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The five major integrated oil companies operating in the U.S. market have earned net incomes totaling $424 billion since 2004. In the previous four years, from 2000 to 2003, they earned net incomes of $171 billion. This 148% increase in profit has attracted public attention and raised the issue of whether "windfall" pr... | The price of crude oil began to increase in the last quarter of 2003, and has led to the high prices observed from 2004 through 2007. The Iraq War, unexpectedly high demand growth in China, India, and the United States, and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, along with a number of other factors, all contributed to the rising... |
Global climate change is a widespread and growing concern that has led to extensive international discussions and negotiations. Responses to this concern have focused on reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, and on measuring carbon absorbed by and stored in forests, soils, and oceans. One o... | Widespread concern about global climate change has led to interest in reducing emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and, under certain circumstances, in counting additional carbon absorbed in soils and vegetation as part of the emissions reductions. Congress may consider options to increase the carbon stored (sequestered)... |
The federal government holds a large and diverse real property portfolio that includes more than 2.8 billion square feet of building space, 496,000 structures, and 42 million acres of land. These assets have been acquired over a period of decades to help agencies fulfill their diverse missions. Agencies own and lease b... | Real property disposal is the process by which federal agencies identify and then transfer, donate, or sell real property they no longer need. Disposition is an important asset management function because the costs of maintaining unneeded properties can be substantial. Moreover, properties the government no longer need... |
The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides an array of benefits to veterans and to certain members of their families. These benefits include disability compensation and pensions, education benefits, survivor benefits, medical treatment, life insurance, vocational rehabilitation, and burial and memorial benefits. ... | The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides an array of benefits to veterans and to certain members of their families. These benefits include disability compensation and pensions, education benefits, survivor benefits, medical treatment, life insurance, vocational rehabilitation, and burial and memorial benefits. ... |
California is experiencing serious water shortages due to widespread and exceptional drought. Even though much of the state is served by two large water infrastructure projects that store water for future use—the federal Central Valley Project (CVP) and the State Water Project (SWP)—both projects have had to reduce wat... | California is experiencing serious water shortages due to widespread drought. Both of the state's large water infrastructure projects, the federal Central Valley Project (CVP) and the State Water Project (SWP), have had to reduce water deliveries in 2014 to the farmers and communities they serve. Dry hydrological condi... |
D isaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA) benefits are available only to those individuals who have become unemployed as a direct result of a declared major disaster and who are not eligible for regular Unemployment Compensation (UC). First created in 1970 through P.L. 91-606, DUA benefits are authorized by the Robert T.... | Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA) benefits are available only to those individuals who have become unemployed as a direct result of a declared major disaster and are not eligible for regular Unemployment Compensation (UC). First created in 1970 through P.L. 91-606, DUA benefits are authorized by the Robert T. Staf... |
Cellulosic biofuels are produced from cellulose derived from renewable biomass feedstocks such as corn stover (plant matter generally left in the field after harvest), switchgrass, wood chips, and other plant or waste matter. Current production consists of a few small-scale pilot projects—and significant hurdles must b... | Cellulosic biofuels are produced from cellulose (fibrous material) derived from renewable biomass. They are thought by many to hold the key to increased benefits from renewable biofuels because they are made from potentially low-cost, diverse, non-food feedstocks. Cellulosic biofuels could also potentially decrease the... |
Surface transportation "devolution" refers to shifting most current federal responsibility for building and maintaining highways and public transportation facilities from the federal government to the states. Devolution would involve reducing the federal taxes on motor fuels that currently provide most of the federal f... | Surface transportation "devolution" refers to shifting most current federal responsibility for building and maintaining highways and public transportation systems from the federal government to the states. Devolution legislation has been introduced in each Congress since the mid-1990s, supported by Members who regard t... |
The Energy Savings and Industrial Competitiveness Act, S. 385 / H.R. 1443 , would introduce energy-efficiency policy reforms that according to the sponsors would "strengthen the economy and reduce pollution." The bill addresses energy-efficiency policies for buildings, industry, and federal agencies, among other provis... | Energy efficiency—providing the same or an improved level of service with less energy—has been of interest to some Members of Congress. Proponents of increased energy efficiency see an untapped "resource" that can mitigate the demand for additional energy supplies. Perceived benefits of energy efficiency include lowere... |
The November 2002 outbreak in China of a new form of atypical pneumonia, Severe AcuteRespiratory Syndrome (SARS) had widespread economic, political, and social effects on the PRCand presented a serious test for new PRC party leadership, named at the November 2002 PartyCongress, and for new central government officials ... | In November 2002, SARS, a new and deadly human illness suspected of having an animal origin, made its first appearance in China. Chinese leaders at first minimized the effects of the newvirus and covered up the extent of its spread. But the disease moved rapidly to other countries,prompting the World Health Organizatio... |
Housing and residential mortgage markets in the United States are continuing to recover from several years of turmoil that began with the bursting of a housing "bubble" that peaked in the mid-2000s and burst in 2007-2008. The bubble featured rapidly rising home prices in many areas of the country as well as looser cred... | Housing and residential mortgage markets in the United States are continuing to recover from several years of turmoil that began in 2007-2008, though the recovery has been uneven across the country. Nationally, home prices have been consistently increasing since 2012. Negative equity and mortgage foreclosure rates have... |
Recent tragic events in Tucson, AZ, have raised questions about the extent to which federal law outlaws crimes of violence committed against federal officials or federal employees. More than a few outlaw such conduct. Murder or assault committed anywhere in the United States is outlawed in the law of the state in which... | Dozens of federal statutes outlaw homicide, assault, and threats under varying jurisdictional circumstances. Those which appear most relevant to tragic events in Tucson, AZ, are identified in abbreviated form here. |
