q144/random_k2/random_2.md

Genetics, DNA, and Heredity

The Basics

What is DNA?

It's a history book -

a narrative of the journey of our

species through time.

It's a shop manual, with an incredibly detailed blueprint

for building every human cell.

And it's a transformative textbook of medicine, with

insights that will give health care providers immense
new powers to treat, prevent and cure disease."
- Francis Collins

What Does DNA Look Like?

A

G

T

C

Every cell in our body has the
same DNA….

Eye cell

Karyotype

Lung cell

Toe cell

How much DNA is in one cell?

Genome = 46 chromosomes

Genome = approx. 3 billion
base pairs

One base pair is
0.00000000034 meters

DNA sequence in any two
people is 99.9% identical –
only 0.1% is unique!

What makes one cell different from another?

DNA = “the life
instructions of the
cell”

Gene = segment of
DNA that tells the
cell how to make a
certain protein.

Allele = one of two
or more different
versions of a gene

Sequence for normal adult hemoglobin:

Sequence for mutant hemoglobin:

Wild-type Hemoglobin Protein

Mutant Protein

Normal Red Blood Cell

Abnormal Red Blood Cell

The Human Genome Project Goals

•  To sequence (i.e. determine the exact order of
nucleotides (A,T,G,C) for ALL of the DNA in a
human cell

•  To determine which sections of DNA represent

individual genes (protein-coding units).

The HGP: International effort to decipher
the blueprint of a human being.

How It Was Done

DNA samples collected from
thousands of volunteers

Samples sent to Human Genome
Project centers across the world

Scientists at centers perform DNA
sequencing and analysis

•  February 2001: Draft of the

sequence published in Nature
(public effort )and Science
(Celera – private company).

•  April, 2003 (50 years after

Watson and Crick structure of
DNA was published) : Full
sequence published and
researchers determined that
within this sequence there was
somewhere between 30,000
and 40,000 genes.  We now
believe there are closer to
25,000 genes

Still A Lot of Work To Do . . .

Comparing the
genomes of
humans and
other organisms

Discovering
DNA and gene
functions

Investigating
interactions between
DNA sequences, gene
products, and
environmental factors

Analyzing
genetic variation
between
individuals and
populations

How Can We Use This Information?

Better understanding of human
disease

Personalized medicine &
Pharmacogenetics

Greater
insight into
cognitive
function

Insight into
human origins

Identifying genetic susceptibility to disease

Inheritance of Genes

Gregor Mendel

1822-1884

•  Augustinian monk who

cross-bred pea plants with
different characteristics
•  Observations led to laws

regarding the transmission
of hereditary
characteristics from
generation to generation
•  Many of the concepts from
his observations still hold
true today!

Picture from www.nih.nlm.gov

Mendel’s
Laws:
1.  Principle of Segregation: Two members of a

gene pair segregate from each other in the
formation of gametes; half the gametes carry
one allele, and the other half carry the other
allele
What it means: each gene has two copies
(alleles) and a parent will give only one copy to
a child.  The other parent will give another
copy, and thus the child will receive two copies
(alleles) – one from each parent.  Each child
will literally be half-mom and half-dad!

Mendel’s
Laws:

2. Principle of Independent Assortment:

Genes for different traits assort
independently of one another in gamete
production
What it means: different genes are
inherited separately.  For example, the
gene which codes for eye color is inherited
separately from the gene which codes for
nose shape.

Mendelian Concepts

Dominant = only one allele of a gene
necessary to express the trait
Recessive = both alleles of a gene must
be identical to express the trait
Heterozygous = alleles of a particular gene
are non-identical
Homozygous = alleles of a particular gene
are identical

Applying Mendelian Concepts:
The Punnett Square

Parent 2

Allele 1

Allele 2

Allele 1

A1/A1 A1/A2

Parent 1

Allele 2

A2/A1 A2/A2

Homozygous dominant +
Homozygous dominant

Homozygous dominant +
Heterozygous

A

A

A

A

A

AA

AA

A

AA

AA

A

AA

AA

a

Aa

Aa

Homozygous dominant +
Homozygous recessive

a

a

A

Aa

Aa

A

Aa

Aa

Heterozygous + Heterozygous

A

a

AA

Aa

Aa

aa

A

a

EXAMPLE

•  Dan and Kim are going
to have a baby.  Kim
has dimples in her
cheeks (a dominant
trait), while Dan does
not.

•  What are the chances
Dan and Kim’s baby
will have dimples?

We know Dan and Kim’s
phenotypes (no dimples/dimples),
but what are their genotypes?

•  Dan has the recessive trait (no dimples)

– He must have two recessive alleles
– Dan’s genotype can be represented as ‘dd’

•  Kim has the dominant trait (dimples)

– But Kim could be homozygous dominant OR

heterozygous dominant

– Kim’s genotype can be either ‘DD’ or ‘Dd’
– Which one is it?

More information

•  What if you knew something about Kim’s

parents?

•  How could that help?

Kim’s Parents

•  As it turns out, Kim’s father has dimples in
both cheeks, while her mother does not
•  Her mother must have the recessive trait
and therefore has to have the genotype
‘dd’

•  Kim’s father has the dominant trait, but we

don’t know if he is a homozygote or
heterozygote.  He could be ‘DD’ or ‘Dd’
just like Kim!

•  But we still know what Kim’s genotype

must be.  Why?

Kim’s genotype is ‘Dd’

•  Kim must have a recessive allele (d), since
that is all she could have inherited from
her mother

•  Since Kim has dimples, we know she

inherited a dominant allele (D) from her
father
– It doesn’t matter if Kim’s father is DD or Dd;
whichever it is, he passed on a ‘D’ to his
daughter

What are the chances Kim and Dan’s baby
will have dimples?

Kim

d

D

Dan

d

d

Kim

d

D

Dd

dd

Dd

dd

Dan

d

d

50% chance the baby will have the genotype ‘Dd’ and have
dimples

50% chance the baby will have the genotype ‘dd’ and not have
dimples

Clinical Application

P

Clinical Application continued . . .

P

Other things may change us, but we start and
end with family

-Anthony Brandt

If you look deeply into the palm of your hand,
you will see your parents and all generations of
your ancestors.  All of them are alive in this
moment.  Each is present in your body.  You are
the continuation of each of these people.

-Thich

Nhat

Hanh

Questions?

Adapted from a Presentation Created by the University
of North Carolina DNA Day Program

•  Sponsors

–  NC Glaxo Smith Kline Foundation
–  National Human Genome Research Institute
–  Sigma XI Scientific Research Society

•  Collaborative Partners

–  North Carolina Department of Public Instruction
–  Destiny Traveling Science Learning Program
–  North Carolina Association for Biomedical Research
–  National Human Genome Research Institute
–  American Society for Human Genetics

•  North Carolina Educators

–  Amy Bradley, Hibriten High School; Cindy Byron, School of Inquiry and Life
Sciences at Asheville (SILSA); Anita Crowley, Lee County High School;
MaryAnne Gore, West Brunswick High School; Terry Howerton, The School of
Biotechnology at Atkins; Michael Kendall, East Bladen High School; Crystal
McDowell; Letitia Myles, E.E. Smith High School; Elizabeth Pressley, Bartlett
Yancey High School; Steven Ross, Harnett Central High School; Murphey
Wellman, North Iredell High School; Anita Willington, East Bladen High School;
Linda Woody, Reidsville High School