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Congress's contempt power is the means by which Congress responds to certain acts that in its view obstruct the legislative process. Contempt may be used either to coerce compliance, punish the contemnor, and/or to remove the obstruction. Although any action that directly obstructs the effort of Congress to exercise it... | Congress's contempt power is the means by which Congress responds to certain acts that in its view obstruct the legislative process. Contempt may be used either to coerce compliance, punish the contemnor, and/or to remove the obstruction. Although arguably any action that directly obstructs the effort of Congress to ex... |
Hypoxia refers to a depressed concentration of dissolved oxygen in water. While definitions vary somewhat by region, it is generally agreed that hypoxia in a marine environment occurs seasonally when dissolved oxygen levels fall below 2-3 milligrams per liter. Normal dissolved oxygen concentrations in nearshore marine ... | An adequate level of dissolved oxygen is necessary to support most forms of aquatic life. While very low levels of dissolved oxygen (hypoxia) can be natural, especially in deep ocean basins and fjords, hypoxia in coastal waters is mostly the result of human activities that have modified landscapes or increased nutrient... |
The issue of restricting plantings of fruits, vegetables, and wild rice on base acres in the farm commodity programs is a topic of debate in the 2007 farm bill. Following a brief background discussion of the legislative history and policy options for dealing with the planting restrictions on fruits, vegetables, and wil... | Owners of cropland with a history of growing "program crops" receive federal subsidy payments without regard to what crops are currently being produced on these base acres. In other words, these "direct payments" are decoupled from crop planting decisions. While the direct payments program is characterized as giving pr... |
Part of the debate over the Bush Administration decision to use military action to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein centers on whether or not that regime was allied with Al Qaeda. In building an argument that the United States needed to oust Saddam Hussein militarily, the Administration asserted that Iraq constit... | In explaining the decision to invade Iraq and oust Saddam Hussein from power, the Administration asserted, among other justifications, that the regime of Saddam Hussein had a working relationship with the Al Qaeda organization. The Administration assessed that the relationship dated to the early 1990s, and was based on... |
There has been an elevated level of drug trafficking-related violence within and between the drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) in Mexico—a country with which the United States shares a nearly 2,000-mile border. Estimates have placed the number of drug trafficking-related deaths in Mexico between December 2006 (when... | There has been an elevated level of drug trafficking-related violence within and between the drug trafficking organizations in Mexico. This violence has generated concern among U.S. policy makers that the violence in Mexico might spill over into the United States. U.S. federal officials have denied that the increase in... |
The child tax credit was created in 1997 by the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 ( P.L. 105-34 ) to help ease the financial burden that families incur when they have children. Over the past 20 years legislative changes have significantly changed the credit, transforming it from a generally nonrefundable credit available onl... | The child tax credit was initially structured in the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-34) as a $500-per-child nonrefundable credit to provide tax relief to middle- and upper-middle-income families. Since 1997, various laws have modified key parameters of the credit, expanding the availability of the benefit to mor... |
The current gap between U.S. coal supply and domestic demand may widen as low cost natural gas becomes more attractive to electric power plants, and uncertainties with new environmental regulations discourage investment in new coal plants. Coal producers with excess supply will likely seek to expand their market abroad... | The gap between available U.S. coal supply and demand may continue to widen as low cost natural gas becomes more attractive to electric power plants and uncertainties with emission regulations may inhibit new coal plant investments. Coal producers with excess supply will likely seek to expand their market abroad. Conse... |
Many years of debate about unauthorized immigration to the United States culminated in the enactment of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986. That year, there were an estimated 3.2 million unauthorized aliens in the country. IRCA coupled legalization programs for certain segments of the unauthorized po... | Unauthorized immigration and unauthorized employment continue to be key issues in the ongoing debate over immigration policy. Today's discussions about these issues build on the work of prior Congresses. In 1986, following many years of debate about unauthorized immigration to the United States, Congress passed the Imm... |
Research on former foster youth is limited and most of the studies on outcomes for these youth face methodological challenges. For example, they include brief follow-up periods; have low response rates, non-representative samples, and small sample sizes; and do not follow youth prior to exit from foster care. Few studi... | Congress has long been concerned with the well-being of older youth in foster care and those who have recently emancipated from care without going to a permanent home. Research on this population is fairly limited, and the few studies that are available have focused on youth who live in a small number of states. This r... |
Located along the Pacific coast of South America, Chile is a politically stable, upper-middle-income nation of 18 million people. The country declared independence from Spain in 1810 but did not achieve full independence until 1818. Chile enjoyed mass electoral democracy from 1932 until 1973, when the Chilean military,... | Chile, located along the Pacific coast of South America, is a politically stable, upper-middle-income nation of 18 million people. In 2013, Michelle Bachelet and her center-left "New Majority" coalition won the presidency and sizeable majorities in both houses of the Chilean Congress after campaigning on a platform of ... |
Americans spend more than $1 trillion on food each year, nearly half of it in restaurants, schools, and other places outsid e the home. Federal laws give food manufacturers, distributors, and retailers the basic responsibility for assuring that foods are wholesome, safe, and handled under sanitary conditions. A number ... | Numerous federal, state, and local agencies share responsibilities for regulating the safety of the U.S. food supply. Federal responsibility for food safety rests primarily with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). FDA, an agency of the Department of Health and Human Ser... |
On September 22, 2010, President Obama signed the Presidential Policy Directive on Global Development. The directive called for the elevation of foreign development assistance as a national priority and outlined an integrated approach to development, diplomacy, and national security. The Global Climate Change Initiativ... | The United States supports international financial assistance for global climate change initiatives in developing countries. Under the Obama Administration, this assistance has been articulated primarily as the Global Climate Change Initiative (GCCI), a platform within the President's 2010 Policy Directive on Global De... |