A number of groups and individuals have recently focused attention on U.S. rules governing imports from North Korea. Their interest has been sparked by the debate over the South Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA), which would lower or eliminate U.S. tariffs and non-tariff barriers on most imports from South Ko... | In early 2011, many Members of Congress focused their attention on U.S. rules and practices governing the importation of products and components from North Korea. Their interest was stimulated by debate over the proposed South Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA) and the question of whether the agreement could l... |
A "pit" is the core of the primary stage of a thermonuclear weapon. Its key ingredient is weapons-grade plutonium (WGPu), which is composed mainly of the fissile isotope plutonium-239 (Pu-239). Detonating the pit provides the energy to detonate a weapon's secondary stage. During the Cold War, the Rocky Flats Plant (CO)... | A pit is the plutonium core of a thermonuclear weapon. Imploding it with conventional explosives provides the energy to detonate the rest of the weapon. The Rocky Flats Plant made up to 2,000 pits per year (ppy) through 1989; since then, the United States has made 29 pits for the stockpile. Yet the FY2015 National Defe... |
The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89-329), as amended, authorizes a broad array of federal student aid programs that assist students and their families with financing the cost of a postsecondary education, as well as programs that provide federal support to postsecondary institutions of higher education (IHEs... | The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89-329) authorizes numerous federal aid programs that provide support to both individuals pursuing a postsecondary education and institutions of higher education (IHEs). Title IV of the HEA authorizes the federal government's major student financial aid programs, which are th... |
Real property disposal is the process by which federal agencies identify and then transfer, donate, or sell real property they no longer need. Agencies may also consolidate or co-locate their offices in order to reduce the amount of unneeded space they own or lease. Disposition is an important asset management function... | Federal executive branch agencies hold an extensive real property portfolio that includes approximately 399,000 buildings. These assets have been acquired over a period of decades to help agencies fulfill their diverse missions. Agencies hold buildings with a range of uses, including offices, health clinics, warehouses... |
In recent years, state and federal laws have facilitated law enforcement's expanded use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) for investigating and prosecuting crimes. These laws authorize compulsory collection of biological matter, which local law enforcement agencies send to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for ana... | Over the past few decades, state and federal lawmakers have promoted the development of databases containing DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) profiles for individuals who are under the supervision of the criminal justice system due to their known or suspected involvement in a felony or other qualifying crime. Congress has d... |
Congress appropriated $2.649 billion for legislative branch operationsin FY2001, a 6.6% increase overthe FY2000 appropriation of $2.486 billion. The FY2001 funding level includes the appropriation in theregular annual legislative branch appropriations bill; a supplemental appropriation of $118 million in amiscellaneous... | Congress appropriated $2.649 billion for legislative branch operations in FY2001, a 6.6% increase over the FY2000 appropriation of $2.486 billion. The FY2001 funding level includes theappropriation in the regular annual legislative branch appropriations bill; a supplementalappropriation of $118 million in a miscellaneo... |
China's policy of intervention to limit the appreciation of its currency, the renminbi (RMB) against the dollar and other currencies has become a major source of tension with many of its trading partners, especially the United States. Some analysts contend that China deliberately "manipulates" its currency in order to ... | China's policy of intervening in currency markets to limit or halt the appreciation of its currency, the renminbi (RMB), against the U.S. dollar and other currencies has been an issue of concern for many in Congress over the past decade who view it as one of several distortive economic and trade policies that are used ... |
Most private equity and hedge funds are organized as partnerships. For tax purposes, a partnership is broadly defined to include two or more individuals who jointly engage in a for-profit business activity. They typically consist of general partners (who actively manage the partnership), and limited partners (who contr... | General partners in most private equity and hedge funds are compensated in two ways. First, to the extent that they contribute their capital in the funds, they share in the appreciation of the assets. Second, they charge the limited partners two kinds of annual fees: a percentage of total fund assets (usually in the 1%... |
The Obama Administration sent its special envoy on North Korea, Ambassador Stephen Bosworth, to Pyongyang on December 8-10, 2009. The Administration set two objectives for the mission: (1) to secure a North Korean commitment to resume participation in the six party nuclear negotiations, which North Korea had boycotted ... | Since August 2003, negotiations over North Korea's nuclear weapons programs have involved six governments: the United States, North Korea, China, South Korea, Japan, and Russia. Since the talks began, North Korea has operated nuclear facilities at Yongbyon and apparently has produced weapons-grade plutonium estimated a... |
After several years of increases, the number of unaccompanied alien children (UAC) apprehended at the Southwest border by the Department of Homeland Security's (DHS's) Customs and Border Protection (CBP) peaked at 68,541 in FY2014. Some Members of Congress as well as the Obama Administration have characterized the issu... | In FY2014, the number of unaccompanied alien children (UAC, unaccompanied children) that were apprehended at the Southwest border while attempting to enter the United States without authorization reached a peak, straining the system put in place over the past decade to handle such cases. Prior to FY2014, UAC apprehensi... |
This report provides a brief overview of federal law with respect to six selected advertising issues: alcohol advertising, tobacco advertising, the Federal Trade Commission Act, advertising by mail, advertising by telephone, and commercial email (spam). There are numerous federal statutes regulating advertising that do... | This report provides a brief overview of federal law with respect to six selected advertising issues: alcohol advertising, tobacco advertising, the Federal Trade Commission Act, advertising by mail (including junk mail), advertising by telephone, and commercial email (spam). There are numerous federal statutes regulati... |
Justice and Development Party. In November 2002, the Justice and Development Party (AKP), a party with Islamist roots, won 363 out of 550seats in parliament and formed the first single-party government in Turkey in over a decade. (1) Deputyparty leader Abdullah Gul became the first AKP prime minister. He ceded the posi... | Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his Justice and Development Party (AKP) remain popular and have a firm hold on power in Turkey. The AKP is trying to recast itself from anIslamist-rooted party to a centrist "conservative democratic" party. Although some AKP actions fuelsecularist suspicions of a hidden Islamist ... |
Taiwan, which officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), is an island democracy of 23 million people located across the Taiwan Strait from mainland China and north of the Philippines. Since January 1, 1979, the U.S. relationship with Taiwan has been unofficial, a consequence of the Carter Administration's dec... | Taiwan, which officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), is an island democracy of 23 million people located across the Taiwan Strait from mainland China. It is the United States' tenth-largest trading partner. Since January 1, 1979, the U.S. relationship with Taiwan has been unofficial, a consequence of the ... |
