60.0, |
| 60.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [ |
| "Western Siberia", |
| "Central Siberia" |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 25000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 38, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Northern Eurasia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "finnic", |
| "name": "Finnic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "ugric", |
| "name": "Ugric" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "saamic", |
| "name": "Saamic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "samoyedic", |
| "name": "Samoyedic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "permic", |
| "name": "Permic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "mari", |
| "name": "Mari" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "mordvinic", |
| "name": "Mordvinic" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Indo-Uralic", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "indo-european" |
| ], |
| "status": "controversial", |
| "evidence_level": "moderate" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "austroasiatic", |
| "name": "Austroasiatic", |
| "alternative_names": [ |
| "Mon-Khmer" |
| ], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Austroasiatic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 4000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 5000, |
| 3000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Mainland Southeast Asia", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 16.0, |
| 102.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [ |
| "South China" |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 117000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 168, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Southeast Asia", |
| "South Asia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Old Khmer", |
| "date_bce": 611, |
| "writing_system": "Pallava script" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "mon-khmer", |
| "name": "Mon-Khmer" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "munda", |
| "name": "Munda" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kra-dai", |
| "name": "Kra-Dai", |
| "alternative_names": [ |
| "Tai-Kadai" |
| ], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Kra-Dai", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 1500, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 2000, |
| 1000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "medium", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Southern China", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 25.0, |
| 110.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 93000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 95, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Southeast Asia", |
| "Southern China" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "tai", |
| "name": "Tai" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kadai", |
| "name": "Kadai" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kra", |
| "name": "Kra" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "turkic", |
| "name": "Turkic", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Turkic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 0, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 500, |
| -500 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Central Asia/Mongolia", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 47.0, |
| 97.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 170000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 35, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Eurasia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": { |
| "language": "Old Turkic", |
| "date_bce": -700, |
| "writing_system": "Orkhon script" |
| }, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "common-turkic", |
| "name": "Common Turkic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "oghur", |
| "name": "Oghur" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "yakut-dolgan", |
| "name": "Yakut-Dolgan" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "eskimo-aleut", |
| "name": "Eskimo-Aleut", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Eskimo-Aleut", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 2000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 3000, |
| 1000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Bering Strait", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 65.0, |
| -169.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 100000, |
| "number_of_languages": 11, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Arctic regions of North America and Siberia" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "eskimo", |
| "name": "Eskimo" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "aleut", |
| "name": "Aleut" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "na-dene", |
| "name": "Na-Dene", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Na-Dene", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 7000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 8000, |
| 6000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Alaska/Yukon", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 65.0, |
| -140.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 200000, |
| "number_of_languages": 40, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "North America" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "athabaskan", |
| "name": "Athabaskan" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "eyak", |
| "name": "Eyak" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "tlingit", |
| "name": "Tlingit" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Haida membership", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Haida is a member of Na-Dene", |