U.S. policymakers and members of the public have contentiously debated U.S. ratification of the United Nations (U.N.) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, or the Convention) since it was drafted in 1979. CEDAW is the only international human rights treaty that specifically ... | The Senate may consider providing its advice and consent to U.S. ratification of the United Nations (U.N.) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, or the Convention) during the 114th Congress. CEDAW is the only international human rights treaty that specifically addresses the ... |
The Government Accountability Office (GAO)—with more than 3,100 staff positions and an annual budget exceeding $507 million in FY2008—is the largest of several support agencies that provide research, review, and analysis for Congress; and it is the only one with a nationwide field structure. GAO, which had been titled ... | On July 7, 2004, an old congressional support agency was given a new name, while keeping the same initials (GAO): at that time, the General Accounting Office, established in 1921, was re-designated the Government Accountability Office (P.L. 108-271). The renaming, which came at the request of its head, the Comptroller ... |
Nearly 300,000 federal employees are presently in pay systems that attempt to link pay increases to job performance—which arguably may be defined as how effectively, efficiently, or thoroughly one performs his or her job. These pay systems vary considerably in their design, implementation, and outcomes. All of them, ho... | In many occupations today, pay is intended to reflect employee performance—or how effectively, efficiently, or thoroughly one performs his or her job. The federal government is no different from the private sector in this regard. Nearly 300,000 federal employees are currently in pay systems that attempt to make pay inc... |
Although the advent of digital technology has brought about higher quality for audio and video content, creators of such content and policy makers are concerned that, without adequate content protection measures, unlawful digital copying and distribution of copyrighted material may endanger the viability of the motion ... | Protecting audio content broadcasted by digital and satellite radios from unauthorized dissemination and reproduction is a priority for producers and owners of those copyrighted works. One technological measure that has been discussed is the Audio Protection Flag (APF or "audio flag"). The audio flag is a special signa... |
For almost seven decades, the United States has played a leading role in global efforts to alleviate hunger and malnutrition and to enhance world food security through international food aid—primarily through either the donation or the sale on concessional terms of U.S. agricultural commodities. Since 2006, U.S. food a... | For almost six decades, the United States has played a leading role in global efforts to alleviate hunger and malnutrition and to enhance world food security through international food assistance—traditionally through either the donation or sale on concessional terms of U.S. agricultural commodities but in recent years... |
In its budget proposal for FY2014, the Obama Administration proposed a "strategic review" of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a federal government corporation established by the Tennessee Valley Authority Act (TVA Act) (16 U.S.C. 831). Reform TVA. Since its creation in the 1930s during the Great Depression, the fe... | In its budget proposal for FY2014, the Obama Administration proposed a "strategic review" of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a federal government corporation established by the Tennessee Valley Authority Act (TVA Act) (16 U.S.C. 831) in 1933. The preamble to the TVA Act lists flood control, reforestation, and agr... |
The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has provided housing assistance for low-income households through numerous programs. In some programs, HUD provided assistance by entering into financial arrangements with private owners (both for-profit and nonprofit), who in turn developed and continue to own rent... | The term "assisted housing preservation" refers to public policy efforts to maintain the affordability of rental properties financed or subsidized by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) but owned by private for-profit or nonprofit organizations. Beginning in the late 1950s, HUD extended mortgage and/o... |
On November 19, 2012, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the country's largest and oldest guerrilla organization, announced a two-month unilateral ceasefire as peace talks continued in Havana, Cuba. A month earlier, the Colombian government began formal peace talks with the FARC in Oslo, Norway. (For mo... | Colombia, a key U.S. ally, has made measurable progress in providing security despite having endured the longest internal armed conflict in the Western Hemisphere. It has long been a source for both cocaine and heroin. Drug trafficking has helped to perpetuate civil conflict by funding both left-wing and right-wing arm... |
President George W. Bush has stated that comprehensive immigration reform is a top priority of his second term, and his principles of reform include increased border security and enforcement of immigration laws within the interior of the United States, as well as a major overhaul of temporary worker visas, expansion of... | Replacing or supplementing the current preference system for admitting legal permanent residents (LPRs) with a point system is garnering considerable interest for the first time in over a decade. Briefly, point systems such as those of Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and New Zealand assign prospective immigrants with... |
Discussions on the federal workforce since the late 1990s have focused on the management ofhuman capital. The term "human capital" refers to "a concept that views employees as assets in thesame sense as financial capital ... [and] presupposes that an investment in human potential will yieldsignificant returns for the o... | As in the previous Congress, management of the federal workforce continues to be an issue ofinterest to the Senate and the House of Representatives in the 108th Congress. S. 129 ,the Federal Workforce Flexibility Act of 2003, passed the Senate with an amendment by unanimousconsent on April 8, 2004. In the House, the Su... |
The procedure for appointing a Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States is provided for by the Constitution in only a few words. The "Appointments Clause" (Article II, Section 2, clause 2) states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint ... Judges ... | The procedure for appointing a Justice to the Supreme Court is provided for in the U.S. Constitution in only a few words. The "Appointments Clause" in the Constitution (Article II, Section 2, clause 2) states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint ... Jud... |
State revenues declined during the recent economic recession (December 2007 through June 2009) and have not fully recovered. This decline in revenue continues to place considerable strain on state budgets. As a result, nearly all states made spending cuts—both to public programs and for public employees. At the same ti... | State revenues declined during the recent economic recession (December 2007 through June 2009) and have not fully recovered. At the same time, the recession increased the number of individuals meeting Medicaid's income eligibility standards. States are faced with tough decisions about where to direct their increasingly... |
Horses and burros are thought to have been first brought to the Americas by Spanish explorers around 1500. Those that escaped became the first wild horse herds in North America, with feral populations spreading throughout the Southwest in the 16 th and 17 th centuries. Native Americans incorporated horses and burros in... | The Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (the 1971 Act) protects wild horses and burros on federal lands, and places them under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the Forest Service (FS). Under the 1971 Act, the agencies are to inventory horse and burro populations on federal land to... |