The United States has accused the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK or North Korea) of counterfeiting U.S. $100 Federal Reserve notes (Supernotes) and passing them off in various countries. There is considerable doubt, however, that the DPRK is capable of creating Supernotes of the quality found. The existing... | The United States has accused the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK or North Korea) of counterfeiting U.S. $100 Federal Reserve notes (Supernotes) and passing them off in various countries, although there is some doubt by observers and other governments that the DPRK is capable of creating Supernotes of the q... |
In response to the slow pace of improvement in the labor market after the 2007-2009 recession ended, some Members of the 112 th Congress and the Administration proposed additional fiscal stimulus or job creation legislation. These bills followed several policy steps taken while the recession was in effect. Attention mo... | The longest and deepest recession since the Great Depression ended as expansion began in June 2009. Although output started growing in the third quarter of 2009, the labor market was weak in 2010, with the unemployment rate averaging 9.6% for the year. Despite showing improvement in 2011, the unemployment rate averaged... |
Qatar, a small peninsular state bordering Saudi Arabia in the Persian Gulf (see Figure 1 ), declared its independence on September 3, 1971. It is a constitutional monarchy governed by the Al Thani family, and the constitution reflects the previously contested principle that successors to the throne will follow the here... | Qatar, a small peninsular country in the Persian Gulf, emerged as a partner of the United States in the mid-1990s and currently serves as host to major U.S. military facilities. Qatar holds the third-largest proven natural gas reserves in the world, and is the largest exporter of liquefied natural gas. Its small citize... |
Even before September 11, 2001, congressional policymakers expressed concern about the safety and security of facilities possessing certain amounts of hazardous chemicals. The sudden release of hazardous chemicals from facilities storing large quantities might potentially harm many people living or working near the fac... | The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has statutory authority to regulate chemical facilities for security purposes. The 112th Congress has extended this authority through March 27, 2013. The Obama Administration has requested extension of this authority until October 4, 2013. Congressional policymakers have debate... |
In September 2009, the U.N. General Assembly adopted a resolution expressing strong support for the consolidation of four U.N. bodies addressing women's issues into one composite entity. Current U.N. efforts to address the well-being of women are spread across various U.N. system programs, funds, and offices with no si... | In recent years, many in the international community have argued for elevating the status of women's issues within the United Nations (U.N.) system. They contend that the way in which the U.N. system addresses gender issues is fragmented, weak, and under-resourced. Moreover, they argue that such efforts lack clear lead... |
RS21529 -- Al Qaeda after the Iraq Conflict May 23, 2003 There is a great deal that remains unknown or debatable about the specific nature, size, structure and reach of the organization, despite many years of studyingit. For example, Western experts are not exactly sure how many members it has now or has had in the pas... | The May 12, 2003, suicide bombings of three Western housing compounds in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia reopenedquestions about the strength and viability of Al Qaeda in the post-Iraq conflict environment. The apprehension ofa number of senior Al Qaeda leaders in recentmonths, combined with the absence of major terrorist attacks ... |
At the June 2005 Group of Eight (G8) (1) finance ministers meeting, member nations agreed on a financingplan for 100% debt relief for countries that complete the International Monetary Fund (IMF) andWorld Banks' Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt relief program. If the proposal is fullyimplemented, 18 countrie... | In recent decades, the rapid growth in poor country debt has emerged as a key foreign policyconcern. Many analysts believe that this debt burden is an impediment to economic growth andpoverty reduction. Others contend that for the poorest countries, other factors such as weak politicaland economic institutions, are a g... |
On December 16, 2009, President Obama signed the FY2010 Department of Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies Appropriation Act into law (Divison A of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2010, P.L. 111-117 ), after Congress had passed the conference version of the bill on December 10, 2006.... | President Obama requested a total of $123.1 billion for the agencies included in H.R. 3288, the Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies Appropriations (THUD) bill for FY2010. This request represented an increase of approximately $14.1 billion (12.9%) over the $109.1 billion provided in the F... |
Following incidents of terrorism or mass violence in the United States, jurisdictions and individuals may be eligible to receive various types of victim assistance both directly from the Department of Justice (DOJ) and indirectly from DOJ through their respective state victim assistance agencies or other programs. Whil... | Following incidents of terrorism or mass violence in the United States, jurisdictions and individuals may be eligible to receive various types of victim assistance both directly from the Department of Justice (DOJ) and indirectly from DOJ through their respective state victim assistance agencies or other programs. Whil... |
In the mid-1990s, the U.S. Bureau of the Census (Census Bureau) began developing and testing a new means of data collection called a "rolling sample" or "continuous measurement" survey that became the American Community Survey (ACS). Implemented nationwide in 2005 and 2006, the ACS currently collects data from a repres... | The American Community Survey (ACS), implemented nationwide in 2005 and 2006, is the U.S. Bureau of the Census's (Census Bureau's) replacement for the decennial census long form, which, from 1940 to 2000, gathered detailed socioeconomic and housing data from a representative population sample in conjunction with the on... |
Title I, Part A, of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) authorizes federal aid to local educational agencies (LEAs) for the education of disadvantaged children. Title I-A grants provide supplementary educational and related services to low-achieving and other pupils attending pre-kindergarten through grad... | Title I, Part A, of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) authorizes federal aid to local educational agencies (LEAs) for the education of disadvantaged children. Title I-A grants provide supplementary educational and related services to low-achieving and other pupils attending pre-kindergarten through grad... |
Taiwan formally calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), tracing its political lineage to the ROC set up in 1912 after the revolution that started on October 10, 1911, in China to overthrow the Qing Dynasty. The ROC uses October 10 to commemorate the national day, celebrated as "Double Ten." The ROC does not recognize... | Despite broadly consistent statements, the U.S. "one China" policy concerning Taiwan remains somewhat ambiguous and subject to different interpretations. Apart from questions about what the policy entails, issues have arisen about whether U.S. Presidents have stated clear positions and have changed or should change pol... |