| "Haida is a language isolate" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis_name": "Dene-Yeniseian", |
| "related_families": [ |
| "yeniseian" |
| ], |
| "status": "proposed", |
| "evidence_level": "moderate" |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "algic", |
| "name": "Algic", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Algic", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 1000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 2000, |
| 0 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Pacific Northwest", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 45.0, |
| -120.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 200000, |
| "number_of_languages": 30, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "North America" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "algonquian", |
| "name": "Algonquian" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "yurok", |
| "name": "Yurok" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "wiyot", |
| "name": "Wiyot" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "uto-aztecan", |
| "name": "Uto-Aztecan", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Uto-Aztecan", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 3000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 4000, |
| 2000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Southwestern United States / Northwestern Mexico", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 35.0, |
| -115.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "established", |
| "speakers": 2000000, |
| "number_of_languages": 60, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "Western United States", |
| "Mexico" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "northern-uto-aztecan", |
| "name": "Northern Uto-Aztecan" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "southern-uto-aztecan", |
| "name": "Southern Uto-Aztecan" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "nilo-saharan", |
| "name": "Nilo-Saharan", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Nilo-Saharan", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 11000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 12000, |
| 10000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "Central/Eastern Africa", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 10.0, |
| 30.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "controversial", |
| "speakers": 37500000, |
| "number_of_languages": 200, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "North Africa", |
| "East Africa", |
| "Central Africa" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [ |
| { |
| "id": "eastern-sudanic", |
| "name": "Eastern Sudanic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "central-sudanic", |
| "name": "Central Sudanic" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "saharan", |
| "name": "Saharan" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "maban", |
| "name": "Maban" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "fur", |
| "name": "Fur" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "koman", |
| "name": "Koman" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "gumuz", |
| "name": "Gumuz" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kunama", |
| "name": "Kunama" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "berta", |
| "name": "Berta" |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "songhay", |
| "name": "Songhay" |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Unity of Nilo-Saharan", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Valid family", |
| "Geographic grouping (Sprachbund)" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "trans-new-guinea", |
| "name": "Trans-New Guinea", |
| "alternative_names": [], |
| "proto_language": { |
| "name": "Proto-Trans-New Guinea", |
| "estimated_date_bce": 8000, |
| "date_range_bce": [ |
| 10000, |
| 6000 |
| ], |
| "date_uncertainty": "high", |
| "homeland": { |
| "region": "New Guinea highlands", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| -6.0, |
| 147.0 |
| ], |
| "alternative_theories": [] |
| } |
| }, |
| "classification_status": "proposed", |
| "speakers": 3500000, |
| "number_of_languages": 400, |
| "geographic_distribution": [ |
| "New Guinea" |
| ], |
| "earliest_attestation": null, |
| "branches": [], |
| "controversies": [ |
| { |
| "topic": "Internal classification", |
| "positions": [ |
| "Highly uncertain" |
| ], |
| "status": "ongoing" |
| } |
| ], |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| } |
| ], |
| "language_isolates": [ |
| { |
| "id": "basque", |
| "name": "Basque", |
| "iso_639_3": "eus", |
| "status": "living", |
| "speakers": 750000, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Iberian Peninsula", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 43.0, |
| -2.0 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": -1000, |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "burushaski", |
| "name": "Burushaski", |
| "iso_639_3": "bsk", |
| "status": "living", |
| "speakers": 100000, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Northern Pakistan", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 36.5, |
| 74.5 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": null, |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "sumerian", |
| "name": "Sumerian", |
| "iso_639_3": "sux", |
| "status": "extinct", |
| "speakers": 0, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Mesopotamia", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 33.0, |
| 44.0 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": 3500, |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "ainu", |
| "name": "Ainu", |
| "iso_639_3": "ain", |
| "status": "critically_endangered", |
| "speakers": 10, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Northern Japan", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 43.0, |