Congress plays a major role in formulating and implementing U.S. trade policy through its Constitutional role in regulating foreign commerce. This role includes providing authority to the President to conclude trade agreements to eliminate and reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers to U.S. trade with other countries. Fo... | The Obama Administration finalized negotiations with South Korea in early December 2010 on a bilateral free trade agreement. Congress passed the implementing legislation for the U.S.-South Korea free trade agreement on October 21, 2011 (P.L. 112-42). Congress not only plays a direct role in approving legislation that i... |
The term "cloning" is used by scientists to describe many different processes that involve making copies of biological material, such as a gene, a cell, a plant or an animal. The cloning of genes, for example, has led to new treatments developed by the biotechnology industry for diseases such as diabetes and hemophilia... | In December 2005, an investigation by Seoul National University, South Korea, found that scientist Hwang Woo Suk had fabricated results on deriving patient-matched stem cells from cloned embryosâa major setback for the field. In May 2005 Hwang had announced a significant advance in creating human embryos using clonin... |
The Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies (THUD) appropriations subcommittees are charged with drafting bills to provide annual appropriations for the Department of Transportation (DOT), Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and related agencies. Typically, these bills are rep... | The Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies (THUD) appropriations subcommittee is charged with providing annual appropriations for the Department of Transportation (DOT), Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and related agencies. The HUD budget generally accounts for the larges... |
Everyone eats. As a result, everyone is affected to some degree by food price changes. This makes understanding food price changes and their effects on consumers an important matter for Congress. This report provides information on the current status and outlook for U.S. food prices, measuring their changes and how suc... | The heightened price volatility of global commodity markets in 2008, the devastating U.S. drought of 2012, China's growing demand for international commodities, and almost routine media reports of daunting world population growth all raise the specter of food price inflation and generate many questions about farm and f... |
In recent years, some scholars, legislators, and others have proposed to reexamine and potentially reinterpret the U.S. Constitution's Citizenship Clause to change and limit the current rule of conferring U.S. citizenship at birth to any person born in the United States, or "birthright citizenship." The Citizenship Cla... | The first clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, known as the Citizenship Clause, provides that "[a]ll persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." This generally has been taken t... |
On January 27, 2010, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) voted to provide an interpretive guidance, the Commission Guidance Regarding Disclosure Related to Climate Change (the Guidance), which technically does not create new legal obligations, but clarifies how publicly traded corporations should apply existin... | Publicly traded companies are required to transparently disclose material business risks to investors through regular filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). On January 27, 2010, the SEC voted to publish Commission Guidance Regarding Disclosure Related to Climate Change (the Guidance), which clarifie... |
By mid-March of 2008, gasoline prices exceeded $3.39/gallon (gal) while diesel fuel prices were $3.97/gal, a differential of almost $0.60/gal. In mid-March of 2007, the relationship between the two fuels was the reverse: gasoline prices were higher than diesel prices. At that time, diesel prices were roughly $2.68/gal,... | Over time, gasoline has typically been more expensive than diesel fuel. However, their relative prices have now reversed. In mid-March of 2008, gasoline prices exceeded $3.39/gallon (gal) while diesel fuel prices were above $3.97/gal, a differential of almost $0.60/gal. This has prompted questions of why the historic g... |
The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act, P.L. 93-288 ) authorizes the President to issue major disaster declarations in response to certain incidents that overwhelm the capabilities of tribal, state, and local governments. The Stafford Act defines a major disaster as any natura... | The primary source of funding for federal assistance authorized by a major disaster declaration is the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF), which is managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Major disaster declarations have occurred in every U.S. state since FY2000, with obligations for each incident ranging fr... |
Most Americans view health care for their children and for themselves as one of their topconcerns. The adverse consequences of going without health insurance may include unmet healthand dental needs, lower receipt of preventive services, avoidable hospitalizations, increasedlikelihood of receiving expensive emergency r... | Medical child support is the legal provision of payment of medical, dental, prescription, and other health care expenses of dependent children. It can include provisions to cover health insurancecosts as well as cash payments for unreimbursed medical expenses. According to 2001 ChildSupport Enforcement (CSE) data, 93% ... |
In the last few years, the United States has considered bilateral and regional free trade areas (FTAs) with a number of trading partners. Such arrangements are not new in U.S. trade policy. The United States has had a free trade arrangement with Israel since 1985 and with Canada since 1989. The latter was suspended whe... | Free trade areas (FTAs) are arrangements among two or more countries under which they agree to eliminate tariffs and nontariff barriers on trade in goods among themselves. However, each country maintains its own policies, including tariffs, on trade outside the region. In the last few years, the United States has engag... |
The war in Afghanistan began with a U.S.-led military response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, designed to remove the Taliban-led regime and prevent future terrorist safe havens. The war, currently in its 10 th year, is now a multi-faceted joint, civil-military, combined campaign, including a NATO-led m... | In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States launched and led military operations in Afghanistan in order to end the ability of the Taliban regime to provide safe haven to al Qaeda and to put a stop to al Qaeda's use of the territory of Afghanistan as a base of operations for terro... |
Numerous federal, state, and local agencies share responsibilities for regulating the safety of the U.S. food supply. Federal responsibility for food safety rests primarily with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). FDA, an agency of the Department of Health and Human... | The Subcommittees on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees oversee the budgets of two principal federal food safety agencies at the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). FDA, an... |
In 2003, Class Action Fairness Acts were reintroduced in the House and Senate after previouslegislation had died in the Congress. (1) Generallysimilar in content, each bill -- H.R. 1115 , and S. 274 / S. 1751 (2) -- has threemain sections: (1) an amendmentto the federal diversity statute, 28 U.S.C. � 1332; (3) (2) a ... | The House has passed H.R. 1115 and the Senate Judiciary Committee has reported out S. 274 (both styled the Class Action Fairness Act of 2003). Each (1) creates aconsumer class action bill of rights, and (2) allows the federal courts to try a greater number of largeclass action law suits (100 plaintiffs or more) arising... |