The Financial Services and General Government (FSGG) appropriations bill includes funding for more than two dozen independent agencies primarily in Title V. These agencies perform a wide range of functions, including the management of federal real property, the regulation of financial institutions and markets, and mail... | The Financial Services and General Government (FSGG) appropriations bills include funding for more than two dozen independent agencies in addition to the larger entities in the bill (Department of the Treasury, the Executive Office of the President, the District of Columbia, and the judiciary). Among these are Consumer... |
The Alien Tort Statute (ATS) states that "district courts shall have original jurisdiction of any civil action by an alien for a tort only, committed in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States." Codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1350, the ATS is "a jurisdictional provision unlike any other in American la... | The Alien Tort Statute (ATS) was originally drafted as part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 in order to provide foreign plaintiffs with a forum to remedy violations of customary international law. Now codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1350, the ATS states that "district courts shall have original jurisdiction of any civil action by... |
The United States Border Patrol (USBP) is the lead federal agency charged with securing the U.S. international land border with Mexico and Canada. The USBP's San Diego sector is located north of Tijuana and Tecate, Mexican cities with a combined population of 2 million people, and features no natural barriers to entry ... | This report outlines the issues involved with DHS's construction of the San Diego border fence and highlights some of the major legislative and administrative developments regarding its completion; it will be updated as warranted. (For more analysis of border fencing and other barriers, please see CRS Report RL33659, B... |
The employer shared responsibility provisions (ESRP) of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA; P.L. 111-148 , as amended) generally incentivize large employers to offer adequate and affordable health insurance coverage to their full-time employees and their full-time employees' dependents. If an applicabl... | The employer shared responsibility provisions (ESRP), which often are referred to as the employer mandate, generally incentivize large employers to offer adequate and affordable health insurance coverage to their full-time employees and full-time employees' dependents. If an applicable large employer fails to offer hea... |
On March 19, 2010, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reissued a 1996 final rule aimed at reducing underage smoking and use of smokeless tobacco products (e.g., snuff, chewing tobacco). The agency's rulemaking was mandated by the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (FSPTCA), which was enacted in 2009 ... | On March 19, 2010, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reissued a 1996 final rule aimed at reducing underage smoking and use of smokeless tobacco products (e.g., snuff, chewing tobacco). The agency's rulemaking was mandated by the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, which was enacted last year in resp... |
Federal regulation, like taxing and spending, is one of the basic tools of government used to implement public policy. In fact, the development and framing of a rule has been described as "the climactic act of the policy making process." Another observer described the rulemaking process as "a ubiquitous presence in vir... | Federal regulation, like taxing and spending, is one of the basic tools of government used to implement public policy. Although not as frequently examined as congressional or presidential policy making, the process of developing and framing rules is viewed by some as central to the definition and implementation of publ... |
March 20, 2008. The yen appreciated to 99 yen per dollar, a 20% rise since its low on June 24, 2007. September 5, 2007. The unwinding of yen carry trade positions (selling investments in non-Japanese financial instruments and buying yen to repay yen loans) has caused the yen to rise since its low of 124.1 yen per dolla... | The rapid depreciation of the value of the dollar on foreign exchange markets is mirrored by an equally rapid appreciation of currencies, such as the yen (and Euro). This has raised concerns that Japan may intervene in currency markets for the first time since March 2004 to shore up the value of the dollar and slow the... |
Recent unrest in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region has affected international energy markets and put upward pressure on oil prices. MENA is home to some of the world's largest oil and natural gas producers and exporters. The region's exporters account for roughly 40% of oil and 20% of natural gas traded in... | Political unrest in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) has contributed to higher oil prices and added instability to energy markets. Supply disruptions and fears about the possible spread of unrest to major exporters have pushed prices higher. Even if the crisis abates, some risk premium may persist to the degree ... |
The USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act (Reauthorization Act) contains a number of death penalty related provisions. Some create new federal capital offenses; some add the death penalty as a sentencing option in the case of pre-existing federal crimes; some alter the procedural attributes of federal capital... | The USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act (Reauthorization Act), P.L. 109-177 , 120 Stat. 192 (2006) contains a number of death penalty related provisions. Some create new federal capital offenses making certain death-resulting maritime offenses punishable by death. Some add the death penalty as a sentencing ... |
The source of federal copyright law originates with the Copyright and Patent Clause of the U.S. Constitution, which authorizes Congress "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries." The Copyr... | This report provides a general overview of copyright law and briefly summarizes the major provisions of the U.S. Copyright Act. |
The management of federal real property has come under increased scrutiny in the 112 th Congress, as Members, mindful of the fiscal challenges the government and the nation face, look for opportunities to reduce expenditures and increase revenue. Real property reform is viewed as one way to achieve savings, because fed... | In an effort to reduce the costs associated with maintaining thousands of unneeded and underutilized federal buildings, and to generate revenue through the sale of such properties, the 112th Congress is considering several real property reform bills. Perhaps the most comprehensive of these proposals is H.R. 1734, the C... |
This report presents an analysis of the discretionary appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) for fiscal year 2013 (FY2013). It compares the President's request for FY2013 funding for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the enacted FY2012 appropriations for DHS, the House-passed and Senate-r... | This report describes the FY2013 appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The Administration requested $39.510 billion in adjusted net discretionary budget authority for DHS for FY2013, as part of an overall budget of $59.501 billion (including fees, trust funds, and other funding that is not appro... |
Some Members of Congress have expressed interest in the rules governing patentable subject matter for many years. The term "patentable subject matter" refers to the requirement of Section 101 of the Patent Act of 1952 that an invention must consist of a "process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter" in order... | The term "patentable subject matter" refers to the requirement of Section 101 of the Patent Act of 1952 that an invention must consist of a "process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter" in order to be patented. The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (AIA) of 2011, P.L. 112-29, additionally stipulated that "no ... |