| 143.0 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": null, |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis": "Altaic", |
| "status": "rejected", |
| "notes": "Proposed connection to Altaic languages is widely rejected." |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "korean", |
| "name": "Korean", |
| "iso_639_3": "kor", |
| "status": "living", |
| "speakers": 80000000, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Korean Peninsula", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 37.0, |
| 127.0 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": -600, |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis": "Altaic", |
| "status": "rejected", |
| "notes": "Proposed connection to Altaic languages is widely rejected." |
| }, |
| { |
| "hypothesis": "Japonic", |
| "status": "controversial", |
| "notes": "Proposed connection to Japonic languages is debated." |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "nihali", |
| "name": "Nihali", |
| "iso_639_3": "nll", |
| "status": "living", |
| "speakers": 2000, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Central India", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 21.5, |
| 76.5 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": null, |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "kusunda", |
| "name": "Kusunda", |
| "iso_639_3": "kgg", |
| "status": "critically_endangered", |
| "speakers": 2, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Nepal", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 28.0, |
| 84.0 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": null, |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "haida", |
| "name": "Haida", |
| "iso_639_3": "hai", |
| "status": "critically_endangered", |
| "speakers": 20, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Pacific Northwest", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 53.0, |
| -132.0 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": null, |
| "proposed_relationships": [ |
| { |
| "hypothesis": "Na-Dene", |
| "status": "disputed", |
| "notes": "Sometimes included in Na-Dene, but this is disputed." |
| } |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "zuni", |
| "name": "Zuni", |
| "iso_639_3": "zun", |
| "status": "living", |
| "speakers": 10000, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "New Mexico", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 35.0, |
| -108.0 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": null, |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": "purepecha", |
| "name": "Pur\u00e9pecha", |
| "iso_639_3": "tsz", |
| "status": "living", |
| "speakers": 140000, |
| "location": { |
| "region": "Mexico", |
| "coordinates": [ |
| 19.5, |
| -101.5 |
| ] |
| }, |
| "first_attested_bce": null, |
| "proposed_relationships": [] |
| } |
| ], |
| "macro_families": [ |
| { |
| "name": "Nostratic", |
| "status": "rejected", |
| "proposed_date_bce": 15000, |
| "included_families": [ |
| "indo-european", |
| "uralic", |
| "altaic", |
| "kartvelian", |
| "dravidian", |
| "afro-asiatic" |
| ], |
| "proponents": [ |
| "Holger Pedersen", |
| "Vladislav Illich-Svitych", |
| "Aharon Dolgopolsky" |
| ], |
| "evidence": "Lexical and morphological similarities", |
| "mainstream_acceptance": "low", |
| "controversies": "Methodological flaws, reliance on reconstructed forms, and the time depth involved make it highly speculative." |
| }, |
| { |
| "name": "Eurasiatic", |
| "status": "rejected", |
| "proposed_date_bce": 15000, |
| "included_families": [ |
| "indo-european", |
| "uralic", |
| "altaic", |
| "koreanic", |
| "japonic", |
| "eskimo-aleut" |
| ], |
| "proponents": [ |
| "Joseph Greenberg" |
| ], |
| "evidence": "Lexical and morphological similarities", |
| "mainstream_acceptance": "low", |
| "controversies": "Similar to Nostratic, methodological flaws and reliance on reconstructed forms make it highly speculative." |
| }, |
| { |
| "name": "Altaic", |
| "status": "rejected", |
| "proposed_date_bce": 2000, |
| "included_families": [ |
| "turkic", |
| "mongolic", |
| "tungusic", |
| "koreanic", |
| "japonic" |
| ], |
| "proponents": [ |
| "Gustaf John Ramstedt", |
| "Nicholas Poppe" |
| ], |
| "evidence": "Lexical and morphological similarities", |
| "mainstream_acceptance": "low", |
| "controversies": "Now considered a Sprachbund (linguistic area) rather than a genetic family by most linguists." |
| }, |
| { |
| "name": "Austric", |
| "status": "controversial", |
| "proposed_date_bce": 8000, |
| "included_families": [ |
| "austronesian", |
| "austroasiatic", |
| "kra-dai", |
| "hmong-mien" |
| ], |
| "proponents": [ |
| "Wilhelm Schmidt" |
| ], |
| "evidence": "Lexical similarities", |
| "mainstream_acceptance": "low", |
| "controversies": "Not widely accepted due to lack of systematic sound correspondences." |
| } |
| ], |
| "terminology_notes": { |
| "deprecated_terms": [ |
| { |
| "old_term": "Ural-Altaic", |
| "current_term": "Uralic and Altaic (as separate entities)", |
| "reason": "The proposed Ural-Altaic family is now rejected by mainstream linguistics." |
| }, |
| { |
| "old_term": "Sino-Tibetan", |
| "current_term": "Trans-Himalayan", |
| "reason": "Some scholars prefer 'Trans-Himalayan' to avoid implying a close relationship between Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman." |
| } |
| ], |
| "controversial_terms": [ |
| { |
| "term": "Altaic", |
| "controversy": "The validity of Altaic as a genetic family is highly disputed. Many linguists now consider it a Sprachbund.", |
| "alternatives": [ |
| "Transeurasian" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "term": "Nilo-Saharan", |
| "controversy": "The unity of Nilo-Saharan is highly disputed. Some linguists reject it entirely.", |
| "alternatives": [] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| } |