Despite the prominence of the U.S.-Japan alliance in America's overall strategic posture in the Asia-Pacific region, local concerns about the U.S. military presence on Okinawa have challenged the management of the alliance for decades. In recent years, Okinawan resistance has crystallized around the relocation of a U.S... | Although the U.S.-Japan alliance is often labeled as "the cornerstone" of security in the Asia Pacific region, local concerns about the U.S. military presence on the Japanese island of Okinawa have challenged the management of the alliance for decades. The Japanese archipelago serves as the most significant forward-ope... |
In recent years, deficit reduction commissions, including the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, have recommended using an alternative measure of consumer price change to make inflation adjustments to federal programs government-wide. The proposal would change, for example, the way the Social Secu... | In recent years, various proposals have been discussed in the context of ways to reduce federal budget deficits. One of these proposals calls for the use of a different measure of consumer price change to index various provisions of federal programs, including cost-of-living adjustments (COLAs). For example, under curr... |
The United States historically has led the global economic order that evolved after World War II. This economic order established multilateral economic institutions to advance rules-based commercial economic engagement, open markets, and transparent, nondiscriminatory treatment of all economic players. In turn, these e... | During the Obama Administration, the United States negotiated two comprehensive and high-standard mega-regional free trade agreements: the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) among the United States and 11 other countries, and the U.S.-European Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (T-TIP). The 12 TPP countries si... |
The Unified Agenda of Federal Regulatory and Deregulatory Actions (Unified Agenda) is compiled and published twice each year by the Regulatory Information Service Center (RISC) within the General Services Administration (GSA), and provides the public with information about regulations that federal agencies are consider... | The Obama Administration has launched an initiative to make the policymaking process more open and transparent, and has asked for comments from the public on how the rulemaking process in particular can be improved in these respects. Some observers have concluded that the most critical part of that process occurs befor... |
Eligible veterans are entitled to receive certain military honors at their funerals. In general, these honors are provided by the Department of Defense (DOD) to eligible veterans who are interred or inurned at Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) national cemeteries, state veterans cemeteries, and private cemeteries. Th... | Eligible veterans are entitled to receive military honors at their funerals. Federal law, enacted in 1999 (P.L. 105-261) and amended in 2000 (P.L. 106-65) provides that each eligible veteran shall be provided, at minimum, a two-person funeral honors detail, the playing of taps, and the folding and presentation of a U.S... |
The House Appropriations Committee introduced its Military Construction Appropriations Billfor Fiscal Year (FY) 2004 ( H.R. 2559 , H.Rept. 108-173 ) on June 23, 2003. The Houseconsidered and passed the bill on June 26, 2003. The Senate Appropriations Committee introduced its companion bill ( S. 1357 , S.Rept. 108-82 ) ... | The military construction (MilCon) appropriations bill provides funding for (1) military construction projects in the United States and overseas; (2) military family housing operations andconstruction; (3) U.S. contributions to the NATO Security Investment Program; and (4) the bulk ofbase realignment and closure (BRAC)... |
Since the early 1970s, federal law has required state and local governments to designate metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs) in urbanized areas with a population of 50,000 or more to help plan surface transportation infrastructure and services. There are currently 381 MPOs nationwide, of which 43 represent areas... | Federal law requires state and local governments to designate a metropolitan planning organization (MPO) in each urbanized area with a population of 50,000 or more to help plan surface transportation infrastructure and services. There are currently 381 MPOs nationwide. Despite some strengthening of their authority over... |
America's borders and ports are busy places, with tens of millions of cargo containers and hundreds of millions of lawful travelers entering the country each year, while tens of thousands of illegal cargo entries and hundreds of thousands of unauthorized migrants are seized, arrested, or turned away. At the same time, ... | The United States confronts a wide array of threats at U.S. borders, ranging from terrorists who may have weapons of mass destruction, to transnational criminals smuggling drugs or counterfeit goods, to unauthorized migrants intending to live and work in the United States. Given this diversity of threats, how may Congr... |
U.S. trade with the People's Republic of China (PRC) has raised several policy concerns. The trade is highly unbalanced in China's favor with a U.S. deficit of $201 billion in 2005. Year-to-date (January-October 2006), the U.S. deficit reached $190 billion. Many associate this deficit with the concomitant loss of Ameri... | As imports from the People's Republic of China (PRC) have surged in recent years, posing a threat to some U.S. industries and manufacturing employment, Congress has begun to focus on not only access to the Chinese market and intellectual property rights (IPO) protection, but also the mounting U.S. trade deficit with Ch... |
1. Why do countries trade? Economic theory states that trade occurs because it is mutually enriching . It is asserted that it has a positive economic effect like that caused by technological change, whereby economic efficiency is increased, allowing greater output from the same amount of scarce productive resources. By... | Congress plays a major role in U.S. trade policy through its legislative and oversight authority. There are a number of major trade issues that are currently the focus of Congress. For example, bills were introduced in the 113th Congress to reauthorize Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), the U.S. Generalized System of Pre... |
Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) are mutual funds made up of real estate and mortgageassets. In recent years, their performance has been stronger than broader market indicators, leadingto calls for inclusion of a REIT alternative in the Thrift Savings Plan (TSP) for federal workers. H.R. 1578 , the Real Estate Inv... | Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) are mutual funds made up of real estate and mortgageassets. In recent years, their performance has been stronger than broader market indicators, leadingto calls for inclusion of an REIT alternative in the Thrift Savings Plan (TSP) for federal workers. At present, the TSP is limited... |
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) plays a central role in shaping and implementing U.S. global health policy. The agency is one of three agencies tasked with leading the Global Health Initiative (GHI), an initiative created by the Obama Administration to coordinate ongoing presidential health in... | A number of U.S. agencies and departments implement U.S. government global health efforts. Overall, U.S. global health assistance is not always coordinated. Exceptions to this include U.S. international responses to key infectious diseases; for example, U.S. programs to address HIV/AIDS through the President's Emergenc... |