U.S. borders are complex. They feature varied terrain, where disparate threats are met with varying levels of federal surveillance and resource allocation. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), is tasked with securing America's borders and promoting legitimate trade and ... | Understanding the risks present at the U.S. borders and developing methods to measure border security are key challenges for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the U.S. Border Patrol, the agency within DHS charged with securing the border between ports of entry. Metrics for border security are used at both t... |
In February 2002, controversy erupted over the Bush Administration's proposal, which Congress accepted, to not request renewal of the Superfund taxes in its FY2003 budget submission âa decision repeated in each subsequent budget proposal (FY2004-FY2009). The tax authority expired in 1995, but the fund's balance remai... | This report discusses the role of dedicated taxes and other sources of revenue in funding the Hazardous Substance Superfund Trust Fund. Congress makes annual appropriations to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) from this trust fund and from general Treasury revenues for the purpose of supporting the Superfund pr... |
The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF), also called the Lightning II, is a strike fighter airplane being procured in different versions for the Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy. The F-35 program is DOD's largest weapon procurement program in terms of total estimated acquisition cost. Current Department of Defense (DOD) p... | The largest procurement program in the Department of Defense (DOD), the F-35 Lightning II is a strike fighter aircraft being procured in different versions for the United States Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy. Current DOD plans call for acquiring a total of 2,456 F-35s. Allies are expected to purchase hundreds of ad... |
Several tax options have been proposed to provide financing for health care reform. President Obama initially proposed restricting itemized deductions for high-income taxpayers, along with some narrower provisions for other reforms or to reduce the tax gap. On May 20, 2009, the Senate Finance Committee provided a list ... | Several tax options were proposed to provide financing for health care reform. President Obama initially proposed restricting itemized deductions for high-income taxpayers, along with some narrower provisions. H.R. 3962 passed in the House on November 14, 2009; its largest source of increased revenues was from addition... |
O n November 21, 2013, the Senate reinterpreted Senate Rule XXII, lowering the number of Senators needed to invoke cloture on most nominations from three-fifths of the Senate to a simple majority. Cloture places time limits on consideration of a matter, and so may be employed as a means of overcoming filibusters. Since... | The motion for cloture is available in the Senate to limit debate on nominations, as on other matters. Table 6 lists all nominations against which cloture was moved from 1949, when the Senate changed the cloture rule to allow it to be moved on nominations, until November 21, 2013, when the Senate reinterpreted the rule... |
Although much progress has been made in achieving the ambitious goals that Congress established more than 35 years ago to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters, long-standing problems persist, and new problems have emerged. Water quality problems are diverse, rangi... | Although much progress has been made in achieving the ambitious goals that Congress established more than 35 years ago in the Clean Water Act (CWA) to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters, long-standing problems persist, and new problems have emerged. Water qualit... |
President Trump proposes to resume development of the long-planned nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, which had been suspended under the Obama Administration. The Trump Administration's congressional budget request for FY2019, submitted February 12, 2018, continued the Administration's FY2018 funding r... | Management of civilian radioactive waste has posed difficult issues for Congress since the beginning of the nuclear power industry in the 1950s. Federal policy is based on the premise that nuclear waste can be disposed of safely, but proposed storage and disposal facilities have frequently been challenged on safety, he... |
Control of information has always been part of military operations, and the U.S. Strategic Command views information operations as a core military competency, with new emphasis on (1) use of electromagnetic energy, (2) cyber operations, and (3) use of psychological operations to manipulate an adversary's perceptions. D... | This report describes the emerging areas of information operations, cybersecurity, and cyberwar in the context of U.S. national security. It also notes related policy issues of potential interest to Congress. For military planners, the control of information is critical to military success, and communications networks ... |
A full list of the damaging biological and economic effects of invasive plants and animals risks sounding like hyperbole. It includes loss of western rangelands to invasive plants, blockage of power plant intakes to invasive mussels, and major declines of birds and mammals to invasive snakes in the Everglades. So vast ... | For the first few centuries after the arrival of Europeans in North America, plants and animals of many species were sent between the two continents. The transfer of non-natives consisted not only of intentional westbound species ranging from pigs to dandelions but also of intentional eastbound species, such as gray sq... |
The promotion of alternatives to petroleum, including fuel ethanol, has been an ongoing goal of U.S. energy policy. This promotion has led to the establishment of significant federal policies beneficial to the ethanol industry, including tax incentives, import tariffs, and mandates for ethanol use. The costs and benefi... | Ethanol plays a key role in policy discussions about energy, agriculture, taxes, and the environment. In the United States it is mostly made from corn; in other countries it is often made from cane sugar. Fuel ethanol is generally blended in gasoline to reduce emissions, increase octane, and extend gasoline stocks. Rec... |
Regulation, like taxing and spending, is a basic function of government. Each year, federal agencies issue between 3,000 and 4,000 final rules on topics ranging from the timing of bridge openings to the permissible levels of arsenic and other contaminants in drinking water. Unlike taxing and spending, however, the cost... | Some policy makers have expressed an interest in measuring total regulatory costs and benefits (e.g., the Congressional Office of Regulatory Analysis Creation and Sunset and Review Act of 2011, H.R. 214, 112th Congress), and estimates of total regulatory costs have been cited in support of regulatory reform legislation... |
Medicare is the nation's health insurance program for individuals aged 65 and over and certain disabled persons. Medicare consists of four distinct parts: Part A or Hospital Insurance (HI); Part B or Supplementary Medical Insurance (SMI); Part C or Medicare Advantage (MA); and Part D, the prescription drug benefit. Med... | Medicare is the nation's health insurance program for individuals aged 65 and over and certain disabled persons. Medicare consists of four distinct parts: Part A or Hospital Insurance (HI); Part B or Supplementary Medical Insurance (SMI); Part C or Medicare Advantage (MA); and Part D, the prescription drug benefit. The... |
R eforms to the Medicaid program, which provides medical assistance for low-income and medically needy individuals, have been proposed during the 115 th Congress. One component of these reforms would allow states to impose some form of "work requirements" on certain categories of individuals as a stipulation for receiv... | Proposals have been introduced in the 115th Congress to reform the Medicaid program, which provides medical assistance to low-income and needy individuals. One such approach, taken by House-passed H.R. 1628, the American Health Care Act of 2017, would allow states to impose work requirements on certain categories of in... |
In a criminal law context, bail is most often thought of as the posting of security to ensure the presence of an accused at subsequent judicial proceedings—that is, "[t]o obtain the release of (oneself or another) by providing security for future appearance." The term itself is less frequently used now, however, due in... | This is an overview of the federal law of bail. Bail is the release of an individual following his arrest upon his promise—secured or unsecured; conditioned or unconditioned—to appear at subsequent judicial criminal proceedings. An accused may be denied bail if he is unable to satisfy the conditions set for his release... |
The Army is composed of both an Active Component (AC) and a Reserve Component (RC). The AC consists of soldiers who are in the Army as their full-time occupation. The RC consists primarily of soldiers who serve part-time but who can be ordered to full-time duty. The Army's RC is made up of both the Army National Guard ... | The Army is composed of both an Active Component (AC) and a Reserve Component (RC). The AC consists of soldiers who are in the Army as their full-time occupation. The RC is composed primarily of soldiers who serve part-time but who can be ordered to full-time duty. The Army's RC is made up of both the Army National Gua... |
The National Health Service Corps (NHSC) is a clinician recruitment and retention program that aims to reduce health workforce shortages in underserved areas. The NHSC has three components: (1) a federal scholarships program, (2) a federal loan repayment program, and (3) a state-operated loan repayment program. Under e... | The National Health Service Corps (NHSC) provides scholarships and loan repayments to health care providers in exchange for a period of service in a health professional shortage area (HPSA). The program places clinicians at facilities—generally not-for-profit or government-operated—that might otherwise have difficultie... |
Legislation aimed at revising the law governing the admission of professional, managerial, and skilled foreign workers to the United States received attention in both chambers of the 113 th Congress. This workforce is seen by many as a catalyst of U.S. global economic competitiveness and is likewise considered a key el... | The admission of professional, managerial, and skilled foreign workers raises a complex set of policy issues as the United States competes internationally for the most talented workers in the world, without adversely effecting U.S. workers and U.S. students entering the labor market. Legislative proposals that Congress... |
The 112 th Congress is currently discussing how to fund the federal government's discretionary programs for the remainder of FY2011, which began on October 1, 2010. Congress approved a series of seven short-term continuing resolutions (CRs) to fund government activities. The current CR provides funding until April 15, ... | The 112th Congress is considering H.R. 1473, the Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011, which would fund the federal government's discretionary programs for the remainder of FY2011, which began on October 1, 2010. H.R. 1473 represents a last-minute compromise reached on April 8, the ev... |
Exports of U.S. livestock and poultry products are important both to farmers and to the U.S. economy. In 2009, U.S. livestock and poultry exports were valued at more than $10 billion, accounting for about 12% of total global meat trade (estimated at nearly $87 billion in 2009). In recent years, however, some countries ... | Exports of U.S. livestock and poultry products are important both to farmers and to the U.S. economy. In 2009, U.S. livestock and poultry exports were valued at more than $10 billion, accounting for about 12% of total global meat trade (estimated at nearly $87 billion in 2009). Growing concerns about antimicrobial resi... |
By exercising its power to determine whether federal and state government actions are constitutional, the Supreme Court has developed a large body of judicial decisions, or "precedents," interpreting the Constitution. Rules and principles established in prior cases inform the Court's future decisions. The role that pre... | By exercising its power to determine the constitutionality of federal and state government actions, the Supreme Court has developed a large body of judicial decisions, or "precedents," interpreting the Constitution. How the Court uses precedent to decide controversial issues has prompted debate over whether the Court s... |
Total private nonfarm employment fell from a peak of 111.6 million in February 2001 to a trough of 108.4 million in July 2003. It then expanded through 2007, reducing the unemployment rate to a relatively low level, although not as low as was reached at the end of the previous expansion. Since the beginning of 2008, em... | Total nonfarm private employment has fallen since the beginning of 2008. Job loss is one of the most important macroeconomic problems facing policymakers, both in terms of its economic and social cost. But what is often missing from the policy debate is a distinction between net job loss and gross job loss. Gross job l... |
The Impact Aid program, administered by the U.S. Department of Education (ED), is one of the oldest federal education programs, dating from 1950. Impact Aid compensates local educational agencies (LEAs) for a "substantial and continuing financial burden" resulting from federal activities. These activities include feder... | The Impact Aid program, administered by the U.S. Department of Education (ED) and authorized by Title VIII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) is one of the oldest federal education programs, dating from 1950. Impact Aid compensates local educational agencies (LEAs) for "substantial and continuing fina... |
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the conduct of international relations through professional diplomats with regard to issues of treaties, trade, war and peace, economics and culture. According to Senat... | Many foreign affairs experts believe that the international system is undergoing a momentous transition affecting its very nature. Some, such as former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, compare the changes in the international system to those of a century ago. Secretary of State Rice relates the changes to the period... |
Article III, Section I, of the Constitution provides, in part, that the "judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." It further provides that Justices on the Supreme Court and judges on lower courts e... | The selection and confirmation process for U.S. circuit and district court judges is of continuing interest to Congress. Recent Senate debates over judicial nominations have focused on issues such as the relative degree of success of President Barack Obama's nominees in gaining Senate confirmation compared with other r... |
Four major principles currently underlie U.S. policy for admitting lawful permanent residents (LPRs): reunifying families, admitting individuals with needed skills, providing humanitarian assistance, and diversifying immigrant flows by country of origin. These principles are expressed in the Immigration and Nationality... | The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) specifies a complex set of categories and numerical limits for admitting lawful permanent residents (LPRs) to the United States that includes economic priorities among the admission criteria. These priorities are addressed primarily through the employment-based immigration syst... |