The Mexican economy experienced the most serious decline in economic growth in Latin America after the global financial crisis began in 2008. Mexico's dependence on manufacturing exports and strong ties to the U.S. economy have made the country very vulnerable to external events and changing economic conditions in the ... | The state of Mexico's economy is important for U.S. policymakers for many reasons, most significantly because a prosperous and democratic neighboring country is in the best interest of the United States. The two countries have strong economic, political, and social ties, which have direct policy implications related to... |
In August 2003, a political accord was signed that formally ended over three and one-half yearsof armed civil conflict in Liberia, a small West African country of about 3.3 million people. Sincethat time, the country has made steady progress toward consolidating peace, initiating post-warresettlement and socio-economic... | This report, which is updated periodically, covers recent events in Liberia and related U.S. policy. In 2003, Liberia began a post-conflict transition process to achieve enduring peace,socio-economic reconstruction and democratic governance. This process resulted from the signingof a peace accord and the resignation of... |
Congress is currently considering reauthorization of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The House passed a reauthorization bill ( H.R. 2874 ) in November 2017, and three bills have been introduced in the Senate, but so far the NFIP has received a series of short-term reauthorizations. The debate over a longer... | The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) was established by the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 (NFIA, 42 U.S.C. §4001 et seq.), and was most recently reauthorized until November 30, 2018 (P.L. 115-225). The general purpose of the NFIP is both to offer primary flood insurance to properties with significant floo... |
House Judiciary Committee Chairman Goodlatte introduced H.R. 3713 , the Sentencing Reform Act of 2015, for himself, ranking Judiciary Committee Member Representative Conyers, and a number of others on October 8, 2015. The proposal addresses four issues: the so-called safety valve that permits courts to disregard otherw... | H.R. 3713, the Sentencing Reform Act of 2015, addresses the sentences that may be imposed in various drug and firearms cases. It proposes amendments to those areas of federal law that govern mandatory minimum sentencing requirements for drug and firearm offenses; the so-called safety valves which permits court to impos... |
The Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies (THUD) appropriations subcommittee is charged with providing annual appropriations for the Department of Transportation (DOT), Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and related agencies. Title I of the annual THUD appropriations bill f... | The Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies (THUD) appropriations subcommittee is charged with providing annual appropriations for the Department of Transportation (DOT), Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and related agencies. The HUD budget generally accounts for the larges... |
The Multinational Species Conservation Fund (MSCF; 16 U.S.C. §4246) supports international conservation efforts benefitting several species of animals. The MSCF has five sub-funds, which provide grants for activities to conserve tigers, rhinoceroses, Asian and African elephants, marine turtles, and great apes (gorillas... | The Multinational Species Conservation Fund (MSCF) supports international conservation efforts benefitting several species of animals, often in conjunction with efforts under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). MSCF receives annual appropriations under the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service... |
Indian tribes are unique in that they are quasi-sovereign entities that enjoy all the sovereign rights not divested by treaties or Congress, or inconsistent with their dependent status. As "domestic dependent nations," "Indian tribes are distinct, independent political communities, retaining their original natural righ... | The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) provides workers with the right to collectively bargain with employers and requires employers to bargain in good faith. The NLRA excludes from the definition of the term "employer" "the United States or any wholly owned government corporation or any state or political subdivision... |
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) defines the employment-population ratio as the ratio of total civilian employment to the civilian noninstitutional population. Simply put, it is the portion of the adult population (16 years and older) that is employed. The ratio is one of several indicators used to assess labor mar... | The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) defines the employment-population ratio as the ratio of total civilian employment to the civilian noninstitutional population. Simply put, it is the portion of the population that is employed. The ratio is used primarily as a measure of job holders and to track the pace of job creat... |
Since the United States and Vietnam established diplomatic relations in 1995, the two countries have expanded relations and cooperation across a wide range of sectors. As U.S.-Vietnam bilateral economic, military, and diplomatic ties have grown, so has interest in strengthening cooperation in the nuclear energy sphere.... | U.S.-Vietnamese cooperation on nuclear energy and nonproliferation has grown in recent years along with closer bilateral economic, military, and diplomatic ties. In 2010, the two countries signed a Memorandum of Understanding that Obama Administration officials said would be a "stepping stone" to a bilateral nuclear co... |
Cypriot President Dimitris Christofias and Turkish Cypriot leader Mehmet Ali Talat have been holding direct negotiations since September 2008, with either the U.N. Secretary-General's Special Advisor for Cyprus Alexander Downer or his deputy Taye-Brook Zerihoun present at the meetings. The two leaders' agenda includes ... | Cyprus has been divided since 1974. Greek Cypriots, 76% of the population, live in the southern two-thirds of the island and lead the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus. Turkish Cypriots, 19% of the populace, live in the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC), recognized only by Turkey, with about 36,0... |
Congress has recently demonstrated significant ongoing interest in the issue of "patent assertion entities" (PAEs), which are popularly referred to as "patent trolls." The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act of 2011 (AIA) included an order for further study of PAE litigation, and in March 2013, the House Judiciary Subcommi... | Congress has recently demonstrated significant ongoing interest in litigation by "patent assertion entities" (PAEs), which are colloquially known as "patent trolls" and sometimes referred to as "non-practicing entities" (NPEs). The PAE business model focuses not on developing or commercializing patented inventions but ... |
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) conducts scientific research in areas such as ecosystems, climate, global climate change, weather, and oceans; supplies information on the oceans and atmosphere; and manages coastal and marine organisms and environments. In 1970, Reorganization Plan No. 4 creat... | The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) conducts scientific research in areas such as ecosystems, climate, global climate change, weather, and oceans; supplies information and data on the oceans and atmosphere; and manages coastal and marine organisms and environments. In 1970, Reorganization Plan No... |