The pricing of prescription drugs remains a significant concern for many U.S. consumers. As spending on health care has risen in recent years, so too has consumer interest in purchasing more affordable medications. Overseas markets provide one possible source of less costly prescription drugs. Some comparative studies ... | Prescription drugs often cost far more in the United States than in other countries. Some consumers have attempted to import medications from abroad in order to realize cost savings. The practice of importing prescription drugs outside the distribution channels established by the brand-name drug company is commonly ter... |
This report, divided into three main sections, examines the political and economic situation in Venezuela and U.S.-Venezuelan relations. The first section surveys the political transformation of Venezuela under the populist rule of President Hugo Chávez (1999-2013) and the first two years of the government of President... | Although historically the United States had close relations with Venezuela, a major oil supplier, friction in bilateral relations increased under the leftist, populist government of President Hugo Chávez (1999-2013), who died in 2013 after battling cancer. After Chávez's death, Venezuela held presidential elections in ... |
China has made clear advances in space capabilities over the past decade. The country has launched over 100 orbital missions since 1970, including a string of 50 consecutive successful Long March rocket launches from 1996 to 2006, after overcoming technical problems with the help of U.S. companies in the mid-1990s. Chi... | China has a determined, yet still modest, program of civilian space activities planned for the next decade. The potential for U.S.-China cooperation in space—an issue of interest to Congress—has become more controversial since the January 2007 Chinese anti-satellite test. The test reinforced concerns about Chinese inte... |
A victims' rights amendment to the United States Constitution has been introduced in threeessentially identically worded resolutions in the 108th Congress: S.J.Res. 1 , H.J.Res. 48 , and H.J.Res. 10 . (1) TheAmendment is one which the Presidenthas endorsed both in this Congress and the 107th Congress. (2) Comparable pr... | Thirty-three states have added a victims' rights amendment to their state constitutions. S.J.Res. 1 / H.J.Res. 48 / H.J.Res. 10 would add a victims'rights amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment is identical to proposalsoffered in the 107th Congress ( S.J.Res. 35 / H.J.Res. 88 / H.J.Res. 91 ) and has... |
An administrative agency may generally only exercise that authority which is provided to it by Congress. Often, however, congressional delegations of authority are imprecise, and, as a result, agencies must construe ambiguous terms and make interpretive decisions in order to implement Congress's delegation. The Supreme... | An administrative agency may generally only exercise that authority which is provided to it by Congress. Often, however, congressional delegations of authority are imprecise, and, as a result, agencies must construe ambiguous terms and make interpretive decisions in order to implement Congress's delegation. The Supreme... |
C hina's rise from a poor developing country to a major economic power in about four decades has been spectacular. From 1979 (when economic reforms began) to 2017, China's real gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of nearly 10%. According to the World Bank, China has "experienced the fastest sust... | Prior to the initiation of economic reforms and trade liberalization nearly 40 years ago, China maintained policies that kept the economy very poor, stagnant, centrally controlled, vastly inefficient, and relatively isolated from the global economy. Since opening up to foreign trade and investment and implementing free... |
A ccess to health care is, in part, determined by the supply of physicians available to provide treatment. Physician supply is a function of the number of physicians trained, how long they remain in practice, their productivity, and the hours they work. Policymakers have demonstrated a long-standing interest in access ... | Access to health care is, in part, determined by the availability of physicians, a function of the physician supply. Policymakers have demonstrated a long-standing interest in access to care, both in general and for specific populations. Moreover, federal support for medical residency training (a.k.a., graduate medical... |
By the early 1990s, after decades of civil war and military rule in parts of the hemisphere, 34 of the 35 governments in the region were elected civilian democracies. Likewise, most of the countries in the region discarded statist economic policies in favor of economic liberalization. In order to build on these values ... | The fifth Summit of the Americas in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago was held April 17-19, 2009. It was the first hemispheric forum for President Barack Obama to engage with leaders from across Latin America and the Caribbean. The Port of Spain Summit was also the first meeting of all 34 democratic heads of governmen... |
Federal judges have repeatedly expressed concern about what they view as a continuing decline in their "real salary" level. Chief Justice Roberts has characterized the current judicial pay rate as a "constitutional crisis," particularly noting that judicial salaries remain steady or decrease as the real salaries of law... | Several federal judges, including the Chief Justice of the United States, have expressed concern over the level of judicial salary. Chief Justice Roberts has called the current levels of judicial salary a "constitutional crisis" that threatens the independence of the federal courts. The most common arguments for raisin... |
The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89-329), as amended, authorizes a broad array of federal student aid programs that assist students and their families with paying for or financing the costs of obtaining a postsecondary education. These federal student aid programs are authorized under Title IV of the HEA. Re... | The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89-329), as amended, authorizes a broad array of federal student aid programs that assist students and their families with paying for or financing the costs of obtaining a postsecondary education. These federal student aid programs are authorized under Title IV of the HEA. Re... |
Around the world, more than 3.3 billion people have access to the Internet, an increase from about 2 billion people in 2013. Most use this access to conduct activities related to their day-to-day lives—such as accessing government services, banking and paying bills, communicating with friends and relatives, researching... | Modern communication tools such as the Internet provide a relatively inexpensive, accessible, easy-entry means of sharing ideas, information, and pictures around the world. In a political and human rights context, in closed societies when the more established, formal news media is denied access to or does not report on... |
Membership in the United Nations (U.N.) has been an issue of ongoing interest for Congress. Over the years, Members have focused on the process and criteria for U.N. membership, as well as on U.S. policy and roles in determining membership. Currently, the United Nations has 193 members. The organization also has two no... | Since the United Nations (U.N.) was established in 1945, the U.S. government, including many Members of Congress, has maintained an ongoing interest in the criteria and process for membership in the United Nations and its specialized agencies. The United Nations currently has 193 member states and two observer non-memb... |
T he term big data continues to be a buzzword in many industries. While frequently discussed, no commonly accepted definition of the term big data exists. In many cases, the terminology used to discuss the topic is not always consistent and can vary by industry and user. Based on the broad scope of the subject, this re... | Recent media and industry reports have employed the term big data as a key to the future of increased food production and sustainable agriculture. A recent hearing on the private elements of big data in agriculture suggests that Congress too is interested in potential opportunities and challenges big data may hold. Whi... |