An array of budget process reform proposals are put forth each year seeking to refine or modify the existing constitutional requirements, laws, and rules that make up the federal budget process. Some proposals may be designed to alter the budget process, for example attempting to improve transparency or oversight, perh... | An array of budget process reform proposals are put forth each year seeking to refine or modify the existing constitutional requirements, laws, and rules that make up the federal budget process. This report identifies, tracks, and explains current budget process reform proposals reported from committee or considered on... |
On October 16, 2008, EPA Administrator Stephen Johnson announced his final approval of a more stringent National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for lead. The publication of the revised standard in the Federal Register , on November 12, 2008, was the final step in a multi-year review process. When the previous sta... | The Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), under a court order to review the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for lead, announced his decision October 16, 2008, reducing the standard by 90%, from 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3) to 0.15 µg/m3. EPA also promulgated new monitoring ... |
Members of Congress have demonstrated their interest in the U.S. Foreign-Trade Zone (FTZ) system through hearings and legislation over the past seven decades. The program may enhance the competitiveness of U.S. businesses, support employment opportunities, and impact U.S. tariff revenues. Balancing these potential gain... | U.S. foreign-trade zones (FTZs) are geographic areas declared to be outside the normal customs territory of the United States. This means that, for foreign merchandise entering FTZs and re-exported as different products, customs procedures are streamlined and tariffs do not apply. For products intended for U.S. consump... |
The House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Military Quality of Life and Veterans Affairs and Related Agencies reported its draft of the appropriations bill on May 15, 2006 ( H.R. 5385 , H.Rept. 109-464 ), recommending a total Fiscal Year appropriation of $136.9 billion. The Rules Committee reported H.Res. 82... | The structure of the Committees on Appropriations were changed at the beginning of the 109th Congress, altering jurisdictions over the appropriations covered in this report, including military construction, military housing allowances, military installation maintenance and operation, the Department of Veterans Affairs,... |
The complex humanitarian emergency has emerged as a category of crisis that can be defined in different ways. For example, it can be viewed according to the situation on the ground—scale and intensity of population dislocation, destruction of social networks/community and infrastructure, insecurity of civilians and non... | The majority of humanitarian emergencies worldwide stem from natural disasters or from conflicts. Congress has consistently supported humanitarian efforts as a means of saving lives, promoting stability, and furthering U.S. foreign policy objectives. Intervention results in varying amounts of relief and recovery assist... |
In a criminal law context, bail is most often thought of as the posting of security to ensure the presence of an accused at subsequent judicial proceedings—that is, "to obtain the release of (oneself or another) by providing security for future appearance." The term itself is less frequently used now, however, due in p... | This is an overview of the federal law of bail. Bail is the release of an individual following his arrest upon his promise—secured or unsecured; conditioned or unconditioned—to appear at subsequent judicial criminal proceedings. An accused may be denied bail if he is unable to satisfy the conditions set for his release... |
Research published by the Kaiser Family Foundation (KFF) indicates that two-thirds of parents say they are "very" concerned that children in this country are being exposed to too much inappropriate content in the media, and a substantial proportion think sex (55%) and violence (43%) in the media contribute "a lot" to y... | To assist parents in supervising the television viewing habits of their children, the Communications Act of 1934 (as amended by the Telecommunications Act of 1996) requires that, as of January 1, 2000, new television sets with screens 13 inches or larger sold in the United States be equipped with a "V-chip" to control ... |
The environmental, economic, and societal impacts of the surface mining practice termed mountaintop removal mining have attracted considerable attention. This type of surface mining occurs in an area of approximately 12 million acres located in portions of Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, and... | Mountaintop removal mining involves removing the top of a mountain in order to recover the coal seams contained there. This practice occurs in six Appalachian states (Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, and Ohio). It creates an immense quantity of excess spoil (dirt and rock that previously comp... |
When awarding franchises for the use of public rights of way to offer cable television service, many local jurisdictions have required the cable companies to set aside some of their channel capacity for public access, educational, or governmental (collectively, PEG) use and to provide financial support for those PEG ac... | The environment for public, educational, and governmental (PEG) cable channels has been roiled by public policy and budgetary changes at the federal, state, and local levels and by technological changes in cable networks. More than 100 PEG access centers—which provide community groups and individuals free access to vid... |
Economic growth and expanded global trade have led to substantial increases in goods movement over the past few decades. The growth in freight transportation demand, along with growing passenger-side demand, has caused congestion in many parts of the transportation system, making freight movements slower and less relia... | Goods movement has increased substantially over the past few decades as the economy and global trade have expanded. Freight transportation demand in tandem with passenger-side demand has caused congestion in many parts of the transportation system, resulting in slower and less reliable freight movement. Also, the condi... |
For more than 50 years, the Small Business Administration (SBA) Disaster Loan Program has been a source of economic assistance to people and businesses stricken by disasters. Authorized by the Small Business Act, the program provides direct loans to help businesses, nonprofit organizations, homeowners, and renters repa... | Through its Office of Disaster Assistance (ODA), the Small Business Administration (SBA) has been a major source of assistance for the restoration of commerce and households in areas stricken by natural and human-caused disasters since the agency's creation in 1953. Through its disaster loan program, SBA offers low-int... |
This report provides an overview of selected campaign finance policy issues that have received recent legislative attention, or have otherwise been prominent, and which could receive attention during the 111 th Congress. Specifically, the report emphasizes nine issues: (1) bundling; (2) campaign travel aboard private a... | This report provides an overview of selected campaign finance policy issues that may receive, or have received, attention during the 111th Congress. Congress continues to consider the Supreme Court's January 21, 2010, ruling in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. The decision has shaped much of the legislat... |
In the past year, policy consequences of U.S. aid restrictions on International Criminal Court (ICC) member countries that have not signed agreements exempting U.S. citizens from ICC prosecution have prompted policy-makers to alter the policy somewhat. Latin America has been at the forefront of that reassessment. In pa... | During 2006, the Administration and Congress began to reassess some aspects of U.S. policy towards the International Criminal Court (ICC) because of unintended negative effects of that policy on relations with some ICC member countries, especially in Latin America. In Congress, support for aid restrictions on foreign a... |