Federal and state laws have always played a role in protecting minors from criminal victimization. For example, Congress has enacted laws dealing with child pornography, child luring, and child sexual exploitation. However, given its immediacy, anonymity, and accessibility, the Internet offers a forum, through social n... | While Congress, under the Commerce Clause, has authority to regulate the Internet, Internet "harassment" presents new challenges for legislators in terms of defining and prosecuting such activity. Definitions for these terms vary based upon jurisdiction. Internet harassment usually encompasses "cyberstalking," "cyberha... |
Most of the funding for the activities of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) comes from discretionary appropriations provided each year in the annual appropriations acts enacted by Congress. HUD's programs are primarily designed to address housing problems faced by households with very low incomes or... | The President's FY2012 budget was released on February 14, 2011. It included a request for nearly $47.9 billion in gross new appropriations for HUD in FY2012. After accounting for rescissions of prior-year unobligated balances and offsets available from the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) mortgage insurance progra... |
Through its oversight, authorization, and appropriations roles, Congress will likely play a central role in helping implement any decision to increase U.S. troop levels in Afghanistan, as well as any change in their mission. Beyond committing additional forces to Afghanistan, Congress will also likely need to address h... | The Trump Administration is reportedly considering proposals to deploy additional ground forces to Afghanistan and somewhat broaden their mission. These forces would likely be part of the Resolute Support Mission (RSM), the ongoing NATO mission to train and support Afghan security forces. In testimony before the Senate... |
On March 27, 2014, the U.N. General Assembly approved a resolution by the vote of 100-11, with 58 abstentions, affirming Ukraine's territorial integrity and terming the March 16 referendum in Crimea illegitimate and not a basis for a change in the status of the region. Russia's U.N. ambassador Vitaly Churkin argued tha... | The United States recognized the independence of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia when the former Soviet Union broke up at the end of 1991. The United States has fostered these states' ties with the West in part to end their dependence on Russia for trade, security, and other relations. The United States has pursued cl... |
A bipartisan compromise bill to provide comprehensive immigration reform ( S. 1639 ) stalled in the Senate on June 28, 2007, when the key cloture vote failed. In terms of the H-1B provisions, S. 1639 would increase the annual cap on H-1B visas to 115,000 (and potentially up to 180,000). It also draws on the labor marke... | The economic prosperity of the 1990s fueled a drive to increase the levels of employment-based immigration. Both the Congress and the Federal Reserve Board then expressed concern that a scarcity of labor could curtail the pace of economic growth. A primary response was to increase the supply of foreign temporary profes... |
Congress's contempt power is the means by which Congress responds to certain acts that in its view obstruct the legislative process. Contempt may be used either to coerce compliance, to punish the contemnor, and/or to remove the obstruction. Although any action that directly obstructs the effort of Congress to exercise... | Congress's contempt power is the means by which Congress responds to certain acts that in its view obstruct the legislative process. Contempt may be used either to coerce compliance, to punish the contemnor, and/or to remove the obstruction. Although arguably any action that directly obstructs the effort of Congress to... |
The First Amendment provides that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." In some cases, the right to exercise one's religion conflicts with the government's need to enforce a uniform set of laws to ensure a civilized society. The constitutional st... | The constitutional standard by which laws that burden an individual's First Amendment right to exercise his religion are measured has evolved over the last half-century through U.S. Supreme Court decisions and legislative action by Congress in response to those decisions. After decades of requiring that laws burdening ... |
The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) offers a broad range of benefits to veterans of the U.S. Armed Forces and to certain members of their families. Among these benefits are various types of financial assistance, including monthly cash payments to disabled veterans, health care, education, and housing. Certain ... | The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) offers a broad range of benefits to U.S. Armed Forces veterans and certain members of their families. Among these benefits are various types of financial assistance, including monthly cash payments to disabled veterans, health care, education, and housing. Basic criteria mus... |
Policy makers are concerned about the wealth of U.S. families because of the relationship between wealth and economic well-being. Wealth is a store of future income that serves a critical economic security function. In times of economic hardship, such as unemployment, illness, or divorce, wealth is an additional source... | U.S. family wealth has been an underlying consideration in congressional deliberations on various issues, including education, taxation, social welfare, and recovery from the 2007-2009 recession. This report analyzes the change over time in the level and concentration of family wealth as measured by net worth (i.e., as... |
Congressional interest in the patent system has been demonstrated by the recent enactment of the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (AIA), arguably the most significant amendments to the patent laws since 1952. Subsequent to the enactment of the AIA, Members of Congress have expressed criticism with respect to the grant o... | The term "compulsory license" refers to the grant of permission for an enterprise seeking to use another's intellectual property without the consent of its proprietor. The grant of a compulsory patent license typically requires the sanction of a governmental entity and provides for compensation to the patent owner. Com... |
This report briefly summarizes and discusses the economic impact of selected business-related tax provisions that had expired at the end of 2014 and were extended or made permanent by the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2016 ( P.L. 114-113 ), signed into law on December 18, 2015. Provisions not made permanent would ... | The Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2016 (P.L. 114-113), signed into law on December 18, 2015, made permanent, extended through 2019, or extended through 2016 some tax provisions that had expired at the end of 2014. Previous legislation had extended these provisions for a year (or in some cases two years) at a time.... |
The electrical grid in the United States comprises all of the power plants generating electricity, together with the transmission and distribution lines and systems that bring power to end-use customers. The "grid" also connects the many publicly and privately owned electric utility and power companies in different sta... | The electrical grid in the United States comprises all of the power plants generating electricity, together with the transmission and distribution lines and systems that bring power to end-use customers. The "grid" also connects the many publicly and privately owned electric utility and power companies in different sta... |
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