Workers who lose their jobs due to a natural or other disaster can seek assistance through several federally supported programs. In many cases, disaster-affected workers will be served by permanent programs and systems that provide assistance to workers who involuntarily lose their jobs. In some cases, entities located... | The federal government supports several programs that can provide assistance to workers who lose their jobs as a result of a natural or other disaster. In many cases, disaster-affected workers will be served by permanent programs and systems that generally provide assistance to workers who involuntarily lose their jobs... |
This report provides a selection of materials for locating information on foreign countries and international organizations. This first section presents sources giving an overview of politics, economics, and recent history; the next section covers specialized topics. Included are titles of some of the most frequently c... | This report provides a selection of authoritative materials for locating information on foreign countries and international organizations. In the general information section, it presents sources giving an overview of politics, economics, and recent history. A specialized information section cites sources on human right... |
Since the 1970s, energy tax policy in the United States has attempted to achieve two broad objectives. First, policymakers have sought to reduce oil import dependence and enhance national security through a variety of domestic energy investment and production tax subsidies. Second, environmental concerns have led to su... | Since the 1970s, energy tax policy in the United States has attempted to achieve two broad objectives. First, policymakers have sought to reduce oil import dependence and enhance national security through a variety of domestic energy investment and production tax subsidies. Second, environmental concerns have led to su... |
Each Member serves as the leader of his or her personal office. In contrast, a Member who is a committee chair serves in addition as the leader of a committee, with responsibility for setting the course and direction of the panel for other committee members and the House. A chair also has responsibility for overseeing ... | A committee chair serves as the leader of a committee, with responsibility for setting the course and direction of the panel for committee members and the House and for managing a large professional and paraprofessional staff. The senior committee staff should ensure the chair's goals are carried out effectively. Once ... |
The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) requires the payment of a minimum wage, as well as overtime compensation at a rate of not less than one and one-half times an employee's hourly rate for hours worked in excess of a 40-hour workweek. While the FLSA exempts some employees from these requirements based on their job duti... | The increased use of personal data assistants (PDAs) and smartphones by employees outside of a traditional work schedule has raised questions about whether such use may be compensable under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). As PDAs and smartphones provide employees with mobile access to work email, clients, and co-w... |
A major issue in the upcoming farm bill debate is likely to be funding for conservation programs. Current authorization for mandatory funding for most of these programs, under the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 ( P.L. 107 - 171 ), expires at the end of FY2007. Mandatory funding means that the amount aut... | The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 authorized large increases in mandatory funding for several agricultural conservation programs. Most of these programs expire in FY2007, and the 110th Congress is likely to address future funding levels in a farm bill. Since FY2002, Congress has acted, through the appr... |
The level of pay for congressional staff is a source of recurring questions among Members of Congress, congressional staff, and the public. Members of the House of Representatives typically set the terms and conditions of employment for staff in their offices. This includes job titles, duties, and rates of pay, subject... | The level of pay for congressional staff is a source of recurring questions among Members of Congress, congressional staff, and the public. There may be interest in congressional pay data from multiple perspectives, including assessment of the costs of congressional operations; guidance in setting pay levels for staff ... |
T he National Park Service's (NPS's) backlog of deferred maintenance (DM)—maintenance that was not done as scheduled or as needed—is an issue of ongoing interest to Congress. The agency estimated its DM needs for FY2016 at $11.332 billion. Although other federal land management agencies also have DM backlogs, NPS's bac... | This report addresses frequently asked questions about the National Park Service's (NPS's) backlog of deferred maintenance—maintenance that was not performed as scheduled or as needed and was put off to a future time. NPS's deferred maintenance, also known as the maintenance backlog, was estimated for FY2016 at $11.332... |
The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a potential free trade agreement (FTA) among 12, and perhaps more, countries ( Figure 1 ). The United States and 11 other countries of the Asia-Pacific region—Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam—are negotiating the t... | The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a proposed regional free trade agreement (FTA) being negotiated among the United States, Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. U.S. negotiators and others describe and envision the TPP as a "comprehensive and high-sta... |
The earned income tax credit (EITC), when first enacted in 1975, was a modest tax credit providing financial assistance to low-income working families with children. (It was also initially a temporary tax provision.) Today, the EITC is one of the federal government's largest antipoverty programs, having evolved through... | The earned income tax credit (EITC), when first enacted on a temporary basis in 1975, was a modest tax credit that provided financial assistance to low-income, working families with children. After various legislative changes over the past 40 years, the credit is now one of the federal government's largest antipoverty ... |
Human rights conditions in the People's Republic of China (PRC) remain a central issue in U.S.-China relations. For many U.S. policy-makers, progress in this area represents a test of the success of U.S. engagement with China, particularly since permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) status was established in 2000. So... | This report examines human rights conditions in China, including the 2011 crackdown on rights activists and dissent; ongoing human rights abuses; recent PRC efforts to protect human rights; and the development of civil society. Ongoing human rights problems in China include the excessive use of violence by public secur... |
In cases of significant differences with the President over foreign policy, especially deployments of U.S. military forces abroad, Congress has generally found that use of its Constitutionally-based "power of the purse" to be the most effective way to compel a President to take actions regarding use of U.S. military fo... | This report provides background information on major instances, since 1970, when Congress has utilized funding cutoffs to compel the withdrawal of United States military forces from overseas military deployments. It also highlights key efforts by Congress to utilize the War Powers Resolution to force the withdrawal of ... |
For years, many observers have characterized the annual pay packages awarded to the executives and chief executive officers (CEOs) of the nation's largest firms as excessive. According to one estimate, the total median CEO pay at the nation's 350 largest publicly owned firms grew from $2.7 million in 1995 to $6.8 milli... | In the past ten years, the pay of chief executive officers (CEOs) has more than doubled, and the ratio of median CEO to worker pay has risen to 179 to 1. High and rising executive pay could be an issue of public concern on two different grounds. First, it is contributing to widening income inequality that may be of con... |
The Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA) was originally adopted as part of the Museum and Library Services Act of 1996, which was enacted on September 30, 1996, as part of P.L. 104-208 , the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriation Act of 1997. The LSTA's authorization expired at the end of FY2002; however, funding was... | Legislation reauthorizing the Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA) as Title IIâLibrary Services and Technology, of the Museum and Library Services Act of 2003 (MLSA), was signed into law ( P.L. 108-81 ) on September 25, 2003. The LSTA's authorization had expired at the end of FY2002; however, funding was not in... |
As the Global Peace Operations Initiative (GPOI) completes the last of its five planned years in FY2009, the 111 th Congress has begun consideration of continued funding through this program for training foreign military and police forces, and for other purposes. For FY2010, the Obama Administration has requested $96.8... | In its May 2009 budget request for FY2010, the Obama Administration has requested $96.8 million for the Global Peace Operations Initiative (GPOI). GPOI was established in mid-2004 as a five-year program with intended annual funding to total $660 million from FY2005 through FY2009. (Actual funds allocated to the GPOI pr... |
Since 2007, violence perpetrated by warring criminal groups has wreaked havoc on Mexico, partially as a result of the weakness of the justice sector institutions responsible for combating them. Ineffective and often corrupt police forces, weak and unaccountable prosecutors, and an overcrowded and disorganized prison sy... | Fostering security, stability, and democracy in neighboring Mexico is seen by analysts to be in the U.S. national security and economic interest. Reforming Mexico's often corrupt and inefficient criminal justice system is widely regarded as crucial for combating criminality, strengthening the rule of law, and better pr... |
Almost all commercial service airports in the United States are owned by local and state governments, or by public entities such as airport authorities or multipurpose port authorities. In 1996, Congress established the Airport Privatization Pilot Program (APPP) to explore the prospect of privatizing publicly owned air... | In 1996, Congress established the Airport Privatization Pilot Program (APPP; 49 U.S.C. §47134; Section 149 of the Federal Aviation Reauthorization Act of 1996, P.L. 104-264) to increase access to sources of private capital for airport development and to make airports more efficient, competitive, and financially viable.... |
The issue before Congress is whether to continue the federal prosecution of medical marijuana patients and their providers, in accordance with marijuana's status as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act, or whether to relax federal marijuana prohibition enough to permit the medicinal use of botanical ca... | The issue before Congress is whether to continue the federal prosecution of medical marijuana patients and their providers, in accordance with the federal Controlled Substances Act (CSA), or whether to relax federal marijuana prohibition enough to permit the medicinal use of botanical cannabis products when recommended... |
There is growing momentum among many national security practitioners and scholars, across the political spectrum, broadly in favor of reforming the interagency system to encourage a more effective application of all elements of national power. One subset of these interagency reform discussions has focused on the cultiv... | There is a growing consensus among many practitioners and scholars, across the political spectrum, broadly in favor of reforming the U.S. government interagency system to encourage a more effective application of all elements of national power. The reform debates have included proposals and initiatives to establish and... |
In November 2000, the nation faced the unusual circumstance of not knowing the winner of the election for President for several weeks. The results in Florida were contested, and the contest did not end until a decision by the U.S. Supreme Court. The public scrutiny resulting from that experience exposed a wide range of... | In November 2000, the nation faced the unusual circumstance of not knowing the winner of the election for President for several weeks. The public scrutiny resulting from that experience exposed a wide range of weaknesses with the American system of elections. Many of the weaknesses had been known for years by election ... |
Lending is inherently risky. Banks face default risk because their assets consist primarily of loans made to borrowers who may not always repay all of the principal and interest owed. In addition, banks face funding risk because they must continuously borrow short-term to fund their assets (customer loans). In other wo... | The Basel III international regulatory framework, which was produced in 2010 by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision at the Bank for International Settlements, is the latest in a series of evolving agreements among central banks and bank supervisory authorities to standardize bank capital requirements, among othe... |
The size and scope of the federal workforce, along with the rights and responsibilities of federal agencies and their employees, has been the subject of various legislative proposals from Congress in recent years, and has also been an issue of focus for the Trump Administration. A major topic of interest concerns statu... | Federal employees receive statutory protections that differ from those of the private sector, including more robust limits on when they can be removed or demoted. Although a number of laws apply to various aspects of the federal civil service system, the primary governing framework is the Civil Service Reform Act of 19... |
Federal forestry has historically been associated with agriculture, and with agriculture legislation. Forestry programs have been addressed in past farm bills and other agriculture legislation. This report provides brief background on the House and Senate Agriculture Committees' jurisdiction over forestry, with example... | The Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (the 2008 farm bill) became law P.L. 110-246 when the House and Senate voted to override President Bush's veto on June 18, 2008. The conference agreement on the bill (H.R. 2419) had been enacted, vetoed by the President, and overridden (P.L. 110-234), but inadvertently exc... |
Many congressional policymakers have an ongoing interest in whether the number of U.S. scientists and engineers is sufficient to meet the needs of U.S. employers, to spur economic growth and job creation through innovation, to maintain U.S. global technological leadership and industrial competitiveness, and to address ... | The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, a... |
Declaring it necessary to bring to justice those responsible for the terrorist attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001, President Bush signed a Military Order (M.O.) authorizing the trial by military commission of certain non-citizens. The order directed the Secretary of Defense to establish the procedural r... | Declaring it necessary to bring to justice those responsible for the terrorist attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001, President Bush signed a Military Order (M.O.) authorizing the trial by military commission of certain non-citizens. The order directs the Secretary of Defense to establish the procedural ru... |
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